PURPOSES

OF

ART

Second Edition

PURPOSES
An

OF

Introduction

to

the

Historyand Appreciationof Art

ALBERT

E. ELSEN
Indiana

RINEHART

HOLT,
Mew

York

ART

Chicago

tJtuversity

AND
San

INC.

WINSTON,

Francisco

Toronto

London

LIKE

DEDICATIONS

REVISIONS

NANCY,

MATTHEW,

TO

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oj

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PREFACE

The

of

purpose

tolerance
and

they

and

this

ot

not

seriously

of

j)lan

chronological
of
a

into

art

acliie\ed

is

art

has

been

to

art

takes

various

The
influence

artistic

and

esthetic

experience,
of

means

achieving

whv,
a

question

representative
question

The

and

final

on

to

them.
their

the

answers,

and

East

of

selection
for

react

its

introductory

an

In

real

and

sense,

book
art

this

history

is

type
the

as

record

nomic,
eco-

is the

art

and
ful
skill-

and
of

duce
pro-

human
effective

been

when,
the

in

of

art.

well

ideas
as

of

for

While
to

his
how

why.

answers

seeking

in

and

this

pursue

imbalance,

sculpture,

and

how,

search

which

book's

author's

the

reflects

of

the

and

social

the

have

to

with

art

jjainting,

among

illustrated

world

continued

has

author

W'est.

works

of

focus
works

before

public

the

political

and

world.
where,

what,

special

into

brought
by

of

other

metaphors

sho-wn

invisible

great
selves.
them-

humanity.

experience

and

be

can

and

various

art's

each

and

human

extensions

as

work

the

is that

book

interpret
or

questions

sampling

interesting

and

which

this

for

tured
struc-

Each

of

the

esthetic,

as

not

liberating

overlap

spiritual,

works

presented

premise:

civilizing
that

and

is

within

set

and

the

and

used

art

visible

the

posed

in

architecture

is here

art,

science

intellectual
of

the

answer

commonly

between

edition,

of

the

and

form,

environments

religious

the

with

harmony
to

their

is

evolution.

essential

environments

oljjects

sculpture,

purjjose

or

of

and

linear,

intended

book

history

art's

it

book's

the

ego-gratification

As

attempt

ot

many

definition

in

meaning

of

with

made,

man

response.

chronological

along

include

creation

painting,

Historians

place

working

imaginati\e

an

and

and

art

written.

dissects

was

this

or

to

the

to

that

what

to

exposure

Consequenth,

man,

come

been

has

book

chronolog\,

masternti(

ui

an

every

to

Art

of

mind,

complexity

alternati\e

themes

whole

expression"

and

The

psychological.

men

its

piecemeal

illustrati\e

contexts
assist

natural

Ijoth

ot

chajsters

men's

the

historical

Purposes
as

its

and

of

for

not

encouraged

appreciation

art

ex|)erience.

integrated

an

topical

Thus,

to

as

and

purpose

strict

composed

treated

historical

The

to

mosaic

ot

type

giving

that

is

by diluting
be

conceived

the

to

liistory. Art

should

readers

conditions

these

public

cares

been

also

complete

art's

the

understanding,

awareness,

presupposes

to.

that

has

and

thereby
of

expression

art

such

Art

of
art,

"elements,"

unified

of

of

for

is

reader's

art

witli

bring

to

public

it

and

history

the
of

familiaritx

The

Purposes

according
a

bv

tries

tliat

openly,

increase

to

appreciation

mvsteries.

its

and

The

is

he

book

by ignoring

book
7

art.

best

are

is

this

its

new

architecture.

about

their

competence
individual

priateness
approto

ment
com-

historians

subject.

whether

views

the

changed

had

he

written

fiityyears earlier. Berenson

include

this

not

change of attitude
with

tamper

should

classic."

reader

the

reassure

Bernard

connoisseur,

critic and

late

The

in

he

that

preface
author's

the

to

had.

asked

once

artist in

When

book

if he

asked

woidd

One
does
replied,"No!
of Purposes of Art

have

to

second

edition

modest

more

was

Renaissance

he

revision, he is said

of the

about

expressed

answered

This

reportedly

Berenson,

estimate

of his book

and

his

modify its original,unclassical

plan. A principal change has been in
makes
of chapters, which
the enlargement
more
possible fuller commentary
upon
I here
has been
and
tions,
works
of art.
an
quality of illustraimprovement in the number
in color. New
than
more
sixty of wtiich are now
chapters include those on the
of secular
ity,
authorartist" his training and
status
throughout
history" the architecture
abstraction.
and
the art of the nineteenth
imaginative
art,
century,
is also a new
for certain
The
There
chapters on
parts of the book.
.sequence
and
followed
and
Rembrandt
are
now
preceded
by topicsrepresentative
Michelangelo
willingness to

artistic and

of the

in this edition
Middle

Ages

milieu

intellectual

oljtain

entirely the subject of the last

Today
reader

in

been

made

appeal

material

little
of

This

men

that

modern
this

of

purpose
his readers.
Mary

to

1900.

on

The

art.

of

mark

the

to

older

on

five years
is

reminders
makes

to

ago

the

like

they

reader

should
from

art

is either

more

they know."

author's

of that

the

partially or

and

been

and

been

is

Bull
The
in

that

to

the

author
the

from

in

additions

made
the

one

general
familiarity

exhibitions

countless

have

the

greater

in this revision

colleagues

discontent

of the

result

media

other

what
the

students

interest

changes
it in The
ex]"res.sed

Renault

done

research

time

our

While

still

art,

and

by
irritatingbut wonderful
imperative the rewriting of what has

character

of

partly the

made
art
])ossibleby the mass
galleriesthroughout the country.

and

museums

chronology

art

The

of Western

chapters.

seven

than

before

produced

art

modern

with

harder

it appears

The

century.

artists work.

these

of the

specificsense

more

twentieth

the

to

in which

have

sections

hopes

Sea:

"It

will

is the

quality and productive

art
history are constant
advances
knowledge and

written.

ACKNOWLEDQMENTS
The
I

bibliography

indebted

am

of

for ideas

gratitude are

the
them

at

the
and

end

ol

the

book

information.

teachers

at

Professors

Columbia

Not

suggests the
always thus

many

University under

Schajsiro,William

historians

acknowledged
whom
Bell

to

but

1 studied

whom
ing
deservmany

Dinsmoor,

Julius
Emerson
Howard
Davis.
Held,
Swift, Millard
Meiss, and
My present colleagues
Diether
Thimme,
and
Davezac,
Henry R. Hope, Roy Sieber, Bertrand
John Jacobus
in
have
been
in
reduce
fact
and
of
of
errors
me
souices
helping
su[j])lying
generous
information.
this revision
For reviews
and criticisms of the originaledition
and
1 want
thank
Alfred
Moir
and
Corlette
Walker
of the art
to
faculty at the University of
Barbara.
California, Santa
Year
in and
the
out
development of Purposes of Art
year
has received
considerable
from
the
impetus
good art historygraduate students
many
Indiana
have
contributions
at
it. ,'\mong those
whose
taught from
University who
I am
able to recall are
C. Maddox,
Peggy Gilfoy, Mazelle
Kirkpatrick, Jan and Gerald
Ellen
David
Bauer, Millard
Hearn,
Stern, now
Rogers, Wilma
teaching at Pennsylvania
State University, Bradley Nickels, now
the facidty of Lawrence
on
University,
and
of Northwestern's
French
George Bauer
Department. This revised edition was
midwifed
assistants Arthur
research
Ste\ens
of Scripps College and
by former
Harry
matched
at Skidmore
their research
Gaugh, now
abilities,
College. Their good humor
and
the revision
has been
all the more
of them.
enjoyable to write because
years

ago"

London,

March,

among

England
1967

VI

Meyer

Albert

E.

Elsen

CONTENTS

PREFACE

INTRODUCTION:

TRAININQ

ART

AND

AS

ARTISTS

THE

PAST

STATUS

MATTER

OF

LIFE

AND

DEATH

18

OF

IMAQES

THE

SACRED

THE

SYNTHESIS

THE
EARThH
ITALIAN

62

BOOK

87

OF

IN

FLEMISH

39

ARCHITECTURE

RELIQIOUS

EARTH

QODS

HEAVEN

AND

FIFTEENTH-CENTURY
ART

SYNTHESIS

105

OF

HEAVEN

AND

FIFTEENTH-CENTURY

IN

123

ART
VII

MICHELANQELO

THE

146

SYNTHESIS
IN

EARTH

OF

HEAVEN

SIXTEENTH-

AND

AND

SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY

ART

166

10,

TABLE

THE

IN

BAROQUE

11

REMBRANDT

12

IMAQES

13

THE

14

TO

SECULAR

OF

AUTHORITY

223

ARCHITECTURE

BE

OF

OF

TIME:

ONE'S

PAST

OF

AUTHORITY

THEMES

16

PAINTINQ

17

THE

FROM

246

THE
AND

NINETEENTH-CENTURY

15

187

204

SYNTHESIS
IN

ART

PRESENT
ART

272

NATURE

OBJECTS

AND

PORTRAIT

296

IN

318

PAINTINQ

AND

SCULPTURE

N8

THE

337

FIQURE

19

PICASSO

20

IMAQINATIVE

21

DEATH

OF

CODA:

SCULPTURE

353

374

ART

OF
THE

IN

THE

WINDONa/

SQUARE:

THE

392

ARTIST

AND

LIFE

ABSTRACTION

418

439

TODAY

BIBLIOQRAPHY

441

INDEX

448

PHOTOQRAPHIC
VIII

SOURCES

455

CHRONOLOQY

OF

TEXT

REFERENCES

(All

dates

TO
are

WESTERN

approximate

AND

EASTERN

ART

INTRODUCTION:
PAST

TRAIN

and

true

A
many

itself

I NQ

thorough study of art and

development necessarilycalls

historical
examination

an

THE

of the

artist and

points of view. Beginning

and
of all
taking account

relevant

its
for

his work

from

with

work

the

the

information, the student

of

available
should

art

recognize that an intelligent

tive
appreciationof creaactivitymust
proceed from varied sources:
biographical data, knowledge of the historical
situation

and

esthetic

social

premises

considerations

the

such

as

systems, and
The

first

thing

of

purposes

information

in

time, and

immediate
be

to

is that

art

philosophicaland
particular
working methods, patronage

context,

of

purposes.

conceded

about

historians
historical

many

the

without

are

of

areas

this

made
subject.A mica hand
by an American
Indian
the
(Fig. 1), for example, confronts
viewer
like a stop sign.This object is a many'sided sign,however, for it directs one
to the past,
culture and
to a distinctive
possiblyto religious
to
beliefs,

an

beautiful

work

of

creator

excellent

craft tradition

unlikelymaterial, and to
considerable
artistic intelligence.

Although the hand was found in

in Ohio, experience with similar
other
United

cultures, such
States, does

certainty

that allowed

in such

whether

as

those
not

this

burial

burial

in the

allow

object

us
was

mound
finds

in

southeastern
to

say

with

identified

ARTIST'S

AND

with

STATUS

funerary cult,

deceased,

or

whether

god,

it

was

or

talisman, a sign of prestigeor an

is no suggestion that
symbol. There
broken
and

off from

mysterious

wrist, so

look

Figure

of

Ohio

Historical

the

it has

completeness

Ross
I.
Hand, from
Culture, 300 B.C. -500

The

that

simply the
object or
occupational

ritual

County,
a.d.

is

curious

and

Ohio.

Mica,

Society,Columbus.

hand

self-

well
Hopeii'/sxS".

Yet, without a convincing explanation

sufficiency.
of the actual burial,social,or
religious
we
context, can
hand
The
may
the artist. The

is this

exercise; but

style rather than

We

be

cannot

and

tapered,are
manual

of whether

rank?
it

not

or

was

from a given direction,or

seen
symbolicgesture. What is sure is
it providesthat
its existence, and the reminder
of the human
hand by itself
such a presentation
to
to
still has the power
move
provoke
us,
the
motive
Whatever
thought and wonder.
intended

to

it is

that

creation, we

whether

and

testimony of the
leaving of a visible trace

the

his patron,

paintingsgive

importance
of one's hand

gun,

placed against
would

thus

There

is

arranged

no

be

with

the

wall

traced

on

of

around
that

so

their
the

the

of sequence;
nor
relation to the bison

in

as

hands

outlines

is there

depicted
always

not
Moreover,
they are
conjunctionwith painted animals, so

becomes

one

cautious

about

cation
their identifi-

the artist's "signature."We

must

also

the frequencyof such

attributing
handprints merely to a childlike delight in
be

guarded

one's

through his

hand

has been known

for centuries;
to refer
times,it was
customary
of art as "coming from
the hand

in ancient

to

work

of"

some

the

twentieth

artist. To

knowledge, not until

artist actually
an
affirm his identityin his work
of
by means
his handprint.The
American
abstract painter
Jackson Pollock not
only applied his paintcovered

our

did

century

hand

the upper

to

but

he

of his

right corner

repeated the

gesture several
times" perhapsin view of the absence of any other

canvas,

single readilycomparable shape in his entire

painting(Fig.3). Rarely used by Pollock, the
needless

say, the best

to

possible

themselves

(Fig.2).
handprints being

kind

of

had

the surface

them.

found
that

and

evidence

in any

discernible

any

on

marks

that

some

spray

leave
animal

againstforgeryof his abstractions.

guarantee
The absence of evidence other than the works

the walls of the

On
men.
prehistoric
of Altamira, Stone Age
northern Spanish caves
men
are
ments
presumed to have blown colored pigary
through a hollow bone, like a rudiment-

for

That

to

these

paintings show
certain sophistication.
man's
could be expressed
individuality

handprintwas,

wall

of the oldest known

abundant
the

that

assume

can

importantto itsmaker
livingor deceased.

was

Some

be

some

its

behind

hand

signsof

even

of

convention
elevated

for

presence,

of

that

hard

testifyto

perhaps a
symbol of

sure

from

traced

long
fingers,
would

impression?

of this

sure

been

have

which

those

not

be

even

discovering how

in

Figure 2. PolychromeBison,with hands superimposed.

Cave
b.c.
Magdalenian
period, c. 15,000-9000
painting.Length of bison c. 36". Altamira, Spain.

discover
made

confounds
the

why

when

us

Indian

and

try to
artists

we

Altamira

their objects
and chose their motifs.

the

fact

that

recently,had

Pollock,

methods

his

stillcannot

art,

Despite
relatively

died

friends and

many

about

statements

who

made

personal

modern

research

disentangleand decide

the

the
that
or
psychologicalmotives
purposes
life through his art.
to
impelled his response
Every serious artist has, in a sense, been the
before him,
pupiland rival of artists who came
and
the twin motives
of continuingand
passing
surart

of the past
Pollock. More

certainlynot

were

known
un-

surprisingly,
perhaps,
present-daystudies of Stone Age peoplessuggest
that these same
incentives,though tied in with
magic, and other purposes, may have
religion,
obtained
from
the earliest periods of human
historyin which art was made.
Despitethe similar feature of the handprint
to

included
Pollock

in

both, between

paintingsthere

order

to

whole

historyof

Eastern
of their

be

accounted

art. Not

Western

the Paleohthic

is

difference

and

that, in

for,involves citingthe
and, to some
extent,

only the character and location

their styles
and media, but
paintings,
diflferences in the very relationship
of

also

the

the

artists

to

their societies and

the

occasion

factors that
making their paintings are
of years
evolve. Rather
to
requiredthousands
than
in this
write in generalities
about
art

for

introduction,the author
more

of

helpfulfor
the historyof

the

feels that

reader

the Western

to

it may

be

something
artist's profession
learn

Figure
5'8"

8'8".

Modern

in

of

terms

for

those

his

training,

whom

he

of

implications

his

social

worked.

Pollock's

In

handprint

understandable,

more

evidence

of

what

coordination

the

throughout

mind,

of

history

been

may

come
be-

change

the

required by

of

hand

in

of

art.

IN

ANTIQUITY

art

for

reason

Physical
by

upon

labor
the

at

art

painting.

classes

Christianity

the

social

cipal
prin-

it

and

down

ancient
was

the

not

have

which

survived.

at

work

temples,

until

art,

making

was

that

as

the

ancient
of

models
students

sculpture

assistants, and
the

(Fig. 4).

distinguished
prerogative

for

from

of the

c.

Tomb

Nebamun

1400
of

B.C.

the

and

Thebes.

Artist's

Past

Training

and

and
to

ing
paintimitate

paintings
master

royal

show
artists

palaces,

Since

pharaohs

Wall

The

that
5,000

"high"
village handicrafts,

Sculptors
Ipuki,

Introduction:

more

over

trained

basis
done

by

evidence

wall

Egyptian

tombs

been

have

in

even

Status

and

of

chase).
(Pur-

Fig. 530).

had

the

on

Egypt

were

in

activity

corrected

is abundant
in

York

evidence

existed

judge
to

then

projects

and

to

appear

There

artists'
on

Near

is

one

canvas,

Museum

whom

manual

training

art

and

Many

ago.

from

the

on

significant

is circumstantial

if

existed

craftsmen,

status.

looked

the

of

creation

history
low
was

in
and

Rome,

the

hands.

shools

of

was

Egyptian Craftsmen

4.

Work.

sort

any

and
of

coming

Figure

of

of

artist's

the

ruling

East, Greece,
the

much

throughout

was

for

required

of

apprentices

years

effort

manual

The

toward

The

Art, New
(See detail

many

"

there

There

art.

drawings

cave

skilled

ARTIST

attitude

prehistoric times,
by

THE

that

"

form

some

monks

by

art

noblemen

that

through
and

eye,

religious

the

created

feelings,

of

way,

part

as

have

men

of

and

status,

this

Oil

1948.

i.
X

Pollock.

Jackson

3.

Number

priests

of

the

Egypt,

With

artists

best

few

some

styles of Egyptian
for

persisted

and
Artists

and

existed,
for

uncalled
of

as

with

linked

the

and

and
their

for

obtain

at

that

tasks

amid

their

makers

training,

either

dorus

of

Samos

himself

fifth-century
"canon"
both
of

of which

these

in

generations.
that

B.C.

we

on

It

is

thus

Manual

Greece

was

reserved

Figure
height

5.

The

for

Foundry

4^/4''" Staatliche

in

the

slaves,

and

later

Berlin.

Bronze

that

as

did

their

Foundry

Right:

their

Nero

of

the

probably

the

importance
use

by

6.

an

Attic

Plutarch

be

they
enjoyed
What

their

artist

the

high

Roman

emperors

painters

explainable
of
this

even

the

(none
the

by

painter

circumstance

painters socially. Despite

of

artists

generals

Opposite

but

art,

when

upon

demanded

sculptor),

(detail of

Figure

effort

elevate

and

dilettante

were

of

disdained.

works.

on

aspects.

usually,

more

for

commentary

might

be

to

only

aspect

writers

was,
to

art

died

literature,

or

Seneca

of

Roman

physical

not

Greek

prejudices

were

of

sculptors,

lesser

in

as

works

makers
ire

affixed

prices

great

although

such
Greek

contemporaries

than

by

ancient

Painter.

Museen,

writers

stories
had

literature

its technical

to

on

survives

esthetic

or

of

book

historically

appreciation

any

the

book

find

not

for

Rome.

Douris

who

biographical

does

painted

traditional

artists

important

imaginative

their

drew

were

century

in

One

dressed

and

B.C.,

this

is

the

references

such

were

writing

it

repeating

but

the

brated
cele-

ture,
sculp-

to

fifth

labor

fragment,

Greece

of

largely

tresses
mis-

Working

biographical

Although

commented

activity

work

of

in

have

instance,

century
first

the

before.

the

in

concerning

Roman

concerned

were

and

from

and

artists

some

first record

the

file,

fourth

long

were

bronze

wrote

late

anecdotes

for

stigma

ers,
painthis

magnanimous

recompense.

social

wrote

simply

Theoa

the

without

artists, composed

drama.

lost. The

and

ideas

have
art.

that

their

on

Left

were

was

on

considered

proportions

works

artists

Full

ideal

recognition

passing

money

however,

suggests

and

walls

the

favors

Alexander's

to

made

Polygnotus,

gestures:

of

after

known
and

the

one

and

such

into

of

giving

were

luxury,

painters

his favorite

upon
his

artists
in

public

artists.

appreciated,

cast

Polyclitus

lived

inau.gurating

B.C.,

named

have

holding

indicates

men

interested
with

of

poetry

to

sculptor

Classical

which

or

famous

or

important

was

sculptor

is known

of

sculpture

in

Greek

and

century

scorned

mention

of

sixth-century

fact
art

in

shown

tools

about

visual

great

were

unworthy

fourth

the

nothing

us

the

time,

Samos

of

Great,

celebration

even

told

bestowed
that

the

great

were

Classical

and

the

after,

Apelles. During

well,

In

were

vases

are

(Figs. 5, 6).

before

although

its

craft

B.C.),

activity

various

tells
and

the

what

of

of

centuries

and
their

keep

to

literature

stories

as

hands

Alexander

attributes

For

Alexander

civic

Greek

on

assistants

their

use

of

freemen,

their

pre-Classical

time

Greek

in

godlike

to

social

distinction

like:

literature

artists

of

that

with

combined

in

the

Apelles.

such

time

the

was

of

however,

of

idea

an

to

century

scenes

the

tion,
distinc-

or

down

arises

While

sculptors.
before

(fourth

From

sculptor's shop

Greek

and

From

mostly

were

work

reward

Renaissance,

priests;

official

such

sculptors

name.

products

the

continuity.

well

Great

and

by

working

of

status

times.

as

pharaoh's

achieved

no

painters

the

Alexander

we

was

Greece,

ancient

known

the

power

this

architects

there

recognition

painters

of

social

of

tion
perpetua-

intimately

was

divinity (not being required

even

hands),

In

the

ensured

Egyptian

certain

art

in

monetary

there

and

sculptors

engaging

for

ready
al-

of

The

art.

preservation

schools

art

of

date

that

unheard

was

constant

their

millenniums.
art

and

painters

and

early

an

the

repeat

quality

political authority
the

to

originality

relatively

at

three

almost

enjoined

were

service.

formulas

basic

hardened

art

their

in

were

exceptions,

record

to

kylix).
side

of

for

c.

kylix

470
in

the

"

military

B.C.

Fig.

the

Romans

5.

camr

:'"'"
^ 'IvlP^

"'"y

"

wem

;^[ ''^^^

"

fi 'J""L.Jl\i
iLlfif'llliti/

"

rtifiriaiMi!iB!l

tative
to establish their authoripaigns,by emperors
image throughout the empire and to
whole
decorate
cities,and by the prieststo
ture
literagive tangibleform to the gods Roman
interest in the personahtiesor
shows
no

11

"

"

lifehistories of Rome's

artists.In consequence
of
the great interest the Romans
had
in Classical
Greek art of the fifth century b.c, as expressed

1 " "~i J

"

a J

""

in their avid

and
their commissioning
collecting
artists were
copies, Roman
unfavorably
compared with their Greek
predecessorsin
It is not surprising
the quahty of sincerity.
that,
other
than
few painted vases,
there has not
a

of

'

down

come

to

from

us

significant
body

Greece

and

Rome

any

of

paintingor sculpturehaving
artists and
their work
the subjectmatter.
as
it was
When
suspected that the great Greek
sculptorPhidias had carved his own
portrait

Scribes at
Presentation
Work
and
Figure 7. Two
The Book of
to the Emperor,from
of the Alanuscript
nation.
Pericopes
of Henry III. 1039-40. Manuscript illumi-

Staatsbibliothek,

From

the

time

Bremen.

of

Charlemagne, at the end of

beginning of the eighth
had
monasteries
imperialsupcentury, many
port
and
sions
undertook
important royal commisfor making sumptuous
books. An
eleventhmanuscript illustrates such
century German
artists were
but
humble
men;
workofficially
or
sponsored monastic
activity(Fig.7).
anonymous,
the only artistic form
Book adornment
not
was
of their paid phvsical
yet the nature
work
did link them
with the craftsmen assigned
engaged in by the monasteries, however;
enamel
low rung
the social ladder
work, weaving,
a
on
sculpture,
goldsmithing,
despite the
and
building also enlisted the talents of the
flamboyant and zealous efforts of a few great
monks
and lay brethren who
Greek
were
artists. Not until the fifteenth century,
brought into
of their specialskills.
the monasteries
because
when
certain Italian artists began to concern
Secular
artists and
architects
so
themselves
with
theoretical
employed
knowledge, was
often itinerant,
and they formed
mobile
were
a
with the liberal arts and thus given
art ranked
craft or artisanship. labor
supply that journeyed about
Europe,
greater dignitythan mere
in various
monasteries
and worked
on
painting,
Until the
sculpture,or architectural projects.
rise of the large cities of Western
Europe in
THE
MONASTIC
ARTIST
the

on

the

shield

of the Athena

illustrious

temple

housed
Parthenos,

in

the

Acropolis, he
was
publicly criticized for his vanity. This
of
over-all
absence
other
or
self-portraits
visual evidence of the making of art should not
be construed
as
proof that important ancient

From

the fourth

the twelfth

to

monasteries

the
Europe were
of art.
production centers
Ages the chief task of the
the preservationand
was

libraries

duplicationof books, many

In
down
from antiquity.
rooms,

where

there

decorated

lesser extent, ancient

of which
the

and

had

of

division

illuminators

Christian

come

writing

monastic

often

was

artistic labor, scribes

and

tian
Chris-

century,

in Western

great schools and

In the early Middle
monastic

on

and, to a
(seeChapter

5, "The Sacred Book"). As part of the monastic

of the
monks
was
routine, the artistic work
viewed

as

the

Church, and
to

the

proper

some

service of God

of the

physicallabor

social

involved

and

the

stigma attached
was

and

the eleventh

and

were

unrivaled

twelfth centuries,monasteries

in the

trainingof

artists and

for

monasteries

many

accumulated

had

great

and
artistic
along with their religious
prestige.
By the eleventh and twelfth centuries,
in the largemonastic
of the actual
much
centers
made
art was
by laymen, inside and outside the

wealth

walls, and

the

monks

were

often

cast

in

the

of secular
overseers
organizers or
artistic labor. All through the Middle
Ages,
the monasteries
provided the artistic schooling
for those employed in the manors,
courts, and
until by the twelfth and
graduallyin the cities,
thirteenth
centuries,the cities themselves
began
to

The

the

their artistic production.Through the centuries

of

rival and

trainingof

removed.

Introduction:

seventh

role

duced
repro-

texts

secular books

the

Artist's Past

the
then surpass
in the
artists and

Training and

monasteries

in the

productionof

Status

art.

LODQE,

./

AND

WORKSHOP

thirteenth

the

history of

transition,during the twelfth

centuries,from the making of

and

monks

in

secular artists working in cities.

period the "lodge" form of artist's
organization and artisan's cooperative came
into being in conjunction with the building and
The
decorating of the great cathedrals.
lodge
hierarchy consisted of the supervising master
directed
the
architect, who
general artistic
other master
and journeymen
artists,
program,

1 monasteries

to

this

During

and

masons

and

The

finish

to

moved

on

as

activities of the

and
of these

lodge

In

harmonize

of

to

lodge

assignment and

an

to

group

by one
supervisor,who
down
set
specifications
lodge organization was

free

were

nucleus

usually a

remained
often

Members

carvers.

but

go,

then

project.

new

turn

thus

Church.

intended

various

The

to

itate
facil-

special tasks

great undertakings.

the

eleventh

and

twelfth

centuries, the

decorative

carving and painting were

actually
executed
directlyon the building,with artists
scaffolds.
working from
Gradually, in the
twelfth and
thirteenth
centuries, the painters
and sculptorsquite literally"detached"
selves
themfrom
the
architecture
and
began to
make
the sculpture and paintingsin workshops
located
This

the

near

site

reflected

elsewhere

or

in the

town.

in and

eventually changed
the
character
of the relationshipof painting
and
sculpture to the architecture
(with the
first two
becoming more
independent). The
craftsmen
who
worked
in the lodge proper,
which
was
to
or
usually a building attached
was

the

near

the

cathedral,

committed

were

well

premises as

and

regulations regarding their

of

and

pay

live
to

on

strict

It

not

was

fourteenth

the

and

painting

sculpture

became
up

and

broad

his

own

wealth

to

for

in

commission

own,
an

that

artist

city. With

it
to

the

of
increasingdemand
the
urban
populace for both
religious and
secular
art, the lodge organization gave
way
to the
guilds of painters and sculptors.Other
professions had, in general, organized into

the

fifteenth

class first had

its

on

feasible

workshop
and

and

middle

the incentive

economically

growing

earlier

Purposes of

Art

fifteenth

artists. In

in

guilds

Italy,
early as
Europe,

as

northern

in the fourteenth

numerous

centuries,with
formed

being

ones

Tournai

in

of the

some

Ghent

(1339),

(1341), and

Bruges (1351).
to
guilds were
protect
from
outside
members
to
competition and
instill and
ensure
pride, respectability,
skill,
and
ards
loyaltyby providing and enforcing standfor the professionaland
personal welfare
of the members.
With
the exception of royal
outside
such regulawere
commissions, which
tion,
in many
cities only guild members
were
allowed
work
to
at
painting and sculpture.
The
hierarchical,
organization of the guild was
consistingof a board of overseers
responsiblefor
The

of the

purposes

observance

of

rules,

the

artists,

master

and
(or paid assistants),
tices,
apprenand
each group
had
its own
spokesmen.
Regulations for training,for performance, and
for promotion to the different grades were
set
in
forth
guild often solicited
writing. The
determined
the just price of a
customers,

journeymen

finished

work, and

decided

whether

not

or

its

required standards. Defective work

confiscated, and delinquent members
mined
expelled. Prices were
largely deter-

quality met
could

be

fined

or
on

the

time

the

basis of the

involved.

Artists,

cost

of materials

and

expected to be
in a given period
able to do an accepted amount
of time, and
they could be paid on the basis
of the size of the area
painted.
The guilds'
emphasis was placed not on artistic
theory but on the more
considerations,such as

were

matter-of-fact

technical

making of tools and

the employment
of high-qualitymaterials. The
with providing
guilds also occupied themselves
the

and

ensuring

practices,such as the proper

apprentices.In addition, they were

housing

codes

of

morality for members

fair labor

sible

until

the

In

century.

guilds became

and

of

standards

workmanship.

centuries,when
enough money

set

to

subject

were

artist

the

following

was

the

by

come
bers
mem-

all coordinated

were

in

the

the

thirteenth

by

art

is the

art

than

finds artists associated

one

great importance in the

Of

earlier

guilds even

QUILD,

for

burial

insurance, widows'

respon--

pensions,

the saying of Masses

for deceased
members.
Organized artists also participatedeffectively
in
in local politicalaffairs and
found
were
and

civic

posts such

as

town

councilmen

or

tax-

officials. Both in Italyand the Netherlands,

collecting
themselves
important patrons
guildswere
of art and commissioned
paintingsand sculpture
for their guild halls and chapels.As an
attempt
of collective
measure
by artists to achieve some
the medieval
guildshad no counterpart
security,
in antiquity.

Plate

RoGiER

I.

Oil

on

VAN

DER

Weyden.

x 3'?"s"-The
panel, 4'61/j"

.SY.Luke
Museum

c.
Drawing the Virgin,
1435.
of Fine Arts, Boston.

Plate

Diego

2.
1

65

1.

Velazijuez.
Oil

on

canvas,

The

Maids

lo's" xg'.

{Las
of Honor
Prado, Madrid.

Meniiias).

iZ

c
o
o

6
o
o

o^

.2

"
O

The
not
to
always confined
guilds were
sculptors,but often included
painters and
and
other
artisans such
dle
sadas
professionals
makers, pharmacists, and
glass blowers.

Artists

called

also

were

did

help

not

raise the social

to

ners,
banhold
house-

crafts

of artists

status

there
vidual
were
outstanding indipaintersand sculptorswho did achieve
public recognitionand played important roles
in their
city's history. At the height of the
of the
guild system, nonetheless, the honor
guildwas to be placed above all by its members.
The
saint of many
artists' guilds
patron
Luke
the EvangeSt.
was
throughout Europe
list,
as

it

who

believed

was

had

been

artist and

an

the
Christ.
actually drawn
Virgin and
A
fifteenth-century panel painting by the
der Weyden
Flemish
artist Rogier van
(PI. 1)
had

the

depicts

Evangelist sketching

and

the Christ

this

have
been
painting may
interest to
Of particular

artist himself
likelihood
St.

child; in

is the

that

van

their

artists and

in

the

the

light of

fact that

Virgin

its

subject,

sion.
guild commis-

the

history of

there

is

the

strong

'Weyden painted himself

der

Since

Luke.

the

secular

fourteenth

century,

patrons have

religiousworks

image
abbot
or
formerly a monk
signed a work as being by
own

his

the

lives

artist would

guild, an

of

the

saints

and

their

learn

symbols,

in

other
for a
words, all the suitable elements
artist inherited
an
religious painting. When
his profession,
often the case, the guild
as
was

served

school

to

him

directly and

areas

his

from

in

childhood

many

with

indirectlyconnected

profession.

whole, but

as

the

ting.

decorate

to

upon

ships,furniture,and other
armor,
the
alliance
with
objects. Such

From
of

left their

of art, whereas

would
his hand

have
or

at

most

through

commission.

Van

der

ably
conceivWeyden's painting, and
have
likeness, would
passed

his

even

guild inspection and approval primarily in

these respects: the preparation and
quality of
the wood
of the panel; the priming coat
of
a
substance; the qualityof the pigments
plasterlike
purchased and then ground either by
the artist himself
or
apprentice; the
by an
the
clarityand purity of the glazes laid over
of his
paint; the appropriatenessand decorum
symbols and figuretypes, as well as their set-

di
Figure 8. Nanni
Workshop,
Sculptor's

Banco.

from

the base

Tabernacle
Saints,

1410-14.

c.

Marble.
Florence.

of the

of the Four
Or

San

Michele,

ARTISTIC
AND
It

OFFICIAL

art

from

the

of

that

to

What

arts.

artists' social

century
low

the

were

birth

their

advent
and

the

of the

art

and

theoretical

of

in

and

of

the

of their
few

very

Leonardo

workshop

this

Italy during

and

"

craftsmen,

as

century,

with

the

Michelangelo,largepainting

were
expected
sculpturecommissions
does
eflibrts (Fig. 8). This

to

collaborative
that

mean

individual
financial

handsome

but

admiration;
often

because

resist

the

important
official

guild

artists failed
reward

when

the

this

mobility from

and
was

monopoly
for

by

to town

and

the

at

able

was

to

undertaking
Church

that
circles,enterprises
town

gain
civic
it

case,

been

be
not

to

great

the

artist had

commissions

court

of

generalimprovement

status

end

elevate

of the mechanical

liberal
a

Alberti

as

training in

until

Italy that
to

age-oldconsiderations
the exception of a

with

"

artists such

for

the

impeded

in

taken

important steps were

the lower, craft status

most

arts

PATRONAQE

fifteenth century

during the

was

the

QENIUS

or

permitted

least temporary

exemption from guild membership and

until 1571 that Italian
not
regulations.(It was
artists
could
legitimize their independence
from
the guild as legallyrecognizedsupported
individual
professionals.)
In 1455, the sculptorLorenzo
Ghiberti
lished
pubthe firstartist'sautobiography.It appeared
after the successful completionof his second
great

Albrecht

Diirer's

Aielencolia /

is

in
illustrates,
the

an

engravingof 1514 entitled

that
spiritual
self-portrait
appropriatelyesoteric way,

of the artist as

a genius,albeit
of
melancholy
(Fig. 10). By means
in keepingwith the pracsymbol and allegory,
tice
and intellectual taste of his time,he shows
of a superior
genius or the creative giftin terms
feminine
is reduced
to
a
winged being who
the symbols of the arts
state of inaction amid
and sciences. In Diirer's time, peopleof melancholy
disposition(hence of unpleasant and
imstable
considered
nature) were
superior
other
Born
under
to
men.
Saturn, they were
of imagination but to be
thought to have the gift
new

concept

one

limited in attainment

metaphysics.Diirer
pose and

in such
used

the

higher fields as
pondent
inactive,des-

the varied array

of

to
objects

indicate that, althoughinspired

by transcendent

visions,his
him

own

limitations

as

human

vented
pre-

from

his hopes.Having
realizing
mastered
the skillsand the geometry
required
in his art, he was
in turn trappedby their very
Ghiberti.
detail
Figure 9. Lorenzo
Self-portrait,
of the "Gates of Paradise.
bronze.
It was
in the sixteenth century
c. 1435. Gilded
inadequacies.
Baptistery,Florence.
that the concept of artistic "genius"achieved
widespreadacceptance, when importantartists
of Florence,
Titian
such
as
pairof bronze doors for the Baptistery
Diirer, Michelangelo, and
berti
the "Gates of Paradise" (Fig.
9), on which Ghigained intellectual recognitionand
helped
had the temerity
to include his own
It
to
portrait. substantially
upgrade their profession.
In his autobiography,
not
also from the time of Diirer that collectors
only does he proudly
was
or
plished
boastfully
proclaim all that he has accom"

and
an

that he is an

imitative

inventive rather than

but he also writes what

artist,

feels the education

of the

artist of his

new

insistence upon
of
arts, stillacquiredin the context
should

such
the
wrote:

include. His

as

he himself

the

he

day

liberal

a workshop
operated,is symptomatic of

changing status of the artist. Ghiberti

"The
sculptor and the painteralso

should

"

be

trained

in

"

all these

liberal arts:

Grammar,

Geometry, Philosophy,Medicine,
Astronomy, Perspective,History, Anatomy,
Theory of Design, Arithmetic." Ghiberti was
thus equatingthe artist with the scholar,and
the idea of the artist as

of

man

learningwas

Leonardo, Michelangelo,
takingshape.It was
and Raphael who
for
most
were
responsible
and
puttingGhiberti's admonition into practice,
by working independently,
they achieved great
for
respect for themselves and new
recognition
their professionin the earlysixteenth century.
Leonardo

established

nature,

workshop master, as the true

of artistic inspiration.
10

Purposesof

rather

source

Art

and

than

guide

Durer.
Melencolia I. 1514.
Albrecht
Figure 10.
Engraving, gi/4x6%". The National Galleryof Art,
Washington, D.C. (Rosenwald Collection).

value

to

came

of

works
in

drawings

that

made

In the annals

the

sixteenth

of the

read

with

company
in

which

in

great artists

of the

well

as

had

of

the

learned

most

drawing

he

accepted

as

Elder, for example,

the

some

His

Europe.

(Fig. 11),

the

may

of the

manner

artist intent

1560s

fumbles

buyer

painting.The
in

human

frowns

for

calculated
vision.

the

buy

to

money

is

in

and

types

artist

word
for spectaclesalso
patron. (The Flemish
of
hand
signified "fool.") The
strong, sure
the artist emphasizes the awkward
gesture of
the patron. Both Bruegel and Diirer tell us that

the

artist's vision

Hans

is inaccessible

to

and

us,

the

that

death

accorded

in

those

as

Rubens
in

northern

Europe

Amassing

great wealth

acquired
with

works

the

Figure

1 1

Pieter

Bruegel

the

and

paper,

g^/gx 81/2".Albertina, Vienna.

Figure
Hans

the Connoisseur,

Hendrik

12.

Bol.

Collection.

The

Elder.

Painter

c.

1593.

c.

1565.

Goltzius.

ink

Brown

Portrait

Engraving, 1014x7".

on

of

Private

dead

as

an
man

honors

of

an

also

but

of

as

productivityof

unlike

that

of

the

beautiful

rose

renown

of the

his

large workshop
medieval
artist),he

himself

garden

as

Spanish king.

in Antwerp,
and
antiquities,

and

Paul

artistic fame

consequence

palatialhouse
of art

Peter

century,

service

wedding day painted

their

the

only great

not

in

artist
did

well-groomed
gentleman, his effigy
of his profession as

seventeenth

attained

not

men.
gentle-

Flemish

funerary

attired

diplomat

(run

affirm

be

of death.

the

quality and

which

Goltzius

Bol is shown

attributes

by

the

which

symbolic

important person.
and
handsomely

During

of

Hendrik

engraving (Fig. 12)

well

survived

they could

manners

Bol, his friend

was

have

there

prints and
paintings in
homage to other artists and

surrounded

contrast

The

centuries

innumerable

clearly pleases the foolish

that which

at

the

drawing

to

seventeenth

Upon

his

upon

of

self-confidence

engraving. Bruegel shows

work, as a bespectacled

Durer

making of art involves problems the layman

recognize.
The
homely dress of Bruegel'sartist is deceptive
in regard to the way
the successful artist
his century and
thereafter might be expected
in public. From
the sixteenth
and
appear

cannot

artists pay
that in dress and

to satirize those who

purchase art,
courage
in the
have
been
a
spiritualself-portrait

and

an

the

it is not

century

intellectuals

of

company

royalty. Pieter Bruegel

men

valuable

them.
of the

to

uncommon

kept

and

themselves, important especially

of the
they intimately reflect the hand

artist who

in

finished

as

in

art

and

filled it
on

their

his bride

(Fig. 13). Rubens

in

of the King and

Queen as if they are
positionof a viewer lookingat the scene.
Velazquez, standing at the left before a tall

images

in the

canvas

from

seen

dress and

the

back, is attired

in

court

his belt the key of his office.

foreground focus is shared by the Infanta,

The
her

at

wears

dwarf, and

attendants, a

a
dog. Mindful
prerogatives,Velazquez
discreetly
portrays himself in a positionthat is
of the paintingand
logicalboth in the context
for the courtly world
The
of rank.
ingenuity
and
brilliance of the conceptionof this painting,
its virtuoso
well as
as
execution, help us to
understand
why such exceptionalpainterswere

of

his

station

favored

and

by seventeenth-century rulers for projecting

their

official

capturingthe

public image and

of court
privatescenes

more

FROM
TO

ART

for
life.

CLUBS

ACADEMIES

THE

Leonardo
protestedin his writings against the
of education, in which
children
guild method
would

Figure

Paul

Peter

13.

Rubens.

with
Self-portrait

Isabella Brandt.

"/z".Alte

45

and

i6og-io. Oil on
Pinakothek, Munich.

his wife

fashion, and

are

dressed

seen

their

what

bearing help
aristocratic image.
to

Artists had

create

served

in the height of

looks

good

x
s'q'/o"

canvas,

and

the time

be

an

of the

pharaohs, usually being attached to the court

but assignedan
inferior status.
By the sixteenth
artists who
had made
century, however, famous
their reputations as independent figureswere
often honored
by kings by being given titlesand
of the great paintings
One
specialprerogatives.
in the

artist
who
to

historyof
at

court

involvingthe work of the

by Diego Velazquez,

art

done

was

in the seventeenth

PhilipIV, King

century

of

Spain.Velazquez'painting,
The Royal Family, later

originally titled
came

to

be

chamberlain

was

called Las

Meninas

because

of the

the
ladies-in-waiting
grouped around
Marguerita,the king'sblond daughter
is in a high-ceilinged,
(PI. 2).The scene
sparsely
furnished
of the
room
royal palace, with
the
paintingsfrom the king'scollection filling

young
Infanta

walls. A

mirror

on

the

far wall

Purposes of

Art

about

at

twelve

of

years

age

as

'

personal

might well

kingssince

begin

apprenticeslearning their craft by cleaning

and
repairing brushes, grinding pigments,
and then imitatingthe
preparing the canvas,
until the
drawing and painting of the master
from
sketch
novice could complete a work
a
given to him. During this period,which might
last for as
long as six years, the apprentice
would
perform a variety of other, nonartistic ,'
His journeyman period
services for the master.
involved
working for other artists in various
locations,until he could show by his proficiency)
in
that he was
ready to join a guild or company

reflects the

"

city, where

some

he

then

settled down.

nardo
Leo-

aspiringartists to study science,

and by such theoretical
especially
perspective,
learning,paintingas a creative effort might be
craft. Michelangeloavoided
divorced from mere
the
rigors of the guild system, since he was
given the opportunityinstead to study ancient
works
of art under the guidance of an old sculptor
wanted

in

the

of Lorenzo

court

later refusal

Medici.

de'

take

pupilsor to use
for his important work exemplifieda
of individuality.
In

the

several
An

to

first half

engravingby

R.Tccio

of the

artists' clubs

were

Vico

Eneas

RrindinelH

sixteenth
formed
from

sculptor and

His

assistants
new

ideal

century,
in Italy.

drawing by
rival

of

shows

Michelangelo,
various
have

ages
to

come

discuss

draw

others draw

what

in

under

teacher, this group

the

and

to

done
of

sense

the

tion
direc-

rather

was

of

they

being

was

school

art

artists

where

room,

an

and artists,
in
gatheringof apprentices
of the
room
to practicedrawing in a
providedfor Bandinelli by the Pope.

prizeswere

be awarded.
to
While
occasionally
not
a
academy was
and, in
great success
rival the guilds or sustain
fact,did not finally
the

"

system of course
those of Leonardo

instruction

the future
of

the

and

its

"

Vasari, were

seventeenth

century, small

artistsin various Italian citiessuch

order

Bologna

of the earliest art academies

One
) in

in

Florence

1561

Vasari, celebrated
which

is

the

by

artist

for his Lives

foundation

the

founded

was

of

of

Giorgio

the

Artists,

historical

art

writing. His .A^ccademia del Disegno, which

brought together outstanding artists in an
organizationimder the patronage of the Grand
I de' Medici, proDuke
of Florence, Cosimo
vided
alternative to the guilds. Vasari's
an
academy planned a more
enlightenededucation
of young
which
to include
lectures
was
artists,
such

on

subjectsas

Students

geometry.

studios

on

Rembrandt,
draw

from

for

The

important

most

and

of

the

to

profession.

influential of the

that called the Accademia

early academies was
in 1593.
di San
Luca, founded in Rome

It

received

of

concern

papal
over

encouragement

the

poor

qualityof

because

The

art

produced

well

famous

most

academies

as

for

drawing

Italythat
Europe, at
the

at

this
first
end

century.

his

study

to

pupilsto

older

for

art

under

academy

an

founded
Louis

the Academic

as

the
had

the idea

As

developed
from

prime

academicians

the

to

of

of

allow

guilds; but
Colbert,

minister

closely tied

was

centralization

culture in France.

in

be

to

came

Royale of paintingand

been

royal academy

or

France

in

XIV

preceding century,

artists greater freedom

under the King and his
absolutist

influential of all art

and

that

was

1648, which

artists

for the Church

from

was

northern

and

its lessons.

the

contribution

some

It
to

own

patron

example, taught

as
life,

artists'guild,and

it made

of their

one

scale in the Netherlands

In
sculpture.

social status

in

of the sixteenth and into the seventeenth

encouraged to learn from studying artists such

as
Michelangelo by imitating his figuresor
In reality,
whole compositions.
however, Vasasi's
than
a
new
create
academy did little more

elevatingthe

assembled

room

exported

small

influence

of
groups
Genoa
and

as

provided by
studying together

was

known

were

often

or

of
purposes
from a live model.

idea

ideas, like

to

trainingof artists. At the beginning

informal

Vatican

"

watch

and
an

of

group

executinga problem

of

i_

or

theories

(Fig. 14). Not

students

gathered in

to

government

the
and

while
the
consequence,
attained greater social

security and

prestige,they sacrificed their

independence.The leading French artists were
members, and a definite
obliged to become

by inadequatelytrained young
artists. Although there seems
been a
to have
substantial emphasis on abstract theory,guided
by the artist Federigo Zuccari, a definite
educational
outlined
was
whereby
program

schedule

students

ing
worship services and business meetings, selectand posing the model, providingexamples

casts

work

would

be

of ancient
was

to

be

taught to draw from plaster

sculptureand from life. Their
corrected

and
by instructors,

"

held

of
to

even

teaching and
timetable

courses

wing of the Louvre.

hierarchyof graded membership

art

to

be drawn

included

instruction
elaborate

An

assigned duties

and

of

in

established

was

for each week's

was

established,

attendance

at

from, and correctingstudent

Eneas
Vico
(after
Bandinelli). Artists and
c.
Apprentices,
Engraving,
1550.
Collection.
i2',4xig". Private

Figure

14.

Baccio

13

Academie

Royale
model, and
style.
officiallyapproved court

the

in

paint

of the

students

teach

to

was

chief aim

The

work.

draw,

to

was
a rightreserved
Drawing from a live model
for the royal academy, and its artistic monopoly

extended
that

to

even

the
had

engravings

of

area

to

printmaking, so
the

carry

notice

cum

inscriptionis found in
Sebastien Le Clerc's engravingof 1700 (Fig.15),
he shows
in which
ideal academy of fine
an
and sciences. Colbert had seen
that through
arts
all forms
such officially
sponsored academies
roi. This

du
privilege

could

of culture

king.The

the

harnessed

Clerc

Le

ideals of

of the
and

be

vision is

an

the

aims

of

enactment

concerned

were

joining visual arts with the liberal arts.

engraving,small groups of teachers and
students are
disposed throughout a courtyard
and
arcades of an academicallyapproved style
with

In the

of

architecture

based

upon

of

precepts

the

antiquity.In this splendid

students are
setting,
being instructed in natural
science, perspective,astronomy,
geography,
palm reading,heraldry, architecture,painting,
ancient
drawing from
sculpture,measuring
dents
buildings,mechanics, and theology.The stuRenaissance

and

and

instructors

shown

are

in

ancient

if Le
Clerc were
as
reconstructing
mythical academy from antiquity,but
he was
also showing an academician's
likely

costume,
some

very

distaste for contemporary

The
of
costume.
art
for subjects,
antiquityset the norm
postures,

figuretype,
In

did listen
with

and

dress.

actuality,students
lectures

to

regard

to

decorum
conduct

at

the Academie

art

(the

Royale

theory, particularly

perspective,
anatomy,
proper

proportion,
and

appearance
of paintedfigures),
drawing, and

Canons,
established
based

on

and

upon

or

definite rules,of

Collection.

14

position.
com-

allowed

were

in

work

to

Rome

for

four years and to send back to France copiesof

Roman
When
art.
by satisfactorily
completing
various
rank

tests

student

finallyachieved

of academician, he

ally himself

with

could

still choose

the
to

of painters
company
assured of royalpatronage.

some

in

and he was
a town,
Art continued
in the seventeenth
centuries
of

and eighteenth
and the
hereditaryprofession,
academicians
were
given preferential
be

to

of various

treatment

kinds

they entered

when

their formal

schooling.
In the eighteenthcentury the authoritarian
rule of the Academie
Royale by the king was
relaxed. Despitea subsequentdecline in power,
after
1750
the French
the
academy became
basis for similar academies
sponsoredby royalty
of bringing art
throughout Europe, as a means
into its service and
improving the economy.
upon

Craftsmen
the

from

as

well

artists could

as

artistic training,
based

same

model

of

drawing from other

casts, and
finallyfrom

on

benefit from
the

French

drawings, then
the

live model.

of
greater accessibility
education
of improving their
art
a
means
as
productsand stimulatingtrade. Free-tuition art
schools and other schools dedicated
only to the
crafts emerged in the eighteenthcentury. The
French
royal academy did not undergo serious
alteration in its make-up until the time of the
Business

interests

saw

Revolution, when

its concept

of

art

in

the

the
challenged.From
in its
time
of the academy's founding and
artists continued, in
subsequent history,
young
service of the

medieval

state

was

of their profashion, to learn much

fession
letter
from whom
master
a
artists,

from

were

taught.Often the lectures were

analysis of officially
approved

Le
Clerc.
Figure. 15. Sebastien
of the Fine Arts and Sciences.
Private
1 700. Engraving,91/2x i4'/8".

Academy

art

students

sons

Alberti, Ghiberti,

Leonardo,

earlier artists who

other

to

paintingsand sculpture,thereby anticipating

the modern
After four
teachingof art history.
years of schoolingin the academy and successful
of examinations, the more
promising
passage

requiredas part
requirements.
was

of the academic

admission

As had

taken

placein sixteenth-century
Italy,
started
from
were
vate
priartists' studios in the eighteenthcentury.
In
the
official auspices of the
contrast
to
European royal academies, those in England
were
private schools, with studies centered
drawing from the live model. Artists in
upon
academies

English art

allied

Holland, though

the

to

the greatest

old

independence and
security of any European
"

French

academicians

often

who

issuingfrom
in

the

easel

who

sixteenth

for
of

first art

dealers

more

as

the

modern

artist who

basis

of

sources

is

be

to

depicts a

found

in

on

in

pendent
inde-

an

the

century

of their

century
were

decline

many
size of many

reasons

Beaux-Arts

in

to

talent

alliance

of

with
the

also

the

as

the Ecole

des

continues

today,
Royale) ; the

instruction,which

were

impersonal,too old-fashioned,or
the development of young
artists
and
Moreover, the
originality.

the

academies, be it formal

conservative

antipathyof

and

was

importance. There
this change: the large

Academic
of

greatest
academies

in

(which

the

methods

felt to be too

with

Paris
to

and

inimical

for

in art

academies, such

successor

routine

many

its apparatus
of art did not

forces
political

artists.Academic
for

or

direct,
in-

aroused

training
selling

exhibitingand
ideals
change with the new
of individualism
that were
sweeping Europe in
effective
did it make
nineteenth-century
art, nor
provisionfor exhibition and sale of work by
thousands
of painters
and sculptors
to the newly
expanding middle-class market.
works

Gros,

shown

drawing

the

series

paintings,one
changes in the

of Baron
Musee

Gros.

1830.

Marmottan,

the

when

(Fig.16),
school

of students

group

of
are

female

model
posed in
sculptureor drawing
wall are displayedthe palette
of the painterJacques Louis
a

ancient

school

David

Masse

private art

from

an

plasterbust

Baron
forced

was

Gros
to

had

taken

flee France

for

tion
reasons.
political
During the French RevoluDavid, though a product of the Academic,
had attacked
its leadership,
curbed
drastically
its powers, and liberalized the opportunities
for
artists to exhibit under its auspices.
David
and
Baron
Gros, like other important nineteenthin reality
the
continued
century artist-teachers,
ship
relationmaster
long-established
artist-pupil
but

introduced

into

their studio

schools

teaching methods
such

as

emies,
they derived from the acadin drawing from master
courses

drawings, casts, and the live model. Instead of

found in the
a
as
facultyof several instructors,
academies, the artist himself guided his pupils.
The
the source
of many
privateart school was
and
early-twenticthimportant nineteenthas
Manet,
painters, such
Degas,
century
Toulouse-Lautrec, and

Matisse.

possibleself-portrait
by the French painter
Gericault
Theodore
(Fig.17) shows the artist
alone in his studio,flanked by a plaster
model of
used for studyinganatomy,
his palette,
a figure
A

artist

skull. The

inactive,reflective pose of the

Diirer's Melencolia, the
of the artist who
work
must
alone,

suggests, like

dilemma
a

On

the

in which

of

manner

over

and

INDEPENDENCE
In

in

Baron

and

the

saw

this

Studio

artist named

an

scene

David, whose
nineteenth

and
enrollment
proliferation
throughout Europe; yet

as

first,
by

of Venus.

wider-

seventeenth-centurv

Holland.
The

The

33*/2X39%".

Paris.

The

works

in

patronage

Masse.

canvas,

international

century.)Thus, the precedent

is, conditions
encouraging the rise

that

"

on

middle-class

seventeenth

"

Figure i6.
Oil

to

or

appeared in the
professionthey

and

numerous

base

small-scale

studios

broad

but

century,

became

of their

out

missions
com-

patronage

narrow

served

(The

for lucrative

circumscribed,

painterssold

paintingseither

clientele.

the

Dutch

court,

dealers

worked

grandiose, but

cial
least finan-

artists. Unlike

"

and

guilds, had

the

of

guided by his own

genius,achieving freedom
nineteenth-century French
of the significant but also sufferingfrom
can
see
some
indecision,doubt, or
visions. In
France
unattainable
well
as
as
historyand status of the artist.
Introduction:

The

Artist's Past

Training and

Status

15

from

others, often throughtheir suffering,

and
right,those who
support the artist,
includingwriters such as the poet Baudelaire,
his patron, and other friends. Literally
and
the

at

the
symbolically,

middle
heart
a

artist situates himself in the

of his world; he is the fulcrum, the
and creative center
of modern
As
society.

student,he had studied

young

of the

branch

of the studio

at

provincial

academy, and in the background

be seen
can
hanging a figureof

St. Sebastian,
indicative of the art-school milieu
problems.For several years he had worked

and

under the inspiration

of literature and from his
in the tradition of older artists.
imagination,
But in this paintinghe shows himself painting
with nature, like the
from memory,
a landscape
nude
model
behind
him, servingas
standing
Gericault.
Portrait
In a letter to some
Studio (Self-portrait?). his inspiration.
prospective
of many
canvas,
4'9y8''x3'8i/g". students,Courbet voiced the feelings

Figure 17. Theodore

of an Artist in His
c.

Oil

1810-12.

on

Louvre, Paris.

the

Germany,

artistsof his century and

Romantic

new

for its free sion

expresthat the artist had to work outside

meant

the academic

still work

genius could
the guildsystem.

1855, Gustave

In

pictureentitled

not

was

that determined

Courbet

effectively

painteda large

Studio,A Real Allegory

of

The

the Last Seven Tears

this work

for Diirer the

whereas
tradition,

artist of
within

of

concept

the need

artisticgeniusand

ofMy Life(Fig.18).Because
acceptedby the officialjury

who

would

in the

show

great

Courbet borrowed
annual exhibitions,
or Salons,
exhibit in
to present the firstone-man
money
art

His
history.

of what
he

type of

is
painting
art

he had

worked, but it also

place in society.Unlike
does

show

not

home

of
to

come

his

his work.
at

the

He

himself

at

court

or

in the

even

of society
patron; representatives

studio,to

seek

divides them

those who
left,

are

Gustave
Courbet.
The
Studio,
A
Real Allegoryof the
Last Seven Years of My
Life.1855. Oil on canvas,

Figure 18.

"

manifesto

only
givenup and of how
conveyed the artist's
Velazquez,Courbet
not

1 1 '9%
X 1 9 '6%
Louvre, Paris.

"
.

out

into

the
two

mercenary

artist and
groups
or

"

gain

of

our

own

teach my art, nor the art of any school,

art is
deny that art can be taught
completelyindividual,and that talent of each
and
artistisbut the result of his own
inspiration
I cannot

since I

his

own

studyof past tradition.

[1861].

of the important independent

For many
artists,
nineteenth-century
personalstudyin the
where

museum,

would
upon

could

theyfreelychose the works they

insistence
copy, replacedthe academic
steadfast focus on
the antique.They
a
not

laws,or regulations
accept the definitions,

academy but insisted instead upon

in art. Some older
personal
empirical
experience
Delacroix
and
such as
independent artists,
Ingres,had largegroups of formal students;
others,such as Corot and Pissarro,had quite
informal
but
intimate teachingrelationships
with younger painters.
(Pissarrolearned from
Cezanne
from
for example.)
and
Corot,
Pissarro,
In France the old guildor master-apprentice
of the

instruction in

craft had

died

out

with

the

Revolution

and

Compagnie

de

craft

learn

to

with

dissolution

the

St-Luc.

techniquesfrom
Degas spent a

themselves, and
the absence

of

the

Thereafter, artists had

other

each

lifetime

of this older tradition

yet

or
by
regretting
constantly

experimentingwith various media on his own.

With the Impressionists,
mutual
stimulation by
the

artists in the form

studio

served

to

further

artists that
Baccio

artist's education

the

back

go

Bandinelli

cafe discussions,

jointpaintingoutings

fact,continuations

in

were,

of informal

and
visits,

at

of

least
his

and

and

practices
among
the

to

time

of

evening drawing
Monet
paintingin

sessions. Renoir's

pictureof
record of how
garden (Fig.19) is but one
serious independent artistsworked
togetherand
directlyfrom nature, rather than through the
theories and plaster
intermediaryof academic
a

the

France,
much

nineteenth

the

Auguste

Garden

Renoir.

Monet

Argenteuil.1873. Oil on
Hartford,
42".WadsworthAtheneum,

at

to fillthe

breach

patronage.

especiallyin

century,

critic and

art

the

caused

of the serious artist from

state

19%

canvas,

His

Connecticut.

casts.

In

Pierre

Paintingin

the

Writers

dealer

art

did

by the separation
academy and from

such

Baudelaire

as

exhibitions of academic
on
only commented
work
but
they also criticized or praised the
and
independent artists. The critic's
younger
not

role has

continued

century,

as

and

buying public but

themselves.

The

increased

influence

an
on

the

great

not

work

market

in the

of

the

presents
and

artists

paintings

of the middle
developedwith the prosperity
in nineteenth-century
France, England,
Germany, and the United States led to a revival
of art deahng in the late 1850s, and
through
this development artists such
the Impresas
sionists
able to reach the publicand eventuwere
ally
class

was

nineteenth

began
create

artist

that

and

writers

early
artists

of the artist
proclaim the sovereignty
absence
of any
obligationto
his work
for the pubhc welfare. Down

to

taken

for

commission

Revolution

granted that
and

serve

and

David,

artists would

the

Church

work
or

the

cardinal,when called upon.

the Renaissance, only those on the craftsmen

state,
In

century

the time of the French

it was
on

the young

his art, the

over

to

great lure for both

princeor

produced or reproduced their work lor the

the greatest figures
such as
generalpublic;even
themselves
and
achieved
Michelangelo and Raphael worked
personal freedom
only on
In the seventeenth
commission.
through their art is related to another modern
century only
men
phenomenon, that of young
relinquishing the NeapolitanpainterSalvator Rosa declared
for
their training
artistic independence in
or
practicein law, medicine, and
Italy. Dutch
in largequantityfor
business professions
artists produced paintings
into
themselves
to convert
artists. (Monet, Manet, Degas, Gauguin, and
unknown
or
potentialbuyers,but they geared
the
market
in
the most
notable
to
van
Gogh are, of course,
by specializing
portraits,
stilllifes,
examples.)
landscapes,
pictures.
genre, or animal
The
last great artist who
and
critic
The
art dealer, museum
official,
willinglydevoted
have replacedthe old guildsin determiningthe
his talents to the service of his government
died in
on
a
Delacroix, who
market, quality,and priceof a work of art in
large scale was
1863.
modern
times. The
public'srecognitionthat
will be said
paintingsand sculptureby good artists can
(At the end of this book, more
about
the sociological
increase in monetary value and the example of
positionof the artist in
artists such
as
van
neglected the recent past.)
Gogh who were
support

nonacademicallytrained

The

neophyte collector.
in the
late eighteenth and

the

It

the

that

themselves.

lifetime by the generalpublichave

own
speculationand to widespread and avid
and
purchasing of the works of both known
unknown
artists. Acquisition
of art today constitutes
international business and
a
large-scale
led to

tieth
twen-

only on
for

in their

of
emergence
artists who
supported

Introduction:

The

level

Artist's Past

Training and

Status

17

ART

AS

MATTER

LIFE

the world,
Throughout
of civilization
the

from

to

made

for many

art

but

it has

for

beauty

and

beauty
Stone

Age

Pacific

in

do

have

the

of which

the

sculpture

was

practical

the

adherence

illustrated

for

variety

of

works.

creativity which
individuality and
"

understand

that

making

these

the

artist

originality
"

in the

was

despite

creator,

18

has

many

the

make

societies
art

absence

of

served

and
of such

aged
encour-

this

esteemed
a

word

cultural

art

distinguishes
of

In

our

with

life and

well-being

as

well

control

natural,

us,

the
less
time-

the

some

ways

still

most

is intended
of many

phases

intervene
was

Anthropologists
African

to

and

of

is

and

art

for

secure

trary
(Con-

magic is
good.)

for

societies,

assisting men

whether
in

and

Oceanic

chapter
seriously
magical

hereafter.

environment,

art

was

intended

vital function

Magical

this

it

Whether

death.
was

late

as

to

in

are

and

Thus

in

art

conception,

and

science.

we

links

past

is that

this life and

in

the

their

to
or

found

the

is in

the

"black," and

performed

events.

art

popular
not

early

that

beauty

came.

clay

own

this

symbolic,

"white,"

brought,

that

fact

is

cannot

art.

that

involved
or

they

whom

work
we

context

of

or

restriction

While

life,the

to

of unification

by

What
from

art

mean

in

from

purpose

to

it difficult

which

discussed

recognized
the

to

of

ritual

as

whose

artists

chapter.

the

works

cannot

views

come

the

of
felt

not

was

by their quality and

only superficially,with

men

sophisticated

Contemporary

for

of

and

with

which

example,

conventions
art

this

in

fully re-create

peoples

Latin

for

of

creativity by

on

if

societies

as

the

to

forms

previous

moved

South

and

purposes

rich

form

the

Mexico

made,
the

for

DEATH

AND

of style and
in
of a wide
subject matter
range
and
period.
particular region, social group,
societies
to
tradition,
strongly committed

that, contrary

survives,

art

of

art

explain

as

and

views, these

the

only

alone

chapter

guages
lan-

nonliterate

among

shown

has

Western

pre-Columbian

the

written

as

appreciation of artistic quality

in
importance of the artist. Even

America,

to

required
peoples

strong

the

cultures

symbolic

virtually universal

are

Africa

in

years

long-standing
of

and

or

In

desire

specific words

research

peoples
recent

to

and

and

however,

had

both

Field

concepts.

need

rudimentary

art, but

have

men

religiouspurposes,

some

not,

have

not

may

beginnings

efficacy.Nonliterate
with

those

as

and

Magical

have

art

for their

beauty

as

well.

as

of

purposes

well

social
satisfied

always

the

present,

OF

the

human

of

course

primitive

man's

historians

cultures

that

have

this

'

Paleolithic

Figure 20.
type of

art

was

an

Cave

Painting,c.

agent of control

30,000-10,000

those

over

Chinese
the

to

is sufficient to

museum

real is what

is familiar

constantlyshaken
example. In art we

imitation
But
and
in

of nature's

by
tend

the

notion

verifiable

or

is

remind

held

commonly

modern
to

the

interacted with

equate

the

literal

The

with

appearance

an

beliefs
own

or

social

involves

art

to

deriving

customs

settingthe

that

say

it takes time

and

respond
culture

ART

confront
from

different

latter aside. The

of the

prehistoric
period
and

30,000

10,000

about

15,000

matched

by

dates
the

art

itself.Because

to

assist the
extent

some

old.

years

one's

was

ago.

cave

problems
there

difficulties in providing

The

for

of

are

paintings are
interpretingthe

no

he
archaeologist,
upon

cautious

written
must

study

records

rely
of

to

those

whom
art has
primitivetribes of today among
or
magical basis. More direct data
religious
of
are
investigations
suppliedby archaeological
the floor strata near
the cave
paintings,of the
location of art within underground chambers,

patheticallya
sym-

initial

years

at Lascaux
paintingsin the French cave
(Fig.20; PI. 3),for instance,are estimated to be

exact

religious
from

art

between

The

their environment.

the past,

to

one's own."

known

created

or

film about

is

FERTILITY

approach art of the past with tolerance

and
understanding involves a suspension of
disbelief. Just as when
in a
absorbed
we
are
or

of

science, for

To

book

or

the

senses

form for
concepts which men
Art givesus a historyof how men
have

themselves.

Aztec,

shock. But, in the words

late

differs from

reality.
like the vicissitudes of philosophy
art history,
that reality
science,is in itself a reminder
the past and
lectual
intelpresent depends upon
models

reader

that

by

be

which

historyand art we learn that there are

for beauty and
reality;both are
and
susceptibleto change. A visit

of this. Our

of African, Oceanic,
can

experienceto perceive,internalize and

to the aesthetic values of peoples whose

absolutes

man-made

art

(Dordogne), France.

distinguishedanthropologistMelville
breeds appreHerskovits, "In art, familiarity
ciation,

in life.
From

Lascaux

confrontation

could not govern

thingsmen
fullyby themselves,
such things as rain, the growth of crops, the
fecundityof animal supply, health, childbirth,
what
or
might in general be termed "success"

no

b.c.

Art

as

Matter

of Life and

Death

19

of what

depict, and
paintings themselves
anything had been done to the

the

of whether

not

or

tribal

of
images as
part
ventilation, absence

the

deepest

in which

caves

Lascaux

is found

suggest

devoted

not

all factors that

are

daily

to

and

that

at

immediately
sanctuaries

as

habitation

human

esthetic

that

poor
of

as

but

to

not

was

primary intent of their artists. Many of the

painted animals, such as the bison, deer, horses,
that constituted

cows

the

artist's repertory

supply, arc

to

found

be

inaccessible

nearly
Some

locations

the

and

principalstapleof
his

of

in

both

tribe's

food

accessible

and

places within

the

from

remote

are

The

the

also

and

or

blown

on

were

concept

for

artist, and

also have

animal.

of the

It

main

purposes

from

been

painted

rock

several

these subterranean

ceilings

hundreds

of

of

painted
and
engraved images have been superimposed
in the same
area
a
practice suggesting that
there were
privilegedor sacred spots in which
grottoes,

"

locate

to

There

but

that the purpose

general agreement
of prehistoricart
the
was
magical, in that
in
some
representation of the animals
way
partook of the reality of the beasts themselves.
of the type
Further
definition
of magic or
the
of the images remains
of controuse
matter
versy
a
in
sites
archaeologists.Found
among
other
than
Lascaux
are
images that show
is

unmistakable

horses, which
been

same

the

their

the

power

animals, however,

and

all the

the

It is impossibleto
without

realized

and

them

walls.

which
hand

his

in

he
to

the artist
as

depended
quality of

hunter,

had
to
rely upon
provide his food.

paintings
20

at

keenness

Many

Purposes of

Art

the

It is

evoked

he

Lascaux

as

then
a

it should

conjecture

emblematic

were

location

about

and

drew,

natural
be
the

other

of each

lines

or

that

base

an

for

stressed,
presence

groups

surface

the

upon

Ground

least

at

groupings

dispersal of

extent

wall.

as

possiblethat a certain
animal
an
image in the

shelf served

Again,

known,
such

The

over-all

some

in

that

suggests

we

were

never

rock

tion
forma-

mind

of the

outcrop
the

or

figures.

may

of esthetic

only
intent

caves.

face

of

of the

reflect

Lascaux

to

ment
arrange-

of eye

thetic
es-

that

the

of his
an

the

tation
confron-

training
activityin

hands

tion
artistic tradi-

gained part
a

paintings
intrinsic

living rock

mature

have

may

if the latter

episodes,even
and

time

same

ritualistic in character.

animal

at

the

and

reindeer

The
figure sculpture is rare.
famous
Venus of Willendorf (Fig. 21), an
object
less than
in height, is probably one
5 inches
of the
oldest
to
sculptures made
promote
come
fertility.
Support for this conjecture must
wholly from the suggestive proportions of the
the
feminine
figure,which
exaggerate
ductive
reprothe
of the
areas
body and minimize

cave

their

at

to

seem

seemingly painted

form, devices

rudimentary

and
or

first

the back-to-back

or

prehistoricpainting

Stone

skill of the

rough

suggest

experience

healthy,
painting of
designed to

been

these

at

the

the

on

They

in which

from

look

with

of

supply.

being impressed by
value

cave

have

Most

and

gravid. The

may

tribe's food

meant

quarn,.

intact

are

are

animals

pregnant
assure

females

the

over

and

have
artist may
animal
than one

the

more

animals

styleand

same

artist which

ensure

most

seen

simultaneously.The

largebulls

of

the hunters'
to

legs of

the

be

of the

that

show

to

area

drawn.

were

view

perhaps

plan or consistency,
brings into focus

no

those

as

suggest

attempting

the

in

signs of having been defaced

by
pointed instruments, as if by sympathetic magic
cave

difficult

important

so

at

may

with

examination

series, such

of different

in the sacred

side view
a

hind

"

to

were

"

Lascaux

closer

art.

rituals

animal

for
cave

frontal

and

and

rendered.

entrance

wall

the

the

side that

the

of the

of

bone.

visual,and

body

from

was

features

magical

of

the

the

meant

have

some

shredded

hollow

characteristic

and
require arduous
climbing, crawling, and
obtain
to
squeezing through narrow
apertures
uncomfortable
glimpses of the paintings and

engravings. On

with

predominance of the
Foreshortening was

the

magical, loss

for

caves.

the

animals.

distinctive

through

of the

would

substances,

gummy

scraped on

repainted from time to time,

epochs the prevailing taste was

brown.

or

configurationof the
and
modeling.
and
ground minerals
color

with

either

certain

the

from

bound

been

Animals
in

their

have

bone

the

to

to

made

paint,

charcoal
may

only

but

paintings is

Lascaux

ornamentation

the

and

animals

red

perhaps to worship.
glance at the walls of

casual

indicates

The

dampness

such

art

prehistoricpurpose

specialrites
Even

rituals.

light, and

of

not
sensitivity

and

chrome
polygreat

and

Age

(The

arms,

breasts.) Judged

thin

rest

arms

the

across

against anthropological

of what

women

may

have

constructions
re-

looked

__-^.^**,^

^'".4^

?"*/"

Figure 21.
period, c.
4%".

Ve?ius

Paleolithic

of Willendorf.
Upper

30,000-10,000
Naturhistorisches

B.C.

Museum,

Limestone,

Idol, from the Cyclades Islands. Early

period,c. 2600-1 100 b.c. Marble, height
The City Art Museum,
St. Louis, Missouri.
15^/ig".

Figure

Vienna.

like

anywhere from 12,000 to 15,000 years ago,

not
seem
sculptor'sbodily emphasis may
of the
too
great, and the nattiral configuration
small stone
have
aided or suggested the
may
final shaping of the figure.The
small
scale

sculpturesvarying in size from a few inches to

feet in height (Fig.22). The
Cyclades
finds provide the oldest known
life-size nudes.
The
female
figures,usually represented with
the abdomen,
folded across
arms
are
possiblyto
be identified with a fertility
and mother
goddess
known
Mediterranean
throughout the eastern

the

several

allows it to be held in the hand; but this isabout

all that

be said concerning its originaluse.

can
making of fertility
images has been a
prising
global phenomenon, which should not be surin view of the fundamental
importance
of reproductionto all peoples.In some
tions
civilizamust
lacking written records, we
rely
the location in which
the art object is
upon
found
to give us
clue to its use.
On
the
some
ranean,
Cyclades Islands,north of Crete in the MediterThe

all

from
which

2600

that
to

1100

survives

of their

b.c.

stone

are

archaeologistshave

world

this time.

at

As

as

many

dozen

such

in a singlegrave.
found
sculptureswere
of
a
placing
fertility
image in a grave
in many
surprisingor uncommon
parts

world.

While

Cycladic
in

the

we

admire

now

figuresfor

third

efficacyfor

aiid

the

their

second

needs

and

exhibit

The
is

not

of the
these

sculpturalbeauty,
millenniums

of the

deceased

their burial

inhabitants

their
caused

underground.
Cycladic figures,
usuallyreferred to as idols,
of the body,
are
uniformly frontal presentations

tombs, from

obtained

22.

Helladic

height

marble

Art

as

Matter

of Life and

Death

21

Above:

Figure

Childbirth,

height

Aztec
Tlazolteotl,

23.

a.d.

1500
Si/g".Dumbarton
c.

oi"

Goddess

ApUte with
garnets,
Oaks, Washington, D.C.

Right:Figure 24.
Tangaroa,Polynesian God of the
Ocean
(sea god creating other gods and man). i8th
wood
closed at back
with
or
19th century. Hollow
British Museum,
London.
lid, height 44%". The

and

their

surfaces

show
sophisticatedshaping
rubbing, probably by hand as

by scraping and
well

as

with

tools. Portions

of the

body

protrude, such as the nose, breasts, and

were
shaped in relief,and a knife
used

was

the

to

body.

On

it is evident
marble
various

etch

the

the
that

outlines

basis of certain
at

least

both

on

the

were

face and

dead,

that

pose

makes

the

finds,

painted in
the body,

arms

appropriate.
One

of the

about

1500

powerful sculpturesof birth,

most

probably made

in the

A.D.,

great Valley of Mexico

served

the

Aztec

religion.

er
Tlazolteotl,the goddessof childbirth and "Mothof God,"
of Aztec
squats in the manner
Indian
maize

women

as

she

(Fig. 23). The

figure has

green-stone

22

brings forth
sculptor of
chosen

Purposes of

Art

to

the

god

this
show

teeth

at

the

particularlyviolent people, whose

white-

folded

her

men,
abdo-

thus supplying certain features omitted

by the
the
fact that
sculptor in his modeling. The
stand by themselves
sculpturescannot
probably
that they were
laid on
their backs like
means
the

baring

which

parts of

of the

as

child emerges,
that the
so
of birth is not
concealed.
The

blade

of these

some

figure sculptures
colors

of other

goddess

of

male

or

Aztecs

violence
were

priestswore
to
the skins of sacrificial victims
perform the
rites of this mother
goddess.The sculpturemay
ing
also have
signifieda calendar change, indicatthe birth of a specialtime period that the
emerging male figureperhaps personified.
The
god
all-powerfulcreator
concept of an
or
spiritarose
long before the Judaeo-Christian
forbade
God
first worshiped. Some
was
religions
the making of an image of their most
important
god; this proscriptionhas been generally true
in African
cults and, variously, according to
beliefs.
Jewish, Moslem, and Christian religious
unusual
works
of art giving
One
of the most
form
to
a
ture
deity is also a unique sculpsupreme
from
Carved
its geographical area.
time
somenineteenth
in the eighteenth or
century
on

one

Pacific

small

the

the

moment

pain

to

of

the

Austral

Islands

in

the

South

roa,
figureof Tangapale hardwood
sea
god
(Fig.24).According
Polynesian
was

the

tradition, at

the

time

when

the

world

was

Dance
Headdress
with
Left:Figure 25. Nimba
Carrying Yoke, from Guinea
(Baga, Simo Society).
The Museum
19th century (?).Wood, heightdfiV^"of Primitive
Above:

Wood,

Art, New

Figure
height

26.

York.

Akuaba,

Pepease

10".

Ashanti-style Doll.
Village, Kwanu,

Ghana.

in

chaos, Tangaroa

Although
god, the
a

committed

created
to

unknown

artist

human

gods and men.

figurefor his

made

great flat circular form, which

of the rest
of the
expanses
evoked
associations with the

of

the

largeshoulder

head

like the smooth

body

may
The

is covered

sea.
god is
that
seem
to
giving birth to creatures
rise out
of his body through its surface. Just as
they take their form from Tangaroa, by their
own
to define his features,
placement they seem
being located where the god's eyes, nose, and
mouth
would
be. The
sculptureis hollow, and
not
only are there figurescarved on its back, but
other
small
figuresare found inside. The male
attributes of the Polynesiansupreme
are
genitals
is amazing about
god's creative power. What
this sculptureis that it was
in a geogramade
phical
where
the figuraltradition was
area,
not
strong. Until some
precedentfor it is discovered,
this work
apparentlycontradicts the generalization
in primitiveart that the sculptorinvariably

worked

from

Along
French

the

some

Guinea,

the

west

coast

of

Africa

Baga peoples employ

while

the

as

nimba

as

tion
protec-

the
(Fig.25). When
body of the wearer

the

raffia dress, and

women

dance

around

it. The

probably relates to the

is a
tribal hairdress. The
large,protruding nose
on
not
being worn
fertility
symbol. When
ceremonial
occasions, the nimba is placed in a
and
hut at a crossroads
set off by trees, where
it serves
as
protection for the village.It is
possiblethat the nimba represents the wife of
the cult
whom
Simo, the great spiritfrom
takes its name.
Along with the nose, the swelling
profileof the nimba in general may also allude
and fecundity.
to ripeness
As protectionfor the pregnant
mother, to
ensure
a
good birth and a perfectchild, the
small wooden
Ashanti
use
a
peoples of Ghana
in
in type but variable
figurethat is constant
the
lower
of
details (Fig.26).The
sculpture
part
raised

prototype.

