Grade 7 Science

Cluster 3: Forces and Structures

1. What are structures? Structures are things that have a definite size and shape. Some
structures such as bridges, buildings, towers or bikes are manufactured or human-made.
Other structures that are not made by people are said to be natural. Examples would
include a rocky cliff, a beaver dam or a beehive.
2. Do manufactured structures have a purpose? All
manufactured structures have a purpose or function. To perform
this main job, every part of the structure must resist forces that
could change its shape or size. For example, if you built a brick
wall around your backyard, you would have to design it to
support itself, to resist the force of the wind, and to support a
load, such as a person who climbed on the wall.
3. What different designs of structures are there? There are three basic designs of
structures: mass or solid, frame or shell structures.
4. What is a solid structure? A solid structure is a structure, either
natural or manufactured, that is made by the piling up of materials.
Examples of solid structures are pyramids, snow forts, dams, brick
walls and the Great Wall of China. Natural solid structures would
include mountains and icebergs. Foods such as omelettes, cakes or
bread would also be considered solid structures.

5. What is a frame structure? A frame structure is a type of structure in which a

skeleton of materials supports the weight of the other parts. Examples of frame
structures include houses and office buildings, bikes, umbrellas, cars, boats and
bridges, stairways and the human skeleton. Some structures such as ladders,
snowshoes and spider webs consist of only the frame.
6. What is a shell structure? A shell structure is a type of
structure that obtains its strength from a thin, carefully shaped
outer layer of material and that requires no internal frame.
Examples of shell structures include igloos, eggs, cardboard boxes,
food cans, bottles, pipes, basketballs, wasp nests, clam shells and
clay pots. Shell structures also include flexible structures such as
parachutes, balloons, and many types of clothing.
7. What are the advantages of shell structures? Shell structures have two very useful
features. They make great containers because they are completely empty. Also, they use
very little material because they only have a thin outside layer.
1

Grade 7 Science
Cluster 3: Forces and Structures
8. What is an objects center of gravity? The balancing point on
an object or its most stable point is called its center of gravity. The
center of gravity of a person is located in the mid-abdomen region,
over the hips. A person is much more stable while standing if they
can keep this center of gravity between their feet and lower to the
ground. Some structures are much more stable than others
depending on their center of gravity.
9. What is a force? A force is a push or a pull, or anything that causes a change in the
motion of an object. Many forces affect structures. When a structure such as a building is
constructed, the builders must consider the forces that will act upon the building and
design the building so it can withstand these forces. Engineers divide forces that affect
structures into two groups, external forces and internal forces.
10. What are external forces? An external force is a force exerted on an object from
outside the object. External forces are divided into two groups, live load and dead load.
11. What is live load? Live load is the force or forces that act in or on a structure but are
not part of the structure. Examples of a live load would include the wind, the weight of
people, and a collision with the structure. Buildings constructed in areas that experience
high winds such as tornadoes or hurricanes need to be designed to withstand the force of
the wind. Buildings that are constructed in areas that get a lot of rain or snow tend to have
sloped roofs to allow for some runoff. Some buildings in very warm, dry areas may have
flat roofs because they do not have to worry about the buildup of snow or water on the roof. Most structures are built to
withstand forces that are two or three times larger than their
expected live load. However, live loads become extremely
large sometimes for a short time such as in a very strong
wind or a heavy snowfall, or in a collision, and the structure
can be damaged.
12. What is dead load? Dead load is the weight of the structure upon itself. Over time,
gravity can cause the structure to sag, tilt or pull apart as the ground beneath it shifts or
compresses under the load. When putting up a structure such as a house or a bigger
building, the builders need to make sure that the structure is built on a firm foundation.
13. What is an internal force? An internal force is a force that acts on an object from the
inside. Internal forces include tension forces, compression forces, shear forces and torsion
forces.
14. What are tension forces? Tension forces stretch a material by
pulling its ends apart. Tensile strength measures the largest tension
force the material can stand before breaking.
15. What are compression forces? Compression forces crush a
material by squeezing it together. Compressive strength measures the
2

Grade 7 Science
Cluster 3: Forces and Structures
largest compression force the material can withstand before losing its shape or breaking
into pieces.

16. What are shear forces? Shear forces bend or tear a material by
pressing different parts in opposite directions at the same time. Shear
strength measures the largest shear force the material can stand before
ripping apart. Sometimes people break bones because of shear forces.
Shears that are used to trim branches use shear force to snap branches by
moving the blades in opposite directions over the branch.

17. What are torsion forces? A torsion force is a force that acts on a
material by twisting its ends in opposite directions. Torsion strength
measures the largest force the material can stand and still spring back to
its original shape.

18. What is stress? Stress is an internal or external force that acts on an object, perhaps
causing it to move or change shape.
19. What is structural fatigue? Structural fatigue is the process in which a structure
begins to develop cracks or weaknesses over time because of the ongoing stress that is
applied to it. For example, a concrete floor may eventually crack as a result of structural
fatigue.
Structural fatigue is a concern in buildings, but also in structures
such as aircraft. After three De Havilland Comet passenger jets had
broken up in mid-air and crashed within a single year in around
1954, it was discovered that sharp corners around the planes
window openings were a spot where cracks started as a result of
structural fatigue. All aircraft windows were immediately
redesigned with rounded windows.

20. What is structural failure? Structural failure occurs when a

structure can no longer support itself or the load that it was intended to
support. Structural failure happens when the material is stressed to its
strength limit, causing a break or excessive deformations in the
structure. When this limit is reached, damage to the material has been
done, and the structure permanently and quickly is affected, usually by
collapsing.

21. Are some parts of structures weaker than other parts? A builder who wants his or
her structure to last must be careful to make sure that no part of the structure is a weak
3

Grade 7 Science
Cluster 3: Forces and Structures
spot that could lead to structural fatigue or structural failure. Joints, or places where
different parts of a structure are fastened together, are often the weakest parts of the
structure so the builder must take special care in these areas.

22. How are different parts of structures fastened together? Different parts of
structures are fastened together in several different ways. Sometimes, fasteners such as
nails, staples, bolts, screws, rivets or dowels are used. Sometimes ties, such as thread,
string, rope or laces are used. Sticky substances called adhesives can
hold things together. Melting can be used to hold pieces of plastic or
metal together. Welding melts the pieces themselves. Brazing and
soldering surround pieces with a different material, which locks the
pieces together as it cools and hardens. Sometimes carefully shaped
pieces can be held together if they are interlocking. An example of this is
Lego.
23. How can designers strengthen the structures they build? Several things can be
done to make a structure stronger. Some shapes, such as triangles are much stronger than
other shapes. The structures themselves can be made triangular or triangular shapes can
be worked into the design through bracing. Columns and beams can be
strategically placed in a structure to help support the areas that need to
support the greatest load. Materials themselves can be made stronger by
adding extra layers or corrugations.

24. What is structural efficiency? Structural efficiency is a number that expresses the
relative ability of a structure to support a load. It is calculated by dividing the maximum
mass of the supported material by the mass of the structure. The higher the number, the
more weight the structure can bear compared to its own weight.