CHAPTER 9 AGITATION! Area (m?, £0); A, is area projected perpendicular to the velocity vector Exponent used in dimensional analysis and in scale-up equations | Bale width (m, ft) ponent used in dimensional analysis Distance from tank bottom to impeller center line (m, ft) Drag coefficient, used for flow past immersed bodies version factor in torque equation, Eq. (9.6); values of C; are given ble 9.2 ent used in dimensional analysis at capacity at constant pressure (KI ket K~, Btu ibz!*F~!) ipellet diameter (m, it) Avid phase diffusion coefficient (mass diffusivity) (m?s~, fs) ‘ah to acknowledge &M Univeniy, this chapter. Dr. Gary B. Tatterson, Department of Mechanical Engincer- Coltege Station, ‘TX 77843, who assisted the authors in the 359360 AveLicxnions oF TRANSHORE PHENOMENA Exponent used in dimensional analysis Exponent used in dimensional analysis Force exerted by a fluid on an immersed solid (N, (by) Fanning friction factor, defined in Eq. (6.89) Exponent used in dimensional analysis ;xponent used in dimensional analysis Vector representing the acceleration duc to a gravitational or othe field (ms, ft") 4 Gravitational conversion constant (32.174 Ib Ib Heat transfer coefficient, defined by Eq. (6.86) (Wm?K- Buf?” 4 Intensity of turbulence, defined by Eq. (6.31) Exponent used in dimensional analysis Exponent used in dimensional analysis ‘Thermal conductivity (Wm™? Kor Im" K™!'s“, Btu fe? 4 Empirical constant in several equations and correlations; used wi subscripts 1, ...,9 Equimolar mass transfer coefficient, defined by {kmolm™?5~* (kmol m™)", th mol ft"? s~ (Ib mol ft~®) 1) Liquid phase mass transfer coefficient [kmolm-*s" (kmol Ib mol #75" (lb mol f-°)"}; of. Table 9.2 Basic unit in dimensional analysis; length (m) Basic unit in dimensional analysis; mass (kg) Exponent used in dimensional analysis Impeller speed (rpm or s~"); Ny is speed of small unit; Nis 5p large unit 5 N represents dimensionless number or group; Table 9.3 lists tha agitation Exponent used in dimensional analysis Speed scale-up exponent, Eq. (9.31) Power (15°, ftlbys~) Exponent used in dimensional analysis Volume flow rate (ms, ft?s) Scale factor, defined as Ds/Dy, ete.; of. Eqs. (9.25) and (92% scale factor between bench unit and plant unit in Example 9 Scale-up exponent based on power per unit volume in Eq. ( Basic unit in dimensional analysis; temperature (K) Q Tank diameter (m, ft) ‘Torque (Nm, ft Iby or in. Iby) Time (8) Velocity vector (ms”', fts); U is magnitude of U; £ averaged velocity in z direction; Ut is instantaneous velo tion in x direction; U, is the impeller tip speed, Eq. (9.7):4 are impeller tip speeds in units 1 and 2 ‘Volume (m?, ft?) ER eaeTb) ravitational or other 7 4 Btu ft RS relations; used Wit xd by Ea 689) olf) MG PE? not he first eight chapters in this text introduced the basic equations of transport acrranos 361 Width of impeller (m, £9) Subscript denoting wall Scale-up exponent based on torque per unit volume in Eq. (9.29) Exponent in Eq. (9.23) Depth of fuid in tank (m, fe) Generalized diffusivity (m?s*, £257) Basic unit in dimensional analysis; time (s) Blend time (s) Viscosity (kgm™'s~! or Nm™?5, Iby ft"! s™*, eB); fy is viscosity at wall Dimensionless groups in pi theorem Ratio of circumference of a circle to its diameter (3.141 592 65...) Density (kg m™?, Ib, f°) Surface tension (kgs? or Nmm“*, Ibs or Ibrft™*) Generalized concentration of property (e.g, units for concentration of heat are Sm”, Btu ft"; see Table 3.1 for complete listing) Generalized rate of generation of energy or mass or momentum in a unit volume (sce Table 4.2 for units; e.g., for heat, units are Jm~*s7?, Btu its“) Vector operator del, defined by Eq. (2.16) or Eq. (3.45) (m~, #) ‘with the various methods to analyze these equations. The remaining ples will be devoted, in the main, to applying these equations and methods portant problems of a practical nature. At this point, the ordering of ‘not yet covered is arbitrary, as any of several important areas may be first. Agitation logically follows the discussions of dimensional analysis larity ratios (especially geometric and kinematic) in Chapter 8. The Be of apitation perhaps illustrates best the use of dimensionless groups and 1.25) and oan 1 Example 9: Eq 28) neous velosi Eg. 0.7); Us ty for analysis and design. Many agitation problems commonly encoun- ing constitute an important example of laminar flow. The complexities bilent low have been detailed in Chapter 6. Agitation constitutes an i example of fluid flow occurring in various combinations with heat ir, mass transfer, chemical reaction, and preparation of mixtures. terms “agitation”, “mixing”, and “dispersion” have different mean- itation is the process of providing bulk motion to a liquid, thus aiding g and dispersion. To explain the terms mixing and dispersion, it is helpful A with the definition of the word “mixture”. A useful definition of the complex of two or more ingredients that do not bear a Proportion to one another and retain their separate identity no matter HGFoughly the ingredients arc commingled. In its most general sense, the Hhixing”’ is used to mean any blending into one mass. As a consequence definitions, the process of mixing begins with two or more materials, et from one another in one or more properties such as composition, Smixare” i362 _apmacaTions OF rRANS#ORT PHENOMENA density, or temperature. Complete mixing occurs if the final mass has re the maximum possible state of uniformity; the process of molecular dif Proceeds until all temperature, pressure, and concentration gradients been eliminated and until no further chemical reaction is possible. Unfayit ately, in the literature the words “blending”, “mixing”, and “dispersion” fy been freely interchanged in their usage and intended meanings. In this cha more precise definitions will be offered In the literature on agitation, dispersion is defined as the combination g ‘two materials into a final product in which there are still two sep materials. Examples of dispersion processes are suspending of solids, dau ing of gases in liquids, and mixing of immiscible liquids such a2 encountered in emulsions and in liquid-liquid extraction. As can be seen ff the examples, in dispersion the starting materials are separated into smaft sized groups and scattered among each other on a scale that is large compared to molecular dimensions. The process of molecular diffusion ig resent, or is present only to a minor extent, in dispersion. Another way to consider mixing and dispersion is to realize that in th Preparation of a completely homogeneous mixture, such as pute water Pure ethanol being combined in equal proportions, the frst step in the p is to disperse one material in the second by some means (such as agitation there is no agitation, the homogeneous mixture will be achieved by the pro of interdiffusion of the water and ethanol molecules, which will take a time, If agitation is present, the eddies formed by turbulence fom: jtation unit wll speed up the difusional process. However, diffusion wil be necessary in order to reach the final homogeneous state. ‘Two olhe examples of complete mixing are the dissolution of solids in a liquid phase heat transfer between two commingling streams containing the same liquide dltferent temperatures. Heat transfer is a mixing process, since molecules gf high kinetic energy interact with those of fow energy. The result i a fluid 4 some intermediate temperature, Mixing is very important in processes chemical reactions, because there must be contact for a reaction be molecules to occur. Molecular diffusion is required, since the scale of molecules is many orders of magnitude smaller than the smallest fluid elem that can be formed by turbulence or by mechanical means. ; agitation and show how to design a large-scale agitation unit using principles of Chapter 8. 