Atlantic

known

the carved
by
headpiece itselfrests on the shoulders. Members
of a secret
the Simo
as
societyknown
society
in cereentrusted
with carrying the mask
monies
are

have

shown

'

mask

for pregnant women

mask
is being worn,

in
a

Art

as

ridgeon

Matter

the head

of Life and

Death

23

is formed

like

charm.

The

hand

grip,and

it was

face

is in

form

the

carried
of

as

disk,

around
the edge
stylized hair rendered
the back, and indications of the eyes

with
and

on

and

nose

by

mouth

is

below

and
thin incision,

for the chin. There

nob

in relief. The

carved

are

marked
be

is

there may
formal
vague

Cycladic sculptured heads,

which
are
more
pointedlyoval, but no possible
connection. The ringedneck is attached
stylistic
resemblance

to

back

the

face

to

of the head

is allowed

body, reduced

that the disk of the

so

forward.
slightly

to

slant

to

minimal

indications

The
of the

breasts
and torso, ends just below
the navel.
Studies of the Ashanti
peopleshelp us to account
for the

ringsof

tions of the

the

neck, which

schematiza-

are

rolls of fat considered

them. The Ashanti

among
of their newborn
children

desirable

also

shape the heads

to develop
artificially
broad
receding foreheads, thereby enhancing,
in their eyes, beauty.

FACES

MYRIAD

THE
OF

THE

and

other

in use, were
not
shrined
enimportant masks, when
cult objects,kept out
as
of sight,or
often destroyed. Although we
tend to think of
the variety possiblein human
features as
depending upon individual differences evident
in livingpersons, primitivemasks
that are
not
likenesses of the livingmanifest a comparable
rich variety.In addition,they demonstrate
the
to
strong emotion and imaginationcalled upon
make
these supernaturalforces tangibleand
impressivein the eyes of their tribes.
More
than in our
so
societyof today, masks
have had long and notable histories of fulfilling
serious and
functions
varied
for the
living.
Besides dealingspecifically
with religious
life,
they have been regarded as important agents
for good by helping to guarantee social order,
of crops and herds, health, victoryin
fertility

battle,and desirable solutions to various other

crises in life,
well as to maintain
as
a
general
the living
and the dead and
equilibriumamong
the spirit
world. Despite the great number
of
masks in museums
and privatecollections and
the appreciable
study and writingdone on their
purposes,
know

MASK

not

mind
masquerade partiesreof what
face mask
is
us
a
happens when
It permits us to assume
worn.
a
new
identity
emanating from the character of the mask

itself. For
for

some

wearers,

castingoff inhibitions
These

becoming

some

ways
the

Figure

bility.
responsi-

Britain.

related

by

to

the various

mask

throughout the
Age cultures. Among tribal

societies in Africa,the Northwest

and

peoples of

became
of

and

the

South

stillbecomes

Coast Indians,
Pacific,the mask
the symbol or locus

supernatural forces. The

the

mask

acts

directives attributed

or

authorityof

performed by
to

it carry

the

That
or
particular
spirit
power.
face mask
alone can
a
embody supernatural
without
presentingthe entire figure,is
power,
explainablebecause of the widespread belief
that the head
is the prime residence of such
When

power.

mask

movement

fulfillits proper
dancer
as
part of a
to

by

see

masks
of

is necessary

hanging on museum
their original
purpose.
14

for

the

function, it is worn
ritual. Therefore,

Purposesof

walls

In

Art

most

to

is a distortion
societies

is still

their

are

in

great deal that

important and
the

Museum

use,

Owl
27.
Cane
and

Mask,
bark

fiir Volkerkunde,

we

from

and

put

groups
to

memories
and

do

complex

field,among

stillbeingmade

depends on the
of tribe members
interpretations

occasion

of having fun, of
possibilities
being and playing a new

served
purposes
in Stone
world

ritual

and

another
in

role, are

masks

where

this is the
social

about

Research

usages.

Halloween

there

on

Baining,

uine
gen-

and
how

New

cloth, height 3i34"Basel.

ilii'

G3

C
C
V

"

"

O
CO

feJ

in

a
"J

"

w
z

h
H

"

"

fc

Above:

Figure

Mask,

from

The

Museum

Senufo

"Fire

Coast.

Ivory

with

Man

29.

Wearing
from

Costume,

central

(Nebunyonkaa

Village),Ivory
Museum,
Antwerp.

much

information

Spitter"Helmet
length 35%".

Wood,
Art, New

of Primitive

Right:Figure
Mask

28.

the

York.

Double

Helmet

Senufo

Coast.

region

The

graphic
Ethno-

be

kept secret. Aside from

they continue to
play in many
parts of the world, generalizations
about masks
are
extremelydifficult to formulate.
The
followingselection of masks offers a meager
sampling not only of the manifold
purposes
in
but
also of the infinite ways
they serve
which
and
decorated.
they have been made
full well that
Tribal
masks
are
peoples know
paid for,what they are made
of, and that they
the vital

are

must

and
religious

carved

and

social role

by members

worn

tribes. This

knowledge

weaken

drama

the

yet this is

not

the

or
case.

would

potency
Mask

in secret, the rituals attended

and

the

own

likelyto

of the

making

done

mask

of their
seem

is

with

masks;
usually

respect,

mask

made

from

cane

and

bark

cloth

is used

give supernatural protection to children

(Fig.27).Only the eyes obviouslyrelate to our
real experience of an
owl, but learning to
recognize all that is meaningful in the art
of this tribal societywould
mean
learningtheir
formal
that
(visual)language in the same
way
would
their
verbal
one
to
master
try
language.
to

The

owl

of the

natural

world

has

been

lated
assimi-

transmuted

by, certain artistic

and
tribal conventions
compounded of symbols
and decoration.
be taught that
(Children must
this is an
owl.) The
radicallyasymmetrical
of the face is most
structure
disturbingin the
light of our
acquaintance with any type of
into,

or

bearer

accustomed
to
are
we
to art in which
head; nor
generally considered
have
off his previous identity.
resemblance
features
cast
to
or
only a minimal
Wearing a
mask
the
is not a license to shed social responsibility, structure
is sufficient to conjure effectively
of an
animal
other performers in
human.
or
however, and dancers
or
a
presence
"Fire Spitter"helmet
the rites are
The
masks made
ventions
carefullytrained to observe conby the
Senufo
tribes of the Ivory Coast
have
several
and general
governing their movements
mien. By wearing a mask, a tribal member
animal
of which
relates to
takes
derivations, none
their actual
The
and
different
on
a
more
long-horned, openimportant social
purpose.
from the
and
he shares magically in the
responsibility,
jawed head with tusks (Fig.28) comes
of the spirit
force he represents.
water
or
buffalo, the wart
hog, the antelope,and
power
the crocodile. Hornbill
birds symbolizing fertilThere
ity
are
having a
many
types of masks
the
the horns. The
On
island
of New
protective function.
perch between
jaws
open
Britain, off the coast of New
a
Guinea, an owl
generously fitted with teeth help to create

Art

as

Matter

of Life and

Death

25

"^"n-'m

Mask, from northern

Figure 30.
Egu Orumamu
c.
Nigeria (eastern Igala Tribe). Carved
1940.
Wood, height 23". Museum
Jos, Nigeria.

Figure 31.

ferocious

This transition
sculpture.
easilyfrom an example
of a mask
that had played a dominant
role in
the civil proceduresof a Nigerian tribe presently
On
of many
one
undergoing Westernization.
field trips to Nigeria, the art
historian
Roy
Sieber studied the purposes
of Egu Orumamu,

apparition,for the mask is intented

inspirefear. The "Fire Spitter"performs the
function
of driving off or
destroying "soul
Its sacred
character
is enforced
eating" spirits.
by the scrupulous treatment
given it by the
to

secret-societymember
hidden

behind

Brought

forth

are

made

to

or

Believed
he

has

is

is

zontally
hori-

worn

that the

jaws

and

parallelto the ground. Sacrifices are

to
its good
ensure
villagers
mask

also blows

mask,

mask
so

who

(Fig. 29).

garment

it by the

will. The
and

it and

wears

night,the

at

top of the head

on

horns

who

sacklike

calls

wearer

brandishes
have

to

fused

his

the

about

jaws
his

wearer

burning

As

can

in

also walk
other

many

to

the

Western
some

widespread conversion of
rehgionsand legalsystems
world
of which

26

has

created

arise

from

Purposes of

or

its extensive

York.

Art, New

more

of

masks,"

use

as

eastern

his studies

showing

of social

agent

an

the

among

Igala peoples (Fig.30). In

control,

he wrote:
Its power
apparently is derived
and it oversees
the general

of the

Certain
village.

sit

civil offenses.

on

women.

children

The

or

send

had
water

among

instance,
pertinent.
.

of murder

and

his minions

gotten

supply in

mask

beautiful African
even

the

for

petty

who

Orumamu

more

tors
ances-

could

supervise the

tribes

power

Orumamu

cases

the

Orumamu
(hidden in a hut)
of the
complaints and arguments
usually of a financial nature.
.

arbitrated

of

problems,
the

to

is its judicialrole in

of the modem

loss of

related

are

from

well-beingof

of its appearances,
agriculture.More

of the

areas

African

serious

Art

"chief

the

or

Mali

4.'%". The

height

in

be understood

Africa, the "Fire Spitter" is used for varied

functions,such as initiation rites for secret societies,
funerals,and agricultural
ceremonies.
The

of Primitive

previouslyinvested

can

person.
because

superhuman powers,
being with the demon

mask, the mask

coals.

them

Museum

Figure,from

Ancestor

incantations

out

sparks through

Bambara

District).Wood,

(Bougouni

to

trouble

in

times of

or

to

shortage

illustrated is not
masks

punish

by our

others of its tribe

"

one

of the

standards
but

"

questions

beauty

of

secondary

were

described

functions

of

Some

the

carvings used

most

striking African

animal

in

ing
ensur-

made

those

rites for

rain,

soil,ample

fertilityof the
crops are
Bambara

in the

and

Coast

good

Sudan

western

by

faces

carvings represent
female
antelope
curved

from

given

horns

space,

and

that

return
ducted
con-

elegant
What

and

from

seen

in

is carved
Both
of

grace

seems

the

combative

the

into

are

the

In

of

areas

many

secret

are

themselves,

of

versions

miniature

Africa, there

within

that,

comprise

life itself. These

tribal

which
functions,
perform various
from
to
maintaining the social order
range
protecting the tribe against unfriendly demons.
roles of the
Both
are
Ekpo secret society of the
in southwestern
Ibibio
Nigeria (Fig. 32). In
the face is reconof the finest Ekpo masks
structed
one
in a menacing
to
form, as a reminder

societies

nonmembers

of

the

which

spiritswith

is looked

how

the

artist

not

only

as

variations
or

of

basic
and

guided their
an
produced
within

the

sculpture,we

as

the
and

nose,

of

echoes
form.

recession

If

Their
"

and

shapes

mouth

but

another's

one

as

form,

configuration
"

vertical

see

can

various

trusion
pro-

alignment

carving and
proportion and
emphatic
rhythmic sequence
compactness

of

the

comes
menacing quality of the mask
from its battery of sharp teeth,which
because
the jaw portion is hinged

movement

the

society is concerned.

conceived

eyes,

and

at

of

character

hostile

the

this head

and

revelation

four

from

dances

were

their wearers,

thus

(PI. 4).

revelations

such
various

animal

or

The

human

motifs
colors

often derived
are

strong

from
and

animals
the

color

cessive
cleanly shaped, changing with each sucrevelation within
mask.
a
single movable

Kwakiutl

mask

illustrated

belonged

to

equivalent of a witch doctor, who

believed
to possess
to
supernatural powers
of
to perform feats of magic. By means
or
mask
he
or
spirit.
impersonated a demon
an

artibrary schematizing

an

the

societies

was

The

served.
pre-

of repeated
antelope into a succession
results from
modeling sculpture
rhythmic curves
after other
more
sculpture than after nature.
of

The

heal

nature

animal

areas

birds.

shaman,

are

elaborate

an

and

America.

representations.These
and
were
beautifully carved
painted,
into their hinging.
exceptional craft went
tribal
designs were
part of a clan and
to

repertory, with

all

masks

and
The

the

extravagantly

extend

mane

pattern.

the

male

be

to

or

masks

distance, the

some

the

openwork

former

three

their

distinguished by
and
straighthorns

are

Intended

latter.

and

sides

and

for the

horns

the

and

masks

some

masks
west
North-

particularlydelighted
masks, which
during

within
fashioning masks
performances
opened by stringspulled by
creating a type of dramatic

heads

are

North

ceremonial

bird

dances

the

both

of
tribes

masks, their

privilegedperformers, who
of
movements
antelopes. The

the

imitate

other

possible,ranging

Upon

costumes.

Indians

and

by the

made

were

were

the

around

for

red

villages, offeringsand

the

to

fiber

with

bodies

with

covered

are

parts

in

In

of

spectacular examples

most

moving

Kwakiutl

people (Fig. 31). Prior to the rainy

men
belonging to agriculturalsocieties
season,
have
antelope headpieces
prepared the carved
then
and
begin their rites in the dried fields.
Their

The
with

headdresses

as

guardian

the

to

above.

during rituals.

The

head.
in

part

are

visible

to

permit

of the
Ibibio
Mask
(worn by member
Figure 32.
Nigeria.
Ekpo secret
society),from southwestern
Wood,
hinged jaw, height 12". Lindenmuseiim,
Stuttgart.

Figure 33.
Tomb

from
Painting,

Wall

'"^'

(view of south

of Nakht

walls),c. 1422-1411

B.C.

Thebes.

from
Wall Painting,
261.
B.C.
c.
1500
291/2X4i^''. Thebes.

Figure 34.
Tomb

Figure 35. A
Seated Beforea

Priest at Memphis
Table of Offerings,

from Tomb
of Ra-hetep at Meydum. Fourth dynasty,
c. 2600 B.C.
Wall relief The British Museum,
London.

28

The

nonnaturalistic

of the
these

color and

facial features

supernatural forces.
Coast

tribes

social ostentation,an
for their elaborate

ART
Created
of

for

to

these

evoke

west
North-

of competitive
that accounts

visual

THE

FOR

reshaping

form

attitude

design and

thousands

the

Art

conscious

was

drastic

calculated

were

brilliance.

DEAD

of years

after the execution

paintings at Lascaux, the tomb

ferent
paintingsof ancient Egypt present a very difkind of wall painting one
that, despite
its situation, was
nevertheless
employed for
of sustaining life. The
ftinction of
purposes
Egyptian tomb
painting and wall reliefs was
the wants
of the deceased in the hereafter,
to serve
cave

"

to

his second

prevent

thirst and
with

the

from

to

Thebes,
and

the

from

hving (Figs.33-35).In

surveyed, or
at

death

his comfort

ensure

we

food

far left

deceased
activities

and

see

well-run

else the

crops

or

Vessel
of
the
Figure 36. Shang Ceremonial
Type (two horned owls back to back). Chinese,
I4th-I2th centuries B.C. Bronze, height qM,". The
Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.

link him

Yu

wall

painting
estate
being

measured

vested,
har-

or

production being recorded;

the standing figuresof the

are

his wife, for whose

were

starvation

and

undertaken.

benefit

As

these

was

tremendous

deceased

step in civiUzation's

their murals,

we

the diflFerences between

societies of the

cave

gain

an

the tribal
era

and

as

way

The

is

useful

always inactive, a passive observer of typical

is
earthlypursuits.Depiction of unique events
in Egyptian art. In all the cultures menrare
tioned
in this chapter,death meant
a change of
status, not oblivion. In Egypt over
5,000 years
of painting and
ago, the change to the use
of objects, animate
sculpture or of models
beings, and crops, instead of burying servants
and
animals
with
the deceased
and
taking
badly needed food from the livingfor his wants,
Through

in the

the

paintings,the human
figures,
are
disposed in such a
their most
to preserve
recognizableand
features. The
human
figures,as is also
cave

objects,and

in

seen

the

animals

combine
reliefs,

frontal

eye

in

profilehead, a frontal view of the shoulders, a

three-quarterview of the midriff,and a profile
view
of the legs.Except for some
occasional
overlapping,Egyptian art furthers no illusion
of depth. To
render
that would
a
largerscene
normally be perceived as existing in depth,
the Egyptians and
ancient
artists used
most
that
vertical zones,
so
no
action, figure,or
object would be diminished
through overlap or

advance.

because

insightinto
food-hunting

of its greater distance

from

the

viewer.

intended
for the
not
Egyptian funerary art was
critical eye of the living,
however, but solelyfor

hierarchical

the welfare

food-gatheringcultures of the Nile Valley.

Setting aside its illuminatingsubject matter
for the moment,
that the formal organizawe
see
tion
of the Egyptian wall into clear, accurately
divided zones, terminatingat the sides,top, and

Chinese

Ritual

is to

one

of the dead

than

to

afterlife.

Bronzes.

In

ancient

the

art

that

judge by

greater attention
dead

in the

the

may

have

has

been

China, if
survived,

paid

to

the

As in Africa, Egypt, and

living.

bottom

of departed ancestors
of the wall in strong borders, is in itself
was
Rome, veneration
considered
sign of a highlyorganized society.
Moreover,
important for the successful conduct
of life. Sacred
rituals using specialobjectswere
The surface on
ground lines support the figures.
which the paintinghas been done was
rain
and
good harvests.
artificially performed to ensure
and
made
ceremonial
vessels (Fig.
Ornamented
bronze
artists
carefully prepared. The
worked
faithfullyfrom
36) dating from the Shang period in the second
preexisting art and
codes
held offerings
of food and drink
the efficacyof their work.
millennium
to
ensure
B.C.
a

Art

as

Matter

of Life and

Death

29

and
ancestral spirits
performed by the king
for

plates,rank

communion

used

civilization. When
vessel

the

might

deceased

history of
ancestor,
of the

name

clan, along with

of

beautiful

most

the inscribed

that

of

of bronze

than

More

equivalent

the

propitiatean

to

bear

his

or

the

with

castings in the

bronze

finished

and

sacrifices

aristocracy. These

accessories

ritual

vessels,as

in

used

were

and

the

ritual

fiftytypes
employed for such functions as the
objectswere
Besides
preparation and servingof food offerings.
function
of linking the ruler
their ceremonial
in tombs
and
aristocracy, these objects found
donor.

considered

be

may

of

in the

vow

ex-votos,

as

of

form

for

Although they lasted

practicallynothing is
rituals.

Their

intent

tribe. Bronze

material, and

the

objects.After

many

beautiful

from

in

Their

mythical

deceased

as

and

and

his

semiprecious
aristocratic

were

they have acquired

surface
film
resulting

hues

ranging
Both

green,

shape and
probably symbolic
that

powers

motifs

from

their

were

and

are

frequently derive

real animals

and

included

donor

the

Shang

centuries

concepts

unknown.

the

years,

the

have

4:0

seems

yellow, and blue to red.

complex ornamentation
of

of

upon
ritual vessels

patina,

exposure,

departed.

thousand

looked

was

the

known

of
assuring the resurrection
of
the vitalityand
fertility

fulfillments

or

giftsto

birds

and

now

from

dragons,

"

bufTaloes, snakes,
bulls,tigers,elephants,water
few.
a
deer, rams,
owls, and cicadas, to name
Each

motif

had

various

vessel

the

For

to

more

design, the

more

instance,

the

the total

owl

connected

with

while

pheasant

the

earth.

search
often

the
broke
had

in

Used

employed
the

to

associations

or
potencies
magical force of the
ferocious
or
terrifyingthe
effective the protectiveforce.

that contributed

meet

ritual

the

to

seems

sun
was

and

heavenly

related

combinations,
for

to

these

fire,

mother

symbols

diflferent needs.
vessels

been

have

motifs,

we
we

find

vidual
indior
only vestigesof the whole
distinguishingfeatures incorporated into
elaborate
bronzeworker
designs. The
up

bodies

into

parts,

or

fused

them,

or

another
in a
growing out of one
As in African
highly imaginative manner.
art,
the original motifs
were
greatly transformed
but did not necessarilylose their potency. The
decorators
filled compulsively
seemed
to
have
inch of surface, often using for filler areas
every
abstract
referred
an
the
to
as
spiral form

Purposes

of Art

lip,were

or

at

times

converted

as

into

animal

masklike
or
forms, heightening the
of the object.The
mystical nature
shape of the
Shang vessel illustrated here is derived from the
of two
eagle owls set back to back.
appearance
Frequently,as in this vessel,there appears to be
hierarchical
a
dispositionof forms in size and
which
relief,
of the

alluded

beliefs from

or

Haniwa

so-called

"Great

from

third

the

have

may

myths

Japanese

the

to

which

structure

they

came.

the
Futierarji
Sculpture.In
(or Yamato) period,

Burial"
the

to

seventh

of

century

our

protohistoric Japanese society placed

small-scale
clay funerary sculpture in the
era,

tumuli,
buried
few

burial

or

clan

of which

in

mounds,

lords and
remain

emperors.
with their

surrounded
intact, were
aerial view, they are

by

were

mounds,

sculpturecontent
from

moats;

to

seen

which

These

have

an

keyhole

the
humane,
shape. It seems
possible that
"standof ceramic
economically prudent use
ins" for human
the
beings and animals to serve
needs

of the deceased

ruler may

have

from

come

immolation
Egypt, human
had at one
time been
practiced.
Far from being gloomy and funereal in mood,
this Japanese haniwa
broad
a
sculpture shows
of lively expressionsand
gestures despite
range
its purpose.
the
dense
formal
Lacking are
and
involved
designs
cryptic symbols of the
Chinese
of the
ritual objects.Little is known
Burial"
period,
rehgious beliefs of the "Great

China, where,

which

as

ended

in

with

the

seventh-century advent

practices.The art
objects and
styles that produced the haniwa
the Shang ritual vessel impress upon us, however,
and
attitudes
their
makers'
divergent tastes
of Buddhism

In

and

life and
the

the

and

hollow

comes

"

were

and

tumulus

cremation

death.

third

unglazed
haniwa

fourth

"

the
By about
animal, object, and
set

were

arranged
the

in

mounds.

sixth

century,

architectural

atop many
elaborate
These

centuries, low-fired

which
clay cylinders from
into the ground around
set
filled with
offeringsfor the

dead.

forms

30

pattern." Parts of the vessel,such

handle

toward

were

When

"thunder
the

of these

groupings
objects were

human,

tions
representa-

cylinders and
on

the

and

near

property

their burials to serve

dead, placed near
eternally.At the top of the mound,
the
burial
chamber
and
the
directly above
sarcophagus, was placed a haniwa replicaof the
of the
them

naive

to

and

but

us,

seventh

detailed

the

the

reverse,

in

can

dead

be

The

burial

city

sites
of Monte

From

graves

clay

urns

known
with

Haniwa

Figure 37.
300-600

Horse

Terra

A.D.

cotta,

Bloomington.

University,

deceased's

house,

house, there

in

added

were

human

(Fig. 37)

horse

aristocratic

mounted.

The

cylinders.
these

Detail

other

clear, and
an

varied
of

such

The

beings
punched
the

horses.

as

out

awesome

Such

eyes

in
of

ready

as

in

of

design

the

horse

simple,

be

recognizable

In

because

part

this art
of the

haniwa
the
and

credulity

be

to

minimum

intentionally
to

as

most

was

frankly shaped
to

the

was

quickly,

quality.

about

so

and

distance.

worked

human

simply
up

strong

appreciable

sculptors

kept

was

objects

are

ian
guardestates.

subject
it

and
and

legs

and

earthly

favored

saddled

horse's

clay objects,

and

ruler's

was

the
and

houses, granaries,

symbol,

status

shown

frequently

the

manent
per-

periods

attendants,

figures, all recalling

around

successive

of other

clay replicas

The

with

place. Gradually,

livestock, weapons,

an

him

providing

thus

dwelhng
mounds,

(tomb figure).Japanese,
height 38". Indiana

has

from
the

fresh

those

horse, hke

sculpture,

were

clay. Legends
lifelike
may

grew

character
seem

and

of

merely

the

in
whose

elaborately
wear

elaborate

near

ornaments.

of these

fortified
Oaxaca.

have

urns

fired

come

contents

feathered
Unlike

Urn.

not

are

are

adorned

figures, probably

Funerary
38.
Zapotec
height
25 '/2"- Collection
Mexico
Armila,
City.

Figure
Clay,

important

present-day

vicinity

haniwa

of southern

and

center

original
molded

the

had

peoples

magnificent

the

service

the

as

culture

religious

Some

was

than

in

period

Zapotec

this

horse

rather

Ceramics

Alban,

ing
establish-

to

legends testify.

Zapotec
in

with

sculptors

living

art,

same

the

(Fig. 38).

who

and

in

the

sixth

the

haniwa

The
of

terms

Urns.

from

found

Mexico.

the

essential

Japanese

^apotec Funerary

of

unacquainted

art,

identity.

at

old

as

viewer

information

horse's

looked

of the

the

naturalistic

provided
then

for

centuries,

gods,

headdresses
the

c.

Sra.

relatively

1000

Machida

a.d.

simple haniwa
that

which

figures,the Zapotec
is

illustrated

probably as a reflection
A
priesthood and monarchy.

ceremony,

the

surmounts

sensitivityto
capacity to

headdress.
the

With

such

urn

rank

stresses

of

ful
power-

large

great

as

and

bird

skill and

pliabilityof clay and

firing,the artist

withstand

its
was

able

to
accouterments
as
jade
suggest such
throned
enearrings,bells, beads, and
thongs. The
god holds an incense bag in his left
hand.
Building up these small forms into an

that

aggregate

added

without
notable

is widest

support

at

the

from

top

the

back

and
was

yet
a

feat. The

frontal and symmetrical

rigidly
of the seated figure is a quite universal
pose
for the deity,found in many
treatment
religions
having a highly dogmatic and authoritarian

character.
Skull Guardians.
The
of sculptureas
use
as
guardians of the dead was
widespread as the
Tomb
making of ritual funerary objects.
ians
guardin the
form
of human
or
supernatural
figuresand animals have been found as far east
Bakota

as

China.

In

Africa, the Bakota

Bakota
Left: Figure 39.
French
Equatorial Africa.

tribes have

for

from
Guardian,
igth-20th centuries.
covered
with copper
and
Wood
brass, height 30".
The
Ethnographic Collection, University of Zurich.

Cult House
with Malanggan Style Masks, from
Figure 40.
Medina, northwestern
wood, bamboo,
leaves, 8'xi6';
figures representing ancestors,
pakn, and croton
of wood
fiir Volkerkunde, Basel.
painted with oil and earth color. Museum

32

Purposes of

Art

Skull

New
totem

Ireland.

House

birds, and

of

fish,

There

is also

questionof whether
figureis a schematic

lower part of the

of the arms
and

torso

the

dances

attached

below

in

buried
of

container

the

carried

to

frame

wooden

importance,since

material

in

this

metal

ers.)
performof

brass

indication of

is not

The

area.

the

made
an

"

face is

in ceremonial

by

guardian figureis

the

ground along

skulls,but

it is sometimes
The

its

be

to

the

representation
contraction for the

legs.(The part

intended
with

is

or

not

or

common

surviving

many

Bakota

tion
grave guardiansshow a decided variain the treatment
of the face,with the older

naturalistic.Some

examplesbeingmore
refer
the

to

the

head

horizontal

as

while

moon,

Bakotas

surmounting

crescent

others

call it

headdress;the panelsflankingthe central oval

have

been

described

of the face.
out,
While

Art, New

York.

cheeks

or

pointed

and

ments
orna-

inspiredthese lateral shapes.

originalmeaning of the guardian
have

the

figuremay
day tribe

tions
continua-

as

however, that tribal hairdos

may

Figure 41. Malanggan Pole (memorial festival

Ireland.
with shark),fi-om New
figure,ancestor
19th century (?). Wood, paint, sea-snail shell
of Primitive
opercula,height6'%". The Museum

as

have
Archaeologists

be

and

lost

its

or

obscure

what
artists,

to

the present-

is

is
significant

the past
value given to continuitywith
of what
has proved to be an
throughrepetition
of
for the dead. Tolerance
effective protection

the

deviation from

norm

in this Bakota

art

allows

to
artistto imparthis own
interpretation
gifted
the conventional theme as long as an accepted
is preserved.
resemblance
to itstribal model
a

remaking variations on a basic

tied to a container
figurethat is literally
of human
skulls (Fig.39).Just as the
of this skull guardian has been
configuration
altered within
general limits by successive
the oral tradition from which its
so
generations,
meaning is known has undergone change.One
is that this is a mother
goddess
interpretation
who
the dead; another, that the
reignsover
figuredefends the livingfrom an evil spirit.
centuries been

designof

New

Ireland

Ireland

Art.
Funerary

lie east

of New

The

islands of New

Guinea, which

in turn

Every year from May

deceased and
to July,the rites for the recently
for ancestors
long dead are performed in New
Ireland. These rituals and the accompanying
dances and art forms are
known, collectively,
as
40-42).Every year the art
malanggan(Figs.
isjustnorth of Australia.

Boat (figures
ting
represenFigure42. MalangganSpirit
Ireland. Wood
from New
deceased ancestors),
painted,length ig'G".Lindenmuseum, Stuttgart.

the

Although
works

is

human

from

repertory

which

the

artist

general (sea life,snakes, birds,

and

form,

the

decorative

patterns) and
there are
of the malangset meanings, many
no
gan
works do commemorate
individuals,
specific
and

are
generalized biographies of them
the polesand reUefs. (With their
on
of the
during the ritual,the name
appearance
deceased
is called out, and
he is mourned.)
who
Clan
members
at
are
specialists
making
these objectswork
under
the scrutinyof elders
in secret
fenced off to keep out
placesor areas

summarized

and

women

New

children.

Ireland

of materials
artists in

artists

employ
probably any

than

Africa

Oceania.

or

wider

variety

other

group
Characteristic

of

of

their

is
style is a desire for splendor, which
largelyby brilliant polychrome applied
in small, clearlydelimited
and in strong
areas
juxtaposition.Often the sculpturesare carved
from
of small
constructed
are
logs,but some
pieces of wood, shells,bark, roots, fruit rind,
and precifeathers,or bits of cloth. Great care
sion
of
goes into the joineryof the parts. Many
the sculptureshave a sohd core
that appears
to
work.
framebe suspended within
a
or
open
cage
The great ornamental
poleswere
probably

achieved

Left: Figure 43. Ancestral Skull, from

Middle
Sepik River, New Guinea. Face
clay,

of

eyes

shells.

cypraea

Melanesia,
modeled

in

Ubersee-Museum,

Bremen.

Right: Figjure 44.

Ife King,

from

Wunmonije,
Bronze, crown
partlypainted to represent carnelian beads, height
London.
i^Vi". The British Museum,
Nigeria,

be renewed,

must
are

I2th-i4th

c.

for when

the malanggan rites

masks, poles, reliefs,and

the

completed

centuries.

of dead
kings that were
destroyed or sold. The
purpose
is ostensiblyto offer memorials
statues

but

it does

appear
is intended

employed
please the dead. As
clans made
prestige,
villageswho have a
themselves

upon

that

not

to

of

to

of

sculpture
or

take

it

ritual

elaborate
so
to
are
as
objects,which
require
months
of preparation.The
malanggan rites
furnish
annual
occasions
for achieving unity
the clan members, both livingand dead.
among
To

prevent

clans,each
and
exact
next.

and

loss of face

tries

to

outdo

in

the

eyes

the other

of other

in the skill

beauty of the objects,and there is no

repetitionof motifs from one year to the
Each clan has its own
symbols and designs,
the artists are
urged to elaborate upon or

re-create

their

34

works

within

Purposes of

these

Art

from

seen

all sides,since every

given over

to

ing,
pattern-

lost its

have

original
symbolic meaning. As public testimony to his
the malangganritual objectsare
much
as
a
skill,
tribute to the hving artist as to the honored
deceased

fact that

"

The
anthropologists.
in

the

and

rituals has

has

confirmed

been

by
malanggan

of

appearance

psychologicaleffects
participationby the
Nonetheless, while serving religious

stimulates

strong

emotional

ends, they also evoke

strong esthetic response.

different

these

re-create

and

be

to

square inch of surface is

of which
much
may

audience.

even

pride

ancestry

common

rites

ancestors,

from

men

all

are

the

the

matter

up

of

influence

to

used

intended

traditions.

Mew

Guinea

Ancestor

Skulls.

the

actual

skulls of the deceased

abodes
been

Sepik River,

(Fig.43).
cleaned

modeled

the

Ornamentation
possible.
appropriate to his social
Shells
These

was

are

sometimes

embellished

mannequins
before

the

women

dead

and

used
skulls

rank

and

to

similar
while

often
like

tribe during

to

alive.

replace the

are

manipulated
of the

closely
designs

as

man

is added, in

by the deceased

worn

employ
spirit

for ancestor

the skull, after it has

dried, clay is applied and

as

what

Guinea,

New
tribes

Over

and
resemble

to

In

certain

along

set

eyes.

atop

puppets

fertility

and

in Oceania

rituals. Both

Africa, ancestor

Bernard

with
fertihtyrites,on the
worship is hnked
that
members
the
dead
are
sympathetic
premise
Since

tribe's increase.

the

to

it is beheved

that

of food
sustenance, offerings
skull.
to the ancestor

stillneed

the

dead

are

also made

is the behef

there

Oceania,

Africa

Sculpture.In

African Ancestor

that

the

in

as

livingare

can
by the dead and that ancestors
role in the continuinglife of
play a significant
the tribe. African
ancestor
figuresare symbols
abodes of the deceased. It is the hope
and spirit
and his patrons that the sculpture
of the carver
will pleasehim by its fine
for an ancestor
made
"beautiful"
and
are
("good"
quality
mous
synonyin many
tribes)and that the markings,

surrounded

coiffure,and
will

make

or

these

statues

which

the

within

their

on

is believed

carved

placed on

both

in life and
as

To

it

human

from

the

knew

in

forms

culture

Ife,in Nigeria,which

of

monarchical

and

system

and

naturalistic appearance

pyramidal

ideal of

an

(Fig.44). Probably dating

classical composure
the
from
between

twelfth

fourteenth

and

(or the equivalentof the medieval

in

Europe preceding the

heads
were

to

However,

nature.

survived
ficent
magnistructure, there have
bronze
heads and figuresof royaltythat

social

have

high

aggressive,

little resemblance

bear

to

animal

or

of

friendly.
is intenselyreal, even

their art

seems

than

rather

such
cast

as

of

in bronze

commemorations

strong

that

an

and

of the

Renaissance

in

turies
cen-

period
Italy),

chief,
supreme
presumably served as

Oni,

dead

doubt, expressedby

its counterpart

in

have
chin may
Whether

hair.

striations

covering the face

for insertion of

been
or
are

not

the

related

vertical
to

actual

scarification

We
can
practiceis not known.
only speculatethat these bronze effigies,
too,
served as spirit
to be placed
dwellingsand were
in shrines
The

or

honored

Ife heads

locations.

reachlydraw

our
appreciation
beauty because the physicalsubject
is in itself handsome.
rendered
naturalistically
Ancestor figures
such as those of the Baoule tribe,
the other hand, derive their beauty in the eyes
on
of those sympatheticwith African art from the
visual rightness
of the rhythms and proportions

of their

of the

parts

as

seen

in

relation

to

the

whole

selves,
(Fig.45).In the eyes of the Baoule themhowever, the large head and elongated
the navel, and
the
torso, the emphasis upon

work

short

legs all correspond to ideals

beauty prescribed for
figure.Again, the head is stressed

squat

and

of
an
as

ling
dweleyes

considered

are

and
or

ancestor

head, as the seat of power

acterized
death, and the faces are char-

benign

mouth

beads

their
upon
behalf with the

slits. Stress is

have

has

discussed in ChapEuropean ruler portraits,

ter
12, "Images of Authority.") The Ife king is
shown
wearing the appropriate plumed and
beaded
and the perforations
around
the
crown,

correctness

see, the

to

of naturafism

context

"lobbyists,"by

the

ancestors

Africans

when

it also

the ancestor

able

figuresmay

often

because

this

living call

intervene

to

as

Because
appropriatespirits.
these

evoke

surrogate for the livingwith the

controlUng hfe. Sieber refers
powers

of

means

to

sculptureexpress

ancestral

ancestors

seek

ancestor

respect for the dead, but

or

constitutes

that

only does

veneration

to

as

his

ceremonies

Not

forces

butes
attri-

ancestor

dwellingplace.The ancestor
accessible through his
his power
thence passed on
to those attending

and
effigy,
it during
power.

the

recognized by

appropriatefor
can

individual

tribal and

other

be

Fagg of the British Museum, that these

individuals.
portraitlikenesses of specific
(This degree of idealization within a

actual

were

or

ruler. There

experts such

is
as

the
Ancestor
Figure, from
Figure 45. Baoule
Ivory Coast. Early 20th century. Wood, height
The
1 61/2"UniversityMuseum, Philadelphia.

Figure
from

the

Asmar.

Marble,

Cult

46.
Abu
c.

Statues,

Temple,

2700-2500
height of

Tell
B.C.

tallest

figure c. 30". The Oriental

of
Institute, University
Chicago.

Below:

the

Guatemala

and

Stone
Figure 47. Mayan
Relief, from
(lintelfrom house "G," ancient Maya
ceremonial
Menche
at
center
[Yaxchilan] ; worshiper
kneeling before double-headed
serpent deity)
680
British Museum,
A.D.
c.
Height 4'2y2"- The

of

seat

powers

London.

physicaltypes
are

both

power

emphasizing
of

in life and

navel

and

varied

show
but

not

in

death;

phallus

Studies
fertility.

in Africa

tremendously

often

the

of

firms
con-

ethnic

only that they

also that

there

is

correspondence between
sculptural
and human
proportion in various regions.The
Baoule
figurebears the stylizedheaddress and
scarification marks
appropriate to this tribe.
The
as
immobility of the figureis conditioned
much
to
of motion
the
by the irrelevance
ancestor
portrayal as by the fact that it was
carved directlyfrom a round
log,with perhaps
some
thought to preservingits natural quality.
lence,
Connoisseurship,or the discrimination of excelin African
sculpture is similar to that
hundreds
of
for any
other
art.
Only when
from
are
a
patiently
sculptures
given region
outsider
examined
can
an
begin to grasp why
tribal
carvers

some

members
above

THE

esteem

the

work

of

certain

others.

QODS'

EPIPHANY

the
In contrast
to
widespread utilization of
sculpture for the well-being of the dead, as
of
already discussed, a third-millennium
group
cult statues
(Fig.46) from the site of Tell Asmar 1
with
shows
the
early Mesopotamian concern
found
buried
statues
the living.These
were
the altar of a shrine and
near
originallywere
the altar itself. Of
undoubtedly arranged on
this originaldispositionconsisted is not
what

Figure

Stonehenge

48.

(aerialview

from

the northeast),

shire,
SalisburyPlain, Wilt1800England, c.
Diameter

B.C.

1400

97'; height of
i3y2'-

known.

What

ancient

world

is

unique

is that

Mesopotamia

to

these

the one
hand, a god and
other, a priestand human

in the

of the

ing
trancelike

worshipers,with

Central

America

In

our

was

gods' epiphany
New
divine

(The
some

The

Year's
were

probably

man,

believed

the

at

human

the great
and the

tallest

plants,and

his left,is the

front and
slightlyto the right of
prises
priest,and the congregation comthe remaining figures.
As alter-images of
the real congregation and
priest,these figures
devotion
and worthiness
attest
to their subjects'
their gods. The
to confront
mystical
awesome,
of Abu
is starklyrealized by the sculpnature
tor's
magnification of his eyes and by his
black

posture. The

beard

and

and
versatility

immobile

with

altar before which,

or

the
oflTerings,

mortal

of

is the

"bituminous

throne

to

carved blocks at the top are segments

intricately
the Mayan
calendar, thus possiblylinking
of
the epiphany of the god to a certain time
rate
dense, shallow carving,in its elaboyear. The
styleand symbolic content, indicates that

mother

goddess. In
Abu

human-

worshiper
visionary conception, the

this
a

in

century of

figurekneels. He is bent backward, looking up

at the
menacing spear held by the god. The
reference to impending blood-lettingis specific
and
is related to Mayan
rituals. The
religious

their life force. The

obtain

figure,to

In

spiritual,

doorway

relief showing

Mayan

outstretched

arms

figure,about 30 inches high, is

of Vegetation,from whom
men,

animals

tallest

above

during the seventh

serpent god appearing

(Fig. 47).

in closest communion.

to be

the

to

figures.
block

stone

serpent rises from

of the gods and

ritual cups in the hands
of the worshiperssuggest this.)

Abu, the Lord

second

to

festival when

era

headed

ways

on

suited

was

of the

state

Carved

the

confrontation.
groups presentedin mutual
the
such as this,art magically enacted

two

body

include, on
goddess and, on the
statues

of circle
monoliths

religiousrites and the tradition of

carving had a long previous existence
fluence
later to inboth were
the Maya; and
and artists.
Aztec priests

both

the

stone

among

frontal

PRECINCTS

SACRED

of
expressiveness

of the
in his treatment
sculptoris shown
face. The
quietecstasy suggestedin the priest's
whole
and their
vividness of the sculptures
as
a
forceful
from
a
strength of design come
the

schematization

of the

human

form

into

example

Another

manifested,

or

of how

of its gods in relation

most
metrical the
geoearliest

shapes. The assemblage of the body

parts is additive in principleand does not show
organic integration.(Try to visualize the
figuresin movement.) Such inorganicstructur-

between

Art

as

about

sacred

now

extinct culture

epiphany
perhaps

the

its calendar

to

is

of civilization's
spectacular.One
built
surviving sacred precinctswas

near

The

accommodated,

Matter

1800

and

1400

at

B.C.

henge,
Stone-

Salisbury, England (Figs.48, 49).

enclosure

of Life and

is

ringed by

Death

37

320-foot

of certain

basis

the

and

sun

annual

The

religiouspurposes.

by

risingsand settingsof
conceivably it served

and

moon,

could

years

be

charted

of posts in the outerring holes, the

of the month
by the intervals between the

means

days
inner

first day of the

directlyabove the
for someone
sunstone
ter
standingin the exact cenof Stonehenge. On
a
straightline running
from
southwest
the
through the
sunstone,
the
no
longer existing gate and
precinct's
the
solstice,

is

center,
December

of Stone-

Figure 49.
Conjectural Reconstruction
henge after the Final Rebuilding, c.
(Drawing by Alan Sorell.)

B.C.

1400

ditch

gate and

within

embankment,

and

which

large concentric circles of upright

and
holes. Within
ritual pits,or stone
stones
these are
two
horseshoe-shapedseries of upright
built over
These
stones.
were
a
rings,which
have at one
time surrounded
long period,may
set

are

two

wooden

shrine.

vertical stones
to

fit the

To

the

is

circle and

and

gate
the

horizontal

connected

it

to

"sunstone."

the

the

and

innermost

horseshoe

In

entrance.

is

aerial
of

center

the

circle, thereby creating

approach

cut

place.

by a causeway,
Originally, a

between

stood

in

in

feet from

two

"

stone

remain

"

(lower right
250

so-called

the

wooden

of the circle

northeast

trilithons

of the

topped by

curve

photograph), over
the

few

the

center

conjecturallyreferred to as the
ring of white patches seen

"altar
near

stone."
rounding
sur-

the

use

of

computers,

that

was

able

to

astronomical
an
Stonehenge was
holes in the outer
observatory.The
fifty-six
of the
ring are equated with the three eclipses
The
lunar
moon
fifty-six
ecUpse
every
years.
The
takes place exactly over
the sunstone.
the
layout of Stonehenge was
computed on
38

Purposes of

Art

the

the death

built

Stonehenge

On

winter

solstice

is

which

the

of life and
identified

was

What

or
people
astonishing

tribe
The

known.

not

fading

certain ancient

connotations

sun.

the

great occasion

the

had

of the

with

exactness

been

funeraryrites. In
door

with

massive

stones

are

oriented

(itis possiblethat in their original

complete state they divided the year into four
parts),coupled with the skill and organization
needed
for quarrying,transporting,
cutting,and
telligence
erecting them, indicates a high level of inand social organization.
Thus, early in human
historya plot of earth
marked
off and
endowed
with
was
a
special
symbolic

of
embankment
consists
fifty-six
is also a
of
use
matter
pits,whose
In ancient times,holes in the ground
conjecture.
often considered
world
were
openings to the underused as depositaries
for offerings
and were
to spirits
of the netherworld.
of
The
orientation
Stonehenge probably
givesa clue to its symbolic purpose. Recently a
Boston
Professor Hawkins,
Universityastronomer.
with

death, and

order

shallow

show

the

cultures

spectacleof

the

have

may

for ceremonial

of the

the

trilithon.

central

great

faced

then

This

formal

slab that is

thin stone

The

sunstone
a

the

the

rises

sun

stice,
22, the first day of the winter solthe settingsun
is framed
by this trilithon.
On
this date, the congregationand priests
may
have entered the precinctthrough the northeast

sun.

quarry

uprights.On

stone

summer

that

himself
in

this

and

the

from

area

as

have

"savagery"

often
to

Unk

that

between

and

with

practiceof setting aside

buildingsand rituals
We

The

Stonehenge is
continuing
gious
holy ground for reli-

world,
spirit

consistent

sense

wilderness.

strongly intimates

this sacred

used

man

it apart

set

orientation

the

in East

attributed

societies of which

and

West.

ignorance
we

and

ourselves

science,
largely ignorant. But modern
of the
scholarship,and
growing awareness
ramifications of art are
causing us to reevaluate
whose
works
Stone
and
Bronze
are
Age man,
representedin this chapter.While archaeologists
bones and stones, to comprehend
excavate
can
are

the mind

that created

far

complex

more

and

and

made

use

difficult task.

of art

is

Through

can
rediscovery and study of their art, we
meaningfully begin to perceive the humanity,
the good and
evil,of entire civilizations that
from us in time, place,and attitudes.
remote
are

IMAQES

of

history
The
have
made
the

history of

painting
own

No

served

by

the

visual

in

the

intelligible the
sculptured
the
to

focus
the

of

Greek

minds

cities, for

their

defense.

form

also

of

The

of

act

of

coming

finished
with

man

guide

the

believe

images

of

with

rehgious

of art

moved

by

transcends

them.
time

is the
in

as

and

form

so

human
many

has

time

with

the

to

of their

religious
attempts

truth

of

learn

how

elastic

which

has

how

flexible
the

accepted

find

potential

such
is the

religiousart

out

thermore,
Fur-

represented
divergent

human

mind

which

full of conviction

being real, or

learning

to

in its

been

the

miss

of

existence.

accommodate

to

ways

is to

art

experience

body,
and

which

creation.

considering only

of

value

also

provided
base

to

and

follows

sincerity.

APOLLO
On

or
were

need

we

inspired
Christ

and

gratificationwith

their

art

Their

give

that

supernatural.

and

esthetic

or

concepts,

the

that

oneself

content

visual

the

that
produced
fully appreciate

cannot

the

at

to

can

with

painting

or

gesture

which
upon
of his Hfe. Today

To

received

were

we

men's
to

sculpture

emotions

and

wonder,

awe,

they

gave

material

recourse

the

we

sympathize

or

and
original concepts
this sacred
imagery, we

and

was

ensure

curiosity and

religions
Apollo, Buddha,

works

to

ethic

the

and

it also

in

share

equally rewarding
about
significant human

The

god

with

god

and
a

terms

of

of the

honorific

an

to

work

conduct
in

making

visible

impressed
as

the

religious belief. Still,unless

extent

some

the

more

protection. Ancient
of
placed a statue

mortal

both

was

provided

deities.

battlements

familiarity with

god

means

Investing

satisfied

The

gods.

the

has

visible

made

men,

ritual, and

example,
on

of

art

their

of

and

their

authority and,

presence

feeling

tutelary god

for

of

and

worship

their

desire

of

into

purpose

giving

millenniums,

nature

faithful

gods

of celestial

painted

or

its

GODS

aries

by sculpture

important

of

gods

likeness, but

the

than

For

and

that

us

own

that

us

more

reminders

eyes

their

remade

art

gods.

to

presence

tells

have

image.

been

in

art

men

tells

religion

men

OF

temple

inscribed

of his sacred
the

precepts

precinct
of

Apollo:

not

the

to

be

greatness
the

the

bound-

Curb

thy spirit.

Observe
Hate

Keep

the

limit.

hybris.
a

reverent

tongue.

39

at

Delphi

Fear

authority.

Bow

before

Glory
Keep

to

embodiment

that

of other

Greek

Gods, W.

who

outlook

from

particularfrom

in

peoples, and

barbarians

the

off the

marks

that

Their

and

them

surrounded

lay in art, music, or

poetry or in the qualitiesof youth, sanity,and
in Apollo. Above
is summed
moderation
up
of evil, the god of
the
averter
all, he was
purificationand of prophecy. Any good Greek
could see in Apollo the preacher of "Nothing too
his most
much"
and
"Know
thyself."Under
cluded
be inimportant and influential aspect may
with
him
everything that connects
order.
Primarily, he
principles of law and
ligible,
preference for the intelrepresents the Greek
"

determinate

the

opposed
formless.

Apollo
and

nature

flocks."

gymnasium,
victor.

He

boyhood
god who

the

having
presided

carried

as

the

over

manhood

to

as

the

to
as
a
god of
"keeper of the
god of the palaestra,or
first Olympic
been
the

known

was

and

vague,

also looked

was

was

He

mensurable,

and

fantastic, the

the

to

and

transition
also

was

who

would

be

of

these

traits into

the

was

the

that

and

case,

secondary importance,
stories from
who
like
look

ancient

earliest

the

to

the

as

on

the

his

made

of the father

Apollo,

but

When

statue.

it with

the
seem

of
such

similar

not
we

surviving sculpture of

the

works

first half of the

to

be

no

ent
appar-

Apollo's deity. But inscribed

the following
the small figureare

"Mantiklos

40

such
was

of

thighs of

words:

many

by

out

that

be like

B.C., there

century

attributes

artist's skill

is borne

god (Fig.50) and compare

of other subjectsalso from
seventh

read

to

sculpture. That

Greece

enjoined his son

the sculptorwho
at

inclined

dedicated

Purposes

of Art

strikes from

may

strike

us

as

unreal

of
in

afar."

homage

to

appearance

me

history teaches us that throughout

time
for the
holder
berealityhas been determined
by art itself,rather than measuring art
against actual life. (In the seventh
century
the spiritof Apollo was
B.C.
probably thought
to
be truly present in this sculpture.)Down
to
the last century, the credibiUtyof a sculptureor
often determined
most
parison
painting was
by comwith

other

works

of

art.

to

the

Thus,

when

the various

sculpturesof Apollo illustrated here

are
another, the reader
compared with one
makes
certain judgments about
which
of them
is most
without
lifelike,
necessarilyrelating
yet
the works
his own
to
body. After the seventh
century, there is a gradual change not only in
the image of Apollo in art but also in the human
image in general. His slow but perceptible
human
ingly
assuming of more
aspect, his increasthe
lifelike quality, depends first upon
which
skills with
to
sculptors'mastery of new
fluence
respond to and satisfy and, in turn, to inchanging tastes and conceptions of the
"

"

god's
In

nature.

century
erect,

Apollo(Fig.51), of the mid-sixth

god is stillrepresentedstanding
vertical
and frontal ; with his body
rigidly

the

Tenea

B.C., the

warUke

Concomitantly,
he was
thought of as the god of both physical
and
spiritualhealing,capable of purifying the
guiltyand cleansingsin.
That
interpret
sculptor could somehow
any
in
all these
attributes
form
a
single human
seems
impossible.In fact, the sculptor had to
rely not only on his skill but on a sympathetic
audience

who

sculpture,a gesture

from

silver bow.

god,

beauty

"

it

sort, whether

of every

the silver bow

votive

however,

Apollo's value
by observing that Apollo is the
of the Hellenic
spirit.
Everything

Greeks

the

rule.

under

Greeks

the

summarized

has

Guthrie

very

This

strength.

woman

The

study

his

In

K. D.

in

not

god with
divine.

the

Thebes
Apollo, from
Figure 50.
(Boetia). c. 675 B.C. Bronze, height
Museum
of Fine
8". The
Arts,
Boston.

Plate

7.

Interior, Chartres

Cathedral.

194-1220.

to

Z
b:
w
D
m

"
o

U
w

CO

Plate 9.

The

of the binding of the Liiidau Gospels.

Reims
cover
Crucifixion,
upper
and jewels,13%," x 1014"-The
PierpontMorgan Library,New

'Gold

or

St. Denis,
York.

c.

870.

t n

."J"IS ITPFtlAAASV

Plate

10.

5". Erhard

J)isrMc

rioHURK;

Book of Abbess Uota. Regensburg.1002-25.

the Mass, from the Gospel
Celebrating
Munich.
Manuscript illumination. Staatsbibliothek,

Tema
Figure 51.
Apollo, c.
height 5'. Glyptothek, Munich.

forms

550

B.C.

Marble,

Figure 52.
StrangfordApollo,c.
height 30%". The British Museum,

perfectly symmetrical composition,

hanging at his sides and one
leg
extended
forward, but with the body weight
equally distributed on both legs.The figurehas
taken
on
and
more
convincing musculature
proportions.All these characteristics are Egyptian
in origin but are
pretation
appropriate to the interof Apollo as an
authoritarian
deity,
in line with the Greek
view of him
the giver
as
of laws. His complete nudity relates to his role
athlete. Unlike
as
a supreme
Egyptian figures,
he is not
and
his feet have
more
flatfooted,
a
resilient contact
with
the ground. Nudity in
for
art
early Greek
was
generally reserved
commemorative
sculptures honoring athletes
victorious
The
in the Olympic
sixthgames.
with

the

arms

century
almost

Marble,

thus
standing sculpturesof Apollo were
from the trophy tures
indistinguishable
sculp-

erected
This

B.C.
490
London.

for

ambiguity
of

idealization

mortal, contemporary
was

caused

the

athlete,

by

the

rather

athletes.

customary
than

the

portraitlikeness. It is often only

the base
on
through the dedicatory inscriptions
that the identityof the standing figuremay
be
ascertained.
(It is through these inscriptions,
his first
also, that the god speaks.) From
in art, Apollo was
interpreted
appearance
of man,
anthropomorphically, that is,in terms
and
was
depicted in perfect physical form.
The
fied
StrangfordApollo (Fig.52) is not identiwith
certainty as this god, and it may
simply have been an athletic,aristocratic youth
creation

of

Images

of Gods

41

detail from the west

Figure 53. Apollo,
pediment of
the Temple of Zeus, Olympia. c. 460 B.C. Marble,
height of entire figure io'4". Olympia Museum.

Figure 54. Apollo. Roman

copy
Marble,
original,of c. 460 B.C.

celebrated
for a victory in religiousgames.
Although the statue is reduced by mutilation to
a
partialfigure,there is clear evidence in such
Greek
sculptureof the fifth century B.C. that
there
was
a
a
more
greater softening and
sensuous
modeUng of the body, which muted
the separationof the body parts and resulted in
subtle joiningof the limbs to the torso.
a
more
The treatment
of the muscular
fold of the pelvis
Greek
was
a
sculpturalinvention affirmingthe
perfectfit of the thighs into the socket of the
torso, like the modulated
juncture of a column
capitalwith a lintel above. The stiff,stylized
facial expression
of the Tenea Apollohas here been
relaxed,and the sculptor has begun to be more

conception, to the
of the body,
rather than to merely the simple front and side
views. With
this increased
physicalperfection,
in the subject's
there is no
diminution
dignity
In place of a loss in mystical
divine identity.
or
the Strangford
remoteness,
Apollohas acquired
and
new
quaUties of grace
physical selfconfidence.
By the fifth century B.C., however,
voiced
the Athenian
to have
pubUc is known
could portray
the opinion that her best sculptors
beautiful men,
but not
beautiful gods. (Poly-

42

Purposes of

Art

Landesmuseum,

attentive

successive

clitus
his

was

works

to

and

after

Phidias'

height 6'554"-

Kassel.

full-round

varied

silhouettes

the butt of such

is discussed

Figure in Sculpture.")

in

of
criticism,and one
Chapter 18, "The

The
pediment of the Temple of Zeus at
Olympia shows Apollo (Fig.53) interveningin
that has been
a
legendary nuptial ceremony
of the centaurs.
disruptedby the drunkenness
It represents a developing idea of Apollo that
other changes in Greek
art. The
rigid
parallels
of the previousApollo figures
frontal symmetry
is broken
by the profilepositionof the god's
head and by the extension of his rightarm,
a

gesture intended
This

statue

of

to

restore

Apollo, done

order

toward

to

the
the

scene.

middle

of the fifth century B.C., also

less
preceding one in its even
the

emphasis upon

departs from the

severe
modeling;
of the god does
corporeality

not, however, obscure

situation of emotional
a

his great self-control in

and
mental stress. This

portrayalthus epitomizesthe facultyof rational

and
restraint,as well as the sustaining
of law
and
order
through his presence and
The
face
and
body of the statue have
gesture.
conduct

become

more

beautiful

human

in

terms

of the

actual

body. The ideal proportionsand bodily

development, as well as the facial features,
immediately set the god apart from the mortals
who
His
and
surround
him.
centaurs
large
scale
and
centralityin the composition are
vestigesof older devices for presenting an
authoritarian
conception.
Although close in date to the Olympia Apollo,
the Classical Apollo (Fig.54) of the sculptor
Phidias carries even
further the sensual possibiUties of the body. The
rigid central body
axis of the earlier figureshas been eliminated,
the rightleg in a
and the weight is placed on
active balancing
hipshotpose that creates a more
of the body
of the great achievements
one
of Classical Greek
sculpture.In this system of
the movement
of each portionof
counterpoise,
the body is an ideal compositionalcounterpart
between
to the ApoUine tradition of harmony
spiritand body. The
strength of the stillthe impressivephysique,
idealized visage and
with
the
resilient
assist in
coupled
pose,
conveying a feelingof authoritythat has now
than in the sixth-century
become
humane
more
model.
The
perfectproportioningof the torso
lesson in moderation, in avoidance
is a striking
of physicalor sensual excess.
The
Hellenistic
Apollo Belvedere (Fig. 55)
with his
depictsthe god in decided movement,
that
extended.
It is believed
draped left arm
held the silver bow, his
his left hand
originally
of Apollo
military attribute. (Other statues
"

show

him

his patronage
lyre,signifying
movement
permits
illustration of Apollo'ssupreme
physicalgrace
pline.
and, by implication,of his intellectual disciWhile
retainingobvious idealized traits
in face and body, the ApolloBelvedere is the most
of the

with

arts.)The

and
lifelike,

hence

controlled

the

most

nonsacred, of

the

Apollinesculpturewe have discussed,and this

change correspondsto rehgiousand sculptural
developments in Greece as a whole. This last
figurealso suggests why the religionof Greece
declined in power.
The gods are
almost totally
conceived
and presentedin terms
of man,
an
attitude that permits a fatal familiarity
and
identifiableness
between
god and worshiper.
This possibility
of identityis apparent in spite
of the fact that many
of Apollo'sattributes are
beautifully
incorporatedwithin the sculpture.
This
handsome
figure,with its athletic and
dancerUke
retains a suggestionof the
grace,
and
purity of mind
body and of the faculty
of wisdom
cherished
so
by the Greeks. In all
The

ApolloBelvedere. Roman
ably
copy, probbronze
originalof c. 330 B.C.
Marble, height 7 '4". Musei
Vaticani, Rome.

Figure 55.

after Leochares'

these

of

medium

through the

Greeks

Apollo, the

of

images

mind

present the beauty of his

sought

and

beautiful human

to

morahty
body.

ed
the mastery of sculpturalmobihty achievby the artists,while powerfullyevoking the

And

of the

caused

have

ly
ultimate-

god, may
weakening of

or
personality
temper

the

his

divine

efficacy.
BUDDHA
Buddhism
The

is composed

looks

sect

of

main

two

("Great Vehicle")

Mahayana

the

upon

Buddha

as

sects.

"pious"

or

god possessing

of miracles
and
the power
faithprotectingthe ful
from harm.
He is lord of the universe. This

developed stronglyin China and Japan from

origins in India. The
Hinayana ("Lesser
the
Vehicle") or "rationalist" sect looks upon
Buddha
as
a
great, but human, sage who
vided
pro-

sect

its

code

from
was

similar

sect

the

shown

represented by
of

achieved
honorific
The

that

Ceylon, and

images

of the

before

presence,

by

symbols

could

his

"

induced

achieve

era,

but

communion
on

One
presence.
does
the
show
not

(Fig.56)

spiritmenaces

the

the

symbols
of the early
actual

in which

is one

divine throne.

attitude

of the

court,

This

presence.

the Buddha

lifetimes. To

or

have

artists

competition with
to

Roman

Buddha

and

to

44

Throne, with the Assault of

Figure 56. Cushioned
Mara, from Ghantasala
(detail).School of Amaravati, late Andhra
period, late 2nd century ."^.d.
Grey marble, height 5'9^4". .Musee Guimet, Paris.

the

of

Gandhara

of

concepts

his feet
and

earth

change

and

Greek
human

Purposes of

their exposure
When
the

Art

form

hand

hand

growing

art.

by

the

Buddha
Of

to

be

to

was

to

those

materialization

the

symbols had

tasks

symbolize

the power

first a

incentive

the

was

body

similar

turies
cen-

after

facing the early sculptors

included
the incorporationof
of the Buddha
thirty-twomystic signsof his superhuman perfection:
these,the cranial protuberance,
among
cative
symbolic of wisdom; elongated ear lobes, indihis forehead,
of royal birth ; a tuft of hair on
his
like the sundial
halo signified
which
the soles of
emission
of light;spoked wheels
on

given tangibleform

to

artists,in the first or second

roughly eight centuries
era,

The

conveyed.

hand

at

our

his death, his

of

no
art, and there are
Christ datingfrom their

finallygiven

was

as

indicative

are

is

such

unwillingnessto
Buddha
has parallels

Hinduism
Late

evil
he

Although

either of the gods may

have seemed
contradiction
of their divine being.An
for Buddhist

form

an

initial

give tangibleform to the

in the history of Christian
own

was

with

physicallyabsent, attributes of the Buddha

the throne and his footprints,
as
well
as

images of

goes
when

footprints,the

his

of the Buddha

his sacred

Asia,

Thailand.

form

of meditation

means

sculpturesthat

reverent

The

art.

Buddha

our

human

in

art

which
he
Learning, the tree under
an
Enlightenment, an
altar, or
parasol recallinghis princelyorigin.

faithful

Buddha

in

strongest in Southeast

Cambodia,

not

actual

an

the firstcenturies

to
was

Wheel

not

ity
human-

image

of Christ in Western

was

historyof

back
he

and

images

to

deliver

of misery. His

sources

reminder

Hinayana
in Burma,
The

of ethics that could

the

gestures,

the

of the
or

of his doctrine

progress

sun

mudras.

and
The

series of ritual
Buddha's

right

his callingof the

meant
pointeddownward
lightenment
evil and his Ento witness his triumph over
or
dispensationof favors ; his right
ings.
raised was
to
dispelfear and give blessthe
and forefinger,
By joining his thumb
set

the

wheel

of his doctrine

greater challenge to

metaphorical endowment

in motion.

the sculptor was

of the Buddha's

the

body

strengthof the lion and his legswith

The
of a gazelle.
sculpturehad to
embody the sacred flame or fieryenergy of the
and his preterhuman anatomy.
Buddha
Finally,
that
the sculptorhad
to impart to the statue
ultimate state of serenity,
perfectrelease,and
the

with

the

grace

desire

from

deliverance

which

the

Buddha

ings,
According to his teachinward
to be gained by
was
tranquillity
first appeasing the senses, for only then could
and capable
become
well balanced
the mind

nirvana.

in

achieved

of concentrated

The

meditation.

over-low, and with the working of the mind and

held in check, with body,head, and
senses

of the
neck

and

that the
used

be

art

should

joy that

that does

Through

a
spiritual
ascent,
ultimatelybe purged

the faithful could

attachment

self and

the

to

ideals. This

world's

achieve
their

with

in the need

confidence

gods

for and

Greek

suggests that

of the sensual

mastery

the

thus

art

have
Apolline sculptureswould
appealed to the earlyBuddhists.
statue
Without
question,the seated Buddha
is indigenousto India and is a native solution
such

the

as

of the

the artistic incarnation

to

and

god. The

seated

it is recorded

six years

he

of

the

of penance
Wisdom, where

with

at

Teacher

favored,for

position

Buddha

the life of the

Great

was

in

that after
to the

last came

Tree

and

green
grass,
attain
his

ground

carpeted

vowed

there

of my

task."

the seated

Buddha

the

earlier

which

was

earlyIndian
having been

The

model

or

prototype
have

likely
mystical system of
constantlybefore the eyes
to

seems

Hindu

artists and
the

means

which

was

for

been
yoga,
of the

recorded

of the Buddha's

as

ment
achieve-

pain in a state
objectiveof yoga
is enlightenment and
emancipation, to be
of thought upon
attained by concentration
a
singlepoint,carried so far that the dualityof
subject and object is resolved into a perfect
the
Hindu
philosophicalpoem
unity. The
Bhagavad-Gitadescribed the practiceof yoga:
(a release

of nirvana

from

of blissful nonexistence.)The

Abiding
and
seat

upon

alone

ing
a secret
place,without cravhe shall take his
possessions,
firm seat, neither over-high nor

without
a

in

not

yoga

so

one

who
a

let him

Abyss; and

knows

the boundless

and

senses

in

is grasped
from

not

swerves

lamp

meditate,

of the

windless

the

place

flicker.

may

be

obtained

of self-oblivion. It involves

the

highest
oped
highly devel-

sects.

the

One

of the

Mahayana
Sarnath

Buddha

most

beautiful

of the seated

sculptures,an

(Fig.57), was

made

example

in the fourth

he

that

Enlightenment. Taking up
the seated, cross-legged
positionwith his limbs
brought together,he said, "I will not rise from
achieved the complethis position
until I have
tion

would

him,

the peace
such, who

in muscular
and breath control
discipline
of all superto clear one's mind
ability
ficial
in
order
centrate
to consensory preoccupation
a
singleobject or idea. The
upon
of yoga
seeks not only control of the
discipline
physicalbody but a cleansingand rebuilding
of the whole
livingbeing. The human
body
transformed
is shown
free not
by yoga
only
from defects but also from its actual physical
sensation
of lightness,
The
release
nature.
or
from the bondage of the body, induced
by the
practiceof yoga produces the "subtle body."
It is often difficult to distinguish
between
the
and
sculpture of the Mahayana
Hinayana

from
was

looking
perfectequilibrium,

liesbeyond the

by intuition,and
truth, is that of

and

ephemeral delightsand could

union
more
perfectspiritual
and

but should

the first stage in

as

whereby
of

be denied

not

in
about

therebyreach

sensuousness

is partlyexplainedby this attitude

senses

round

the likeness of

state

of Indian

maintained
not

Preachingin the Deer Park.

Figure 57. Buddha
Chunar
sandstone,
Gupta period, 320-600 a.d.
height 5 '3".The ArchaeologicalMuseum, Sarnath
(Copyright,ArchaeologicalSurvey of India).

Figure 58. Seated Buddha,

Anuradhapura, Ceylon. 6th7th centuries
height 6'7".

or

fifth century of

seated

mudra

of the

first sermon
achieved

not

shown

followers
the

the

of earlier

preceded
flank

the

In

the Buddha
the

he

preaches his

he first
Park, where
he
Enlightenment and to which

his

Below

in the
and

the

his

throne

disk. This

with

group of his
The
back of
the

winged

decoration

is an

Air-borne
in

assimilation

minor

deities

attitudes, not

reverent

unlike the angels in medieval

The

hierarchic
indicates

dealing with
been

solemnized

symbol. The

Christian imagery.
formalityof the whole composition
that
the
sculptor is no longer
has
specificevent; the sermon
into

abstract

more

earlier,more

of the Buddha
interpretations
replaced by the idealized figurethat
the basis of later imagery.
46

Purposes of

sacred

individualized

human

Art

have
was

and

been
to

skeletal

be

or

by

the

easy,
The

be

to

posture. The

there

muscular

seated

attitude

Buddha's
the

called

ence
refer-

no

breath

by

bodily strain caused

is firm

mastery

Buddha

were

this time, being based

at

is

substructure;

inflated

of

trace

indicatingthe
proportions of

canonical
unit

Buddha,
even

the
body appears
alone. There
is no

on

and

of yoga.
almost
a

thalam, equivalent to

the

the top of the forehead

and

the

between

vegetativesymbols which

Buddhism.

Park

the Deer
to

the foliate ornamentation

and
fertility

Buddha

(in a segment

are
illustration)
symbolic wheel.

is ornamented

throne

sun

It shows

throne, making

Deer

lions of royalty and

of the

era.

lotus

wheel-turningas
in

returned.

had

our

the

upon

Dolomite,

a.d.

basic
tance
disthe

of
the
symmetrical arrangement
with the head
of it a triangle,
at
body makes
the apex and the crossed legsas the base. The
face, wearing the "subtle smile," is marked
by
the symbolic lotus-form
The
eyes and ripe lips.
the
downcast
shut off' his thoughts from
eyes
The

chin.

visible world.
In

contrast

of the

Buddhism,
seated

to

regal and
is

Buddha

the Sarnath

Buddha, symbolic
of Mahayana

mysticalbeliefs
more

from

Hinayana view of the

Notwithstanding the

austere

and

unadorned

Ceylon, exemplifying the

Great Teacher
(Fig.58).
severe
weathering of its

fejS_.=;:7;J/'

the

Stone,

Ceylon

yet still firm

an

appearance

Buddha

aspect;
of

the

has

hermitlike

complete

figurehas

absorption

meditation, indicative of the Buddha's

of

less sensual,

in

tion
renuncia-

worldly concerns.
strongly
and pretty, or even
effeminate,character
stylized
of some
later Buddha
images in Southeast Asia.
Early standing sculptures of the Buddha
(Fig. 59), created in the late first through
the third centuries
at
Gandhara,
display an
obvious
relationshipto early sculptures of
Christ
and both types of imagery were
indebted
Roman
to Hellenistic and
freestandingfigures.
in monastic
is shown
robes as the
(The Buddha
Great
resulted
Teacher.) This indebtedness
from
the invasions of India by Mediterranean
cultures
the
and
subsequent occupation of
of its territories by the Romans.
Indian
some
artists,
working perhaps from Roman
models,
whose
early produced a standing Buddha
of the firstdrapery and balance recall some
century B.C. Roman
imperialsculpture,such as
the statues
of the emperor
Augustus. The toga"

It lacks the

Above

left:Figure 59.
3rd century a.d. Stone.

Above:

Figure

century
National

that

is cut
we

are

from

Gandhara.

Mathura.
Buddha, from
sandstone, height 5'3".
New

Museum,

like robe
so

60.
Red

a.d.

Buddha,

Delhi.

in naturalistic
aware

5th
The

of

channeled

folds,

counterpoisedbody

that Indian
beneath
it. (It appears
also provided
sculpturesof royal personages
an
early influence on the freestandingBuddha
image.) Further late Greek influence can be seen
structure

in the face of the

the

Buddha, which
Hellenistic

is

ruler

variant

of

portraittype,
of the mystic signs.
with the addition
In succeeding centuries, notably in a fifthfrom
Mathura
(Fig.
century standing Buddha
artists
Indian
eventuallydeparted more
60),
influence and
radicallyfrom Greek and Roman
developed a monumental
standing Buddha
consistent with their own
ideals.
more
religious
is a sophisThe
Mathura
standing Buddha
Apolline or

Images

of Gods

47

ticated

frontality of

designed

sculptor has
of drapery
fastening on
beneath.

folds

radiance.

disks

grace

of

of

the

transparency

shining forth of
hypnotic sequence

The

leachng into

downcast

eyes

withdrawal

from

foil for the

head, while
of

the
face

the

ovoid

the

head

from

the

torso

the

Buddha's

sensual

smooth

rings of

the

and

neck

halo

in

motifs,
of the

and

the

lines
out-

play against
is no
the
drapery rhythms. There
abrupt
transition
or
single detail to jar the eye or
feelings;the totahty of the design holds the
its borders
and constantly
eye soothinglywithin
it to the head
of Buddha.
The
returns
image is
of quiet authority that invokes
love and
one
area

fear.

respect without

of

the images
repetitionamong
Christ is frequent, Buddhist
art

far greater adherence

to
1500 years.
Part of the

prototype

of

of

Apollo

exhibited
for almost

sive
explanation for succesrephcation in Buddhist
imagery stems from
belief in the magical efficacyof certain prized
a
copies were
thought to partake of
statues; and
the original's
Furthermore, the Buddhist
power.
artist was
not
encouraged to work from a hving
model
or
rely on natural
perception. With the
it was
his obUgation to
help of fixed canons,
study the great older images, meditate on them,
from
and
then
work
his inspired memory.
Because
the
Buddha's
beauty defied apprehension
by the outward
senses, the artist worked
from
mental
that has
a
conception in a way
shall see, in the art
as
we
interestingparallels,
of Michelangelo.

this

debasement

both

has,

of

art.

first known
than

paintingsof Christ, dated

the third

catacombs
Rather

century,
the

on

found

are

outskirts

in

no

the

of ancient

than

being secret refuges from

where
persecution or underground churches
large congregations would
assemble, as many
people formerly beheved, these
catacombs,
burial
chambers
connected
by long passages,
known
and
to
were
inspected periodicallyby
the

Roman

Moreover,

government.

of ventilation

and

restricted size

their

lack

precluded

their

for

Christ
of
large worship services. The
rustic
painting, a humble,
type
lacking in distinct portraitlike features, is
shown
performing miracles
(Fig. 61J, in the
guise of a teacher or a shepherd. The scenes
use

catacomb

from

Christ's

fourth

While
and

Christ

and

Rome.

fiat disk

volume

uncritical

Christian

Buddha's

foliate

its ornamental

clergs'

earlier

of concentric

the

art.
purveyed as
Rehgious sentiment
most
unfortunately, made
people and

The

monastic

culminates

intimate

that

eye

earthly vision. The

with

background,
is

the

prevent

suggests the

robe

the

an

that

vertical

the

body, the
undulating sequence

boneless

the

The

the

opposites.Against

in

study

immobile

and

Hfe, hmited

century,

hopes

of the faithful with

Their

optimisticmessage

faith, he

too

salvation.

The

painted on

in number

intended

were

would

to

before
encourage

promise

was

achieve

that

the
the

of afterUfe.
if

one

had

resurrection

and

style of these small-scale images

of which
plasteredwalls, many
may

have

been done by non-Christian

Roman
house
than
the beliefs
more
painters,is not new
any
of
The
Christianity were
completely new.
in
the Raising of Lazarus
stress
is upon
the
Saviour's
has a
hand, not his body. The scene
highly synoptic character, like the recitation
of a litanyof the divine miracles, as if the artist
reminder
of a stor)'
were
a
painting essentially
it.
known
by heart to those who saw
the
in
first images of Christ, found
Among
the catacombs
and
in funerary sculpture, are
those showing him
the "Good
as
Shepherd,"
which
familiar
art.
was
a
image in Greek
There
is ample evidence
confirm
that the
to
Christians
recognized and valued the similarity
between
Christ as the shepherd and
Orpheus.
in
The
Greek
mythological figure had much
with
both
and
since
common
Christ,
Apollo
"

CHRIST
Despite the

many

devoted

Christ, in

been

to

the

subject of

histors'. Children

images
based

on

great paintingsand

of

are

the

last

of

some

shown

Christ

sculptures
he

century
the

worst

has

art

in

inate
long-haired effem-

that

have

nineteenth-century German

often
or

48

Purposes

of Art

associated

was

and

with
The

protection.

ideal

been

French

of the least inspiredtype. Banal

commercial
been
have
religiouswares
responsible for the
cheap Sunday-school image of Christ so often
art

he

expression
which

of

was

relationshipbetween
the
seen
priestwas
of the

salvation,

sacrifice,love,

shepherd image was

the Early Christian
characterized

by

an
munity,
com-

close

priestand congregation:
the shepherd, the conas
gregation
the fiock. The
artistic presentation
as
also fitting,
nature
was
shepherd amid

Figure
fresco

6i.

Raising of Lazarus,

from

the

Chapel, Catacomb
Rome.

Sacrament
of S.

Callistus,

Early 3rd century.

Figure 62. Christ as the Good

Lateran
Shepherd, detail from
Sarcophagus. Late 4th century.
Marble.

for the

Early
comparable to
of

in

nature

fiew

which

view

Roman

of

paradise was

tions
poet Vergil'sdescrip-

sylvan paradise, a
the

soul

could

beautiful

repose,

ruled

gentleshepherd. Christ as the shepherd,

whose
coming Christian theologianssaw
prophesied in Vergil'swritings,thus ruled over
if in a Golden
bucolic world
a
as
Age. Secondover

by

Christian
the

century

Christian

saints

also

describe

the

Rome.

find rest with

paradise in which the soul can
the image of a magnificentgarden.
In a fourth-centurysarcophagus (Fig.62),
the shepherd is surrounded
by small winged
figuresharvestinggrapes. Both the angelsand
the vineyard derive directly
from pagan
sources
in which

the

premature

grape

death

the choice

harvest

and

wine

and
of

alluded

to

plains
regeneration.This extheme
for the sarcophagus

Images

of Gods

49

of

mostly

before

the

interprets

well-to-do.

was

from

dates

that

art

century

who

Christian

deceased

Christian

of

Jesus

the

Jesus" Jesus as the

divinity.In the Lateran
the
shepherd stands
Sarcophagus, Jesus as
and
fice
sacrialtar, suggesting his death
an
upon
for mankind.
provided
JJis^resurrection
,bope and a spiritof optimism for the Early
and
its converts.
There
Christian 'community
Christ's militant or royal nature
is no
stress
on
before the fourth century. In general,the artistic
Gospels,

not

as

"

of this aspect of Christ seems

Greek
and
Roman
statues

prototype
been

"the

or

and

Messiah

historic

fifth

the

late

have

to

of seated

standing philosophers,a type associated with

the contemplative or
mon
compassive life. It was
artists to work
for late Roman
at depicting
time
figures at the same
they were
pagan
commissions.
Sometimes
fulfillingChristian
carved
sarcophagi were
completed except for
the symbols or
faces; thus they could be purchased
or

by either
then

finished

to

Christian

or

pagan

clients and

suit their purpose.

fourth

the

The

century

external

forms

and

the cult aspect

of

been
criticized
rehgion that had
by the
historical Jesus became
prominent. In the sixth
the
Byzantine emperor
Justinian
century,
ordered

ambitious

an

of the Church
which
The

he

and

in the

of the enthroned
SS.

Ecclesius

Christ
and

of the apse,

historical

the

Jesus

apse

cityof Ravenna,
from

just conquered

half-dome

from

series for the

in the

of S. Vitale

had

mosaic

angels

mosaic

the

Goths.

flanked

Vitalis

by
(PI. 5),

reflects the

tion
transi-

the

theological
has been replaced
Jesus.The incarnate Messiah
by the Son of God, the humanity and humility
of the
shepherd by the impersonality of a
celestial ruler
the hierarchy of religious
over
The
doctrines
that
government.
lay behind
this

mosaic

those

not

were

to

which

had

been

taught by Jesus himself; in S. Vitale the theology

of the Incarnation
essential

Like
holds

a
an

receives

and

subjectof
Roman

or

audience
honors.

50

the Second

the

Coming

is the

mosaic.

Byzantine
in

Bishop

which

Christ
em-peror,
he
grants and

Ecclesius

Purposes

of Art

of S. Vitale

donates

the

of

crown

Vitahs.

This

is

in

and,

of

the

the

at

of

by

centuries.
exterior

the

time, the

same

is inside

event

pires
trans-

place,
these

Also, in

of

the

mosaic

an

saints
mosaic

church

this very

St.

art; the
Christian

earlier

fact that

the

gives
to

sacred

replaced. The
specific time and

different

donation

the

preeminently

affirmed

rephca

Christ

martyrdom

been

outside

lived

Christ, and
and

attitudes

have

intention

to

mercy

mundane

more

imagery

is

seen

showing

edifice.

Christ

the heavens, yet mysticallyhe is also

sits upon
within
the heavens, and
beneath
his feet flow

four

the

rivers of

strates
paradise.This mosaic demonthe
reconciled
theologians had
divinity and authority of Christ with that of the
who
earthly emperors
acknowledged obedience
how

Christ

him.

to

rules

the

Justinian, shown
emperor
lower
mosaic, rules the

while

heavens,
in

an

earth.

the

adjacent
The

but

relative

informality of earlier Christian

imagery has
been
replaced by a complex series of artistic
devices

Christianityreceived
no
imperial support and was
longer the private
religionit had been in its earlier phases. The
Church
as
a
body was
reorganized along the
lines of the Roman
Empire, and the priesthood
became
an
autocracy. Theology and art were
ization.
and formalsubjected to radical transformation
In

Church
the

to

convey

Person

the

concept

of Christ

as

the

Holy Trinity.(In Chapter

12, "Images of Authority," Roman
imperial
of these devices are
sources
discussed).Against
the gold background of the heavens, symbolizing
the ineffable light of God, the youthful,
sits attired
in the imperial
beardless
Christ
purple and gold.Contrasting with the attendant
stand in his presence,
Christ
figureswho must
is frontal and
oblivious
to
larger; he appears
Second

those

around
and

of the

him.

His

acceptance

ritual gestures
make

cross

of investiture

shape

of his

body, accentuating his centralityin the image

and

in Christian

dogma. Although the mosaicists

by St.John's descriptions
inspired
may
of Heaven,
like the Evangelist
of the radiance
the
attributes
and
they based
qualities of
divinityon their experience of the highest form
of
the.
to
them,
earthly authority known
ceremonies
of the temporal
magnificent court
have

been

monarchs.
with developments
changed in accordance
S. Vitale
mosaic
theology. The
well
embodies
as
as
changed esthetic forms
dogma. Each
figure, for example, is sharply
if
detail clearlyshown
as
outlined, with every
the viewer
close
each
to
were
subject.
standing
The
figures do not overlap, and they are all
the surface of the mosaic,
seen
as
being near
is only
which
for their great size. There
accounts
limited depth to the scene
and no
a
attempt to
Esthetics

in

Figure 63.
re-create

shadow

had

Buddha

in

Majesty,fresco

atmospheric eflfects or
earthly perception.

Positive

of the

of each

of

to

be

role

and

achieved.

The

status

colors

the

from

and

Ught

9,

the

Ajanta. Gupta period,5th

Ajanta

tification Eastern
iden-

figure

rich

are

Cave

and

fresco may
such

have

been
Persian

as

sources

century

a.d.

influenced
art,

by

which,

for
art, provided models
along with Roman
in the late-antique
the representationof rank

varied, but

world.

areas

(exceptional
of nirvana
the possibility
beings who renounce
in order to teach others of its attainment) and
in the
Courtiers
of his disciples.
two
are
seen
background. Buddha's
gesture of teaching and

are
governed in their use over
large
by symbolism. The composition is closed,
that there is no
or
so
strongly self-contained,
suggestionthat the frame cuts off any significant
action. The
area
or
figuresdisplay,at mQst, a
limited
mobility, for their static quality is

meant

reflect

to

induce

transcendent

meditative

effect

and

nature
on

the

to

viewer.

Thus
artist and theologian combined
to
give a physical presence to dogma by creating
divine world.
imagery of an invisible,
More

than

mosaics

were

wall

one

of

India

that
formal
and
It is

of

devices
pose

century

before

the

Ajanta

was
caves

the

S.

Vitale

painted
of

on

and

both

the Ravenna

posture

is enthroned

between

the

bodhisattvas

are

as

ritualistic

as

those

of

Christ

northern

in Majesty (Fig.63)
strikingsimilarityin its use of
such
as
centrality,frontahty,
gesture for showing authority.

possiblethat

and

of

image. Lions guard his throne, and

halos
shown
under
he and
the discipleshave
ceremonial
parasols,further symbols of royalty.
flower-strewn
The
background and wall suggest
the garden of a palace,a specialplace that only
the faithful are
privilegedto see and comprehend.
The

of the Buddha

scene

bears

executed, there

Buddha

figures

his robe
the

reverent

The

sinuous

mosaic

and

those
were

Byzantine images of Christ and

Early Christian basilicas of Italy
within
the churches.
By the beginning

great
in the
found
of the

Romanesque

twelfth

century,

sculptorshad
Images

of Gods

however,
transferred

51

French
sacred

Above:

Figure 64.

of
the
St-Pierre, Moissac.

tympanum

Christ Enthroned,
west

12th

portal,
century.

Right: Figure 65. Last Judgment:

Separatingthe Sheepfrom the Goats,
from S. ApoUinare Nuovo,
mosaic
Ravenna,

Below:

c.

Figure 66.

tympanum,
century.

493-526 a.d.
Last Judgment,
St-Foy,Conques. 12th

images

the

to

of

exterior

the

edifices,as

great rehef

for instance, in the

carved

and

seen,

the

over

of St-Pierre, in Moissac
doorway of the Church
in a
(Fig. 64). But this did not as yet resuh
of
conception of Christ as being of the world
and
the hving. While
adopting the ceremonial
sacred
traits of the S. Vitale image, the Moissac
added
ideas to the concepnew
sculptorforcefully
tion
of the lordly Christ.
Wearing a crown,
Christ is a feudal king of kings, surrounded
by
elders

who

his

are

reinforced

vassals.

His

is

remoteness

tween
by
great diflFerence in scale behis figure and
the representativesof
the

humanity.

All

Christ

directed
toward
glances are
magnetic pole.From his immobile
in
outward
figure,the composition moves
mediate
Angels and evangehcal symbols, interto

as

frontal
waves.

in

elders

but

of

nature

figures in
Christ.

God

the

with

Christ

is thus

does

and

that

of

shown

and

completely
and

Redeemer

Second
from

Old

awesome

the

Coming.
comely

Christian

portions
pro-

which

works
a

from

scene

S.

of

and

in

Nuovo
work

clad

The

art.

Christ
in

Christian

earliest

Judgment is beheved
sixth-century mosaic

the

ApolUnare

In this small

of

Last

Ravenna
is shown

to

be

cycle in
(Fig. 65).

seated
he

believed

man

vivid

in

memento,

carved

surfaces

divine, and

and

to

his

His

art

was

modulated
brilliantly

abundance

forms,

demonic

of

of that

human,

fateful event,

in the

as

an

of

reminder

ever-present

their

Moreover, to enrich his subject,the

obligations.
St-Foy sculptorand his theologicaladviser drew
outside the Bible; the writings of
sources
upon
St. Augustine
Fathers
of the Church
such
as
into
the work.
As
absorbed
an
were
example,
is not
in the
the weighing of souls, which
of
the
Last
biblical
accounts
Judgment, is
from
Augustine, who wrote,
perhaps borrowed
and
evil actions shall be as if hanging in
"Good
if the
evil preponderate, the
the scales, and
Hell."
The
to
guilty shall be dragged away
motif
Near
sources

of the
Eastern
in the

scales
art

also

may

and

inviolable
devil
as

from

come

Egyptian
The
Egyptian
of the "weighing

Dead.

of the

Book

have

indirectlyfrom

funerary god Anubis, as watcher

in," has been
replaced by St.

purple robe;
gestures
three
right toward
sheep. Christ is
flanked, on his right,by an angel in red and,
Contrary to the
his left,by one
in blue. The
in
blue
on
Egyptian ritual, a
angel
stands directly behind
three
goats-tfaaEZHiS-thLfi-^
scales in his favor
center

inevitable.
its

"no
knowcth"
man
day and hour of which
(Matt. 24:36).
The
is set above
the main
large tympanum
the
doorway of the church, through which
worshipers must
day and, hence,
pass
every
serves

His

Apollo was endowed

; rather
it is of an
entirelyimpersonal and unsensual
nature, appeahng to thought and faith.
In neither the ApoUine nor
Buddhist
religions
is there an
analogy to Christ's Second
Coming
the
and
taken
Last Judgment,
for
themes
as
of the
and
dramatic
most
interesting
many
image

medieval

the

the

motionless

the

the

as

the

at

the

Christ,

bridge

to

the

to

cal
hierarchi-

the

and

is hke

derive

not

with

onlooker

commanding

judgment

beauty

Christ

universe

God,

He
of

the

motion

Here

Testament
aloof.

between

closelyproportioned

impress upon

to

serve

scale

more

artist,in illustrating
right. The
literally
metaphor, sought to give the event an
sacramental
almost
dignity and transcendence.
An
Last
early-twelfth-centuryFrench
ment
Judgthe
Church
of St-Foy in
on
tympanum
Gonques (Fig. 66) represents a tremendous
change in interpretation of the judgment
theme.
This is one
of many
excitingapocalyptic
France
sculpturesdone in southern
during the
first half of the twelfth century. In the St-Foy
of the apocalyptic account
version, much
more
has been
encompassed by the artist,who relies
far less
metaphor and prefers to give a
upon
details
more
tangiblerealization of the concrete
and
that
mechanics
of the
Last
Judgment
St. John's

he

here
sees

Michael.

conduct
seeks
that

to

soul

of

the

tip

the

on

the

side of Michael
sheep, arejacingtoward the center.JTheepisode
(the right side of Christ) has
his side. This
at
isTKe htth stage of the Apocalypse of St7joErvin~~ outweighed one
on
attempt
"wJjichChrist symbohcally separates the sheep,or
judicialcorruption on the part of an agent of
in the
been
have
The
Satan
would
-ihe-eleGty-fe^m-lEe^goats,
the damned.
amusing even
figure
in
southern
of Christ is almost
twelfth
he
France,
and
century, particularly
completely frontal,
where
law had become
emotion.
It is an
so
no
important as a result
extremely simple
expresses
but formal
ledge
of the feudal system and the rise of the Church.
composition relying upon a knowand
The
ordered
of the scriptures,color, and
legal aspect of the final
gesticular
symbolism, as well as the significanceof left
judgment is stressed by the artist at Gonques in

Images

of Gods

53

his dispositionof
his composition and
both
and
of the
zone
figures.Each
compartment
is strongly separated by a thick stone
scene

border,

which

on

written

are

the

virtuous

phrases,the teachings of the Church, and so on,

This
composition
appropriate to the location.
reflects

which
the

of

view

ordered,

that

so

will

he

living

at

in

the
of

structures

his

He_sits_immobile
power,
toward
hand

strongly

as

definite

universe

feudal

system.

the

on

the real world

time.

last
as

of Christ

the

over

centrality and
and

frontal

as

zone

upper
the

of

Cross,

the

the

scene

symbol

is

scene

great

scale.

symbol

his

of

hand

gesturing upward
right
Heaven
his right side; with his
on
he points downward
to Hell.

The

day

it was

and political
authority and

The

with

carrying

to

area

social,economic,
the

by

in the

status

the

dominance

absolute
achieved

has

of
projection

involved

universe

eventually be consigned,just as
in
the time
had
httle diflficulty

defining their own

Thus
the image of
becomes

the

everyone

contains
of the

left

angels
Passion

Second

and

the

The

central

Coming on the day of justice.

ward
positionof the Cross and the downof the angels draw
the eye
movement
the
centripctallyto the Supreme Judge. On
right of Christ, in the largestzone, is a procession
of the saved, who
proceed in homage
toward
the ruler of Heaven.
led by
They are
SS. Peter, Anthony, and
Benedict, who
bolize
symthe originsand rule of the Church.
The
saints
lead
be
to
a
royal figure, believed
been
had
benefactor
of
a
Charlemagne, who
of St-Foy. The
the Abbey
moral
implied by
this arrangement
is that Charlemagne
got into
Heaven
he
not
which
by force of the crown
carries but through the prayers
and
efforts of
the holy men.
admonition
(This is an unsubtle
to

the

secular

Church.)

To

rulers of the time

the left of

to

support

Christ, in another

those

the

zone,

consigned to Hell, nude and cramped

in awkward
poses, experiencingall sorts of painful
inflicted with enthusiasm
indignities
by demons.
The
lowest
is divided
into two
zone
large
"basilican
castrum."
tween
Beas
porticoes known
the
roofs at the point
on
these, literally
where
the buildingscome
together,the weighing
of souls takes place. (Thus it is also on
the
principal axis of the Cross and Christ.)Next
to
the weighing-in on
the left,armed
angels
are
rousing the dead from their coffins,and on
the right demons
the resurare
pummeling
are

54

Purposes

of Art

Figure 67.

rected.

In

Christ's

the

Heaven

to

Daphne,

Greece,

of the left

center

deceased
is

tery
mosaic, Monasiioo.

c.

right) sits Abraham,

souls of the

reveals

of dome

Christ,detail

Church,

into

through

receives

his bosom.

heavy

fine medieval

portico (that on

who

door, which

open

lock

the

Entrance

and

of strong

set

metal

is through
to Hell
hinges. The entrance
the horrible jaws of the Leviathan, whose
head,
protrudes through the door to Hell. The Book
of Daniel
than
(7:7) describes the terrifyingLeviathat

God

has

Hell

created.

by the seated Devil, surrounded

of
subjects.In the treatment
the

medieval

and

could

and

humor.

artist had

over

squirming
Devil

the

and

greatest

freedom

to

Here

as

the

Hell

his

his

his fantasies,repressions,
elsewhere, by far the more

give vent

interestingof

is ruled

by

two

sides is that

dealing with

damned.

the

The

of
twelfth-century Byzantine mosaic
of
Pantocrator
(Fig.67) in the dome
of Daphne,
outside
church
monastery

Christ
the

Athens,

the

focuses

his gesture of
by him. It is an
reverence,
severe

and

attention

the

on

image
fear

calculated
in

the

expression is climaxed

glance, giving

the

face

to

of

evoke

beholder.

by

Christ,

Bible

the

benediction, and

the

held
awe,

The

hypnotic

effect of watchfulness.

The

the

law.

in

is both

who

judge

instead

of

the
power
unclassical

an

of

beautiful

for it denies

sense,

stresses

is

There

enforcer

is not

the
tance
imporrendering, and

flesh,of naturalistic

of the

immutable,

an

and

giver

impressive face, it

An

classical

the

of

is that

celestial countenance
stern

divine

the

will.

in

imbalance

the

and
in
the
the
Byzantine stress upon
eyes
sculpture of
intensityof expression.No Greek
the wrath
Zeus
hurhng his thunderbolt
conveys
Christ seems
the Daphne
of which
capable.
The judicialand authoritarian
aspects of the

Christ

Byzantine
in

relaxed
of

Beneath

feet

Christ's

symbolic
location
made

hon

the

before

like

God,"

to
a

Christ

in his

ideal is reflected

in

his
Above:

has

been

congregation. He
his

house

not

gallant feudal
into

Beau
Dieu, detail of
Figure 68.
portal,Ainiens Cathedral.
13th century.

Below:

Figure 69.

Apollo,detail

of

lord.

"the

name,

able
unthink-

ways

Daphne. This investingof

physicallyattractive, a more
into
tender
aspect accompanies his reentrance
of the
of the livingand the reduction
the world
with

of the
The

of the art itself The

transition

Byzantine Pantocrator, Lord

human
Universe, to the more
dignity

the

the

Gothic
Beau

lord
Dieu

of

men.

has

an

idealized

countenance

comparison with the head

of Apollo from
Olympia (Fig.69). The Gothic
for its sharp features
head
and
is noticeable
subdued
sensuality,indicating an
essentially
the body. This
is
Christian
attitude
toward
in the
of the
treatment
particularlymarked
mouth.
The
more
pronounced ovoid outline of
the Christ image, enhanced
by the long tightly
massed
the
axial alignment of the
hair, and
symmetrical beard, the nose, and the part of the
hair give the deity an
ascetic and
spirituahzed
of the
mien.
Despite the generalized treatment
that

more

from

been

of All

nature

sacrosanct

has

and

Moissac

at

Christ

instructive

bears

forehead, cheeks, and

possesses
does
the
unblemished
The

more

Olympian
by the
eyes

hair, the

individualistic

of the

Apollo,
vicissitudes
Gothic

Christ

Amiens
character
who

is

of mortal

Christ

are

than

totally
ence.
existworked

Images

of Gods

the

Fig. 53.

as

aristocratic

an

familiar

new

serpent

Both

title in many

and

Christ

the

doors

guard but as host,

This
humanizing of

Judgment.

conquers.

to

the

Christ

Cathedral

Last

the

are

he

accessible

more

Handsome

the

in his appearance,

and

stands

evil

of the

of the

doors

of

scene

ture
sculp-

from

figure of

The

main

the

the

below

and

somewhat

French

(Fig. 68)

Amiens.

of

between

stands

Dieu

Beau

the

Cathedral

but

continued

are

thirteenth-century

the

55

west

of the eyeUd, and

area
pointedupper arch than does
of the Apollo'supper
the simphfiedperfect
arc
had
the iris
lids. (Both sculpturesoriginally
Gothic
Christ
lacks the
painted in.) The
of the Classical Apollo.
calm
maskhke
sculpturewith a
Comparison of a Buddha
in

greater detail in the

they have

more

thirteenth-centuryhead
cathedral

of

Christ

from

toward

Gothic

other

and

of Reims

anonymity in the celestial countenance,

of

range

feehng

deities. The

two

the viewer

to

wisdom

read

so

that

have

even

"

in

IX

Christ

was

begun

in the catacombs

firstas

terms

humble

then

Now

the

direction,to
discussed

in

French

man.

The

half of the

when

man,

ruler of Heaven.

taken
"

Christ

Christ

faces of the

(St.Louis) for his

now
literally
sented
pre-

of man,
or
represents the second

other

the

in the lines of the divine face; The

sculptormay
king perhaps Louis
model,

than

Gothic

sculptorwished
tenderness,compassion,pain,

Reims

the

providesus
with
summation
of two
a
radicallydivergent
in
the
of
tendencies
respectiveart forms
and Christianity
Buddhism
(Figs.70 and 71).
reveals
the
The
Buddhist
head
development
French

subtler

as

Christ
an

Reims

cycle

emerged

emperor

and

in the
cyclemoved
in the images of
terminate
the

section

on

Rembrandt

specificindividual. It
(Chapter 11).
incarnation
Christian art, like its theology,is
of that
Western
seeks a
spiritof
pure
dominated
Buddhism
as
by the execution of itsGod. Buddha's
conceivingof the Buddha
senting
repreof a religious death came
for three days he lay on
the incorporealessence
tranquilly:
with
attitude. The
his
his
smile On the Buddha's
recalls
head
side,
restingon his hand,
lips
right
until he passedinto the final nirvana (Fig.72),
his wisdom
and
sublimity,which he attains
in which
in the abyss or
he was
freed from
reincarnation.
sphere beyond nirvana. The
know
the marks
Reims
of his passionate
Buddhist
does not
Christ wears
art as
a
consequence
the
and
wrinkled
earthly sojourn in the worn
pathos of such Christian images as the
that this deity
French
surface of his face,and we
sense
panel painting
great fifteenth-century
known
the
Villeneuve (or Avignon) Pieta,
has a unique and dramatic
as
biography.There
the
dead
is no intimation of past experience,
of trial and
over
depicting the lamentation
Christ (Fig.73). Used
as
a
backdrop for the
pathos,in the images of Apollo and Buddha.
in conjunction with
the
altar and
thus seen
The
Christian face,however, speaks to us of a
this largepaintingis a brilliant blending
service,
tragicpersonaldrama; it displaysor infers a far
a

refusal

to

glorifya

Gandhara.
of Buddha, from
Figure 70. Head
5th century a.d. The Victoria " Albert Museum,
London
(Crown Copyright Reserved).

detail from the Coronation

Head ofChrist,
Figure 7 1
of the Virgin,Reims Cathedral. 1 3th century.
.

Plate

II.

Symbol of St. Mark, from

Manuscript illumination.

Echternach
Gospels.Anglo-Irish, c.
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.

the

700.

Plate

12.

from
the Evangelist,
the Gospel Book of Otto III. Reichenau.
Staatsbibliothek, Munich.
Manuscript illumination.

St. Luke

c.

looo.

Figure

72.

Ananda

Attendingthe
1

Figure

73.

Avignon

Master.

Parinirvana

2th

century.

Villeneuve Pieta.

of the Buddha, from Gal Vihara,

Granulite, height 23'.

c.

1470.

Oil

on

near

panel, s'sMs" x 7'i%

Polonnaruva.

""

Louvre, Paris.
57

actual

of the

the

and

the

the

literallythe
rather

to

the

represent

ment,
arrange-

supporting

and

the

of
of the

The

both

gold

nature

distended
show

to

attempt

an

after

events

of Christ

not

radiant

brown

mood.

Virgin
wounded

Christ, is

of

The

celestial

reddish

somber

has

displaying

body

dark

the

reflects the
which

and

the

establishes

theme,

earth

symboUc.

the

and

background

Crucifixion, but

symbolical

of the

nature

Virgin'ssacrifice of her
for mankind.
words
The
son
stamped into the
gold leaf at the top of the painting ("Oh, all
is
stop and see what
ye who
pass along the way,
the
from
Good
Friday Mass.
grief") are
my
the
Within
formal
deployment of the starkly
outhned
and
self-contained
known
figures, the undeath

and

artist has
that

so

response
shines
donor
head

created

each, by
the

to

the

event,

through
at

the

his

symboHc

left,whose

is juxtaposed with

tions
characteriza-

strong

differingpsychological
has a humanity which

the

The

function.

modeled

powerfully
flat reddish

the Heavenly
actual
an
Jerusalem, is not
but he
participant in or witness to the scene,
meditates
its significancein
prayerfully upon
intended
beholder.
that was
to inspirethe
a way
As
Christ's
achieved
an
body
increasingly
mortal

form

did

Redeemer
Christ's

Cross

of

became

challenge
the

toward

those

who

the

his

one

died

physical and

has

counterpart

no

end

of the Middle

followers, and
of

Ages,

the

reminding

artist's

spiritualanguish
in

Buddhist

that

us

greater than

was

or

that
these

on

the

Greek

first Crucifixion

wolves.

In

Christ's

74.
from

Museum,

The
an

London.

Crucifixion.Early 5th century.

ivory box, length y/%". The British

time

T-shaped,
roped to the

and

the

way

execution.

the

the

victim

to

he

while

cross

man

had

his hands

stillon

was

was

carried

on

site of execution

the

through

he

usually

was

himself

At

nailed

was

the

condemned

crossbar

crossbar, and

the

the

to

ground,

driven
single spike was
through the left foot
then
the right and
into the wood.
placed over
and
Next the executioners
raised the dying man
joined the crossbar to the upright post. Prisoners
wore

undergarment

an

the

them

around

when

the

their

across

their

plaque announcing
from

their necks
two

and

of

parts

loins, and

crimes

was

moved
re-

hung

above

cross

were

the

joined.
small

ivory

Cross,

with

by four
the

head

nails

and

and

is

who

the

later

Church

the

It

of

Christ,

with

his

that
head

dead

slumped

with

the

been

vertical.)A

loins

has

median

to

of

the

pathetic
and

Christ

century

body

to

(Figs.
of the

slumped to the
the
sculptor's

of death

form

involved

tradition

Christ's

moment

right. (From

seem

his

last

in the

of

the

the

his head

conception of what this

but
more
likelybecause
that

six

twelfth

the

according

right, perhaps

almost
sanction

reliquary made

ivory inset shows

an

crucified

in

On

left,

the

crucified

the

left,

far

the

until

show

to

death.

his eyes in
in the Rhineland

close

75, 76),

bent

ed.
avoid-

the

to

at

not

was

begin

to

and

artists had

that

form

tortured

the

were

side;

his

Virgin,

hanged Judas.

centuries

and

of physical suffering,
divinity.At the right,
figure, is Longinus, the

lanced
the

and

John

In

evidence

no

crucified

the

the

fastened
open,
this presentation,

type of death

stressingChrist's

below

ning
beginon

eyes

shoulders

in this

There
thus

the

Christ

shows

(Fig. 74).

common

from

carving

erect

head

sagging

knees

relief

fifth century

of the

St.
Panel

and

in

were

centurion

Figure

however,

appeared,

scenes

sculpture.Prior to that, there had

in the
been
form
of an
symbolic references
One
for the early absence
of
reason
empty cross.
this subject,so
central
to
Christianityand its
an
undignifiedpunishart, is that crucifixion was
ment
meted
out
to
criminals,
by the Romans
their
bodies
often
left to
be
devoured
by

man.

fifth century,

until the

not

was

the

profile

of

so

It

art.

head

saying

bowed

to

medical

evidence, it would

man

on

cross

would

straight downward,

of his torso, which

more

replaced

modest
the

would

have
in

line

have

covering for the

fifth-century

simple

Below:
Figure 75.
Church
Surmounted
c. 1 180. Gilt copper,

of a
Reliquary in the Form
by a Dome.
Cologne School.
champleve enamel, with ivor\panels.The Guelph Treasure, Berlin.

figuresand

detail
Right:Figure 76. Crucifixion,

breechcloth.

Even

earlier than

their

up

Cross, with
centuries

to

familiar

Mary

this became

come

this

and

St.

Christ's

on

Fig. 75.

example of
John had
positions
flankingthe

1180, the figuresof Mary

taken

of

left,and

for

the fixed format.

This

tion
panel is part of the gold and ivorydecoraof a reHquary-in the shape of a small
enameled
Byzantinecruciform church, made to
receive the head
of St. Gregory, brought to
Braunschweigfrom Constantinople
by Richard
the

Lionhearted

deceased

saint

in
and

Reverence

1170.

belief in

of his remains account

power
of substantial treasure
on

the

for the

for the

miraculous

expenditure

this small

casket.

-The

also a theme
of martyrdom,
Crucifixion,
was
an
the
appropriate subject to honor
his reliquary.
on
holy man
All that remains
from
a
large sculptured
Crucifixion scene
done
1400
about
by Claus
Sluter

for

crowned

with

of Thorns

had

Paris from

found

and

its way

and

to

true

Christ
Crown
in

Notre-Dame

Venice

thence

of

bust

(Fig.77).The

Byzantium

century,
medieval

is

monastery
thorns

in the

into

sculpture. Sluter avoided

teenth
thir-

Western
melodra-

Below:
c.

Figure 77.

1400.

Museum,

Claus

Sluter.

Stone, height 24". The

Dijon.

Head of Christ.
Archaeological

against

effect

for

relied
and
expression
the painful associations

matic
upon

of the

still, dignified bearded

Early Christian

in

of

the

interpretationsof

art.

impressive

most

and

of the

theme

the

personal

Crucifixion

Griinewald, which

is that by Matthias

occupies
panels of the henheim Altarpiece
1513
and
(PI. 6). Painted
probably between
intended
for
the
1515, the altarpiece was
order
of
of
the
church
hospital
monastery
of the

one

main

in

St. Anthony

such

diseases

be taken

to

as

first step in

The

and

before

have

to

said

thought

was

skin

that

for his

altar

the

at

manifestation

outward

tery's
monas-

skin
patients with
lesions.
and
syphilitic
leprosy
was
a
new
patient'streatment
the painting of the Crucifixion
treated

prayers

healing. It
the

The

Alsace.

Isenheim,

hospital

disease

of sin and

confronted
soul. The
patient was
painting of the
larger-than-life-sized
host to
soulless body was
Christ, whose
afflictions of the flesh. Only the
horrible
of God

had

Christ
that

heal

the

to
power
borne
all the

had

the

garbed

Word.

of the

The

such
Son

flesh

previous regal,

beautiful

and

authoritarian,

dead

of

incarnations

replaced by the image of the

The
vivid
depiction
compassionate martyr.
of the
eruptions, lacerations, and
gangrene
Christ

of

were

the

body

intended

were

to

the

encourage

with
Christ, thereby
patient's identification
the
late Middle
giving solace and hope. From
of the widespread
Ages, partly because
countless
pestilence,there are
examples in
the
and
literature
of northern
art
Europe of
the faithful being enjoined to identify themselves

emotionally with
Griinewald
the

who

the

Passion

drew

probably

fourteenth-century

upon

Swedish

the

of Christ.
vision

saint

wrote:

The

head;
blood
death

of thorns

crown

it covered

in

ran

spread
60

one

many

impressed

was

then
.

the

His

on

half of the forehead.

rills

of

Brigitta,

The

color

of

expired

the

were

if

on

they

were

fingerswere

and

mouth

the

hinges

were

around
the

The

eyes

bent

to

the

nails

cramped

so

the

tongue,

mouth.

knees

twisted

gaped,

the

see

in

The

side, the feet

the

could

blood

down.

cast

were

one
as

arms

stretched.

Griinewald's
image of Christ goes beyond this
description in exteriorizingthe body's final
of feeling.The
inner states
distension
extreme
of the limbs, the
convulsive

union

extremities, and

contorted

of the

contraction

of

eloquent testimony

torso

the

grim and

are

Griinewald's

obsession

suffering and violence in

the final rigidifying
Christ. He focused on
death
throes
so
convincingly that the feet, a single
hand, or the overwhelming face alone suffices to
the expiration of the entire
body. The
convey
brutal
of the Cross
strippingof the livingwood
with
is symbolically in accord
the flagellation
with

the

of Christ.
of the

be

of

Cedar, used

Cross,

was

leprosy. The
can

sinner, for

the

sorrows

was

corrupted
with the

had

spectators

teeth, and

The

face.

He
the

that

seen

the
head
and
of the
taut,
shght inclination
of
chest area,
giving evidence
finely modeled
life,constituted
the sculptor'sperceptive study from
the
important traits through which
could identifywith
monks
an
agonizing death;
these
qualities personalized Christ in ways
able
that
artisticallyand spirituallyunthinkwere

One

After

instead

thorns

hopeful
in

seen

also

the

for

the

vertical

employed

in the

of the

message

cure

for

painting
the light

between

contrast

member

illuminating the foreground and the murky,

device signifying
desolate landscape behind
a
Christ's
death.
Miraculously
triumph over
present for this Crucifixion, John the Baptist
"

intones,

"I shall decrease

Men

enjoined to

to

and

are

their

renew

He

as

humble

lives in God.

symbolic righthalf

shall increase."

themselves
The

of the

in order

static doctrinal
cbntrasts

painting

sufferingand emotion
in the grievingfiguresof St. John
to the left,
seen
the Virgin and
wald's
and
Mary Magdalen. Griineto
painting and views of religionseem
have
stressed a communal
to
tragic
response
but elevating religiousexperience.Psychologically
and esthetically,
each figure,like the composition
formed
as
a whole, is asymmetrical and
of an
synthesisof polarities.
uneasy
will be many
In subsequent chapters there
preted
interexamples of the ways in which Christ was
and
in the
during the same
century
Griinewald's
centuries that followed
altarpiece.
In the twentieth
the finest painting and
century
sculpturearc no longer primarilyin the service of
important art has been
religion,and the most
secular. Nevertheless, in 1948 two
enlightened
Catholic
priestsapproached the painter Henri

witlT the

extreme

human

Matisse,

non-Catholic,

to

decorate

convent

chapel

....

Purposes of

Art

at

Vence,

in southern

France.

Matisse's

u^^

Henri

Figure 78.

Matisse.

Ave

de la Croix
(left)and le Chemin
(end wall).Murals, 1951. Rosary

Chapel,

previous art had

subjectsthat were
eye,

such

The

decorator

and

murals

of

Stations

chapel

soft

glass.One

the Christ

ceramic

Cross

of

mural

child, and

yellow,

the

(Fig.78). The

the

other

stylethat,

full blossom

designs surrounding it,

evokes a joyful mood.
What
astounds
initially
visitors to the Rosary Chapel is the absence
of
facial features for the Virgin and Child. It is as
if Matisse

had

decided

that

of

the

Cross, Matisse

style:he
allowed
rather
express

avoided
a

than

numbered

follow

consistingof

the

of the action

and

Realizingthat

the

most
no

of

outlines
In

the

the

Stations
his
and

gracefulsilhouettes
facial

tragic theme.
and

creation,

own

harsh, angular

gestures and

the

his

consciously changed

the

more

could

viewer

each

projectinto the mural a face of

-but the brilUantlyeconomical
figuressuffice to identifythem.

one

drawing
"

events

another

with

worshiperknows

to

are

abruptly,

rudimentary
concern

"

expression

The

turned

but
He

indication

background.
the episodes

the

catacomb

artist

the medieval

as

artist

willingly
stylesof

did, repeat the conventions, types, and

his

predecessors.
helps to trace

Art

of

Matisse

symbolical or

synoptic rendering,
in a personal styleonly possible
in his time.
artist who
exemplifiesthe sincere modern
to

feels he cannot,

Christ, from

humble
God

the

first subject

like

by heart,

color

shows

soft,lyricalcurvilinear

decoration

changing

adjacent windows

blue

in

the

Matisse

linear black-and-white

of the

is drawn

colorful

as
a
,gifts
accepted

great

of his

received

from

Virgin and

with

Part

two

and

green,

of

draftsman,

that

reflected

and

women

possessor

this commission.
consisted

with
entirelyconcerned
and
delighted the

sensual

beautiful

as

interiors.

been

Vence.

messianic
to

the

those

changing conceptions
which

in

saw

shepherd, through
from

be revered

him

the

like
king-

afar,to the Godlike

ruler,
king who could be loved as a benevolent
and finally
of Sorrows, whose
to the Man
own
humanity.
compassion evoked the pityof suffering
The
transformation
of sacred art proceeded
for Apollo and the Buddha.
differently
Apollo's
in
effigybegan as sacred art and terminated
the profane imagery of a beautiful youth. The
Buddha's
a

humane

early interpretationprogressed from

the sacrosanct
individuality toward

impersonalityof the sixth and seventh centuries.

To
comprehend the effectiveness of Greek,
artists in uniting form
Indian, and Christian
and
idea, one
interchange in the mind's
may
eye

the

the

Apollo

Buddha
the

nude

of Amiens
S. Vitale

head

of the
at

with

Reims

Olympia,

Christ
the

Christ's role in the

figureof Apollo
Cathedral,

or

with

Moissac
the

that

throne

Beau

of Gods

altar

61

of

of

relief,

finally,transfer

Christ to the Grtinewald

Images

with

Lotus

Dieu
the

painting.

RELIQIOUS

ARCHITECTURE

is
history of religious architecture
The
than
record
styles and
engineering
more

of

achievements.
of
faith

temple

and

the

gifts. Until

speak
being

which

of the

of such

his

have

expressed
of their
the

and

the

universe

into
the
designs
Religious architecture,

is intended

gods,
and

what

lies

Thus

far

been
less
and

beyond

the
in

the

world

this

of

consensus

for

there

century

and

they

the

architect

bl

to

can

be

of

the

how

and

ways

by

few

the

with

expression

have

This

been

architects

great

for

god;

of the

and

other

in

differing

various

epochs.

met

in

its

beliefs

chapter

demands

constant

special requirements

ability
suit-

structure's

its eflectiveness

worshipers.

these

tect
archi-

religious

its conduciveness
liturgy';

meaningful

clergy

discusses

communion

or

as

the

the

sacred

who

have

relied
attitudes

their

as

prayer

of the

that

the

God

his

the present,

to

PARTHENON

THE

this life.

these

on

to

pin-pose

feelingsof

own

personal interpretation of
were
working. Today as

which

past,

than

performance

of

in

worship

designing

instance,

tecture
archi-

ensuing

images

few

are

congregational

symbols

been

religious

like

and

and
lasting distinction,
by gifted individuals

intuition

faith

visible

of

evoke

of

conventional

artistic

the

have

manifest
to

in

created
on

make

to

intellect, and

the

buildings

has

opportunity for self-expression.In

public conceptions of the nature

structures.

senses

bolized
sym-

the

in

learned
in

the

who

demands

meet

for

has

influence

antiquity

basic

house

he

expresses

of those

From

to

architecture:
as

cultures.

architect

incorporated
of

in

as

had

he

but

help

been

have
has

while

views

temple.

or

there

ways,

deity, heaven,

church

turies,
cen-

or

the

religiousexperience

endeavor

social

values

manifold

twentieth

architecture

collective

proportionately

greater

variety of

and

of

gift to

and

pupil,

past,
cannot

act

an
a

"

the

as

the

tion
construc-

been

for

return

sacred

most

Thereafter,
had

in

architects
the

has

its builders

nineteenth

can

ways

by

living

the

we

many

church

or

gratitude by

from

god

history the

Throughout

teacher
from

much

the

The

the
B.C.,

and

the

Acropolis
does

symbols.
does

of

spiritual meaning

(Fig. 79),

not

not

celebrated
of Athens
lie in

during

of

the

is

the

higher

values

on

cosmic

architectureforms

the

nonetheless

built

fifth centurywith

Parthenon's

literallyrepresent

religion, it

temple

its formation

the

Although

Parthenon

the

Greek

an

of

myth

inspired
of

pression
ex-

Classical

sfe

Jtr^*^.i"

Ictinus

Fiajure 79.

Greece.

Through

circumstantial

of

is

world

city. The
finished

was

the sacred

center
was

view

are

432

important

known

for

hill of the

as

the

the

through

of Periclean

and

Athens

b.c.) and

of

date

of

protector

its

the

city's

Athena

heights

and

goddess of fortified places.During the Persian

of the 480s, a partiallyconstructed
temple dedicated to Athena, tutelary goddess of
burned
and
Athens, was
largely destroyed.
what

seemed

the miraculous

Persians,the Athenian
construction

goddess. The

defeat

of the

tardilyauthorized

of

the
to
a
new
temple dedicated
occurred
buildingof the Parthenon

in the flush of Greek

gods, Athenian

Senate

confidence

moral

in the Athenian

values, Athenian

the

on

the

Acropolis,Athens.

and,

seas,

above

447-432

all, in

mer-

of what

and

power
was

culture.

of
Ironically,construction
with the beginning
great temple also coincided
of the fateful decline of Athens'
political

the

offended

as

for it himself

pay

historians

project at

were

To

prevent

public

these

expense;

by contributions

covered

League, comprised
state, by loot

that

Pericles,the Senate

solely to

accrue

the

several

have

felt

corruption.Many in Athens
tested
proof the temple and
were
great cost
well at Pericles' impatient offer to

her moral

its location

considerations.

northwest),

success

Athenian
the

tion
sculptural decora-

Acropolis in

the

cantile

non
Parthe-

invasions

After

(view from

spiritualself-portrait
the

B.C.;

by

Parthenon

The

of culture, the

reason

building (447-438
on

and

analogies

type of idealized

that

Callicrates.

evidence

reflects the
and

and

from

of

from

allies of

Athenian

piracy

the

glory

approved
expenses
the

nian
Athe-

that

city-

and

tary
mili-

campaigns, and by contributions from free

work
on
citizens,who with their slaves donated
a
daily basis. The small size of the Parthenon
with

compared
reflects
resources

the

marked

and,

to

immense

Egyptian temples
in
respective

difference
some

extent,

Religious Architecture

the absence

63

of

B.C.

Above:

Figure 80.
The

above

The

non:
Parthe-

Panathenaic

the Western

Frieze

Entrance

to

the Cella.

Right: Figure 8
(from

the

Gorham

by

reconstruction

Stevens,

School

American

Parthenon

The
.

west;
P.

of

The

Classical

Studies, Athens).

in Greece.
caste
Nevertheless,
powerful priestly
was
a
city of 100,000 people,the Parthenon
ambitious
Parthenon
an
undertaking. The
and
wisdom
was
a
gift to the goddess of war
from free men
her.
who
to
willinglysubmitted
votive offeringin return
for
a
Moreover, it was

Athens

past naval

from

for

was

and

commercial

success,

for Athena

also the protectress of the navy.

The
extent
of community
participationin
Athena

honoring
525-foot
around

frieze
the

is

running

outside

64

commemorated
from

of the

Purposes of

west

sanctuary

Art

in
to

walls

the
east
at

the

top and

above

(see Fig. 80). The

relief is the

the

entrances

subject of

Panathenaic

to

that

ceremonies

four

the

cella

this continuous
took

Athena's

honor

place every
years
of
birthday.A processionof representatives

woven

escorted
the

the

to

wheeled

of which

mast

purple

woolen

there

sail

was

hung

all

ship,
newly

peplos; on this
in gold mementos
of
Athena
triumphed.

sail,or

embroidered
peplos were
legendary battles in which
When
the processionreached
the

of

model

the

lowered, folded, and

Parthenon,
turned

over

who
to a priest,
draped it on the statue of the
goddess in the sanctuary. In the rehef, also,
the gods are
shown
seated as guests at the ceremonial
in
the
rehef
banquet
sanctuary. The
and the organizingof the
depictsthe sequence
which
procession,
began in the cityand which
included
the marshals, magistrates,sacrificial
zens,
animals, libation-bearingmaidens, elderlycitiyouthfulmusicians, charioteers,and armed
about 40 feet
cavalry. The location of the relief,
above
the base, and the consequent
mination
illupoor
and

indicate

partialobstruction by the
was
primarilyintended

of Athena.

eyes

columns

that it

viewers

To

accommodate

ground level, the

on

for the

the

mortal

sculpture is

in

higher relief at

the top of the frieze.

Panathenaic
processionrecalls the

The

in which

the
with

temple
the

built. Art

was

civic ceremonies

spirit
woven
inter-

was

ing
accompany-

dramatic

performances,athletic games, and

religiousofferingsand rites (Fig.81). Public
as
expenditure for art was conceded
necessary
to

enrich

lives of Athenian

the

ideal citizen of Athens

was

an

citizens. The

active contributor

affairs of the

the

city.Within half a century

others,
by, among
Pericles,Sophocles,Aeschylus, Euripides,AnaSocrates,Thucydides, and the sculptor
xagoras,
of the sculpturaldecoration
Phidias, overseer
of the Parthenon.
In conjunctionwith
Pericles,
it may
have
been
Phidias
who
assigned the
architectural design to Ictinus and an
assistant
Callicrates. Many artists were
named
recruited
for the project,
and according to Plutarch, who
centuries
wrote
the spirited
later, such was
the workers
and artists to excel
rivalryamong
in qualityand speed that, to the amazement
of
was
subsequent generations, the Parthenon

occasions.

finished

the

to

this

ideal

realized

was

within

the

lifetime of those

who

gurated
inau-

it.

is the

temple
in

which

this purpose
front of the

of

eastern

as

great

The

entrance.

Parthenos, garbed

the

wide

on

the

an

interior

altar

Athena

statue's

or

megarons,

congregation worshiped; for

was
placed outside, in

a
an

housed

unusually

temple

of the Parthenon.

designed

temple
The

the

to

was

The

kings, built

the time

not

was

Parthenon

of Athena.

Mycenaean

Acropolislong before
space

of the

descendant

dwellings of
This

Plan of the Parthenon

Procession

the

height.Although
that Phidias
the

dress

made

and

Entrance

to

originalis lost,we know

sculptureusinggold for
and

the

The

sanctuary

for

ivory

the

flesh.

used for the interior armature.

was

for

priestsand

athenaic
Pan-

this

armor

ship'smast

and

(afterN. Yalouris).

sanctuary

reserved

was

for the

privilegedlaymen on
laitywere
permitted to

look into

the

eastern

through

certain

enormous

doors.

The
prime purpose
provide a worthy house
form

Figure 82

cella of the

gigantic 40-foot
in

military costume.

size therefore

plan

to

effigyof

required an

satisfythe

necessary

The

with

architecture.

sacred
east-west

south
the
onto

the

of the

orientation

painstakingcare,

east,

The

temple

out

for all ancient

has

roughly

central axis is slightly

that

so

true

was

orientation. The

of due

worked

temple was

as

Athena's

on

birthday

risingsun shone directlythrough the doors

her effigy.
The
location
of the temple on
also calculated
to permit the
Acropoliswas

widest
various

view

from

points

the

the

againstthe sky, the

The

form

basicallythat

of

sea,

the

of the

city below,

Parthenon
or

the

Parthenon
traditional

ReligiousArchitecture

may

and
be

from
seen

mountains.

(Fig. 82) is
temple.

Greek

65

The

83.

Figure

Parthenon:

Omitting

(right),
Classical

the

Studies,

with

its walled

interior

windowless

eastern

cult

statue

seen

in

was

an

plan

from

view

the

illumination

wooden

temples

are

they

interiors,

of

later

storage

votive

it

offerings,

which
Since

confined
part

the

Classical

its

to

public

and

visually

ritual

accessible.
entail

programs

also

of

secretive

The

of

outside
that

suggests

66

in

the

the

temple

Purposes

inspired

of

was

Art

This

the

fact

out

of
to

gods
of

important

pediments

and
more

for

well

the

as

of

and

arose

reality,

doors,

of

the

is

world

after

not

ancient

attributes

sculptural

temple

metopes

demonic

"extro-

fear,

sculpture
and
of

the

the

little
had

its

The
a

of

chaos

to

over

been

used

on

when

temple,

the

and

Athena's

perfect

include

Parthenon

idea

static,

before,

century
to

unity

Greek

the

express

apprehension,
The

The

rational

completion

common

unknown.

wisdom,

knowablc,

extended

were

equilibrium.

in

order."

ultimately

as

of

inscribed

been

analogy

the

Greeks'

philosopher

were

in

of

the

victory.

Athenian

belief

Greeks.
us

of

84).

human

the

goddess

have

Fig.

the

of

and

made

visual

symmetrical;

appear

reminds

things

makers'

its

of

of

it

symbol

well
"All

in

nature

fifth-century

order
names

architectural

about

the

known

this

(The

shown

more

as

inclusive

could

affirming

of

state

Athena

Parthenon

mind

severity

intellect

an

the

that

did

ruined

elements

Classical

us

rounded
sur-

columns.

order

are

tells

of

goddess.

of

tuary's
sanc-

were

Classical

war

decoration

human

reverence

as

intended
The

horizontal

the

the

sculpture.

was

range
the

to

and

for

climbed.

handsome

to

three-stepped

entrances

metaphysical

Anaxagoras
be

not

most

ceremonial

presence

believed

should

Greek

the

from

hung

earth

steps

and

location

its

of

words

intended

was

in

power
as

name.

conducted

temple

Worship
the

Egypt.

the

known

the

does

wall

Parthenon

Even

pedestal

masculine

and

than

the

horizontal
were

the

and

The

on

being

precise

The

nian
Athe-

Virgin"),

by

and

and

the

from

their

appropriate

was

the

to

marble

columns

individual

the

belong

Doric.

as

columns
them

elements

was

the

was

the

explained
was

and

is its exterior.

design

be

of

of

outer

sanctuary.

architects

temple

interior, perhaps

may

the

its

Greek

Parthenon's

emphasis

the

took

of

completely

chamber

This
of

of

not

was

the

apart

as

height

above

the

much

discourage

to

These

objects, important

state.

address

white,

mounted

was

by

edifices

treasury

temple

splendor

of the

of

School

Pentelic

blue;

above

it

set

Greek

Rome

western

the

the

whole

the

Sanctuary

trophies.

temple
that

enclosed

other

Athena

ritual

its

shimmering

blocks

The

historically

within

crowd,

("Chamber

the

that

of

not

and

and

Parthenon

the

the

American

in

painted

military

ceiling

the

large

Imperial

as

for

of

first

in

as

smaller,

space

League

of

The

exterior

were

architrave
with

The

the

flat

were

viewer,

way
door-

huge

The

triglyphs

base

Natural

Beneath
a

space

statue

did

and

second,

the

Stevens,

interiorized

than

community.

the

permitted

interest

the

such
The

if

was

the

shaped

France.

the

sanctuaries

though

even

dominated,
The

roof

among

periods,

Gothic

by

that

rear.

wide).

substantial

are

that

the

feet

The

expressively

so

from

13

there

behind

to

aisle

an

tiled

beams.

be!cause

P.

columns

As

length.

colonnade

provided

high,

double-pitched
of

View

Longitudinal

Gorham

by

verted"
the

(Figs. 82, 83),

doorway

image

was

feet

(32

of

Detail

parts.

"Hecatompedos"

open

the

two

housing

100-foot

section

it formed

of

into

the

its

two-tier

where

statue,
a

of

and

inner

continued

(left) and

(reconstruction

chamber
as

because

the

divided

known

was

feet),

Section

Chamber

Athens).

The

(100

Cross

Storage

if

and

not

its

man's
sculptural decoration, instead, expresses
in himself, in his place in the world,
confidence
human
had
in the dignity of his gods, who
and
these
well
divine
as
as
qualities.To translate
religiousand philosophical generalitiesinto the
of the temple, it is important
specificcomponents
that

goddess'

the

on

from

The

we

architectural

the

and

ruins

appreciate
speculation

Athenian

Classical

like

sculpture, was

similar

While

single glance.

this

fication,the Parthenon's
itselfthus

tidy

whole

making

eye.

We

which

the

be

the

relationships

have

identified.
like

Given

half of

one

maximum

Beauty
'Classical

Greek

nature

temple,

be

it would

the

half

other

in

parts,

terms

its
and

of

ideal,

an

body. Such

disposed

or

body,

related
inter-

and

lucidly

and

symmetrical

was

the

interpretablc to

were

Greeks

weight and support. The temple

like legs easily
capitals are

their

supporting

tapered, and

preference

the

certainty.

and

manifested

tity
idento

of symmetry.

ideal

reconstruct

or

similar

proportion

Greek

conceptually perfect,human
composed of harmoniously

columns

with

and

the

possibleto predict
with

Parts

measure

whole, constituting

for

found

sculpture. Each

torso.

The

fluted

column

the
in

is based

upon

taste

animate

the
groove

best
or

for

round,

is indicative
and

sensitive

of

portion
pro-

fifth-century figure
flute

unit, and

Professor

revealed

Ictinus'

use

of

faces

west

length

is also

diameter

to

the

long
on

reduces

to

module

and

mentally

to

interval

sides

are

the

east

to

has
rather

structure's

its width

perfect
ratio

The
the

on

9; that of its width

of the

that

between

and

columns

plus

relation.

proportions

and

its

(intcrcolumns
the

one

which

With

architect

east
to

column

seventeen

west,

Dinsmoor's

Parthenon

harmony.

twice

ratio, the

all the

the

4. The

to

and
Athenian

an

mathematics

9, and

to

is 9

columniation)
the

is 4

was

the

of

impulse to achieve
unprecedented visual
the temple's height to

and

perfect

William
of

than
and

the

module

There

measuring

of the

of the Parthenon

mathematical

is

is that

Like

form

man's

Parthenon

than

temples.

of ratios.

set

of

size of the

form, the

the
of

terms

width

oriented

cation
appli-

but

could

eight
again

single

calculate

dimensions

of

Figure 84.

Sectk""fi''

D'--

YklouriiTynifW

PedimeriT

f\t(^0Tc^''i-

Each
in the

seen

of the
Doric
order; if separated
totality,the part and its location could

quickly

human

consistent

the

over-all

humanly
Egyptian

idealized

(after N.

nomenclature
from

The

itself more

in

expressed

and

the

between

city-state, of

identity,as

own

of their

embodiment.

the

was

its

has

at

parts and

other

Greek

polls, or

Athena

component

the

in

be

can

of

intervals

immediately

are

to

unlike

not

"

taken

parts, then

individual

the

up

diameter

on

seems
an
oversimphmajor design does give

disciplinedrelation

and

the

to

the

readily to

of certain

aware

column

shoulders.

evidence

scale, the

axes

columns

described

be

can

columns,
harmonious

has

Spengler
which

that

as

the

as

have

themselves

stability. Oswald
Classical

such

elements,

within

which

further

column

meticulous

Gr-eek
ideal
of
the
to
designed according
harmothe
curythmy, or
well-projX)rtioned,
of-thejvhple.
nious, and
pleasing"appearance
It gave
the
immediate
impression of compactness
and completeness, and its beauty lay in the
impossibilityof adding, subtracting, or altering
Its
disrupting the whole.
part without
any
of a
lucid
consisted
ideal
repetition
rhythm
of

As

of human

foot

nature.

Parthenon,

back.

mammoth

still perceive its

can

with

accorded

this

whole

the

though

even

design

radiant
how

visualize

we

ensemble,

man's

can

contain

his

had

sheet

that
one
building. (Reflect for a moment
entire day's wage.)
of parchment cost
an
It is hkely that
Pythagoras' work with numbers
be expressed
and
his behef that everything could

frames

in

of them

terms

influenced

Ictinus.

Numbers

incorruptiblevalues
because
they existed outside the senses.
Looking
the
permits both
patiently at the Parthenon
and the intuition of its proportional
visualization
induces
of equania
mity
strong sense
system, which
believed

were

and

and

eternal

of the structure's

rightness.

from
separating Ictinus' Parthenon
earlier
and
Greek
the excellence
temples are
There
thoroughness of its optical refinements.
is not
a
perfectly straight line in the entire
of every
building. The
subtly curving
purpose
have
been
the
to
correct
edge may
optical
distortion of sagging that one
experiences when
have
been
looking at a long straightline or may
to
give a more
or
a
sculptural appearance
certain
the
springiness to activate
temple's
relation
the ground, and
also that
of its
to
their load. Each
to
supporting columns
step is
convexly curved, with this almost imperceptible
curvature
dous
forming the perimeter of a tremencircle having a diameter,
according to
Further

of

Dinsmoor,

portion

Below:
irom

Bottom:

of the

354

Figure 85.
the

miles.

temple

The

above

Hermes

east

frieze

of the

Figure

86.

Hermes

and

the

column

upper
level

were

have

order

detail
A"

of

and

curve,

the

even

curved.

The

columns

been

placed

closer

great

door
the

near

together

in

provide a visual arrest for the eye as it

moves
(It also
along the peripheral colonnades.
to
with
serves
align the triglyphsand metopes
the columns
in such a fashion that two
triglyphs
made
the corner.) The
four
to
at
meet
are
have
columns
been
corner
so
slightlythickened
the
not
to
as
spindly or thinner than
appear
others since, because
of their position,they are
seen
shafts, which
against the sky. The column
have
been
given a slightswelling (entasis)as
they

to

rise from

the

base, also

tilted

are

back

slightlyto prevent the illusion that the building

is fallingforward.
Use
of such
ments,
optical refinewhich
ledge
knowrequired a consummate
of

mathematics

and
the

labor, augmented

immeasurably, though
immediately

or

themselves
The

apparent

subtly

brilliant

such
to

the

on

execution

extremely
of

the

devices

are

beauty

but

the eye
mind

of these

and

difficult

temple
not

all

impress
feelings.

refinements

in

previous occasional
but unsystematic use,
thereby assistingIctinus
to
to
perfection.
bring the Greek
temple form
The
Parthenon
further
enhanced
was
by
superb sculpture (Figs.85-87), in the form of
the Parthenon

surpasses

any

Magistratewith Boy FoldingPeplos (extreme right),

relief,height 3'7". The

Marble

Dionysus,

similar

corners

Dionysus (seated left) and

Parthenon.
and

entire

Fig. 85.

British

Museum,

London.

above-described

the

continuous

frieze,metopes,

the

pediments, and
decorative
acroteria, or roof sculptures.(These
last-named
and
included
lion heads
a
sculpture
of the pediment, all of which
at the apex
group
have
been
lost.)The metope sculptures,which
dealt not
with
the historically
Persian
recent
Wars
but with legendary victories won
by the
of the Athenians
the Lapiths,
ancestors
over
Centaurs, and Trojans, lent animation
to the
two

tympanum

horizontal

metope
in

wide

the

and

vertical

figuresare
varietyof
of

axes

contained

on

groups

temple)The

lines of the

carved

in strong

movements

at

their

frames.

relief and

variance

The

with

tympanums

sculpturalrepresentationsof, on

east, the birth of Athena

the brow

the

of Zeus

the
over
victory of Athena
sculptureswere
supervised by
Phidias. Many
of them
were
painted and were
carved
in the round.
Isolated, each figure has
niously
an
autonomous
beauty, and yet it fits harmointo a larger
Despite the magnificence
group.
of these
sculptures,as decoration
they
did not overbalance
the temple as a whole
but
served
esthetic
as
a
crowning religiousand

and,

the

from

on

Poseidon.

west,

These

element.

Just as the Parthenon

civilizingideals and
the

Classical

recall
its

Ictinus

art.

not

refined
but

Greek

mind,

and

he

of that

slave to it. Within

had

come

knew

the

but

principlesof

continued

forms
was

with

to

their

such

no

found

in

-of Western

like other
about

of years

thousands

was

Herbert
Greeks

the

structural

later

Rome

Europe.

to

esthetic
Parthenon

the

as

It is recorded

that

great artists of his age,

Greek

cool

not

aloofness

and

it hard
times

to

downfall

adapt

thenon.
Par-

is

is

to
a

no

the

Greek
to

followed.

with

Before

is

pended.
sus-

but

part

inabilityto

other

of

countries.

disunity caused
Pericles

tical
Polithe

and

the

sustain

tiators
ini-

Phidias,

the
latter
ironicallyand
for
stealing gold intended
that
Longer than the city-state

that

a
pious
aspiration.

and

Parthenon

endured

we

cathedral, it might
was

metope

of

ideals have

observation

time

power,

statue.

restricted

the

by

missing between
Athens.
fifth-century

her

was

Parthenon,

produced it, the

the

exquisite closed perfection

of the Parthenon, like Classical sculpture,
partake of the qualitiesof variety,the

life in

and

falselyaccused
Athena's

the Classical

art

coincidental,

alliances

fall from

ical
psychologdaily living.

links

many

of Athens

successful

book

that

pointed out

and

it is

of the

The

that

Parthenon

Perhaps

Ictinus,

wrote

architecture.

are

misfortune

Typical of Classical art

codify what is perfect,and there
or
engineering advance
beyond
in

the

was

ancient

of history (as shown

sense
In
Classical
mythical reliefs).

period

medieval

the

respect for empirical knowledge,

no

There

there

adventurousness

has

in

no

traditional

buildings, and

or

ordering impulse found

tensions
and
changing

do

dome

the

certain

his work.

desire

The

and

arch

associate
sacred

Greeks

MuUer
had

and

warmth,

encountered

range

before,

old. The

emotional

unexpected,

temple

The
engineering of the Parthenon
extremely conservative; its post-and-lintel

system

on

"

and

tradition,

architecture.
is

Figure 87. Triglyphs and

Metope
Metope 4'8" 4'2".

also

it

culture

Greek

revolutionize

not

of

definite limits he

what

improved

did

does

so

high

instinct

respectful of

was

the

to

ordering

of the limitations

some

though

tribute

pays

the

the

move

as
on

well to

be

Greeks'

observation

of

Religious Architecture

its noble
beautiful

to

the

recall

but
straction.
ab-

Gothic

Spengler's
worship
form, not soaring
mode

of

69

Chartres
dral
CatheFigure 88.
the city),
(view from
1 194-1260.
c.

THE

CATHEDRAL

QOTHIC

periodof

The
in

best

approach
is that

France

medieval

city

Gothic

the

to

which

pilgrim, who, travehng

such

Chartres, first

as

million

cathedral

taken

was

by
foot

on

the

saw

the
to

distant

the open
fields. Physispiresacross
cally,
and spiritually,
the Cathedral
esthetically,
of Chartres
stilldominates
the town
(Fig.88).

but

not
glorified

also

the

cathedrals
divine
Gothic
very

in

that

cathedrals

houses

Christ

cities that

as

his

the
and

erected

man's

symbohzed
well

as

above

rose

only

Virgin

them.

The

The

the

eleventh

and

twelfth

of these cities in

centuries.

The

important
stages in European socio-economic
growth:
'the accumulation
of wealth, organization of
labor, administrative
efficiency,
transportation
land communications
lishment
improvements, the estabof relative political
and specific
stability,
developments and techniquessuch as horseshoe
I nails and pulleysin mechanics. There also began
intellectual resources
to emerge
and
significant
activityoutside
the

hundred-mile

covered
a
was

the

with

"snowfall
at

monasteries.

the twelfth

During

and

what

one

medieval

of cathedrals."

that

time

an

centuries,
Paris

around

area

writer

was

called

Cathedral

economic

building
expenditure

surpassed only by

war.
Today it staggers the
imaginationthat a citysuch as Chartres, having
a
probable population of 10,000 in the twelfth

century,

should

70

undertake

Purposes of

to

Art

in

erect,

within

some

singlestructure
of seventy-five
extent
satisfying
French

great

cence
magnifivated
undoubtedly moti-

was

by secular concerns,
benefits,but the deep and

cathedrals
variations

the

are

in

such

of

as

less
measure-

of the builders
their cities,
no

sheer

the

size,
Gothic

from

In addition

same.

their

complexity
prohibitsus

architecture

all

cities

in the size and

part

Gothic

to

above

was

faith and optimism

religious
Like
trulythe prime movers.

were

cathedral

writing about
temple.
against

fixed type as we
could about the Greek
This varietyin itself furnishes evidence
a

view

stereotype

There

only

was

cathedral

The

the

essential
medieval

unity,

society
._^

Church, however, and

one

does

unification.

of

lethargyof

and

conservatism,

symbolize
so-called

the

basic

Gothic

spiritual
a
period was

continuing change; its architectural

styles seemed
constantly in process, their
evolution
reminding us of the vitality and
time

of

discord
The
Latin

thirteenth

another

one

economic

the

reflected

turn

excess

to

of their cathedrals

variety and

was
basicallyan urban
style,for the
phenomenon of cathedral
building presupposed
the extensive
development of cities

growth

dollars. While

outdo

to

two

of the

awareness

self-consciousness.

own

in

pride,the Gothic cathedral

giftto God. The rivalrybetween

medieval
the

thirtyyears,
cost

now

civic

cathedral

The

less than

would

that

of the Middle

Ages.
the
from
"cathedral," derived
that
the bishop's seat_
cathedra,signifies
word

The
bishops and
represented,in a sense,

is within.

Cistercian

denying

monasteries
doctrines.

their urban

reflect

earth

civil community
monastic

of the

attitude

cathedrals
life "^

toward

explicit
recognitionof

more

than

churches.

and

richlyornamented

The

affirmative

more

and

the

their ascetic world-

and

elaborately designed exteriors

on

dioceses

rivalry with

do the

From

no

austere
matter

the

introverted
which

pros-

pect within
the

the

town

views

one

or

cathedral,the forcefulness and

approaches
rich variety

designmake themselves felt.There was no

sacred way
by
prescribedapproach, no one
the worshiper was
to
which
proceed to the
In their original
of God.
front of this house
of its

state, the cathedrals

not

were

or
plazasthat
open
spaces
in their present condition

might

have

had

some

sort

isolated with

(Fig.89). A
of squares

the

of them

girdlemany

cathedral

on

the

west

secular
north or south, but usuallythe city's
the church
buildings encroached
directly
upon
walls,on its complex of chapterhouse,cemetery,
school, prison, and bishop's residence. This
and

tightproximity of the secular and the sacred

the role that the cathedral playedin the
parallels
community.
The

Gothic

focus
religious

cathedral

the day's secular

events

was

than

more

the

Its bells regulated

society.
activities,
justas the significant
of Christ,the Virgin,and the

of its

in the Hfe

provided the calendar for great fairs,

and performancesof the mystery plays.
festivals,
the public's
needs and love
The cathedral met
for splendor and
spectacle,serving as the
gious
backdrop and stage not only for its daily relibut also for public festivitiesthat
drama
Public explooften were
irreverent in nature.
sions
saints

that

occurred

at

the

Feast

of the

Figure89. Amiens

Fools

Cathedral

accepted by churchmen

were

safety valves

as

of
against the rigors,the severe
proscriptions
Christian dogma. For this reason,
on
specific
occasions,gambling and sausage-eating at the
high altar were
permitted, donkeys were
worshiped in the sanctuary amid the incense of
burning shoe leather,or the laitymight elect a
dress up as monks, and parody the
mock
pope,

church

service. The

Father

served

children.

brought

During
wealth

cathedral's
and

to

the
the

construction,

because

fairs that attracted

and

also because

the

sale

sacred
enormous

Church-owned

the

people from

of the wealth

from
all

over

attracted

to

chants.
mer-

build

secular

France,
through

indulgences, giftsto enshrine

relic of the Virgin's cloak, and
sums
accruing to the bishop
from

land

unusual

conducted
on

income

or

the

by
able

of

deacons
not

Heavenlyl

the

playground for hi,s^J

important fairs that
city and funds for the

as

used
tax-free property was
The city of Chartres was

its cathedral

and

of

house

times

at

holdingsand
have

to

within

the

occasion,wine

business
nave

tithes. It

the
,

the^H
and
was

transactions

of the

cathedral,

sold in the crypt of

was

Chartres.
The

about

encountered

silence
is in

great

which

the

(aerialview), c.

contrast

today
to

in the cathedrals

the clatter of voices

priests
complained in

1220-

medieval

.,}'

\-

^i-//
of Hugh
Figure 90.
Lefl: Tombstone
Libergier of Reims
(died 1263). Photo
courtesy Carl F. Barnes, Jr.
Below:

Drawing of the Labyrinth, Reims

(begun 121 1).

Cathedral

times. The

buildingof

the rood

between

screen

for

portion of the church in

the sixteenth century was
partlybecause of the
need for privacy of the priests
while they celebrated
the

and

nave

the

eastern

Mass.

The

cathedral

served

nave

hall, as a
variouslyas a lecture and concert
and
repositoryfor important civic documents
for commemorative
a

municipal

many

only

monuments,

instances
the

arsenal,

an

trystingplace.In

the

bishop or deacons
portion of the church
belonged to the city.

eastern

the nave,

and

museum,

as

which

owned
and

not

ano'r

builders

they

ymity, the great

esteem

held, and

the

were

honored.

were

Libergier of Reims
Amiens
builders

and

d'Orbais

Robert

were

Certain

in

stonemasonry.
Robert
such
as

moreover,

de

de

the
the

nave

Hugh
of

Luzarches

notable

architects,

Luzarches

the

and

at

Hugh

they built,
the

burial

of the architects

names

of the work"

medallion

which

and

in churches
entombed
were
Libergier,
and their effigies
were
engraved on

slab;

master

by

examples.) For instance, some

given such degrees as a doctorate

arc

"masters

ARCHITECTS

(Jean

in which
means

were

inscribed

in

or

floor

of a labyrinthincised on
(Fig.90). The labyrinth was

the end

pavement

architect's mark

because

it

associated

was

Daedalus, designerof the famous labyrinth

in the ancient
Cretan
palace of Cnossos, who
with

The

fact that

cathedrals
Chartres

they

were

"

"

who

such

does

know

worked
the

as

not

not

names

survived

72

of many

the

one

or

for
that
were

priesthood. In

medieval

Purposes of Art

Gothic

view

time

medieval

of the

of

names

the

principal

substantiate

because

the
on

in their own
anonymous
the
of the
"folk"
or

simply
the
reality,
have

do

we

architects

many

architects
distaste

was

honored

architects.

as

the

their knees, those

who

could

Jerusalem were
journey symbolicallyand,
to

of

ancestor

By crawling along

the

not

able
not

medieval

labyrinthon
make
the pilgrimage
to

make

the

coincidentally,

master
pay their respects to the builder. The
builders of the cathedrals, the equivalentsof

Plate
Oil

14.
on

Jan

van

Eyck.

panel, 8V16

St.

Jerome

5^/4"-The

in His

Detroit

Study,

Institute

1432-41.
of Arts.

c.

ip

"3

"J

"2

-a

sO
w

o
u

Q
2
"

"
o
o

V
o

U
T3

C3
-t-"

(/!

15
m

u
'u
o

00

""

present-day architects, frequently

came

trained

distinguished lay families,were

had
fathers, and
roughly a

by

from

these

great projectsdied, his

their

what

had

middle-class

and

have
to
professionalstatus. They seemed
of good moral
and
been
character
pious men
who
education
were
quite well off financially.
They had
opportunity for travel, since their

free

services

often

were

basis.

Their

masonry

or

education

and

and

international

an

in

the

craft

Euclidean

various

that

building

passed

their
what

worked,

Much

one

and

for centuries

developed
of

notebook
Villard

de

trial

by

the

of

niques
tech-

were

generation to the next.

education
was
empirical,being

on

based

Gothic

and

of
on

tecture
archiThe

error.

thirteenth-centuryarchitect

Honnecourt

reveals

broad

osity,
curi-

niture,
encompassing machines, sculpture, furdetails of buildings,and
animals.
The
builder
master
might well be versed in the
furniture,and
making of objectsand ornaments,

fortifications,
as
He

looked

rather

than

/The

to

the

the

and

of the

decide

how

the

to

he

business

priest
bishop,
building the

usually rehed

se

per

on

man
fore-

ing
Managthe

not

was

architect's

It

is

shop
work-

permanent

and

established
planning office was
during
cathedral's
thirteenth
building. By the

the

orders

master

builder

and, in turn,

superior to
Because

that

needed

achieved

of earlier

only
social

medieval

give

to

status

architects.

of its

prohibitivecost, plans
drawn
the
until
fourteenth
on
parchment
century. Earlier, drafting of details or sections
had
usually been done on plasterslabs or wood
saved. Not until the
not
panels,and these were
were

not

fifteenth

century,

leschi's Pazzi

with

the

Chapel, was
meticulously planned in
the details of building and
trusted
to experienced and
and
an
sculptors.When

erection
the

whole

advance.

of Brunel-

building
of
Many

ornament

masons,

architect

style that

modern

viewer

basic

problems

Cathedral

style,for its
standard

any

of

it is able

absorb

to

such

modes.

Gothic

cathedral

with

impresses the

its rich

symbohsm,

the

builder
confronting the master
were
various
considerations
practical. His
included
of
adapting his plan to the demands
the liturgyand
the performance of the canonical
offices;providing for the proper
dispositionof
relics and
subsidiary altars; facilitatingthe
of

movement

the

and
the

and

congregation

of

cessions;
pro-

making provision for delivery

of

sermon.

THE

MEANING

OF

AND

GOTHIC

THE

The

extent

ORGANIZATION

CATHEDRAL

cathedral

left

were

carpenters,
on

one

of

in

The

of

wealth

material
the

form

church

period

kind

of

provided

backdrop
where

altar

area

were

performed

was

architects
with

in contact

lay, of

the

and

were

the

as

choir

and

internally,the
sacred

as

ing
symboliz-

a
metaphor of
representingthe Kingdom
mystical body of Christ

as

altar

themselves

views

Early Christian~~\

Since

the

and
the

of
a

lent

structure

viewed

also

and

externally

and

cathedrals

was

soul, and
of Heaven

The

Gothic

the

the

allusions, to such

spiritualchurch.

the

symbolism

of
In

assess.

of the church

(present in
as

form

a
building, there was
strong
symbolic interpretation,allegories,

metaphors.

man's

the

is difficult to

interest

conscious

into

cathedral

great

to

which

to

directly

entered

times

century

heterogeneityof
Although the

the

insist upon

not

The

homogeneous

consistencyother than excellence.

a
distinction, of the
peculiarity,even

Gothic

and

of his artisans.

ideas.

new

lacks

did

sponsors

tasks
his
were
more
job, and
for selecting
Often responsible
materials,
specific.
he also procured the labor, estimated
and
costs
to
saw
quantities,settled labor disputes,and

welfare

introduce

to

construction.

aspect

to

the

about

go

design.
was

vwth

even

or

choose

of Chartres

castles.

builder

consultation

unfinished
sections
on
might continue work
according to the original plans, he might also

prototv^pes

basis for

master

its actual

oversee

and

successful

canons,

edifice; thereafter
to

in

plan

cathedral

to

churches

as

originalityas

function

fconceive
or

well

established

to

he

architectural

geometry,

French, and
of

secrets

on

was

carpentry,

drafting,Latin
from

for

vied

successor
respected
while
constructed; still,

already been

the
the

Both

served

its west

facade

theater:
for

area).

cathedral

plays,and its
mysteriesof the ritual
holy objectsdisplayed.
mystery

educated
townsmen
literate,
leaders,spiritual

the intellectual

community.

They

consulted

with

bishops,theologians,and priestson the

for the
sculpture. The)
theological program
and
hght as interpreted
meanings of measure
canons,

by

great

available

theologians of
as

the

references, but

Religious Architecture

that

past

were

these

73

also

abstruse

consistently and

interpretationswere

the
as

conjectural.Of

is

design

medieval

into

translated

influence

great

supporting of

erecting and

were

than

more

hundred

(The height

nave.

feet; Reims,

120

Official

within

artist

matters

the

and

fantasies

many

of

in

the

consistent.

writers

and

their

the

adds

to

fact
the

their

architects

another

makes

us

with

elusive connection
the

produced
universities

Gothic

the

with

which

enriched

and philosophy,contributed
jurisprudence, and fashioned
the troubadours.
To
comprehend

science

significantly
the

to

the

Gothic

deepest

in

all

diversified

these

of

poetry

the

cathedral

sense,

and

history of

meaning

its broadest

and

activities

be explored, as
must
modern
scholarship has
to do.
progressivelyundertaken
r' By its great
size and
ornateness
alone, the
/Gothic cathedral
was
truly acknowledged the
I house of God, but unlike a temple of Athena,
the deity in tangibleform
did not
dwell within.
The

cathedral

VChrist,the
Its

'the
It

the

of the

divine

became

sought

stimulate

to

the

74

cathedral

invisible

the

or

that
and

immanent.
devise

verse.
uni-

its

to

and

Purposes

of Art

was

infinite,that
The

setting which

thoughts

as

Virgin.

man

master

would

feelingsof

and

Roman

certain

to

into

of

the

Christian

Early

twin-towered

edifice

light of Charlemagne's
politicalsymbolism and his

his

ascendancy

the state.

the

over

be

must

the

Church

revival

of

desire

to

well

as

as

The

emperor's symbolic participation-\

in the religious
service and his exalted authority
in the towered
indicated
were
facades of Carchurches
olingian and certain Romanesque
by
located
a
was
solarium, or balcony, on which
and
his throne
behind
which
was
placed a large
in that
circular
window.
Sun
symbolism was
epoch equated with the authority of the king
as

well

Christ.

of

as

thirteenth

late

the

By

symbolism of the west

entirelyto Christ. Nevertheless, ^
the

however,

century,

fa9ade alluded
the
Gothic
cathedrals
as
facades of such
Chartres
(Fig. 91), with their recessed portals
that
had
evolved
in Carolingian times, their
of kings," their circular windows, and
"galleries
their double
still bear
the impress of |
towers,
earthly royalty.
The

Circular

Window.

The

origin
window

of the great circular

the faithful and

of Christ

show

treasure

appropriate

offeringfrom

an

aware

builder
so

as

the

the
into

of

symbol

of the

terms

deemed

it,was

on

spiritualresidence
was
through the

made

ambivalent

an

magnificence, in

expended
function

was

heavenly Jerusalem, and

most

All
the major parts of
history extending back

centuries

in

Roman

times
some-

transformation

in

their

system,
the

have

the
communion

with
twin-towered
Imperial palaces fronted
has
in
Smith
shown
a
portals. As Baldwin
brilliant study, towered
used as
were
gateways
to
entrances
royal cities and abbeys in Carthe scene
of impressive
olingian times and were
ceremonial
a
receptions upon
king's arrival.

seen

the societies which

Crusades, the feudal

and

and

Fagade.

realize

the soul's
life,

Middle
to
even
Ages or, in some
cases,
antiquity.Their assimilation into the cathedral
structure
was
a
involving not
only
process
formal
but
also
adaptation and modification
symbolic meaning. The "Gateway to Heaven, 'V
the west
its
as
trace
called, may
facade was
historyback to Syrian churches of the sixth and

in

the

to

could

the

basilica

cathedrals

profound

West

The

"

spiritof

The

he

of his

event

cathedral

the

give

form

of the

of their

aware

did

God.

not

of

greatness

symbolic

"

much

were

wonder

history, is
or

features

and

intellectual

way

shiped
wor-

pretations
inter-

architectural

same

highest ideals and

Acquaintance
age.

who

with

seventh

in

evolving
inspired

various

their

one

for

cases,

cathedrals, and
that

there

assistance

cathedrals

after

What

While

no

many

them,

formulated

were

138
feet.)
symbolism did

thirteenth-century

gave

The

within

is

as
Durandus, these were
literarysymbols contained

men

the

of styleor, in
shapes of parts.

reverent

Chartres

consult.

to

treatises

the

floor of the

at

of Church

twelfth-

important
writingsby such
not
dogma, and
were

the

nave

feet; Amiens,

125

handbooks

exist for the

not

feet from
of the

vaults

enormous

that

worshiper

important

already existingreUgious buildings,as well

the practicalproblems posed, after 1200, by

the

of

atically
system-

architectural

the

facade
has

has

shown

been

explored by

that

circular

windows

and
had
Babylonian times
times.
Europe since Roman
but
known
misjagTiiedGothic
the

circular

lacked

stone

Abbey

Church

wino"w,
tracery
of

Helen

with

until

the

been
Unlike
"rose

few

and

ficance
signi-

of the

west

Dow,

who

go

back

known
the

to

in

well-

window, 'i/*

exceptions,

building of the

St-Denis, about

1140.

The

basic

form

found

of

the

of

window

rose

Chartres,

at

have

may

P^'

(Fig. 92), as
originatedin old

The
symbolic wheel.
great
Byzantine chandeliers
composed of pierced
metal disks were
in use
in France
by the twelfth
century, either as hanging or as standing lamps.
to expressionof the sun
Lamps lent themselves
and lightsymbolism that had become
associated
with
Christ in the Middle
Ages. The circular.,
form
rich in meaning, for it might signify
was
The
God, or the Church.
virtue, eternity,
great
schemata

circular

also

window

associations
which

the

of

the

Christian

the

of

and

virtue

"with

conirasFed

echoed

wheel

the

form

and

fortune, through

its reward

vicissitudes

could

and

be

transient

EzekreTs' vision of
earthiy-'eTSStETice.
the window
form an appropriate
allusion
the Scriptures.The
to
prominence of
the window
well "asTts form
as
symbolized the
eternal
and
righteous eye of God.
(The word
nave
means
"ship" in Latin, the window
being,
thus, the ship'sguiding eye.) Divine
lightand_V
oFthe
been
have
to
two
most
jjisticeseem
As
it had
important meanings of the window.
in its use
by Charlemagne, the circular window
in combination
with
the many
sculptures of
saints surrounding it conveyed the notion
of a
king surrounded
by his_armies. The futT^ignificance of'tTiis interpretation
becomes
apparent
when
the sculpturalprogram
of the west
faqade
of

nature

the wheel

made

of Chartres
The

is examined.

Sculptural
Program of the Chartres West Fagade.
doors represented the Gates
of
great main

The

Paradise.

The

of the programs
worked
purpose
theologiansfor the sculptureoccupying

out

with

the

honored

above

positionsaround

the

doors

and

windows
stained-glass
doctrine.
intended
is

the
their

That

questionableaim,
faithful

relied

instruction

meaning
programs

Above

of

to

manifest

for it would
the

dogma,

That

art.

were

immediately
imagery in the

appear
word

spoken
and

elaborate

actually planned

right:Figure

Church

sculptures were
directly
or self-evidently
symbolic

upon

in

and

the

was

these

be didactic

to

for

hence

in

that
for
the

theological
and

carried

Facade, Chartres
height
(right),
tower
344'; north
(left),height 377'. Fa9ade
and lancet windows
c.
1 194-1260 (portals
1 145) ;
c.
south
tower
c.
1180; north spire 1507-13.
Cathedral.