9.1 INTRODUCTION TO AGITATION Aéitation of liquids is usually accomplished in a container equipped with impeller such as propeller, pede, or turbine. The impeller is inserted inAorarion 363 iquid and rotated in such a manner as to cause both bulk motion and -scale eddies in the fluid. Mechanical energy is required to rotate the et, which in turn transmits this energy to the uid. The mechanism of iqnission is similar to that in the parallel-plate problem of Fig. 2.3, in which moving top plate transmits velocity to the fluid nearby by the effect of ¢oxity. In agitation, the impeller is rotating, the sides and bottom of the tank stationary, and the resultant velocity gradients cause mixing and persion. liquids has been practiced since early mankind padé the first liquid containers, The general property balance equation from er is V1 +(U-WY=Yo+(¥-OV)~VF-U) (3.60) iliere the last term is zero for an incompressible fluid, as is usually the case in istion. Obviously, application of this or any similar equation inside an tion vessel is highly complex. In the first place, the flow is three. inensional, and the initial and boundary conditions are not usually known “Ofer heat, mass, and momentum transfer must all be considered sinul. tieovsly. Moreover, in the case of agitation of liquids of low viscosity, such as is highly turbulent, with intensities of illence ranging from near zero in dead zones to as mich as 100 percent or greater near the impeller. Recall that the intensity of turbulence i defined in 631) as L.= 100i 0 (631) Ro quantitative solution to the general property balance possible, fensional analysis approaches have been tried and found to be quite ful. > Agitation in a process generally accomplishes physical changes, chemical imiges, and/or increased rates of transport, These may occur simultaneously ingly. An example of a physical change is the increase in the surface atea of id. An example of a chemical change is the occurrence of chemical actions; agitation assists in bri 4 liquid solvent. If the solute then agitation is typically responsible for producing ind maintaining the maximum possible concentration driving force between he solid interface and the solution. The solute may be a liquid or a gas as well Mation often disperses an insoluble material throughout the liquid; Zizmon example is the case of pigments such as TiO; being dispersed in paint. Btation may disperse @ ges in the form of small bubbles throughout the lu for purposes of absorption or gas-liquid reaction. In batch chemical Actors, agitation often serves the double duty of maintaining high concentra- M Bradients and moving the fluid over a heat transfer surface so as to control364 areticavions oF TRANSPORT PHENOMENA, the reactor temperature. In the case of a highly exothermic reaction oF ty Production of a heat-sensitive materiel, temperature control and proper transfer may be quite important. 9.2 EQUIPMENT Agitation equipment usually consists of a tank to hold the liquid, one or my impellers to provide the shear flow, a motor or some other means to dtive ihe impeller, and usually wall bates, the installation of which permits highee power input. Wall baffes are longitudinal strips attached to the inside walls of the tank. Figure 9.1 shows an agitation tank with the sides and bott surrounded by @ “jacket” that contains a fluid to provide the necessary hy transfer. Obviously, some applications, such as those involving a cheme reaction, will require a jacket while others will not. A tank with a sloping gy dished bottom is often recommended, although tanks whose bottom and sides form a right angle are also commonly used. A tank with a dished bottom ‘often specified for suspension of solids. Some tanks have coils of tubig surrounding the impeller to transfer heat in or out of the vessel, but a jacke vessel is easier to clean and provides better mixing, Fabrication of jacke vessels is very routine for equipment manufacturers ‘The literature on agitation uses its own nomenclature, and the defini of those symbols are not consistent with the definitions of the same symbols used in the earlier chapters. The biggest change in nomenclature involves th physical dimensions of the agitation unit. For the unit in Fig. 9.1, the followin = Disha bottom Jacket drain —t Sager eaelera FIGURE 9.1 Asiavion tank with baffles, jacket, and dished bottom.acmanon 365 jtions are in common usage: ‘Width of each batfle Distance from tank bottom to impeller center line impeller diameter Inside diameter of tank ‘Width of impeller Depth of fluid in the tank sese definitions are labeled in Fig. 9.1. FS mpeller design bas a strong impact on the agitation characteristics and inside walls. df ye energy requirement. Figure 9.2 illustrates some common impeller designs sand botong | Ssh turbulent and aminar ow; note that the design is strongly dependent whether the application is laminar or turbulent. The laminar impellers are fully as large a8 the tank itself. Since laminar flow does not transport hha sloping of rentum as well as turbulent fiow, laminar flow impellers must be large to tom and sides Tice the desired physical, chemical, and transport results throughout the ‘igure 9.3 shows the gross flow patterns for four important types. of pellers in agitation equipment. Turbines with pitched blades and marine propellers cause axial low patterns in baffled tanks, as shown in Fig. 9.3(a) Pisce turbines and propellers are often used for suspension of solids because flow patterns result in the solids being swept off the bottom of the vessel rere they might otherwise settle. Impellers with vertical flat blades produce patterns that are radial, a8 shown in Figs, 9.3) and 9.3). The anchor id helix impellers in Fig. 9.208) ate for liquids of very high viscosity, e-g., Dixgm!s"! (20000eP) or above. In these liquids, the agitation process is der laminar flow conditions, and unusual impeller shapes, such as the chor, a helical ribbon, the screw impeller, or some other similar shape are Satisfactory. Many non-NewConian solutions, usually having a high sity, are agitated with these types of impellers. The anchor, for example, marily removes the fluid next to the heat transfer surface so that fresh fluid oi differing temperature replaces the old fluid. The flow pattern in Fig. 9.3(4) ; basically tangential, as shown, The impeller speed is low owing to its large jameter and mechanical constraints. There is no room for baffles, nor is there ged for them. 7 The motor required for agitation is sized from the power requirements. “Most alternating current motor operate at speeds of 1750 pm oF 1150xpm. ‘For many applications, a lower speed is desired from the standpoint of erating efficiency and cost. Gear drives provide speed reduction and tend to "brated according to the torque requirements. Thus accurate determination of “orque is important, particularly since gear drives are expensive relative to “other components in the mixing sytem. For general mixing, the most common impeller used is probably the Six blade disked turbine impeller, as shown in Fig. 9.2(a)(1). This impeller is often called the Rushton impeller, named after J. H. Rushton, an early joneer in the field of agitation [R2, R3]. Flow patterns behind and around the366 AreLicaTIONS OF TRANSFOR FEHENOMENA (1) Disk-blade turbine © Curved-blade turbine FIGURE 9.2 Some common impeller designs. (Courtesy of Mixing Equipment Compeny.) (@) Impetirs for turbulent lownattarion 367 i i i 3) Open-blade Bud fol axial impeller () Mee-blade propellor368 _arpuicarrons OF TRANSHORT PHENOMENA () Anchor (6) Impellers for laminar ow FIGURE 9.2 (Continued) techniques and other methods. Inthe vicinity ofthe impeller, complex ed systems and high-speed