Width

Right: Figure
Chartres

92.
Cathedral.

91.

West

157'; south

Rose

tower

Window,

West

Facade,

Christ

imagery has long been

connection, Adolph Katzen-

cathedral

for

out

this

In

known.

ellenbogencontributed an outstandingstudy of
of the west
the sculpturalprogram
fagade of
Chartres
(Fig. 93), which
explained that the
semicircular
of the three tympanums,
or
figures
the doors, present Christ in
relief panels over
his dual

of God

nature

and

Man,

well

as

as

seated

on

the

enthroned

pointed vaults bordering

of the seven
representations

the

liberahSrTs^'^gram-

which

intellectual

and

and

from

personages
this custom
a

defender

the

studies within

preoccupation

"

the

medieval

Church.

The

of
depicts the Ascension
symbols
peripheralvaults contain

Christ.

tympanum
Its

zodiac

and

concepts

of

diverse

illustrated
of and

rule

manual

here

are

of

labor.
Christ's

time,

over

left

and

the

toward

tympanum

of

knowledge
shows

the

God.

Second

Figure 93.

The

between

the

new,

This

ful
faith-

of

New

and

that the

Church

and

all part

was

with

the

Testament;

royalline
enhanced

that

mid-twelfth

the

for

their

form

and

second

is strengthened and

date

have

century,

they comprise a

Church

of

searching

which
elongatedjamb figures,

aspect, and

central

and

illustrious

was

it in

medieval

parallels

the present and the past, the old and

the
the visible and
invisible. The

value

Coming
West

France.

the

with

are

The
that
public esteem.
implicationwas
virtuous
quaUties of the Old Testament
continued
in
the
monarchs
of
kings were

cendence
trans-

of active
the

physicallabor, which, balanced

led the
contemplativelife of learning,

the
The

who

the Old

publicizethe

the Old

of the

the

awareness

between
to

emphasized

of divine

to

The

and

state

Testament

Virgin,esteemed for her wisdom,

became
the inspiration
and guide of these arts
indication
of the
an
growth of humanistic

by

means

wisdom.

attain

the

and

lineageof the French monarchy. It was common

practicein the Middle Ages to portray past or
present kingsand queens of France as important

tympanufti
\ are

the

astronomy),

and

geometry,

New

the

dialectic,rhetoric, arithmetic, music,

mar,

panel, are

Judgment.
Flanking the doors of the Royal Portal are
the jamb figures,
whose purpose it is to proclaim
the
sympathetic concord
existing between

Virgin,
In

Judgment. Immediately
the rectangular
on
arrayed the twelve prophets

tympanum,

assist at the Last

to

is shown

his Incarnation.

in

indicating her role

child

Last

foretold Christ's Incarnation

Church
Christ

right,the
the lap of

the far

At

the

the central

lintel
""who

of divine wisdom.

source

and

below

from
a

about

columnar

suggest
purpose
wall by which
the

defended.

One

must

of Christ on
the
predecessors
"l5efbfe^eacliinghim; tliis"sequence
"jariirB^
pass between

Portals,Chartres

Cathedral,

the

c.

1145-70.

the
signified
through the

old

leading to

door

to

was

the

through Christ,for Christ had

door.

Whoever

enters

toward

said, "I

will be

me

To

new.

move

am

saved."

structures

basilicas

the

derived

have

from

the

entrance

The

contains
the circular 'window
gallery above
of French
effigies
kings,hence the familiar name
"galleryof kings" (see Fig. 91). The gallery
itself may
medieval

Early Christian
composed of bays, and the
of this technique into religious
architecture,
probably during the ninth century, is
important example of drawing upon
for religious
architecture. (The
sources

pass

God

another
secular

of great

length. The

not

were

Early Christian

basilica had

itselfbeen

derived

earlier

of
and
ancient
palace "window
the ruler presented
appearances,"from which
of the
the effigies
himself to the public.While
front of the church,
kingsprotectedthe western
the bishops'
images were
presentedas defenders

of its sides.

The

Bay

cubelike

System. Bays

the

are

formed

compartments

by

rectangular
each

vault

Horn
has
piers.Professor Walter
traced the originof the bay system in medieval
secular
wooden
churches
to
early medieval
architecture as used in all-purposestructures,
94, 95).
episcopaltithe barns, and houses (Figs.
into
subdivided
A
few timber
churches
bays
have survived from the Middle
Ages. In many
sections of medieval
markets,
Europe,residences,
barns
and
were
structurally
interchangeable.
and

its four

Tithe
crop
often

barns, which

given to

being

of

the

stored

up

one-tenth

of

were
by the faithful,
dimensions, since their

tremendous

built

the

Church

of

regular

units

permitted

Above:

Figure

94.

Market

Hall

at

Mereville, France.

15th

century.
Below:

Figure95.

Cathedral",

c.

11

Nave

94-1

(lookingeast
221.

toward

the

apse),Chartres

^i^m^i':
AISLE

NOffTK

"

'"

"

"

"o:(r

"

"

"

"
5CVTM

"

"

AISLE

tiu"u:
f

from

Roman

bay into

basilican

the

tion
introduc-

form

skeletal-

and

plan of
emerged

the
in

partitioned the interior into similar

for
units, thereby opening up great possibilities
expressivearticulation of the space and for the
of geometrical or
arithmetical
use
premises in
was
organizing the interior. The
bay system
valued
builders
because
of its
by the cathedral
of handling. It met
the
familiarityand ease
Gothic
need
for a
multiplicity of parts and
satisfied a feudal
(hierarchical)intent with the
implications of the bay order. The Scriptures
have provided sources
for specific
not
architectural
may
of Solomon
shapes, but the Wisdom
to
the
(2:20) might be quoted as comfort

of the

trade

successful

module

on

things in

architect:

"Thou

and

measure

hast

number

The

Plan

the
meant

the

and

Measure.

in

ancient

ordered

and

orientation

of

As
and

had

all

the

been

Gothic

times,
was

with
place the building in harmony
universe
(Fig.96). The apse, containing the
to

altar

that

Christ's

symbolized

consistently toward
direction signifying rebirth.
was
traditionallyassociated
evil; hence

Judgment
with

cold

order.
In

formerly

cathedral

oriented

it was

and

to

of

tombj__was
the

The

The

western

with

death
that

north

signifiedthe

was

the

end
and
Last

identified
of the

world
new

the

.east,

entrance

darkness, the

south

addition

demands

this

carved.

was

The

on

old

dispensation.

its

the

symbolic value as a form, the

the retention
of
liturgy caused

the

long-established cross
plan; it facilitated
procession through the nave,
provided a large
for the choir east of the transept and ample
area
space

for the altar, and

j for accommodating
the
ty^enerate

78

the

relics in

made

feasible

pilgrims who
the chapels.

Purposes

of Art

Cathedral.

Gothic

side aisles
came

The

to

basic

cathedral

standard

basilican

had

already

with

the

tion
addi-

elements

(nave,
occasional
aisles,apse, and
an
transept) of a
choir, and
radiating chapels. The
crypt,
marked
internal
divisions of the church's
plan
order
and
signifiedthe hierarchical
authority
of the clergy and
its relation to the laity,who
the choir and
altar
were
to
prohibited access
to

areas.

Scholars

who

ground

accurate

have

found

discover

and

weight."

early medieval

the

of Amiens

Carolingian times,

that

kind

the

have

taken

plans

of

certain

in

of the

secrets

which

he

pains

draw

to

medieval

churches

it is possibleto
organization. One

cases

of scientific

master

established

builder
both

was

the

scale

building. It seems
Gothic
buildings
were
sistent
organized according to a single or congeometrical or arithmetical
progression.
builder
Using any
polygon, the master
and
worked
the problem of building a tower
out
the transition from
base
to
a
a
eflfecting
square
round
all builders
recognized the
spire.While
aid
of geometry
to
use
as
an
building, there
who
were
by temperament
undoubtedly some
that
it extensively in
a
sought to use
way
"true
measure"
and
thereby
guaranteed them
symbolic analogy
heightened the cathedral's
proportions

to
von

the
His
was

the

the

universe.

Otto

argued strongly for the incidence of

in
his
latter attitude
study of Chartres.
that a basic ratio of 5 to 8"
findingsshowed
in the
utilized
plan and elevation of the
Simson

Cathedral.
for

entire

unified

that

measure

of his

that

doubtful, however,

practiced

Plan

public buildings.)The

of the
ized

Figure 96.

his

Von

Simson

argument

in

frequentlyreferred
geometer

during

to

found
the

and

(Fig.97). Church
the

time

of

the

fact
even

further
that

support
God

depicted

literature
cathedrals

was
as

before
is rich

and
in

religiousinterpretationof numbers
cite but two
to
examples,
the
symbolized the Trinity, and
relation

of

God

the

Father

and
the

the

square

the

to

metry:
geo-

triangle
Son.

In

could
mysticalnumerology, almost any number
be
interpreted as revealing some
aspect of
and
divinity or dogma. Numbers
geometry"
were
thought to be important means
through
the intellect and
which
workings of God could
be made
to human
intelligible
understanding.
Gothic
The
designer'staste for numerology is
displayedin towers, fenestration patterns, piers,

balustrades, arcades, statues,

parts of the

cathedral

do

and

lend

doors.

The

themselves

to

but not
to
a
counting in numerical
sequences,
of interpretationas
single grand program
numerical
rather than in
symbolism. Selectively,
the master
literal quantitativeway,
builder
a
vital preoccupation of his
a
again realized
time.

The Interior and Light. The

dedicatoryservices
performed in the sanctuary of the cathedral
drew
to
principallyupon three Biblical sources
link the building to the past. The
first was
the
of the Temple of Solomon
account
(II Chron.,
the Temple of Ezekicl,
2-6), the second was
and
the
third
the
was
description of the
the
Heavenly Jerusalem by St. John. While
Bible does not

describe

in detail what

Solomon's

temple looked like,it does record a facing of

gold and preciousgems, and this description
may
have
influenced
St. John, who
presents the
most
strikingreference for the celestial city:
And

the

and

the

buildingof
city

was

the wall of it was

the
glass.And
citywas garnishedwith all
And
the cityhad
stones
neither
of God

Other
the

increased

and

thirteenth

sources
use

of

of

manner

of the moon,
to shine
did lightenit.

Biblical

of

jasper;

gold, like unto

pure
foundation
of the wall
need

no

in

clear

precious

of the sun,

glory

may

have

been

an

the
strengthenthe analogy between
church
and the Heavenly Jerusalem.
structure
The
design of the cathedral's exterior reflected
much
of the religiousand
secular
history of

attempt

life

on

to

earth; the interior

was

considered

mystical heart of the cathedral,

epiphany takes place.

where

the
God's

into

enter

once

the

initial darkness

Bible

of

the
,

from

the sunlit exterior is to

experience
of
worshiper'ssense

medieval

the

more

the

Geometer, from

the celestial
to
proceeding from the material
world
(PI.7). Perhaps the most exalted efforts
of imagination,the most
inspiredcreations,of

Gothic

builders

are

the

internal

colored

lightand the idealized space of the cathedral.

Light and color are both form and symbol,\
of Gothic
the styleand
content
religious
archi-i^sT
tecture.

speak of glasswalls, and

stained glassin the twelfth

centuries

To

cathedral

the

of the

it; for the

Christ as
97.
Moralisee. 13th century.

Figure

When

the

complement
glow
of
the

the
measure

space

of

churches

windows,

never

and
of the

had
the

their

original-'

suffused

chrome
polypermitted total revelation
of
detail or, significantly,

interior. There

was

no

parable
com-

lightingeffect in any other

dows
building.The ranges of wintype of medieval
luminous
became
walls, and their deep
and shifting
reddish violet hues dematerialized
the interior stonework, as if abstractly
signifying
material
spiritualtriumph over
things. TheH
lighting,and music of the cathedral j
space,
spatialor

ReligiousArchitecture

79

familiar

of

environment

melodies

of intricate

of sound

by his own
sunlight to

determined
from

change
visitor

The

keep

almost

out

reminders

and

order

from

the

Seen

floor

reading, and details of

undecipherable. Within
interior, the

the

could

be

gold
The

altar

the

glass windows
Durandus

wrote

the like. The

and

their

the

stained-

century,

hangings

strewed

of dorsals,
silk,purple

consist

nave

cushions

of

of the choir

ornaments

and

carpets
of cloth

for

their

under

the

clergy. Mattings,
likewise

blues

of the

are

and

luminosity.
original cathedrals,
to

consist

cushions.

the back

at

feet.

of the
is

Tapestry

feet, particularly
ought to trample

under
the feet of Bishops,who
their feet. Cushions
worldly things under
of the choir.
placed on the seats or benches

it was
the light from
and
inspiredthe greatest awe
Church

theologians of

and

"lucid"

into

which

lightthat

structure.
no

mortal
could

man

that

manifested

his

Light

man.

the

Light was
beauty, the

of

that

source

and

by

which
Creation

passing through

the

tion
pale reflecand
ment
require-

his

means

presence

look, and

but

was

the

God
to

windows

times.

The

the

Abbot

Suger,

mystical
on

and

power

Gothic

cathedral
builder

ascension

the

to

lightof
80

of

uniqueness
inspired
St-Denis,

God

by

means

his cathedral:

Purposes

of Art

to

of
the

is

has

it

the

to

in

were,

manyexternal

diversity
that

me

see

strange

some

which

me

is material

on

seems

beauty of

induced

which

immaterial,

virtues; then

GOTHIC

neither

exists

STYLE

the

Gothic

its

use

great

record

style had
by
style and

cathedrals, and

international

buildings. In
soaring spaces,

his

of meditation

its

highest expression in
it

1400
be

to

was

extended

become
to

an

secular

the
colored
to
light,
complex perspectiveswithin
the cathedral, other
distinguishingfeatures of
the
Gothic
cathedral
styleinclude the pointed
(occasionallyrounded) arch, ribbed vault, and
had
in some
form
flying buttress, all of which
known
been
or
developed during previous
architectural
ly
periods.These elements are usualcombined
in rhythmic numerical
sequences.
of components
The
subordination
to
larger
has
of larger parts to the whole
a
parts and
character.
like
(Unstrong feudal and hierarchical
the organization of the Parthenon, there||
fixed numbers
are
no
or proportionsof the parts.)
addition
and

elements

and
sequences
combinations
with

to

of

recur

in different

other

motifs.

It is

parts from

individual

separate

their

their

sequential arrangement
sequentialgroups;
of
the viewer, nevertheless, is always conscious
looking at the parts of a greater but incomplete
the
whole.
Unhke
Parthenon
again, no single/
dral's
prospect permits comprehension of the catheGothic
sacred
total design. Like
music,
the composition of a cathedral
is polyphonic
because

contexts

and

the

density of

the

"

the

that

of

combination

simultaneous

parts, each

of Christ.
symbolized the Incarnation
Light
inherited
from
earlier
Christian
symbolism,
and
also known
used in ancient
churches, was

in

which

scales and

windows

could

eye

meditation

worthy

from

away

to

Like

are

inspiredpraiseby
the cathedral's
"bright"
God
was
perfect light

see

of God.

the

me

reflect,transferringthat

difficult
But

called

to

The

were

the thirteenth

dorsals, tapestry,

Dorsals

60

obscurity

eye,

of the

easy

finer

the

In

alone.

ornaments

of

by the

confined

tapestry, mattings, and

and

reds

sonorous

of

not

was

was

to

relative

the

loveliness

soul.

window

rose

the

achieved

brilliance

however,

The

themselves

fully apprehended

of the

task

windows

nave,

lend

all

and

mind

and

delightin

entirelyin the slime of the earth nor entirely

in the purity of Heaven;
and
that, by the grace
of God, I can
be transported from
this inferior
in an
to that higher world
anagogical manner.

to

and

has

gems

the

"

myself dwelling, as it
region of the universe

eyes.

intended

Their

the

of the

not

the

of God

of sacred

penetrate

light

earthly world.

did

away

to

from

external

enlighten

cares,

of my

out

"

house

colored

not

darkness
in

all

of the

elevate

feet

of

heights
The
quick
impelled the

veiled
initiallyseemed
were
stained-glasswindows

what

to

color, changing

and

when

the

world

and

measure.

his pace

slow

to

into

surfaces,

vistas, elusive

Thus

an

sounds, illumination,

dimensions

and

scale, textures,

from

worshiper

the

transported

interior

constitutingan

harmonizes

with

the

number

individual
others.

of

theme
is

There

analogy in the use

tectural
and archiof mathematics
to proportion musical
structures.
Surveys indicate, however,
feel obliged to
that
builders
did
not
many
evidence

to

perpetuate
own

variant

suggest further

older

traditions

proportions

impressive visual

harmonies.

and
to

devised
achieve

their
more

Figure

Structural

98.

Cathedral

from

right buttress

To

Amiens

Gothic

.a

Cathedral;

Cathedral).

Reims

early medieval

than

extent

greater

of

Diagram
from

(left buttress

cathedral
reveals its
architecture, the Gothic
skeletal
the
framework,
multiple play of its
vector
forces, and the resolution of its thrusts

weight (Figs.98, 99). The massive walls of

the militant-looking
I
Romanesque churches were
by an increased
largelydematerialized
ment
replacemain
of stone
the
by glass between
pierssupporting the vaults. The cradlingaction
the
external
of the flying buttresses
involves
in a new
structure
lending what might be
way,
and

'

characterized

as

muscular

the

to

appearance

exterior.
The

of

plan

shows

the

be

continuous

Gothic
of the

enclosure

constellation

cathedral

of

and

nave

of

series

piers,which

are

sections. While

architect

have

not

may

in
a

used

the

of certain

Villard

Honnecourt's

de

primary
screenlike

of

and

the

by

support;

probably
safely

fixed

vault

by

the medieval
word

or

even

modern

sensitivityfor
between

notebook

the

walls.

shows

graphically designed
of the physical
(Fig.100). Much

walls

determined

connected

of

distances

to

regular

with

concern

character

the

terms

great

effectiveness

aisles

points, a

thin, parallelwall
thought of space
architect, he had

(Fig. 96)

cathedral

was

the

engineering

the

width

by

and

what

of
the

buttress.

the

builder
It

undoubtedly

functions

is

of load

building

was

felt he could
too

limited

judgment, however, to look upon the architect's

intent as being only to raise a structural
de
tour
the addition
force. Many design decisions
such
as
of pinnaclesto buttresses,the clustering of
slender shafts against the main
piers,the use of
pointed arches, and probably the ribbing of the
"

Above:

Figure

Chartres
Below:

99.

Buttresses

from

the

South

Side,

Cathedral.

Figure

Villard

too.

Drawing

of Exterior

of Reims

Cathedral,

and
c.

Interior
1240.

de

Honnecourt.

Elevations, Nave

make

rich
and

and

additions

the

which

LE

as

tions,
adjustments,altera-

made

the

follows

Gothic

it is

CHAPEL

RONCHAMP

Parthenon

Chartres

cathedral

form.

CORBUSIER'S
AT

The

in

that

opinion

master

sional
three-dimen-

beyond a conoccasioned
necessity have

structural

function

with

various
he

The

senses.

inventiveness

form

for

tern

the

the

perceptible to

builder's

and

Gothic
of

out

came

cathedrals

definite

such

established

traditions

of religiousarchitecture, and
their
sought neither novelty nor
original
In fifth-century
in
Greece
and
self-expression.
medieval
advanced
tecture
archiEurope, the most
in terms
of design and
engineering was
in the service of religion.
The
builders had, in
architectural
from
precedent and
scriptural
a
preestablished public basis for
sources,
symbolic
or
meaning
religious associations
architects

their

with

architectural

and
most

advanced
structural

architects

has

been

evolve, from

to

generally nonreligiousbackground,
suited to religiouspurposes,
The

capture the feelingand

modern

best

architects

than

formulas.
Vaults
Figure loi.
Transepts, Chartres

at

the

Crossing of

Nave

and

Cathedral.

imitating
that

of any

The

dependence
result

medieval
other

"

purely structural

not

vsfere

to

enhance

the

and

and

whole

were

tended
in-

increase

its

an

church

a^

problem

avoidance

architecture

of_.
"

or

period for those enlightened

allow
a
clergy who would

gifted architect

the freedom

and

appropriateto

synagogues

each

conventional

upon

been

sacred.

"

congregations and
vaults

has

that

one

utilized

have
to

this

tecture
archi-

an

of the

tone

personal,empirical approach
rather

teenth
nine-

techniques have been secular

problem confrontingtwentieth-

The
enterprises.

would

the

centuries, the finest and

of design
buildings in terms

and

century

In

forms.

twentieth

to

create

churches

their time, place,

visual

and particular
religiousbeliefs,
is, for
therebyinspiring
expressiveness(Fig. 101). There
articulation
than
and
rather
inhibiting good architecture.
sculptural
of the piersthan is necessary
treatment
for their
Modern
architecture
has often proved that a -i
fine religiousstructure
(as has also been seen
physical function as support. The proportions
of the nave
of Matisse)
arcade, triforium, and clerestory- for certain
painting commissions
that the architect and
his
resulted from
need not
esthetic,and perhaps symbolic,
presuppose
toV
decisions intended
of the
faith. Common
to
be
same
bring the building closer
patron
the
modern
to a visual
and intellectual perfection.
Phidias, Hugh
Libergier, and
Only in
architect
Le
Corbusier
and
of the
Swiss-born
(Charlespart emotional
subjective,much
Gothic
Edouard
cathedral
experience of entering a
Jeanneret) has been their inspiration

instance, greater

derives from
of

the

rational and

builder's

SjI.

an

logic,which
Purposes of

intuitive
he

Art

took

by

awareness

pains

to

own

noble
time.

ideals

as

communicated

for

their

Corbusier's

Ironically,Le

pilgrimage chapel
(PL ^8; Fig. 102),
the Vosges Mountains

Notre-Dame-du-Haut

of

located
of

France,

inspired many
he

architect
the

lay the

these

power,

and

strong

influence

felt, is

visual

affectingour
through the

senses,

down

his

architecture

and

have

to

Ronchamp

chapel.

of

sensation,

art

an

incitingemotion
responses,
and
bringing joy to the
the

is

"Architecture

skillful,accurate

in light."
seen
magnificent play of masses
be
can
Chapel of Notre-Dame-du-Haut
profitablyanalyzed on this basis.
hill
Le Corbusier's
a
to crown
assignment was
with
Catholic
a
new
chapel to replace an
undistinguishedbuilding destroyed in the war,
could
for as
site where
on
a
long as men
and

The

remember

had

been

and

pagan

Christian

placesof worship. Surrounded

by extensive hills
and
valleys,the elevated site had no accessible
and
road. A speciahst in residences
city plan-"'
before designed a
ning, the architect had never
not
a
Catholic^
place of worship, and he was
He
nevertheless
was
given a free hand in the
one
project by the Archbishop of Besanqon
the premise that architectural
can
assume
on
nonsectarian.
letter
In
the
a
to
genius was
in
the
when
finished
was
Archbishop
chapel
tion,
1955, after five years of planning and construc"

Le

Corbusier

the

which
in

structures

what

ways

dramatic

is

pilgrim
chapel.

Le

I wished

to

Like

animated

distance;
the

but

as

then

are

effort.

Our

workmen

culators.
cal.

those

who

brought this project

into
being, a difficult project, meticulous,
primitive, made
resources
by the
strong
brought into play, but sensitive and informed
is the
by all-embracing mathematics, which
creator

in words.
words
cross

up

has

are

of that space which

be described
cannot
A few scattered
symbols, a few v.'ritten

true

cross

1910, Le

Corbusier

had
"

is drama
.

That

modern
from

and

and

towers

chapel

reveal

considerable

closer

and

mounts

partiallyobscured
reminiscent

sight
"

and

of ascending

the

Acropolisor wending
through the streets
of Chartres
Amiens.
As one
or
approaches the
of the hill,the chapel slowly reemerges,
crest
like a ship rising above
the
swelling ground
formation
the
architect
had
landscaped; and
noted
as
himself, its crescent
by Le Corbusier
along

roof

toward

also

echoes

Ronchamp,
exterior

of

to

also

brilliant

the

above.

reminded

Parthenon's

the

of the

the

roof

wisdom

and

cathedral

summit

is

fold

brilliance

beauty

Corbusier

Le

was

of

view

Acropolis,

whitewashed

rough

(The

that

white.) When

the

raw-concrete

further, it
us

distant
of

dark

recall the radiant

Athena;

view

The

wave.

true

for the

with

hovering
served

is

as

us

prepares

to

Cathedral

the

who
once

was

reached,

the

first

is that

opposite the huge,

enameled
brilliantly
processionaldoor and the
nonuniform
and
randomly
placed splayed
openings, suggestingthe gun ports of a fortress,
the sloping south
wall.
on
chapel

first

from

seen

creates

the

hill's

dramatic

the

crown,

sensation

that

wanted
no
comparison. Le Corbusier
tectural
with
possible association
previous archiany
style,and although interesting
attempts
have
liken
the
been
made
to
conjuncture of
sloping roof with battened walls to forms found
in crude
Stone
Age architecture, Ronchamp's
architectural
uniqueness prevails.Its qualities
evades

of

massive

and

aspect, the

militant

secretive

cathedral.)

....

In

of its Greek

silolike

written, "The

"

forwards

Parthenon

the
the

moment

specialquality

praises of the Virgin. The

of suffering is raised
in this
the drama
of Christianity
space;
taken
possession of the place from this time
the

dramatic.
achieve

sights the Ronchamp

comes

Way

secular

prowlikejuncture of
the south
and
walls evoke
east
quick analogies
with
sacred
fortresses,
grottoes, and ships none
of which
were
consciouslysought or intended
the
architect
as
symbolic allusions or design
by
to
sources.
seems
(The soaring prowlike form
combine
imaginatively the heavenward
sweep
of the Gothic
of the
spire, roof, and towers

tellingthe

"

one

lost from

the Sacred

the

silhouettes

hill, they become

When

a
place of silence,of prayer,
of the sacred
joy. A sense
spiritual

our

first

the

the
to

was

from

predecessors, the
sweeping roof line of the
their
general character

wrote:

create

of

vicinities,is

apparent

in this

from

apart

Corbusier

traveler

or

religiousedifices

them

their

chapel'sform
of peace,

three
set

Gothic

Parthenon's

later

were

the

young
his notebook

unites

chapter,
In

was

In
set

of the

secret

ideas
on

he

Architecture,

as

Cofbusier

Le

constitutes

what

on

for him

mind:

Switzerland,

near

when
years before
visited the Parthenon.

youthful

thoughts
wherein

in

Ronchamp

at

western

which

darkened

interior,and

the

"

Le

Corbusier

relied

Religious Architecture

the

on

83

control

Figure

Le

102.

Corbusier.

Ronchamp,

Notre-Dame-du-Haut,
France.

1950-55.
southeast.

from

the

View

from

Interior

the

of

Above:

View

Above

right:
Right:

northwest.

south

and

walls.

east

Page 85.- Perspectivediagram.

and

lucidityof mathematics
theology but to give form
in

creating an

indescribable
offhand

indefinable

not

the dimensions

molding

structure

("I defy

space.

illustrate

to

artistic intuition

to

visitor

to

an

give

of the different parts of

to

succession

the

devices

astonish

to

the

of

architectural

in

paraphrase
structure

the beholder
drama.

As

culated
cal-

beach

instance

one

to

almost

an

4-inch

elements, through which

interior and
Like
not

of

the

wish
the

to

awed

mood

great roof, which

towers,

The

effects devised

bows

were
seems

downward

the

two

light penetrates the

of a floating
roof.
sense

architect, Le

emphasize

construction.

emotional
and

imparts the

Gothic

between

space

the

Corbusier

dramatic
to

does

engineering aspect
induce

most
as
near

Purposes of

visual
a

important.
if cradled

its

Art

and

meditative

center

in

idea

of

this,the massive walls do not bear the load of

the
roof, actually supported by triangularly
reinforced-concrete
shaped
piers imbedded
within
the rubble-filled walls, which
thereby
allow

catching the

and

crucial

are

sail

or

or

When
Le

on

the"

that

came

Island

Long

inverted

when

1946, which

gave

the

to
design the chapel.
Only after several hours

first asked

Corbusier

had

claims

construction

for the roof.

been

felt the

refused.

spent

impact

did
decision.

the

the

on

of the

actual

first ideas

He

he

natural

and

come

of

written

has

site and

sweeping

reverse

his

had

panorama
his

building

some
"echoing" nature, as if it were
great
sounding board for the natural forms around it.
The
metaphor and the relation to its site are
poeticaland imaginative,for the buildingdoes

literallyillustrate by

not

architect's

The

The
once

like

direction

its formation

the

comparison.
hill is
around

of the

movement

spontaneous
the

by the
an

rain

wind; this covering is hollow and has external

shell layersonly about 2 inches thick but 7 feet
apart. (An airplane wing is a comparable
architect
structure.)The
for the shape and
inspiration
from a crab shell picked up

the

building.")
This ingrained resistance

trough

enormous

ascended
the

is in

structure,

and

pilgrim

clockwise
its various

curving sides

unpredictablein

more

of Gothic

cathedrals.

door

great enameled

the

uses

are

those

than

acter
char-

this

(One

roads

for

only

cessions
pro-

specialoccasions; the north side

that the
contains the door for dailyingress,
so
newcomer
usuallywalks one and a half times
the west
the wall
On
before entering.)
around
is not
pierced with apertures, and its bulges
the confessionals.
reflect small interior chapels and
on

the roof parapet, there issues an

omega-shaped waterspout or abstract gargoyle,
From

from

descends

the rainwater

which

and

splashes

in a concrete
geometricalshapes imbedded
mark
the interior
towers
pool below. The
louvers,
chapels,and their vertical concrete
and rhythmic variety,are
giving texture
manently
per-

off

fixed. The
to

wall,though curved

north

degree also,has

markedly squarish

more

south, but its apertures are

in similar fashion,defying
disposed
irregularly
Gothic

and

Greek

the

than

character

of

ideals

alignment

and

east
or,

wall is like
with

its

large open-airamphitheater
overhang, like a

upswept

given

from

the

have

external

of the choir and

sounds
at

the

performed
10,000 pilgrims

many

Mass

at

unlike

those

not

as

external

this

held

before

facade and analogous to

the use
of the cathedral faqadesas a backdrop
for medieval
religious
plays.
riches of the Parthenon
Unlike the sculptural
there is but
and the cathedrals,at Ronchamp
of
a
one
piece
sculpture, nineteenth-century
artistic
of the Virgin of indifferent
statue
the
survived
bombardment
quality, which
the Parthenon's

during World
a

glass

image

case

can

War

II and

the

which

high up
pivotso that,whatever
on

overlooks

western

in

is housed
wall.
the

The

location

congregation.
speciallyexecuted
chapel is in itself
the

of
Despite the absence
sculpture,the Ronchamp
in appearance
the most
sculpturalor molded
here considered,and its
of the religious
buildings
forms often refute or disguisetheir structural
function.
avoid

Le

Corbusier

building that

consciously sought
seemed

tool to open

actual

building of Ronchamp

blend

of

fresh

up

society."
labor

hand

was

and

modern

materials and
practice,of traditional and new
scientific
tools,of intuition and sophisticated
calculation.

With

the

efforts of

of versatile laborers
under

excellent

an

shape

from

of the

sand,

and

foreman,

materials

previous

small

of different

at

the

hand

hauled

building took

such

church

stone

group

nationalities

the ruins

as

and

wood,

with

In the
hilltop.
of materials and techniques
great variety
sented
reprein its construction,there is a parallel
to
the buildingof the cathedrals. Both inside and
this work
viewed
as
out, Le Corbusier
ture
"sculpin the round."
Pulpits,altars,stairways,
all
and
wall recesses
and
projectionswere
sensitively
shaped and proportionedto catch
the lightor to cast striking
shadows:
"Observe
the play of shadows.
.preciseshadows, clear
cut
or
dissolving.
Projectedshadows, precisely
delineated, but what
enchanting arabesques
and
frets. Counterpoint and
fugue. Great

music.

cement

to

the

to

product of a
rigid rectilinear,
the

technologicalage, with the

and invertible forms that have become
repetitive,
of
in
the
boxes
familiar
so
steel-and-glass
modern
commercial
architecture. He regarded

..."

feel

architects,
observingwhat they
refuse to
the medium,"
to

modern

Many

be

to

"truth

disguisethe materials or conceal the structural

system employed, thus usually producing a
ever,
starkly skeletal building.Le Corbusier, howdid

west

service,it

of the

The

"a modern

mechanistic

curious

the

of the Mass

assembled

church, for services

for

pulpit and

nearby altar. As
for

is

that

great acoustical backdrop for the Word

in

repetition.
The

chapel as

steel

wrote

in

finish and
of the
than

more

hesitate

which

concrete,
stucco

not

to

frames
reinforcing

Within

"an

the

cover

turn

and

walls

with

given

was

whitewashed.

poet, the architect

exercise in

the church

rubble

inside the

As
must

rough

he

once

give us

grammar."

there is

more

to

astonish.

chapeldoes not symbolizea rational,finite

in numbers
or
world, expressible
geometry in
The

the

Greek

that

way

their

of

universe;

temples
is it

nor

north

south

or

altar, and
interior

door

axis.

own

fortress

for

Built

mystery.
hundred

mind

to

with

alone

the

the

Corbusier's

the

by

and

altar,the absence

of familiar

unfocused
roof

illumination

and

down

windows,

of

the

which

setting; within,
human

intimate,

Corbusier

before, had

devised

based

on

this

and

measure
"

"modulor,
that

he

(Thus
column

in

he

glass.

his

the

to

as

of its

grandeur

closer

comes

the

designs

by

its

to

diameter

and

shoulders, than he does

the

architect

the
felt

of

reference.

Ictinus,whose

intervals

Parthenon's

columns

the

width

were

of

man's

pite
Hugh Libergier.)Deswall of Ronchamp,
of the great wall surfaces in the historyof
one
the worshiper
architecture, does not overwhelm
in scale. Its beauty and
expressivenessdepend
of
an
inspired and subtle coordination
upon
that
all differ in scale, proportion,
apertures
and
angle of their reveals, as well as on the
wall
paradox of such a massive
serving as a
kind of sculpturalquarry. Within
each
niche
the
to

its massiveness, the south

windows

(Often

diflFer in
Le

size, color,

Corbusier

or

decoration.

of
painted a few words
salue
praise of the Virgin on the glass: "Je vous
south
Marie," "pleine de grace.") The
wall,

86

Purposes

of Art

balanced

the

Euclidean

the

Its

is

left

the

to

set

off

by

dramatic

most

is the

end

eastern

its parts and

the
demonstrates

Ronchamp

interior

in the wall

to
a

that

of

daring
the

festation
maniment
arrangeThe

church.

upper
concentration

right and

looks

tion
constella-

the

like

of perforations

freestanding
directlyon axis with and
the
altar.
behind
main
Subsequent transfer of
the large cross
off to the rightof the altar was
a
type of stage direction not licensed by tradition
or
sincerely
Scripture, but the change was
motivated
effectively
by a desire to animate more
and
dramatize
the otherwise
quiescentrehgious
of future
criticism
symbols. Perhaps mindful
of

an

At
lights.

this

at

"This

act

first a great wooden

stationed

was

aimed

called

obvious

in

Both
at

asymmetry.

of

wrote:

scale

human

cathedrals.

decided

associates,years

its subdivisions,

the

cathedral's

his

assured

between

of the

colored

is struck

one

and

reveals

conceived

so

and

whole, the chapel

cross

proportional system
standing figurewith arm
upraised,
7 14 f^et. By using
height of about

equahng

the

scale, unlike

Le

vastness.

the

and

power

the

off the

cast

Virgin'sstatue

filters in under

have

Corbusier

grims
pil-

wonder

toward

deep

is

structure

rival the

to

appear
natural

the

Le

geometric vocabulary and envelope of his earlier

work
and the symbohc axial symmetry
ary
customin religiousstructures
since the Parthenon

on

right-anglecorners
designs, and

wall

mysteries.

darkness, the slope

the floor, which

that

through

some

Outside,

and

downward

easily recognizable

or

thousand

ten

relative

diverge upward

nave

whole, resists memorization

easy

"Inside

words,

Silence

ceiling and

concave

three

most

acoustically fine

the

Le

at

yourself,outside

evoked

are

darkened

as

comprehension, and this adds to its

in design and
richness
appropriateness for its
function:
to
provide a suitable atmosphere for
and
the perto
enhance
spiritualcommunion
formance
of
its
the
with
attendant
liturgy,
or

one's

on

feehng of being within a

against death and a
of religious
enactment

in front of the altar."

of

turn

must

one

accommodate

to

people,

brings

the

citadel

cave,

place

secret

the

has

or

of
on

first,standing in the

interior,one

of the

effect

the
entering
Reversing the tendency

axis.

At

axis

the

from

exterior, inside

the

Neither
society.

on

dramatic

results

scale

building'snarrow
on

the

of

part

is

like the church

of the

evocation

Heavenly Jerusalem of medieval

the

microcosms

were

an

having

architecture

Le

rearrangement,

focusing is an
relation

real

of

act

Corbusier

architecture,

architecture.

to

puts all in

which

order

and

lates."
regu-

and
The
is actually movable
large cross
be
carried
during religious processions can
the
second
altar.
outside
be placed before
to
A
is located
second
at
cross
Ronchamp
atop
the south
tower.
("Breaking the silence of the
walls it proclaims the great tragedy that took
place on a hilltoplong ago in the East.")
other
Unlike
the reception accorded
many
has
modern
churches, the chapel at Ronchamp
those
been
well received
and
by
by pilgrims
function
It continues
to
living in the area.
busier
CorLe
successfullyas a religiousstructure.
has produced one
of few modern
religious
and
that
has
the
structures
dignity, power,
beauty which bear comparison with the best of

the

past. He

is

rare

imagination,
Virgin as well
"I

have

need:

can
as

worked

silence

and

reminder
from

his

that

modern

inspired
meaningfully symbolize the
the dynamo. In his own
words,
for
what
men
today most
peace."

architect, drawing

own

THE

fall of

the

Rome

until

fourteenth-

the

From
and
fifteenth-century development
and

painting
illuminated

and

printing

much

of the

historical

the

medieval

come

done

on

by

the

walls

and

depend
medium

the

concept

of

work

art

of

which
is

also

alien

size

chooses.

"

nor

on

in

which

of the

medieval

records

of

the

manuscripts,

cultural

and

society during the so-called

the

varied

way

for

the
men

Far

development

imagination
came

from
man,

valuable

of

bejeweled

the

the

sacred

is shown
as

and

to

and

terms

skill with

with

being merely
this

form

reflection

of
of

Ages,"

their
a

of

public

also

which

private

ivory

of medieval

furnishes

nature.

The

is

design
sumptuous

and

that

were

panels,
silver

themselves,

of
to

Christ's

earth
of

the
of

epiphany

great

importance,

the

conspicuous

area,

possibly

divine

type

of medieval
for

often

Christ

symmetry

used

These

holding
the

formal

and

navel

enamels,

work.
were

axial

the

the

giving

and

formality

extreme

precious

set

Christ

hand

with

birth.
illuminated

liturgical purposes,

magnificent

possessed

holding

(Fig. 103).

mystical

to

Many

Christ

left

Although
in

Christ.

heavens

secondary

reference

manuscript,
often

medieval

record

vortex

viewer.

book

symbolic

reveal

religiousconcerns.

painting
his

which

and

comprise

his

writings

late-tenth-century

right

the

alignments
the

the

with
upon
The

Christ

precious

book
seated

show

depicts

his

with

footstool.

his

arc

Trier

one
some

images

sacred

of

figure
Bible;

from

as

in

includes

which

images

gem-encrusted

book

book-oriented

art

on

the

Christian

the
"

throne

the

itself

Christian

replaced

medieval

has

attributes, and

is

Christianity

benediction

in art that prepared the

evidence
painting. They

Renaissance

BOOK

who

artistic

religion. Early

the

civilizinginterests
"Dark

only god

the

hturgy

thinking

is the

respects

for

medieval

SACRED

principal

his

manuscript

experience.
Illuminated

THE

not

manuscripts,

present-day

to

Furthermore,
art

partakes

many

on

does

art

Christ
of

have

that

executed
in

literallysacred

includes

We

with

painting

physical

mystically

of

public today.

Excellence

painter
a

art.

beauty

insufficiently

are

great

sheer

upon

Christian

easels, both

fairly large scale.

the

was

painting

intrinsic

general

associate

to

SIQNIFICANCE

easel

OF

book

Western
and

manuscript

recognized
have

worth

BOOK

handmade

important

most

in

literary content

The

of

the

press,

miniature-filled

and

of

carrier

the

SACRED

book

stones,
and
covers,

donated

covers

on

pearls, carved
elaborate

gold

treasures

by
87

kings

in
or

magical

possess

of gold
of
about

adorned

color

and

luster

appropriatelightsymbolism
the period. Legends sometimes
grew
up
the
of these
miraculous
richly
powers
had
books, particularlythose which
most

the property

been

the

powers;

the

were

of saints.
of these

magnificent book
Gospels (PI. 9),
which
made
about
was
870, possiblyin or near
Within
Reims.
a carefully
composed geometrical
Christ
on
format, reliefs in bossed gold show
above
Christ's
the Cross, grieving angels, and
forms
head, the contracted
(head, shoulders,
and
arms) of Mary and St. John. The thinness
and
malleability of gold permitted the working
of intricate details on
the agitatedangels and a
handsome
relief modeling of the figurevolumes.
The
both
quiescent image of Christ constrasts
with the movement
of the attendant
figuresand
and
their
with the densely set, variegated gems
and
pearls are
setting.The
precious stones
superb example
is

covers

of

that

mounted

decorative

on

The

are

key

accorded

motifs

the

allow

medieval

and

the
task
Christ Seated Upon the Heavens, from
Figure 103.
loth century.
the Gospels of St. Maxim.
Trier. Late

to

the

Bible

Word

the

"In

the

Word

sacred, and

in

word

the

ning
beginwith

was

of

words

The

it

commissioned

when
artist,

"clothe"

the

The

Word."

God."

was

therefore

were

of the

and

Word,

the

was

lies in

Bible

illuminated

meaning of the phrase "the

Gospel of St. John begins thus:

the

God,

and

of arcades

fight to pass behind

borders.
set off by filigree
to
understanding the reverence

lions' feet, which

them, and

Lindau

the

the

was

by royalty,

richest

finest

and

queens.

capable. Many
gold or silver writing
manuscripts contained
book
on
purple-dyed parchment. In a German

intended

written

of

manner

The
not
were
precious materials
primarilyto delightthe eyes but rather
to
create
a
binding appropriate for the sacred
found in
and
text
to symbolize mystical truths
the Bible. The
color, luminosity,and perfection
of precious stones
were
interpreted as divine

attributes

or

in

carved

gems

and

Christian

medieval

blood

so

In

on.

patrons

of

the

Virgin's purity,
God,

of

presence

of the

symbolic

as

the

martyrs,

the

radiant

some

cases,

supplied

pagan

were
antiquity. The
gems
the
spiritsexorcised
pagan

suitably baptized,
and

Christian.

made

Medieval

esthetic,or
with
as

God.

well

as

artists and
of

beauty,
religious: beauty

concept
We

know

alchemists

88

did

patrons

from

that

Purposes

but
was

it

have
was

an

dominantly
pre-

churchmen

gold

thought

of Art

was

to

the

at

The

this book."

and

the

end
the

words, "May

care

he

was

of the
Lord

tenth

century

clothe

your

book

the

on

the

with

of the materials

preciousnature
lavished

are

heart

in

were

giftsto God from the faithful.

in
The
profound significanceof the word
Christianityhelps to explain why illuminated
of it a cultural and imaginative
manuscripts made
had
than
object to a much
greater extent

real

sense

the ancient

in

were

written

of

imaginative

themselves

medieval

earlier
books. No
pagan
of the letter
ornamentation

scrolls and

writingsdemonstrate
of the
(specifically,
calligraphicbeauty.

equated

medieval

which

or

Christian

initial) of
While

books

ancient

script,the

handsome
were

comparable

many

not

fantastic

made

scripts
manu-

the

treatment

manuscripts.Ancient

object
as

were

writing

recognized
the

writing

for

"privileged" words, except

no

and

of Roman

emperors,
considered
be
to

names
was

the

menial

task
and

Certain

monks.

the

specialvalue

have

transcribing the
For

for God.

Christian, the

the

medieval

Bible

private pleasure
The

medieval
task

the

from
of

act

of
and

writing

in

layman,

not
produced for the
wealthy secular patron.

was

of

fact, did

not

minated
hand-illu-

own

until
the
late
Middle
Ages.
the most
commissioned
royalty who
kept possession
manuscripts seldom
book
or
appreciated all its intricate

books

elaborate
of

the

beauty. The
the

public

the

Church.

such

the

as

temples

meant

was

for God

(There

are

view

the

for the eyes

not

and
many

of

the

works

public

in art,

saint is dressed

an

Old

are

but

exposed

be seen
the sacred book,
priest;to his right can
a
painted in gold, resting on the altar below
and
next
to the Euchasuspended gold crown
ristic objects.When
the book
used during
was
the Mass, it was
kissed by the bishop,and
when
it was
read from, the knights drew
their swords
of the Scriptures
as
a
gesture of their defense
and
their
the people put down
staffs. During
investiture
the

Christ

ceremonies, the sacred

the

was

bishop, who
the

of

neck

the
head

was

book

about

to

leadership of

assume

Figure
from

104.

the

1002-25.

St. Erhard

Gospel Book
(See Plate

the
Celebrating
of Abbess Uota.

Mass

10).

The
sacred
book
was
a
privileged object
by a priest,abbot, or bishop,
generally owned
the
of God.
as
representative of the Church
the
The
congregation was
separated from
from
the sacred
jects
obremote
book, just as it was
the altar.

on

submitted

They

with
in

the

assumed

sacraments

medieval

the

and

Christian

to

it for their

gospels along
central position

life. It is difficult for

us

comprehend the dramatic

experience of the
revealed
congregation when the sacred book was
during the Mass, at coronations, or for special
The
Gothic
manifest
cathedrals
make
blessings.
the complex
religious ordering of life and the
to

universe, and
and

source

collection

of

and
a

in

throne.

altar, flanked
the

candles

sacred

book

that

order.

presents

stories, for

the

than

More

its medieval

Christ.

was

medieval

some

suspended from
gold chains. It
upon

of

sacred

the book

pubUc
In

the

basis

churches

the

Bible

was

ceilingabove the altar by

carried
in religiousproceswas
sions,
it was
Eastern
churches
placed
Usually the Bible stood on the
the

by candles
symbolized

and
the

incense

light

shed

burners;
by

laid

Church.

sight of God.)

religious instruction,

was

candidate, indicating that

(source of authority) of the

the

to

in

Testament

inaccessible

that

in

of
in

for his servants

instances

; the

of

sculpture and painting in Egyptian

sculpture and stained glass in the

cathedrals, of

Gothic
to

or

book
but

manuscript

symbolic of heaven
canopy
robes meant
those
to be

on

the

Even

an

'With an
assistant
Regensburg shows St. Erhard
celebratingthe Mass (PI. 10; Fig. 104), under a

itself sacred.

in
A

the

emphasis to
gloried in
Gospel that was
or

of
page
made

fit

did

letters

scribe, who

monastic

was

and

words

decorated

sumptuously

early-eleventh-century

Christianity, the practice

only for slaves. With
slaves to the priesthood,
of writing passed from
the
down
and
through the twelfth centur\'
to the history
development of the book is bound
of

Gospels. A

of

the

The

Sacred

Book

89

(detail),

Regensburg.

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Roman
and

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Book
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miniature

centuries

the Dead

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with

size. Between

vellum,
the

papyrus.
book
the

of

technical

or

scrolls; those

found

and

in

in

Greek

medicine,

the

and

With

the

that, unlike
artist

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scroll,opened

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Purposes

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ink

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entire

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fourth

gradually
less

matter

the

Christian

book

initials

made

century

and

whereas

books

of

hearing

book

was

the

was

text,

intended

of

the

by

from
page,

the
more

sentially
es-

as
where-

be

to

of

made

Constantinople
brought to Ireland

The

the

decorated
in

monks

The

the

sixth

by tine
Byzanand
Syria.
by Roman

West

earliest

European
took place in
development of book illumination
and
ries,
England
during the seventh
eighth centu(the border
principally in Northumbria
region between
England and Scotland). During
the
the
at
reign of Charlemagne,
beginning
of

the

ninth

century,

accelerated

preceding
each

other's

the

the

to

efforts

in Western
and

even

the

of

aspects

impetus

the

in

France

book

and

were

duction
proof

rate

the

England.

essential

to

sance,
Carolingian Renaisabout
800
Charlemagne

The

growth.

revive

great

the

and

book

illuminated

beyond

centuries

two

Christianity

side,
or

Irish

from

illustrations

been

missionaries.)

A.D.

vellum

stemmed

from

(Bibles had

placed
re-

durable

be

papyrus

watercolor,

ancient

with

Acquaintance

science,

illustrations
mythology (Fig. 105). Roman
primarily wall or panel paintings reduced

were

to

their

TCArc

ftp,Af,,v

S*vAyi

aurally and
visually.
appreciated both
of
sustained
imaginative development

illustrations

text

in

Ann

of
qualities of vellum
encouraged the use
and
richer
Vellum
also percoloring.
gouache
mitted
painting on both sides of the page without
the dangers of flaking experienced with
scrolls.

is,

scroll,a single horizontal

replaced the papyrus
sheet having its ends
attached
rods and
with
to
columns
of writing. The
ancients
had
ally
occasion-

diagrams
Egyptian

the

congregation

second
or

r.t

fVAre^f-'M

fH.Api,*'Af(^\t-'H:A.ei
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he desired.
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artists
the

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MANUSCRIPTS
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are

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decorated

remembered

images

hMHYae^Ac

margins
and
of the
the
miniatures
texts.) The
figure
rendering in medieval
manuscripts give a first
less,
Nevertheimpression of unreality and naivete.
was

'A^pAi

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exceptions
appearing in the

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nonreligious

the

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to

of Roman

Europe.
tenth

culture,

illuminated
In

the

centuries,

book

gave
duction
pro-

eighth, ninth,
there

were

clearlydefined locales and geographical

specific,
for book
fi-equcntly
production most
sources
in monasteries.
Thereafter, production became
during
widespread throughout Europe, and
"

and

eleventh

the

quantity

of

manuscripts

thirteenth

the

well

as

during this
originsmore
A

produced

Bible, such

books

the

makes

themselves

illuminated
Middle

Ages.
only

not

limited

books

for

concordances

of

frequently they contained

the
to
portraits of
cross,

and

saints,

the

faces

of the

world

an

tables,

the

the

entire

their
and

artists

of

with

protocol and
interpret these

putting

the

spectator

on

thus

scene.

gestures,
his central

as

well

the

as

placement,

the

At

end

of

these

of signatures of
accompanied by short
artist asks for praise,avows

the

and

of

nature
curse

labor

his arduous

curses

artists

Figure
Charles

his

this pen

PARTS

tools.
and

OF

Frontispiece.From

"I've

io6.
the

Abbot

Count

Bible.

Vivian's

843-51. Bibliotheque Nationale,

Paris.

great

of

St-Martin
of

the

in
Abbot

exist

of
which

obdurate

end,

the

to

ink.")

BOOKS

Bible

century

made
at

during

tery
the Monas-

France,

Tours,

comes

presenting the
Carolingian king

Vivian

manuscript to the
(Fig.106). The depiction of an actual historical
the rule in
than
is the exception rather
event
medieval
king is
manuscript painting. The

finished

ruler
the

Presenting the Bible

Vivian

Bold, from

reverence,

the

come

SACRED

the first half of the ninth

painting

his

this

damn

in

level

obscuring

itself

of the ceremony

selfis

many

"

prayers,
and

there

books,

hundreds

as

oblivion

themes.
the

governed by

The

to

evolved

of the

pose

are

miniatures

artist

resigned

craftsman

Tours

Emperor's person, the artist chose

viewpoint that freelydiscloses the
The
dispositionof the figuresand

of the

most

medieval

of the

notion

The

effacing
glib one.

illustrate

to

use

to

some

awareness

examples
foregoing
various
from
drawn
are
manuscripts
types
produced at diflerent times and places; yet
these
a
slight sampling of the
represent but
of imagery that
wealth
inexhaustible
emerged
medieval
from
or
scriptoria.
writing rooms
shall

we

the

or

less

Evangelists or

particular text.

the
illustrating

of

the

an

and
to

monks, for instance, and

elevated

conduct

devoted

full page

an

other

before

backs

the

as

imbued

of rank
devices

than

part of the

Gospels;

the

semicircle

the

ingeniously managed

The

deeply

were

the

mented
orna-

suggests

and

Vivian

well

as

Church.

the

over

the

lives of

in

artist

that

space

the
figures. The
frontispiececommemorates
of the Bible as
king'spatronage and the purpose
of the Emperor
a
gift,inferringthe supremacy

of

had

initials, and

illuminated

show

with

from

excerpts

blessings,commentaries, sermons,
books
the
saints. Generally these
canon
frontispieces,
covers,
tables

the

Sacred

the
Psalms,
Gospels or
religious feasts, prayers,

the

the

and

Abbot

shown

are

king,

Rather

was

in

church.

monks

school

their

tracing

enthroned
of

apse

important

consisted
of

as

of

calendars

as

difficult.

also

but

After

such

centers

the
monastic
surpass
books. The
mobility of

period

later

fabricated

Bible

of

as

variety of
during the

great

books

or

enormous

an

produced.

was

urban

century,

Paris began to rival

production of decorated
artists

centuries

twelfth

shown

The

Sacred

Book

91

Tours.

to

Scribe Presenting the Bible

to
107.
the
Gero
Peter, from
Codex, Reichenau
(?).
970. Landesbibliothek, Darmstadt.

Left: Figure
St.
c.

Below:
from

1002-14.

Another

donation

of the
Gero

Codex

scene

late tenth

(Fig. 107).

the Bible he

has

is in

century
The

German

script
manu-

known

scribe

copied and

is

108.
Christ Crowning King Henry II,
Sacramentary of King Henry II. Regensburg.
Staatsbibliothek, Munich.

Figure
the

as

seen

the
senting
pre-

embellished

his patron saint, the apostlePeter. Peter is

shown
enthroned, largerin scale than the scribe,
to

placed exactly beneath an arch of a simple

symbolizing a church; the saint's
without
accompanying
gesture is made
any
in
sign of recognitionof the monk's
presence
The head of St. Peter may
his facial expression.
have been copied from a late Roman
sculpture
of a pagan
The separationof the monk's
subject.
feet from any ground Hne does not
signifythat
he is "jumping for joy." In European art,
painting had by this time ceased to attempt
visible
suggestion of spatialdepth. The
any
world was
reduced
to symbols,and there was
no
need
its three-dimensional
to preserve
qualities.
Text and image shaped a common
With
reality.
the
the absence
of a convincing spatialsetting,
figuresacquired a relative flatness and weightlessness.
Medieval
a
symbolic
painting was
and mysticalart, whose
did not depend
power
duplicationof the world of appearances.
upon
The fact that the figures
tecture
archioverlapthe same
under
which
to stand
they at first seem
sit is thus justified
or
the basis of a desirable
on
and

structure

92

Purposes of

Art

clarityand an avoidance
the figure,
gesture,

of
or

cuttingor segmenting

movement.

Some

of the great German

manuscripts made
eleventh-centuryOttoman
possess
emperors
magnificentcoronation images for frontispieces,
commemorating events in which the book itself
Charlemagne's
played an important part. When
tomb
was
opened in the tenth century, the
found
seated on
a
throne, with the
body was
its lap.This Bible was
coronation
Bible open
on

for

used, in turn, by Ottoman

kings at their

tion.
corona-

of
showing the divine coronation
the
king Henry II, from an earlygensburg
painted in Reeleventh-centurysacramentary
of
arms
(Fig. 108), depicts the
the
king being supported by representatives
A

page
German

of the

Church.

Seated

above

the

ruler

is the

blesses the
new
king
figure of Christ, who
his head. The
and places the crown
use
upon
of gold and
colored
brilliantly
patterns in the
background and the robes, as well as the geometric
composition and careful ordering of

and
lower
and
left,upper
zones,
makes
this page
subsidiary'areas
wealth, and
excitingtestimony to the power,

right and

and

center

of

tastes

successful
the

the

Church

It also

court.

of the

alliance

of Rome,

influenced

the

an

demonstrates

kings with

alliance

that greatly
history.

of medieval

course

and
Cross Page. During the seventh
French
centuries, some
English and
included

elaborate

the

Ottonian

devoted

pages

eighth
scripts
manu-

to

the

of the Lindisfarne
page
Gospels(Fig. 109),the form of the Cross is seen
Cross.

In

cruciform

the

againsta dense field of interlaces. The conjunction

of flowing lines and
strict geometry
may
have been symbolic of the bringingof law to the
ordinated
sublawless, for the
interlacing has been
to the limits and
shapes of each area
and
the right
by strong linear boundaries
angles provided by the Cross and its frame, a
Roman
Christian
heritage. This idea is only
had
conjectural,however, for while the monks
converted
the Saxons
and
Celts to the Cross,
had
been
to pagan
art.
they themselves
won
Old

barbaric

carried

with
and

but

have
of magic may
been
bined
manuscript painting, com-

the artist'sdesire

to

make

the richest

powerful presentationof the Cross.

out in the eighthcentury,

most

The

notions
into

over

Cross page died

paintingof some

hundred

two

years

Above:

Figure 109. Cross Page, from the Lindisfarne

Late 7th century. British Museum,
London.
Gospels.

Below:

Figure

Gertrudianus.

St.

iio.

Reichenau.

the Codex
Valerian,from
c.
980. Cividale, Italy.

later

continue
ideas that were
to
(Fig. 110) seems
imphcit in the earher works. In a state of
mysticaltrance, St. Valerian makes his gesture
of blessingin such a way
that his whole
body
becomes
fixed
the
a
cross
centrally within
the saint,symbolicallyrendered
frame. Behind
in dark colors againsthis lightform, are menacing
bestial forms. The
all-consumingfaith and
trancehke
survival

withdrawal
and

final

moving image
of the holy
hostile

of

glory in

the
a

saint

world

ensure

illustrates the

medieval

who

live in

man

must

his

of evil. This

tion
concepdark and

world.

medieval
ImagesofEvangelists.In many
Gospel
books, the Evangelistswere
portrayed at the
for which
beginning of the scriptures
they were
responsible.Generally, the
Evangelist was
shown
seated, usuallyin a side view; his symbol
(thelion for Mark, eagle for John, ox for Luke,
and winged man
for Matthew) was
often shown
above
him. (The Biblical source
for these symbols
Ezekiel's vision.)In the Echternach
was
The

Sacred

Book

93

Irish manuscript,
Gospels,a late-seventh-century
the
is

EvangelistMark
represented by

is not

his

shown

lion

in person

symbol

but

(PI. 11).

Remote
from
literal image, this leonine
a
figure presents a stronglyimaginative equivalent.
The
sharpnessof the lines that compose
the body suggests that the painter may
have
been influenced by metal work. While
the artist
have

may

been

imparted

the beast. The

of

the

of

unaware

true

design of
forceful

most

geometric frame

has

ferocityto

the entire page

in

manuscript
active

an

he

anatomy,

and

lively movement

is

one

The

art.

life of its own,

and
intruding into the central area
being
played off against the lion. Since the writing
also partakes of the color and
calligraphic
of the lion,the whole
takes on a powerqualities
ful
consistency and discipline.
Of great importance to Western
medieval
art
the coming together in manuscript paintwas
ing
of the figure-oriented
Mediterranean
tion
tradiand the nonfigurativestyle of the North.
mosaic

from

ship

burial

both

of

Rome

found

the

and

in

seventh

lid from

purse

southeastern

England,

illustrate these

century,

divergent traditions (Figs. Ill, 112). The

mosaic
comes
figure of St. Sebastian, which
from

Roman

holding

concealed, but
the

the

location

correct

the limbs

the

shows

church,

His

martyr's crown.

robed

saint

body is largely

of folds suggests
pattern
and general proportion of

beneath, and

positionof

the

the feet

face,
suggests that they still carry weight. The
while lacking in individuality,is nevertheless

convincinglyhuman.
with

its garnet
but
sure,

for

The

it

originof

the purse lid,

known
not

gold plaques,is

and

in

somewhere

from

came

Europe, possiblyScandinavia. Among

plaques are two showing a figureflanked

Northern
Above:
S. Pietro

Figure
in

ill.

St.

Vincoli, Rome.

Sebastian, mosaic

from

7th century.

Below:

Purse Lid, from the Ship Burial

Figure 1 12.
Sutton
at
Hoo, southeastern
England (Suffolk).
Gold
plaque inset with garnets and glass; ground
(restored)in original probably of ivory or bone.

7th century. The

British

Museum,

London.

the

by two rampant animals, which may or may not

represent Daniel in the lion's den. Figures and
animals

greatlyschematized

are

outlined

compartments,

into flat,
strongly

with

The
sureness

us

skillneed

of the

not

naturalistic anatomical

presuppose

these
knowledge, and
jeweled images
doubt intensely real to their owner.
no

The
Northern
animal

the

to

attempt

no

corporealityof the subjects.

and
enamel
work and the
beautiful filigree
of the outliningwarn
that artistic
us

convince

human

figure was

non-Christian
ornament

manuscript

was

art

were

exceptionalin
art, and

more

of Irish

abstract

common.

monks,

It
who

was

this
or

in

had

illustrated

to

access

from

books

Rome

and

to

tinent,
England and on the Conartistic
that these
tendencies
powerful
were
joined. The Evangelistportraitsprovided
the
initiative for this synthesisin the seventh
Irish Gospel
and eighth centuries. A page of an
of the eighth century, the Golden Codex of
book
of the assimilation
St. Gall, gives evidence
of
traditions
the two
(Fig. 113). In the frame
barbaric

found

are

art

"

in

both

art

the

knotted

motifs

from

Northern

EvangeHsts

seated

and

accompanied by their
representationsof ancient
shown
were
philosophers, who
dictating but
never
actually engaged in the inferior activity
of writing, the
images created
by medieval
artists included
that of the inspired,pensive,
symbols. UnUke

the

pagan

fantastic four-legged
forms, spirals,

of dots. The
animals, geometric shapes, rows
stillof
of
the
saint,
importance
figure
paramount
on

the

Northern

page,
taste

has

had

imposed

upon

for incisive curvilinear

it the

outlining,

flatness,and

arbitraryproportion. There is no
the
impression of a body existing beneath
drapery. Despite the rigid frontahty and
of the figure,and
also the lack of
symmetry
the synthesized
flesh color and
features,
portrait
saint evokes
a
powerful presence. Later, before
the end of the eighth century, as a result of the
Carolingian Renaissance, the Mediterranean
and Classical figurestylegained ascendancy.
The
artistic origin of the prototypes
for the
Carolingian Evangelist portraitsprobably goes
third- and
back
and
to
fourth-century Greek
Roman
sculptures and
paintings of seated
philosophers(Fig.1 14).The seated posture had,
in
of the
antiquity, acquired connotations
contemplative life,as opposed to the active life.
Further

century

sources

Ravenna

may

have

mosaics

been
that

certain

sixth-

depicted all

four

Above:
from
8th

St.
113.
Golden
Codex

Figure
the

century.

John the Evangelist,

of St. Gall (5/),

Stiftsbibliothek, St.

Gall.

Sealed
Philosopher,
Left:
Figure 1 14.
The
German
sarcophagus from Sidamara.
Archaeological Institute,Istanbul.

95

Left: Fi^re

St. Matthew

115.

the

from
Evangelist,

the

Gospel Book of ArchbishopEbbo. Hautvillers,near

Reims. Before 823. BibliothequedelaVille,
Epernay.
Below:

the Evangelist,
from
Figure 116. St. Matthew
GospelsofJudith of Flanders. England. Early i ith
York.
century. The Pierpont Morgan Library,New
the

puzzled, aloof writer, clearly identified with

The
self
his profession.
artist could associate himsince both were
involved
with the Evangelist,
in

the

conveying
One

in

of the

medieval

of God.

words

excitingEvangelistportraits

most

is from

art

the

so-called
the

Gospels(Fig. 115), produced near

in the early ninth
Reims
century.
ancient

art

much

As

find

one

by styleas

Matthew
His

does

is shown

as

Ebbo

city of

Nowhere

emotional

in

image.
by facial expression,St.
a
deeply inspiredfigure.
so

inner

agitation,as W'cU
passionate enthusiasm, can

the

as

an

confined

artist's own

be

seen

in

the

energeticdrawing and nervous

rhythms of the
that overflo^v into the landscape
qualities
garment
"

and

background
detachment

of

is unknown

to

excitement

his

frame
In

the frame.

Classical

The

reserve

or

philosopher portraits

this artist,who

charges with

color, composition, and

the

itself.

an
Evangelistfigure (Fig. 116)
Englishmanuscript of the earlyeleventh
ofJudithof Flanders,presents
century, the Gospels
cool and
The
a
elongated
elegant appearance.
and
his gold-edged
figure of St. Matthew
restrained
a
dignity and
garment
convey
The intricate,
active qualities
of the
spirituality.
and
frame
are
more
garment
expressivethan

from

the

contrast,

an

man's

features

Expressivenessin
96

or

gestures

medieval

Purposes of

in

themselves.

painting was
Art

not

for
facial expressions,
frequentlyconveyed in the
drawing of the entire composition.
An
early-eleventh-century artist working on
emotional

gestures and

to

tone

was

situated
island
of Reichenau,
Constance, Switzerland, produced an

the

in

Lake

image

of

EvangeUst is shown in an
ecstatic and
(PI. 12). In the
hypnotic trance
lap are the five books of the Old
Evangelist's
Testament, and the prophets of these books are
grouped about the Evangelist'ssymbol. The
symbolic meaning of the image lies in the
belief that the Old
Testament
prophesied the
coming of Christ and that the Evangelists
St. Luke

the

were

trancelike
time

and

Monastic
an

in which

new

heralds

of his Incarnation.

The

of the saint is appropriateto the

state

place in
reform

attitude of

the

more

which
under

the
the

intense

image

was

pietyand

painted.
called for

Ottonians
a

renuncia-

tion of

worldly pleasures.St. Luke is presented

of mysticism. Seen
simultaneously
the saint and his vision,the image he appears
are
unlike
to support, not
Hercules
holding up the
The
world.
miniature
itself has a mesmerizing
effect,with its rigid symmetry
extending even

as

"

SSDCoucon

uaioTipoL

pigui

.^

uet,sci66tKjp^";?^

udiRochime

model

to

the

enormous

saint. The

fixed

and

eyes

arch

overhead

is

of

gaze
of

symbol

the

luiis poupiTc
't)i usgiie-TTJODo

mbniiao
pa

vjcque-^

tUj uoupcRQ

eLeoDS

pis ocipo seDpTiopccR,

who

nourished

v"

"

saliio:

refer to those
drinking animals
by the Scriptures,and the
gold background transports the scene
time and place.

jmi

Illuminated

orn

art

Initials.

5i;

have

to

came

scribe, and

uo6ist)pcSRn7~eDGe-'
(^TSLftpcsigiiis

Writing was
The
Christianity.
personal
great

in medieval

intimate

between

the

relationshipunlike

-J

are

brilliant
outside

privileged

written
value

there

two

the

heaven,

word

for

the

evolved

that

an

between

the

ancient
and
scribe
his text.
St. Augustine,
writing of the advantages of the priestlylife,
spoke of the opportunity to participatein the

S1^3Jtr^eiJTTT"^:TidQ;"qp
Ct^*"

scteudo

pijopfijie03)cr6iiTKr^

STgitniioyia: SuPuooTycrTni.iiicRiJO

creation
the

of the

Word.

between

Book

The

scribe

and

the

meditation

results

of

this

and

letters

be

can

great changes in the appearance

wan

mfMiuTraiR

81

peui

pacac

tboTTi

the

Figure 117.
Page for Mark
of Kells. Northumbria.
College Library, Dublin.

Book

the
Figure 118.
Page from
Late
7th century. The British

HKlpnrciKiu

from
the
13:17-22,
800.
The
Trinity

c.

the

Museum,

London.

(ViiU'luniTnuKiMni

,j^

in

seen

the

of

writing and
that took place

page

sixth

through ninth centuries. The

beauty and intricacyof the writing

increased
indicates
about

Lindisfame Gospels.

of the written

structure

from

upon

relationship

that

the scribes did

always

not

worry

of the text, which

was
ready legibility
usuallyknown
by heart. The varietyof scripts,
the
the scale differences
of the letteringon
opening page of a Gospel, the varietyof colors,
a

and

the

certain
based

elaborate

of

because

their

Greek

uniformity of
latter did

In

as

same,

two

be

can

contrast

the

century,

the

main

set

out

of the

body
into

different

initial

the
of

kinds

the

Lindisfarne
end

of

the

separated from
by being enlarged,

was

text

margin,
lines

of medieval

in illustrations
the

the
Book
of Kells and
Gospels(Figs.117, 118). About

the

to

writing (the

pages
seen

from

sixth

stressed

or

Roman

and

no
capitals),

use

the

look

stressed in

chants

location.

to

structure

of words

liturgy,and

the

decoration

hierarchical

valuation

increased

on

prayers,

text

of

addition

initials created

and

and

formed

colors.

with
minated
illu-

The

the margin
gradually took over
the text
of the page and began to intrude
upon
in the page
from the Lindisfarne
as
Gospels,
itself,
the initial began to
until about
800, when

initial

occupy

opened

an

to

entire
the

page.

artist

The

an

Sacred

The

illuminated

entirelynew
Book

97

initial

world

of

Figure

Two

19.
the

I, from

Initials for Psalm

Winchester

2th century.
Library, Winchester.

Bible.

The

land.
Eng-

Cathedral

",

The

meaning.

or
imagery enhancing
ordinarily illustrative of the
is the
text, but
fantasy. Its
product of pure
justification
probably lay in the belief that the
of the Word
surate
magical power
required commenvisual garb.
During the Romanesque phase of manuscript
the outlet for private
art, the initial became

the

ornament

initial is

sentiments
themes

not

of

monk

illustrator

that also reflected his immediate

Scenes

and

the

of

conduct

and

for

ment.
environ-

sadism, masochism,

with

generally
initials and
Christianity overflow
margins.
The great Winchester Bible,produced in England
rich
a
during the twelfth century, contains
deposit of this type of imagery (Fig. 119). The
two
versions
of the first Psalm
are
presented
jointly,with the initial B filled with episodes
from
the Old
Testament
that prefigure those
of the New
is about

Testament.

At

the

upper

left,David

lamb
a
slay a bear and rescue
its jaws. The
antitype at the right shows
exorcisinga demon
through the mouth
afflicted

shown

from

to

At

man.

pulling open

lamb, while

the

the
a

lower

of

left, David

lion's mouth

lower

Christ

to

release

an

is
a

panied
right Christ, accomHell
by the Archangel, harrows
by
binding the hands of the devil and prying open
the leviathan's jaws with the end of his cruciform
at

98

Purposes

of Art

initial has

illustration, with

composed

to

as

over

its curved

open

jaws. The

is

refers

move

the

to

All

its

such

of many
instances
and
sculpture in

of

Winchester

the

which

in

turn

of

the

beasts. Violent

the

fascination

the

of

rendering

identified

are

oral

from

jaws

so

and

of the B

arcs

that

and

Anglo-Saxon
detailed
descriptions

illustration

two

the

linear

of David

evil. This

field for

stress

scenes

the

ornament

literature

to

the

from

very

theme, the jaws

the

crltfiiir

action
figures and
energeticallywithin

frame.

mask,

entanglement
and

itself become

the

intertwined
us

d iiilcai- .drfiuoUnicarcraT-"mtorr,

juncture of

animal

an

emerges

in

brutality,

associated

not

staff. The

with

has
as

salvation

been

traced

Beowulf,with
The

monsters.

Bible is but

one

in medieval

refigouspainting

which

mordant

such

themes

encountered.

are

kind of safetyvalve
a
religionthat had a strongly
prohibitivecast. It gave free play to demonic
and
the
for rapacious energy,
instincts,tastes
of labyrinthine forms
and
convolutions
cesses.
proThis type of art gives us an
insightinto
and uncertainties
of medieval
the privatetorment
religiouslife,as well as into the delight of
The

for the

the

initial had
artist of

artist in the

become

movement

and

freedom

found

figuresin EngHsh
initials may
have
been
inspired by actual
performances of jongleurs.)
Comparable license
in secular

life. (The acrobatic

of medieval
who
with
sculptors
manuscript decorated
drawings is the
drals,
Utrecht Psalter,produced in or
Reims
near
capitalsfor monasteries and cathetions
166 illustrabringingto life an otherwise proscribed about 833-835. It contains some
of the Psalms
and
and phantoms of irreligious
world of monsters
thousands
of figures
that there
in brown
and objects,
ink on
the text
drawn
imagination.It must be remembered
artistic outlet for secular fantasyother
the separation
of a pictureframe.
was
no
pages without
The
of the Utrecht Psalter was
than
source
dialogue
religiousart. This intimate
probably a
lost Greek
between
the artist and his work, the personal
manuscript made centuries earlier.
conflicts and choices expressedin it
There
in the copying of the
was
marginal
great freedom
earlier
in medieval
the
artists of the
art
to become
was
tral
cento be sure
manuscript, and
in later periods.
Utrecht Psalter felt free to infuse their drawing
with an
teristic
characand impulsiveness
not
energy
of the original.
The
drawings contrast
MINIATURES
STORYTELLINQ
and
stronglywith the uniformityof the script,
the narrative
more
compositions are
loosely
structured
than are
the columns
of text. The
a
Beginning with the ninth century, there was
revival of storytelling
the Psalms literally,
but
artistsdid not interpret
miniatures,a genre found
in late Roman
them
fanciful
often added
contrived
art.
to
or
Frequently the artist had
older
much
drawn
manuscripts or copies of late Roman
metaphors. These
figuresare
from
which
he
worked.
and
than
work
animated
more
Copying in
freely rendered
able
in the paintingof the time.
The
those found
manuscript art was not considered a dishonorthe
method
but was,
Utrecht Psalter comes
close to being encyclopedic
on
contrary, an
important and accepted practice;originaUty in its manipulationof figuresand groups, and
for
was
not the aim of the artists.Copying, however,
one
can
perceive the artist's enthusiasm
did not precludesome
displayof incUviduality, landscape forms, notwithstandingthe absence
ground
backand
lost Greek
and
of the total integrationof figureand
Carolingiancopiesof now
that
has
ences
be associated with
Roman
come
to
prototypes display important differof the original
from what is known
styles. landscapepainting.The psaltercontains many
in the
of Hell, as seen
Not
all the
decoration
of medieval
scripts
manuimages of the Mouth
illustration for Psalm 102 (Fig.120),which were
was
painted;many
manuscriptscontain
influence on
later art. The
to bear
significant
outstandingdrawings. Such manuscriptswere
fluential
for royalty
for use in great public
or
not intended
manuscript as a whole was one of the most inof the qualin medieval
but
what
times because
ceremonies
were
ity
might be called
and
rich varietyof subject
of execution
nonoflicial art, made
for the privatecontemplation
was

in the work

taken

carved

the

"

"

of the

Figure 120.
Psalm
from
Reims,

monks.

Illustration

102, with

the
c.

The

Hell

Utrecht

most

notable

medieval

matter.

for

Mouth,
Psalter.

versity
833-35. The UniLibrary, Utrecht,

Netherlands.

cii

Rc

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who

ternach

produced

(Fig. 121)

artists such

German

Eleventh-century
those

rank

Codex

Golden

the

of

as

Ech-

the finest storytellers

among

Roman
historyof art. UnUke
the Ottonian
artists,
paintersconceived of the
entire
as
possessingan integraldesign.
page
The placement of the figures
or
groups in each
zone
was
carefully
thought out in terms of the
in

the

climactic

The
page.
Adoration
of the
whole

in

the

Magi and
Temple take place

of

moments

the
on

the

Presentation

the

right side

of the

important figures
page, with the most
ogy
located beneath
symbolic arches. The chronolof the

is

rearranged in order to
give the most
important events
privileged
locations in the codex. Medieval
art
permitsus
to
see
simultaneouslythe inside and outside
of a building;
that the action
open doors signify
location of the figures
is indoors. The Ottonian
or
artists created
strong rhythmic designs
and
broad
gestures played off againstsinglecolor backgrounds.While color is used symbolically
in connection
with the principal
it
figures,
is also skillfully
balanced
againstthe background
events

colors of the three

and

terseness

recall the actual

in

zones.

There

Ottonian

narrative

is

distinctness

miniatures

styleof

that

the Bible.

into
Versatilityand great imaginationwent
such
eleventhas
an
manuscript miniatures

century paintingof Christ

on

the Sea of Galilee

(Fig.122).Through the precarioustilt of the

about to swoop
out
dragonlikeship that seems
of the
frame, the undulating composition of
sail and ship played againstthe agitatedsea,
and the anxious looks of the disciples,
the painter
has realized a spirited
image of individuals in
distress. The sleepingfigureof Christ is the one
stable

element

frame

has

of

in

the

received

entire

work.

Even

impulsivelyflecked

the

touches

gold.
To

the modern
viewer both of the preceding
paintingsperhaps seem
lackingin truthfulness
because
they do not accord with our views of
Medieval
decided
reality.
paintinghad its own
dicted
system and logicof conception,which contraperception;truthfulness in paintingwas
based
to the Scriptures.
on
(The visual
fidelity
world was
only a reflection of a higherspiritual
For
reality.)
example, in such a painting as
Christ on the Sea of Galilee,
the scriptural
passage
have
been
measured
against which it would
reads

in the
with

"And
sea,

the

behold, there
in

so

but

waves:

arose

great tempest

that the

much
He

was

shipwas
No
asleep."

covered
mention

Adoration
Left: Figure 121.
of the Magi; Divine
Warning and Departure; Presentation in the Temple,
from

the

Germanisches

Below:

Golden

Codex

of

962"1056.
Nuremberg.

Echternach.

Nationalmuseum,

Christ on
the Sea of Galilee,
122.
Gospels of the Abbess Hitda of Meschede.
Cologne. 978-1042. Landesbibliothek, Darmstadt.

from

Figure

the

The

elaborate

Gothic

architectural

frame

cates
indi-

how

this style
popular and pervasivewas
and its appropriateness
embellishment
for a
as
from
theme
Holy Scripture.In the thirteenth
stilltightly
bound
were
to the
century the figures
in succeedingcenturies,
picturesurface. When
in

evidenced

as

follow,the

illustrations

numerous

human

that

form

acquiresvolume, there
is a
of
gradual accompanying introduction
shallow depth until the Renaissance, when
the
of the paintingis made
to appear
to be a
space
of that
continuation
enveloping the viewer.
In

the

eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries,

however, the medieval
painter had

neither the intention

the visual
Like

the

nor

capacityto imitate
everyday world.

of the

appearance

the

sculptureof the Gothic cathedrals,

devoted
not entirely
manuscriptswere
the Bible. Concern
with inevitable
to illustrating
death
and
moralizing about human
vanity
known
as
produced many
images that were
medieval

Noah's

Figure

123.
St. Louis, c.

is made

of what

artist had

Ark,

from

the

Psalter

1256. Bibliotheque Nationale,

the

license

to

ship looked
work

from

like;hence
his

own

of

Paris.

idea

the
of

appropriatevessel. There is no horizon line

from
to
give depth, and the sea is rendered
above
its identity,
to ensure
just as the boat is
viewed
from the more
side view.
distinguishing
Clear
of forms
identification,or readability,
precluded consistent or convincing perspective
at this time. Textual
brevityand abrupt changes
an

of events

have

their

visual counterpart

in these

medieval
idea of truthful
images. The
to
representationof scripturalepisodes was
scale the
participantslarge relative to the
picture area,
give them
simple declarative
and
establish a minimal
movements,
suggestion
of surroundings when
There
is no
necessary.
shadow
in these images because
there is no
reference to the sun
tions,
natural lightingcondior
flat
and the brightlycolored figuresare
in a two-dimensional
because they move
world.
A mid-thirteenth-century
paintingof Noah's
Ark
(Fig.123) lacks the geometric perspective
renderingemployed by the Italian Renaissance
also
painter Uccello, who
depicted Noah
releasingthe dove (Fig. 157) ; the medieval
wanted
both as to the
to satisfy
curiosity
pamter
outside and inside of the crowded
but tidyark.

reminders

mori, or

memento

of death.

late-

collection of French
thirteenth-century
poems
contains
a
paintingof three hving nobles who
are
confrontingwith apprehensiontheir skeletal
(Fig. 124). Although there is
counterparts
occasional

evidence

of death, the
frame

and

natural

of observation

from

figuresstill straddle

exist in

environment

world
of

the

the

apart

life and

picture

from

viewer.

the
That

develop certain devices

natural
images more
be seen
in one
of the most
can
powerful and
morbid
images from the earlyfifteenth century
in which
dead
is confronted
a
man
by the
Lord
Master, as this
(Fig. 125). The Rohan
medieval

artists did

and

to

skills

make

their

terse

Their Dead
Three Living Nobles
and
Figure 124.
from
the Recueil de Poesies Frangaises.
Counterparts,
c.
1285.Bibliothequede I'Arsenal,Paris.

ieb ttwerriuw

The

raf cnnl"i"

Sacred

Book

painter is

Lord

The

punished
will

answers

that

and

the

sinful

Day

of

devil

The

dead

and

an

angels. The

Lord's

and

the

simuladng

withered

and

tinted

colors

ground

plane

encourage

awe

modehng
tilted

and

fear in the viewer.

evoke

he
is

soul

angel against a
gold

sword

are

intended

painting was

to

be

must

man's

and

of

mercy.

Judgment

blue

countenance

comforting, and

not

of

there

fashion,

the

by
fought
tapestrs'likebackground
over

on

pleads for

he

that
on

Lord.

the

with

be

which

out

picture frame.

the

medieval

in

wth

the words

stretched

behind

ground
mouth,

his

issue

mortal

naked

bone-strewn
From

today, convincinglydepictsthe

called

emaciated

The

flesh and

bone

and

the

with

the

subject and a projection

painting in ways that
not
were
possible in the thirteenth-century
mori. New
demands
memento
were
being placed
the artist at the end of the medieval
on
period,
partiallyinspired by his acquisition of new
the
artistic devices
visible world
by which
could
be
plausibly rendered, but the break
from
medieval
and
slow.
style was
symbohsm
The
Rohan
Master
skillfully
joins symbol and
of the

spectator

into

fact, the visible and

the

the

invisible,mortal

and

God.

devices

through
receding
emotional

an

identification

The
art

was

which
art

"

development of
to
bring about
gave

the

conviction
visual

and

to

naturalism
the

in medieval

its greatest

textual

of that

destruction

manuscript
the

consistency,

word
and
of the written
superb coordination
sional
two-dimenthe image existingon
a
common
surface.
and
Changes in patronage
also influential. From
ownership of books were
the
thirteenth
centun.'
on,
private persons

nmE.truibiSiooauJs
jiioinumiilmiioiitcirumpouiiai uniiuifil
i.T.s.oninisnjmouuu;.

p'lmurnninimi'nuigi
oa 1 r.u^
tirgTr.mi"irti)jno:

[touiiu
ar.tt^x:':

-oi.-

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01

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"

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aimciuauf

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cji'^ijuinirtw

iujicmc.1
\XMjji :i.[i:^:iuTii tnmui
"ji,-.a'..L'

Above:
.Man

Figure

The
Rohan
125.
the Lord, from

Confrontedby

de la Famille

de Rohan.

theque Xationale,

Early

the

\L\ster.

Dead

Grandes

Heures

15th century.

Pucelle.
Right: Figure 126.
Jean
Belleville Breviary,
the
Saul, from
Bibliotheque Xationale, Paris.

102

Biblio-

Paris.

Purposes of

Art

David
c.

and

1323-26.

;ct.-Tianuc4"-

'

commissioned
urban
catered
A

collected
directed

luxurious

to

by

beautiful

books;

master

painter

secular tastes.

fourteenth-century
painted or superpage
vised
shop
by Jean Pucelle (Fig.126), whose workin Paris,attests the persistence
of the
was

medieval
on

and

workshops

coordination

of text

surface,but in

common

box
spatial

where

and
the

decoration

new

receding

Saul is threatening
David
the

beginningsof

with

the

breakup
of this unity of surface. The
rudimentary
spatialrecession of the architectural setting
punches a hole in the flatness of the page.
Pucelle
also influenced
the development of
of the
elegant and amusing margins. Some
stronglymodeled playfulfiguresin the margins
surface. (The
to exist in front of the page
seem
and
dragonflyat the leftwas a pun on his name
Pucelle's signature.)The
served
as
amusing
animals
and
insects
marginal byplay between
is symptomatic of the increasinginterest of
artist and patron in introducingelements from
creasing
nature
a
development paralleledin the ina

one

spear,

sees

"

natural

sculpture of
volume

and

the

reference
time.

of

the

cathedral

The

articulation of

development of
in fourteenthfigures

imitation
of
painting derived from
close textual
ties of earlier
sculpture.The
illustrations were
graduallybeingweakened, and
of the
a split
was
developingbetween the reality
words and the images.
About
a
century later,in a privateprayerrated
book
(the so-called Turin-Milan Hours) decoprobably by the Flemish painters
Jan and
Hubert
van
Eyck (Fig.127),one reaches a point
similar to that from
which
early medieval
painting had departed: namely, manuscript
illustration based on the style
actual example
or
of panel painting.
One of the oldest manuscripts
with a similar character
survivingfrom antiquity
400
is the
Vatican Vergil,dated
a.d.
about
(Fig.128); though of lesser quality,one of its
far Roman
illustrations givesus an idea of how
but
artists had gone
in achievingillusionism

century

"

how

short that route

of Hubert

and

seems

next

the mastery
paintingsof a

to

Jan van
Eyck's
landscape.The ancient Romans
had never
achieved a spatial
organizationsuch
that of the van
is
as
Eycks, in which the scene
if from the position
rendered
of a theoretical
as
observer standingat a fixed point.
In the Roman
ment
painting the parallelalignof figures
the surface of
and setting
makes
bedroom

and

Above:

Eyck.
van
Figure 127. Jan and Hubert
of St. John the Baptist,from the Tres Belles
Heures de Notre Dame
(The Turin-Milan
Hours).
Civico, Turin.
1416-20. Museo
Birth

Below:

Figure 128.
Paying Homage, from
Biblioteca

Seated
the

with Figures
Philosopher
Vergil,c. 400.

Vatican

Vaticana, Rome.

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'*^'T("flJlrTlt"(fllliu

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fatldjfanrmtmcait

of the Middle
sisted
Ages conable
making it increasinglyavailto
more
people outside the privileged
classes but also in rendering the world
of the
painting through the eyes of the livingartist
Thus
medieval
and his viewer.
a
painting,once
section
of the heavenly order, became
cross
of

slice of life." The

"a

the awkward
and

older

scene

can

of the decorated

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Jit f
^fenpril.rcddrsrooTiQrcepanjEiimircnr.ESniajs
arums
^orcnlis

coipc

7 biu^

but

flat page

of the

b: jcbioiu.
j;

jrmoa

sky

loss of interest

no

or

letters is

intrude

to

seems

into

the

Baptism. The calligraphy

of the same
spiritin which
lined.
outare
objectsof the room

the

over

the midwives

tr
^"aniKSiiicdKuscogiwmrtofCTapionpidf
daniil."t Of fimpUob*mtiianig muUa CO.
llpos

shows

vines of the margins

stylized
of a different realitythan the flora of the
are
istic
Baptism landscape,just as the highly naturalis
and sculpturalseated figureof the Lord
than the flat
of a different styleand character
linear
which
outhning of the initial within
he appears.
The
text
paragraph no longer lies
unframed

t^rcijoiitt
po

Hours

completeness.The

on

with

page,

Dqt.gcdjppm""lullcjmutanirflp3lbflToMritbumanr.bfctocDaUopk

Turin-Milan

illusionism
conjunctionof the new
manuscript decoration. The bedroom
of the context
out
be viewed
by itself,

not

and

finpTiiacUbTmbzfluanitrmorbis
jTccndi0."tqml
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made

and

the fifteenth
^3t^n("cpij8trnicrrfiea"'nittcircufTo=tb"orrnwcjpi'.~tcTaoctriipi'papitJii?.tjndtnigIjdi"jp

criteria for

reality,new

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Ternscawbto foi nurdardi figma vnjnb* poUeb
fllR^llllpb*5J
nis.7ndcabbj8CiufdrfiK"nj|lcTil
tjndi'iuffuponnfiaarummifpaninilii^uii.rcnl.
jl

"

other
developments eventually
dispensableto serious paintingin
century. A changing conception of

the book

'"^ipc

truth

the

to

world, the loss of mysticalassociations

Michel
129.
Woodcut.

Figure

icle.
Nuremberg Chron-

Wolgemut.

the Word
for

collection.

Private

1493.

and
and

printingpress
an

the
space

perceptibleand
page
from advancing any
A

brothers
into

thousand
to

were

miniature

farther
later

years

transform

transparency,

so

be

the

prevents

the

in

the

picture

our

tion.
direc-

Eyck

van

picture surface
of the

that the bedroom

the

portion
shown
through the frame, and its space might
own.
conceivably extend into our
Contrasting
the
Flemish
and
Roman
sees
landscapes,one
that to achieve depth the earlier artist resorted
raised viewpoint, whereas
the van
to a
Eycks
to

seems

constructed

largerthan

from

space

the

ground. Eye-level

projectiongradually supplanted elevation

spatialperspectiveof the fifteenth century.
In

earUer

medieval

the

subjectof

of

the

location
the

the

art,

might

one

painting,not

onlooker, determined
of the

sacred

subjectover

figures,as

the
the

say

in

that

"

the viewer.

Part of the democratiza-

the

murals

which

sacrament

were

to

soon

artists and

best
the

itselfmeans

baptismal
rebirth

"

life,the new
direction,for
prophesiesthe new
paintingas it began to centralize what had been
the marginal medieval
for celebrating
concerns
of earthly
the time, places,persons, and events
in
life. But
the
development of the woodcut
the fifteenth century brought a new
and viable
synthesisof text and illustration to the printed
book
toward
the end of the fifteenth century (Fig.
129). The lines of wooden
type and the carved
block

wooden

unity

and

and

Art

scene

years

of the

attention

to

of great
hand-decorated

thousand

Eyck's rendering of

patrons. Van

scale

appropriate to
superiorityof the

the

preempt

type all brought

movable

to
art
by
painting and

Easel

white

was

Purposes of

book.

the ultimate

than

more

contributions

viewpoint

eminence

104

end

text, the great demand

response in the

the written

and
books

more

natural
between

illustration

restored
page
of the earlier

manuscripts
"

grace,

and

hands

which

but

power

not

some

seen

of the

painted
the

that had

manipulated

and

against the
beauty and

calligraphic

sumptuous
emanated
pen

and

effects,
from

brush.

the

Plate

17.

DoMENico

Veneziano.
Oil

Madonna
on

and

panel, G'jVz" x

Child
6'i

with
i

Saints,from

the

"/s"-Uffizi, Florence.

St. Lucy

Attarpiece.c.

1445.

"

S-^

oilI3:i5
~

JS

'S

*"

"
"

"-

)"^

Plate 19.
Peter
Paul Rubens.
the Cross, c. 161 1-14.
Descentfrom
Oil on panel,i3'io"x lo'i". Cathedral, Antwerp.

"

i-iL

Plate

20.

Peter

Paul

Rubens.

Detail of PI. 19.

6
THE

SYNTHESIS

HEAVEN

OF
IN

AND

EARTH

FIFTEENTH-CENTURY
FLEMISH

the

thirteenth

In
medieval

art

and

secular

values

and

human

worth.

At

in

of

end

is present-day

degree,
development
in

trend

attitudes
.tation
use

the

conventional

weight

of

churches,

surface
on

or

volume.

replaced

individual
art

by

Use

strong

many
the

of

walked

through

it, as

interpre-

with

ent
consist-

such

of

halos

figures

linear

contours

in

resulted

remote

as

Rather

types

Church

mystical

of

Because
naturalism
the

and

ern
North-

than

sought

for

the

dogma,

to

the

could
new

art

lend

to

seemed
and

itself had

the

purposes.

familiar

holy

of
more

105

aspect
ages,
person-

instrument

strong

support
become

to

from

reahsm,
own

invisible
a

ly
Heaven-

which

excluded

new

and

cities

Ghent

and

of the

it for its

to

and

its beauty

Flemish

through
the

artist

touched,

saw,

previously

vivid

to

was

ance
appear-

pean
Euro-

the

Ypres,

means

resist

artist
tially
essen-

Northern

affluent

utilize

the

of

incarnations

exposition
which

artists

experienced

Bruges, Tournai,

sentiments

express

he

The

senses.

appropriate
as
City, as well

art.
an

without

facial

all his

seemed

was

of

characterization

rejected depictions

medieval

but

world.

he

as

did

art

of

with

desire

the

world

as

portraiture. Fifteenth-century

included

art

this
matter

Flemish

content

this shift in

for

what

fifteenth-

beliefs, for

visible, material

motives

earlier

by

attachment

of the

real

grew

abandoned

generic

Christian

the

in

apparently

the

the

present

attributes

adherence

bodies

The

of

of

subject

affirm

objective

himself

sphere

life. Nonetheless,

to

of the

that

halls, and

longer

strong

the

with

spotless mirror

garb mystical reugious

greatest

painting

for

to

and

penetrate

replaced

was

religious

patron

This

panels

Flemish

not

celestial

abandon

not

and

in

The

be

to

century

could

identification

painting

continued

between

discussed

guild

devices

viewer
any

values.

appeared

dented
unprece-

its

his

ders
Flanwas

the

barred

manuscript

istic,
natural-

an

as

panel

symbolic

and

there

received

settings. Also

depth

and

wooden

flat, bright colors, which

absence

and

which

Ages,

painted.

was

abandoning

by emphasis

of

to

art,

but
on

artistic

such

were

abbreviated

caused

what
book

religioussubjects.No

and

awareness

Middle

Belgium),

Flemish

toward

and

of

in

hung

homes.

private
into

in

painting

be

to

were

which

correspondence

previous chapter,

impetus

world

of

illusionistic,or

and

began

centuries,

absorption

France

displayed,

close

experience

sensory

the

of

that

painting

an

the

fifteenth-century northern
(what

was

of

increasing

an

the

rapid development

and

fourteenth

evidence

gave

ART

religious
tolerant

of the facts of

Unforeseen

existence.

earthly

by

possibihtythat the artist

his
could
not
private and nonreligious
negate
he painted religiousfiguresand
feelings when
the interiors and landscapesin which
they moved.
Church

the

Thus

the

of the late Middle

art

new

carrying, in fact,an

undertone
in favor

eventually settled

was

Ages

synthesisof religiousand

uneasy
"

the

was

was

secular

an

values

of conflict that
of the latter.

This

beginning of the disengagement

of art and
ideas of beauty from
religion.
the symbol,or the
The
key to this synthesis was
tangible sign of the invisible. One of the most
brilliant scholars
to
study this period, Erwin
Panofsky, has pointed out that the artists' and
to
theologians'problem was
disguisereligious
ciling
symbolism under the cloak of real things,reconthe
idea
of the symbol with
empirical
of Christian
probability.Over a thousand
years
the

synthesiswas

tradition

had

to

be reconciled

and

made

into

with

the

new

turalism
na-

"corporeal metaphors

of

things spiritual."Use of the symbol was

abetted
be
to
by the fact that all reahty came
thought of as permeated with meaning. The
of looking discerningly at
Flemish
a
process
of gradual penetration
one
painting becomes
beyond the externals into submerged layers of
below
works
of art
discussed
meaning. The
have

the

broker

the
were,

the

Flemish

who

patron
was

chosen

to

illustrate the

synthesisof

the

arranged

and

his wife.

added

after

painting.)

and

betrothal

taken

earth.

of

the

figure of the wife

original completion of

(The

the

The

heaven

forms

result, one

a
as

does

actual

an

know

not

eyewitness

if he

the

to

is

event.

The

Annunciation
of the central
scene
panel
depicted, for the first time in art, in a fully
parlor. Only the presappointed middle-class
ence
of the angel and
the small child carrying
of light
a
cross
on
hovering overhead
rays
The
a
overtly announce
supernatural event.
child and
cross,
replacing the more
customary
dove in this Annunciation
signifyChrist's
scene,
In
Incarnation
and
Passion.
her
physical
and
surroundings, the
posture,
appearance,
Her
Virgin is a middle-class
type of the era.
in both
virtues are
those esteemed
the Virgin
and
the ideal Flemish
Her sitting
housewife.
on
the floor evokes
her
the
immaculate
humility;
is

of the

orderliness

and

room

its

alludes

contents

her

purity; the reading of the Bible

theological literature signifiesher piety
of her
role. Meyer
awareness
Schapiro
to

that

observed

of what

metaphor

refers

in

the

the

to

vessel, and

garden

simultaneously,

and

traditional

its

flowers

symbols

of

familiar

and

adjuncts to Flemish
urban
middle-class
houses. The
partiallyopen
door
link the left and
to
center
serves
panels,
but its rendering creates
ship
an
ambiguous relationVirgin

between

106

the

donor

and

Purposes

the

of Art

scene

to

his

from

the

in

seen

place

takes

handsome
niche

of

soul

the

on

she

candle

and

wax

Christ.

as

The

and

the

the

divine

an

wick

has

the

gin's
Vir-

utensil

angel's head
immaculate

associated

are

and

is

room

within

the

Virgin's body
candle's

the

bronze

above

the liliesalso

purity.The
flesh and

is

The

body.

hanging

what

and

with

become

absence

her
the

of flame

fireplaceis explicable
light entering the
One
of the earliest and
teenth-century
most
room
important fifthrough the closed window; lighthad been
Flemish
the
paintings to illustrate
mystical metaphor of Virgin birth for
the symbolic synthesis
of the mundane
centuries
and theological
prior to this painting. In the words
is the Merode
of St. Bernard, "Just as the brilliance of the sun
Altarpiece
(PL 13), assigned
fills and
without
of Flemalle, who
to the Master
a
was
glass window
probably the
penetrates
Tournai
pierces its solid form with
painterRobert Campin. In the left panel
damaging it, and
named
the donor, a businessman
imperceptible subtlety, neither hurting it when
Ingelbrecht,
and
his betrothed
kneel
in a walled
garden.
entering nor
destroying it when
emerging: thus
the
of
the
be
the
word
can
a
God,
Through
splendor of the Father,
gate
glimpsed
open
then
like those of Tournai, where
entered
the virgin chamber
and
the painting
street
came
the closed womb."
If extended, the
done. The
forth from
was
figurestanding behind the open
been
the side of the Virgin's
meet
variously interpreted as the
gate has
rays of light would
that
view
with the traditional
head, consonant
painter himself, a servant, or the marriage
by

been

right.As
intended

basis

conceived

of

through the

ear.

of the
tiny infant
symbolic presence
links the middle
panel to
carrying the cross
the third panel, in which
fastly
Joseph is shown steadin his carpenter'sshop (Fig. 130).
at work
the
table
before
On
Joseph is a mousetrap,
household
which
is plausibly present
as
a
objectof cleanliness. Its theologicalsignificance,
as
Schapiro has shown, pertainsto Joseph's role
the
of Mary
and
as
earthly husband
meaning
The

Incarnation.
Medieval
theologians
explained Christ's assumption of the flesh as
the devil:
a
humanity from
plan to redeem
"The
the veil of our
hidden
under
Deity was
of Christ's

nature, and so
hook
of Deity
with

is done

as

bait of the

the

Joseph was

used in

Christ from

the

him
nor

as

neither

too

young

to

at the

but
faithful,

mousetrap
Christ

when

Christ

the

swallowed

he

rejoicedin
he

which

was

have

fathered

the

attitudes

rightage
a

"The

by this

son

the devil.

devil exulted
death

very

mousetrap.

his

was

deceive

to

of the

theologicalsymbol

if he

vanquished, as

like

He

rejoiced

bailiff of death.

undoing. The

of
had

What

Cross

of

the devil's mousetrap; the bait by

the Lord's
death."
caught was

block

may

correspond

into

lids and

to

is

The

box

old

bait in

Christ's death

was

the birth of

disturb

Augustine:

devil
the

conceal

to

ruse

died, but

in

the Lord

flesh"
a

was

St.

explainedby

gulped down
along
[Gregory of Nyassa].

devil,and the painterhas shown

too

The

by greedy fish,the

might be

which
to

is

Joseph

contemporary

boring holes
fishing-bait

spike boards attached to the

in fifteenth-century
landish
Netherpaintingsof the Carrying of the Cross.
look
the
Merode
at
only in
Altarpiece
of its complex symbohsm
is to neglect
Campin's abilityas a painter.The

To
terms

Robert

panels

to

Christ

of

ankles

marvels

are

of

which

figuresand

toward

the old surface

lucidity,in the

way

in

objectsimpress themselves
the
The
composition, like the
upon
eye.
painting'smeaning, is a synthesisof medieval
and new
devices. The
elevated viewpoint and
careful alignment of shapes tend to orient them
the

depth.

pattern,

illusion of spaces
The
objectsstrewn
and

the

table

and
on

between

even

while creating

in
objectsseen
bench
Joseph's workthe angel and

the

this double
character.
Virgin manifest
inconsistency of scale permits complete
in
and
of objectsshown
re-creation
visibility

The

depth
"

shutters

for

and

example,
the

second

the

window

trap

seen

lattice and

through

the

Joseph's right shoulder. The

rightnessof the artist's compositionalsensibility
is perceivedby trying to comprehend the whole
of the Annunciation
panel at one time and then
mentally moving any object slightlyout of
The
of this work seems
to have
creator
position.
conceived
of the painter's
as
being both
purpose
reconstitution and a more
a
perfectordering of
reality.
window

over

Campin, or The Master

Figure 130. Robert
of
Flemalle.
Josephin His Carpenter's
Shop,right wing
of Merode
Oil on
Altarpiece.c. 1420-30.
panel,
25%
New

10

York

^Vie"-The

of Art,
MetropolitanMuseum
(The Cloisters Collection,Purchase).

of the Merode
Altarpiece
Eyck's small
painting of St.
Jerome in His Study (PI.14) might easilybe taken
for secular
subjects. It is such
painting that

Both

and

the

Joseph panel

Jan

van

\'an

secular

the

inaugurated

Eyck, asked

St.

by

surrounded

Jerome,

Scriptures with
found

in

work

in

himself
while

with

could

of the

two

at

Van

Eyck

the

wealth

avid

time

of

could

be
and

of

relations

of his

society.

in

trance

with

the
of

wrist

illuminates
the

in

nor

in

of

heav)' weight

of

the
the

supporting
pileof
the

on

reproduction
rendering

of

animal

models.

Eyck's

and

working

Van

Eyck could

\w\xh. which

he

the shelf

on

The

ulous
metic-

with

contrasts

having

never

light

lion, St. Jerome's

lacks
body, which
doubt
no
lion,was

The
clumsy leonine
vitalityof the Echternach
van

books

objects

of the

attribute.

of

.\ soft

instead

from

inaccurate

accurately

render

thing
any-

tions,
lightreflectextural
craftsman
or
qualities,
objects.
The
miniature
size of the painting (8^/ieby
to the
5^',inches) attests
originof Flemish panel
painting in manuscript art. Rarely did Flemish
the scale of the Italians, who
artists paint on
with
created sizable mural
art
great frequency.
of its
Painting such as van
Eyck's gains much
effect
close

from

its

viewing

compositions

modest
of

do

graspable relations
108

was

its
not

familiar

the live

seen

"

scale, which

microscopic
consist

between

Purposes

of

The

large, easily

shapes.
of Art

of

The

sense

in

its

luminous

saturate

colors

and

in

the

hard

in
stressed
both
brilhancy of surface
Only by looking long
technique and contents.
and
the
one
savor
closely at the painting can
of the
forms.
sophisticatedscale modulations
Van
est
Eyck's paintingpermits focus on the smallmetal
bolt without
blurring of the adjacent
minute
areas.
forms,
Proceeding from the most
take in the increasinglylarger forms of
one
may
the books, the hour
glassand lectern,the strong
box

that

for

serves

chair, and

Cardinal, his

desk, the

draped shelves. The largestform

is never
within the paintcompletely contained
ing,
of the infinite variety
us
perhaps to remind
size of God's
and
creation.
Flemish
painting
the intent
of the earlier manuscript art
reverses
by revealingGod in worldly terms.

the

When

took

Eyck

van

the

up

motif

of

the

human

of
tecture
archia
background
figure with
and
he
able
to
was
landscape,
adapt the
medieval
habit of showing the principalfigure
on
a
large scale,in conjuncdon with its symbol
or
attribute,without
forsaking his explorations
of

St.

illusionism(Fig. 131).

before

the

in which

tower

her

by

father

pagan

the

saint

on

is shown

Barbara

she

of
plausibility

beliefs. The

be

to

was

for

churchlike

size is achieved

her

panel

itself and

works

of artistic

fifteenth

subject instruct
carried
projectswere

century.

being supervised by
block
a

at

workman

akimbo

right and

the

atop the
near

tower's

in

sharply,
workmen
for

the

in

us

the
how

in the

out

construction
who

foreman

the

Both

its

The

in

book

rocky ledge

construction.

under

tower

oned
impris-

Christian

her

from
she reads
a
foreground, where
falls
her lap. The
middle
ground
away
her right and
left can
be seen
and
to
or
bringing materials
shaping them

stands

is
on

perhaps arguing with

edifice standing with
arnis
is

hoist. The

shed

foreman

the

near

sculptorsworked,
rain. The
of
and
logistics
protected from sun
quarrying, transport, cutting, carving, stone-

is where

the

masonry,

and

presented
landscape

in

the

left. It

demands
detail.

panel resides

by seating

felt in

his head

writing desk.

naive

result

tion,
quietconcentra-

hand.

casual

clutter

of ecstatic

moment

attitude

an

by the St.
small, concentrated

precious object imparted

areas

established.

"

manuscript portraits
ized
Evangelistsindicate how van Eyck humansaint
is shown
the
he
portrayed, who

but
inspiration,

the

medieval

contrast,

neither

the

that

so

of

"

the vernacular

the

nomical
astro-

judging by
in
of meaning
his painting an
of books.
The
painter'stask was
being a translator of the Scriptures

that

and

earth,

mapmaker

into

the

in

used

superimposed disks
with
inscribed
drawings

any

also

of the

instrument

and

was

reader

By

intellectual

objects associated
books, writing materials,
two

were

the constellations

Church,

learning,

the

astrolabe, an

astrolabe

identify

of the

Jerome's

to

Among

study. The

be

was

could

leader

the

of substantial

man

scholarship are
the

and

the

as

of
would

result

Cardinal

homage

pay

achievements.
with

that

study. The

the saint

Eyck,

subjects.
to
paint

translator

accessories

the

which

van

the

all the

scholar's

of genre
cardinal

art

Roman

of

Jerome

view
In

this

to
was

stonecutters

or

mechanics

of

detail
the

modern

that

against
right and

every

brush

given us wonderful
were
begun, even

construction

distant

drawing
evidence

though

van

was

Eyck

of how
in

city

to

of the medieval

reminder

Christian

are

gently swelling

his

builder.
has

also

paintings

this St. Barbara

panel his

is far

delineation

normally have

would

the brilhance

as

did

more

the

detailed than
case

"

which

intend

carryingthe
work
further. Panel paintingswere
begun by
carefullypreparing and joining the wood
then
segments together.Plaster or gesso was
appliedto the surface and carefullysmoothed.
Upon this prepared surface the artist would
his drawing, which
served as the
then make
guide for the later building up of layersof
color and glaze.In this small panel,color was
Desire to re-create
appliedonly to the sky area.
suggests that

he

been

well

as

not

detail of the visible world

probably the strongest incentive for van

Eyck's improving on the old medieval technique
of superposinglayersof linseed oil over
pera
temEyck and Robert Campin
painting;van
combined
their pigment with oil rather than
sified
painting.The glazes intenegg as in tempera

was

dried
the color and, because the medium
of
slowly, permittedreworking and admixture
tion
techniquewas ideal for the simulaUght and its reflection. The oil-treated
and natural hght
surface was
semitransparent,
it was
that fell on
partlyrepelledand partly
absorbed, further adding to the jeweUikequality
of Flemish
As is apparent in a painting
art.
such
as
van
Eyck's Adadonna with Chancellor
also in the St. Barbara
Rolin (Fig. 132), and
colors. This
of

tS^^"-tt.\A^

"

Above:
Figure 131. Jan
St. Barbara.
1437. Brush
panel, la^xyi/^". Musee

van

Eyck.

drawing
des

on

Beaux-

Arts, Antwerp.
Eyck.
Jan van
132.
with Chancellor Rolin. c. 1436.
panel,26 x 2454 "" Louvre, Paris.

Left: Figure
Madonna
Oil

on

109

firstdrawn
on
a plaster
or
hand-ground mineral
earth
color were
applied directly to the gesso
and then in layer after layer of glazes,so that
the color acquireddepth and volume
well as
as
less separable as
a
luminosity. Color became
the figures,
and objectsseen
in
propertv- from
he
less consistently
the
to
on
depth tended
painting'ssurface than in earlier manuscript
\'an
art.
Eyck sought the illusion of threedimensional
increase
to
sculpturalroundness
verisimilitude to nature.
his painting's
He had
and wood
also been a painterof stone
sculpture,

panel,all

the

ground.

Tints

which

the

at

shapes

were

of

time

was

naturalistic

more

than

paindng.
Eyck's passion for exactitude

\'an

the

Such
an

and

the

painted illusions mav

provoke
that his is an
unimaginative art.

of his

virtuosity'

criticism

criticism does

not

take

of
transposition

exact

into

that

account

three-dimensional

two-dimensional
a
surface, along
con\-incingrepresentation of space and

object onto
%\-ith the

than
fight,
requiresmore
the
to
comprehend
begin

imagination, let

subjectand

us

the whole

manual

dexterit\-. To
of

nature

consider

for

van

compositionof the

with Chancellor Rolin. \'an

Eyck

Evck's
the

moment

has

Figure 133.

created

].ks

Eyck.

van

Rolin, detail from

Madonna

Madonna

with

cellor
Chan-

Fig. 132.

spacious and luxurious interior inhabited by

behind
which
there extends a
imposing figures,
Ever\- detail is
seemingly infinite panorama.
empiricallvverifiable, and yet the totality"is a
that had never
been beheld by \an
scene
Eyck or
else before this paintingw'as
finished. .\s
anyone
merit
a
gesture of self-confidence in his spiritual
the chancellor
of the
or
as
%\ish-fulfillment;,
for himself
Burgundian dukes commissioned
in the heavenly chateau
audience
of Christ
an
and
the Mrgin. .\lthoughinspiredin its sculptural
and architectural detail by archaeological
that van
sources
were
Eyck mistakenlybeheved

for the Christ child

and

heaven

the di\-ine hnk

was

between

earth

(Fig.133).
\'an
acti\'it\- in
Eyck's making of his art was
sympathy \rith God's creation of the world.
in the painting is at once
The
reaht\' created
based

yet

on,

from,

remote

his

The

own.

painterhas established himself as its sole

selecting,
rejecting,
refashioningwhat

arbiter

"

it. All material

enter

substance

has

been

is

to

painstakingly
given

and loNingly explored,has been

and fixed into
heightened surface materiaht\"
contains
order.
The
sand
a
a thoucomplex
painting
fi^om the time of Christ's stay on
and
earth, the
glitteringpoints to be discovered
final design of the interior has no
definite
enjoyed. To be shared with the painter is his
wonder
the traits of opticalperception,as
at
earthly counterpart.
Through the colonnade is
enclosed
for instance, in the fact that small objects
phorical
seen
an
flowering garden, a metaseen,
reference to the \'irgin
and
her purit\". near
the eye may
block out
distant objectsof
Two
them
in the
unknown
and intriguing
far greater magnitude behind
or
fignxeswith their
backs to the spectator look out
over
a
crystalclear river that di\'ides an
earthly citv" on the
left identified
the heavenly
accident

that

benediction

Maastricht
in Bel.gium.from
as
metropohs on the right.It is no
Christ's fingerswhich
give the

are

the
to
symbohcaily
tangent
between
the two
cities,

seven-pillared
bridge
110

Purposes of

Art

fact

that

that

the

exists

eye
within

Thus, the wealth

%isual
new
a

and

cannot

the

of

intellectual

take

in

at

once

all

of its gaze.
sweep
lifetime's accumulated

experience is given a
and
existence
on
imaginative cohesion
rectangular surface measuring but 26 by

24 '/2inches.

Figure

134.

Rogier
Oil

To
the
with

van

VV'eydex.

der

panel,86V2

on

comprehend van Eyck's re-created world,

is always obliged to
commence

viewer
or

return

to

the

most

minute

detail. The

face of the

chancellor, for
seventy-six-year-old
example, betrays his hard and perhaps questionable
and van
Eyck has reconstructed
career;
the man
beginning from the pores. There is a
hint of visual wit in the painter's
having made
hill adjacent to the chanthe distant obdurate
cellor's
brow, while above

the head

of Christ

are

placed the spiresof the Heavenly Jerusalem,

forming a kind of halo. Although van Eyck was
of the fallibility
of his patron,
aware
doubtlessly
his painting like all of his art
is a radiant exof faith
'pressionof optimism for the order of life,
"

that because

again know

of Christ's sacrifice the earth

Descent

from

the Cross,

c.

1435.

in the expressionof his

More
man-centered
reUgioussentiments than the Master of Flemalle
the Flemish
and van
Eyck was
painterRogier
der
van
Weyden. He opposed their shared,
less equal focus on figures
and
or
more
objects,
and in particularvan
Eyck's pantheism. \'an
der Weyden's Descent from the Cross (Fig. 134)
in Flemish
is unusual
painting because of its
assigningthe entire weight of expressionand
its
composition to the figuresalone. To ensure
the
immediate
powerful and
impact upon
viewer, the
painter compressed the action

within

shallow

boxlike

space

much

like

the

of the period.His ia'tent

sculpturedaltarpieces
to
was
provide an image for pious meditation
through which the worshiper could empathize
of Christ and
with the suffering
his anguished
followers. The
subjectis the loweringof Christ's

"

paradise.He

The

103". Prado, Madrid.

will

respects earthly rank

and his
as
a
counterpart of celestial authority-,
is one
of
\^an
imagery is aristocratic in form and content.
body from the Cross, and the theme
artist's
reflect the divergent passion and
Eyck and the Master of Flemalle
compassion. The
purpose
has been
Simson
best summarized
attitudes that existed
tastes and
by Otto von
conflicting
Christian
the
in
this
"The
the
fine
of
middle
class
a
nd
a
study
painting:
aristocracy
among
of their time. The
artist must
seek to approach God
domestic Virgin in the Merode
through the
seek
for example, cannot
affect of compassionate love. He
be interchanged
must
to
Altarpiece,
with the regal Madonna
Rohn.
awaken
these aflfectsin others in order
of Chancellor
to help
The

Synthesisof

Heaven

and

Earth

in

Fifteenth-CenturyFlemish

Art

Below:
The

Weyden.
Rogier
van
der
Figure 135.
from the Cross, detail from Fig. 134.

Bottom:

Figure 136.

Simon

Marmion.

Pietd.

bond

of similitude

between

God

contemplator of His image. This

religiousmission of the emotionalism
and

15th

Silverpointon paper, prepared with an

Fogg Art Museum,
ivory ground. 6 x 4^ ". The
Harvard
University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

the

establish

Descent

century.

the

Gothic

is the
of

all

art."

The

der Weyden
van
painting grows out of
with
compassionate emphasis and concern
the tragic in Christianitythat had
arisen at
the end of the Middle
ponse
Ages. The critical resof
the
worshiper's self-identification
with
the
of Christ
grief-strickenfollowers
lifelike rendering. It is not
hinged upon
only
that
their outward
the
physical appearance
painterconveyed with such power but also the
refined range of emotional
that they manistates
fest.
This range includes varyingdegreesof active
in the moment
and contemplativeparticipation
from
the deathlike
of the Virgin,
swoon
who
mysticallyshares the death of Christ in her
role as
intercessor for mankind,
through the
levels of awakening comprehension of the event
in the figuressupporting Christ, to the full
seen
capitulationto griefof the Marys, and finally
St. John's calm
see
to foreresignationas he seems
the

"

the
bodies

as

of

consequences
well as the

the

inner
protagonists'
right,for instance,Mary
a
suspended movement
of

Christ's

faces

death.

make

(Fig.135). At the
is caught in
is clearlythe result

state

Magdalen
that

total loss of self-consciousness.

and

The

transparent

The

tional
emo-

of the

participants
tion
composi-

psychologicalunity

is marvelously embodied
in the
itself;the placement of and alliteration in
in forceful rhythms.
the limbs join the whole
This complex unity was
essential to the intent
of

der

van

Weyden
to

More

intimate

drawing

by
have

in

the

induce

the whole

mournful

scale

Simon

and

in

is

character

Marmion

survived),

gregation
con-

experience.
of

(one

which

the

the

ings
draw-

Flemish
fifteenth-century

relativelyfew
to

to

"

in

share

kneeling

body of the dead Christ

drawing, though perhaps a
study for a painting,may also have
preparatory
been
valued
as
a
by the artist and its owner
finished work, for by 1500 in Northern
Europe
known
have
been sought by
to
drawings were
Virgin supports
(Fig. 136). This

collectors

and

secondary

value.

the

were

longer considered

no

posture of the Virgin and

of Christ's
in
with

the

body

griefof
which

arranged

and

the

of

patheticexpressionand

The

were

the

stiffened

solicitations

subjects.The
the
drapery folds
played against the

ity
angularto

share

studied

care

have

been

lines

of the

demonstrates

torso

tiiat Flemish
the

on

the

artists

emotional

most

drawing's beauty
the

control

impose

to

subject.Part
from

comes

covered

lucid

calm,
wont

were

hall, modest

first

Judas

with

sive,
adheglue or some
paper
which
over
an
ivory-coloredsizing was
inserted into a stylus,
brushed; then silver was
like graphite in a pencil,and when
the artist
drew
the
on
slightlyroughened surfaces,
was

the silver left its trace, in delicate silver tonalities

and
expressive drawing of exquisitecraft.
The

strongly meditative

of many
Bouts'
Dirk

paintingsis witnessed in
Supper (Fig. 137). The
altarpiecewas
and
commissioned
the subject chosen
by the
Louvain

of
in

the

1464.

assembled
disciples,
moment

when

wine, Bouts
sacred

the

painted
a

The

Sacrament

gathering

not

blessed

supper

and

the

could

ethic

by

imitate

is set in

Synthesisof

which

in

diagonally

Christ

from

across

comes

and

Christ.

his
gaze

and

is

dark
away

The

painting'sexpressivetone
from a cumulative
build-up of the parts
the complex interrelation of figuresand
subtle

Bouts

the informal

that

appearance

of

has

managed

between

contrasts

enrich
the

the

masterfully
formal

and

his style:the random

table's

objects and

the

as

and
if

on

the
a

frequent tangencies uniting

common

surface.

of the
airless,measurable
space
and
the
windows
by
doorways,
segmented
room,
In
are
seen
earthly vistas of infinite dimension.
earlier religious painting,Bouts'
to
contrast
the figures.
dominates
settingslightly
large-scale

the
the

Earth

from

Behind

and

Christ and

and

immaculate

distinguishableonly by
complexion and markedly downward

them

large Flemish

Heaven

sits

shapes

sacred

bread

the

dignifiedand

Last

the isolation
of the floor tiles;
geometric regularity
of the
figuresand the continuity of the
architecture; the judicious spacings between

of

of

only the origin of

humane

brethren

The
disciples.

this

for the solemn

Christ

rite but also

contemporary

Blessed

In

but

of St.

otherwise

the

Last

Brotherhood

Peter, Louvain.

environment.

character

'Flemish

59 ". Church

The

panel, 71

on

made
obvious
to
attempt was
appearance.
refer to Judas' betrayal.
According to tradition,

the

of

Bouts.

No

e\en

its medium:

Figure 137. Dirk

Supper,c. 1464. Oil

in

the

Fifteenth-CenturyFlemish

Art

113

that
disciples

is their basic

hall is

stillness of

the

of unification.

means

the figuresand
architecture
thoughtfullycalculated in order to
composition cohesive and, perhaps,

between

Linkages
have

been

make

the

intimate

invisible rapport
The
inanimate.

some

and

animate

sunht

the

by

weighted

the

with

consonant

to

evoked

quiet mood

The

the

between

the

of the

curve

right,for instance,
behind
fireplace
the
The
Christ.
as
opening serves
pantry
of
Bouts'
frame
for a double
possibly
portrait,
The
the
of the figuresaround
sons.
disposition
back
disciple's

lower

the

at

repeats that of the hood

is related

table

and

arcades,

the

to

the

of the

sequence
of

divisions

of windows,
the

end

wall.

than
integration stronger
the slightly
between
enlarged figureof Christ
and
the objectsbehind
him. He
is joined with
the axis made
by the panels that close off the
and
their suggestivepattern replaces
fireplace,

Nowhere

the

and

is

former

this

of halo

device

chandelier

and

The

cross.

lintel

extend

this strong central axis

been
noted, the chandelier

upward. (As has

a
metaphor

of

Christ.)The central axis

pointsof the diagonals
of the floor,table, and ceiling,
that the
so
of space
rationalization
partakes of mystical
was

also

marks

the

convergence

symbolism. Christ's head, his gestures,

bread

and

wine

complete the

axis. With

secular
the

able
accessories.Bouts was
theological centrality of the

rite. The

figureof

of all, and

Christ shows

his fixed

abstract

of the

context,

Bouts

forward

to

symbolize
Eucharistic

mobility

is the

Dirk

Bouts.

Self-Portrait
{?), detail

Fig. 137.

the

familiar

the least
gaze

and

Figure 138.
from

most

ed himself

as

becomes
Even

attendant

an

from

apart

servant

when

the

the

at

the

sacred

of Christ

in

artist did

not

fully
respect-

scene,

meal.

He

double

thus
sense.

actuallyshow

himself, his painting might constitute a selfder Goes'

van
Hugo
portraitof his nature.
Adoration of the Shepherds
(PI.15) is characterized
by explosivetensions and alternate strains of
that are
serenity and turbulence
revealingin

expressions;
despitethe worldly
presented him as belonging
order.
to a higher spiritual
At first glance, Bouts'
figuresappear
petlike,
pupin their awkward,
the lightof the artist'swithdrawal
to a monastery
peculiarlyhuman
Their grace is spiritual,
suicidal
not
his eventual
angularity.
depressions and
physical, and
and each of them
manifests
tendencies.
The
a
profound inner
painting's large scale and
of simplicity
concentration.
models
ambitious
They are
panoramic composition rivaled the
and purity,in the later Middle
of such predecessorsas Jan van
works
adjudged
Ages
greatest
Van
be the virtues necessary
emulate
Christ.
der Weyden.
to
to
Eyck and Rogier van
Eyck's
It is likelythat the figurestanding to the far
of
amplitude of setting and particularization
detail are
right is the painter himself (Fig.138).This was
present in the Adoration,as is van
der
not
an
seen
unprecedented inclusion, as was
Weyden's insistence upon
strong emotive
the Gero Codex.
Van
before in the illustration from
der Goes' painting is,in fact,a
qualities.
der
had
earlier
of Flemish
ments,
achieve.\lso, Ro,gier van
Weyden
magnificent summation
cUmaxed
portrayed himself as St. Luke
by the bold intrusion of the
drawing the
in
Virgin (PL 1).Bouts was affirmingthe esteem
personality.
painter's
which
the painter was
mined
held by Flemish
siastical
eccleVan
der Goes
the symbolism of his
and secular patrons. While his inclusion
painting from the rich depositsof theological
to some
the painterpresentliterature. Joseph is given prominence
was
extent
by
prideful,
114

has

Purposes of

Art

being placed in the left foreground in front

a
large pillarthat is part of a ruined stone
in the
edifice. His representingstabilityboth
painting and in his place in Christ's earthly
of

connection

his

make

family

pillarappropriate.He
the

to

few

of

bits

in

straw

by attendant

formed

Virgin.The

of

center

on

circle

the

apocryphal
Virgin leaning againstit

the

birth to Christ,

gave
that

of the

beneath

stood

birth of
and

tree

it for support during childbirth.

of
Goes
used
the medieval
device

Van

grasped
der

discrepanciesbetween
angelsapart from the
is

There

ruined

Synagogue
the

the

figuresto

settingrelates
and

decay

the

of the

the old order for

changing of

the

the

child,but

the

to

that is signaledby the Nativitv.

new

scale

set

mortals.

for the Christ

shed

no

stone

relate to the

mother

whose

pays

angels,shepherds,and

during the night when she

a
descriptionanalogous to
Buddha,

sturdy
homage

babe, lying

the

pillarmay

that had

tradition

kneels and

newborn

scrawny

the

with

that a vacant-looking building

shown
background bears the insigniaof David,
indicatingthat it is his house. The sheaf of wheat
in the center
foreground alludes to Bethlehem,
in

the

"the house
"I

of bread," and

the bread

am

flowers

The

behind

different

far

medieval
different

the

ass

two

sorrow.

standing
building,had a
ass,

it does

animals

had

today. In
radically

connotations, partly because

his master's

ass

that the

mean

the

the

in Isaiah, "The

sentence

and

pain that pierced

griefand

than

meaning

times

did

not.

anti-Semitic

ox

ox

en."
Heav-

columbine) refer

and
of the ox
presence
in the stone
the manger

The

to

her

Virgin'sheart, and

the

from

down

came

and
iris,
(lily,

of the Passion,the

blood

to the

which

of Christ,

the words

knoweth

crib." This

of

his owner,
taken
was

recognized the Saviour, while

The

ass

was

often

to
symbol referring

the

used

as

an

Synagogue,

ridas
a woman
personified
times
someimages the ass was
shown
as
eating, bitingits tail,or tearing
the
at
swaddling clothes, indicatingits own
stupidityand, by implication,that of the Jews
der
for failingto recognize the Saviour. Van
the ass eatingthe straw
of the
Goes has shown
The ox is sometimes
shown
as
engaged
manger.
the ass
in a tug-of-warwith
for the swaddling
clothes, protectingthe babe with its horns, or
all fours before the
even
on
reverentlydown
full epiphany.
as
a
child, identifyingthe event

which

'ing an

was

ass.

at

times

In older

the
authors
plays, in which
mystery
fabricate dialogue for them
because

popularity with
treats

the

the

audience.

annunciation

of

Van

the

had

to

of their
der

Goes

Nativityto

the

at the child's
shepherds and their appearance
side in
(Fig. 139). (The
synoptic fashion

annunciation

is simultaneously represented

as

takingplace on a hill in the right-hand corner

of the panel.)The
faces of the shepherdsare a
in excitement
and
strikingcontrast
ascending
levels of comprehension
what
as
they reahze
they are witnessing.
They are given an intensity
of expressionthat borders on
the fanatic. This
study in psychologicalreactions to a situation,
while occurringin a rehgious context
and as a
more

or

less marginal

composition,holds
extracted
and

Panof-

has

sky

Van
der Goes has given the shepherds great
importance in his painting, parallehng the
magnified roles they began to play in the

such

from

moments

them

in

to Italyafter
(commonly known

its

Sent

described

concern

the seeds

as

within

the

broad

for later art, which

Biblical incidents

purelysecular situations.
completion,the Adoration
the Portinari Altarpiece)

Hugo
Goes.
The
van
der
Figure 139.
detail from
the Shepherds,
center
panel
c.
1476. Uffizi,Florence.
Altarpiece.

Adoration

of

of Portinari

Goes.
The
van
der
Left: Figure 140. Hugo
Death
of the Virgin,c. 1478-80. Oil on panel,
Communal,
4'io"x4'. Musee
Bruges.
Above:
Paint

Parade

Figure 141.
and

gilt,height 32

Shield.

". The

15th century.
Museum,

British

London.

elicited great interest and

subsequent Italian
In

what

before

developed

been

in 1482,

van

his characterization

in

In the

have

may

his death

great

influential in

his worldly interests as a painterwith those of a

thereafter to cause
were
stronglyascetic man
sity
his last painting
mental
severe
problems and illness. The intender Goes further
of feelingdisplayed by his subjectsand a
of those particonstruction
from which
cipating rigorouspictorial
we,

proved

art.

of emotional

moments

stress.

Death

bled
of the Virgin(Fig.140),the assemshown
in the patheticattitudes
are
disciples
of a shared
human
and yet distinguished
grief,
in ways
invested in
appropriateto the nature
each
of them
by the painter. Compressed

within

confines

the

of

small

room

are

not

and the deceased

but also,
only the mourners
interior,the brilliant
penetratingthe darkened
glow issuingfrom Christ as he descends with
der
angels to receive the Virgin'ssoul. Van
Goes
and

was

among

ugly in

the

first to elevate the humble

by showing them as possessing

tion
enlightenment.Such dedicain part for
to
the lowly perhaps accounts
his renunciation
of earlypersonal success
and
the pleasuresof secular
hfe for a monastic
brotherhood. Deep feelings
of guiltconcerning
the adequacy of his devotion
conflict of
and

of true

art

faith and

116

Purposes of

Art

onlookers,

as

the

beholder's

emotional

detach

cannot

Goes'

der

van

obsession
and

senses

stress

of

ourselves
for

convey

overwhelming
with

reason

witnessingthe

the

miraculous.

(An open space is left for the viewer at the

Goes'
condition
der
Virgin's bedside.)Van
of heavenly and
where
the synthesis
was
a
case
earthly values could not be easilyor finally
achieved
known

"

to

Before
Goes

had

an

affliction by conscience
at

many

his

retreat

worked

the end

public life,van
royalty and, hke

from
for

that

of the Middle

was

Ages.
der
many

been
artists,had
important Flemish
the decoration
as
employed in such commissions
few such nonof the sails of a ship.There
are
rehgiouspaintingson objectsleft,and among
these is a hand-painted shield used on
parade
occasions done by an unknown
artist (Fig. 141).
On
the shield of giltand
paint is depicted a
other

Figure 142.
Eligius.
1449.
Collection

knight kneelingbefore a beautiful lady.Behind

the knight,in the position
of a second or a benefactor
of his profession,
is the figureof Death.

with

The

discussed

heraldic

emblems

used

in like

contexts

whole

in

Ages had by then given way

painting.For an artist of
the paintto undertake
ing
repute and social stature
of a utilitarian object was
considered
not
ing
demeaning in the fifteenth century, for by trainchixalrous

and
The

joined
is

Flemish
with
in

status

he

was

veneration

still a

Charles

the

craftsman,
of homage to a saint,

the purpose
Petrus
Christus'

The

Synthesisof

Heaven

and

Earth

at

or

near

in

of the

devices

by puppeteers

artificial
Gothic

bride

and

secular undertakings.

the basis of

on

set

up,

adorned

painted

with

mechanical

with

donkeys, to be operated
theydanced and sang
liers
lightedby bronze chande-

that

....

was

surrounded
They were
wandered
gant
extravaforests,where

like castles.

monsters.

groom

guests under

der Elst

was

and

so

the hall

shaped
by

The

employed by

to

van

boars, wolves, and

Inside

chronicles.
were

event:

forty-foottower

heraldic

metal

societyis

was
spectacles
Marguerite of York,
Enghsh king,in July of 1468,

of Charles

by'Baron

chronicles

and

Flemish

for extravagant
famous
most

the sister of the

described

runner
fore-

of the

wedding

York.

table, to be

chapter.
important jewelers

One

for the

it is

New

later

the Bold

craftsman.

depiction of St.
'Eligius,
patron saint of goldsmiths,in his shop
he waits upon
as
a
couple about to be
young
married
(Fig.142). The materials of his craft
the other
are
displayedon shelves;and among
the mirror, which
objects,
permits us to see the
and
been
street
also have
a
passers-by,may
device to thwart
feared losing
the devil, who
his image. In one
of the earliest significant
the subject of business,
to
paintingsdevoted
Christus ingeniously
created a type of marriage
and
professional
portrait,and also treated a
seen

in

St.

paintingsconcerned

numerous

enacted

events

Lehman,

still life. Moreover,

the

Christus.

panel.381/2x 33^g ".

on

Robert

Just how
secular
to
sculptorswere
recorded
by contemporary
finest paintersand craftsmen

scene

social

as

of

the earlier Middle

to

wall

Petrus
Oil

one

table

...

and

for the

canopy.

Fifteenth-CenturyFlemish

Art

set

was

Down

for the

important

most

the

117

center

Far

Figure
/^/:;

143The

Fleming.

THE

Mef.

Pierre

Burghley

1482-83. Nautilus
in silver,
ed,
gildVictoria
135,8-8". The
Albert
London
Museum,
c.

shell mounted
"

(Crown

ved).
Reser-

Copyright

Left: Figure 144. Gerard

Loyet( ?) Reliquary
of Charles
the Bold.
c.
1467-71. Gold
and
enamel, with silver-gilt
.

dral
base, height 2o'4 ". Catheof St. Paul, Liege.

stretched

in silver. In its
huge lake framed
as
thirtyships, each so marked
domain.
to represent a territoryof the Duke's
of them
feet long and rigged
Some
were
seven
a

floated

waters

like

the

before

galleons

marvelous
the

fleet of

guests

boats

that

carriers

seated

around

loaded

with

were

and
fruits,
was

After
spices.
brought in, borne

of the retinue
in

the

bastions
had

to

and
be

dropped

port of Bruges and

the

as

of

aloft

of

The

the

with

Cooks

skillful architects

Small

figuresof
to

and

and

in

pastries
real
chefs

the

all

meant

to

was

can
appreciatethe dazzlingbanquet display
despitethe loss of all the works of art because
of the survival of a small but magnificentsilver
ship built in the late fifteenth century by a Paiis
Pierre the Fleming (Fig.143).
goldsmith named
Such shipswere
known
as
"nefs,"and one of their
status
uses
was
as
a
symbol for the host, who
had it set by his place at the dining table. That
the Burghley
Mef served such a practicalpurpose

118

Purposes of

Art

main

mast, two
Tristan

represent

the secular

restore

nobleman

reliquary for
made

by

of
to

Charles

table,for
similar

grace

the

with
Bold

gifted goldsmith

there

work

was

is

serving

the Church.

(Fig. 144)
whose

name

Loyct. The records of

in Liege show
that it
the Church
of St. Lambert
ment
was
given by the Burgundian duke as atonefor extensive
damage he had inflicted
the church
on
building. A good likeness of the
Duke
him
shows
kneeling and
holding his
St.
is housed
gift of a reliquary in which
St.
Duke's
Lambert's
finger. The
sponsor,
George, backs him up and doflfs his helmet in a
courtly gesture of courtesy, as if presenting
may

We

chess

rigging

its many

by

sculpture of precious materials

grace

spectacularexample
A

stand

Isolde.

Not

to

its silver-wire

the foot of the

At

figuresplaying

....

emerged a whole
playing their instruments.

its

mount

crewmen

silver gims.

were

siren. Despite the

gunwales, the upper
three-masted
ship corresponds to
ship design of the period. Tiny
below

its silver sails and

set

small

saltcellar in its poop.

The
shell for its hull and
is

recumbent

the

latest

shoulders

very

of

part
the

designers
From
of the huge pies
one
band
of musicians
vigorously
as

on

design

to

dessert

course

sweets

castles

battlements.

of the chandeliers

food

table.

on

mounted

the

by

nautilus

fantastic

This

lemons, olives, rare

servants.

shape

brought

the main

has

ship

anchor.

Damme.

the

is confirmed

have

been

Gerard

and

himself

his

charge to

the saint. The

made

work, less than 22 inches high,was

with inlaid enamel
the Duke's

with

motto,

Flemish

The

touched

on

in

I undertook

"

for

law

and

ment
punish-

Convicted

ways.

many

it."

forced to pay
cities were
prisonersin some
made
of having bronze
sculptures
expense
hand

head

or

by which

of

the

to

of their

publicthe nature

gold

base,inscribed
silver-gilt

concern

art

entire
of

advertise

At
guilt.

to

the

the very

end

the
city of Bruges
century,
David
the painter Gerard
to

fifteenth

commissioned

the theme
of justice
taken
on
pictures
In the Punishment
from the writingsof Herodotus.
of Sisamnes (Fig. 145), David shows the
corrupt Persian royaljudge being punished by
flaying;the victim is stretched out on a table
him being skinned
watch
before witnesses who

painttwo

ahve.

judge

Afterward, Sisamnes'
in his father's

Figure

placeand

145.

made

was

son

forced

Gerard

to

David.
'

1 1

"

sit on

covered

a
a

with

the

(The son's appointment

skin

of

is shown

his

father.

in the

scene

in the

in

the

to

that

background.)This paintingwas hung

hall of Bruges as an
admonition
town
The
city's
justices.
moralizingpurpose

medieval

the
of

chair

in mundane

While

thus

art

Renaissance

of

and

terms

it is David's

who

subjectsfrom

counterparts of the
famous

most

are

antiquityand

for

for

reviving
making studies

dissection,this painting shows

shows

any
picturessuch

view
the eye

only
sign of
as

Flemish

Curious

concerns.

restraint in

witnesses,and

to

civil behavior.

deals with

Italian

artist'sinterest in both
noticeable

of

continues, but it is treated

is the

the

expressionsof the
small boy at the right
(Gruesome
repugnance.

this remind

of

us

that

the

mon
com-

art's purpose
as
has many
historical

Having brieflynoted
paintingoccurring since

The Punishment
of Sisamnes. 1498. Oil
Communal,
Bruges.
5 '2% ". Musee

being pleasing
contradictions.)
various
changes in

the

on

twelfth

panel,

century.

The Last Judgment,c. 1471. Oil on panel, center

Memling.
Figure 146. Hans
each. Marienkirche, Danzig.
7'3%""^5'3"; wings 7'3%"X2'9y2"

shall turn
the divine judge no
souls and
we
so
again to the theme of the Last
longer seem
Judgment, discussed earlier in terms of cathedral
uncompromising or inaccessible as in earher
artist Hans
of the
From
medieval
versions
the
scene.
sculpture.The Flemish
Memling
created
of this theme
mouth
of Christ there radiate the sword and the
a version
(Fig.146) which
of his justiceand
At
provides a valuable illustration of significant lilyemblematic
mercy.
differences in conception and
execution
in heaven
kneel
from
the sides of the rainbow
and
for instance,in the twelfthwhat was
seen
earlier,
John the Baptistand the Virgin,whose prayers
at
intercede on
behalf of mankind.
The
Conques (Fig.66). One
century tympanum
spectator
of the most
obvious developments in apocalyptic
has the
impression that in Memling's view
has greater hope for clemency than he did
man
imagery of the fifteenth century, as exemplified
the increased naturalism
that
at St-Foy.
by Memling, was
St.
The
left wing of the triptych shows
great emphasis to the geographicallocale
gave
and to the details of the physicalaction of the
elect up
Peter
a
golden
herding the naked
resurrected. Through its stark naturalism, the
staircase where
they are robed priorto entering
has become
the
Gothic
judgment scene
increasinglymore
portalsof the heavenly chateau.
The
familiar, thereby permitting the viewer
to
rightwing shows the infernal cascade of
souls plummeting into the bowels of hell,where
identifywith the fate of those in the painting.
The
central figureof St. Michael
who
exercise their
they are greeted by demons
weighing the
souls has assumed
an
importance equal if not
punitiveoffice with enthusiasm. The plausibility

superior to Christ,who
rainbow

described

li^O

by

sits enthroned
St.

John.

Purposes of

The

Art

upon

the

weigher of

of the miraculous
his

judgment

second

is achieved

advent

of Christ

and

by couching the entire

Below:
Last
Oil

Weyden.
The
van
der
Figure 147. Rogier
Judgment (centerpanel of a polyptych).1443.
on
panel, height 7'. Hotel-Dieu, Beaune.

Right:Figure 148.
Damned, detail of

Rogier

side

van

panel from

der

Weyden.

The Last

The

Judgment.

in

scene

natural

as

realistic

as

and

as

was

and
setting
possiblefor

the citizens of heaven

just above

the

in

becomes

earth

real

almost

Rogier

with

to be

seem

(a barren

sky that
white

accessories

the time.

Flemish

fades in color
the

at

Christ

suspended

distant

scape),
landuntil it

horizon.

der

Weyden's Last Judgment

at Beaune
(Fig.147),done in 1443, providesan
this theme
in Flemish
variant
on
interesting
The
scales held
the
art.
by
resplendent St.
Michael
robe of
(garbed in a costlyFlemish
verse
consummate
workmanship) are
tipped in infashion from the position
in Memling's
seen
and
the saved
older judgment scenes:
soul is
The
lighterthan that of the damned.
painter
was
revertingto older traditions,
going back to
Greek
times, in which the goodness of the spirit
(or the

van

merit

of the ancient

hero

in the valence

of the Greek
virtues

of

restores

to

connotations

which

we

heaven

gods) was outweighed by the lesser

his adversary or
counterpart. This
the weighing ceremony
the traditional
of up
and
down, right and left,
carried out in the organizationof
see

around

of heaven

Christ and
as

Weyden also deviated

by not having demons
upon

The

Synthesisof

Heaven

and

Earth

in

the

in the elevated

contrasted
from

hell. Van

tion
situader

his contemporary

inflict corporealpunishment

damned

Fifteenth-CenturyFlemish

with

(Fig. 148);
Art

121

their

Netherlandish
the

artist's
and

Church,

society,which

the

cynicism

found

had

about

materialistic

man,

interests

in
glorification

of
art

itself.
In

the

has

central

panel of the triptych,Bosch

decaying hut in the foreground,
broad
it.
landscape above and behind
the hut
are
grouped the three Magi,
clearlydiflferentiated ethnic types come

placed

with

Before
who

are

from

the far

of the world.

corners

of the hut

stands

golden chains,
metal

hat,

the doorway

ing
figurewear-

of thorns

crown

crimson

In

half-nude

robe,

over

bell, and

frog.

This
His
is the
leg displays leprous sores.
Bosch
his
Antichrist, whom
depicted from
An
openly
presented a
the Jews for not
recognizing the
for worshiping a false deity.
and

with

acquaintance
anti-Semitic
critiscim

of

Messiah

true

bell

The

the

known

it

Bosch.

The

Adoration

(center panel of a triptych), c. 1499.

panel, 4'63/j x 2'4%". Prado, Madrid.

of the Magi
Oil

With

is inward,

masterful

transcribed

the result of conscience.

skill and

insight, the artist

anguished expressionsof figures

the

varying
Van

of mental

states

distress.

Weyden's pessimism about mankind

but
not
was
only shared
surpassed in the
thought and painting of Hieronymus Bosch.
His
of the Magi
painting of the Adoration
(Fig.149), done at the very end of the fifteenth
der

does

century,
viewer

not

being

as

associations.

Nor

advance

the

van

of

head

the

of

belief
an

that
The

ass.

fallen

an

oven,

an

for hell.

in

Antichrist

the

Antichrist

the

parable
(Com-

of Dante's

funnel-shape structure
by

and

signsof
object

as

as

his

to

chain

holds

prop

bad

robe

the
be

can

the

donkey, referringto
the Jews worshiped
decaying

Synago.gue.

hut

The

the

again refers
who

shepherds

"

on

punishment

in

to

or

plays). Behind

the

head

as

and

contemporaries

carried

Christian
Hieronymus

149.

Antichrist

symbol

the

was

mystery

Figure

The

to

seen

Antichrist

of thorns

Bosch's

to
was

hell,

the

crown

Messiah.

which

to

it

imitating Christ, and the

Jewish traditions citingthese

to

the

part,

at

attempt
sores

his

on

relates

shepherd,

tradition.

Jewish

act

der

century.

on

modern

by unpleasant
is the painting technicallyan
illusionism
of van
Eyck and

Weyden

from

Bosch's

style

the
is

first half

somewhat

his

to

painting is
122

the

characterized

yet admirably suited

This

first strike

at

of

the

archaic,

moralizing imagination.
grim reflection of the

Purposes

of Art

have

climbed

onto

the

roof

and

the

at

peer
shed

the
are
Virgin through a hole in the
foolish shepherds or lost souls. The
Magi who
while
bring giftsrepresent humanity, which
longing for salvation is also foolish. (This is
borne
out
by the expression of the kneeling
their cloaks,
king, the heretical symbols on
in the distant fields.)
and their warring armies
Antichrist
The
between
placement of the
the Magi, as well as the positionof the Virgin
and
Child
the
to
right, signifiesthe poles
of

choice

seduction
wars

The

which

to

open

by

the
take

mankind.
devil

is

place

on

Their

the

with

city

New

such

dramatic

force.

the

fields behind.

in
the
distance
perhaps
Jerusalem after the wars
of a truly Messianic
It
advent
era.
if Bosch
as
were
prophesying the
that was
soon
shaking Reformation

the

ultimate

represented by
refers

to

the

and

is almost

Europeto

come

7
THE
OF

SYNTHESIS

HEAVEN
IN

AND

EARTH

FIFTEENTH-CENTURY
ITALIAN

he painted early in the fourteenth

Although
the Florentine
artist Giotto
exerted
influence
Itahan

century

the

existence.

Giotto

the

into

divine
was

his

divested

aloofness
reduced

in

and

earthly

able

to

in

fifteenth-

perfect
of

aspects

that

ways

and

What

the

into

achievement

great

of his

real

before.

brilliant

one

it

of

adorning the
painted about

Giotto

great
Arena
a

the

from

of

Chapel

thousand

in

years

mastery

(Fig. 150)

paintings
it

Padua;
after

the

the

was

cata-

to

Giotto's
as

never

people

sentient

squanders
link

or

axis

the

and

gestures

who

serve

but

it

of

Even

they

stinctive,
in-

are

relaxation

stereotype.

it. It must

Lazarus.

movements

arm

motionless,

expends

pace

the

by

symbolic

beings. Gesture

artist who

forcibly

to

of

is the

Resurrector

the

not

are

gold
art

sky, which

figure of

the

Giotto's

figure's adherence

There

The

powerful

intervening figures.The
figures on the center
are

tism
magne-

most

blue

is formed

showing

us

in

two

intermediaries

for the

to

disciples,

the

if impels the viewer

between

man

the

him.

So

is to

movements.

of his hand.

behind

that

painting

bridge

painting

from

earth.

first
Giotto

art.

through

gesture

Christ

resurrected

of two

as

action

half the

second

his abilities

mural

miracle

who

that

compositional

and

Lazarus

those

the

traditionally used
been
replaced by

has
the

of the

to

remains

Raising of Lazarus
series

the
gone

today

Bible, whose

indivisible

The
a

difficult

difference,

was

with

had

the

of Giotto's

across

the

not

that

background
returns

of his

within

distracting object

no

To

life to

new

story

of his gaze

eye

Christ.

if having turned

effects

(Fig. 61).

putrefying

painting, it seemed

major

the left,as

Christ

by

brought

the

the

tate
facili-

art

was

art

be

may

the

paintings

the

interpreter of

narrator.

to

had

this time

Giotto's

this

read

lated
trans-

lifelike appearance

more

Giotto's

to

age,

criterion

with

this

composition
a

of

but

own

contrast

The

While

appreciate

the

was

matching
world,

his

At

life

theme

same

the

days,

to

upon

equally

is

to

was

vernacular

new

To

subjects,in

contemporaries.
direct

devotion.

Dante

painting. They

to

was

looked

retrace

and

three

brought

To

made

accessories

his contemporary

divine

simple

symbolic

upon

for

was

Biblical

project

plausible and
intelhgible to
rehgious art of its aristocratic
he
theological abstraction, and

literature, Giotto

is

unite

to

paintings

reUance

gestures.

as

of

Dead

supernatural

all. He

of

efforts

artists

harmony
subjects

the

on

the

comb

icentury,

great

of

painting

ART

the

when

impress

is precious coin
judiciously; Giotto

build

the

action

composition,
123

and
never

Figure 150. Giotto.

1305-06. Fresco. Arena

distract

by

detail. Not

trivial

only

The

Raisingof Lazarus.
Chapel, Padua.

movement

the

arm

or

ostentatious
of the

movements

principalslead from Christ to Lazarus, but

also the powerful but simple directional arrangements
of the draperies,
which
retain a medieval
quasi-independence of the body. Those of the
figurebehind Lazarus, whose face is veiled to
ward
the
off the smell of putrefaction,slow

Figure 151.
1337-39.

Ambrogio

Fresco.

Sala

Lorenzetti.
dei Nove,

WMS

1i^4

Purposes of

of
Effects

Palazzo

Art

Good

eye'sdrive
on
man

movement

bonded
inward

Government

the
The

rightand refocus its attention

small bending figure of the

has removed

who

placed as
figuresof

Pubblico, Siena.

to

Lazarus.

guide our

the lid of the tomb

attention

the

is so

kneeling
the elliptical
the women,
who
return
of the action to Christ. The figures
arc
togetherby ties that reflect both a deep
and
awareness
simple physical grace.
to

(detailfrom

scenes

in the

to

city).

all times

At

the viewer's

concentration

is held

influential

equation between
figuresand their moral

the

of
weighty mass
The
stabiHty
that of a window
into a
of their movements
and
dispositionwithin the
clear shallow
the impression that men
turesque scene
space, sufficient for the firm sculphave
convey
a
volumes
that displaceit. Giotto develops
meaningful part in a largerorder.
of constructing a painting that is
a
In Italy as in Northern
way
Europe, the artist's

within

It is

new.
an
rear

the

frame.

The

painting'sframe
through which we look

if the

as

viewer's

imaginary pyramid or
plane, or blue sky,

painting's surface

intersectingthe
and
to

base. This

eye

in

is Uke

form

the

painting. The
transparent
plane

pyramid

parallel

of visual

viewer

the

basis

of

their

with

man

among

the humane

in which
His

men.

Christ

art

appeared

fostered

vision of Christ

and

hope

as

both

life, is

1337-39.

Ambrogio
152.
Fresco. Sala

The

Lorenzetti.
dei

Nove,

Commissioned

Synthesisof

Heaven

room

the

by

the effects of

with

in

which
but

depend
on

actual

not

Earth

the

as

most

of

space

his

environment,

abundance

of

allegoriesand

earthly

bad

filled

the

commentary
government.

fresco
on

containing

the

city and

exciting(Figs.151, 152).
original panoramic
vistas,

most

conventions

upon

visual

or

experience, based

memory
on

the

hill

city of Siena and its natural

surroundings.
The
of city and
spatial construction
country
is from
the viewpoint of someone
the
near
center
foreground in the city,about the point

Government

(detailfrom

scenes

in

the

countryside).

Pubblico, Siena.

and

well

Lorenzetti.
Ambrogio
to
city-stateof Siena

good government

the country is the

Both
views
are

in

hall, Lorenzetti

town

process

as

fourteenth-

the

natural

more

Siennese

the

out

up

the subject of good and

on
the
Visually and historically,

Effects
of Good

its

walls of

in the temperance,

Palazzo

the

decorate

humility, and dignity assigned to man,

who
is shown
as
worthy of redemption. Giotto's
rendering of the figure is integral with the
spiritualvalues he assigned to his ideal of
humanity. The
a
painter made
historically

Figure

create

open

thereby representingthe

the

of seeing that was

a
to be systemway
atized
mathematically in the next
century.
The
frame
works
with the figures,
serving as a
and foil for their large scale, erectness,
measure
and
resultingdignity.
As seen
in this painting,Giotto's was
a
manworld

strikes
to

slow

efforts

Giotto,

who

way

was

hesitant

or

After

artist

and

worth.

visual world

timid

advances.

fresco

"

centered

by

venturesome

fair consistency,
from

of the

attended

century

to

distance

conquest
bold

its apex
allows Giotto

cone

project his figuresin depth

on

his

the apex of
base is the

were

whose

cone

is like

in

Fifteenth-Century Italian

Art

125

the

which

at

dance

women

evidence

as

of

architecture,
just rule. The
happiness under
in scale both
and
figures,
landscape diminish
in depth and
laterallyin relation to this vantage
point within the city itself;the reference is not
and

to

based

not

their distance

on

city is rendered

entire

the

fresco

Lorenzetti

if

focus, as

of the eyes as
from

movement

the

through

in

from

The

us.

to

the

city's

antiquity

paintings had a Western

of
a
sweeping embrace
had

Romans

the

The
specific.)
in the

area

diminishes

and

artist
the

been

Roman

the

attempted

visual

world.

it

outward.

moves

More

than

hundred

Arena

artist

cycle of

(Nor

Lorenzetti

St. Peter

in

named

extended

after the

contributed

had

the ideas

to

creation

No

grasped

of Giotto

as

tine
Florenfresco

built

chapel newly

Brancacci.

intervening period
in

years

Chapel frescoes,the

Masaccio

silk merchant

or

was

construction
of

the

by

artist in the

the

full

did

import

Masaccio

his fresco

126

Purposes

of Art

for the

on

The

it

the

from
may

beholder

treme
publican (ex-

Giotto, the

of

and

center

main

close

level with

intense
is
from

to

the

assumes

an

the

illusion

heads

reahty

"One

of

the

most

of artificial tive
perspecobserver with his eye in
fixed

before

scene

the
of

the
contingent upon
fixed viewpoint. As
a

particularpositionat

distance

him."

But

and

this

always coincide with where

finds it possibleto stand, as is the
not

in the Brancacci

Chapel.
The
takes place on
scene
a
settingis new.
mountain
broad
extensive
an
plain before
in atmospheric depth; and
seen
though
range,
small in relation to the figurescale,the entrance
in correct
linear perspective.
to the city is drawn
The vanishingpoint of its diagonalsis coincident
with
Christ's head, thus
uniting the structural
with the theologicalfocus. Dramatic
emphasis
furthered
well as structural
as
claritywas
by
the
the human
form
new
perspective.While
still dominates
in the painting a requirement
case

The

"

of Florentine

in

art

natural

this

century

volumes,

treated

and
with

the

As

it has

"

been

affirming this
figures cast shadows
relationship,Masaccio's
of
the ground, conveying a marked
sense
upon
and
their relation
the surrounding world
to
artist's
their
natural
to
light. The
exposure
the study of such qualities
building blocks were
the reflection of lightand shadow
as
by broadly
into

set

rendering the

this moment,

on

defined
by John White:
significantcharacteristics
is that

fish's mouth

the

painting.Although the fresco

the wall, the viewpoint of its

achieved

the

At

the

of

out

pays

in the

fresco's construction

form

for mankind.

he

in the work

group.

The
Tribute Money
(PL 16). The
fountainhead
of
a
Chapel became
ideas
and
artists who
inspiration for many
followed, including Michelangelo (who supposedly
had
his nose
broken
there
during a
events
quarrel). The
depicted by Masaccio
those attending the arrival of Christ and the
are
disciplesbefore the gates of Capernaum, where
toll was
asked
of them.
a
(In 1427, the city of
Florence
vance
imposed an income
tax, but its relethough
to
this painting, if any,
is not
clear, alit is known
that Brancacci
opposed the
as
tax.) St. Augustine interpreted this event
the toll that Christ was
to pay
foretelling
upon
Brancacci

Cross

then

is about

Masaccio

viewpoint

the

of Giotto's

takes the coin

edge of
high up

such

is strongest
lightof the entire scene
of the principalviewpoint, and
it
as

Peter

direction

natural
continuity of light and
space, and the kind of roving focus of the traveler
what
to
was
(not dissimilar
happening in
Chinese
in
painting of the time, as will be seen
from
Chapter 15, "Themes
Nature").

caught

lower

disciple,Peter,
perhaps

(a prophecy

and
his
founding the Church
redemption of mankind). Following
instructions
to
him, the episode in the

is assembled

group

out

miracle

role in

wall

topographically

so

singled
a

the

Christ's

one

since

in

right).As

vividness.
Not

aid

(far left),and

not

was

of Peter's

searches

one

outward

Christ

participatein

to

center,

modate
accom-

tific
working with scienperspectiveor photographhke naturalism,
since his was
an
empirical effort based on trial
and
The
is
error.
obliqueness of the streets
minor
are
convincing, for example. There
inconsistencies,such as his failure to make figures
in the landscape smaller
in proportion to their
setting,but the painter took the artist's hcense
of bending a rule for purposes
of clarityand
center.

first time

context.

relation

the

if

of solids

rhythmic interplayof

the forms

figuresaround
ordering and

of

Christ
do

and

nature

not

to

voids,

the human

body

architecture.

The

belong to an impersonal
tional
volidisplay spontaneous

movement.

modernized

Masaccio
alter Giotto's

ideal

of

by powerful laws. This

of

greater

but

stable

not

world

modernization

awareness

anatomical

did

of

makeup

and
and

basically
governed
took

the

skill in
coordina-

tion of the human

Masaccio
and

when

utilized

corporeal body

sheathed

newly

in

draped

discovered

folds.

gestures

postures modestly but

the
of

figure.The

itselfeven

asserts

human

the

role

human

inertia

was

important for the future

as

of art
the

in enriching
tellingly
drama.
This release
religious
body from a kind of limbo of
in

as

the Flemish

was

ization
secular-

celebration

of

man-made

object.Subsequent artists with

anatomical
and
ledge
physiologicalknow-

greater

nonetheless

to

came

Masaccio's

copy

figures,
recognizingtheir durable expressivity,
though not always sensing their coordination
with the total design of his compositions.
The

strength of Masaccio's

faces of the
the

human

the

domain

into
of

for

grounds

the

had

divine.

Christ

of

intrusion

been

that

good

are

Masaccio

and

of

exclusively

(There

believingthat

paint the face

conception was

did

this

not

weaker

executed
by Masolino.) Like
drew
followed, Masaccio
strength

who

many

what

of the

treatment

disciples
heightensthe

from

theoretical
empirical as well as from
and while the faces of his human
inspiration,
characters gained in intensity
and plausibility,
that of the
nature

adult

became

"

dilemma

is

fifteenth

the

foot

in

Christ

sign of

the

problem.

transitional

which

century,

of his divine

because

"

troublesome

with

stood

This
of

nature

Figure
c.

the

153.

Masaccio.

1427.