jets have been observed. Whenever a fluid element travels in a circular motion, that motion is termed a vortex. In agitation, the. term vortex is used to describe two major flow phenomena: (1) vortex systems. near the impeller blades; and (2) the vortex formed in the center of at shown in Figure 9.4(a), in which a disk-style impeller discharges a high volum_ of flow in the radial direction [12]. In the figure, the blade is moving into the Paper, and the fluid in front of the blade is forced over the blade at a high speed. When the fluid passes over the blade, it attempts to re-attach itself (0. the back of the blade, causing the appearance of a dual vortex system. Thus the vortices form in the wake of the impeller blade as it passed through the fluid and shed from the rear side of each blade as a result of the high velocity of flow over and around the blade. As a result of these vortices, the Rushton impeller is often selected for gas dispersion. For the pitched-blade turbine in Fig. 9.4(b), the turbulent vortices are similar to those occurring on wings of aircraft [TI]. More studies are needed in order to help in obtaining an indepth understanding of vortices in agitation. Almost all industrial applications that involve agitation in the turbulent region require the installation of balfies in the tank. Without buifles, a centeraaTanioN 369 (© Flaca turbine radial fow Rotation <= Vorter flow N ‘Axial Now (6) Phched blade carbine systems and turbulent vortices. (Reprinted from by Inte of Food Technologies. By permsion.) Food Technol. 38(5): 65 (1981), Copyright370 arruacariOns oF TRANSPORT PHENOMENA vortex forms, as shown in Figure 9.5, and the fuid simply rotates around th vessel with little shear between the impeller and the adjacent fluid layers Stisting @ cup of coffee or tea with a spoon is a simple illustration of this vor phenomenon. This large-scale motion represents the second usage of the tery vortex. The power input is much less in unbaffled tanks, and this is often 4. disadvantage in mixing. The vortex forms as a result of the centrifugal fore field as expressed in the (U- ¥)U term that appears in the general momeatuy, balance equation. In Table 5.7 for the Navies-Stokes equation [E. (5.15) the centrifugal force term is U3/r in Eq. (D).. y air can be easily entrained into the liquid even at modest impeller spec: because the liquid level at the center can fall below the top ofthe impeller, the top edge of the tank significantly, which may cause spillage. On positive side, the formation of a center vortex can be desirable as & mechanis equispaced balfles provide reasonable performance. For center-mounted, impellers, the ratio of baffle width B to tank diameter D should be 1/12 for turbine or paddle agitation and 1/18 for propellers to maximize power input. In large tanks, there may be surface baffles to break up large surface waves, & well as other internal baffles. Figures 9.1, 9.3, and 9.5 show the impeller to be centrally mounted, ‘There are other options, including side-entering propellers, multiple impelles. fon the same shaft, off-center mounting, and multiple impellers mounted separately around the tank, each with its own drive motor and gear dri Design details for these latter cases are described elsewhere [N1, Ol]. FIGURE 9.5 Vortex formation in an unbafled tankiply rotates around the. adjacent Muid layers stration of this vorteg_ 2ofid usage of the term, ks, and this is often 4 if the centrifugal force he general momentum, uation [Eg (5.15) the ssually not desired i te fluid moves around ar velocity. Secondly, adest impeller speeds ‘op of the impeller, 36 8e6 the liquid level at Uthat show that four For center-mounted 9 should be 1/12 for aximize power input, re surface waves, aomanox 371 3. GEOMETRIC SIMILARITY AND ‘most accurate approach fo the design of a plant-seale agitation unit is 10 data from an appropriate experiment in a plant-scale apparatus, jafortunately, this approach is usually not possible for new processes, and fata must be taken in laboratory-scale equipment. Naturally, the closer the eof the laboratory vessel i 0 that of the actual proces, the more reliable s scale-up will be. Often, itis impossible to fulfil this requirement, and the sign must proceed with data from a small-scale unit only. Scale-up in agitation follows the modeling principles outlined in Section First, geometric similarity is maintained, Figure 9.6 considers two ptators, one laboratory-scale and one plant-scale. For exact geomettic larity between units, the following ratios are satisfied: CIT = Gil ZIT. =2)% DJT.=DJT, BT, = BiT, Wi/D,= Wa/D, {these ratios are not held constant, techniques of scale-up require correction fs of uncertain magnitude. ‘The most important ratios are discussed in pre detail in the following paragraphs. I7 ratio. Normally the D/T ratio is set at 1/3 [B1] for turbulent ow gimes. It is important that this ratio be maintained constant during scale-up. ratio may be varied in the range: 025D/T=05 Turbulent fow (0.2) 07=D/T21.0 Laminar flow 0.3) bb ee (©) Plane-scale agitator‘372 APPLICATIONS OF TRANSPORT PHENOMENA In a qualitative sense, as D/T approaches 0.2, the purchase price of the unit, relatively low, and high shear is produced with high power input and high ‘operating costs. As D/T approaches 0.5, the operating costs decrease, but the low power requirement produces low shear [V1] Z/T ratio. This ratio describes the fluid level in the tank. Normally, this rati is unity, although the ratio Z/T can range from 0.5 to 1.0. This ratio has litle bearing on the power consumption. Changes in Z/T can change flow patter in the tank. But if Z/T exceeds 1, there may be dead zones in the tank, whi can be eliminated with the addition of more impellers. % Bales. The design of baffles is based upon maximizing power input 0 th fluid. The normal ratio is BIT 12 with four bafles being spaced equidistantly apart along the wall Bottom clearance. ‘The bottom of the impeller is located a distance C from the bottom of the tank. The normal range for C/T is O1sC/Ts04 However, the most common value of C/T is 1/3 [BI]. Normally C/T will approach the lower limit if a low level of mixing is desired or if off-botto suspension of solids is desired Impellers. Scale-up must be accomplished with geometrically similar impelle [12]. The important considerations are the number of blades, the pitch of the. blades, the ratio of blade height to tank diameter, and the ratio of impelle diameter to tank diameter. 9.4 DESIGN VARIABLES In addition to the six dimensions in Fig. 9.6, other important variables are fuid properties (viscosity 4, density p, surface or interfacial tension o, therm conductivity k, heat capacity c,), and impeller rotational speed N [units of 5°" or rpm (revolutions per minute) or rps (revolutions per second)]. ‘These variables are used to calculate the power P and the torque Ty 4 Power. The principal operating cost for an agitation unit is the cost of the power. In turbulent flow, the power P is proportional to the density p of the liquid, to the third power of the impeller rotational speed NV and the fifth power of impeller diameter D, as shown in Table 9.1 (P2}. In laminar flow, the Power P is proportional to viscosity 4, to the rotational speed N squared, and 7 to the third power of impeller diameter D.Tank volume Power per unit ‘volume “Torque PiN=kypN*D? Kyun? Torque per unit ypN7D4Y7= kypN*D4D/TPkyND*/T = hy N(D/TP (9.6) iplied by the quantity 2x to form the gular velocity of rotation ZN. Table 9.2 provides the values of the wersion factor C,, as defined in Eq, (9.6), for the three most commonly Encountered units of torque, which are Nim, in. by, and ftlb,. Note that the Units of torque are identical to the units of work and energy. ‘The torque greatly affects