Fresco.

one

medieval
in the
one
period
the
Noteworthy are
great fifteenthof secular subjectsand a few
century portraits
faces of saints (perhaps because of their humanization), but renderings of Christ's face as
eloquent as that at Daphne (Fig.67) are rare.
Masaccio
and figuratively
literally
brought a
shudder
to painting.
The theme
of baptism
new
in which
in water
a
figureis immersed
or, as in
Masaccio's
fresco of
St. Peter Baptizing the
him
from
bowl
a
Neophyte,has it poured over
old one
was
an
(Fig.153). But for the firsttime
the Florentine
paintergives us the reaction of
trembling flesh under the touch of cold water,
and

del

Carmine,

St. Peter

phyte,
Baptizingthe NeoChapel, Sta. Maria

Brancacci

Florence.

modern.

and

the

the

man

own

instinctive but futile warming

who

baptism

sensation.
shiver
power

disrobed

in the

What

may

to

Masaccio's

to

bring home

of

familiar

flesh

sacrament

the

and

senses

their

all

such

of his

an

ordeal.

and

excitement

the

to

ments
develop-

released

crowned

Italian

the

before

art

century

half

was

and

Veneziano, the sculptors

and
the
Donatello
architects
Ghiberti, and
Brimelleschi
and
the
Alberti
latter being
cally
primarily a theorist evolved, both theoreti"

this

"

and

empirically,scientific
For
most
representation.

of

means

these

discoveries

circumscribe

and

abstract

the

devices

did

not

bases
of

for

the

the
tury
cen-

dogmatically

artist. Furthermore,
for

these

rendering and ordering

the
and
perspective,proportion, anatomy,
the sole prerogativeof
not
study of light were

With

Earth

in the

fifteenth century is the artists' pursuit

spent. Masaccio

"

"

"

Heaven

brothers

are

objectivecorrespondences to nature,
tremendous
energies,gave rise
of free inquirythat in turn
to a pervasivespirit
nourished
venturesome
ideas, and
produced
brilliant individual
styles.A galaxy of talents

alive,
subjectcome
become
tangible

Synthesisof

viewed

of

which

gesture of

human

too

the

imparts
of the

awaiting his

underlines

and

skin.
What

well
have
brought a
his
contemporaries was
in this performto them
ance

temperature
The

while

icy stream

frailtyduring

Masaccio,
and

has

the viewer
same

in

Fifteenth-CenturyItalian

Art

127

Figure
Isaac,

1 40

18

Bronze,

1.

The

Ghiberti.

Lorenzo

154.

c.

Sacrifice
of
Nazionale,

16". Museo

"

of all

The

art.

for the

rationalization

artist could

the

which

painting. Secular criteria

making and judgment

sculpture or
established

were

of the visible world

of the
the

master

coincided

middle-class

urban

drive

to

mercantile

with the aggressive

systematizebusiness

enterprises,and
and

goods. Body

mind

felicitous coordination, and

the

in

ful
success-

exalt
to

were

man-

be

in

this ideal enhanced

of the ancient

attraction

by

means

representation

conduct, explore the earth's surface

made

Roman

sculpture
supernaturalwas
still respected;however,
prioritywas
given in
art
to the
sensorilyverifiable experiences,like
the
clear, measurable
shaping of space and
vital energeticbodies, as well as the convincing
of familiar
re-creation
settingsof home, city,
and
to
landscape. The artist continued
rely
imagination for his basic conception,but
upon
known

he

in that

was

century.

expressive
of his time

to

was

between

their twenties
artistic honor:
the

east

doors

128

of

the

evident
1401

taste

own

material

was

promise

Florence

constructive

new

suit his

for emulation, but

of all that
The

The

with

armed

now

means

when,

Isaac,

FiLippo

155.

c.

40

Brunelleschi.

Bronze, 18x16".

The

Sacrifice
of
Nazionale,

Museo

Florence.

Florence.

either

Figure

not

and

fifteenth

during
and

and

and

that

measurable.

century

in

its first years,

artists in
two

competed for that city'sgreatest

designingand castingin bronze
of the Baptistery,
which
faced
Art

Cathedral.

Finalists

from

seven

among

But
Florence
had
also
30,000 inhabitants.
successfullywithstood the military threat of the
of Milan, who
Duke
died suddenly in 1402. The
artistic enhancement

of

holy building was

gesture both of thanks for divine protectionand

entries
showed
tions
combinaof civic pride. Both
of medieval
the

vigorand
sculpture.

and

creative

Brunelleschi's

literal imitation,

1403,

Purposes of

the

competitors,FilippoBrunelleschi,a goldsmith,
and Lorenzo
Ghiberti, a goldsmith and painter,
still ranked
as
apprenticesin the guild system.
relief panels
They
presented their bronze
depictingthe Sacrifice of Isaac as prescribedby
the large jury of businessmen, artists,and
theologians(Figs.154, 155). The competition,
of arguthe focus and
pride of and the source
ment
for the entire city,was
carried out despite
recent
a
devastatingplague that had wiped out

of

was

the

two

figure (even

the

strenuous

then

Cast

to

the

energeticfigureslean or
overlapping the
space,
actions,however,

integrationof

and

forecast

Florentine

the more
matic
obviously drahis every
interpretations;

animals)

movement.

attached

ideas

new

imaginationof

involved

was

in

the

panel,

round

in
and

Brunelleschi's

twist into the viewer's

medieval

lack the
Ghiberti's

frame.

Their

synchronized mutual
also
design, which

divides

the

from

attendants

those

of

the sacrifice

diagonal landscape device rather

in
horizontal
than
layers. Despite its high
relief,Brunelleschi's
design still clings to an
surface
over-all
The
dispositionof elements.
technical
to the
qualitiesof fine finish,down
smallest detail of features,hair, and
drapery,
by

greater admiration

drew

also

may

been

have

for

Ghiberti, but

he

seemed

grounded

artists

the

to

in

conservative

being

as

of

standards

better
manship.
crafts-

Brunelleschi's
impetuous Abraham,
have appealed less to the theologian
also,may
who
Ghiberti's interpretamight have admired
tion
The
nessmen,
busithoughtfulness.
the
of
costs
anticipating
twentyeight such panels on the future door, would
have
berti's
appreciated the lighterweight of Ghi-

of reticence

Both

leschi in the

foot, and
Isaac
before
above
Roman

attendant

the

the

of
the

was

architects

the

who

basis for

thorn

the

his

altar.

Even

ancient

in

beautiful,and

Ghiberti

design

two

Brunelleschi
influential

the

won

great

competitionand

became

the
of

architect

his great talents

as

for

doors

the

the

greatest

went

on

to

Baptistery.
and

most

century, forsaking

sculptor.The

bitterness

those

Gilt

bronze, 23y2" square.

The Feasl
S.

ofHerod.

of

splitdecision

Brunelleschi
Almost
Tribute

admitted

and

evidence

no

his rival's

that

superiority.

contemporaneous

with

is Donatello's

relief

Money

Masaccio's

sculpture The

Feast

for the font in

of Herod (Fig. 156), made
Baptisteryof S. Giovanni, Siena. Donatello
drew
Brunelleschi's
newly discovered
upon
device of systematic linear perspective
to create

the

the

relief's

of the

appearance

into

In

depth.

the

oldest

composition based

this

on

surface

with

all

orderly recession
example of

extant

the three-dimensional

for

system
world

distances

posing
trans-

to

on

flat

the

measurable,

diagonalsof the steeplyslopingfloor converge

to a point marked
by the elbow of the seated
figurewho gestures toward the severed head of
John the Baptist.The diagonals of the upper
at a pointslightly
above,
part of the relief meet
the cornice

theoretical
location
to

stoop

of the

viewer's

behind

in

level. Thus

eye

font, the visitor

the

on

its actual

bend

must

or

wanted
it
panel as Donatello
Although influenced by Brunelleschi's
the

see

architecture,

new

wall

the banquet
to
a
roughly
points correspond

Both

table.

with

its

rounded

arches,

ambitious
imaginaiy
designed an
architectural
background consisting of three
the illusion of a palatial
separate halls to extend
setting.It permitted him to expand the action

Donatello

include

Herod's
the

the
servants

1425-27.

Giovanni, Siena.

tion
competi-

the palm of victory

: "To
me
by all the experts and
by all
competed with me." There is some

who

evidence

to

Figure 156. Donatello.

the

wrote

two,

viewed.

expressiveart.

with

began

conceded

was

on

young

sculptorsand,
saw

new,

from

of the

torso

decoration

painters,it

all,the
art

the

phrases
paraBrunel-

art:

pullinga
in

Ghiberti

and

included

artists

Hellenistic-Roman

that

modest
abated, for neither was
a
his autobiography Ghiberti, the older

In

man.

of the

and

relief
from

the two

never

his competitor

supported over

and
natural
by achieving a more
graceful
suggestion of depth. Cast in one
piece except
for the figureof Isaac,Ghiberti's panel may
thus

have

between

in

the

empty

Seemingly,
two

except for
the action

At

areas.

left the

few
has

the table.

divided

been

head

the

In

of the

center

objectson

the left around

to

hall.

remote

most

foreground,Donatello

scene

head

delivery of John's

of

into

John

by
explosiveradial grouping climaxed
figureof Herod. No artist of his
atize
abilityto dramsurpassed Donatello's
century
mind
in
the
human
the
of
workings
is the
the

horrified

situations
art

great

He

of great excitement.
of crowd
awareness

brought

to

psychology that

with
united
his figures
and
a
range
depth of feehng unequaled at the time. These
the
suited
to
subject,which
qualitieswere

vivified and

shows
the

not

the

animated

murder.

The

sacred

of

moment

group

reactions

response
of

the

martyrdom
to

figuresto
129

but

sadistic
the

of John's head
polarize
appearance
expressionsof attraction and repulsion.
the
between
two
Donatello
bridged the gap
of the
partiallyby means
foreground groups
triplearches and the table but also, and most
of Salome
important, by the fanatical stare
suspended in her dance.
Venetian
The
Veneziano,
painter Domenico
in 1439, drew
who
to Florence
came
insightand
and
the insurgent
inspirationfrom Donatello
of his time to produce his masterwork, the
art
Madonna
and Child with Saints (PI. 17). Flanking
sudden
around

the

enthroned

are

Saints
the

at

is

Madonna

Francis

in

frequentlyfound

Zenobius

which

by

type

art, called

the

implying the possibility

formal
the figures.
The

between

of discourse

symmetry

This

Lucy.

painting of

later Italian

Conversation,"

"Sacred

left

the

at

Baptist,while
and

honorific

and

Child
the

John

Saints

rightare

devotional

and

and

divinity is honored

is

of
tempered by the forceful individualization
timeless
the saints. They belong at once
to
a
and
hierarchy,but have acquired personalities
of feeling that prohibit their total submission
states
to
an
impersonal order. We may
speak
in an
of the saints' heads as portraits
even
more
in
of
than
exact
sense
discussing the work
Masaccio
St.

Giotto.

or

is shown

Lucy
because

both

in

and

favored

profile,a

of its ancestry
medallions

in ancient
because

and

view
matics
numis-

of its

use

in secular

portraitsof the time. To St. Lucy is

posure.
given serene
elegance and contemplative comHer
draw
the glance
to
profileserves
back
into
the
the
culine,
maspainting and toward
bius.
rugged, and pensive head of St. ZenoNo
the

attempt
of

extent

made

was

the

minute

features

and

strong

suggests

that

Veneziano

sculpture and
and

facial

Flemish

conception

flatter the

to

articulation

of

modeling

saint;
of

the

his

robes

influenced

was

painting.Both
of St. Francis

the

by
pose

convey

the

self-denial
painter'sfeelings about his arduous
and
humility. The figure of Francis is strong
by itself as a moving image.
enough to be seen
It possesses
the quality of strong inner piety the
Italians

in

admired

Flemish

largerpainting,however,
to

been

viewer

and

is

most

the

Within

art.
serves

as

the

used
the

as

an

interlocutor
and

magnetic figure in
130

Purposes

between

Child.

of Art

the

He

Hellenistic
So

the

himself

painting.

"

the

athlete.

strong is Veneziano's

it does

not

attention

over-all

disintegrateunder
given to the heads.

detailed, sumptuous

design that
weight of the

the
His

radiance

color

lacks the

of the

Flemings,

but is more
obviously constructive in its broader
and
application,as in the greens
pinks of the
airiness and
loggia. The
clarityof the scene
with
depends upon
light,delicate tones
many
strong accents, such as yellow and red, discretely
allied
the
to
severe
principal figures.The
never
clarity and simplicityof the architecture
conflicts

with

the

of

gestures

underscore

the

saints

but

their

slightestmovement.
Veneziano's
painting is a graphic demonstration
of architectonic
design,by which the figuresarc
consistentlyrelated to the axes of the frame and
architectural
of the scene,
thus ensuring
content
immediate
of the whole
and
stability
legibility
work, Veneziano
design.Building on Masaccio's
introduced
a
convincing representation of
brilliant sunlight, which
shines
from
a
single
the rear
wall just to the left of the
source
on
Virgin and Christ. The lightprovides not only
of the
illumination
warm
background but a
with the cool foreground area.
contrast
to be
Today it is possiblefor almost anyone
taught in a single lesson simple perspective
and
tricks
to
convincingly threesuggest
to

serves

dimensional

space on
fifteenth century
the
devices

still a

was

discovered

world.
as

in

Consider

Masaccio,

in

But

him
for

the

Donatello,

new

that

moment

and

who

techniques, it

explore

to
a

artist

the

that, through these

possiblefor

was

flat surface.

development of perspective
challenge and could produce

excitement

emotional

great

artistic

such

Veneziano

artists
were

opportunity of depicting stories

but which
they had never
actually witnessed
if they were
could be painted or modeled
as
pening
hapbefore one's very eyes. At their disposal
scientific as well as optical perthe new
were
spectives
faced

with

the

achieve

to

interested

most
ization,
inspired characterBaptist.Ironically, the saint

Mother

in
his
read
face
suffering,
giftof clairvoyance, and obhviousness
self Taken
to
as
a
whole, John has a
late
and
the
medieval
head
firm
body of a

be

may

the

weight
counter-

Veneziano's

John
has

it

Much

compassion,

this illusion.

in the former

mathematicians

had

interested

access

Artists
to

most

Florentine

in Euclidean

etry.
geom-

energetic and
Paolo Uccello, who
inventive
passionatelyloved
the possiblegeometry
of objectsand the unifying
would
of scientific perspective but who
space
One

such

artist

was

the

totallyor blindlyto itsuse

submit

not

the form

of

paintedhis
in

entire

an

As
painting.

to

dictate

Paolo Uccello

fresco of The Flood (Figs.157, 158)

Florentine church, he was
a

cloister of

the
efiects of linear
weighing in his mind
perspectiveagainstactual opticalexperience
the two.
and
making adjustments between
construction of the two
Thus in the perspective
and width
views of the Ark, its length at the left,
has its own
the right,each
at
point toward

which

the

rather

than

would

be

diagonallines of the ship converge,

a
common
vanishingpoint,which
the

if the

case

entire

scene

were

single,frozen viewpoint.
As Giotto had done, Uccello was
modating
partlyaccomof actual visual
the shiftinggaze
tion,
organizaexperienceand the needs of pictorial
constructed

which

from

could

well

differ from

those

of

Uccello recognized
that linear
sight.
was
not
something toward which
perspective
is neutral,and
he exploitedthe
the beholder

science and

sensational

of this system through

possibilities
funnelingspace created by
the sides of the Arks. He then proceeded to
populatethis deep space, therebyvarying the
in the
scale and postures of his figures.
Shown
fresco are
the beginningof the Flood, at
same
the left,
and Noah's awaitingof the dove and
the recession of the waters
fortydays later,
condition
at the right.(The present battered
of the fresco explains
of an old engraving
use
our
and
to assist the reader.) The
follyof men
when
faced with disaster is shown
women
by
who
continue
the figures
personalquarrelsand
physicalcombat in the left foreground, of the
the onslaught
of resisting
of the elements,
futility
the

as

deep

dramatic

in the

seen

who

man

tries to

climb

into

the sides of

barrel,or those who

try

the sealed Ark. The

arched, bloated body of a

the right foreground.

drowned
The
looks

child

identityof
to

heaven

to

clingto

lies in
the
and

tall
whose

standingfigurewho
ankles are
clasped

Uccello.
Paolo
157.
The
Flood.
1446-48. Fresco.
Chiostro
Verde, Sta. Maria
Novella, Florence.

Figure

Figure 158. Rossi. Engraving

after The Flood by Uccello,from
Rosini, Storia della Pittura Italiana (Pisa,1848).

131

J.

known.
half-submerged figure is not
is doubtful; perhaps he is a
is Noah
priest who
recognizes the truth of Noah's

by

he

(That

It is

not

in

"high painting"such

Masaccio, Veneziano, and

that

we

looked

can

see

what

dailysecular

this
fike;ironically,

as

that of

Uccello, however,
Ufe in Florence

subjectmatter
in which Uccello could indulgehis curiosity in the historyof art is best exemplifiedin the
of decorative
of the elements, work
the appearance
about
and wonder
painterswhose stylesshow
the technical and
little
of
the naked
of
the
and
awareness
styUstic
body
exposure
innovations
of the masters.
ence
human
Paintingsin Florpsychology^the shapesof objectssuch as
the
found not
neck
of a
collar around
were
the checkered
only in churches, chapels,
and
cloisters but also inside and
occasionally
strugghngfigurein the left foreground (which
outside privatebuildings,
not
was
a
merely on walls or
personalcapriceor like a signature)
life and death in their most
tions.
violent manifestapanelsbut on platesand storage chests as well.
It is this last form, cassone
that reveals
His ego
artist was
as
an
painting,
gratifiedby
(along with a wealth of images dealing with
proving he could convincinglyrender clouds,
historical and
the
windblown
a
literarythemes) the even.'day
tree, drapery, animals, and
of
Florence.
Most
of the evidence
of
customs
in
unconventional
figure
ways.
the frequentand lavish pageantry with which
Too
often called a scientist rather than
an
satisfied their subjects
linear
and
artist,Uccello saw
geometry
spective the rulers of Florence
perand
fellow
citizens
has
been
tools
for
what
lost, but one
as
surveying
mapping
in
unknown
had
paintingshows a tournament
territory. survivingcassone
painting been
in Piazza Sta. Croce
of arms
held periodically
intuition
made
him
Empirical study and
believe
that
there
certain
were
(Figs.160-162). On such festive occasions the
geometric
itselfbecame
of art, with the decorations
a work
and
animals
which
to
men
cit)'
shapes common
should
truth and
serve
rivalingthe ceremonies for attention. The
beauty as the artistic
God

warning from

late.)Here

too

was

ject
sub-

new

"

substructure

painted

to

their

re-creation.

knight

mercenary'

Florence
horse

of

fresco in the Cathedral

in the

had

who

fourteenth

as

When

he

Figure 159.

memorial

fought

century', both

for
the

and

were
figureof Sir John Hawkwood
rationalized in comparison to perspective
space
neck of the
(Fig.159). The flanks and bowed
the shapes of the armor
horse and
are
easily
discernible in terms
of arcs, circles,
demispheres,
and \'arious repeatedsimple curved
silhouettes.
Florentine
paintingsuch as this was nourished
and
alone by science
not
history,but also by
is patterned after
sculpture;for the memorial
(The knight's
sculptural
equestrianmonuments.

horse is based
on

on

St. Mark's

was

cheaper

architectural
seen

if seen

from

of the famous

one

in

bronze

horses

Venice.)Economically,fresco

than
base

bronze.
is

below, but

The

elaborate

correctlyrendered
the

horse and

rider

as

if
as

are

from

a higherviewpoint,
therebypermitting
appropriatehonor of a strong profile
portrait of Sir John rather than merely the
belly of his horse and the soles of his boots.
Art and
not
science, sight and reason, were

the

enemy

faculties for

celebratinga

secular

felt to be contradictory

Uccello
hero

"

in

any
a

in Florence

Earthly heroes literallyinvaded

in fifteenth-century
God
Italy.
132

Purposesof

Art

more

than

cathedral
at

the

was

the time.
house

of

1433. Fresco
Florence.

Paolo

Uccello.

transferred

to

canvas.

Sir

John

Hawkwood.

The

Cathedral,

af

bo

(M

^f

"

ts

"

3
bo

PS
w
E-

i
a

a
M

"
"a
H
d.

O
a,

a
C/3

O
3

painterof this Florentine

tangleof combat as well
focus

of the

distinct

of bright,
rather
dispersal

givesthe

work

tournaments

Florence

conduct

the

on

over-all

givesus the
multiple
The
bystanders.

cassone
as

or

in

as

decorative

tone.

flat colors
For

such

in
merely for parade display,
Flanders,the best artistssuch as

would

be

called upon

to
design
armor.
patron's
is a paradeshield bearing
Fortunately
preserved
of David by Andrea del Castagno
the figure
the shield with
(Fig.163).Instead of decorating
coat
of arms, Castagno has stagedDavid's
a
triumph againsta natural backdrop. The

Leonardo

ornament

for their

artists

to
study the body by dissection. This
practical
knowledge of musculature imparted
and new
to his
expressiveness
energy, strength,
but, in the case of David, created an
figures
awkward
with the archaic or conventionalized
synthesis
ive
effectlandscape.
Castagnowas more
in scenes
where his figural
studies could be
complementedby architectural perspective.

Shortlyafter Veneziano's

Madonna

and Child

with Saints was

completed,
Castagnopaintedhis
fresco The Last Supper
(Fig.164),which was the
prototype for several later fifteenth-century
versions of the same
theme.
Although the
isBiblicaland the fresco'slocation was in
subject
the refectory
vital figure
of David isshown as if firstconfronting
of a Florentine church,Castkgno's
is in human
Goliath with loaded sling,
and at his feet
and mundane
terms.
interpretation
The disciples
and Christ are shown seated at a
is the grisly
evidence of the story's
end. David
of the great heroes of Florence, as well
beautiful pavilion,
whose
was
one
longtable in a severely
as
a
symbol of freedom, and on the shield
designis based on contemporary architectural
of
Castagnoshows him as vigorousand vigilant, tastes. Castagno sought the appearance
between
ready to repelhis enemy
and, by implication, completeorderliness and composure
and their setting,
those
the figures
of Florence. In his figureof David,
and between the
and
whole composition
the great diningroom
Castagno joined the posture of an ancient
Greek
human

statue

and

anatomy,

the results of his studies of

for he

was

one

of the first

Castagno.
David.
del
163. Andrea
Parade
c.
shield,tempera on leather,
1450-57.
National
height 45 '/V- The
Gallery of Art,
Washington,B.C. (Widener Collection).

Figure

W^'^'^^i

in which

the fresco was

Marginalevidences

located.
of the increased interest

in ancient

art

sphinxesat

the ends of the bench

in the fresco

are

the

bronze

and

certain

details of the architecture. As had their Flemish

as
Castagnooften
designedwith the brush their
architecture and
own
furnishings.
Through
linear perspective,
Castagnocreated the forceful
illusion of the pavilion's
recession behind the
end wall of the refectory.
Within the resulting
and seen against
itscoordinate
space of the room

such
counterparts, painters
reconstructed

or

system of verticals and

horizontals

of Christ and
figures
initial appearance
might have been

the

are

the impressive

The
disciples.

of the group resembles what

social gathering,
to
common

both

and that of the ancient

Castagno's
society
Hebrews, whose principal
eveningmeal was an
almost
publicoccasion for the assemblingof
friends and a speaker.Castagnoselected the
when
Christ has prophesied
his betrayal.
moment
Judas is singledout by his placement
from Christ and
across
by the absence of a
halo. Because of Castagno's
adherence to laws
of perspective,
Judas is actually
largerin scale
than
sits farther in depth a
Christ, who
"

relation of scale

never

Christ has not, in

seen

in medieval

art.

fact,received the

who
emphasisgiven to the disciples
and ponder the significance
of his

same

flank him
announce-

Castagno.
del
Figure 164. Andrea
Fresco, S. Apollonia, Florence.

The

ment.
set

off

of Peter, Judas, and

group

slightly
by

the accentuation
wall

above

Last

Supper, c.

Christ

is

their

heads.

and

light entering the room

through the
all present.
at the rightfalls equallyon

individualization

and

before

the

fourteenth

drawings

and

vistas without

humans

Piero

devoted

was

as

as

Uccello

its Euclidean

there

to

had

and

geometry

for

purest form

invited

Synthesisof

an

Heaven

By

of

elegant
and

Earth

in

of the focus

previouslyChrist

spective center
per-

been, believing that

the

of measurement

artist

is the recession

here

paintings of architectural
in fifteenth-century
art.

shapes were
beauty. Pilate's palace
The

indeed,

century;

the

"

accomplished by their rugged

the variety of their rhetorical
countenances,
the lack of restriction by the
postures, and
architectural
framework.
Despite the relative
passivityof the figures,Castagno's ideals of
latent
muscular
and
cool
hard-edge
energy
Painting
sculpturalsurfaces assert themselves.
said to bring the
such as this,in its time, was
dead
and
the past to life by giving them
a
vivid physicalpresence.
It was
the locatingof figuresin architectural
in the fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries
settings
that accelerated
developments in perspective.
These
settingsacquired a beauty and interest
of their own,
competitive with the figures,as
in Piero della
,seen in the Castagno fresco and
Francesca's
can
Flagellation
(Fig. 165). One
conceive
of the settingas existingprior to the
unfike medieval
painting
presence of the figures,
disciples is

were

geometry,

"

of the

humanization

basic unit

carefullyconstructed
the flagellaedifice in which
handsome
a
tion
open
takes place. Christ is located
against the
traditional pillar here surmounted
by a bronze
statue
symbolizing paganism and he stands
circle
of a stronglyforeshortened
in the center
the pavement.
inscribed on
Conceivably, Piero
was
symbolically signifyinghis divinity and
entire pavecentral place in the universe. The
ment
of
design and the careful measurement
with it may
the building's
elevation coordinated
have
had
richer esoteric symbolism, known
to
few other than the artist. Piero's Flagellation
very
serious inquiry
has been the subjectof much
ing
by scholars,who have yet to reveal all its meanreach
its content.
on
or
Why is
agreement
Christ upstaged by the three large foreground
?
these three men
are
figuresat the right? Who
It has been
conjectured that they may
bolize
symconspiraciesagainst Christ (Acts 4: 27),
assassination,the trials
a contemporary
political
of Constantinople at the time, or just three
others
bystandersrelatable to many
anonymous
in
Florentine
painting. Regardless of their
identity,the important historical innovation

The

in

natural

The

1445-50.

conception;using a

of the marble

pattern
windows

the

The

of the

placing

stage
three

on

the

divine,

always enjoyed

had

the

foreground prominence.
well-dressed
and
possibly

or

contemporary

Florentine

spectator, the

painter further

Fifteenth-CenturyItalian

types

Art

nearer

humanizes

135

to

the
the

In view
of their preoccupationwith reason
aging
immediacy of viewpoint,encourand physicallaws,the most
to identify
with the mortals in
challenging
religious
the foreground.In the next
subjectfor Italian artists was the miracle of the
ities
century the possibilof this recessive focus
Resurrection.
The
Resurrection of Christ painted
ramifications
and
to be more
were
by Piero della Francesca
extensively
explored.
(Fig.166),one-time
assistant of Veneziano, demonstrates
avoids strong physical
Piero's styleof drama
how
faith
and
the
to produce what
be
movement.
reason
joined
Every figurehas a gravityof appearmay
ance
withdrawn
most
meditative
and action. The
or
profound paintingof its age. Under a cool
matinal
eliminates the use
of
Christ is risen,
mood
of each individual
while at his feet lie
fight,
the soldiers in deep slumber.
The supernatural
the glance as a unifying device. (In Pilate's
been
conversion is expressedin such subtle and diverse
have
the
interpreting
aspect, Piero may
the
of his misgivingsabout
Biblical account
effort of a
as
to reflect the concentrated
ways
of the shock
Much
mediately
imexecution
because
of his wife's dream.) By
superiorintelligence.
it can
be
induced
from
by the paintingcomes
tracingthe silhouettes of the figures,
the
cohesiveness came
of hieratic symthat compositional
seen
partly
unexpected appearance
metry
in
from their continuityof edge.
natural
a
setting.Piero's passion
of Piero's figures
for geometry
form and
The solid,stable appearance
as
symbol explainsthe
of the base of the tomb
in part from a viewpoint slightly
lower
and the
comes
arrangement
head
of Christ into an
than the eye level of the subjects a view that
isosceles triangle;
and
the length and
firmness
of the leg.
Piero paintedthe most
at its apex
stresses
powerfulhead
In this
of Christ of the entire fifteenth centur\'.
commented
on
(This device was
by Piero
in the hypnotic area
of
in one
of his two
treatises on perspective.)
Piero
head, and specifically
the eyes, is condensed
the most
crucial mystery
also situated his vanishingpoints in the area
of the Christian
of Christ, noticeablyoflFcenter, thereby creating
religion.Through the eyes,
Piero conveys
the concept of the risen Christ
v
isual
between
Christ
an
interesting
pull
The
the foreground figuresat the right.
and
awakening into a world beyond mortal vision.
fifteenth century knew
The
of Christ's face and pose and his
no
more
thoughtfuland
rigidity
the
obliviousness
of picturesthan Piero. None
to
surroundings suggest a
gifted composer
could
or
so
spiritual
psychologicalrather than physical
provocativelysuggest to the viewer
of the
transformation.
True
the account
to
comparison of the beauty of architecture with

action and

the

the onlooker

"

that of the human

form.

Resurrection,

Piero

shows

Christ

The Flagellation
Francesca.
of Christ, c. 1456-57.
Figure 165. Piero della
Galleria Nazionale
delle Marche, Urbino.
Tempera on panel,23^x32".

in

human

r3

"
.

(U

OS
CO

".

-c

2
~

"

03

Plate 23.

Diego
The

Velazquez. The Water

Wellington Museum,

Seller of Seville, c.
London

1619.Oil on canvas, 41 ^/o

(Crown copyrightreserved).

"'"

31

1^2

"

9-

"S

oj

";

CO

(^

"

"-i

"
"

"
X

"

."

CO

"

."
U

ci :

SO

^
C
O

i66.

Figure

Piero
The

Francesca.

della

Resurrection

of
fresco.
1460. Detached
Pinacoteca, Borgo San Sepolcro.
Christ.

"

form.

His

the tomb's

is treated

which

gives

the

as

be

like the

figureof

an

of

Christ. He

sets

Redeemer's
alive and
Thus

the

divides

painted
head

in

trunk

of

trees

to

the

nearest
as

are

Christ's

the

left is the

To

between

the

Synthesisof

Heaven

and

Earth

is

in

the

focus

God

is the

of

and

Piero

further

contrast

of,

the divine.
to

incompatible

artists and

study

that

the sleepingsoldier whose

againstthe edge of the tomb.
done to suggest a personal
was

it is customary
as

masculine

as

look

and

on

broader

is

of natural

Fifteenth-CenturyItalian

upon

to

scientists

Their

ignored.

century Italy,however, many

to

to

serves

the

paintingsshowing him
gentlesubmissive figure.

It is conceivable

disciplinaryunity

nature,
springtime
again through his sacrifice.
landscape symbolizes the world before

hold

rest

and

temperament.

of

landscape.

far left

and

becomes

between, and

Today

verdant

The

to

human

science

branches

head.

himself

seems

If this is true, it

is

banner

he

being.

relation
the

of the

state

viewer's

lives. In Piero's

militant

horizontal,right

the

the frame.) Piero's Christ

all the

rightis one of winter and,

his right side, indicative of

alliteration of his body,

both

and

of the
convergence
the figureof Christ

of Christ

head

Resurrected,

the

Christ's

tree

to

the

at

the

all that

art, these directions

Christ's standpoint.The

from

wound
The

within

in medieval

as

mound

balance

sleep,

throughout

message

of contrasts,
the

viewed

landscape to
death.

(The

The

sides toward

before death, Christ

his

involve

both

on

infers his relation

mancy
meaning to the dorguards,as yet unenlightened

means

left.But,

must

of

after his coming.

trees

Entombment.
form

the painting into vertical and

and

and

as

additional

suffuses

painting by

and

by Piero

of the pagan
by the miracle.

contrasts

weight,

pressure of his leg on

dark hollows around
the

of the Passion

Death

Piero

material

discernible

edge. The

speak

eyes

still has

body

the

by

seen

Jfe*fiiaiSa"i-"^5^*"
'SS!(?*s*""?''".'j'i"l*""
'.!-"fe!i"rTa?re;T^

art

and

differentiate
the

basis of

cultural
In

and

fifteenth-

artists contributed

science; development
Art

137

perspective,for

of mathematical

was

out

human

that

instance,

by artists. Moreover, the study of

in advance
of
by artists was
anatomy

carried

taught

in

the

medical

schools

from

curate
inac-

Beginning probably with

assuredly by the time of Pollai-

lifelike traits
scientific
Pollaiuolo
model

Pollaiuolo

textbooks.
and

Castagno,

uolo, artists undertook

human
body in order

actual

dissection

of the

study the relation of

its functioning. One
of the
its structure
to
appeals of ancient sculpturewas that it provided
information
what
was
thought to be accurate
concerning physiology and musculature, and
furnished
which

to

of

the

artists with

increase

and

gestures by

the

endowed

were

Antonio

of

St. Sebastian.

The

National

courtesy

poses

tion
expressivenessand animafigures.Although religiouspersonages

their

Figure 167.

to

of the

with

new

and

more

The Martyrdom
panel, 9'6"x6'7y2"Gallery,London
(reproduced by
1475.

Pollaiuolo.

Oil

Trustees).

on

of

as

result

of

this

enthusiastic

study, in the works of such artists

the body itself is celebrated
as
energy, strength,and robust action.
was

one

of the

first Itahan

as
a

artists

Classical
form
with
Classical
join ancient
subjectmatter
[Hercules
CrushingAntaeus \ see Fig.
426). In his Martyrdom of St. Sebastian (Fig.167),
fascination
with the expressivenessof the same
from
body and pose seen
multiple perspectives
is clear. Forms
are
carefullyarranged around
St. Sebastian
little as posto overlap as
so
as
sible.
In his work
the human
figurecompletely
breaks the old mold
of symbolical and rhetorical
gesture, and he presents the exertion of physical
action. Pollaiuolo
strength in convincing muscular
unable
to givegracefulresolution
to the
was
of his figures,
who
seem
energiesand movements
overdeveloped and often static. As a sculptor,
he was
more
successful,for in paintings he was
unable
the new
to resolve
conceptions of the
body with space. He used a plateau arrangement
and
elevated
an
viewpoint for the figures
that tend
flatten the foreground area.
to
The
the plateau
deep landscape backdrop behind
to

has

no

esthetic
The

certain

or

dramatic

figure

sentimental

and

of

ties with

St.

the

Sebastian

ground.
forehas

soft

quality,which does
the scene
not
permit it to dominate
by any
other than
its elevation
and
means
centrality.
In sum,
Pollaiuolo's
painting is more
impressive
in its parts than
as
a
whole, and for its vigorous
munication
espousal of secular values, not for a comof exalted
religiousideals.
for the lack of complete success
The
reasons
in Pollaiuolo's
Martyrdom of St. Sebastian and
in
Ghirlandaio's
Adoration
of the Shepherds
(Fig.168) lie partlyin the increased complexity
of secular demands
which
had to be synthesized
with
those of religion.Both
paintings,particularly
Ghirlandaio's, reflect
which

Italian

art

of the

third

the

extent

quarter

to

of the

fifteenth century was

filled with
contradictory
The
Adoration
objectivesin form and content.
of the Shepherdstook shape from a wide variety
of current
public tastes. Painting a few years
after the importation to Florence
of van
der
Goes'
Adoration
of the Shepherds,Ghirlandaio
drew
Flemish
but not
naturalism
liberally
upon
its symbolic meaning. By temperament
upon
and
he could
fire his figureswith the
taste
not
der Goes
spiritualfervor that exalts the van
painting.The shepherds in the Florentine paint-

Figure

i68.

Ghirlandaio.

Domenico

ing seem

tame

counterparts,
of the

transparent
ass

made

is

given

Sta.

in comparison with their Flemish

perhaps because
they were
traits
porartist's patrons. Joseph is given a

and

In

line with

the shed

theatrical

innocent
more

has

The

square.

Tempera,

5'5%"

gesture, and

onlookers.

The

the

ox

Christ

at

The

Synthesis of

to

an

Child

was

Roman

Earth

triumphal
a

Roman

arch

projectionof

in

known

which
a

ruler.

arch

the

was

ancient

Like

Ghirlandaio,
in

has
hill

Ghirlandaio's

triumphal
of

Florentine

their

Art

as

shown

if

time
the

that

locus

of

city honored
Flemish

Castagno,

Fifteenth-Century Italian

road
social

coming
visiting
dignitary.It

the
a

the

straddles

Ghirlandaio

customs,

in
advent

ancient

and

processionwinding down
from
the cityto welcome

inappropriate),
Heaven

of the Shepherds.1485.

the left. As

life and

and

weight and ample proportions.

the growing interest in archaeology,
been supported by pseudo-Classical

converted
piers, the manger
sarcophagus (symbolically not

Adoration

Trinita, Florence.

and

139

the
monies
cere-

the

parts,
counter-

Leonardo

Roman
triumphal arch. This low viewpoint
coupled with the strong oflf-center locus of the
tension.
vanishing point imparts dramatic
Contradicting theories of the time, Mantegna
brings us very close to the action, which augments
emotional

our

As

della Francesca,
as

in

involvement

the

scene.

Masaccio, Uccello, Castagno, and

did

nudes,

that

so

revealed

final fresco.

crowds

the

He

in

is
the

interest
in

in

making

action.

of potential
restlessness,

all
runs
display of energy
are
Mantegna's characters
believable
active empire and
architectural
as
and
builders, soldiers
executioners, rugged
saints who
tramped rough terrain, unlike the
or
contemplative population of Piero's work
as

well

clothing

Donatello's

of

Piero

figures

of their bodies

their

shared

his

perspectiveviewpoints,and
active
participants in the

undercurrent

strong

firmness

through

even

eccentric

first drew

Mantegna

his

To
art

His

Andrea

Execution,

Chapel,

c.

Church

St.

Mantegna.

James

seen

appreciatethe changed

view

had

evolved

is referred

to

from

Led

(destroyed). Ovetari
1455. Fresco
of the Eremitani,
Padua.

both,

but

the

as

Vinci

made

decorative
and

Florentine

staged by

pageants

accessories

floats

for

such

the

as

many

rulers.

Italian
fifteenth-century
important painters such as
art, but there were
in other
cities. Working
Piero della Francesca
in Padua,
Andrea
had
Mantegna
important
with
in that
contact
sculptures by Donatello
mingles this influence with
city,and his work
the
an
beauty
archaeologist'scuriosityabout
of Roman
and
its ruins and
with personal
art
researches
into anatomy
and
pression.
psychological exdominated

Florence

In

fresco

done

at

mid-century

and

lost

in World
War
during a bombing of Padua
II, Mantegna chose the actual viewpoint of a
in the chapel to depict St. James Led to
viewer
His Execution (Fig.169).The
saint is shown
ing
pausto
bless a paralyticbefore Mantegna's personal
and

inaccurate

140

reconstruction

Purposes

of Art

of

of nature

the Middle

and

Ages into

Renaissance,

St. Valerian

where

St. Francis

shields, helmets,

Ghirlan-

need

one

the

compare

figurativelyspeaking,

da

in

tenth-century manuscript
vanni
painting of St. Valerian
(Fig. 110) with GioBellini's portrayal of St. Francis, done
in
five centuries
later (PI. 18). A
holy man
is common
to
approximately the same
posture

only

to

often

types

work.

that

what

Figure 169.

work.

middle-class

the

daio's

It "f/'

actual

as

through

to

back,

his

turns

demonic

world,

be embracing the
at first to
were
sky and its light.Both men
hermitic
personalities,
renouncing the material
pleasuresof the world, but the rural home of St.
animals
is populated by harmless
and
Francis
verdant
a
private garden amid the rude rocky
The
retreat.
gestures of both saints are symbolic.
earth

and

That

of

St.

reception
Christ,

seems

the

on

Francis

of

the

his

indicates

Stigmata,

hands

and

his
the

miraculous
wounds

feet. Unlike

of

earlier

subject,neither Christ
paintings of the same
the seraph is visible to us, and, as Millard
nor
is accomplished
Meiss
has shown, the miracle
of the brilliant golden light of the
by means
sky into which the transfixed saint stares openThis same
scholar argues
mouthed.
persuasively
that the event
took place at night and that what
first seems
in the painting to be a figure in
at
the
from
daylight is in fact the illumination
radiant
to
are
apparition.If we
judge by the
direction

of the

cast

shadow

of

the

saint

and

is

his

of

orientation

relativelylow

laurel

supernatural glow
of sightbeyond

out

continues

BeUini
of

side
moves

from

emanating

light

the site where

of

the

Bellini has

in

the

nature

earlier

even

than

painter,but synthesizesit with

of optical experience. There
is a
this time
seen
natural, lightsource

the St. Valerian

the

results

second, and

and

derived

have

that

the

gave

depth

overpainting.His
light blue-green

shadows

medium

The

meticulous

distant
area

cities

resembles

Figure

170.

which

of

use

to

his color and

have

gives

reconstruction

them

Botticelli.

The

pictorial synthesis
A
painting

artist

Birth

oil

the

Stigmata,

observations
has

used

from

the actual

ancient
in

was

of

the

world, which
last quarter

of

affect

profoundly the
secular
religious and
to

1485
by the Florentine
Birth
Botticelli, The
of Venus

Sandro

of

the

nude

large scale for the first time

pagan
since

goddess
Roman

antiquity, while serving as a visual sermon

for
de'
a
fourteen-year-old boy, Lorenzo
in the hands
of
Medici, whose
upbringing was
the most
brilliant Humanist
philosophers in
Europe. The reconciliation of nudity and preChristian
philosophy and art with Christianity

and

rocky
near

of Venus,

the

(Fig. 170), celebrates

on

layer of

of the earth

of

important

values.

volume.

the
deceptive; while
the geological formations

most

the fifteenth century,

allowed

base

is

Sandro

of

sort

some

literature

became

left,
streaming through the clouds at the upper
it is explicable on
the basis of the St.
and
which
Francis literature
speaks of the nocturnal
event
causing an illumination comparable to the
lightof day.
From
artist
Flemish
painting, this Venetian
may

received

create
an
imaginary place that nonetheless
belongs on earth. Thus Bellini affirms that by his
day the earth and men
belonged to each other
their originor destiny after life.
what
no
matter
The
interest of painters and
sculptorsin art

picture.
theological significance

back

goes

St. Francis

synthesized many
and, like van
Eyck,

to

source

the left limit of the

the

light, which

of

source

this

on

reflects and

which

tree,

the

body,
and

was

c.

restricted

1480. Oil

on

to

small

canvas,

group

of artists,
scholars.

6'7"xg'2". Uffizi, Florence.

aristocratic

writers, and
brilliant

most

beauty

and

Christian

of

distinction

no

time, truth

between
pagan

revelations

were

the

as

Ficino, the

the

expression;both

Bible

the

and

Marsilio

to

philosopher

knew

and

such

patrons

family. According

Medici

of

pagan
literature

the

same

de'

Lorenzo

young

search

to

role

Her

mind.

the

and

the

in

Medici

for the

true

discover

the

education

of

reality behind
world's

the

ances
appear-

hidden

harmony.
The
was
patterned after a
figure of Venus
specificancient Greek sculpture owned
by the
with
its
Medici, while the painting's format
the
shore
derived
from
attendant
figure on
ing
previous Christian paintingsof St. John baptizdrew
tween
Christ. The
Humanists
analogies bebirth of Venus

the miraculous
her

between
Christ's

her

seashell

to

architects

Botticelli's

style

as

and

grace

Drawing

strong
the

was

and

of heaven.

symbol

the

adapted

that

way

would

not

The

delicacy of his
colors imparts sophisticated
pleasure to the eye and
basis

intellectual
but

of the

work

and

most

tastes

of his

courtly patrons,

his

and

untested
LInlike

art.

of
the

Botticelli's
and
time.
which

interests

literature
The

"

in

direct

painting
142

in

Vinci

did

not

share

antiquity, philosophy,

short, the Humanism

experiences of
and
drawing
Purposes

of Art

eye

and

served

artists before

and

basis

to

for his

tion
him, his dedicaworld

not

was

religion. (The

enhance
the
churches.)
paintings deal mostly with
with
religioussubjects,but this is not the case
the basis of the paintings,one
his drawings. On
would

to

few

surmise

that

Leonardo

through knowledge and

interpretnoble themes,
of

compass

art

in the

takes

believed

that

imagination one should

but with his drawings the
entire

earthly world

for the

enjoyment of the eyes. His unfinished

painting of the Adoration of the Magi (Fig. 171)
excellent
serves
as
an
example not only of his
interests but also of his frequent inability
to conclude
his ambitious
The settingdepends
projects.
of what
his observations
might be called
upon
natural
science, specificallystudies of trees
geology. Fascination

him

introduce

to

of

rendering

with

the

at

ruined

fall of

the

to

perspective

that

structure

he

Magi,

may

his

of

of

toward
in.

put

construction

in with
filling

then

moving

lighter tones,
Dark

center

group,

by

tonalities

groups

which

and

more

and
he

as

which

was

brought
varied

colors and
had

often

not

create

in

of the heads

some

this

first

from

dark

backgrounds

lightershapes, such

devices

age

the
psychological base of
incomplete state of the painting

drawing

hand,

different

into

its method

the

tions
reac-

broaden

to

and

the

strong

facial types, gestures, and the drama

in
and
movement
inspiring future

painting. The
shows

and

onlookers, thereby giving full play

researches

bodies

artists

old

the manifold

contrasts

of the
to

the

led

geometry

left

rear

religiousorder.
Lifelong interest in equestrian subjectsand an
inclination
toward
violent
count
aggressiveness acof mounted
for the combat
figuresin the
the
was
foreground drama
right. The
upper
for demonstrating his experience with
occasion
psychology and the expressivecapacitiesof the
actions of the
entire body. Against the reverent
relate

of his

best,

the

as

nardo's
Leo-

refusal

trate
illusart in the Middle
to
Ages was
standing,
Bible, thereby increasing its under-

Leonardo's

been

da

his

representing the visual

exclusively in the service of

interests, Leonardo

in

to

purpose

this

notebooks.

resides

assumptions

many

support

in; and

empirical studies
by innumerable

voluminous

modernity
take

in their

believed

unprecedented
accompanied

nature

drawings

regarding

underwent

of the mind

use

Leonardo

deep spiritualcrisis
and
reversion
to
mystical Christianitytoward
the end of his life,
upsettingthe pagan-Christian
in this famous
synthesis announced
painting
and
cultural
forecastinga similar and broader
change at the beginning of the next century.
known
with
universal
as
a
man
Though
he

himself

from

and
to

appropriate for the

of the intelligence;whereas
education
strong
color
was
thought of as stirringbase emotions.
have
to
a
(This prejudice was
long history,
celli
extending into nineteenth-century art.) Bottiartist ideally suited
the
tocratic
aristo
was
an
at

the time

admirably

was

in
a
rendering Venus
arouse
physical desire.
drawing and tinting of

deemed

sea

by Renaissance

occasionally used

was

painters and

mind.

the

Christ,

the water
of
by rising from
painting'slesson included the birth
the human
soul. The
zephyrs who
the shore
like angels, and
the
are

in

beauty

blow

and

rebirth

Jordan. The
of

from

emergence

explains

inspire him

to

was

active

what

were

truth,

principles.The chaste beauty of

Botticelli's Venus
was
inspiredby the view that
lust or sensual pleasure but
she symbohzed not
the highest attainments
of
or
pure intelligence
of the

the

and

one

to

moods

of many

painting
evoked

new

by

Figure

171.

Leonardo
Oil

'light.His
that

of

light is never
brilliant,but
afternoon,thereby muting

among

the

forms
makes

it illuminates.

"

Heaven

the

Magi. 1480-82.

foreground figures,as
he

and

Earth

sketched

and

the

elusive

they create

which
hke

lightamid darkness.
Leonardo
purposely did not employ a single
perspectivesystem for this painting,as he was
later to do in his Last Supper,but used different
for different areas, giving the whole
perspectives
than first
painting a syntheticquahty. Rather
measurable
for the
a
clearlyestablishing
space
Synthesisof

of

favors

of

The

Adoration

Uffizi,Florence.
7'i i^'g''-

ences
differIn

tangiblethe

The

Vinci.

da

wood, 8'"g

late

Adoration,Leonardo
existence

on

own

the

would

have

done,
volumes;
spatialenvironment,
and

measurable

more

left. The
the upper
formal
the centralized
Virgin and

at

of
was

sketches

an

grid-

ment
arrange-

flanking

like many
ideas
of Leonardo's
frozen into artistic dogma.

Leonardo's

strong

in

Piero

movements

their

differs from

area

Magi

their

finished

indication
often

do.

sequently
sub-

paintingsdo not give as

imagination as his

of his
One

Fifteenth-CenturyItalian

of

Art

the

studies

143

for the

Leonardo

Figure 172.

Vinci.

da

drawing,

Pen

bistre and

Studyfor the Adoration ofthe Magi.

wash, 8^/4x 5 Vg

Adoration

1481.

c.

Uffizi,Florence.

".

of the Magi (Fig.172) shows how he

perspectivegrid, used by artists
since Brunelleschi, with
rough notations of
and
scrambling
tangled figure groups, horses
recumbent
riders, a
bucking their naked
camel, and phantomlike figuresmoving in the
ruined
palace or seated in the joistsof the

in its frank cfisclosure of the

shedlike

roof

story of the

civic

pride,

Magi

symbolism

explainsthis fantasy.Man
impetuously within the rational

found

in Florence; and, in turn, from

overlaid

and

the

or

beast

No

move

framework
and

of space
abundant
were

painting
or

power
effort

to

cohesive

of

aspect

and

So

architecture.
ideas

Leonardo's

that

seemingly he did not

perhaps the time after seven
them
weld
together into

work.

He

for himself

had

by

the

the

incurred

many

detached

have
her

rich

for
have

area

the

of

finished

and

heads,

144

work

is all the

Purposes of

Art

more

valuable

whether

over

times

the

or

and

make

one

men,

contributions

artistic. The
the

of

that

art

Middle

the

tyrants

and
and

their

the

vigorous

merchants

Leonardo

work.

than

but who
of Florence, for
me."

also served
as

not

been

historyof

Leonardo's
and
political

the

serve

social

the

cessors,
predeenemies
one

who

cally
histori-

of great
prerequisites
embodied

inquiry is
liberty.
and

on

art

intellectual

ancient

social freedom

internal freedom

thinking

of

means

despotsand

he said, "I

Political and

have

and

of
who

stands,

by

greater self-realization and

his medieval

away

by the

interest

worldly

hand, for the artist who

The

art
men

sance
Renais-

of and

achieves

art.

art

influenced

was

freedom

pays

the

for

Italian

out

grew

Ages

science

patronized
one

from

enthusiasm

but
or
social,political,
religious,

not

were

the

and

gained greater understanding of

The
most
lastingand

creative

of

can

leading artists
action
examples of the inter-

humanity.

own

from

make

men

the other

energy,

women

their

Italian

frequent scale jumps, or discrepancies

and
background motifs disparatefrom
the
foreground. Yet for later artists such as
work
rich in
was
Raphael, the unfinished
influential ideas. History shows
that
many
times finished paintingslose the freshness and
nardo's
intimacy of preliminary drawings, and Leo-

argument

of the fifteenth century as

of the two.
Artists benefited

and

of

powerfulworking

hand.

Leonardo

point to

rise

established

unfinished

the

lems
prob-

painted
surroundings),

and

times

about

been

gestures

To
the

the

months
a

difficult

large dark

Virgin (how might she

finallyto stand out from
created

the

his mind

older

in

than

of

SUMMARY

large,distinct,and

against
color

art

century,

world

visual

given

was

to

of

three-dimensional

the

whereby

human

Truthfulness
Northern

achieved

Both

fifteenth

the

earthlystage,

desire

the

was

artists.

Southern

an

location.

natural

scale, and

Italy of

and

Flanders

both

In

The

and

was

self-confident

The

environment.

us

vincingly
con-

of

and

turn

we

and

Flemish

ItaUan
ancient

science

and

in

south.

the

behind

the

to

continuous

without
the

and

and

as

influence

in

north,

in the south

barbaric

systems

to

came

be

which

gave
connotations.
"

The

environment.

from

the

composition

ideal

monious
truly har-

the

trial

though

Italians
then

first

through

lucid

ance
appear-

Italians

The

order.

arrived

art

favored

two

areas

his

revealed

and

the

between

differences

the

art

of

prejudices:

own

word

painting will, generally speaking,

better than
painting in
please the devout
any
shed
him
will never
to
a
cause
Italy,which
Flemish

tear,
to

him

cause

through the vigor

painting but owing to the

and

many,

will

of Flanders

that

whereas

shed

that

not

and
goodness of the
In Flanders
goodness of the devout person
they paint with a view to external exactness
of which
and
cheer you
of such
things as may
saints
for
example
ill,
cannot
as
speak
you
and
prophets. They paint stuffs and masonry,
....

resulted

interdependent functioning

smooth

the

Flemish

and

good

the

ically,
Geographunpleasant
ancient Roman
art
ethnically,
historically,
Italian artists.
to
seemed
right for emulation
Beginning with Giotto and continuingthrough
terized
characPiero della Francesca, Italian stylewas
and immediately perceivable
by a compact
unity through the large fluid continuityof
their
dominated
the sculpturesque figureswho
"Gothic"

form.

expressive.The
empirically and
preferredthe over-all

illuminated

viewed

the

in

of the human
pleasingappearance
mind
coordination
between
with
form,
supple
and
Flemish
body. The
accepted the unathletic
that often accompanies
movement
yet natural
profound inner feeling.
Later, in the sixteenth century, Michelangelo
the

prized by the Italians.

had a more
lastinginterest

the

of nature,

beautiful

of measured

so

art, which

it hover

make

actual

it

developed

between

or

the

to

is still

additive,

three-dimensional
theories

viewer.

groupings of

convincing spatialillusion through

of observation; their space,
error

at

painters achieved

to

recourse

geometry

Medieval
and

art

Northern

times

at

hold

appearance

and

lished.
estab-

differences

the

dense

It
not

depth of the
plane it was painted on. The Flemings valued all
that was
given to the senses
as
a
sign of divine
meaning, and they searched for individualityin
Their
criterion of realistic painting was
nature.
of measuring and
largely a quantitative one
matching the subject against the painting.
With
the aid of geometry,
Itahan
artists sought
what
the abstract
they thought were
principles

that
art, it is apparent
had a stronger influence

The

verisimihtude
space

the

to

would

not

theory and
When

from

artists favored

their color

space

societies

its foundations

today, had

Their

space.

of color and
light, and
contrasting rich tones
linkagesof the edges of shapes lying at
varying depths from each other. The brilliance

had
Bruges, Ghent, Antwerp, and Florence
of their own
produced artists obviously aware
talent,importance, and ambitions; and society's
recognition of and respect for artistic genius,
to

belie its distance

to

Northern

of

famihar

figuresset

in credible

intricate

responding
transposed through a series of cortwo-dimensional
a
face.
surpoints onto
confirmed
Art
as
an
was
important means
enrich
to
earthly life. The
synthesis of the
stable,
changing and unheavenly and earthly was
and
of the latter were
the values
ing
gatherend.
into a strong ground swell at centur)''s
of true
the meaning
Art
still guided men
to
their celebration
but also corroborated
spirituality,
of the secular beauty and
pleasuresof the

mortal

to

intended

the

sensual

more

and

important to shaping volume.

the
was
curving surfaces and

was

clung

perspective

world

another

one

of

the easy flow of statuesque

figuresand cn\ironment
Flemish
space.
figures in measurable
characterized
by a less mobile, if not
stylewas
scopic
static,complex additive ordering of the microthe
through the telescopic,in which
in
the
human
often
rivaled
being
tance.
imporsetting
"

The

Itahans

The

delighted

Synthesis of

in

the

Heaven

Earth

green

the

trees,

landscape, with

and

many

or

in

figureson

many

that. And

on

all this

art, without
skillful

without
and

of

the shadows
grass of the fields,
and
rivers and
bridges which

call

reason

relation

and

the

finallywithout

Fifteenth-Century

Italian

choice

Art

this side

is done

out
with-

...

symmetry

substance

they

and

or

or

vigor.
145

portion,
pro-

boldness,

MICHELANQELO

Buonarroti
Michelangelo
Tuscan
Caprese

born

was

of

town

Rome

died

in

was

interred

in

1564, and

then

in

Florence.

At

1480s, he studied
with

the

landaio.
di

brothers
He

in

taught

sculpture

the

midst
the

in

attracted
the

the

artist

young

the

continue

to

sculpture;

in

1492

for anatomical
In

well

he

who

in

in

did

most

influence

flights in

tranquillity he

upon

He

did

angelo
Michelof

work

not

man.
crafts-

Florence,

of

find.

146

After

and

diverted
From

Michelangelo
turning
of

which

Slaves
Between

between

house

of
for

short

of

made
the

his

Medici
the

security
work,

stay in

fell

first of

but

Venice

Moses

he

engineer
From

worked
In

and

lived

in

was

(1536-1541)

and

Chapel

and

the

and

series

of Bound

(1513-1516).
divided

his

(1542-1550).

in

military

fortifications.

Michelangelo
Last

the

frescoes
In

Pope

Chapel
a

as

death,

painting
the

also

and

For

Medici

served

Florentine

Rome,

(and
sepulcher,

Florence,

the

he

until

1534

Pope's

architecture.

on

1529
the

on

ceihng,

enormous

the

and

and

sculpture

X,

ly,
reluctant-

Sistine

1534, Michelangelo
Rome

between

couraged
en-

ciously
capri-

completing

realization

saw

and

1518

Greek

Leo

the

only

who

then

from

his

to

for

project

ultimately

frustrated

be

and

the

painted

to

Michelangelo's

patrons

artist

intermittently

preferred)

called

first great

1512, somewhat

to

to

1501,

including

the

to

schemes

the

1508

Florence.
the

powerful

by

grandiose
them.

of

sponsors

harassed

in

was

of

sculptor's fate

the

was

first

returned

commissions,

one

to

1496,

his

carved
next

Michelangelo

troublesome
It

his time

corpses

civic

Pope Julius II,

by

Giotto

and

dissections

search

needed

Rome

in

beginning

years,

1505

able

was

then,

he

where

four

In

and

Peter's). He

several

on

David.

and

ancientsculpture

the

work

the

There

Europe,

art.

for

invited

the

to

of Roman

as

work

household.

of

Michelangelo

power,

to

youthful

study.

1494, just before

several

de'

conventional

of

who

to

St.

he

Bologna,

briefly

Rome,
in

(that

Florence

art.

years

GhirBertoldo

in

year

to

on

Pieta

and

toward

drawings
as

with

went

Medici

deep

as

the

ancient

his

of

Florence

to

return

magnificent

purpose

these

Masaccio

from

attitude

himself

see

made

never

had

and

state

in Florence

Lorenzo,

join

in

than

more

Lorenzo

introduced

intellectual

During
and

of

of intellectuals

group

Michelangelo's
and

to

was

acquaintance

their

the

of Duke

eye

Michelangelo
brilliant

of

garden

he

Donatello,

Michelangelo's

Florence.

in

of

the

Davide

and

pupil

in

1475;
end

year

sculpture

former

lay
the

Domenico
studied

then

Giovanni,

for

painting

in

1546

of
he

Judgment

the

became

Pauline
chief

for

architect

thought and
1540s

he
to

rebuilding of St. Peter's,

the

projectthat

During

energy.

his

excite

to

was

remaining

the

1530s

and

cated
religioussonnets, dedimany
his friend Vittoria Colonna, who deeply
wrote

direction. Busied with a

spiritual
such as the
projects,
Hill in Rome, in
of the Capitolinc
redesigning

influenced his

of architectural

number

of his lifeMichelangelo did only

the theme
on

the

last years

two

both
uncompletedsculptures,

of Christ's death.

historyof art includes

brought major

The

of artists who

examples
many
talents to bear

and
minor
Vermeer
Matisse
subjects.
whose
quicklyto mind as examplesof men
the
they interpreted
greatness lay in the way
commonplace, giving to it the qualityof the

upon
come

tMichelangelo
brought

uncommon.

great ideas. He

to

giftedartist
of his time

well

as

time

give

artist

and

mystery

and

Renaissance

Italian

of

idea

The

of the great intellects

fact that his

one

Florence and Rome

the

was

some

as

art

great

technically

most

the
place.In itself,

and

were
surroundings

his

the

was

that

should

Michelangelo'smeasure.

obsessed with the infinite nature

was

of God

and

his

creation

Man.

Michelangeloshow an interest in
rendering the details of objectsor landscape;
did

Never

Man-

his

was

he

paint and

his aim

men:

be

to

bound

to

of

an

as

art.

Nor

did

specific
living

of

terms

depictthe

far

so

pencilsketch

one

in
to

was

and

humanity,

God-centered

and
carve

universal fate of

is known, he made

contemporary.

earthly material

only

Unwilling
model, he

felt
in

impelledto work from divine inspiration

of reality
order to spiritualize
his experience

and

to

achieve

It would

eternal

and

transcendent

truth.

be

within
the limits of this
futile,
chapter,to attempt a full historyand discussion
of Michelangelo.Instead,a few examples that

represent seminal
of the scope

and

ideas

and

depth of

lend

an

awareness

their maker's

art

will

be discussed.

EARLY

Begun
David
and

SCULPTURES

when

Michelangelowas
carved
(Fig. 173) was

1504

partlyto

twenty-six,the
between

1501

republic,
the completionof a new
parth'to demonstrate the

in behalf of the Florentine

commemorate

civic constitution and

artisticleardershipand vigor.David
city's

was

David. 1501-04. Marble,

Figure 173. Michelangelo.
height 18' (incl.base).Accademia, Florence.

famous
also

only

not

as

slayer of Goliath

the

as

his association

ruler, and

with

but

justice

him
made
an
appropriate figure to celebrate
governmental reform. A decision of a committee
before the
resulted in placing the 18-foot statue
the
where
it quickly
Palazzo
hall,
Vecchio,
city
became

of civic

emblem

an

freedom

and

the

In the finely muscled,

youth, the citizens could see
embodiment
of what
their own
an
they felt were
shared
have
these
virtues. Michelangelo may
of

virtue

also wanted

he

the

the

David

affirm

to

living sculptor.
reputation
In
of the
his contracts
time, Michelangelo
be of unsurpassed
specifiedthat his sculpture would
beauty. Not only did he demonstrate
of all his knowledge of ancient
to the satisfaction
and

art

science

the

form

greatest

of anatomy,

but

embodied

of the

combination

life. In

contemplative

his

active

the

and

when

youth,

the

created, Michelangelo equated truth

beauty, and to David he gave the body of a
was

with

Greek
Apollo, but not that god's temperamental
equanimity. By the time of the David, the nude
form
in art
had
been
largely divested of its
sinful associations,partly because
of
medieval
the
of ancient
and
art
thought as
acceptance
Christianity. Michelangelo
compatible with
believed

that

the

understand

his

of the

there

is

becomes

neck

and

vehement

This

climactic
in

alien

to

the

Greek

God.

by

He

not

as

than

to

than

is nobler

man

is

suggestionof

quite

mate
approxi-

sustained, for

not

tension

in

in the

obvious

more

the

angry

states

Classical

of

mind

and

ideals.

There

the

visage.
and

psychological element

body

that

148

side

more

Purposes

open

and

of Art

David

the

is

mistake

is,above

mihtant

the

"frowning"

been

the

at

sight

of evil.

conceive

to

right and

left. It has

Still,

of this work

specific event

moment.

or

of force

all,a symbol

and

and

those

he

and

defiant

in

the

of David
and

good

The

ing
warn-

to

concentration
also reflect displeasure

may

weakness.

sculptor who

reUgious belief with the idea

body of a Greek god.
Michelangelo considered

is a

comfort

angn,^

features

human

Christian

attitude

of the

with

and

stone

protects.

expressed
was

the

enemies

to

Michelangelo
satisfyhis

could
of

Hebraic

hero

in the

and

he

David

"David

his

with

alter-

the

sling,
Michelangelo" (the bow
like the
referringto his sculptor'sdrill,which
his
attribute
and
of
was
means
serving
sling
asked
God). After the David, Michelangelo was
do statues
of the Twelve
to
Apostles,but only
the unfinished
St. Matthew
taken
was
actuallyunderhe
had
as
(Fig. 174). Unconstrained
ego,
I
with

bow,

the

David

which
pose,

by

dictated

that

thin

the

is

for the

St. Matthew

frontal
In
movements.
twisting and
that
of some
vision
forces
powerful
the side, the Apostle is unmindful
to
in

which

instinct. The

strong

little space
was

arms,

as
a

artist,who

unclassical

an

limits

shape
to

some

is

and

of

thick

felt that

block, which

proportionsof

degree also relate

Michelangelo's

norms

of the

to

to

his

by
and
the

about

an

inhibited

like mortal
The

squarish
figure,which
originalblock,
to
accepted

the

the

resistance

past.

incomplete

this has led

of

it gave
the most
the
subject. His

confinement.

show

The

head

his

the torso
possiblebetween
self-imposed restriction of

of the

form

grip

of limbs, with

expression of
violently twists
figure of Matthew
imaginars'vertical axis but is,in turn,
the

of

the

reacts

way

compactness

have

may

herited,
in-

he

counteraction

tense

block

flat frontal
relatively

the

devised

Michelangelo

posture

wrote,

once

the

for

been

by

vulnerable.

with

the
which

eous
rightslingsignifythe
need
for alert and
defense
of principle.
courageous
Like the pose of the
Colossus of Barletta
(Fig.265), a late-antiqueimperial statue, the

flesh

in the dispositionof the

asymmetry
rightand left sides of the body; the figure'sright
side is protected by the downward-hanging
arm
the
holding the stone, whereas
upraised left
makes

be

anger,

the

tradition

protectionwith

evil

illustratinga

are

is also

his left. From

to

been

concentrated

torso

in

decided

arm

it would

as

front

looks

had

Goliath, assuredly the symbol

body,

of the

that

suggested by

stance

muscles, which

contrast

nobler

repose

youth's

faint

would

barbarous

so

divine

was

it is clothed."

quality of

view

art

conceived
is

skin

which

body

in

that the foot of

with

The

male

rendition

who

shoe, and

sheep

nude

prototype

"And

wrote:

his

the

that its ideal

and

of

of

that

suggested

he

deeply personal vision of a

Michelangelo's view, only a handful
of men
in the history of the human
race
fied
qualiheroes.
These
were
as
primarily Old
Testament
rulers who
prophets or
perfectly
to

divine

origin

David

as

David

the

as

his

Ages there

associated

somber

ideals, but

also gave
hero. In

Middle

its defense.

alert,and

Greek

Da,vid
Significantly,

state

of

sculptures such

mvstical, somewhat

romanticized

as

marks
the

and

vestigesof

St. Matthew

the artist's views

originalblock

make
of

some

sculpture,expressedyears
Michelangelo saw his destinyin the chisel

later.
and

the

fine illustration for

Sometime

stone.

"The

wrote,
that a

on

between

singleblock

contain

within

obedient

1536

greatest artist has

the

to

of marble

does

its mass,
mind
can

but

and

1547

he

conception
not potentially
only a hand

no

penetrate

this

to

image." Elsewhere, Michelangelo defined the

art of sculptureas
"the takingoff that puts into
the rough hard stone
a hving figure
most
grown
had grown
small."
great just as the stone
most
This bringingforth of life from
base matter
was
for Michelangelo, one
in syma
act
spiritual
pathy
with
referred

God's
God

to

as

creation

of

the "Divine

life. He

once

Hammer."

Great

the artist's
art, he beheved, depended upon
possessingfirst within himself a perfectGodgiven conception (the Platonic Idea), whose
"first-born"
The
was
a
simple clay model.
second

realization

ged livingstone"
that

of the
and

Idea

in the

was

possessed

"such

"rue-

beauty

confine

its spirit."
Michelangelo possessed
such complete mastery of the human
body and
exceptionalabilityto render its richness as a
material
organism as well as its emotional,
intellectual
spiritual,and
Possessing
range.
natural
giftsas a craftsman and observer of his
also a great student
subject,Michelangelo was
of the art of other artists and eras.
The
sculpture
none

No

of

may

artist

ancient

own
were

Greece

be

to

influence

as

Michelangelo.

1504-06. Marble,

St.

Matthew

height

8'ii".

demia, Florence.
about
interpretations

show

the essential idea

to

the

had

reveal the material

It is

artist's

the birth of the soul,his

taken
source

intending to
once
discontinuing

form,
and

or

end

his desire
of all life.

fact that

could

on

it.The

raw

traces

measure,

beholder

him

stop his work

of tool

of

forms

his
that

Creator.

fixed

but

For

the

Greeks

sculptors,beauty

proportion of

for

was

matical
mathe-

Michelangelo

portion
pro-

a
not
quantitative,
qualitative,
value.
Proportion meant, for him, the extent
his image corresponded to the "Idea"
to which
inherent in it. Furthermore, the physicalbeauty
in itself;
end
of his figureswas
it was
not
an
intended
reflection of a spiritual
as
a
beauty
and was
meant
to elevate the thoughts of the

from

to

the

through

was

Michelangelo enjoyed work on

problems; in the case of this
often to happen thereafter,
Apostlefigure,
as was
demands
for the sculptor's
talents in Rom.e forced
a

difficult unfinished

that

The
to his personal style.
Michelangelo, his greatest
attested by the sculptor'sown

Renaissance

certain

finished).
(unAcca-

and

for

God,

was

achievable
174.

Rome

welded

master

words,

Figure

and

century, all provided ideas and

greatest

and

before

could

above

not

visible

be

world.

the
more

things. True
beauty
by merely copying the

material
obtained

Michelangelo's

art

proceeds

mind, through which he believed he

truly comprehend the perfectform.
Michelangelo

149

Michelangelo.

Left:Figure 175.

Marble, height 8'4". S. Pietro

cast,

Michelangelo despisedRaphael's optimistic

judgment of the abilityof his contemporaries,
such
as
Castiglione,to achieve grace. The
and
sculptor felt that Raphael had a naive
mistaken
faith in simple formulas
of human
conduct
of achieving true
as
a
means
earthly
The
excellence.
differences
happiness and
between
their respective
attitudes can
be seen
in Rapahael'sportrait
of Baldassare
Castiglione
(Fig.401; see Chapter 17) and Michelangelo's
Aloses (Fig.175), intended
for the uncompleted
tomb
of Julius II. To
Michelangelo, Moses
moral
whose
and physicalgiant,a man
was
a
the instrument
of
imposing physicalframe was
heroic physicaland
the leadership
acts
spiritual
of his people in the Exodus.
The enormous,
"

vital head

of Moses

the fountainhead

is the locus of divine

visions,

of law.

150

Purposes

of Art

from

seen

the

place on

below

and

30

Moses, plaster
the right.

degrees to

pretations
proposed papal tomb, all interand
facial expression
were

of his pose

made

the basis of the statue's

on

photographed
the

at

eye

level

from

work

being viewed

or

ing
(Fig.175).Confront-

this

direction, scholars

(includingthis author) tended to write of how

this portrayalof Moses
exemplifiedrighteous
if seized by an
ecstatic
seemed
as
or
anger
vision. The

historian Earl

art

of

the

Aloses
feet

Rosenthal

had

the

version
photographing a plaster

sensible idea of
as

it

above

intended

was

the

to

be

seen,

ground (Fig. 176),

thereby alteringour view of the prophet both
The
figuratively.
figure was
literallyand
its side to permit the sculptorto
carved
on
study it from the proper angle.The intended
raised

The
interpretationof the Moses depends,
one's
literally,
point of view. Until
upon
known
that
the
recently,although it was
figurewas intended to be seen from below in its

Michelangelo.

Figure 176.

Below:

Moses. 151 3-16.

Vincoli, Rome.

in

view

from

below

otherwise

modifies

the

scale

of

what

the

disproportionately large
it enhances
head
and
the figure's
beard, and
to be gazing
composed strength.Moses appears
upward in a manner
appropriate to the wise
of the Jews. (The
and
contemplative leader
were
Jews of Rome
particularlypleased with this
sculpture,despite the fact that their religion
prohibited them from having graven
images of
their own.) Also, barely visible from
below
are
the

seems

hornlike

forms

tradition
from

Moses'

of the

that

which

forehead

Lord.

From

derive

had

from

beams

the apocryphal

of

Ught spring

the moment

at

of his vision

angle, nonetheless, the

with
body of the seated prophet is endowed
mendous
trevitahty and majesty. The Moses helps
to understand
us
poraries
why Michelangelo's contemfound
in his stylequalitiesthat
pired
insand
fear.
rehgious awe
The
antithesis of the Moses is Michelangelo's
spiritual
misnamed
Dying Slave, or Bound Slave
intended
for
(Fig. 177). This figure,too, was
the
tomb
of Pope Juhus
II. Although based
late Greek
of Niobe's
a
sculpture of one
upon
dead
children, the figure is neither a political
slave nor
His
real prison is the
a
dying man.
which
incarcerates
the spirit.
If he
body itself,
were
dying, the figure might better express
a
of joy, for his death
would
that his
sense
mean
about
to
spiritwas
rejoin God.
Backing the
that
figure is a half-finished ape, an animal
to
educated

an

any

viewer

signifiedthe

of

of

The

human

by Michelangelo

is the

over

reason.

from

the

dominance

or

would

the

dilemma
mortal

Creator.

the

time
lust

have

passions

celebrated

life of

torment

The

anguished fate of
is to have
man
joined in himself a temporal
body and an immortal
soul, as expressed by
the contemporary
philosopher Marsilio Ficino,
whose
ideas often paralleled those of Michelangelo
away

Figure

Our

mind,

as

doomed
and

to

insane;

with

slumbers
so

long

that

passions are
people, the

as

in

sublime

soul

of

the
for
Slave, intended
Tomb
of Julius II. 1514-16. Marble,
height j'GYi"-Louvre, Paris.

is

base

actions,

movements,

our

nothing
dream

our

body, is thrown
up
disquietude, and
permanent
from exhaustion
and is always

operate

down

it often

but

and

the

vertigosof ailing
sleepers,and ravings of

madmen.

lament
time
in

this

hand

To
This

sculptureputs into tangibleform

later to express in
Michelangelo was
1547

and

1550, he

wrote

in

ideas that
his
a

poetry.

private

to

my

escape

Between

Michelangelo.

177.

Bound

God:

frail

it

"For

divine

over

body

and

an

only gavest
imprison

not

didst

but
weary

its cruel

to

livingthus.
convey

Thou

soul,

flesh

and

destiny. How

Without
interior

to

it

must
can

Thee."
state

of

mind,

pathetic restlessness of the soul, Michelangelo

drew
Greek
principlesof expressivebody
upon
posturing.These principlesinvolve avoiding the
Michelangelo

151

of parts of the
axis. That
is,

in the
same
plane
joint or
body having a common
jointsof ankles, knees, hips,and
if the left knee
be parallel;or

coincidence

instance,
the

left shoulder

the

right

shoulder

backward

and

by the

the

that

so

whole

in

soft, serpentine

formation.

THE

MEANINQ

OF

MUSCULARITY

and

after his time

of

of soul

artists selectively

nor

could

the

men

make

in

many

and

figure types, postures,

emphasis from Michelangelo's art
in

were

is

for

harder

even

of

these

went

into

the

human

of

instinctive

him,

serve

practiced gestures

or

daily lives. Michelangelo's

their

He

of

moments

could

unnatural

the

invented

even

natural

seem

gestures for death,

dangling

of the dead

arm

prehending
com-

the

ceptualizing
con-

Michelangelo's
from

body

the

means

Christ.

THE

properties
Today it

understand

to

us

that

muscular

without

life attitude.

essential

an

all

rooted

derived
as

exalted

toward

living model

the contorted

as

had

tension

thoughts to the figure's

spiritualdisorder, the conflict

flesh,and

spirit.No

art.

his

sense,

beholder's

the

in his

this

In

he

torsos

crises of
and

other, it

personal

physical strength is
From
fragments

using muscular

directingthe
internal

in.

great

genius lay in making

took

how

of

the

on

momentous

will of God.

Greek

ancient

heroes;

the

engage

that

message
futile against the

such

During

for

measure

method

diately
imme-

fit

is

composition

in

self-adjustingmechanism

is

struggles they

taken

another

by

and

upward

direction

Michelangelo a
beauty, the mortal

God-like

of his Biblical

vestment

forward

moves

eye

slave, each

is countered

body

above,
is

the

back

balanced

are

As

the feet of the

be

for

human
not

forward, for

Thus,

movements

fashion.

criss-cross
from

should

advanced.

must

arms

is

is

muscularity

prerequisite of

creation
re-

and

art

ed
than
painting, Michelangelo lookits sensual
physical
sculpture, with
and
character, its mass
displacement of space,
the ideal medium
as
he, as a
through which

life. More
upon

SISTINE

CEILINQ

his painting of the

(Fig.178),Michelangelo
of all
religiousprogram

Chapel ceiling

Sistine

In

executed

humanistic-

but

unparalleled magnitude.
for the ceilingpainting
The
commission
by Pope Julius II was
accepted reluctantlyby
devote
his
longed to
Michelangelo, who
than
painting
energies to sculpture rather
project).
(particularlyto the grandiose tomb
.

second

creator

nature
was

only

could

God,

to

in composing the human

praised as a sculptor,not

The

what

their

of

character

unnatural

from

being

he wanted

what

them

to

as

his

surpass

body. (God
a
painter!)
derives

bodies

should

be

they
do. Michelangelo

to

is one

taut

force

of

and

skeleton

leathery skin.

He

muscle

greatly

beneath
enriched

figure'sexpressiverepertory, yet while

the
its gestures compactly within
block
from
which
the cubic
they were
Not

since the

art

of ancient

Greece

the

created

152

Purposes

of

Art

lay

1508

angelo
1512, Michel-

and

than
back, covering more
yards of ceilingwith the
square
his

on

hundred

outpourings of a fired imagination. The strain

of working while
standing or lying prone on
the
the
dripping plaster,
scaffolding,under
of his project,
his health.
At
the end
wrecked
his
condition
he
wrote
a
describing
poem
)* :
{Pho giafattoun gozzo
.

ing
containlimits of
cut.

had

there

figures so splendidly endowed

to
perform overwhelming physical feats. Still,
The
this was
true
not
Michelangelo's drama.
his
in
either
is
their
latent
of
figures
strength
few
tension
is turned
or
against itself With
use
figures do not
exceptions, his muscular
physical force against external obstacles, nor
in energetic postures of work,
are
they shown
the
hand, superor
one
love, war,
play. On
been

between

four years,

seven

do

of the great dramatists

of the human
body, whose
the full movement
makes
the viewer
work
sense
and

For

I've

goiterby dwelling

a
grown
from

As

cats

Or

in what

Which

My

other

drives
beard

Fixed

turns

on

my
like a

Grows
Bedews

the

my

land

to

up

spine;

harp;
face

they hap

bellyclose
heaven

to

be

beneath
; my

"

Lombardy,

nape

"

the

chin;
in.

falls

visibly
embroidery
brush-drops thick and
breastbone

my
a

in this den

in

streams

stagnant

rich

from

thin,

The

Sonnets

of

Michael

Symonds,
Addington
York, 1948.

Angela Buonarroti,trans.
John
Publishers, Inc., New

Crown

into

My

loins

My

buttock
feet

My

crupper
wander

unguided

front

In

paunch

my

like

skin

my

like

levers

bears

my

loose

grows

and

was

God

becomes

long;

strain

like

me

Syrian

heretics.

the

that

imply

to

the

as

earthly

(The

he
of

agent

Pope's

family

means

in

English

"oak

tree,"

and

oaks.)

The

there

strait;

references

are

Crosswise

punish

to

and

Pope
acting

behind

and

taut

more

the

messiah

new

name

it

bending

By

of

ancestry

ical

fro;

and

to

grind;
weight;

in

the

ceiling

bow

to

drels
span-

....

his

Despite

task

kind

as

The

of

is

ideas.

In

thereafter

license

of

the

being

was

faith

the

ceiling

the

foreign

troops

itself.