the purchase price of the agitation unit. Not | only is the gear drive sized according to torque, but the size of the shaft ond the weight of the impeller depends on torque as well. Since the torque T, is foportional to the power divided by impeller totational speed, as seen in Eq , the quantity T,/V is proportional to D/T to the third power, as was the ower per unit volume, The quantity D/T is constant when geometric larity is maintained; hence, Eq. (9.6) emphasizes the importance of Weeometric similarity in scale-up. |TABLE 92 __ Nalue of the conversion factor C; for torque in Ea. (9.6) a ‘Conversion factor | Unie of 7, Units of Units of W Cyn Fg 8) NmQ) WOs) ps ex) bp ms ps374 anuscaTioss OF TRANSPORT PHENOMENA pal ip speed The sp speed of the impeller, given the symbot U, jportant variable: U,=aND Note that the rotational speed NV in Eq. (9.7) and subsequent equations expressed in units of s~*, not in radians per time. When N is in units of 5 angular velocity is 2m, and the tip speed is the angular velocity times the radius of the impeller, or ND. y ‘The torque per unit volume can be written in terms of the tip speed, Using the turbulent flow equation for T,/V in Table 9.1, Eq. (9.7) can bi substituted, with the result : TV = kypN?D{D TY? = kio(pUIMD/TY tex) begin te Theretae, men geamtis nda b manned jn male io tr ta) speed. a 9.5 DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS accompanied by heat and mass transfer. These are summarized in Table 9,3, Six of these are of sufficient importance to warrant individual discussion TABLE 9.3 Dimensionless numbers in agitation Name Symbol Definition Comments Blend Na Related to uniform mixing or blending : Froude Ny xD) Correlats with Ng and Nyy for unbalfed systems [R2}, also important én adltion of powders to figs in agtted tanks 4 Nase wrk Heat rasfr to an itation unit jacketed or otherwise) 5 Power PU(pN°D*) Constant i bated systems if Nag > 10060 Bates et + Prat cle Fluid properties for heat transfer crclation | 92(a,1)| the Purging ied") Related impel pumping capacities 5 Note that the Reynolds Deven Lamar Ng ee! ow rately 25 poe Schmidt BilpD,) Fluid properties for mass transfer correlation Ve Pitched blades Sherwood &7)D, Mass trator between solute and solvent in 29 agitation uit Weber? M'p/a Related to srtae behavior for two-phase ystems ‘The number ¢ based onthe impeie. "The smb Dy, and repsse the Mgud-phate mas dfn cece and tbe guise mass want outset, respecunel, hee hy srt Kn Ea. (647), veep tthe ceiving fore sn accordant ‘sth he regements ofthe mes iransterinder coset,actranox 375 olds number. In the defining equation for Reynolds number [Eq. (6.1)], characteristic velocity is the tip speed, Eq. (9.7), Therefore, the Reynolds ‘umber for agitation is Nne= D*Np/t ) is Reynolds number is sometimes referred to as the impeller Reynolds jumber. Tn agitation, there are three ow regions, laminar, tramitional, and urbulent, just as discussed in Chapter 6 for pipe flow. For a given agitation it, when NV is slowly increased from zero a laminar flow regime exists ally. The region where laminar fow ends and fully turbulent flow begins is il under investigation. A large transitional region extends from Nee = 10 t0 [Niue 10" (or higher, depending on the choice of impeller [B1, P2)). In this ge of Reynolds numbers, vortex systems near the impeller (not the surface x) begin to form. At high Reynolds numbers, the power number tendo independent of impeller Reynolds number and dependent only on the etry of the impeller, as will be discussed later. Note also that since the DIT is usually constant and equal to 1/3 upon scale-up, the impeller Reynolds number increases with the square of the vessel size for the same “folational speed N. PI(pN’D') (9.10) here the power P has units of ft ibys” or hp or Js, The power number relates well with Reynolds number for baffled systems (B2}, as shown in 97 Ai interesting result seen in Fig. 9.7 is that the power number is constant and nidependent of the Reynolds number in baffled systems above a Reynolds jumber of 10°-10°, depending on the impeller: Noo page= costant (9.11) Bates ef al. (B1] found that for the six-blade turbine impeller ef, Fig, _ ?.2(a,1)] the constant in Eq. (9.11) is equal to 4.8 at high Reynolds numbers. | Note that the disk style of construction (curve 1 in Fig. 9.7) takes approxi- __ Mately 25 percent more power than a flat-blade style (curve 2). Turbines with | Pitched blades consume considerably less power, but their flow patterns are [Aiferent, as shown by the flow patterns in Fig, 9.3, Figure 9.7 is useful for | Predicting the power in scale-up, but other factors come into play when it is esired to perform the same mixing at minimum cost. From Eq. (9.11) it is ted that at high Reynolds numbers (je, constant Nj, and D) the power yasumption increases as the cube of the speed The power number and other important dimensionless groups may be ‘luced from dimensional analysis, as will be illustrated shortly in Example1 neltiled Sa 0061 "Wed non sak» ‘loos Siraye wang pur pao PPOOV "po ‘So15) pun Pun "| 408 “2Peng pe “sieq Sots) “teren pou 10} WHsHI0> towed aoaen, v6 aunout I= Gia Ws aia [a= GTM | azarae SE ch 9 amuno |“s anano) 1 gaan f+aranon 377 ‘p11 An alternate treatment is to derive the form of the power number from a Srsideration of the forces acting on a flat plate (such as the blade of an Speer) as a result of its passage through a fluid. The shear stress at the wall (time)(area) ~ A ‘Fanning friction factor f relates the shear stress at the wall to an inertial do(—Ap) te _(delA\(-dp lds) pun oth BU w feces ambining Eqs. (2.6) and (6.89), for turbulent flow, the force F (which the “Tid exerts on the impeller blade) is proportional to the projected area A,, the “ demsity p, and the velocity U squared: Fe pal? basic definition of power is a force times a distance divided by a time. ivided by time with velocity, the result is Po FU (9.13) (0.12) ne and Fenic, ln Miting Theory ty, sbstitution of F from Eq, (9.12) into the above equation yields PxpA,U? 0.14) velocity in this equation can be replaced by N and D via Eq. (9.1). Also, | when geometzic similarity is maintained upon scale-up, the projected area is sportional to the impeller diameter squared. Then Eq. (9.4) becomes PapN'D! @.15) "This equation is very close to Eq. (9.11). If the proportionality is removed and _ Aconstant inserted, the result rearranges to Eq. (9.11), ie., the power number A constant. For laminar flow, the Hagen-Poiseuille equation for tubes, Eq. (4.76), is "conveniently expressed as U a gs : i 2s. (Form Rates, For Lend Gray, ed, Academic Pr f=16/Nee (6.124) fhe forces exerted by 1 fluid on a solid body are more propealy treated in Chapter 12, | Transport Past Immersed Bodies". In Chapter 12, the drag coeficient Cy isthe force per area | sive by the quantisy (pU2/2). The drag coeficient and Fanning {ction factor are similar, the _ fotie: being used for immersed bodies and the later for fow dough conduits, Consideration of ‘Turbine power correlation for balled vessel FIGURE 9:7 ond Prasie, vol.378 _apruicaTions oF mANSPORT PHENOMESA ‘The Reynolds number is replaced with Eq. (9.9); then the result is combing with Eqs. (6.89) and (9.12) FI(A,pU?) = ui(ND*p) In this equation, the area is assumed to be proportional to the square of ) thus, the A, term cancels the D? term, and the density cancels as wel Fun If Eq, (9.7) is used to replace U in Eq. (9.17), and the speed is canceled frowy numerator and denominator, Eq. (9.17) becomes FepuD This equation is also elegantly derived from the classic Stokes" equation fof creeping flow past a sphere.’ The final equation is obtained as before, using.” Eqs. (9.18), (9.7), and (9.13): PopN®D? This treatment of power shows the origin of the power number, the origin of the entries for power in Table 9.1, and the consistency of the empirically determined curves in Fig. 9.7 with other areas in fluid mechanics, such as flow through a circular conduit. g Froude number. The Froude number, introduced previously in Table 8.1, i. defined as follows for agitation: Ne =N*D/g This number includes the gravitational forces and is uscd to account for the effect of surface behavior (¢.g., the center vortex) on the power number Hence, the Froude number is included in correlations of Ney and Nyx fot unbaified systems [R2]. In baled systems, there is no center vortex formed, and therefore the curves in Fig. 9.7 are independent of the Froude number. Blend number. The blend number is No=NO where @ is the blend time in seconds. The blend time @ is a measure of the time required for mixing miscible liquids or gases uniformly throughout the agitator tank volume. If the blend number is constant, then the blend time i proportional to the reciprocal of impeller speed. Correlations indicate that the blend number is constant for both laminar and turbulent mixing; however, th value of the constant is different for the two regimes.uation for ore, using nber, the of th ure of the shout the " pamping mum! aamanion 379 ber. The pumping number N, relates the impeller pumping rate Pee. the volumetric flow rate through the impeller area per unit time) to the eed and size of the impeller: Q ND ox .n expanded pumping number has proved more useful: QwiTy i ND? 023) “gpere y is approximately 0,5. ‘This number contains the very important D/T He dhicd must be kept constant during scale-up. The poping number _[fretses pumping capacities of ferent impellers with diferent vessel J gcometties. jeber number. The Weber number was introduced as Eq. (8.17) and relates Feria to surface forces. The impelier Weber number for agitation is (9.24) ause of the importance of both inertial and surface forces in many Spersion operations, the Weber number is obviously important. However, it inay be just as reasonable to use characteristic velocities or lengths other than “jhose of the impeller. For instance, a tank Weber number or a drop Weber umber may be useful. In Eq. (9.24), the characteristic velocity is the impeller {ip velocity, Eq. (9.7), and the impeller diameter D. ‘Some of the more important dimensionless numbers in agitation may be ced from dimensional analysis, as shown in Examples 9.1 and 9.2. Use of dimensionless numbers for scale-up of agitation units will be illustrated in iubsequent examples. Example 9.1. From a survey of the literature on agitation, it has been established that the important variables are the rotational speed (N), impeller diameter (D), tank diameter (T), power input (P), and fluid properties of density (p) and viscosity (z). Although other Variables may be important, perform a dimensional analysis for these six variables. “Answer, Table 9.4 summarizes the six variables, Here the original Rayleigh procedure is used. The equations are NED?T"Pép*ul = constant 0 and ONL LEM L4O ML M'LT@™ = dimensionless w ‘The three equations are LE: bbe +2d—3e~380 areuicamions oF TRANSPORT PHENOMENA TABLE 9.4 ‘Variables for agitation, Example 9.1 rotational speed impeller éiameter tank diameter power ensty viscosity ‘There are six unknowns and three equations. Thus, the number of dimension sr0ups of variables is 6~ 3, or 3. Examining Eqs. (i) through (v), the variable ‘and b ot ¢ appear once. Experience tells us that b and c cannot both liminated because Eq. (il) can be used for one or the ather but not both; so 5 arbitrarily chosen, ‘The next best candidate for elimination is e. The variables to be eliminated (a, b and e) can be expressed in terms ofc, d, and using the three equations above: a=-3d-f ennd-y banc-2d43e +f mc 2-3-3 +f Using all these result in Eq. (i) gives NOCD NT ppt = constant Rearranging Eq. (ix): “PY wv (5) (aso) Gasp) = som Each of these dimensionless numbers has been introduced previously. The first the reciprocal of D/T, perhaps the most important geometric ratio, The seco ratio is the power number, Eq. (9.10), and the third is the reciprocal of impeller Reynolds number, Eq. (9.9). Thus, Eq. (x) becomes Noo = k(DIT (Na where ky is an empirical constant. Note that c and f assume different values from ‘those in Eq. (x). Equation (xi) applies for bafled tank systems as shown ia Fig 9.6. However, Eq. (xi) is insuficient for scale-up, as will be shown subsequently Example 9.2. Uhl [U1] correlated heat transfer data in agitated, jacketed vessel with the variables listed in Tuble 9.5, Develop the dimensionless groups suitable for a corre Answer. The exponents in Table 9.5 were chosen to avoid confusion as much & possible. A complete explanation of the dimensions of &; cp, and h is given it Example 8.2. The Rayleigh procedure as explained in Chapter 8 willbe used heber of dimension G0), the varie on is e. The rms of e, d, and ~sd-9f ns as shown in Fig. hown subsequently, ed, jacketed vessels less groups suitable. fusion as much 8 and h is given in 8 will be used: the ABLE 9.5 Variables for heat transfer in agitated vessels, Example 9.2 SI Units Dimensions ‘enity ken? ML? viscosity kgm Mio wall viscosity kem ts Mie" thermal conductivity kgmsK"' | MLO heat eapacity mek? Ber hat transfer kgs? Meor cneficient s o L L equations are put ulkte,HIN"D'T? ~ constant ® and MEL MLO MLO MLO TLS TM OTOL? = dimensionless (i) “The four equations representing each dimension are we-f- 39 -21-3)-m Gi <3d-e-ftgtdtntp= ww dtets+gtind oy -g-i-j=0 i) “There are nine unknowns and four equations. Thus, five groups willbe produced. In the above four equations either m oF p may be eliminated, and m is chosen titra. Als, m fom Eq, (i) and g from Eq. (vi) ate easy to climinate ge-ini i 4 wi me ne~f 3g 2-3) fai (wo) n=-pthdbetf—g-U=-p-3e-H tH teef ei4/-21 =p de 424) ® Using al three results in Eq. () gives Nortel eA Tey yeh Next, the variables are grouped by similar exponent: (D>rTYN- DUN Dp yh (N'D*p'k-'C|(DIEW) = constant Gi)3B2_AprescaTions OF TRANSPORT PHENOMENA ‘This equation is rearranged as follows: (DITY*ND* pn) “sol (ND® PIV (ND pey/ KY (HD /kY = constant ‘The following may be substituted for each group: 1,=D/T TL=ND'pe,/k Th=Nu=ND'pin T= hD Ie T= 1/(ND") ‘These groups are now substituted into Eq. (xii): T1j?T; TETNY = constant encountered previously. The second group is the impeller Reynolds number, (0.8). The third group also looks like a Reynolds number, but the wall viscosity Te are actually combinations of some ether, more commonly encoun groups; a viable correlation will be obtained only if these three groups a ‘modified. Let us consider II, first. In JT, is heat transfer coefficient atthe wi of the tank. The ares of the tank for heat transfer is Q Argus TZ showed that the heat transfer cocficient was altered whenever the wall viscosi Hy difered from the bulk fluid viscosity j. Ifthe group TI, is multiplied by Nye from Eq. (9.9), which is also Tl,, a more reasonable dimensionless group 1/ obtained: : ThsNge= ital In group Tl, the ratio ¢g/k is found. Th umber, Eq, (8.4), which has been found to be highly significant in heat transfer correlations. The Prandtl number is obtained by dividing IT, by Th, the Reynol number: TIT, = Now = 68k ‘The Prandtl number depends only on fluid properties and is a much more reasonable dimensionless group for data correlation than [l,, which combines 09 many diverse variables. ‘The final correlating equation is found by including in Eq. (xv) the modifications represented by Egs. (xvii) to (xix): Q (DITY* Wag) Ue WY HN) NiaNae(VE)(DITYY = constant) Equation (xx) is rearranged to the usual form for heat transfer correlations Na = KM N/a) (DIT TABLE 9. Heat trat Impeller pe | yada addle Two carve Prched bs Disk att om fe Note the psoas constant n reasonal analysis to arriv satisfact analysis Ti well as analysis jacket >“ADIkY = constant ‘Peak ‘ Gi) familar geomet ay ler Reynolds number, He ber, but the wall scot ct, groups Ty Te a commonly cncountered/ { thete thee groupe sfer oetcien tthe Wal ig. 9.6. ITI js divided by. is formed. The group i itated, jacketed vessel: renever the wall viscosity TT, is multiplied by Nq rensionless group 1/A fe appears in the Prancl nificant in heat transtet uding in Eq. @w) eg 9.6 TY] = constant ansfer correlations: 7 and “About these _ fecommended, in addition to consultations with equipment manufacturers and TABLE 9.6 ‘Heat transfer to jacketed walls* ‘Constants in Bq. Cal) Spelter Range of a Comments Puddle 0402/3. 