The

and

by

triumph

the

and

Old

punished

of

fernes.

The

Figure

the

of

178.

the

ceiling

Michelangelo.

In

Lord.

nude

shown

killing
Holoing
containand

Sibyls

wafers

Eucharistic
The

assert

Ceiling

secondary
the

of

the

the

theolog-

Sistine

the

man's

the

the

Separation

Earth,

the

Creation

Darkness)
As

figures
God
out

thunder.

Chapel.

the

Old

of

1508-12.

creative

and

visage,

45'

theme

of

size

divinity

128'.

in

The

with
the

of
the

Moon,

and

Light

from

the

earlier

seen

the

from

of

in

of

of

Creation

Sun,

speaks

as

second

section

Waters

power

Testament

Fresco,

The

(the

the

as

furnishing

sacred

Separation

whirlwind

(His

God,

the

preterhuman

the
a

of

thus,

stands

over-all

Michelangelo's

are

is
of

the

is

in

Church;

Adam.

of

Church

subjects

Adam,

and

the

the

over

of

scene

side

and

The

altar.

four

remaining

the

redemption.
is

that

partition
is

the
man

as

oflFerfruit.

the

symbolized

ceiling

chapel,

Planets,

from

sequence,

of

of

the

half,

between

means

half

phets.
Pro-

holding

figures

acolytes.

the

sors
precur-

rectangles

to

world

beheaded

the

are

were

the

such

is

has

golden
or

his

who

central

Genesis

souls,

created

time

ceiUng's

mediator

the

of

this

at

him,
false

ceiling, originally

in

Eve

how

forbidden

the

the

above

chapel
of

betrays
through

of
of

panel

directly

the

that

partaking

creation

Eve
in

that

the

God's

is

elements

illustrate

They

of Christ

rejection

the

The

"

air.

world

of

the

Man.

episodes

means

chapel

Flood,

of

Fall

not

Above

the

the

these

by

fire, and

the

God's

ultimate

ostensibly

depicted

who

large

human

is

denying

are

agitated

and

garlands

divided

the

David,

as

from

situated

ical
theolog-

his

the

all

of

does

entering

the

ted
depic-

are

Genesis.

Noah,

and

man

fulcrum

within

actions

order

of

upon

of

Noah,

of

and

ings

Sistine

Michelangelo
in

who

for

Judith,

Flanking

scenes

motives

God

man

and

had

visitor

chastises

The

contemporary

complicated

ceihng

spandrels

Christ

Goliath,

ceiling
waging

enemies.
the

Testament

triangular

are

of

subject

these

of

water,

as

chosen

the

ceiling

Their

chronology

theme

earth,
God

the

the

the

on

frames.

Revilement

common

well

heretics

of

the

project

the

of

head

political

was

confidence

his

over

The

that

and

Pope

Primate's

the

assert

time

of

the

the

and

scenes

the

strictly

punishment

him

the

of

II.

Sacrifice

sive
exten-

gave

pleased,

papacy

by

means

metaphors,

Pope

decoration

touched

the

spiritual
the

At

patron.

was

events,

he

as

the

painted,

against

war

do

to

Neo-

of

prophecy

rectangular

follow

are

as

principal

in

the

and

Michelangelo

the

The

guilt.
Chapel

perhaps

Julius

of

Hebrew

formulating

although

satisfied

undoubtedly

sinful

contemporary

in

and

program;

of

likelihood,

all

assistance

papal

wishes

with

ardor

Sistine

the

of

seems

painful

the
for

fusion

theology

platonic
had

which

of

program

it

this

expiation

amazing

an

Christian

in

was

thematic

ceiling

viewed

penance,

labors

creative

his

protestations,

and

plaints

Michelangelo

that

likely

deliverance

the

depict
people,

Divinity.
the

work,
and

action.

who
a

roars

voice

Creation

Vatican,

Rome.

of
of

strike fear and

to

was

who

of the mortals
and

Creator

looked

representatives.
\The Sistine ceilingis
yet the

endurance;

transcends

art

of the gram
prointo the minds

awe

it

upon

mere

of the

awe

"

of God's

Church, and

the

bearded

the

similar to
was
strikingly
profileof Julius II.) The purpose

Adam,

earthly

of skill and

marvel

of Michelangelo's
power
virtuoso efl'ects.There is a

for all aspects of his

justification
philosophical
style.He put his knowledge of the forms and
the workings of the body into the service of
human
spiritualizing
anguish and exaltation.
The
athletic figures
of the Sibylsand
agitated,
Prophetsmirror the profundityand excitement
of visions inaccessible to ordinary mortals. In
the scene
of the Creation of Adam
(Fig.179),
with
form
the
Michelangelo infused Adam's
of
a
mingled response
body awakening with
reluctance
the separationof the spirit
from
at
its Creator. Adam
is not joyfulat his emergence
into

his

earthlyexistence;the languid attitude

an

and

arms

the

and

face

longing.With

hands

interval
slight

of Adam

and

Adam
the

is drawn

repeatedlyto
the bodies

the

of

of
a
God, fittingly
reflecting
poem
the
written
during
sculptor,
possiblv
years

the Sistine

on

the whole

made
most

has

the

done

here

The
perfections.

Figure 1 79.

every

ceiling:"He

part

; then

and

now

who

from

beautiful, to reveal

in which

its best

At

since

with

forth
of

with
copy

nothing is

noble

more

discreet

and

devout,

or

nothing so calls
the difficulty
as

persons
fosters devotion

is based
union
perfectionwhich
upon
God.
For good paintingis nothing but a
of the perfections
of God
and a recollection
of His painting; it is a music
and
a
which

melody

only intellect

and

that

with

why

paintingof

man

attains it.

great

can

understand,

And
difficulty.

this kind

is

so

that
that

rare

is
no

in His

on
own

human

the whole

earth,

The Creation

MEDICI

the Sistine

Like

S. Lorenzo,
worked

CHAPEL

artistic
but

as

sublime

the
ceiling,

from

1520

1534,

to

scholars
not
only as an
by some
interpretationof a Humanistic
program
as

monumental

(Fig. 180).
was

and

The

to

Giuliano

at

attempt

official purpose
house
de'

aganda
propof the

the creation

commemorative,

sepulchral chapel
Lorenzo

times

Chapel in
Michelangelo

seen

also

designs

Medici

which

Florence, on
various

at

has been

made

figureis the particular

fested."
beauty is most
clearlymani-

Michelangelo.

THE

the

represented
and
separatedman

now

similarities between

chose

form

and

and

of work

he

God

and

them, which

gulfthat

his Creator. Attention

contrasts

given in this brief

Michelangelo
of his ceiling.
Scholars
brought to the program
such as De Tolnay and Hartt have, in impressive
often conflicting
and
studies,sought to
unravel the many
levels of meaning and alternative
of its content.
That
such
interpretations
searchingendeavors are appropriateto a full
angelo's
understanding and appreciationof Michelart
is borne out in the sculptor's
own
views on painting:

reveals his

between

the measureless

be

can

of the intellectual wealth

melancholy state,
has an
expressionof ineffable
Michelangelo
great significance,

torso

stressed the

of

Little indication

space

the

of

of

bodies

Medici, descendants

dukes of the same

fifteenth-century
The
date of the chapel'scommencement
importantone, since it coincided with
of the

ojAdani,detail from the Sistine Chapel CeiHng.

The

name.

is
a

Vatican,

an

decline

Rorhe.

Figure

i8o.

Tomb

of

Michelangelo.
Giuliano

de'

Medici,

Marble, heightof center

figure5'8".New
Sacristy, S.
Lorenzo, Florence.
c.

in the
Medici

because

important
been

and

power

buried

aspirationsof

of the death

members.
in the

of

the

two

house

of

of its most

to have
They, too, were
chapel (a plan subsequently

discarded),which may have been intended as

a
grandiose allegory of princely and
papal
the Medici
having produced several
power,
the deceased
to glorify
popes. It was
occupants
of the Chapel by using them
as
examples of
ideal rulers and

defenders

1524-34.

(That these

jectural,
sculpturessignifiedtime is conof them
Michelangelo wrote
as
mourning figuresturned to stone.) As times of
day, these images may signifythe temporal life,
is one
which
of ceaseless griefand
restlessness.
The
of the temporal lifeis given form in
suffering
their ample, contorted
On
sketch for
torsos.
a
the tomb
which
over
are
placed the Night and
Day, Michelangelo wrote :

for

of the Church.

Michelangelo did not himself assemble the

seen
sculpturesas they are
today. The four
recliningfigureson the two sepulchers were
so
placed by another sculptor.Below the figureof
Duke
Giuliano
lie the figuresof Night and
are
Day; beneath the seated form of Lorenzo
the recumbent
figuresof Twilight and Dawn.

We

have

Duke
revenge
he thus
with

with

our

swift

upon
dead

closed

they may
What

eyes

shine

would

thus

us

has

taken
has

forth

he

have

course

it

Giuliano, and

no

is

that
the

brought to death
just that he take
have

we

fastened
more

done

ours

upon
with

us

so

him,
and
that

this earth.
us

lived ?

Michelanffelo

slain

lightfrom

155

while

he

his open

by

and

commanding

the

pose,

shal's
mar-

baton, and the coins in his hand, symbolizing

a

who

man

expends

himself

in outward

actions.

Lorenzo, his fingerto his lipsand his

partlyin shadow, may have epitomized

head
the

contemplativelifeand

saturnine

disposition.

In his

meditative,introverted pose, he sitswith

his left elbow
closed money
on
a
box, which
miserliness
signified

in

this

lords look toward

the

"

perhaps,of

case,

the self.
Both

Christ

placed

(Fig.182).She
which

took

Medici

when

She

breast

182.

moral

the Duke

of this lament

may

be that in death

had

vanquishedthe temporal lifeand

outside time. Michelangelo
time, being now
the tomb
had also planned to insert a mouse
on
to symbolizethe gnawing, destructive action of
time.
faces of the

dukes
two
(Figs.180, 181)
Michelangelodid not create portrait
hkenesses of his subjects.
He gave them instead
a
a
to him
greatness and dignitythat seemed
for
fittingcommemoration
posterity.These
are
actuallypersonifications
seeming "portraits"

The

show

that

of abstract
live up

ideals;moreover,

Giuliano

did

not

in his sculptural
glorified
principles
The
bodied
effigy.
figureof Giuliano may have emthe Neoplatonicideal of the active life,
shown
of vigorousphysicaladministration,
one
to

the

156

Purposes of

Art

the

formerly it

Florence.

1524-34.

Virgin and
of the

end

incarnation

givesher

S. Lorenzo,

The

an

the

its bosom

who

c.

Michelangelo.
Lorenzo de' Medici.
Figure i8i.
of Lorenzo,
1524-34. Marble, height5'io".Tomb
New
Sacristy,S. Lorenzo, Florence.

is

from

Figure

c.

to

at

had

is also the
to

Michelangelo.

of the
exiled

the

Church,
house

of

been

expelled
propheticmother
Child

The

but

Medici

Marble, height 7 '5%". New

Florence.

ling
suck-

chapel

at

the

Virgin.

Sacristy,

time

same

draws

with

back

of his sacrifice. The

the

premonition

dulces

Medici

clad

are

in

recalhng their election by the

armor,
of the
Church.
defenders
Pope as militant
Hartt, these sculptured
According to Frederick
in
call
ducal
the
sense
a
a
to
effigieswere
leaders of Italy to rally to the defense
of the
Roman

in her

Church

Standing
has

the

in

curious

time

of need.

Chapel,
impression of being an

Michelangelo's architecture
sculpture,not to the
lightentering from high up
heroic

cold

onto

marble

surfaces.

is

the

visitor

intruder.

scaled

human
in the
The

to

Florence

sentimental

well;

but

he

was

for

the

rest

in

working

considerations
it is known

that

were

he

hated

of

his

involved
the

life.
and

Rome,

as

nical
tyran-

Medici, who
and

were

Florentine

had gained an
absolute
rule
responsiblefor the destruction of the
republic. Michelangelo's bust of

Brutus, c. 1542. Marble,

Figure 183. Michelangelo.
Nazionale,
height 29I/2"(without socle).Museo
Florence.

no

model

the

and

features

Brutus'

sented
Pre-

tyrants.

the

busts,
styleof Roman
Michelangelo's portraitof the

for

sat

Roman,

of

murderers
in

the

and

artist alone

conceived

expression appropriate

to

character.

THE

LAST

JUDQMENT

itself is

room

exaggerated height and gives the impression

genial
a
deep, well-like space, unearthly and conIn 1534
only to the sculptured effigies.
Michelangelo voluntarily exiled himself from
beloved

the

somewhat

the

of

Ostensibly

held

patron

being. The
ceilingfalls

of

his

commissioned
(Fig.183) was
by another
tion
politicalexile from Florence, and this celebraof the slayerof Caesar
is explained by the
in which
like the sculptor and
esteem
his
men

noble

Medici

the

Brutus

Michelangelo'sastonishingfresco The Last Judgment

be viewed
as
(Fig. 184) should
part of
of the Sistine Chapel, only twothe program
thirds of which
was
actuallycarried out. It was
a
proposed that Michelangelo execute
great
fresco over
the chapel doorway, having as its
subject the fall of the rebel angels. The Last
the altar of the chapel
Judgment fresco over
terminate
this cycle.It is said, perhaps
to
was
the Pope first saw
the
apocryphally, that when
finished

fresco

he

fell

on

in

his knees

prayer.

awesome
Michelangelo's painted vision is an
sight,calculated not to console the viewer with
the promise of ultimate
but to
justiceand mercy
make
the adequacy
him
reflect upon
pause and
and
angelo
profundity of his personal faith. Michelhis styleto captivatethe
intended
never
he
images
aspired instead to devotional
eye;

that

would

sincere
fear.

move

The

fresco

with

and

tears,

little devotion
to

of the

before

moments

Biblical

sources,

the

to

and

reverence

in

subject presented

is the

Some

those

meditation

dramatic

the

judgment.
according to De
the most
thorough

Tolnay, who has made one of

of
and
the
books
satisfyinganalyses, were
Matthew
(1:7,20:12),
(24:30-46), Revelations
Daniel
(7:13-14),John (3:19),Isaiah (13:6-9),
Ezekiel
and
(37:1-9).
of figuresthat comprise
The
seething masses
fall into easilydefinable
the great fresco do not
compartments

some

or

of

absence

classifications;and

clothing or

doubt

at

first

to

as

citizens of

heaven, the damned,

Beginning

with

lower

the

wrenched

from

the tombs.

the

The

dead

There

Michelangelo

157

the

altar

of the

tone

of the

are

is

saved.
in

scene

directlyabove the
agitated and turbulent
established.

the

and

Resurrection

segment,

chapel, the
final day is

in

signs of rank, there is

who
the angels or
are

literally
persistent

of

element
bodies

tension,or rebellious strength,in

of those

to

the

by

be

damned

Michelangelosees man
capable of defyingGod

to

as

and

wrathful
role

as

the

supreme

right hand

resist their fate.

universal

laws

Figure 184.

of ancient

statues

Michelangelo.
The

Sistine

The

and

the

the

The

militant, almost

he

recalls that

Zeus

Roman

sentence

are

his

the instruments

of

Last

of

or

generals

the stern

or

of their

justice.Soaring

martyrdom

in

the

Judgment. 1536-41. Fresco, 48'

the

mood

of Christ.

Virgin turns away, almost as if acknowledging

her son.
her inability
to sway
Around
Christ
numerous
figuresof martyrs, brandishing

his

Chapel,

emperors,

ridingtriumphantlyin the hunt or in battle as

depictedon old sarcophagi.With his left hand,
is no
he gently beckons
the saved. There
gating
miti-

even

vigorouslyenacts
arbiter. The
positionof
as

the

fierce determination

Judge respondsto

in

moment

gesture,

independentspirit

an

in the last hour. Christ the

feeling of

and

judged

Vatican,

Rome.

as

heavens

44-

ifdemanding
are

the

winglessangels who transport the symbols of

Christ's own
in the
martyrdom, as recorded
Book of Revelations
according to St. John.
Late in the century, the Counter
Reformation
to look askance
at Michelangelo'sdaring in

was

depictingthe angels with

much

support, and
the saved

and

in

rose

their faith,without
divine

the

heavens

ascent

reward.

is

figurebeing

In

Church

sympathy with reformers within the

questionedthe indiscriminate
indulgences, Michelangelo felt that
than
faith, more
good works or the
itselfwho

of

ardent

intervention

of

celestial advocates,

for man's
of the whole

has

salvation.

rotary

figureclusters about

The

movement

the

form

layout may
Michelangelo a symbolism
window

rose

solar

of

the

was

ponsible
res-

composition
of energetic

of Christ.

circular

over-all

the

of
or

up by a rosary suggests that it is prayer

faith which
achieve
intense
the
final

and

for

wings

heaven

to

difficult process for the elect,and

sale

because

the assistance of

stairway. The

hauled

of

means

nudity of the figures

Michelangelo,the angels

For

painted over.

was

visible

no

of the

have
related

Gothic

The

conveyed
to

that of

cathedral

"

tune,
of Forsymbolism, the Wheel
and judgment.
eternity,
The damned
plummet or are dragged forcibly
the depths and
toward
Charon's
bark. In the
stands
lower
world
Minos, the underright corner
judge of Dante's
Inferno (Fig. 185).
did, depict
Michelangelo does not, as Dante

Minos
is

cosmic

or

half

as

given

tail of

perhaps
sinners

the

and

man

half

and

body

serpent, which

winds

as

head

sign of the

Vatican

minotaur;

he

and

the

man

around

depths of hell

consigned. (The

are

portraitof

of

his
to

body,
which

face of Minos

official who

is

criticized the

fresco. When

he complained to the Pope, the

repliedthat he was powerlessto redeem
the official from hell.)Michelangelo indicated
the area
of the damned
not
only by its location
but also by the powerful
to
tiic left of Christ
dowuv.ard
glance of God as he peers directly
into its depths.Just below
Christ, and to his
kneels St. Bartholomew, holding in his left
left,
Pontiff

hand

the

skin

of

unmistakably those
The

head

of

man

whose

features

are

Michelangelo (Fig.186).

of the saint is that of Pietro Aretino,

critics. The
Michelangelo'smost severe
Last Judgment provided an
opportunity for
of
Michelangelo to professhis own
strong sense
unworthiness
and guilt.

one

Minos,
Figure 185. Michelangelo.
of Hell, detail from The Last Judgment.
Sistine Chapel, the Vatican, Rome.

Above:
Prince
The

of

Below:

Figure

Portrait
from
the

The

186.

Self-

Michelangelo.

(skin of St. Bartholomew), detail

Last

Vatican,

Judgment.The

Sistine

Chapel,

Rome.

Michelangelo

159

\m

In

his

perhaps

Christ

the

on

last

drawing, he
(Fig.187),flanked

Cross

mourning figuresof Mary and

encompassing spread of Christ's
the

by
the base

contraction

of the

Cross.

of the

showed

by

St. John.

the
The

is emphasized

arms

figuresat
multiple outlines of

The

two

forms

the

to the
impart a tremulous appearance
Many years before, Michelangelo had
given up the hard, incisive sculpturesqueedge
in his drawings, in search
of means
to
convey
the inner life of his subjects.
Light and shadow
the
as
began to replace contorted musculature
agents of pathos and of Michelangelo'sspiritual
sentiments.
The
more
deeply felt the content,
the artist's means.
the more
frugalbecame
The
paradox of Michelangelo's late life and
last sculpturesis that he seemed
to rejectwhat
had taken
lifetime to gain. Having mastered
a
his craft,the old artist then submitted
completely
with no self-consciousness
to privateinspiration,
about
beauty or his art's appeal for others.
flesh and obsessed with the life
Despisinghis own
of the spirit,
whose
future in heaven
depended
Christ's broken
on
body, Michelangelo began

group.

at

The
with
Figure 187. Michelangelo.
Crucifixion
the Virginand St. John. 1550-56. Black chalk
ing,
drawLondon.
1614" '-" ii"- The British Museum,

CHRIST'S

DEATH

the

end

and

with

even

with

fraught
which

made
seemed

now

thoughts
drawings

art

my

idol

and

to

him,

and

and

faith

and

that

the
soul

who
take

Christ.

lay

in

salvation

attitude

fond

contemplation
sculptureswere

dead

concentration

one's

the

was

vain

from

the

theme,

itself : "Thus

art
error

know

how

imagination
king." Art

my

it distracted

of God.
all of

The

His
the
for

reason

his

last
same

this

Michelangelo's belief that

were
dependent upon

toward

the

sacrifice of Chi^ist

what

may

the soul's grace

came
plete
only through a comfaith in the meaning of Christ's death on
Cross.

upon
us

"No

brush,

it is turned

once

to

the

cross,

to

no

chisel

outstretches

Himself."

160

will

the divine

Purposes

of Art

quiet the

love

His

of Him
arms

to

for

new

art

have

been

vertical

from

away

form

of

an

old

the

Rondanini

Carved

Roman

from

column,

Virgin supports the

Christ,just removed
from
ed
the Cross. Michelangelo apparently knockoff" the originalhead
and started another.
Incomplete as the work is,the late styleof the
Pietd obviously scorned
the supple, muscular,
high-finishsurface of the early sculpture.In its
and harsh junctures
textures
coarse
place were
or
angular interlockingof the limbs. Michelangelo sought^tq drawjhejjeholder's attentiqn
of the

the

dead

surface

qualitiesari9

toward

of

the

meaning
contemplation of the inner
as
subject.His vibrant late forms^em
from

the

of what

insjde qut^
the eye

cannot

if built

aJfiiTOing_Uie_iny3qrtance
see

"

the life of the soul

spiritualcommunion
earlier authority of gestures
with
Christ. The
successive
to
changes during the
gave
way
carving, as if the artist sought symbolicallyto
As part of his conversion
to
fuse the two
figures.
medieval
a
mysticism, Michelangelo turned
achievements
of depictfrom Renaissance
away
and

"

search

worked
on
intermittently
(Fig. 188), begun in 1550.

the

the last thirtyyears of his life,Michelangelo

and
artistic
experienced a deep spiritual
dissatisfied with
change. He
physical
grew
beauty, pagan
subjects, philosophic truths,

to

Pieta

sagging body

During

his life

of

that, more
directlythan studies of muscle and
bone, brought spiritual
meaning to the surface.
angelo
Until the time of his death in 1564, Michel-

the

Virgin's

final

Below:

Michelangelo.
The
RondaFigure i88.
Castello
1550-64. Marble, height 6'43/j".

nini Pietd.

Sforzesco, Milan.
Head
of
Right: Figure 189. Michelangelo.
detail
from
Joseph of Arimathaea,
Deposition.
1548-55. Marble, height of entire sculpture 7'5".
The

Cathedral, Florence.

ing
the

vigorous,healthy, and

Classical

It

manner.

was

beautiful
for

not

body

in

lack

of

inspirationthat Michelangelo struggled at the

end.
in
solemn
form
and
theme,
Though
Michelangelo's last work expresses the spiritual
joy he felt in the meaning of his subject.
friend
to
a
Reputedly his last words
were,
"Remember
with

the

death

of Christ."

In

ance
accord-

these

preoccupations, a detail from

a
earlier,the figureof Joseph
Depositioncarved
of Arimathaea
supporting the dead Christ, is
thought to be a self-portrait
(Fig.189).

MICHELANQELO
ARCHITECTURE

Michelangelo
and

as

was

the

not

was
case

trained

with

his

as

an

architect,

painting,he

came

of a
designing of walls with the outlook
in
of
who
relief
terms
thought
figuresculptor
of
armatures,
compositions, skeletal
systems
muscles
and
tendons, and
tautly stretched
he came
skins. When
to design the Laurentian
to

the

Michelangelo

161

Above:
the

Figure

Michelangelo.

190.

Vestibule

of

Laurentian

Library, c. 1524-26 (stairway

and
1558-59, completed by Ammanati

designed in

Vasari, 1559). Florence.

Left: Figure
the

Room.

Michelangelo.

191.

1524-26.

c.

Vestibule

Florence.

Library (Figs. 190, 191) for

more
accepted Renaissance
than

arrangements

conventions
he

had

of

the

portional
pro-

tors.
paintersand sculplibrary,like the
Chapel, taller than it is
space of the Medici
wide, is a deep well that immediately casts us
into an
unfamiliar
and
experience of
space
the
relatively
proportions. Cascading into
small room
is the great tripartite
stairway,its
for
for
division
grandeur than
being more
of traffic. The
effect of passivityor
purposes
systems

The

repose,

entrance

so

common

of

Medici, he

the

no

flat wall

of

Library,'looking into the Reading

Laurentian

other

hall of the

in

the architecture

and

art

of his

angelo,
to Michelcontemporaries,was anathema
in carvinghis statues
whether
or
molding
central stair is like a current
of steps. The
flight

whose

force

descent.
and

white

dramatic

Wi

Purposes

of Art

The

is irresistible either
contrast

stucco

of grey

walls

in architecture.

is
The

stone
one

in

ascent

or

components
of

the

most

doubling of

col-

in the

umns

wall

niches

served

structural

no

parted
figures,im(The wall's

feelingof contained energy.

ambiguity lies in which is the container and
the
which
contained.)The vocabulary of his
fifteenthancient
and
both from
design came
century architecture,but Michelangelo devised
a

his

own

grammar:
for
are

example,

the

kind

of harnessed

were

for

life and

endow

power.
Michelangelo's architectural

major

brackets, for

great wall

purely expressivepurposes.
no
previousarchitect,could

Michelangelo, like
bring a building to

which

structures

it with

commissions
shared

192), he used

through

stories

For

the

west

two

those

stress

(though

does

support

massive

hori-

its

whose

support.

proportions justify

had

to the

at

absorb

an

Not

structural

St. Peter's
load

the

the

since

Gothic

given such

architect

elements

of

whole

wall

sive
expres-

building
actually

His strong and

stress).
active articulation of walls is the equivalentof
muscular
in his sculptured bodies.
interaction
Windows
transformed
were
by Michelangelo
from
neutral
openings to emphatic projections
whose
and
to
sculpturalframes push forward
the sides as if resisting
constriction by the other
and

elements.

Michelangelo
in

his elevated

to

of

cathedrals

that special

subjectsin sculpture.
exterior wall of St. Peter's (Fig.
that rise
giganticstepped pilasters

qualityof

entablature

zontal

but, like his constricted

purpose

was

architecture

attracted
as

well

giganticprojects
painting

to
as

in his

and

In his day the center

of the world
sculpture.
thought to be the deteriorating
Capitoline
ancient
an
Hill, where
temple of Jupiter had

was

Figure 192.
St.

Michelangelo.

Peter's, apse

from

the

pleted
1546-64 (dome comdella
by Giacomo
Vatican,
Porta, 1590). The

west.

Rome.

163

^^Sn:3irrp^in^r^s;ni3
M
'"^XJ..J-''l^:,Ij^M:j!i^
f-

lJSfpS5ia^Sg85teia"il

#1^
-

Etienne
Figure 193.
(Campidoglio),

and

stood

Duperac.
Rome.

Engraving
The

of

1569

Metropolitan

the

medieval
cityhall of Rome
Pope approved Michelangelo's
of the hill,and the
plans to redesign the crown
his great trapezoidal open
result was
square
approached by a long inchned
stairway (Fig.
1 93) At the end of the square
stands the Palazzo
dei Senatori, and
either side the paired
on
Palazzi
dei Conservatori.
This
open-air plaza
intended
the stage for important public
was
as
functions, including the ceremonial
reception
link
of chiefs of state.
to
Symbolically it was

was

where

located.

The

ancient

and

pagan

modern

Catholic

Rome,

after

Museum

and

and

its zodiac

from

the

Imperial

armored

balanced

and

of the

square,

cause
be-

of

imperial symbolism with

which
this work
vested.
was
Michelangelo
designed the oval pedestal for the image and
raised it on
laid
which
a gentlemound,
over
was
out
a
large oval inlaid with a curvilinear grid
into twelve
dividing the area
compartments.
James

aura

in his fine study of Michelangelo's

Ackerman,
that the mound
architecture,has shown

164

Purposes

of

Art

base

sun

derive

Roman

Imperial
emanating

lines
from

which

rays

Hill

1941).

the

ancient

radiated

from

portraits.

To the facades of the Palazzi dei Conservatori

tural
architec(Fig.194), Michelangelo brought new
associations
and
symbols of authority.
In these flanking palaces he joined one-story
the powerful
columns
with
colossal piers,and
vertical thrusts and
continuityof these members

Marcus

the

design relate to
the curving

statue's

Capitoline

the

(Dick Fund,

that

of

these

to

and

York

symbols

sculptureadorning it had been preserved

than
from antiquity.Rather
commission
a
new
of
sculpture, Pope Paul III had the statue
brought

Art, New

shields

the horizontal

of wall

surfaces

support
of

sense

opposing

drama

double

served

at

for
the

the

same

sculpturesof
goddess Roma,
the

The

stairway before
here

in

as

the

of

Palazzo

first time

St.

tangular
rec-

Peter's, in

the

tion
organizaof load

his human

constant

device

of the low

functions

from

comes

and

forces.

the

and

that,

so

countermovements

used

elements

in
than
fa(jade.More
palaces Michelangelo fuses

all the

Aurelius

for

Michelangelo's plan
of

in

figures,
powerful
adjusting of
the pyramidal
the

dei

Senatori,

palace design,
like a pediment
time to frame
the reclining river gods and
the
the
main
to
to
access
permit

a
prison and so
(the ground floor was
by heavier
masonry), and to provide

floor

marked

elevated

an

for

platform

the

nobility.Stairways,plazas,and
excited

viewer

by the

they demanded

because

Michelangelo

movement

of
appearance
vistas all
framed

inspection,as in earlier Renaissance

The
patterned oval pavement
force

statue

Unhke

simple

central

and

the

plan,

square

passive

ture.
architec-

about

circulate

to

one

his

than

rather

the

plaza.
trapezoid

toward
encouraged a funneling action
it directed
one's view
central palace, or
atop the Campidoglio stairway across
and

straight

toward

the

which

Michelangelo
planning the great dome
built. Thus
and
his

state

the

Rome

in

hands,

and

sculptureand
service
The

of

two

new

himself
he

was

did

not

monuments

great
took

St.

new

the

from
Rome

Peter's

on

working,
live
to

to

Church

significant
shape

under

and

he

the

noble

art

gifted artist of his

for his

time.

own

Michelangelo
also
the
tormented.
The
most
was
image his
subjectto depression,
writingsgive are of a man
who
sinful.
mad
and
a
man
thought he was
He could
be timid, vengeful,and mistrustful of
those about
With
him, often with
good cause.
all his endless
fascination
for the mysteries of
most

Figure

194.

Michelangelo.

age,

Palazzo

dei

salvation,

he

was

stronglyconscious of human
frailtyand falhbility. In short, Michelangelo's affliction was
to
magnificent visions that he felt achieved
possess
only a pale and
inadequate expression in his
his fate

art:

while

lay

in

to

quest

the infinite

grasp

well

finite and
material
knowing his own
limits. His visionary attempt
took
the form
of
brilliant and
daring paintings,sculpture,and
that
architecture
continue
and
to
inspire awe
wonder
in the modern
world.
The
tragicirony
is that
failure. By
Michelangelo felt he was
a
1550
he had
given up painting,and afterward
his last sculptureswere
At
left unfinished.
the
he

end,

turned

of the

see

brought the
process
of antiquityinto the
architecture
in

creation, redemption, and

his lifetime
What

architecture,

to

visual

need

arts,

for

to

union

seek
with

the

most

fulfillment

stract
abof

Creator.

the

makes

Michelangelo in some
respects a
which
his
to
personalityis the extent
and his
personal growth and change, his moods
in his art.
mirrored
His
were
drawing,
ego,
sculpture,and painting reflect magnificentbursts
of inspiration,
upheavals of superhuman energy,
modern

and

the

other
so

weight

artist before

intimate

art.

No

or

his

Designed

c.

his

disillusionment.

during

between

bond

his

time

No

exhibited

personalityand
fiercelyinsisted on
individuality.

artist before

maintaining

Conservatori.

of

him

his

so

1546. Capitoline Hill,

Michelangelo

165

Rome.

9
THE
OF

SYNTHESIS

HEAVEN

AND

IN

SIXTEENTH-

EARTH
AND

SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY

day it is the

our

In
that

convey

sixteenth

and

in the

for

mankind's

fought

The

have

word

unpleasant
history of

recent

in

truth, but
that

of

Bible

and
or

past

of

as

much

changes

in

sixteenth
viewed
art
was

heretical

styles
and

in

art

to

well

as

seventeenth
militant

context.

that

by

be

of

of

For

art

centuries

these

its form

this

Greco's

the
with

emphasis

the
be

must

the

Raphael
in

and

Reforma-

of

work

of great

importance
fresco
of

Plato

the

is

and

this

time.

but

location

the

central

Raphael

Aristotle.

own

to

Christianity,
portrayal of the

thought
He

was

in

belief

pre-Christian
his

in

affixed

to

Humanistic

imagined

works

Vatican

was

antiquity, with

the

in

views

of many

in

compared
both

(Figs. 195, 196).

century

located

was

Church

of

meaningfully
of Athens,

papal signature
documents.
Despite

upon

series

the

to

the

of

has

the
with

created

intensely lifelike portraits

philosophers, situating them

in

an

equally imaginary but dignified architectural

of Bramante,
structure
inspired by the work
who
architect
strongly influenced
contemporary

Raphael.
El

their

policy

fresco

subject of the
philosophers

reasons,

during

be
School

demonstrating
compatibility

extreme

artists.

sixteenth

the

important
in a place
the

alternatives

piety

on

caused

light, the Spanish Catholic

painter
Christ Driving the Money
Changersfrom

where

room

subsequently

new

great

Temple can
Raphael's

painted in
Raphael's

focus

artists

faith

and

three

In

El

that

Although

Leonardo,
Michelangelo, and
highly acceptable to the Church

reactions

great

incorrect,

these

themes

day, subsequent changes in Church

the
Protestant
to
leadership, response

for greater

demands

mystical

ion
opin-

counteracted

of

166

the

ideas

greatest

outdated,
had

literature.

as

of

war

Europe's

views

of

purpose
information
and

disseminated

as

because

The

to

come

crucial

itself, for

art

content

it

as

for distortion

politicaluse

eras

many

contradictory

to

in the

engage

has

and

turies
cen-

still

was

theology,
to

connotations
its

disseminating

encompassed

and

also

great

those

art

"propaganda"

(or propaganda).
engaged

the

spiritual allegiance being

religious factions
throughout

between

Europe.

In

reUgious
but

past,

and

tion,

the

were

Church.

the
of

vivify the

or

been

war

was

of

purpose

media
In

pubUc.

centuries, painting,

architecture

bearers

illustrate
had

seventeenth

and

the

the

to

messages

sculpture,
message

communications

mass

ART

Greco

Christ's
may

chose

life when
have

been

as

his

subject

the

employed
interpreted

one

event

violence.

he

at

the

time

in
This
as

'

Figure195. El Greco.
3'io"x5'9".The

Christ Drivingthe Muncy Changers

from the Temple,c. 1570-75. Oil on canvas,
(The Dunwoody Fund).
MinneapolisInstitute of Arts, Minnesota

Raphael.
Stanza della

Figure196.

The School

ofAthens.

1510-11.

Segnatura, the Vatican, Rome.

Fresco.

Greco.

The

metrical

space, in the fluid composure

an
orderly alignment of

in

and

earlier

architecture
surface

in recessive

is countered

disconnected
Rather

soothe

minds

In

the

called
and

took

with

of the

Italian

dissonant
El

Greco

from

reason.

color.

sought
complacent feehngs

eye.

balm

'

Protestantism, the
to

affirm

unlike

Church

the

sacraments,
in particular.
When

Eucharist

Domenichino

painter

St. Jerome,
celebrate

and

the

its artists

on

that

the

which

lucid,

of groups,
figuresand

parallelto the
congestion,angular

irritated the

war

delight in

zones

with

passages,

than

painting that
and

artist's

Eyck

van

depicted

it

not

was

to

his

ship
thoughtfulcharacter and scholarbut
rather to eulogize the powerful will
that helped him
rise from
his deathbed
to
partake for the last time of the wine and wafer
ledge
(Fig. 197). The technical devices and knowaccumulated
by fifteenth-century
painters
to
to
earth and to glorifythat
bring art down
marvelous
organism which is the human
body
into the service of
were
put by Domenichino
showing the struggle of the dying body to
ion.
participatein the sacred mystery of CommunThe

task that Domenichino

contemporary

thoughts
them

from

toward

done

much

to

the

condemned

The

(Domenico Zampieri).
of St. Jerome. 16 14. Oil on
I3'8"x8'4". Musei
Vatican!, Rome.

197.
Last Communion

canvas,

the

the

of

Figure

heaven, while

from

Because

Domenichino

to

drawing
so

art

legacyof
humanize

so

and

art

and

many

divert men's
redirect
time

same

which

had

secularize

art.

sixteenth-century Protestants
Catholic

the

at

earher

Church's

idolatrous, there

as

and

paintersfaced was
earthly concerns

employment
created

was

art

no

Lutheranism
in the way
explicitly
illustrating
that
Exercises of St. Ignatius of
the Spiritual
so
Loyola found
interpretersamong
many
painters.But in the art of the Flemish painter
if
Pieter Bruegel whose
rehgious affiliation,
"

for the

support
the

Church
to

and

art.

the

not

In

by

heresy,which had
philosophy
acceptance of pagan

very

only

earlier

taken

measures

rid itself of

include

come

drives

to

strenuous

real sense,

the

Humanists

El Greco's

changers

money

from

the

Christ

but

also

Church.

any,
that

is unknown
saw

the

to

us

Bible and

"

is

be

to

found

mind

rehgiouscontroversy

in

perspectivefrom that of his orthodox

Catholic
contemporaries.For this reason, his
works
are
interspersedin this chapter. His
Blind Leading the Blind
on
(Fig. 198), based
different

Through

the

Matthew

El

has

leadership
religious
(equated with the Pharisees)manifested in
in Europe at
the theologicaldisputesrampant
the time. The
church
fullyvisible behind the
who pulleach other and stumble into
blind men
ditch seems
a
a
pointed reference. Painting
for a select clientele,
on
a
Bruegel could count

Christ's head,
archway above
painted a reference to the city
thus
of Rome,
specifyingthe target of his
The
spacious grandeur of Raphael's
commentary.
the equanimity and
of the
setting,
grace
animated
philosophersso beautifullythought
in drawing, color, and
out
and achieved
position,
comis intentionally
counteracted
by El
Greco

168

Purposes

of Art

commentary

(15: 12-19), could

on

the

well

caliber of

have

been

Plate
Oil

on

25.

Jan

canvas,

Vermeer.

4'4"

The

Artist in His

3'8". Kunsthistorisches

Studio,

c.

Museum,

1665-70.
Vienna.

Plate 26.

Rembrandt

Oil

on

van

panel,37

Ox. 1665.
Rijn. The Slaughtered
26%". Louvre, Paris.

Plate 27.
Oil

Rembrandt
on

van
Rijn. Christ at Emmaus.
panel,zG^xas^/g". Louvre, Paris.

Plate
Oil

on

28.

canvas,

van
Rijn. Portrait of Jan Six. 1654.
40". Verzameling der Six-Stichting,Amsterdam.

Rembrandt
44

audience, which included devout

sophisticated
to recognizecertain absurdities in

churchmen,

the affairs of
and

For him, art served

men.

the

was

wisdom

and

knowledge

which

by

means

for

partisan causes
fought
artists here represented.
Unlike

da Vinci, Bruegel

generic,human
from

remoteness

illustrate
from

detached

customary
fellow

the mind

to

his

Leonardo

interested in broad,

was

the

by

even

and our
relationships,
physical
his figuresreflects the kind of

intellectual detachment

he

assumed

toward

his

subject.
To

maintain

century acted
of

the

Church

initiative and
of

many

the

contemporary
his time
which

that

and

is to

sixteenth

the

overlook

the

the

bidding

individual

and fantasies
personalfeelings
greatest painters.Pontormo,
of Michelangelo,was
famous

for his art

took

artists in

thought only at

and

the form

of
a

in

for his eccentricity,

of fanatical

isolation and

hypochondria. Pontormo
example to
gave
the
sixteenth-centuryconcept of the lonely
genius.His paintingof The Deposition(Fig. 199)
is a deeply personaland disturbingmeditation
in a
the meaning of Christ's death, couched
on
language that by comparison with that of
alien tongue.
seems
an
Raphael and Leonardo
The
is at first jolted by apple greens,
eye
metallic greys, and shrill pinks and yellows
the anodyne paletteof Raphael, with its
not
"

soft reds,blues, and

flesh tones.

The

distortions

of Pontormo's
correct

for

an

figuresultimatelydepend upon
anatomical
knowledge, but the demands
expressiveor emotional
composition

Left:Figure 198.
Elder.

THE

Blind.
a'lo"
monte,
Above:

1568.
5'%". Museo
Naples.

Figure 199.

on

Synthesisof

Heaven

and

Earth

in

Sixteenth-

and

Seventeenth-Century Art

Bruegel

Leading the
on

di

Pontormo

canvas,

Capodi-

(Ja-

panel, io'3" x 6'^y./. Sta.

Felicita,Florence.

The

Pieter
Blind

Oil

Carucci). Deposition.
1525-28.

copo

Oil

The

169

distention

the

impelled

abbreviation

or

of shoulders, and

limbs, dislocation

the

of

figuresare of a type, a
betray intense shock.
laws of spatiallogic,and hence
are
The
reason,
figures
decisivelyput aside, as the entwined
unreal
to be stacked
verticallyin some
appear
boneless

His

torsos.

faces

strange family whose

and

place

Unlike

moment.

the

rationale

of

fifteenth-century painting, it is impossible

of what

conceive

visualize

and

tudes

than
without

vision, not
The

by

fearful

nature,

an

of

artistic

during

with

rise

the

A.

Q_.

Do

only

the

and

practices of

the

Catholic

Roman

The

art.

Council

ItaUan

north

but

also

Trent, which
of

town

counteract

Church

of

Trento

from

its

on

in

sat

the

1545

was

its views
the

reaffirmed
of

art,

of the

arm

an

In

art.

on

Church's

belief in the

the

opposition

reiterated

of

Humanistic

Trent's

attitude, a kind

that favored
the

believer

Exercises.
induced

view

an

in the

(These
ecstatic
in

to

yoga,
self-consciousness

of Counter
to

of

exercises
trance

which

or

the

anti-

an

with

170

Can

A.

their

decrees,

involved

individual

lost all

why

reason

you

have

imagine it?
you
well imagine.

can

Q_. Say what

According
the
e

Prior

think

you

he

of the

had

the

what

to

Paolo, whose

the

Convent
name

been

here

is.

reason

Reverend

Father,

of SS.

I do

not

and

Your

Giovanni

know,

told

Lordships
had
ordered
him
have
to
painted [in the
picture] a Magdalen in place of a dog. I
answered
him
by saying I would
gladly
do
for my
honor
everything necessary
for that of my
and
painting, but that I
did
understand
how
not
a
figure of
suitable
would
be
there
for
Magdalen
which
I will give at any
reasons
many
time, provided I am
given an opportunity.
have
What
picture is this of which
you
me,

Q.

spoken ?
This
is a picture of the Last
Supper that
Jesus Christ took with His Apostles in the

A.

house

of Simon.

At

Supper
figures?

Q.

this

other

self-

meditation, comparable

figures.

compose
the

summoned

A.

of

the emotions

and through visions identified

feelingsor state of his object
of worship. Ignatius felt the Stigmata of Christ
of his trances.) Another
during one
implication
himself

of

out

No, Sir.

sance
Renais-

Loyola's Spiritual

know

you

Q.

importance
idolatry,

included

appeal

manner

A.

to

of art
and
its
espoused the didactic purpose
for the faithful,
provision of an ethical model
decried
indecency in religious painting and
sculpture,and insisted upon decorum, respect,
in interpreting theological or
and
accuracy
The
implicationsof the
spiritual
subjectmatter.
Council

follows

paint and

been

this program

essence,

carrying

instituted

as

to

Inquisitioninstrumental
Church
in crystallizing
policy with regard to
internal
reform, as well as in plotting strategy
Protestant
heretics. In the
against the northern
of its meeting, the Council
last year
gated
promul1563,

dealing
^
theological

art

of

answered

the

upon

the

ensure

Council

the

not

Holy

of

Placing

Church.

To

its assaults

doctrine

themes.

seventeenth.

the

to

works

numerous

the supernatural,

on

rational, thus

before
the strengthening of
beauty and
doctrines through visual artistic
existingChurch
essential outgrowths of this action by
proof were

and

intended

was

stress

of the

truth

Reformation

program

to

miraculous

Protestant

This

was

century,

It

atti-

Pontormo's

sixteenth

the

fruition

this reached

and

official

an

half

giving

views

suspension

program

can

them.

not

evolved
second

the

one

his model.

was

did

or

inner, personal

an

or

to

always accept the license

artist in the name
of individuality;
the
a
corruption of its message,

of

Church

nurtured

that

Council's

censorship of art by
famous
The
most
case
agents of the Inquisition.
brought before these agents, the Holy Tribunal
that of
sittingin Venice on July 18, 1573, was
the Venetian
painter Paolo Veronese, who had
of the
Last
painted a questionable version
Supper (Fig. 200). The transcriptof the trial
other
illustrates,among
things, the uneasy
synthesis of the spiritualand the secular in
the minds
of the judges as well as the painter.
When
Veronese
questioned about his profession,

next

by mystical

Michelangelo,

Church

taken

any

occasioned

themes
for

style.As

in

more

unnatural

is the
/

the

do

painting'sspace

they will go,

where

figureswill

these

of the

ted,
elonga-

of Our

Lord

you

painted

Yes, milords.

A.

Tell

Q.

us

how

people

many

and

describe

the

gestures of each.

the

Purposes

of

Art

Vol.

Elizabeth
2,

p. 66ff.

G.

Doubleday

Holt,

Anchor

Documentary
Books,

New

History of Art,
York,
1958,

Figure

Paolo

200.

Veronese.

Christ in the House

of Levi.

A.

There

is the

besides

this

of

owner

the

....

I intended
nose

Q_.

was

What

dressed

men,

halberd
A.

This

We
and

represent

whose

servant

Germans,

as

in his hand

requiresthat

each

with

?
I say

words

twenty

painterstake the same

the jesters
take and

these

of the

master

rich, should

Q.

And

that

parrot
A.

Q.

have

his

you

paint him

For

ornament,

Did

anyone

such

dressed

man

on

house, who
a

wrist, for what

on

that

canvas

is customary
commission
to
you

buffoons, and

with

purpose
?

as

The

No, milords.

Q_.

Do you
other

decorate

Synthesisof

the

I received

pictureas

Heaven

and

Earth

the

various

and

bad

people?
A.

Lords, I do

consider

those

to

the
in

these

so

was

to

ignorant

many

defend

to

want

not

doing right.I
thingsand I did

confuse

things had
that the above

been

Our

not
as

of the

Lord

Paolo

obligedto improve and change

within
a
period of three months
Seventeenth-Century Art

so

did

is

said, the judges

named

be

and

to

order

foolish and

place in a picture where

represented.
After

is
of

thingsof

the more
anyone,
figuresof buffoons are outside
to

in

thought

inventions

scorn

Church

doctrines

Illustrious

intend

did

Sixteenth-

painters
you
paintings or

Germany and
heresy it
pictures full

similar

Cathohc

Holy

teach

fit. It is

in

hold

with

mock, vituperate,and

....

saw

to

that in

infected

with

scurrilousness

the commission
I

which

add

to

know

not

places

customary

announced

No, milords, but

to

A.

picture?
A.

accustomed

it,but

mans,
paint Gerthingsin that

similar

not

are

it could

me,

the decorations

Are

not

buffoon

to

"

servants.
as

42'. Academia,

pictures supposed to be suitable and

the subject and
the principal
to
figuresor are they for pleasure simply
what
to your
comes
imagination without
any discretion or judiciousness?
A.
I paint picturesas I see fit and as well as
talent permits.
my
at the Last
Q. Does it seem
fitting
Supper of
the Lord
to
paint buffoons, drunkards,
Germans, dwarfs, and similar vulgarities?

great and

was

i8'2"

canvas,

proper

license the poets

I have represented

drinking and
the other eatingnearby on the stairs. They
are
placed there so that they might be of
service because
it seemed
to
me
fitting,
according to what I have been told, that
the

Q_.

halberdiers, one

two

on

large and, it seemed

figures.
many

them.

Q,. Say
A.

to

accident.
bleedingbecause of some
is the significance
of those armed

Oil

inn, Simon;

figureI have made a steward,

there for his
who, I imagined, had come
own
pleasure to see how the things were
going at the table. There are many
figures
there which
I cannot
recall,as I painted
the picturesome
time ago
for SS.
made
Q. In this Supper which
you
Giovanni
Paolo what
is the significance
e
of the man
whose
is bleeding?
nose
A.

1573.

his

171

would

painting

from

the

Venice.

Figure

Leonardo

201.

The

Vinci.

da

Refectory of
day

of the

and

admonition

the

opinion and

all

the

decision

that

according to
Holy Tribunal

of the

should

corrections

be

made

1494. Fresco, i5'iVs" X28'ioi/2".

Grazie, Milan.

Supper,c.
delle

Catholic

Church

rite

the

of the

blood

not

impelled Tintoretto

the

such

definition

of

which

painting based

figureswhich

of

give

answers

to

were

to

were
a

convey

Like

on

"read," that

be

message

dramatist, the

and

be

is,

and

preted.
inter-

artist had

why each figurewas

present and what
it came
to
logicallybe doing. When
and
ment,
enricha
filling
largespace with ornament
Veronese
claimed
for the
painter the

attitude

well

Leonardo

also

art

Renaissance

the

as

too

as

looked

Counter

in

worldly

paintersas
versions

of the

he

and
apart in date, reveals the ideological

license given

same

stories

to

bring the past

time.

His

in

his

and

the

by

sumptuous
were

what

to

had

great scale of

setting and
reflections

of

personal delight in contemporary

.Al fellow

Venetian,

Tintoretto, though
life around
him,

the secular

to

not
was

paint refigiousimages fullyin keeping

the

ideals

x\gainstthe

of

the

Protestant

172

Counter

Reformation.

theology, the

Purposes

of Art

Roman

the

two

the

motivation, Leonardo
when

moment

Christ

century
tic
esthe-

and

men

their

study of

interior

chose

portray

foretold

to

his

betrayal.
his findings

permitted a virtuoso displayof

conveyed by face and
expressionwas
different personafities
reacted
gestures and how
of shock. The supper takes place
to the stimulus
treated as a
in an
austere
illusionistically
room,
it was
of the refectoryin which
continuation
located
a
settingthat permitted a display of
Leonardo's
of the science
of spatial
mastery
organizationand the effects of certain lighting
conditions.
Tintoretto's settingis a more
rustic
This

own

personal
he

Supper (Figs.201, 202), a

gulf that separated the

periods.Preoccupied with
human

resort

Bible

of his

abilityand

past. The

milieu

to

the

fife in terms
his

of the

had

outside

customs.

insensitive
to

to

were

social

Veronese's

able

art

painting

Venetian

poets. He

of fitness,fortified

great

elaborate

with

event

criteria

judgment
seen

to

information

and

Last

parison
Com-

orientation.

Tintoretto's

and

the

upon

of such

envision

would

belief

This

exemplifiesa
that

content

of Leonardo's

to

of Christ.

to

doctrine.

Tintoretto's

styleas

to
participate
partake mystically

that
to

was

depictthe Last Supper in

to
as
emphasize the miraculous
origin of this event, and of the

way

meaning

sixteenth-century
the composition

and

body

Eucharastic
Veronese's

affirmed

in the Eucharistic

at

painter,and that if he did

be liable to
the picture he would
correct
penaltiesimposed by the Holy Tribunal.
of the

expense

Last

Sta. Maria

on

how

"

inn, and
formal
earlier

the

animated

banquet or
painting.

meal

is less

social occasion
The

inn's

seen

like the
in

illumination

the

is

melodramatic,

almost

To

Tintoretto.
small

made

accord

to

sacramental

mystical

his

devise

with

the

chosen

moment

figuresthrough color

well as with lightand

as
composition is marked
by
the qualities
of obscurityand
struction.
painterlyconLeonardo's
of lightand
dark
range
exists primarilyin a middle register,
avoiding

by

effects,Tintoretto
them

set
figures,
sculptural

into

an

different
open-ended box, and then moved
the model.
over
lighting
pletely
Leonardo's
composition is closed, or comcontained

action lie either

at

limits

the

within

The

picturearea.

of

Tintoretto's

and

the

ment
arrange-

organizeshis figures

points.Leonardo

banquet table in such a way that they

to
to exist in an
imaginary plane parallel
picturesurface,holdingthe viewer off from

and

the

seem

the

action.

the

table exist

figuresand banquet
strongly thrusting diagonal to

character.

It

is

figures,
objects,or
scheme
work

in

than
shows

easier

to

isolate

units within
the

the

Tintoretto.

the

individual

the

Leonardo

that bounds

each form

unity. The

and

the relative

evenness

that is,a clarity

of shape and illumination. in
light,
The
inextricable relationship of
more
Tintoretto's figuresis a result of the overlapping

of the

of

shadows

Figure 202.

and

Tintoretto.

of

the

construction

The Last

Supper.1594.

of

Oil

The

dramatic

the

focus of the architecture

perspective
viewer into depth and then,
with
the
of Christ in the foreground,
head
the picture
him back into an area
near
to draw
is a meaningful focus on
Christ
plane. There
in both paintings.
Tintoretto set Christ's head
to

Leonardo's

large areas.

swift

with

edges and

Leonardo's

multiple unity, as opposed to

of
potentialisolability
figuresderives from the clear edge

Classical

over

this inward
rush, then balanced
large foreground groups and
draw
angels hovering overhead, which
forward
the
used
again. Leonardo
eye
a

thrust

recessional in

picturesurface and, thus, are

the

contrasts

with

Tintoretto's
on

strong

mysticaleffects of Tintoretto's composition

realized through strong value
are
contrasts
in major areas.
of
Leonardo, in the manner
other Renaissance
painters,avoided clashing
colors
placed close together; Tintoretto used
colors
between
enhance
to
strong disparities
the visual excitement
of his pictures.
He
also
employed multipleand irrational lightsources,
as
natural and
more
opposed to Leonardo's
distribution of light.Tintoretto designed
even
into the picture
so
to pull the viewer
as
space

in that the space, light,

is open
shadow,
of the frame
action seem
at
out
to extend

several

Tintoretto's

and

vanishingpointsand figural
of the paintingor
the center

firmly within its borders.

shade.

the

mystical radiance, the

most

intense

light

In the work of Tintoretto,

fore,
therepainting.
or
light replacedperspective
geometry as
instrument of religious
significance.
principal

the

the

on

the

lead

canvas,

12'

"

i8'8". S.

GiorgioMaggiore, Venice.

It was
sixteenth-centuryVenetians
Veronese, Tintoretto, and Titian who

such

gave
paint." In

as
new

the
implicationsto the verb "to
precedingcentury, artists filled in colored areas
already described by linear drawing; for this
reason

their

white, has

however,
somewhat

when

even

and

black-and-white

photograph of
(Fig.203),
misleadingimpressionof a

Christ Crowned

with

Thorns

gives the
murky indistinctness.

coarseness

in black

seen

distinct, easilygrasped series of

contours.

Titian's

work,
a

and

fusion

The

of silhouettes

relative
with

the

them
results from
light and space around
Titian's building of his figuresby means
of
brush
drawing in color. Even his pen-and-ink
charcoal
or
drawings have a sketchy airiness
that
to
keeps attention from being drawn
distinct,continuous
edges. Titian thought in
of color as his prime means
of expression
terms

Figure 203.
1565.Oil

c.

Munich.

Titian.
on

canvas,

Christ Crowned

9'2"

6'. Alte

with

Thorns.

Pinakothek,

and

method

was

one

of construction.

of color

conditions

through

of natural

His
a

personal vision
but under

vacuum

artificial lightfiltered

or

palpable atmosphere, as

nocturnal

in

not

seen

in

this

of Christ's humiliation.

scene

Titian

and Tintoretto particularly

responded
physicalsensations of brushing color
onto
a
canvas
surface, savoring the weight,
texture, and
phabilityof the pigment and,
how
even
a
simultaneously,
singlestroke could
give definition to a shape, degree of light,
modeling, and exact color tone. The hairs of
the pigment-filled
brush could be spread apart
by pressure from the hand, allowingpreviously
applied color to radiate through and vibrate
with the overpainting.
As an
old man,
Titian
the

to

to

came

power

realize the great economy

and expressive
in the judicious
selection of a
possible

few

colored
strokes; but his contemporaries,
prejudicedtoward his virtuoso earlier work, felt
that paintings
such as Christ Crowned with Thorns
resulted from failing
vision,a tremblinghand,
and senility.
From a fellow painterand sometime
a
collaborator,Palma Giovane, comes
tion
descripof how
Titian worked :
the elderly

Titian

began

his

which

served

as

he wished

to

pictureswith
bed

express.

of color

mass

for what

foundation

or

myself have

such

seen

vigorously appliedunderpaintingin pure

ochre, which
or

in white

meant

to

lead. With

the

was

dipped in red, black

the modeling effect of
he

red

give the half-tone,

brush, which
yellow, he created

same

or

the

lighterportions.
capable of indicating
a
magnificent figure....After he had thus
applied this important foundation, he turned
four strokes he

With

the

pictures

returned

mortal

like

as

....

he

brought the
highestdegree

to

afterwards

them

if they had

with
been

his

find faults in them;

which

something

his

he

scanned

severe

found

surgeon

left them.
.

as

with

and

When

enemies, in order

if he

accord

wall

months.

them, he

to

concentration

and

the

to

for

sometimes

was

not

was

in

to work
intentions,he went
Thus
by repeatedrevision,

skeleton

of his figuresto
perfectionand, while

of

the
one

another.
to
picture was
drying, he turned
quintessence of a composition he then
covered
with many
over
layers of livingflesh,
until the figureseemed
to
lack only breath.
He never
ously],
painteda figurealia prima [spontaneThis

and

improvises
poetry. He

was
can

gave

wont
never

to

say

fashion

the last touch

that

he

who

perfectline of
to
his pictures

Pieter
Bruegel
204.
Kunsthistorisches
Museum,

Figure

by adjustingwith his fingersa spot of

one
corner
or
heightening with a dab
like a drop of blood, the liveliness of
In

painted

the

last

with

more

stages of

his

The

Elder.

the

Carryingof the

the

fingersthan

black
of
the

the

face....
sur-

resultingfrom

Titian's

Christ's ordeal

is matched

work,

he

with

the

ethos

a
Just as he reworked
singlepainting,so did
and
earlier
reinterpretcertain themes
clients but,
compositions,not just for his many
in later years, largelyfor himself. In his Christ

Titian

subdued

strong facial reactions, obstructed

with

were

and

earlier
upon

generallysuffused the entire scene

drama
of light and
strongly textured

color.

the

focus

and

hands,

To
the

in

devotion

certain

extent, late works such as this

painter's
privatedevotional paintings,
a

secular

sense

they

marked

passionate

paintingitself.
In comparison with Titian's painting,Pieter
Bruegel'sCarryingof the Cross (Fig.204), done
some

The

relation

from

Thorns, he

earlier,is

Synthesis of

Heaven

5 '6 78

radical

and

Earth

departure
in

in

Sixteenth-

of color

to

in terms

drawing.

The

intimate

focus

by

of

pathos
upon

equallystrong

an

the
viewer's
remoteness
arising from
figureof Christ, strugglingunder

the

the

to
Calvary is
weight of his Cross. The way
plottedalong a broad curving plane,and Christ
that
takes
little
is accompanied
by a crowd
but is diverted
notice of him
play.
by all sorts of bythe weeping Marys
In the foreground are
St. John, and
elevated
and
an
nearby is seen

wheel

used for the

treatment,
of
context
men,

who

put

like
to

stillanother
the

and

in

Saviour

place,as
before

many

morbid

to

Bruegel

sense,

the
man

and

In

It
spectacle.
plain and

of the

circles would

Seventeenth-Century

Art

have

this

broad
among

after is

death, providing the crowd

curving arc

references

double

of Christ's ordeal.

and

time

the

see

we

of criminals

execution

torture

Bruegel'stime. In
gives us the long view
in

to

years

panel, 4'%"

on

Biblical illustration,
yet conservative

in

....

with

1564. Oil

red,

brush

Crowned

Cross.

Vienna.

justly
un-

with

that
is possible

the

numerous

suggested to
175

knowledgeable audience
Some
of injustice.
in this paintingthe artist's
historians have seen
of Spanish
the brutality
bitter commentary
on
ence
rule over
the Netherlands, or an
oblique referif
this
but
of the Inquisition
to the sadism
;
were
escaped the notice of the
true, it somehow
his
admired
Spanish Catholic royalty,who
painting.Bruegel'sinverted focus (from that of
the personal
on
Titian) inhibits concentration
of Christ's Passion,
and theologicalimplications
Bruegel'slimited
the

but

continual

but

recurrence

it also increases

the

of the artist's

breadth

The Resurrection of Christ.

El Greco.
Figure 205.
9'i/4" 4'5". Prado,
canvas,
1600-05. Oil on
"

Madrid.

about

statement

what
The

historyand

tillthen

was

human

unrivaled

an

nature

to

scale.

tion
Reformamystical of the Counter
El Greco, who
believed in the

most

painterswas
irrational

basis of Christian
dogma and the
of a uniquelypersonalstyle
to embody
necessity
his privatevisions. The
in his paintings
events
not
are
depicted in fifteenth-century
Europe,
according to the rational perception of a
detached

observer, but

emanations

are

of

an

ecstatic

visionarywho sought to show in one

explosivemoment
thingsthat defy intellectual
comprehension. For this reason, his Resurrection
antidotal
that
to
of Christ (Fig. 205) seems
by Piero della Francesca.

El Greco

mysticallevitation

of Christ's

the

The

invisible tomb.

assist in

this

feelingof

and

ascent

the posture of his Crucifixion.

El Greco
concerned
was

metaphysical
The

than

presents the

body risingfrom
positionof Christ's feet

with

also recall

the

with

more

the

psychological.
scene
originates

cold, eerie lightof the

Christ's transfiguredperson. His eflfortless

from

upward

movement

effects of the

with

contrasts

the

forceful

upset the

which
has
mysticallight,
sleepingtomb guards, dazzled those

who

have

awakened, and

who

comprehend
at

gestures
Greco

awesome

exalted

rhetorical

once

demonstrated

Resurrection.

the

The

hand

is

been

ordained, while

sign of

Through
symbolical.El

and

forceful

spiritual
enlightenmentand
the

those present

the transformation.

the

of

process

of
significance

gesture of Christ's right

the

completion of

what

had

its counterpart in the

lower rightis one
of simultaneous

largefigureat the
recognition and
supplication.The
extreme
the exaggeratedelongation,
luminosity,
and

the

of

God.

inconstant

silhouette

its corporeality
and

reduce

in Piero

militancyseen

All that

the work

of Piero

been

has

body

the tion
suggesdella Francesca's

tangibleand

was

Christ's

of

eliminate

substantial

in

elusive and

made

The
by El Greco.
stabilityof
composition its implied triangle of
verticals restingon solid horizontals,all locked
within a square format
has been replacedby
unstable
an
irregularlozenge design in a
immaterial
Piero's

"

"

vertical

format.

of El Greco's
matter,

so

Just

Christ

is the event

earthly place and

The
did

not

the

mystical

freed from
abstracted

the

from

nature

logicof
specific

time.

strengthof
weaken

as

was

Greco's religious
message
inspiredinventiveness as

El

his

Above:
Maurice.

El
Figure 206.
1581-84.01! on

The Legend of St.

x Q'loi^".
i4'8i/3"

Greco.
canvas,

Escorial.
Above

martyrs. To
and

to

Roman

right:Figure 207.

St. Maurice, detail from

El

The

Greco.

Legendof

Fig. 206.

painter.Great artists of the past and his own

lessons in drawing,
time had earlytaught him
more
color,and composition.As his art became
however, he posed for himself
introspective,
the
unprecedented artistic problems; and
of their solution could not be judged by
success

with

the work

when

Greco's

the viewer

of

today,

El

Legend of St. Maurice

(Fig.206) appears
beautiful accomplished fact. The
as
a
rightness
of his solution of its problems obscures
their
Before
original difficulty.
summarizing the
subjectthat raised these problems, one
might
of
usefullyrecall that the didactic message
Counter
Reformation
art often took the guiseof
instructingthe faithful in the merits of dying
for their beliefs. The
of

The

the

Church's

Synthesisof

Protestants

veneration

Heaven

and

of

critical

were

its

Earth

numerous

in

Sixteenth-

artists

story chosen

wholesale

of others. To

world-wide

act

of the martyr

missionarywork,
were
enjoined to

historical sacrifices of the

the

recount

The

affirm the sacred

encourage
Catholic

execution

Greco

El

by
of

of the

legionwhich,

Roman

martyrs.

is that

been

St. Maurice, had

Christianity. Refusing the

its commander

converted

to

ultimatum

site of what

is

beheaded
legion was
today Saint-Maurice,

the

legion

the

considered

Accordingly, almost
surface

is devoted

foreground.The
descend

from

martyrdom.

to

upper
heaven

To

officers

the

at

the

land.
Switzer-

surrounding

imperial

third

peror's
em-

faith,

of decision

stressed the moment

El Greco

Maurice

their

renounce

in the

man

every

to

of the

St.

ultimatum.

painting's

in the
group
part discloses angelswho
of
holding the crowns

this small

smallest, most

restricted

consigned the execution of the

entire contingent (Fig.207).
El Greco
boldly juxtaposed the largestand
in the entire painting.
smallest figures
By means
area

and

at

the

left is

Seventeenth-Century Art

177

medium-sized

of the

left and

angels placed

large standard

the

the

at

the upper

at

right,he

public'sfascination

set

the
composition solidly within
sculpturalfirmness of the foreground
the eye
moves
officers is replaced as
rapidly
the
character
of
into
by
diaphanous
depth
less
the
are
tiny figuresin the distance, who
tangible than the clouds.
Essential to the styleof these paintings by El
of straightedge,
total absence
Greco
is the

eccentric

the

The

frame.

surfaces, continuous
evenly illuminated
measurable
and
silhouettes, repose,

closed
space.

in the
of change;
Every shape seems
process
rarely is the eye permitted to rest. Figures and

tapered points,and rocks and

It is
in writhing contours.
edged
pennants
possibleto follow the action of the painter'shand
and
His
in
the
flag-forms.
irregular cloud
the particularobjects
focused
on
thinking was
the
he
was
adjacent
painting as well as on
that
so
rarely is a figure or object seen
areas,
swell from

clouds

are

in

No

isolation.

sustained

dominant

vertical

or

the
axis
structures
composition.
Unity is finally the result of a close fitting
together of oscillatingor irregularparts, often
at obtuse
angles to each other or else in parallel

horizontal

upon

feminine

beauty
and

with

sexual

violence

blatantly contrasted

are

saintliness.

that

fed

as

Ironically, it

Inquisition,with

enacted

(Fig.208). Ugliness and

martyrs

symbols of sin
was

its well-known

the

Holy

methods

of

the

public taste for sadism.

The
synthesisof heavenly and earthly values at
the
time
of the Merode
had
Altarpiece
already
the possibilities
to
encounter
and
begun
lems
probof absorbing sexual fife,and
in the period
here considered
there was
ness
an
increasingfrankand
of this subject,which
often
exposure
tried the credibility
of a synthesis.
That
there
Counter
was
no
homogeneous
Reformation
be seen
style can
by the fact that,
along with El Greco's paintings,those of Petef
Paul
Rubens
were
highly acceptable to the
torture,

Church.
were

Rubens

The

Cretan-born

opposites
able

was

flesh with

to

and

Flemish
and

temperament
reconcile

vital

love

artists

style.
of the

His mythological
spirit.
and
kings, peasants,
religious
types,
pagan
mon
are
interchangeable,sharing a compersonages
robust
virility,effulgenthealthiness, and
El
appetite for living. The deeply introverted
a

love

in

of the

series.
Greco

El

has

called

been

and

insane,
been

have

recently mis.guidedattempts

more

made

to

from
astigmatism.
the
unique art was
and
lucid
of development
product of years
calculation
and
passionatereligiousconviction.
that his physical
El Greco
might have declared

suggest

that

Neither

was

vision

suflfered

but

Ironically the
Church's

power,

perverse
Sixteenth-

in

of the

the

celebration

most

of

sex.

in fact the

faith, was

erotic

and

lined

scholars

martyrdom,
the
with

who

Rather

than

The

true

for

gruesome

alumni"

the

of the

increase

lustiest and

the

artistic

Church

college for
were

tion,
Reforma-

Counter
and

quent
fre-

interests

sadistic

artist,his ecclesiastical patrons, and

audience.
of

"inner

his

was

sibly
seventeenth-century art, ostennoble
service
of defending or

the

outlet

of the

also

was

its

and

in

age

restoration

saw

expounding

it

that

abnormal.

was

which

His

case.

normal

was

which

eve"

he

the

in

and

training of missionaries

horrifyingimages

died

as

martyrs

all

his

all forms

chronicled

Roman
walls

of "successful

over

the

world.

images fired
zeal of the young.
Stradanus'
engraving of
Martyrdom of Saint Agatha exemplifies the
178

discouraging, such

Purposes

of Art

Stradanus
der
Straet).
Figure 208.
(Jan van
The Martyrdnrn of St. Agatha, ifith century. Engraving.

Greco

distrusted

medieval

been

have

of

fulfilled

the

painting

the

carnalityof

fervor, whereas

the

through

flesh. The

in

in

with

body

to

seems

ing
paint-

sensuous

energy

mystical; that

is

the

Rubens

Greco's

El

Rubens'

work

is

muscular.
When

Cross

Rubens

his

painted

(PL 19),

involved

he

the

Descent

from
subjects in

his

the

of lowering Christ's
heavy
figure at the upper
right having
both hands
engaged holds the death shroud in his
teeth
(pi.20). Despite the cumbersome
process,
the mourners
The
are
given grace of movement.

arduous

mechanics

The

body.

tenderness

with

intended

to

execution.
Christ's

From

blood

be

must

which

the

brutalityof the
the
painting of

the

close

up,

excessively lurid,

seems

that

remembered

is

is received

body

with

contrast

this

but

it

huge painting

for

and
a large church
to be seen
was
by the
congregation. Color helps us to realize
the
how
Counter
tion
Reformamet
fully Rubens
ideals
of
encouraging the faithful to
identifywith Christ's Passion. The flesh of the
with the key
hving has layers of color touched
makes
warmth
it glow with
and
red, which
was

whole

vitality.That
and

the

arms,

brilliant
St.

of Christ

is contrasted

thus

are

whiteness

reds

John.

with

has
the

of

the

of his blood

The

at

of death

grey

shroud,

and

the

the

and

the

contrasts

around

center

of

garment

richest

and

strongest

grouped

the

ruddy-complexioned

the

broken

tend
tones
to
figure, and the darker
with the deep blue-green of the sky. By
merge
from
focusingthe lightin the central area, away
the
would
thus appear
to be
edges, the scene

illusionistic in the

more

church

induces

space

known
Greco

of

the

evokes

unshed

tears

materialityof

the sweat

of exertion

of

anguish

this earth.
and

and

Rubens

rejoicesin

giants grows

from

it. Rubens'

Christ

heroic
physical exertion, that
exercise.
only spiritual

of

Synthesis of

Heaven

and

Earth

in

of the altar

the

has
El

Sixteenth-

saw

no

with

his

Flemish

century

mislead
the
Comparison with El Greco may
reader into doubting Rubens'
religioussincerity.
Mystical asceticism has not been the only producer
of
Rubens
was
religious art.
great
Catholic
the Roman
to
passionately devoted
faith and spent a lifetime enriching the splendor

The

16 19.
Kunsthistorisches

Ignatius
C3il on
seum,
Mu-

Vienna.

of the

El
Greco
sensuality of worldly stuflTs. What
shows
addresses
to
lying beyond touch, Rubens
St. Maurice
our
his
and
finger tips. While
the
captains tread hghtly on
earth, Rubens'
race

"'

St.

Rubens.
Church.

itself

El Greco
disdains

darkened

Peter
Paul
Figure 209.
ExorcisingDemons
from the
ly'GiV' is'iiV/canvas,

of

mythological past.
himself

Church.

and
Like

ecclesiastical
art, he

saw

in

the

the

no

before
his

material

He

the fifteenth-

him,
response
world

Rubens
to
or

the

the

optimisticconfidence
of the
right and power

had

the

Roman

patrons

Catholic

who

sin in the

lay without

what

in

contradictions

attractiveness

in

paintings.Like

artists

dogma.

religioussubjects,such

as

paid

rulers

and

for his secular

healthy enjoyment of
When

St.

he
painted
IgnatiusExorcising

tive
attenfrom the Church (Fig.209), he was
the spiritof his theme.
Just as St. Ignatius
had
recommended
projecting oneself into
the
of the
state
subject of worship, Rubens'
the viewer
into the church
to
painting draws

Demons

to

and

Seventeenth-Century

Art

179

The

vigorous movement
figuresare

and

of Rubens'
of

brush

his

paint.To

and

enjoy

the

sensual

born

rhythms

substance

creamy

El Greco's

ance
appear-

in the

of

his

color is to

appreciate
admixtures
of tones, predominantly cool
rare
colors
under
sometimes
shrill light,restraint
a
in the
build
of heavily pigmented areas,
up
trusive
and, by comparison with Rubens, a less obof the brush. Showing warm
trace
light
and
lush
of opacity and
parency,
transsequences
Rubens'
colors and
the
glazes create
impression of pulse and blood lyingjustbeneath
the flesh. Rubens'
form

brush

swept with

was

bravura

to a
delicatelytouched
tiny area
demanding a highlight.The viewer
the
sense
looking at a Rubens
painting can
physical as well as esthetic pleasure that the
artist enjoyed as he worked.
It is not difficult to
in the
Rubens'
full involvement
comprehend
that permitted him
materialityof the medium
across

to

Alte

Peter

210.

c.

1615.

Paul

Oil

Pinakothek,

on

Rubens.

wood,

The

Last

5'ii%"

ment,
Judg-

s'li^"-

Munich.

the

excitement

of

the

of the sick who

new

hope

the

devil.

Such

impossible in
paintings. In

miracle

have

been

construction

Rubens'

work,

of

the

cleansed

difficult

projection is
the

and

El

if

of
not

Greco's

the

foreground
nearest
figure

brilliance

and
posturing of the
upward to the saint and back down
the devil quits the
into depth at the left where
church.
The
consistent
a
diagonal in depth was
Rubens
told a story,
stylisticdevice by which
draw

us

achieved
his

dramatic

composition
180

and

visual

in forceful

Purposes

climax,

resolution.

ot

An

and

held

loved.

he

painted The Last Judgment

sensual
ners
sin(Fig. 210), he depicted the most
in history.The
damned
flood downward
from
the seat of judgment and
overwhelm
the
mote
repicture space, leaving the smaller and more
regions for the elect. How
ical
paradoxupper
it seems
that in this painting Rubens
would
acknowledge the sinfulness of voluptuous flesh,
then
and
proceed for the rest of his lifetime to
bodies
of mythological
glorify the beautiful
heroes alongsideof similarlyendowed
saints and
artists before him, it is
royalty.Just as so many
the spectacleof Hell rather
than
Heaven
that
ment
calls forth his most
inspired painting. Punishrather than judgment, the provocativecontortions
and violent intertwining of condemned
than
bliss of the
bodies
rather
the composed
drawn
elect predictably appealed to audiences
to
emphasis
depravity. Despite the diminished
heaven

upon

share

world

sensuous

Rubens

When

Figure

the

re-create

was

or

and

between

imbalance

the saved

pessimisticview of
of humanity
is good Counter
the fate of most
Reformation
propaganda.
Pieter Bruegel's Triumph of Death
(Fig.211),
take a
to
painted half a century before, seems
efforts to buflPer
cynical attitude toward
any
and

the

mankind
medieval
version

damned,

from

the

memento

of the

Rubens'

facts
mori

of

encounter

only in the
Eyewitness to plagues and
Netherlands, Bruegel could

dead

is catholic

death.

Unlike

its

Bruegel's
living and the

prototypes,
of the
sense
wars

draw

of
in

universality.
the southern

from

personal

of such

disasters.

theologicalview
in

of

are

stopping

at

of

assurance

There

is

not

known

the

entrance

to

and

Hfe

cavalier

us,

victions
religiouscon-

chose

the

that

Christ

Angel

with
drum

the

or

his

valence,
above

insistent

rhythm

overrun

by

services. The
a

pale

horse

Devil.

the

of death.

skeletons

the
of

is

hordes
into the

emissaries
the

skeleton

Arch

ing
beat-

coffin, providing
Churches

have

the

been

who

perform irreverent
figureof Death
riding
load of
drawing a wagon

traditional
is

seen

Pieter
Bruegel
Figure 211.
3'io" X s's'/s".Prado, Madrid.

The

them

no

hell.

or

skeletal

Instead
there

life

coffin,with

the

dispatching the livingor herding

end of a gigantic coffin are
open
of

show

to

heaven
justice,

indication

no

in

Judgment

to

ultimate

an

skulls while

the

Bruegel, whose

hereafter.

the

the

vanity

Rubens
Last

in

championed

human

experience concerning
face

Synthesis of

Heaven

and

the

Elder.

Earth

in

The

the

lovers
under

nearby a king
grips of skeletons. At
who

oblivious
the

in

destruction

its

on

of the

death

with

all and

the

cardinal

the

are

far

right is

the

his

sword,

the

fool who

crawls

The

Triumph of Death is
cataloguing of all forms

land

and

sea

that

it

so

of

suggests the

world.

fewer in the Counter

Cataclysmic visions were
Reformation
So
period than those of heaven.
the
Counter
Reformation
cept
conimportant was
of the religiousvision that an
increasing
number

of Roman
had

their

churches

in

the seventeenth

vaults

illusionistically
painted
in grandiose compositions that permitted the
faithful to look directlyupward
into heaven.
One
of the most
powerful and
biggest vault
century

Triumph of Death,

Sixteenth-

to

table.

sweeping
end

dares

and

and

c.

1562. Oil

on

Seventeenth-Century

panel,

Art

181

Figure

Andrea

212.

Pozzo.

The

Triumph of St. IgnatiusLoyola (Allegory

of the Missiotiary Work of the
Jesuits).1691-94. Fresco on nave
ceiling, S. Ignazio, Rome.

Fra
paintings was
the Missionary Work
It

celebrated

order
the

on

the

Andrea

of
work

and

all of the continents

reception in
Pozzo

heaven

transformed

impression

that

the

additional

two

stories

ceiling.Against
architectural
Pozzo

Pozzo's
Allegoryof
Jesuits (Fig. 212).

the

the

floated

the

vault
soars

and

is

illusion

of

columns

clusters of

of

this

demonstrated

of its leader

church

elements,

sacrifice
and

and

without

the
an

any

Purposes

of Art

is that

The

to

the

virtuoso

achieved

The

with

upward

eye

message

faithful

no

of the

heaven

painting
directly

is

seventeenth-century artists
wide variety of media
of
a
of subjects.The
most
gifted

illusions in

a
staggering range
sculptor of the century

massive

stable

devotion

and

arches,

Italian

figuresin a remarkable
series of foreshortenings,
that no
from
matter
so
what
is in
point the observer looks, the scene
with
is suffused
perspective.The entire scene
182

restraint.

accessible.

tyrs.
mar-

give
upwards
to

radiance, acceleratingthe

prolonged

other

to

the

aims

Gianlorenzo
talents

were

and

of

the

most

ardent

Church

Bernini.