1/3 O14 300-6% 10 ky ranges from 0.36 to 040 Peddie 41S 2/3 1/3 024 20-4000 bafled and unbafed ‘Two curved bade turbines 0602/8 1/3 O14 2000-8 10" Pitched-blade turbine oad 2/3/8024 80-200 tow position C=4inches 053 2/3 1/8 028 20-120 intermediate postion, C= 11 inches Disk Aat-blade turbin 0s4 2/3 1/3 O14 40-310 unbaled 074 23/8 034 300-310" 4,2, 0 4 bales a aeeeereereer OO + Prom refetece [UI], 284, by peoisson Note that the exponents a,b,c, and d are algebraic combinations of eff, , and 'p so as to make Eq. (xxi) compatible with Eq. (xx). Under the restriction of Constant D/T, and in terms of the variables rather than the groups, Eq. (xxi) is HT Ik = ke{D*N911)" tt /K)* (HI ta)” exit) ‘This procedure in modifying the results of dimensional analysis to obtain reasonable and common dimensionless groups is ofien followed. Dimensional ‘alysis and experience dictate how to multiply one group by some other in order io arrive at such common groups aS Np, or Nw. Equation (exit) has proved Setisfactory in correlating Ny, 88 shown in Table 9.6 from Ubi [U2]. Dimensional dnalyss emphasizes the importance ofthe restriction of constant DT. “There is a correlation inthe erature [DI] that includes the D/T term as well as a 2/7 tatio. The group Z/T ean also be predicted through dimensional nals ifthe variable Z is included inthe list in Table 9.5, The corelation for Jacket Nusselt number in the turbine agitation ofa jacketed tank is AT {k= (O85 D*Np| uw) (cg /R) 4 ZITY (DIT tea)" (xii) SCALE-UP | Scale-up (or scale-down) in agitation systems is a fairly complicated topic. fany complex problems exist, such as mixing of highly non-Newtonian fluids ‘of three or more phases (multiphase processing). Not much is known hhence, a conservative approach to design and scale-up is384 ArnuicaTions oF MRANSPORE PHENOMENA other qualified personnel. The objective in the design of agitators durin scale-up is to obtain the same (or similar) process result in the large unit as demonstrated in the small unit. This is relatively a difficult task (02}, altho, the necessity occurs so often that the procedures for simple systems 4 well-understood, Geometric similarity. Maintaining geometric similarity during scale-up alloys definition of a single scale factor R, which is equal to any ofthe ratios bet we dimensions of agitators (a) and (b) in Fig. 9.6: | R= D./D, = T/T, = WalW, = Z3/Z, = Cy/C, = B/B, where the subscript 2 represents the large agitator and 1 represents the smal unit. The tank volume is the tank atea «7*/4 times the height Z. Since tie ratio Z/T is constant for scale-up [see Eq. 6 1)] and Z usually equals 7, the volume is proportional to T cubed: d | vearya ‘Then the scale factor in terms of volume is R= TIT, = (V/V) | In general, geometric similarity is desirable. In Section 9.6.5, a class problems will be discussed in which it is neither useful nor required to maint similarity. Size. The size of the agitation unit is determined from considerations beyond the scope of this chapter. However, the most important considerations are the! ‘throughput in the process and the processing time (which is similar (o the time constants encountered in process control). For instance, if there is @ chemical reaction in the tank, then the size of the tank will be dictated by the desired flow rate of product and the kinetics of the reaction or the reaction time. Ifthe ill be determined by the desired rates of fiow of solid and liquid and the. length of time required to disperse the solids. 9.6.1, Scale-up Procedures for Turbulent Flow with Three or More Test Volumes agitation experiments in vessels of several sizes. From these results, scale-up. trends are obtained which can be extrapolated to the final vessel size. The smallest test equipment recommended [P2] is a tank about 1 ft in diameter that holds 5-10 gallons, Normally, a second tank about 2 ft in diameter is also used Each tank is capable of operating at two volumes, so that a total of four runt can be made—at volumes of 5, 10, 45, and 90 gallons. Each tank should be_ equipped with a variable-speed drive and a dynamometer to measure thean of agitators dusy inthe large unit as yt ult task [02], aithou or simple system gf during scale-up ations ¥ of the ratios between onsiderations beyond onsiderations are the is similar to the tim sined by performing. sse results, scale-up val vessel size. The ameter is also used. 4 total of four runs ch tank should be acrrarion 385 F input accurately. It is necessary to vary the speed of the impeller until ory process results are obtained. When appropriate performance has been achieved in each volume, there “wo procedures for scale-up in common use. The data are expressed as | TV, and Y. Then two plots are prepared: log(P/V) versus log V and 'V) versus log V. Whichever of these looks most linear is then jpolated to the volume of the final vessel. These procedures correspond to lowing equations: (9.28) (TAIV)o= (TeV (TITY = (Tel V)sR* (9.29) ese equations, s and x are the scale-up exponents for power per unit ‘and torque per unit volume, respectively, and R is the scale factor, din Eqs. (9.25) and (9.27). The subscripts 1 and 2 correspond to vessels flerent size. It is possible that the data will not fall on a straight line in her plot, Then a least-squares analysis is recommended to obtain the final je-up, using Eq. (9.29). The scale-up using a plot of log(P/V) versus log V yith Two Test Volumes [ only two volumes were tested, then there would be no point in preparing "graphs, as suggested in the previous section. A simple scale-up equation, “suggested by Rautzen, Coxpstein, and Dickey [RI], is wen(2-m() om “Aicre is the speed scale-up exponent. ‘The above equation can be solved for n aaeeaees In(M/N2) In(D./D,) In this scale-up procedure, the diameter of the impeller for the process vessel (D.) is determined from Eq. (9.25), assuming geometric similarity. Equation ) is used to determine the speed of the agitator in the process vessel (N) |The power requirement can be found from Eq. (2.11) or Fig. 9.7 alter felermination of Vs, Ds, and Ny. Similarly, the torque requirement can be fe iMlustrated in imple 9.4, which fllows shortly When only two volumes are available for scale-up tests, the design “Ehigineer has no estimate of the error of the experiments and no estimate of the ccuracy of n from Eq. (9.31). The overall design is extremely sensitive to mall changes in the value of n. In the case of four test volumes, if one were386 _appuacaTions oF TRANsFORT MIENONENA erroneous, the recommended graphs would clearly show one data point to by inconsistent with the rest. Hence, the procedure outlined in Section 9.6.1 recommended : In Eqs. (9.28), (9.29), and (9.30) there are three scale-up exponents: s, x and n. From two experiments, all three exponents ean be calculsted, but they. will not be independent. In other words, each of the three equations predisiy the same values of P, Tz, and N for the vessel being designed [P2, T2]. This point will be further illustrated in the next section and in Example 9.4, 9.6.3 Scale-up Procedures for Turbulent Flow with a Single Test Volume Sometimes it is necessary (although highly undesirable) to design and seal ‘a process unit based on an experiment performed in a single unit at a single” volume. Any of Eqs. (9.28), (9.29), or (9.30), each with its own scale-up | exponent, may be chosen, although identical results will be obtained because the equations are not independent. The success in scale-up with a single test volume lies in correctly choosing the appropriate value of the scale-up. exponent. Note that none of the following scale-up procedures corresponds to constant Reynolds number [03] Criteria for scale-up. The purpose of scale-up is to obtain in a plant-sizs agitation unit the same process results as were obtained in a small-scale uit, \Es of the old literature in chemical engineering suggests that scale-up con be accomplished while keeping the ratio of power per unit volume constant from the small unit to the large unit. More sophisticated approaches (Cl, Pi, RI, V1] take account of the fact that different applications in mixing require different ratios to be maintained constant. The’ ratios to be suggested are all bbased on appropriate correlations and explicitly stated scale-up criteria [P2]. ‘There are many types of criteria and procedures for scale-up. These can be separated into two distinct classes; physical uniform : ~and/or-tzanspart_conditions. A partial list can be found in Penney [Pi]. Five ‘common procedures for turbulent flow are listed below: 1, Baqual tig 7 words, the velocities in the large-scale unit will everywhere be approxi ately equal to those in corresponding locations in the small-scale unit. TS scale-up approach is suggested for processes that are termed “flow censtve” (Ci: here constant tue per unit volume js maintained, Als, it will be shown That constant torque per unit volume is ideitical 10 maintaining a constant tip velocity U,. . Equal solids ign. The level of solids suspension is maintained -approxiMfately constant upon scale-up. This approach is also fairly common,ons aorrarion 387 one data point to 2d in Section 9.6,;, Paintained ducing scale-up wal surface behavior. The surface of the liquid during agitation remains le-up exponents: s, fhe sane THC Vortex Thape (or lack thereof) wil be unchanged. The shape calulated bat hege Ee rice of the lipid & important when &) solids added 0 the ce equations predig Gartace ate dispersed. This type of scale-up, also called equal Froude signed [P2, 12]. Thy _fumber, is less commonly encountered. Example 9.4," | Faual blend time. Equal blend time is the limiting case at the opposite end > a equa Tiquid motion. Ic is rarely practical to duplicate in a large unit | of say, 10000 gal the fast blend times (in the order of seconds) in ‘gallon-size unit. SSS ‘There are other criteria in the literature, but these are of lesser ance. For example, in the 1940s, equal apparent superficial velocity was intained, but this procedure is outdated today [C1]. The apparent superfi- Telovity is found by dividing the volumetric flow rate that the impeller roduces by the tank area. 7” pe criterion for scale-up should be clearly stated. Sometimes itis clear ihe desion engineer what scale-up criterion to use. For example, if fast sing is required, then equal blend time will be chosen, and so on. Often, fever, it is uncleat which of these to select for a given process. Further- e, complicated processes could fall under several different scale-up bie t / unit volume, Scale-up based on a torque per unit volume ning ee | mterion i a recommended procedure [Ci, V1} because torque is the variable enaaiae most directly correlates with initial cost. Also, when the ratio T,/V is ap eoieta PAG intained, equal liquid motion is accomplished, which will do the sme Job of valeup. Ths ation af the corresponding points inthe small and large units [Vi]. tn Eq : 139), the exponent xis zer0 for this case: ‘and_equal kinetic . Penney [Pi]. Fie Be (TLVn_ his a aM, Ae lintained; in other ‘The assumption of constant torque per unit volume is identical to assuming ‘here be approxim: cotistant tip speed in scale-up. If Eq. (9.8) or T,/V from Table 9.1 is vall-seale unit. Thi | sibstituted into Eq. (9.32), under conditions of constant density and geometric are termed “fon inilarity the following is obtained: maintained. Alo, : me is identical 19 : (TlV)2_ N3D3 _ Ui, i (LIV), NDE Us jon is maintained | ; ation (9.33) shows that the tip speed U, isthe same in both volume 1 and Iso fairly common, Eq ‘solids or ges Of Nolume 2 for constant torque per unit volume. Equation (9.33) can be also beoy used to calculate the exponent nin Eq. (9.30): _ MDI= NDE or | Ny (By Equation (94) shows that when the trgue per volume expOMERE xi ze, | the sped exponent equals 1.0. ‘Equation (9.6) relates torque to power and speed. This equation can als be used to find the power per volume exponont 5 when x is zero: ae "2aNW Equation (9.6) is substituted into Eq. (9.32): (TafV)y _ Pal(N2Va) _ Pal Ve Ne (DIV) PANY) PIV Ne, PlVo Ds _ Pals p “BIW, Ds “an result shows that the power per volume exponent s equals for constant torque per volume or tip speed: n= 10 s=-10 x= 0.0 Table 9.7 contains the values of the three scale-up exponents for all fi criteria listed previously (P2, T2]. When the design engineer is in a quandary ag to which criterion in Table 9.7 to use, many authors recommend scale-up be accomplished with constant tip speed [C, V1], because the torque per uni volume is maintained: constant, equal liquid motion is approximately main tained (kinematic similarity), and experience with “flow-velocity-sensitive applications has been favorable. Connolly and Winter [C1] recommend this ctiterion for many mixing operations, including suspending solids. TABLE 9.7 Scale-up exponents for turbulent flow ‘Most important Value of sfor Value of rfor Value of for seale-up eriterion Fg. (9.28) 4. 0.29) Eq, 8.30) (4) Equal uid mation 19 a0 10 (@) Baual solids suspension ~035 os i (6) Equal mass transfer 00 2B 23 (@) Egual surface 0.45 10 as (5) Equal blend time 20 20aartarion 389 "por sealesup, equal bubble or drop diameter is maintained [P2]. sant power per unit volume. Under conditions of constant power per | jue UpOm se (peciion of Eg (9-28) shows that the exponents i zero fortis case: (PIV): (PIV); sro values of » and x for this Eriterion are found in the same manner as those (6.36), Returning to Table 9.1, power per unit volume is proportional to “speed cubed and the diameter squared (under geometric similarity): Penipe pon (9.38) 9.39) (ys) oa fr this seale-up procedure is 3. Similary, iis easy to show that x also als 3 n=2/3 5=0.0 (0.41) xe23 jese results are shown in Table 9.7 under the heading of equal mass transfer 4]. This criterion is also called “equal dispersion” [VI] L MEN Following the previous derivations, the scale-up exponents are e n=0.0 Compared to the other values of the exponents in Table 9.7, the values in Eq. (6.43) represent the opposite extremes from criterion (1)—equal fuid motion. be criterion represented by Eq. (9.43) is rarely used because the power to be390 aveticerions oF TRANSPORT PHENOMENA specified upon scale-up is usually too large. Equation (9.28) with becomes PP = (Va/V)R? = R° ‘Thus, for constant blend time, the power increases as the fifth power of tank diameter [ef. Eq. (9.11), from which the same result can eas obtained]. It is rarely practical to require the fast blend times obtained smnall unit in a plant-sized vessel Example 9.3. An agitation unit consists of « inch diameter, fourbladed, pitched-bladed turbine impelier in a tank that is 3Dinches in diameter and, four batfes. The unit is fled to a height of 30 inches with a uid of viscosity Igy and specific gravity 1.1. The agitator operates at @ speed of 300 1pm. ie the power per unit volume and the torgue per unit volume ifthe ratio C/T is) Answer. Figure 96 ot literature sources will be used to find the power. diameter of the impeller and the volume of the tank {from Eq. (9.26)} are =912= 075 Ve nT?/4 = x(30/12)'/4 = 12.27 f= 91.79 gal where 7.48 gal equals Lf. The fluid viscosity and density in engineering unit = (10}(6.72x 10-4) [(P) (bg fs? eP“)} = 62X10" feIs 1.1)(62.4) = 68.64 Iby f* ‘The impeller speed is N= 300/60 [rev min-*(main )) = 5.057? ‘The Reynolds number for agitation from Eq, (9.9) is Mee= D*Np/it = (0759.48.65 00079 (CHEM) oa erro ‘Therefore, the agitator operates in the turbulent region, Curve 6 fora si-blad pitched-blade turbine shows a power number of 1.37. From the literature (Vil, the power number for this agitator equals 1.62. Equation (9.11) is the definition. of the power number; solving for P, the answer is P= Nox(ON'D') = (1.62)(68.65) 5,090.15) f(A] J = 3298 Ib, fs"? (wi) To convert P to units of horsepower, the gravitational conversion factor g. willbe needed in the denominator of Eq, (vi) 4 P= Nu(PN'D'}/g, = (3298)/(32.174) (by fsb lbg! 2] 12.5 ft Ibs" = 102.5/SS0f{fE Ibe “(hp sft“ 1b;V] = 0.1864 hp4 the power. (9.26) are al gineering units > literature (V4 | is the definition acmrarion 391 [7 re torque is found from Eq. (9.6), using the value of C; trom Table 9.2: T, = (P/N)(C) = [(0.1864)/(300)](63 025) = 39.16 in. Iby (x) “The power per unit volume and the torque per unit volume cen be found either in “nits of gallons or P/V =0,1864/12.27 =1.52% 10*hp ft"? =2.02% 10"*hp gal (x) TV =39.16/12.27 =3.19 in, Ibe A-* = 0.427 in, Ny gal” Gi) | J ample 94. An engineer has the tk of designing « reactor of capaiy. | _ [i2fea 0 agtate the material in the pronons ample. Shes ele toed | equal process results in she-following-geometsically similar units under the 1 conditions given in Table 9.8, Answer. Both test units as described in Table 9.8 operate in the turbulent range, ‘Three scale-up equations have been presented in this chapter and will be -ompared in the following design. The important equations are ) ReB/T=(ValVi)? (9.27) [PIV n= PV CEITY = (PIV)ARE (9.28) [IV = (TV )ABIBY = (TV ).R™ 029) } Na=N(Dj/D.Y = N(UR)" (9.30) = [la(N/ND)/(IN(0,D.)) 31) Speed scale-up. Following the procedure outlined in Section 9.6.2, the value of R 4s found from Eq. (9.27) and the value of n from Eg, (9.31): | Re Tpixl Ti = 30/10 {ingss0/271y)/in3/1)] = 0.8507 Laboratory unit Plot plant unit = Mesel diameter, inches 10 0 _Inpeller diameter, ft 025 075 YES 10 R 4 m Reynolds number BO, 2595x104 Volume of unis, gat 3.40 91.79 Power, bp 933% 10° 0.1374 Torque, in by oases 31.95, PIV, wp ear 2.744 10-9 14973107 TV, in, iygat“t 0.2507 03481Let the subscript 3 denote the 12000-gal reactor. Arbitrarily, let us scale-up fo the pilot plant unit. The tank diameter and that scale factor (R,) is V = 12000/7.48{(gal)(f° gal™)] = 1604 f° FV f° = 12.69 ft Ry= TT, = 12.69/{0)/(12)]= 5.075 Equation (9.30) is used to find the impeller speed in the reactor Dy Ds)" = NAAR)" = AT (LS.O7S)E8? = 68.05 2pm The reactor impeller diameter is calculated from Ry, assuming geom imey: Da= DAR, =(0.9545.075) = 3.8061 ‘Using Eq. (0.11) for constant power number for Eq, (9.18) or Table 9.1) ii see tat the powers prorartonal fo speed eubed and diameter 10 te fi power, for constant density. Hence MD r= B( Rape) = BUN “The torque can be found from Bq. (9.6) and Table 9.2 PINY(C) = [(7.38)/(68.07)(63 025) ~ 6789 inch by Power per unit volun begins with the determination of the scale-up exponent s InfP/V)pso/(P/V at) mR = (an[(1.497 x 1079 /(2.744 x 10-4))}/(1n3) Now Bg, (9.28) becomes (PIV), = (PIV )aR ee ‘This equation is the general scale-up equation, based on the power per ‘volume procedure, To find the power in the 12000-gal reactor, the numbers af@ inserted: methods, One possibility is to compute the power number for both the Laborato ‘unit and the pilot plant unit from Fq. (9.11). The answers should agree to withacranon 393 _- (374)(550)(32.174) (Cop bp?) (68.64) (271 /609°(0.75) & Cn VE PE? =1.62 (ai) “This value is the same as used in Example 9.3 [VI]. Since the power number is constant in the turbulent region when the agitation unit is properly batted, as is ‘his unit, Eq. (xl) can be used to solve for the speed of the impeller in the | 1200-gal reactor: Ps Pig a PND: pNiDi 7 Solving Eq. (xiv) for N, and inserting the numbers: Reece he ae (5) ~e-(eise) Gave) ‘The torque can be fund fom Ea (9.6 and Table 9.2 before [Eq Boe _{ix)]. The answers obtained here agree within roundoff crror with those from the ee Torque per unit volume. Equation (9.29) will be used for this procedure; the |] jdentical answers will be obtained. Equation (9.29) is solved for the scale-up Spinone Toc te aber 2 x= Inf(T,/V prac (Tel Va) /(In RY ‘structive to zs in{(0.3481)/(0.2507)]} /(In 3) = 0.2988 (xvi) timed. “Now Eq. (9.2) becomes +. The soli (EIV)s=(TeV)R (xvii) is equation is the general seale-up equation, bssed on the torque per unit “‘olume procedure. Proceeding with the solution, Eq. (xvii) is solved for the | Aorque inthe 12000-zal reactor and the numbers inserted a Ty = VAT IV) RO (12.000)(0.3481)(5.075)"2"" = 6787 in. Iby (xviii) “Thus, the answer in Eq, (xii from the torque per unit volume procedure isthe sane (within roundoff error) as obtained eatlier. Therefore the speed and power Jove ps | willbe wochanged also from the earlier answers. ‘e numbers |Semmary. If there had been three or more sets of test data, each in reactors of 5 different size, then a graph of log(P/V) versus log V or log(T,/V) versus log V would have been prepared and extrapolated to the final volumes If there are only ned by sever 7 lwo sets of test data (as in this example), any of the three scale-up equations the oe __ TEqs. (9.28), (9.29), or (8.30)) produces the same results as the others. Example 9.5. Suppose the pilot plant data in Table 9.8 never existed. Use the “taboratory data only from Example 9.4 to design the 12 000-gl reactor394 arruicamions oF TRANSPORT PHENOMENA Answer. Any of Eqs. (9.28), (2.29), o (9.30) may be used, since they y gauivalent, as shown in the previons example, In tis example, the sexed exponent mast be determined from Table 9.7. The scale-up exponent n ma from 0 to 1.0 in the speed equation: 4 [Mem M@yby =MaIRy Since power is proportional to speed cubed, the lager the value of min Eq (635, the smaller wil be the predicted power requirement. The value of n mol les between 0.5 and 1.0, but no bass for choosing a value of n exists. Therefe the design engineer is certainly gambling it data on only one size are used a4 basis for scale-up. In this problem the seale factor R is, R= Dy/D, = 3.806/0.25 = 15.23, where the impeller diameter D; is taken from Table 9.8 and the agitator diame of the reactor is taken from Eq. (vii) in Example 9.4. Table 9.9 summaries 1 results for values of m ranging from 0.5 to 1.0. The speed al (9.30). The power is calculated 2s follows. Equation (0.11) for this exam (turbulent flow) is Nee PU(ON'D Applying this equation to unit 2 (the 12000-ga! reactor) and unit 1 ( laboratory unit), the following is obtained: ‘Ny ( Day? aen(h) @) ‘When Eqs, (9.30) and (i) ate substituted into Ea. (ji), the folowing is obtained " pe ce This equation was used to compute the power for'each value of n. The torque follows dizectly from Eq. (9.6) and is not included. ‘The conventional wisdom i to sale up with Eg. (9.32), or equivalently Ey (0-36), using a value of m equal to 1, which isa criterion of eonstant tip speed Constant torque per unit volume, and equal fuid motion. Table 9.9 showy thi such 2 criterion would require a 2-hp motor, wheceas in Example 94 need for 4 4 TABLE 9.9 Power and speed versus scale-up exponent 2 ” Xm Php os om 19 06 BS 7 07s 2 8 n 09 0 5 5 2