Among

playwriting, stage

in his

was

the
his

design,

painting,caricature, and architecture. His most

spectacular production in sculpture is the
Ecstasyof St. Theresa (Fig.213). St. Theresa was

saint
sixteenth-century

One

visions.

describes the

who

recorded

of

these, available

event

portrayedin

her

Bernini,

to

sculpture:

the

I saw
an
angel close to me, on my left side,in
but
to see
bodilyform. This I am accustomed
rarely.Though I have visions of angels
very
lectual
only by an intelfrequently,
yet I see them
I have
as
vision, such
spoken of
before.

It is

I should

Lord's

our

see

the

in this wise.

angel

large,but small

not

will that in this vision

of

stature

and

He

most

pleasureand pain.The erotic nature of both

the sculptureis patent, but in
of making
keeping with the rehgiouspurpose
the situation as
vivid
as
possible.Bernini
Exercises of St. Ignatius
practicedthe Spiritual
of Loyola in order to absorb himself as deeply
and
accuratelyas possibleinto his subject.
the vision and

The

of the
one
burning as if he were
be all of fire
to
highestangelswho seem
I saw
in his hand
of gold and at
a long spear
the iron's pointthere seemed
to be a littlefire.
it at times
He appeared to me
to be thrusting
into my
heart, and to piercemy very entrails:

stone

which

all
a

he drew

it out,

also and

out

great love of God.

I cried out, but

which

at

that violent
that I could

Bernini
the

spear

The
the

pain was
time

pain gave

me

not

the

to

all

me

same

wish

moment

the saint

Gianlorenzo
213.
The
Ecstasyof St.

Figure
.NiNi.

chose
with

he seemed

leave

to

to

so

the
was

them

fire with
great that
sweetness
so

sive
exces-

be rid of it.

between

writhingin

BerTheresa.

1646. Marble, life-size. Cornaro

Chapel, Sta. Maria della Vittoria,
Rome.

draw

on

thrusts of
paroxysms

of

with
as

vision excited

coexistence

states,
saint

....

When

of the

nature

the
particularly

was

ful
beauti-

his face

"

of

imaged

were

the

on

his

interest,

conflicting
chological
psythe

face

of the

virtuosity.
Treating

consummate

if it

of

wax

of the models

from

he

worked, Bernini created the illusion

clouds, cloth, and flesh. The
marble
was

warmed

by lightwhich entered from a concealed

yellowglasswindow. There was no previous
to Bernini's deliberate
sculptural
parallel
and controlled use
of lightas both
form and
The sculptural
mysticsymbol in his composition.
group is set behind a proscenium arch, and in
the background golden shafts serve
radiant
as
backdrops.Sacred sculptureand paintedaltarsuch as that by Rogier van
der Weyden,
pieces,
had served as religious
theater
before. Bernini
transformed
the chapelwhere the sculpture
was

Figure

Caravaggio

214.

chelangelo
(Mi-

Merisi). The
of St. Paul.
canvas,

y'Si^"

between
The

into

sphere

attraction

to

which

the

differences

suspended.
painter of the
was
Michelangelo Merisi
historyof wild escapades

influential

century

that

in

realitywere

Caravaggio,whose

and

on

Popolo, Rome.

single most

seventeenth
da

5
del

and

art

Oil

pel,
'9".Cerasi Cha-

Sta. Maria

housed

1601-02.

sion
Conver-

violence

only pious men

pictures.Dedicated

contradicts

view

the

paint great religious

to
making art that would
the needs of the masses,
meet
Caravaggio was a
failure,for the people, conditioned
by more
aristocratic images of insincere piety,distrusted
the stark realityof his types and
the brutal
realism with which
the Bible was
interpreted.
It

was

with

can

connoisseurs

and

artists

that

the

achieved.
When
recognitionof his talent was
of religious
the theme
Caravaggio undertook
revelation
in his Conversion of St. Paul (Fig.214),
a
paintingintended for a darkened
chapel, he
startled parishonersby showing the rider flat
his back, partially
his horse and
with
under
on
his head

towards

184

the viewer.

Purposes

Whether

of Art

he

wants

is the vicarious witness to

or
not, the beholder
Saul's conversion
to feel
to Paul, for he is made

to

if the

takes place at arm's

length.
penetrating light is the only
of God's
for
evidence
Caravaggio
presence,
could not bringhimself to depictthe supernatural
later Bernini
and Pozzo
to do. Always
as
were
in terms
he sought credibility
of the experience
as

Cold

miracle

brilliant

available

steadies

The

usefulness
with

the
are

horse

the

that

of

gesture
of Paul

instinctive and

is revealed.

good

conception is

made

to

(or

Bernini's

pure

more

later

translucent

shadows.

The

Both

in

which

gestures

indelibility
body surfaces

than
in

contrasts

by

The

theater.

founded
firm

the

contemplating

man's

of the

who

the circumstances.

old

the

or

attendant

outflungarms

drama
spiritual

seem

estate

of the

while

under

the

of the

lowest

action

is natural

event

of

those

to

uneducated.

those

in

marble) and

carving
less
lightpolarizedagainstmeasure-

Later

artists such

as

Rembrandt

life
the

that

from

learn

to

were

the

Caravaggio

faces

or

eyes

need

dramatist

the

otherwise

highlighted or
light and shadow

focal points,but that

compound the mystery of crucial events.
Still amazing
is that
Caravaggio worked
his paintings without
recourse
to
directly on
preliminary drawings. IronicallyCaravaggio's
a
paintings of religioussubjects had
strong
influence
secular
on
or
painting of the
genre
seventeenth
painting of Christ at
century. The
intended
for the
Emmaus
(PI. 21) was
guest
It shows
the two
of a convent.
room
disciples
seated with
Christ,
Cleophas and Peter Simon
whom
they had taken for a fellow pilgrim and
made

could

invited

with

eat

to

them.

The

cockleshell

that
tunic signifies
the disciple's
the men
frequently used
pilgrims, like those who
convent's
Caravaggio shows
guest rooms.

Christ

when

moment

himself

reveals

embodies

the illumination

disciples.Their

contrast

the

to

humblest

and
man

have

may

face

the

can

opening of
place in the

The

without

occur

halos, or

the skies. Christ's

takes

heart

modest

by

which

fare

table

dress and

remind

to

Not

of

the

left is
to

the

turned

so

faithful

of

The

means

Christ's

the

hand

the

The

the

extended

strenuous
seems

of Christ

table, and
to

angle

push

Synthesis of

and

the eye
thence

figure

at

our

table

Heaven

space,

before

and

immediately
to

the

gesture of the

into

of the

Flemish

draw

to

as

the

obvious

were

God.

angels,
epiphany

faithful.

is

face,

right. The

latter,which
paralleledby

him, thus
Earth

His

in

for

also
Caravaggio's work was
To
not
being self-explanatory.

elaborate

the

traditional

story, the

century

of the

and

secular

seventeenth

to

was

fines that

those

supper

see

in

have

fact, the

further

quainted
unac-

may

And

event.

cism,
didacti-

condemned

ing
obscur-

separated religiousfrom

secular

painting.
Having begun

from

this

Renaissance

with

chapter
Counter

and

examples

Reformation

painting,we

should
look briefly
now
at what
pened
hapBramante's
religious architecture.
the
designed to mark
Tempietto (Fig.215) was
in

in

spot

Rome

of

based

St.

openly
temple

architecture

dome.

This

set

different

the

from

the

had

Rome

The

and

by
formality

had

the

this
of

the

facifitate

its

and

of

bolizing
sym-

centrality
fested
mani-

further

The

design.

balustrade, and
and

order
is

their

ments,
ele-

niches,

obvious

one

in

the

universe.

of

the

landmarks

architecture, so

small

symbolism.

mony
har-

infuse the visitor with

to

divine

Tempietto

Renaissance

Fontane

reading,

of

awareness

are

hieratic

and

church

is Francesco

of S. Carlo

alle

an

Just
of
Bor-

Quattro

of the great achievements

(Fig. 216) one
Borof seventeenth-century architecture.

Seventeenth-Century

Art

185

"

also

was

repetitivearchitectural

intended

was

or

site. This

ancestry

Church

steps, columns,

romini's

stillbears

ing
building,affirm-

authority

formal

be

exists

converge

celestial

ancient

an

and
to

than

significanceof the
plan, which

Leonardo,

to

dome

the

which

of the

center

heaven.

as

of columns
intended

courtyard

circles

It is

circular

centralized

indebted

of

Roman

surrounding pavement

cosmic

the

domical

crucifixion.

in plan, use
chapel was

concentric

radiate

The

upon

today, but

Peter's
ancient

small

within

inlaid

harnes-

Sixteenth-

like

seemed

comprehending
un-

painters of
the
fifteenth
detailed
Caravaggio
century,
surface evidence
provided by his subjects,
every
the contrastingcomplexions of the figures
from
the worm
holes
in the
fruit. Caravaggio
to
attached
mystical feehngs to the most
tangible
the Flemings, Caravaggio placed
items. Unlike
the
action
against a plain background and
table.
He
spotlighted only the figures and
involved
the viewer
more
intimately in the
scene
through the violent foreshorteningof the
of the fruit on
gestures and precarious balance
the near
edge of the table. The discipleat the
humility.

unlike

the

avoided

in

common

of his

knowledge

he

with

of

the

vaggio
Cara-

still-Hfe arrangement
of the table, which
the drama
of the moment.
Because

his

violent,
of

viewer:

direct

miraculous

The

is

other.

undermined

the

by

that

movements

each

the

the

as

were

sage
innkeeper. Caravaggio's mesfor the least sophissimple, intended
ticated

was

strong

mitigate

demonstrated
the expressivenessof
profileis capable.Often using models
taken
into his studio from
the street, the painter
forceful in painting rugged or
was
at his most
picturesque types and
most
disconcerting to
the public when
he attempted the head of Christ.
and it would
the
officials,
Many Church
seem
general public, found
Caravaggio's painting
and
vulgar or lacking in decorum
unnecessarily
He
impoverishing the holy personages.
was
criticized for painting distracting
objects,such

on

of the minds

reaction

darkened

of

would

has

which

blessing and breaking of the bread. Coupled

with
the
revealing gesture of Christ is the
clarifyingaction of the strong light that poetically
the

number

sing

be

not

Donato

Figure 215.

S. Pietro

1502.

in

Bramante.

The

Tempietto,

Montorio, Rome.

romini

and
ancient
man
RorejectedRenaissance
architectural vocabulary and grammar
and
equally resisted design such as Bramante's
based
human
on
proportion. The
curving
inflections of his faq^ade and
dramatic
jumps
scale of his columns

in the

of

light and

analysisand
As

create

v^ith Counter

mini

wanted

Bramante

dark

to

and

more

as

as

the

tion
recep-

reasoned

excitingvisual effect.

Reformation
dramatize
of his

well

discourage

painting,Borrothe Church.

Unhke

contemporaries
in architecture
such as Bernini, he integrated
sculpturewith architecture. Stronglyinfluenced
by Michelangelo, he gives his columns, walls,
and horizontal
dividing elements a sensual or
than
the predictsculpturalquality. Rather
ability
most

of Bramante's
the

own

design,Borromini

opts for

unexpected, such as breaking the

line or placinga convex
window

cornice
the
to

church
doorway. Borromini's
seems
pulls and pressures (thus responding

Purposes

of Art

Sixteenthfilled with
within

itself

interest

than

foundations

today. Side

the

seventeenth-centuryart was
nourished
art
religious
broader

even

before.

faith. Counter

religiousart

to

alle

Begun 1638;

Simple

secular

human

lines of over-all

development do not exist,and in each period

there are
divergent and contradictorystyles.
affluence,
recognitionof individuality,
Energy,
tions
great issues,and powerful patrons and instituall combined
for enormous
productivity,
in
in quahty as it was
which
was
as
uneven
stylesand viewpoints.Along with sincere and
of
passionatelyinspired personal statements

above
alive

and

S. Carlo

vitality,and

upper

undulating oval interior plan),unlike the more

In
structure.
passive dignified Renaissance
be
painting the comparable differences would
between
a
figureby Piero della Francesca and
one
by Caravaggio, or Raphael's vision of the
School of Athens and
Pozzo's explosiveheaven.
186

Francesco
Borromini.
Figure 216.
QiiattroFontane
(S.Carlino), Rome.
facade 1665-67.

Reformation
for

also

art

banal, insincere

which

afflicts too

by side with

the

many

continued

churches
gence
emer-

genius, bad rehgious

art
came
being on an unprecedented scale.
The means
for making a convincing representation
adorable
of a lovely pious Virgin and
henceforth
Christ child were
easilyavailable to
painterwho would trade on the sentiment
any
for
an
undiscriminating congregation and
of many
into

clergy.

artists of

the

laid

commercial

10

THE
IN

than

BAROQUE

in

the

Moreseventeenth-century
its

broadened

intimate
the

great

art

that

religiousart

about

middle

the

classes

countries

Building

daily living

from

domestic

such

folk

secular

ancient

subjects

that

dimensions

than

Renaissance

art.

discovered

most

the

outward
often

those

of the

Whereas

and
the

explored

in heroic

action

painter's knowledge
vivid
became

emotions

the

of

and

and

paramount.

human

of

Baroque
concern

the
The

or

caught

men

serious

or

had

actual

the

tive
contemplaperiod
for

workings
full

the

of

range

the

of

his

in

the

of

rituals
bank

of

daily life

house

Partisanship
motivation

for

and
or

painting
of

tolerance
and

it

pass

secular

the

their

that

political
itself

home

of
way

days.

ritual

the

concerns

the

the
was

affirmation

religious and

in

the

in

moments

eschews

nevertheless,

of

this

depict

curiosity about

of

daily

types

beyond
to

genre

humanity

part

of

occurrences,

goes

toward

form

art

much

imagery,
the

this

with

unique

and

of

of

stream

common

growing

large segments
so

the
deals

painter

optimism

notion

favor

in

portraiture

earthly existence,

was

of

chooses

or

of the

core

relinquishing

it

types of

categorization,

moment

part

are

upon

Although

the

the

subjects. Early

basic

At

is

Generally,

participants

the

sing
expres-

that

but
frequently
typification into

life of

of

for

religious art, allegory,

historical

involved

based

into

painting.

or

persons

enlivening

consequences

strict

resists

painting

existence.

art,

figures in

Renaissance

render

appearance

The
called

are

more

imposing

the
to

means

attitudes, during

mind

but

social

what

historical

activities

lectual
intel-

fifteenth-

painting.
overlap

genre

tion
realiza-

to

in

and

important

painting

secular

conduct.

given

were

of

it may

of

irreverent, sexual, vulgar, comical,

paintings

form
Genre

and

closer
than

focus

new

activityhad

human

for

much

came

This

art.

century

the

ART

seventeenth-century

chmactic

literature

traditions, business, and

in

art, the

customary

passive aspects of human

to
people chosen
populate

ideal

Catholic
Holland.

important

more

as

and

animation

human

and

peasant

Roman

and

"genre"

and
with

artist

Protestant

derived
the

from

life, in

unethical,

of the

in the

in

as

century

sources

also

varied

in this century,

sixteenth-century

only

not

painting

curiosity of

increased

upon

seventeenth

centuries,

European

produced
the

to

well

as

preceding
include

to

SECULAR

subjects. Simultaneously

responded

patron

art

base

secular

TABLE

with

and

tavern,

was

not

brothel.

social

conscience

depicting

peasant
187

life.

the

The

tragediesof

misery, oppression,and
or

into

way

or

did

the peasants
find their

not

Genre

seventeenth-century art.

affirmed

quiet

be

to

for

Favored

themes

distinctions.

of

diversion, local
which

revery,

did

social order

art

democratic,

class

those

were

classes

intended

not

was

middle

lower

the

it

class customs,

or

the

threaten

not

provided the upper

classes with vicarious
experiences.The middle
class as well as the aristocracybought this type
The
relative
of art.
politicaland
religious
and
the
security enjoyed by the monarchs
in Europe during the
Church
Roman
Catholic
seventeenth
was
responsible for a
century
the
relaxation
of demands
on
painter.Roman
the
Catholic
countries
witnessed
phenomenon
official work
for the
of painters doing both
Church
and
the courts
and
painting for
genre
well as the laity.
as
prominent churchmen
into
In Holland, specialization
came
being
artists painted
during this century, so that most
only landscapes, portraits,still lifes,or genre
their success
with
the
art, depending upon
established

market.

Genre

art, which

denoted
material

that

Baroque
the

midcentury

sioned,
rarely commis-

was

the double

insecurity
the

during

but

edge

of freedom

accrued

period.

market

the

to

In

artist

Holland,

overloaded,

was

forced to take on
additional
painterswere
or
give up painting altogether.
While
we

there

admire

art,

is much

today

the

in

of

esthetic

in this

in its time

art

value

seventeenth-century

general public who

and

by
and

jobs
that

genre

bought or speculated
guided primarily

was

and
appearance
Genre
connoisseurs.

by fidelityto

be

cannot

sidered
con-

not
as
painting was
official
by religiousand
entirelyuninfluenced
artist did have
painting, but the genre
great
license in making his paintings.The
format
of
is usually smaller
than
that of the
art
genre
the
or
grandiose paintingsdone for the Church

royal
modest

scale

intimacy
figuresto
upon

It

courts.

of
the

of

was

the

for

intended
home

and

the

for

more

greater

viewing. The
proximity of the
picture'ssurface and the emphasis

costumes,

accessories, locale,

and

facial

expressionor gesture compelled a close reading

and quiet contemplation.
An
objectfrequentlyfound in Baroque genre
painting as a compositional and social catalystis
the
the table. In religiousart
table, though
hold
the books
used occasionally
of a Church
to
scholar or the devotional
objectsof a saint,was
188

Purposes

of

Art

widely identified

most

Last

did
of

Supper

and

the table

serve

with

Christ
as

the

Not

settingfor the

of

themes

Emmaus.

at

the

only

enactment

important sacred drama, but Renaissance

it
utilized
as
a
means
painters also
linking the historical past with contemporary

of

social

customs,

as

In

genre

painting

the

locus

of

an

gather

various
well

as

with

art,

its

contributed
form
Such

of

table

noted

earlier.

became

occasions

the

natural

for

which
people
Genre
activity.
life,
everyday human

for individual

as

fidelityto

''

evolution

the

to

painting best
occasion

an

have

we

of

tive
broadly imita-

defined
the

where

as

naturalism.

table

serves

as

meeting place for a segment of the community

is the wedding feast, as presented in a painting
artist Pieter Bruegel (PI. 22).
by the Flemish
the first,Bruegel was
the most
not
Though
/
giftedgenre painter of his century in depicting
the daily life of the Flemish
little
peasants. The
available
biographical material indicates that
he

himself

not

was

whose

admired

of the

elite of his

intellectual

but

peasant

highly, educated
were
bought and

townsman,

rather

paintings

by kings and many

day. A humanist,

of recording
Bruegel regarded his art as a means
his study of man,
in terms
of ancient writers
not
and philosophersor the coordinate
system of the
Church, but in the lightof advanced
rary
contempoand
his own
secular
theories
empirical
experience.Bruegel's art reflects his astuteness
as
an
observer, not criticism of nor
compassion
for the
the
an

He

peasantry.

symbol of a
unreasoning
forces

to

peasants

natural

"

and

the

peasant

not

as

wisdom

but

as

mitted
passively sub-

who

creature

himself

than

greater

in

always involved

are

activity
customs,

the

saw

basic

dominant

The
tary
heredi-

some

in their

note

work,

traditions.

Bruegel's figures are

by simple,uncomplicated drives and

motivated
enact

their

great

vigor if

existence
not

automatically,
with

great

often

cheer.

in his paintings.)
are
rare
Biblical
Bruegel'ssubjects,whether
share
the phenomenon
of recurrence,

with

(Smiling

peasants

artist had
constants

sought and
in life.Not

set

content

down

with

or

certain

as

genre,
if the
eternal

social reportage,

of lucid analysis
to art a gift
storytellingthat elevates his
to
Peasant
Wedding from a prosaic event
good
theater.
The
earth
was
Bruegel's stage and
it his characters.
In this painting
those upon
after the
harvest.
the set is a grain-filled
barn

Bruegel brought

and

genius

for

of

overflow

An

guests

to

comes

celebrate

the

personalharvest of the farmer's daughter, who

sits both coyly and smugly beneath
a
symbolic
crown

hung

stacks

and

on

the

associated,as

symbol

bride

the

groom

and

groom,

but

historians
of

the

full

grain

the

literary

Gilbert

"

and

between

the contrast

the bride's brother

ling
fil-

jug at the leftand the littlegirlcleaningher

plate.The activityof the former figurerecalls
Christ's changing of the water
into wine at the
Marriage of Cana. In fact,the diagonal composition
of the long table and triangulargrouping
in the left foreground can
be found in sixteenthseen
century paintingsof the Last Supper, as was
in the paintingby Tintoretto
(Fig.202). These
objectsalso assist in maintaining the viewer's
detachment
from the action. The ample figures
hard edged in their firm outlines,so that
are
the pile of round
jugs in the basket invites
ironic comparison with
the peasants who
an
emptied them and with the piled-upfiguresin
the doorway at the upper
left who
also wait to
a

be filled.

painting in the
sociology of the
table introduced
themes
involving satisfaction
In particular,
of the senses.
paintersand their
of the
audiences
delighted in the concerns
mouth, the appetitefor food and beverage, and
the gratification
of the
palate. Eating and
and Baroque
to life,
drinking are fundamental
of table manners
all forms
paintersrecorded
and
and
with a
dietary preference,in a way
by the photographic
gusto that is unmatched
The

broad

seventeenth

secularization

century

illustrations in

to

as

The
portrait.)

are

him
in
the
Highet found
dark-clad, intoxicated figurein the center, just
to the left of the rear
figureholding the door
being used as a servingtray. The ill-mannered
and his glaringparents seated opposite
groom
are
wealthy townspeople,and as Highet points
our
out, Bruegel encourages
speculationson
life of
both the wedding night and the married
dence
the bridal couple
though the painting'sevimakes
the future quite clear.
in the nuptialdrama
A few of the subthemes
the friar's earnest
are
pleasfor subsidyfrom the
obdurate
landlord at the far right,
who
seems
to
enjoy the occasion less than does his dog; the
longing gaze of the bagpiper at the distant food ;

historian

is debate

whether

or

not

this is

self-

wine

god'sattributes aflbrded the

objectsof a still-lifestudy,just as

painter the
meaningfully
the fertility the
model's
features lent themselves
to
traiture
porsheaves
rather
than
Classical
idealization.
hanging before his
unable
on
to
were
(This type of painting is called a "portrait
agree

ripe

are

identification

cloth. The

green

of the crossed

Art

eyes.

Caravaggio painted a well-fed, contemplative

boy in the guise of Bacchus
(Fig.217). (There

and

modern

of

its

cookbook.

The

young

situation.")As was evident in his

(PI. 21), Caravaggio was

later

Emmaus

Christ at

taken

with

the

of half-lengthfigures,which
possibilities
the
forced
viewer's
focus
the subject.
upon
Along with being a catalogue of the effects of
varied
light upon
textures, the painting is a

study in
the

types of balance, from

many

elegant glass is

fruit and

held

to

the

the

way

of
disposition

the
wine
carafe on
table, and
languorous positionof the semirecliningbody. Curiously,the most immediate
even

in

the

the

and

seeminglystable shape is that of the glasssupported

by three fingers which would suggest an
unusually sober
god of the grape. Later in
"

the
in

seventeenth

century,

extravagant

the

ways
caused

imbalance

Caravaggio
believe

avoided

by
in

artists

alcohol,
his

to

were

stronger

show

eiTects and
tone

restrained

that

make-

Bacchus.

Figure 217.

Caravaggio

Merisi). Bacchus,
Uffizi, Florence.

c.

(Michelangelo
1590.

Oil, 381/2"

33 y2".

Carracci.
Annibale
The
Figure 218.
c.
1585. Oil on canvas, 22 3 g" " 26%".
Galleria Colonna, Rome.

Above:
Bean

Eater,

Below:
and

Figure

the Peasant

6'3y2"'
Brussels.

6'8".

219.

Jacob

The

Jordaens.

Family,c. 1612-18.
Musees
Royaux

Oil
des

on

Satyr

canvas,

Beaux-Arts,

of

contemporary

Caravaggio, Annibale
in

Carracci, for the first time

paintingon

history centered

eating(Fig.218); a rugged

man

with beans
peasant fillshis mouth
anonymous
while clutchinga roll. The
great polarityof

Baroque paintingis shown by Domenichino's

depictionof St. Jerome receivingthe Eucharistic wafer
eats

Carracci's Bean

and

Eater. The

former

partakeof

to

future

Christ's body and so ensure

his
heaven, while the latter figure is

in

concerned

with

staying alive.
mouth

both

with

satisfyinghis
association

The

sacred

and

stomach
of the

human

secular rituals has

and

interestingmythological analogy in a
paintingby the Flemish artist Jacob Jordaens,
an

who

shows

satyr

at

table with

family (Fig.219).Jordaens

was

peasant

a
illustrating

fable of Aesop in which peasants who had given

shelter to a cold and hungry satyr invited him
the man
tabic. The
blowing
satyr saw
told this was
to warm
his hands, and was
his
them
the peasant blow on
; then he watched
to

their

on

soup, and

was

told this was

to

thereuponleft the table,for

those

who

blow

hot

and

cool it.The

he

cold

satyr

wiselydistrusted
with

the

same

Jordaens enjoyed painting the heavy

their bare feet.
to
peasant types right down
breath.

Jacob Jordaens.
Royaux des Beaux-Arts,

Figure

220.

Musees

In

this

had

to

instance, the

rendering of flesh.
In Jordaens' The
occasion, which
is the

feast

King

of

the

Drinks.

1638. Oil

on

the

proverb

artist's succulent

King

Drinks

from

(Fig.220),

Flemish

celebrating the

9'4%"-

day

of

the

folklore,

Epiphany,

Madonna

the

only angels or
as
a
sign of
laughter in

comes

8'7 %"

canvas,

Brussels.

wisdom

with

compete

The

divine

smiled
The

grace.

The

King Drinks and

Baroque paintingsis alcohol, and
is

mood
become

one

the

The

of abandon.

settingfor

an

orgy

mythical figuressuch as satyrs

might be shown
having a riotous

lucky

such

draw

the tickets
among
His
reigning monarch.

at

the

comes
table, be-

drinking signals

To
relative
he
each
explosion of festivity.
the
title for his "court"
assigned a mock
"Singer," the "Cock," the "Doctor," and the
"Spinster."Jordaens epitomizes that aspect of
Baroque art which dehghted in situations where
an

has

the
and

such

"

individual, consciously
abandoned
as

raucous,

this,the

himself

to

seventeenth

or

not,

lost control

feeling.In paintings
century

laughing figures; before

introduces
this

time.
The

Renaissance

the

ancient

and

wood, but with

themes

were

the

the

dominant

of the

sixteenth

has

senses.

century,

and

nymphs
picnic in an

seventeenth

the

for
other

many

family table

for
the
entire
clan
assembles
during which
feastingand drinking.Shortly before Epiphany,
sold in Antwerp. The
old
"King's tickets" were
in Jordaens' painting, having made
the
man

In

decorously

stimulant

century

brought directlyinto

home

or

tavern.

Both

in form

concerned

with

and
the

content,
five

this

senses.

is

The

painting
figures

or
respond to noise, catch the eye with
exaggerated or grotesque
expressions,fondle
a
variety of odors,
objects sensuously, inhale
and
and
taste
savor
a
staggering array of food
this painting is also a
and
drink.
In a way,
study of cycles, distinguishing the flesh of
of
and
old, presenting a broad
range
young

make

Table

in

Baroque

Secular

Art

191

Above

matter.

the

"king" are the words,

to a friendly
table."

ject
"It is sweet

Such

be admitted

to

written

proverb

Brouwer's

The

above

Adriaen

Smokers

stitute
(Fig.221) would confine irony.A Flemish
a
painteractive in
Holland, Brouwer
was
preoccupied with the

boisterous lifearound

the tavern

table. His small

paintings catalogue drinking bouts, brawls,

cooking, eating,gossiping,gambling, toothpulling,and painfuloperationson feet and, in
one

instance,on

his

to

be

artists rather

fellow

Daringly,he
types with

mouths,
notions

devoted

bulbous

to

done

in

from anticipation
to satiation,and
expressions
on.
Jordaens displaysgreat virtuosityin
of ways
demonstratingthe number
people may
be portrayed with their mouths
Faces
open.
have a great mobility,which
at times borders
caricature.
The
artist's insight into the
on
ritual

rather

than

spontaneous

character

the

reserves

1630s, is

and

the

ethic

practicaljokes,withstand
a

drink

damn

face

own

of
personal avowal
of being oneself.

artist

can

in his

The Smokers,probably

take

and

for whoever

smoke

looks

with

the best,

pain, and not

at his painting.

theories
Naturally disdainful of contemporary
on
compositionand drawing, Brouwer sketched
coarsely,but his characters and his painting
the disorder of a tavern
convey
atmosphere,
with
its stale smells and
The
murky lighting.
paint is applied ruggedly and with gusto, the
technique also affirminghis distaste for the
His strokes and
effeminate
and precioiis.
tones
convincinglyrender the garments and flesh that
belong to those poor in purse but rich in their
enjoyment of earthly pleasures.

MORALIZINQ

of the

in the forced quality of

jeeringexpressions.
The
paintingitselfis an assault on the senses
and
of the
viewer.
tastes
Strongly flavored
with reds, blues, and
yellows,its silhouettes
back and forth and defyequilito weave
seem
brium.
The
dark jacket and
relative stabihty
of the musician
standing to the "king's"left
foil and
as
serves
anchorage for the agitated
costumes
and
flesh of the
goings on. The
are
figures
paintedso as to stress their appeal to
the touch
well as to the eye. Depicting a
as
at
hilarious and vulgar,the artist
scene
once
event

some

deterioration

The

give

so

and

alcohol. Brouwer's

manliness

Adriaen
Brouvver.
The
Smokers.
Figure 221.
18 Vg" x
c.
1630. Oil on
canvas,
14%". The
of Art, New
York
Metropolitan Museum
(The
Michael
Friedsam
Collection).

paintingsto gross
and gaping
noses

of exalted

discoloration
due

entire
inflamed

sleepingdrunks with deluded

His self-portraits
status.
show

to

or

back. His sittersappear

than
peasants.

own

AND

is manifested

ALLEQORY

of the

good

painting,for

taste

color

192

for the
and

actual

mechanics

design rather

Purposes of

Art

than

of
sub-

From

in the

Holland
the morbid

came

early seventeenth

association of food with

In
vanity or life'sbrevity.

century
human

largepaintingof

an

interruptedbanquet attributed to the French

Clerc
artist Jean Le
(Fig. 222), a skeleton
dramatically intrudes, implying the second
and more
obvious meaning of the memento
mart.
to permit
feared a death too sudden
(Catholics
the

last

rites.)The

highlightingof
rightsuggest that
supper

Death

and

the

festive
man

costumes

and

woman

and

the

to

the

this may
have been a marriage
that it is the bridegroom whom

calls. The

painterpullsout

all dramatic

stops in contrastingthe
the revelers to Death's
terror

or

awe,

the

sybaritic guests

registerdismay
The
interruption.

to

seem

meal's

of the

and

unmistakably place
Caravaggio'sfollowing.
To

the

understand

flowers,and

at

of

the

meaning

table

on

of
which

Marten
Vos
de
(1532-1603).
Figure 223.
SanguineTemperament.Engraving, 7 y.^" x 8 1/2".

Below:

The

lightand

artist

Mori.
Figui'e222.
Jean le Clerc. Memento
3'iiy2'"^ 5'8 Vi "" The
1615-20. Oil on
canvas,
Orleans
of Art, New
Isaac Delgado Museum
(Gift
of Mrs. William
Helis, Sr.).

Above:

the

stagey character

extremes

shadow

left

the

at

of

than

displeasureat

broad

the

gestures and

couple seated

reactions

vehement

apparition.Rather

collection.

Private

among

handsome
are

books,

fruit

requiresknowing that Marten

de Vos was
of the four humors,
one
interpreting
in the past were
which
thought to characterize
human
physiology and explain temperament.
The
four humors
fluids that mingled in
or
blood,
varying proportions in the body were
phlegm, and yellow and black bile, and the
another
led
or
to
a
preponderance of one
personality that was
sanguine, phlegmatic,
choleric,or melancholy. De Vos did drawings
of which
that on
for a series of four prints,
the
is illustrated (Fig.223).
sanguine temperament
How

well the artist embodied

of this type

can

be

seen

in

the characteristics
the fact that

those

having a largeproportionof blood were

thought
to be well knit in body, ruddy of complexion,
The

Table

in

Baroque

Secular

Art

193

his

shows

the
wife's piety. Unlike
painting of St.
Eligiusby Petrus Christus (Fig.142), in which
in
secular objectshelp identifya holy man,
Massys' work a holy book is the piousattribute

of

of

talents of all
sociable,generous, and possessing
They were
supposed to have a
descriptions.
for wine, good food, and love. De Vos
weakness

dancing, feats of archery,and episodes

courtshipin the background, while the two
in the foregroundare shown as gentle,
principals
thoughtfulpeople of discriminatingtaste and
intellectual interest. Enjoyment of music signified
Such
harmonious
nature.
a
healthy solid
types

conceived

as

influence

strong

printswere
in

not

Vos

De

by

Rubens'

on

framed

and

were

BUSINESS

Secular
table
and

go
one

AT

paintingsof
back
of the

to

(Incidentally,
glassas
originally
kept in

set

THE

genre

the

bear

art.

under

they were
practice;
taken
out
folios and
by their owners
of quiet and intimate perusalas
esthetic enjoyment.)
current

to

for

ments
mo-

well

as

TABLE

subjects
involvingthe

early sixteenth

century,
the
earliest of these introduces

of business. In A Money Changerand His

Wife (Fig.224), the Flemish painterQuentin
Massys showed the couplereceivinga call from

cUent,who

is visible in the small

convex

mirror

paintingserved as a double
and
portraithonoring the husband's profession
on

businessman's

the table. The

her

(Matsys, Metsys).
Figure 224.
Qlientin Massys
Money Changerand His Wife. 15 14. Oil, 28" " 27".
Louvre,

Paris.

possible

attention

tween
be-

"

to
certifythe honesty of their business.
the convex
figurative
glassreflects
sense,
deUght of the Flemish paintersin mirroring

was

"

In

the
the

actual

allowed

Its

curved

surface

that

simulatinggreater
the couple actually
which
printssuch as this found

in

Paintingsand
Rome

to

small

de force of

tour

than

space

sits.

world.

the

and

known

were

Cara-

to

vaggio,who probably was

stronglyinfluenced
by their format and crisp,lifelikestyle.
in
the
The
table appears
Spanish artist
Diego Velazquez' Water Seller of Seville (PI.23)
as
an
adjunct to business,furnishinga base for
water
earthenware
an
jug.A painterof Spanish
royalty,Velazquez did not spare his brilhant
named
El
talent in portrayinga street vendor
Corzo,

his

clients,and
young
his trade. The mundane

objectsof

has been

water
an

almost

solemnized

sacramental

event,
had

of the Eucharist

in mind.

of the noise and

of
jostling

the

vendor

glass seem
union.

Both

and
share

to

in

the

modest

of

act

selling

by the painterinto

improbable that Velazquez

drinkingis in shadow,
A

The

spouse.

dividing her

the prayer
book and the scales
a touch
that might at first glance seem
purely sardonic

their way

theme

the

of
significance

There
the

and

it is

the

sacrament

is no

not

intimation

streets.

The

boy

while in strong illumination

another
boy receivinga

silentlyin
and

meditative

in form

Velazquez
changed small coin into gold.The strongly
individual
qualitiesof El Corzo, the youth
holding the glass(containinga figto keep the
the jugs rise above
water
fresh),and even
and are
typicality
impressed on the memory.
content

has

The

stilltractable

with

the traces

older
rests.

and

man

There

is

face of the

of hard
the

large objectsand
close to

jug

overt

no

the

use

in

upon

attempt

youth
the

which
at

contrasts

face of the
his hand

pathos. The

three-quarterfigures,presented
viewer, have

restrained

dignityand give a powerfulaffirmation of their

worth.
Immobility adds to their eloquence.
The effect is obtained through a formal closure
of shapes,holding the eye within the frame.
A rough ovular form
is created by the placement
and
linkage of the largejug with the
shadow

of the smaller and

the hand

of the

man.

the

small

jug's tangency with

the boy's right arm

the glass and

head

those of the other

and

the smock's
the
at

largejug and
the right.A

cotta,

large

white,

anchors
few

tones

deft

boy's wrist,
leading to the
and
then
figures,
the eye

returns

the oval
"

flesh color

and

with

areas

two

which

curvature,

the

"

to

to

the frame

chiefly grey, terra

are
applied over
reserved

nuance;

for the

glass and

the jug are

on
droplets of moisture
the most
brilliant
The
lucid lighting
highlights.
and the firm drawing of the forms
countered
are
in which
the
by the subtle painterly manner
pigment has been applied.
ancient
Although possessing an
history as a
introduced
not
was
as
a
profession,prostitution
theme
for printmaking and
painting until the
sixteenth
century. Mary Magdalene had been
much
earlier
in religiouspaintings,but
shown
always as a penitent or closed in a convent.
A
The
Procuress that
is
as
painting known
not
probably, but
certainly, by Vermeer
is one
of many
done
artists
by Netherlandish
the theme
of commercial
love (Fig.225).
on
Unlike
the
on
predecessorswho often dwelled
and
madams,
ugliness of lechers, whores,
Vermeer
young
with
at the

shows

an

attractive
left smiles

of his mood,
viewer

well-dressed, handsome

two

clearly able

men

but

in

to

afford

their

The
professional.
direction

our

also

as

way

of

as

gay
an

pleasure
drinker

indication

welcoming

Figure
Oil

225.

on

Jan Vermeer( ?). The Procuress. 1656.

4'8 14 ^ 4'3 34 ". Gemaldegalerie,

canvas,

Dresden.

the

for Vermeer
accomplice. Unusual
of expressionsand
change
interrange
between
his subjects.
As was
frequently
done
artists,his placement of
by other Dutch
the richly patterned rug over
the table of the
foreground afforded
painterly enrichment.
Vermeer's
later paintings involving men
and
women
are
more
circumspect descriptionsof
restrained, sociallyacceptable courtship.
is the

as

an

involved

QAMES

AND
AT

MUSIC

TABLE

The

of
pastime of gaming, with its elements
and cheating,delightedan
age in which
so
high morality was
vigorouslychampioned by
the powerful force of the churches.
Although
the first card
not
painted in history (the
game
theme
had
entered
painting from the North
earlier in the sixteenth
century),Caravaggio's
Card Sharps (Fig.226) was
influential.
the most
chance

The

Figure

226.

Caravaggio

(Michelangelo

Sharps, c. 1593. Oil on

Collection,
3'3"X4'6". Formerly Sciarra
Merisi).

Table

in

Card

Baroque

Secular

Art

195

canvas,

Rome.

Hendrick

Figure 227.
Three

GHEN.

Men

Terbrug-

Playing

Dice.

1623. Oil on canvas,

33" x 44 Yg".
The
Minneapolis Institute of Arts,
Minnesota
(The Dunwoody Fund)
.

It survives only
copies but, like

in

photographs

so

Rome.
and

the

Despite
delineation

figures,this
from

paintingsimply extracted
dressed

Roman

eliminate

throw

the

serves

to

Artful

arrangement

is

locale

actors

into

of the

poses

in

so

bare

but

as

phases

one

to

ingenuity with
human
from

head

the

which

three

times

he

could

in close

render

the

proximity and

time
viewpoints, at the same
of the narrative.
strengtheningthe plausibility
in view
of the previous symbolism
Ironically,
of light,the profileof the card sharp at the
right is given fullest illumination. Unquestionably,
was
Caravaggio's interest in games
sonal,
perand as a result of a violent scoringdispute
in a tennis match, he fatally
stabbed
his partner

Purposes of

Art

painterwho
and

compositionaland
of

from

consciously took whole

ideas from Caravagstylistic
gio

Terbrugghen. It
paintersand art historians

artist "borrows"

from

historical evidence

no

in Rome

worked

who

Hendrick

was

one

conservatism

moral

Reformation.

1616

to

is

to

mism
euphesay

that

another, for there is

that

this

was

two-way

The

strongly centralized focus,

the intense concentration
of animated
figuresin
a
seemingly airless space, and the clear hard
lightthat Caravaggio made possiblefor painters
As lifelike
deeply appealed to the Dutchman.
as
Terbrugghen's Three Men PlayingDice (Fig.
arrangement.

227)
the

from

may

it is a reminder

seem,

that,throughout

historyof art, artists have painted pictures

other
picturesor, in other words, that art
from

comes

painters not

different

196

Counter

Dutch

A
1604

which

of the

toward

movement

of the

brilliant relief.
allows

the inconsistent

on

players,

character, are

which
to

groin. Despite his personal notoriety,

paintings were
sought after by both the
aristocracyand clergy.The Card Sharpswas, in
in itself a commentary
fact,purchased by a cardinal

deception and results in

from
picture'scenter
both
sides. Caravaggio's skill at showing a
diflPerent things at
once
doing two
person
deeply impressed his contemporaries. Within
the self-imposedrestrictions of depictinga few
from
close up,
seen
figures in a tight space
tell
that he could
Caravaggio demonstrated
a
good story with great vigor. One of many
challengeshe laid down for later artists was the
see

all

The

fanciful

the

his

"

not

was
scene

some

tavern.

of

costumes

againsta background
conjectureas

seen

to

in

works,

characterizations

acute

of the

contemporary

in

numerous

by foreign artists visiting

definitelyseen

was

and

of his other

many

life and

Seventeenth-century

art.

only studied

of their models

the

faces and

but also looked

to

ments
move-

notable

of
Caravaggio for means
expressive gestures,
effective
lighting, and
placement of halflimited
a
rectangular
length figures within
merit
of any
The
area.
synthesislies
pictorial

painters such

as

achieving firm

in

the

extent

volumes,

to

which

integratewith

an

his

artist
own

can

what

trusively
unobhe

has

Figure 228.

Georges

The

Cheat,

Tour.
Oil

on

canvas,

stolen,and

that he
impress his audience
his predecessor,
for instance,
by making better use of modeling under clear
lightor in contrasting the expressiveproperties
of hands
and faces. Caravaggio'sgreat reputation
resides not
of his
only in the fertility

has

ideas

thus

beyond

gone

but

also in how

with

this is

and

inventive
when

to

appear
of those who
had

most

improve

to

fresh

continue

conceptions

the

them.

upon

On

the opportunity

hand,

when

color

sensuous

than
the

case

and

its Italian

relation

same

fuller and

the

to

firmer

it nonetheless

source,

Card

surfaces
stands

Sharpsas

in

nizer
colo-

pioneer.
(Fig.228),painted by the French
artist Georges de la Tour
about
1630, the table
is again the settingfor intrigue,deceit, and
to

In

The Cheat

downfall.
a

stay in

the
to

La

Tour's

idea.
pictorial
the

use

Rome, where

Roman

the

sacrament

have

followed

encountered

The

subjectmay
Prodigal Son,

story of the

the

of this theme

he may

CathoHc

authorities

of penance

in

be related
favored

support

against the

by
of

tants.
Protes-

Both
the paintingand
the card game
are
highly contrived. The players are outfitted in

what

for

The

deck

such

way

the

time

outlandish

were

is stacked
that if the

againstthe
aces

don't

young

courtesan

at

affected

an

the

air

nonchalance,

unsuspectingyouth

his cards

the

wily opponent

in

ace

as

his belt. The

sufficient to
have

tell the
a

suave

and

eyes

Paris.

table will. The

of

the

to

look

reaches

for

hands

alone

story. All the hand

boneless ease
that

at
an
are

ments
moveserves

the

deceptionand also to tie the figures

The
togethervisually.
shadowing of the cheat's
face recalls that of Judas in earlier versions of
the Last Supper. This dark deed, however, is
performed in daylight,which coolly illuminates
enact

the

firm, smooth

sparkle of

the

Earlier

have

volumes

of the

bodies

and

the

airless
shiny accessories. The
makes
milieu
of
clarity
possiblea meticulous
detail in presentingtypes who
themselves
seem
all surface and
no
depth.
often
passed on
Caravaggio's influence was
through Italian followers,who in turn taught
Valentin
de
painterssuch as the Frenchman
BouUogne. Such genre paintingsas his Soldiers
and Bohemians
(PI.24) are important historically
because
the growing separationof
they show
painting not only from religioussymbolism
but also from
secular allegoryor
moralizing.
used
as

we

in
in

Ghirlandaio's

in

ancient

how

seen

Adoration

Valentin

fragment

for

century,

musical

an

ruins

were

Christian

conjunction with

(Fig. 168). Here

costumes.
man

the

has

encouraging

to

Caravaggio'swork is
matched
with that of his own
though
Alpredecessors.
Terbrugghen's effort produced a good,
vivid paintinghaving perhaps more
vibrant and
not

and

cheat

his
pared
com-

the other

wine

uses

inn

subjects,
of the Shepherds

Roman

table.

In

instruments

tectural
archithe sixteenth
often

symbolized Christian virtues,godhke attributes,

get his money.

The

Table

in

Baroque

Secular

Art

197

la

1630.
3'5%" x

Collection

4'iiy2".

Landry,

de
c.

Pierre

intellectual

or

work

they

instead

the

social

pleasure for low

picking incident

in

poetic gifts,but

and

are

was

this
of

means

types. The
left

the

at

natural

pocketof

one

the

of

ordinary hazards

frequentingpublic inns.
the powerfulconcentration
of CaravagWithout
has disposed his
gio's Card Sharps,Valentin
the
casually in depth around
figuresmore
The color
set on
a diagonal.
table, which is now
is comparably softened,with a simple triad of
reds,yellows,and blues played off harmoniously
another
and
against the colder
against one
and

greys

the dark

browns

of the costumes

and

in what
is a more
setting,
painterlystylethan
that
of Caravaggio. Instead
of strivingto

illusion of actual

the

create

textures, Valentin

and weight of his brush

adapts the movement
and pigment to suggest a change of surfaces and
stuffs the hard sheen of metal, for example.
The relaxed mood
of the entire paintingarises
from the effortless way
that each figuretwists
in a
different direction,turning in and
out
in a more
of the light,
orbit
free to move
generous
than Caravaggio provided his gamblers. The
"

device

common

of

the

interlocutor

between

theme

of the

figurewho

ProdigalSon,

identified with

the

sitsin the center

the woman
assisting
with her cards. (The music of the harp would
have
contributed
his seduction.)But
the
to
theme
of cavaliers and courtesans
making love,
enjoying music, or gaming at a table was
already widespread before this print. Callot
at
sets the scene
night,so that the playersare
seen
by candlelight.
Engraving lent itself to
between
brilliant illumination
abrupt contrasts
and
and
darkness, as well as to silhouetting
incisive modeling.Rather than usingflat blacks,
Callot

crosshatched

the

dark

areas

that

so

they vibrate against the white patches. A

superb draftsman and printmaker,whose work
is all of small size,Callot is an
example of a
trulymajor artist who did not make his reputation
His talent was
as
a
not
painteror sculptor.
of the human
as a subtle analyst
face,for he was
interested in the psychologyof gesture and
more
Characterization

costume.

entire

clothed

derived

figure and

the

from

the
of

movement

all itsjoints.

The
table,a natural place for the family to
situation.
assemble, was often used for a portrait

still
familyportraits
utilizing
done
was
by the Flemish
in our
artist Maerten
Heemskerck
his shoulder
at
van
over
(Fig. 230).
The
consciously
is made
less obvious by castingmuch
family is rather selfdirection)
prosperous-looking
of the face in shadow
and givinggreater promarranged, with the figuresposed
inence
the foreshortened
unlike the clear separation
of objects
the
not
blue sleeve. Less
to
on
eated
table,and their silhouettes are sharply delintightlycomposed than Caravaggio's scenes,
not
Valentin's
relaxed
a
againstthe sky.Outdoor
eatingwas
compositionsintroduced
air into French
altogetherunusual in the Netherlands, as can
painting.
The indistinguishability
of genre and religious be seen
by Jan Steen's painting in the next
the viewer

the

and

the action that

fifteenth century
the left who
looks

themes
in

(here

of the seventeenth
a

Jacques

Callot

entitled

scholars

see

in

the

soldier

ted
century is demonstraThe
it

as

artist

the French

superb engravingby

229). Some

in

firstused

was

seen

Card
a

Players(Fig.

variation

on

the

One

of the earliest

fife and

the

table

century;

yet

van

contrived

air of

with
pose

of the naked

been

Figure

229.

1628.

Etching, QY2"

Museum

of

Jacques
Art, New

Callot.
'-"

York

The
The

Card

Players.

Metropolitan
(Dick Fund).

ii"-

natural

Heemskerck's

intended

and

child

child and

to
"

work

having been done in

backdrop painted in

an

recall

its mother

paintingsof

association

the

has

the

studio,

later. The
may

have

the Madonna

that would

not

be

impious in the kind of well-to-do and proper

family represented.Van Heemskerck, perhaps
ships
of the previouslack of easy interrelationaware
to
between
figuresin Flemish art, seems
with the graceful
have tried to infuse his work
movement

of

the

Italian

art

he

admired.

Although the result is a rather stilted synthesis,

the painter'sover-all richness of observation
keeps a certain compelling attraction.
The
table as identified with the unity and
in Louis
be seen
humiUty of the family can
Le Nain's Peasants at Supper(Fig.231), painted

Figure

230.

2,'ioYi"

Figure

231.

Louis

Le

Nain.

Maerten

van

4'7". Staatliche
Peasants

at

Heemskerck.
Family Portrait,
Kassel.
Kunstsammlungen,

Supper. 1645-48.

The

I'able

Oil

in

on

c.

1530.

Oil

on

panel,

canvas,

Baroque

Secular

Art

199

setting.The

objects, and
and

bodies

from

rebounds

hard

is

garments
gradients of shadow

and

the

surfaces. Le

he holds

the light
displaysand

refusal

involved

emotionally

to

become

with

aloof with

them

the

soft

way

Nain

elicitsa certain detachment,

deeply and
subjects;yet

reafity of

heightened by

the

obvious

respect.
Dutch
painter Jan Steen's The Inn
of the familiar
(Fig. 232) has more
casualness or disarrayof a family outing than
Seventeenththe two precedingfamilypaintings.
painting of the family stressed
century Dutch
mutual
good feelingand the enjoyment of food
and
congenial surroundings; any disquieting
and
like its
absent.
notes
are
Sociologically,
dining table, Steen's family is different from
The

Garden

of Heemskerck,
and
self-consciouslyconcerned

that

staid
views

Dutch
such
their

232.

canvas,

26%

The

Jan

Steen.

"s". Staatliche

22

Garden.

Inn

Oil

on

Berlin.

Museen,

1645

diversion.

1648. The

and

and

shares

and

board.

the

probity of

artificial mold,

posed.
like

corner,

him,

any

to

Le

air

with

Nain
and

the shadows

the

gaze

perhaps seeking

the

child

serves

tween
be-

rapport

and

in

the

in

lower

to
an

visual

volition

or

in

hut

is

official paintingof French

stressed the

royalty.
peasant'sreflective capacity

gracefulcomposure,

life of arduous

labor

rather
of

than

his

energetic
diversion. The
painting'sstrength lies largely
in the realization of the materiaUty of figures,
200

or

moments

Purposes

of Ait

at

"

for

of ways

painterof

the

"

was

era.

artists,influenced

Dutch

some

people can

that

Rembrandt

than

rather

table)

typicalDutch

greatlyby Caravaggio, the table signifiedthe

of
enactment
opportunity for melodramatic
Pieter dc
or
conduct,
perverse
satisfied his countrymen's middle-class

debauchery
Hooch
taste

and

neat

spontaneity.The
peasant

show

stabilizer for the

the

sit

sciously
con-

turned so
person is carefully
another figure,
eliminating

of decorum

had a
It may
be said that Steen, who
situations
for relaxed
postures and

impressivenumber

the

right

objects carefullydistributed
as

impressionof

shared

in

eye

While

one

foreground look

The

counterbalance

general

overt

no

that

after the

even

peasant, cast him

each
figure is very

composition.Each
as

disorder
or

in the

viewer, those
fire. Le
Nain,

the

extol the

near

is

figures:those

the

toward
into

and

during

There

meal.

evening

find

to

expect

so

(and this chapterhas already given a sampling of

means

family comes
together each day
the quietpleasuresof home,
hearth,
Absent
from the painting,however,

the noise,movement,

are

would

table is the

the

by which

not

with

social events, and

customs,
games,
of convivial surroundings for peaceful

creation

good
between

is

former

projecting a
Such
pleasant
public image for posterity.
of the family had strong appeal in the
art
market, widely supported by people
those portrayed.Such paintingflattered
as
pride in and increased their enjoyment of

national

Figure

the

by showing tables in settingsof propriety

His paintingsfrequently
quiet sociability.
tables in arbors, intimate
interiors around

which

who

play

bred

gentlemen

cards, imbibe

with

are
an

courtyards,

or

gathered wellhonest

discretion, or

of

game
converse

wittily with

de

Hooch's

the

Cradle

One
of
pleasant hostesses.
paintingsis The Mother at
(Fig.233). Here the table, although

off

to

the

the

care

and

finest

side, is identified with

and

of
vigilance

the home.

This

securityis measured
of the mother

to

set

domesticity,

the wife for the children

ideal of insulated,constant
out

not

the cradle

alone in the relation

but

also in the cool

geometricalrightnessand sun-warmed
of the rooms.
Everything is in

phere
atmos-

its correct

13

E
"

P"

"
c

C
o

CO

"
"
Q
"
m

s
w

Pi

Plate

30.

Emperor

on

Horseback, leaf of the so-called Barberini

Louvre, Paris.
Ivory, isYs^ 10
"

Diptych (or Ivory),c. 500.

Plate

31.

Jean

Clouet.

Francis

I.

c.

1525-30.

Oil

on

panel, 37%

29". Louvre,

Paris.

Plate

32.

Anthony

van

Dyck.

Charles I.

c.

1635.Oil

on

canvas,

8'i i"

6'i

%"" Louvre, Paris.

Pieter

Left:Figure233.
The

Mother

Oil

on

Museum

at

Figure

FoNTAiNEBLEAU.
lette.

c.

1550.

fully
place to make up an ideal home and a beautithe dog has
arranged painting.Even
turned his body at a rightangle to the floor
tiles and

the

eye

toward

is tangent
both
the

windows

comes

into

mother.
not

the door

to

the

vestibule

Through
a

frame, taking
beyond and

the

suggestion of

door
the

and

sounds

and
sightsof Holland's political
anguish but
the reassuringheat of
only a dreamlike stillness,
the
and
the
sun
fragrance of well-tended
gardens.

THE
SELFWe

have

seen

TABLE

AND

PREOCCUPATION
how

in many

ways

sixteenth- and

into new
areas
seventeenth-century art moved
of life,
bedand eventually
paintinginvaded the room
tastes
developed for the intimate and
art showed
only the Virgin's
(Previously
bedroom
for the Annunciation
her death.)
or
A
known
mid-sixteenth-century
painting by an unartist working at the French
palace of
Fontainebleau, Lady at Her Toilette (Fig.234),
as

erotic.

39%"

Berlin.

234.

Lady
Oil
Musee

Arts, Dijon.

1659-60.

36%"

canvas,

Dahlem,

Below:

Hooch.

de

the Cradle.

School
at

Her

on

des

of

Toi-

canvas,
Beaux-

time, the
been

decoration

whether

reference

toward

the

flesh that

of later

well

in

as

in

restore

table.
of

third

in

to

his

art

elegant whitewashed

who

the

with

rooms

the

of the
corners

carefully
handsome

Vermeer's

exemplify

to

helped

theme
sunht

are

composure.

seem

shortly before

there

seventeenth

Vermeer

disposed tables,paintings,chairs,and
of calm

the

materials,
sex,

of the

Jan

decorum

Constants

women,

the

In

fine

toward

quarter

Holland,

women

unlike

under

preciosity.

quiet

Art

attitude

Rubens.

as

as

and

torso.

melt

to

attitude

the

the

Toward

naked

jewels and

upon

unmistakable

century

much

as

elegant

detached

was

for

moralizing

taste,

the

artists such

painter'sfocus
an

veiled

cool, even

have

know

not

presentation of nakedness,

sensuous

brush

do

of the

sensuousness

this had

as

the

is

style, influenced

restrained
such

there

objects and

undoubtedly

vanity.)Courtly

to

artistic

is

various

would

(For instance, we
explicit.

certain

as

the

of

meaning

mirror

the

disastrous

young

Dutch

culture

of the

wars

1670s,

seated
at
or
sturdy
standing near
tables, making lace, reading, writing,engaged

are

in

Figure
Gold.

c.

National
ner

Vermeer.

Jan

235.
1660.

Oil

on

Gallery of

Woman

Weighing
i"Yi" x 13%"- The
canvas,
Art, Washington, D.C. (Wide-

Collection).

shown

balance.
introduces

the

theme

of what

might

be

called

artists such
as
"self-preoccupation."Venetian
depicted similar mythological subjects,
for example, Venus
her
but in this
at
toilette,
it is certain that the nearly naked
case
woman
court.
was
readily identifiable at the French
Similar
done
of the mistresses of
paintingswere
French
so
kings, and these became
popular as
to be copied. The
is shown
before
woman
young
her dressingtable, with one
hand
touching her
necklace, the other holding a ring. (This double
descended
from
Greek
gesture
sculptures of
Titian

Venus
The

and

desire
of

from

action

Madonnas.)

preted
holding the ring has been intererotic sign or as her indication
of a
as
an
for marriage. As in Venetian
paintings

Venus

in

her

shown

in

mirror

reflects the

the

she
of

Renaissance

of

Venus.

was

In

202

bedroom,

background,

the

young

maidservant

and

woman's

here

face.

is

too

ceivably
Con-

being presented in the guise

sophisticatedsociety of the
Purposes

of Art

conversation

animated

with

military suitors,

admiring themselves, or sleeping. They arc

sion.
comforting images of sedentary feminine diverA Woman
Weighing Gold (Fig.235), painted
in the 1660s, juxtaposes a painting of the Last
with
the figure of a girlholding a
Judgment
Catholic

devout

convert,

Vermeer

given symbolic weight to the painting

in
and
the
to
its placement
relation
girl;
it is possible that the idea is of the religious
is faithfullyfulfilling
conscience
of the girl,who
the figure
her
She stands below
responsibility.
the Archangel
of Christ
in the position that
he weighed the souls
Michael
would
as
assume
have

may

of
the
an

the

resurrected.
of

Day
ironic

The

violence

with

contrast

of the

and

Judgment

the

and

stilled life in

(It is interestinghistoricallyto

room.

of

terror

painting make
the

see

altar
but
an
reUgious painting no longer over
hung in a privatehome.) Balance is not only the
theme
of the painting but the key to Vermeer's
compositional ideas. Not unsympathetically,the
like the other
is arranged in the setting,
woman
be
and the scale must
objects,so that her hand
behind
grasped along with the picture frame

them,
her
the

then

seen

left hand.

table

serves

in relation
The
to

to

the open

box

casually arranged cloth

draw

us

to

both

the

source

and
on

of

light and
formed

the girl.The
tangiblerigidarmature
by the right angle of the table against

and
the alignment of the woman
painting further, in some
measure,
its refusal
of the light and
movement
shaped into clearlydefined patterns. With

with

wall

the

the

restricted

very

Vermeer

able

was

of the

segment
reveal

to

the

ARTIST

Vermeer's

private life
paintings.Before

of his
suffered
for

financial

the

his

setbacks, and

1675

widow

he
filed

difficulty she
bankruptcy. With
great
in regainingpossession
of the painting
The
Artist in His
Studio
as
(PL 25),

succeeded
known

which

shows

what

to

appears

be

artist's

an

frequent genre
subject of the
time. A seated artist is painting a young
model
who
holds a book and trumpet, symbols of fame.
workshop,

In this

that

the table appears

it

in

that

the

the

its

independence.

is

not

drawn

drape, also, is

suggest

painting
studio

actual

an

of the

Holland

artist's elegant
suggesting that
The
halfself-portrait.
old device
an
by which
of

past

event.

The

Vermeer's

time, but it is a nostalgic

affluent and

in the

the

To

realize

this

itself

wishful

ideal,
image of an
the
Vermeer
totalityof his gifts as an
gave
artist. From
this painting, one
can
begin to
the
comprehend
imagination and
inspired
effort of the
much
went
artist,which
beyond
his amazing technical achievement
of simulating
The
fact
that
the
viewpoint,
appearances.
angle of light,and placement of objects were
all
before
brush
met
minutely calculated
canvas

does

not

detract

from

Vermeer's

creative

The

cities

and

the

in

with

blue

alternatingfloor
be
on

tiles.

the

the

chairs

the

drapery.

of

Against

random

seen

sparkle

and

the

lights
high-

The

drape
of

the

that

the

exactly matches

model's

dress;

contrasts

with

of the

but

horizontal

on

painting'scolors in less concentrated

exception of a small patch

all the

holds

hues,

minating
cul-

the sides of the map,

striping of the artist's

fabric

the

the

as

curves

Hapsburg eagles,the

these sequences
can
of upholstery nails

dense,

saturate

lead

to

us

ness
spaciousobUterate,

never

revelations

new

the

pattern

airy brightnessand

itself Shadows

room

rather

its

the

of

color

of

tones

at the
shapes. The composition is anchored
left by the half-lighteddrape seen
against the
brilfiant
most
lighton the wall behind it,and
of the
at the right by the judicious ahgnment
edge of the map, the chair, the right easel leg,

and

aid

of fame

The

art.

such

sequences,
chandelier

brass

black-and-white

blouse,

the artificial

nature

the

vignettesof Dutch

and

conditions

rhythmic

strong

ceilingbeams,

ideal working
artists a century
enjoyed by Dutch
before. The
painting of the studio model in the
have been an ironic personal
guise of Fame
may
statement
the
by the artist, skeptical about
future reception of his own
and
work
of
aware
more

moves

eye

The

century,

directlyabout

not

his ownlife

and

evocation

revelation

is thus

have

Netherlands

before

century,

is also of that

costume

Scholars

arts.

is of the

map

with

sketchbook, objects

the

wall

in connection

and

cast

sixteenth

achieved

this

are

symbolize

may

shown

to

room

On

art.

of

terms

several

only
world,

TABLE

his death

in

arranged

room

into the

tranquillity

be

poeticpotential

behed

the

"

in

visible

to

of hfe.

THE

word

painting slowly and logically

from
the large foreground shapes at the left to
the artist at the right,and
then to the model,
with each
area
clearlyapparent in its distance
from other objectsand the viewer. The
careful,
but not
of simple alignment
obvious, avoidance
of parallel edges or
right angles
by means
enriches
the visual
design and impels us to see
each
Contrasts
object in relation to another.
of each shape, yet do not
stress the idiosyncrasies
destroy the feehng of inner rapport between
the
are
everything within
painting. There

the

excellence, for these preliminary decisions were

in the fullest sense
of the
esthetic judgments

the

segmented

into

lead

tiles that

black

painting.Like the seated artist himself, the

the
is expected to weigh in his mind
viewer
the

rightness of each
luminosity, and

being.

In

the

of

manner

his world

light
Unhke

that
to

Table

he

detail

Vermeer

of the smallest

structed
recon-

ray

of

free
of the
compositions were
of religiousconvention,
well
could
as
bring to arrangement

demands

full and

unbounded

revelation

aspirations.
in

painting.

and

hierarchical

as

an

is

it fell.
which
fragment upon
of van
Eyck, however, Vermeer's

those

so

Eyck,

van

in terms

art

the

and

subjects

his

Vermeer's

of wrist

demonstration'

brilliant

into
is

artist

by the

held

steady his hand, and

to

stuffs,

of the

terms

object brought

of the

mahlstick

The

in

stroke
hue

Baroque

Secular

Art

203

of

11

REMBRANDT

Harmensz.

Rembrandt
Leiden

in

in

1669.

his

fourteenth

early
of

1632,

for three

four

had

1634

he

children,

died; only his

reached

maturity.
birth.

By

living

with

Rembrandt.

the

hardship

the

hands

of

makes
of

taken

in

all

Titus,

Her

and

actual

rigidly

Calvinist

Rembrandt's

the

theme

adultery
204

of
all

Christ
the

more

1641,

shortly

willingness
wife

society
"

and

to

at

the

recognized
social

She

and

that

receive

to

himself

He

to

worked

Titus.

for

In

1663

Rembrandt

1668

lost

of

to

the

He

paint.

should

by his refusal

to

middle

avoidance

This
of

and

how

was

an

buying
then

clients, and

painter

"un-Dutch"

or

the

of
ence
adher-

Dutch

comforts,
who

he

religion, flattery of

influential

to

class

life

canons

management,

specialize or

material
the

his

accepted

Calvinist

all, what

of

most

the

and

of

most

monetary

state

life, Rembrandt

artistic

For

none

conduct,

market.

woman

poignant.

in

and

convention.

fact

tions
interpreta-

him.

Hendrickje

potentially wealthy

was

brought

persecution

of

notion

life of terrible

devote

to

interested

died, and

years

satisfy his

continued

and

personal

his

after

Stoffels

repeated

In
defied

quently
subsein

firm

art

to

; two
to

Titus.

wealthy

succession

born

died

neglect, he

that

problems
Hendrickje

as

whom

of

and

popular

reduced

his

bankrupt

was

collection

the

to

then

was

objets
in

props

dispersed

was

commissions

good

and

art

orous
omniv-

other

as

Rembrandt

Contrary

Rembrandt

and

used

he

1657,

graphic

creditors.

the

dam,
Amster-

the

quick

painter's common-law

social

Lastman.

which

increasing
his

by

on

antiques

lost his house

his

poverty

half

success

married
In

and

for

to

Hendrickje

1649,

her

that

son

have

Saskia

Titus'

become

studied

artist,Pieter

Uylenburgh.

van

artist

permanently
to

the

eighteen, he

At

he

began

portrait painter. In
they

where

moved

he

where

Saskia

Leiden

years.

had

later

to

was

entered

for

of

many

paintings. By
and

and

Leiden,

he

1620,

well-known
he

of

literature

great
In

art.

Amsterdam,

with

year

About

time, Rembrandt

unimportant

an

there

to

short

to

(Tart,

through

difficulties,brought

appetite

boy

seventh

Rembrandt

with

who

the

sent

his

University

with

contact

remained

the

his later

studio

went

at

stayed
financial

miller

and

from

born

was

Amsterdam

in

prosperous

scholar

For

years.

influence

died

school

enrolled

was

be

Humanist

his

was

to

son

Rijn

van

and

1606

father

His

wanted
to

in

show

daily

controlled

public

artist
the

ritual

buyer's

puzzled

fashionable

making,
merry-

at

momentary

of
art

his

in favor of more
enduring notions of time
in his thoughtful figure
subject matter
evidence, it
documentary
paintings. From

views

in

and

instruct.

Rembrandt

that

appears

revolutionaryin
and

nature

rules
of

art

Rembrandt

at

was

he did not

because

art

academic

himself

considered

followed

and

his

edge
acknowl-

as

has

historian

one

stopped for a king.

personal freedom
from
with
affiliating
prevented Rembrandt
or
political
religion
party. Unlike
any orthodox
be
painters of his time, he cannot
many
or
cataloguedas a painterof portraits,
genre,
No
other
artist of his time
religious
subjects.
identified simultaneously
with the different
was
of painting,etching, and drawing. He
media
drew
freely from older art, literature,
history,
before his insatiable eye. Though he
and subjects
relied heavily.upon the written word for inspiration,
he distrusted writingabout
art, and the
manifests a displeasure
vast
corpus of his work
declared, he would not
His
lifelong quest

with
into

have

for

artistic theory. His varied

a

for the ties that

search

life as

historical continuum

humanity

bound

throughout history.Compelled to
subjectin his art, Rembrandt
every
for
lost sight of mankind
never
saw

entered

sources

individualize

men

from

and
cradle

With
grave.
life,travel was

his view

unnecessary,

and

Amsterdam

became

the microcosm

of

history.Rebel

to

that

for him
he

was

acceptedthe

in

of the

certain

In his

he

senses,

Rembrandt

emerged

to

"

the

on

and

etchingand

odor

All

nose.

absorbed

his

the

on

unusual

ness
thick-

which
portraits,
impasto so thick that

that

went

be

lifted

into

the

and

for

were
one

by the sitter's
of

making
the

art

cookery

of

printmakinghe concocted his own

earlybiographerswere
impressed

success

as

income

from

to

live well

in

rooms
upstairs

and

drawing from

many

pupils,whose

sales of their work

to

age of
tuition

teacher,for from the

he had

twenty-two
and

biographers
techniquesby which

of his oil

Rembrandt,

paintingand
The
recipes.
with

delight,and

move,

secret

built up with an
critic wrote
they could

buy

art.

The

him

allowed

students worked

of his

casts,

house,
largeAmsterdam
prints,and drawings and

often from

the naked
model.
Among his many
drawings are several on the subjectof the studio
his favorite lesson,which
(Fig.236), illustrating

was

from

work

to
a

from knowledge of
experienceof life. In
apprenticesthemselves
not

may

have

Such
been

asked

teaching with regard

relief by building from
shaded, recessive

rapid

figureswhose
notation

postures and
the

of

to copy,

sketch,

one

the

become

drawings, which

his

of

theories but

visual

the young
master's model.

continuity of all

role of the artist that had

Ages

Rembrandt's
lifetime,

own

enriched

somehow
its

Middle

commented

only the

choosing. When

own

work,

the

the

dents
stu-

exemplified

achieving strong
dark
trasting
to
light conto

"

with

areas

the

ness
light-

definition resulted from

directions

made

To
enhance
clothing.
the subjectalone

whole, which

by their
the unity of
could

not

Figure 236. Rembrandt.

Studio of the Artist, c. 1635.
and
wash,
Drawing, pen
SVg

9 '^". Louvre, Paris.

205

nominally Calvinist (a religionthat looked

disfavor on paintingsof religious
subjects),
in truth a privatereligionwithout
his was
ogy,
theolbut his paintings,drawings, and
prints

was

with

constituted

love

From

spiritualart.

Catholic

mother, Rembrandt

his Roman

had

derived

his

and

knowledge of the Bible, and

interpretationsof Biblical stories have
freshness

of personal discovery. The

The

produced
doubtless

Presentation

influenced

by the

kneels

with

the

parents before Anna,

The

arms.

small

Christ

and

most

light.The

the

impose shadows
frequent arbitrariness
how
essential was
imaginative intuition,
be taught,for
this irrational giftcould
not
of the pupils rivaled his tutor.
Although
his

over

shows

and
none

he

would

drawing.

learned

from

much

artists,Rembrandt's
personal style was
continuous
work,

his

studies

development
founded

the

in

which

yielded roughly 650

and 1400 drawings.
The

often

Their

in

of

of

other

highly

main

over

paintings,280

upon

fortyyears
etchings,

Temple (Fig.237)

respects typical of Rembrandt's

paintingsof religioussubjects.This is
should
be noted, religious
painting,for

early

many

not

intended

was

for

founder

use

of what

in

church.

might

paintingswere
for

home.

small

not, it
it was

Rembrandt

in format

intimate

private
painting.
and

tended
in-

contemplation in the
illustrate dogma
He did not
nor
gandize
propaorganized religion.
Though Rembrandt
206

Purposes

of Art

from

that

he

tenance."
coun-

could

die

Israel"

(Luke 2: 22-34).

Rembrandt

the

knew

the

chief

of Amsterdam
In

synagogues.

his

ardor

in

rabbis
and
to

had

the

visited

the

re-create

image of the Scriptures,he ignored the

his Dutch
archaeology of the Italians and
contemporaries and drew inspirationfrom his
immediate
surroundings.The small paintingis
true

filled with

of types, costumes,
observations
between
gestures, and poses, as well as contrast
the intense concentration
of the central group
the rather indifferent presence of bystanders
stairs to the right.
The figures
and architecture

and
on

the

so

viewer, too,
shadows.

disposedin depth
bystander off

The

darkened

by Rembrandt's
his

canvas

with

warm

to

as

one

areas

were

device

of

to

make

the

side in the
made

nous
lumi-

underpainting

bright colors and then

overpainting of
these high-keyed layers.

scratching through the darker

be called

(i.e.,nonecclesiastical) devotional
These

is in

Simeon

old

passage
light of their

knew

coming of the Messiah,

be looking beyond
of
to
the head
appears
Anna
mine
and saying, "O Lord.
eyes have
hast prepared
seen
Thy salvation,which Thou
before the face of all peoples; a lightof revelation
to the gentiles,
and a glory for Thy people

are

Presentation in the

by

the

with

peace

Jewish quarter
give, Rembrandt

his

faces of the

the
"just and devout"
stronglylit,recallingthe

Rembrandt.
The
Presentation in the
Figure 237.
i8%". Mauritshuis,
Temple.1631.Oil on panel, 24
The
Hague.

and

outstretched

is illuminated

group

is
Psalms, "God
Simeon, who

in

child

standingwith

strong shaft of natural

the

Temple was
Scriptures,particularly

frequent references to the symbolism

of light.Against the looming backdrop
eon
architecture,Simimpressivesynagogue

of the

are

style that

the

the

by

child

in

his
the

the

architecture

to

painting has a theatrical aspect,

with the principals
to
dramaticallysubordinated
of lightand
the great space and strident contrast
The

dark.

later

whole

The

faces

as

yet do

not

deep understanding of

reveal Rembrandt's
human

motivation.

What

we

is a drama

see

of

place rather

than

of

In

loose

array,
hear

all

gathered
from

the heart, of salvation.

and

have

portrayed himself

as

he

that

development as an individual
painteris reflected in a singlepainting
but felt compelled
began earlyin his career
rework

to

John

sketch

he

as

grew

older.

oil

His

BaptistPreaching(Fig. 238),

the

worked
1636 or
over
1637, was
begun about
intermittentlyuntil 1650. In this sketch, the
is
ostensible subjectis Biblical,but the theme
reallythat of an inspiredindividual addressing
a

At the time of this sketch's

group.

Rembrandt
a

sect

and

that

the

conception,
sympatheticto the Mennonites,
decried a formal organized church
was

ritual and

Catholics.

Its

sacraments

ministers

of the

Roman

laymen

were

who

to

in

John's feet. Rembrandt's

sketch

John
of

tended

and

those

to

of

strata

society

John speak, with

persons.
Rembrandt's

Rembrandt
of the

one

later

concentrate

closest to him.

Simeon, the illumination

of style,
but
reasons

only for

zeal

are

and
may

faces

at

reworking of the
the lightupon
As in the painting

is appropriate

not

also for the moment

when

the ascetic Baptistprophesiedthe Messiah

hght coming into the world. John further
the need
spoke of the importance of fellowhip,
for brotherlylove. Like the word
of Christ,
ful.
John's word is as a lightto the path of the faithRembrandt
depicteda crowd divided in its
as

attention,atomized

into

those

who

hear,

are

moved, and understand, those who

daydream
preached not dogma but the virtues of mercy
bicker
and charity,
those who
or
doze, and
or
content
humilityand obedience. Stress was
laid upon
the impulses of the heart, deeply
themselves
with trivial diversions. The various
felt silent prayer, and simple,warm
spirituality. ethnic types and exotic costumes
suggest the
the
In the center
The
Mennonites
universal scope of John's message.
to
sought to return
essential truths of the Bible instead of using it
foreground,to the left of the obelisk crowned
with
the basis for an
Caesar's effigy,
elaborate
stand thfee
Pharisees in
as
They
theology.
partialshadow, who have turned their backs
championed respect for the poor in spiritand
themselves.
love of one's brethren
in Christ. It is their
and
on
John
dispute among
sentiments

which

may

have

influenced

Figure 238.

Rembrandt.

John

this

Rembrandt
of

conception of John the Baptist.

the

BaptistPreaching,c.

Museum

Dahlem,

did

not

resort

illuminating only

1636-50.

Berlin.

Oil

on

to the

those

obvious

who

panel, 24 14

device
are

32"

the

Rembrandt.
239.
The Three Crosses. 1653. Etching,

Figure

third state, 15 ^^ "' 17 -'4".

don.
LonBritish Museum,

The

for signsof vanity and

enlightenedparticipants,
be found
in both
the
the light and
follycan
In the bright sections
dark areas
of the crowd.
be seen
his earlier styleof figureconstruction,
can
with

more

drawing,

on

detail. The
in

fewer,

and

attention
to
picturesque
tumes
styletreated figuresand cosbroader, less precisestrokes and with
later

somber

more

Rembrandt
famous

faces,a heavy reliance

opaque

tones.

traveled

never

as

did

other

Northern

In itself,the

Passion

accessories

bridles,monkeys,
is

with

charged

ideas

and

were

in

and

as

camels.

almost

esthetic
the

such

an

This

of

ornate

small

panel

overabundance

of

the

means;

direction

turbans,

later alterations

greater

clarityand

stability.
Rembrandt's

troops
at

Christ's

of his
These
from

continual

restlessness and

less
relent-

also apparent in two

states
Three Crosses (Figs.
239, 240).

are

etching The
etchings also

show

great divergence

the early styleoi^ John the BaptistPreaching,

style that had

critical

brought

him

commercial

Each

and

painting,drawing, and
to
for
print seemed
new
possibilities
open
up
the artist,who
of
set
artistic
personal goals
perfectionand inquiryabove financial gain.
success.

208

The

centurion.

Purposes of

Art

the

flank

divides

its focus

states

of Christ

the

to

on

As

in

make
like

the
in

shaft

dark

the

conversion

in

the

of

of

the

and

of

bodies

the

descending light

three

final

This

crosses.

state.

chronology of

Cross. The

the

Golgotha
rocks

diffuse action

the fourth

of

of

of
the

tortured

the

the

to

anguish

impelled

The

sive
succes-

the last hours

etching shows
for

near-darkness, except

Genesis, the

lightand

the

Christ, and

are

world

to

barrenness

among
of interest and

Rembrandt

satisfaction

left

scene

vegetation.The

is

indiflference of the

the

and

the

theme

centrifugalfashion,

the

harsh

thieves

Crosses

several reactions

lower

into

is intruded

Three

universal

In

and

the

followers

torrential

self-criticism

whose

detailed

Pharisees

division

exotic

and
man.

mounted

and

his

Rembrandt

scrub

yet

of

execution, ranging from

artists
of
his
European
for
taste
imagination and
lands and peoples filled his works
with
remote
archaeologicalmonuments,
rugged panoramas
unlike those around
and
Amsterdam,
opulent

century;

of Christ

loss

of The

state

moving completeness.It is a
whose
religioussubjectis the

drama

readable

the

third

have

to

seems

the

Christ's head.
light above
quite abrupt separationof

suggests the creation

of

new

life.

dinate
principalsuborfigure, stressingthe significanceof
and a comprehension of the meaning
conversion

The

of

solemn

Christ's

centurion

death.

is the

The

mood

is altered

not

of the
rigidification
few accessory
figuresstill perceivablebut also
by the rugged, stiffoutlines of their bodies and

only by the inaction

their

reduction

and

almost

to

obscure

presences

floatingin

of darkness.

Black was
felt and
have
two
subjectsmay
overlapped. Further,
Rembrandt's
famous
tangiblesubstance.
paintings of anatomy
in which
dead
bodies are
cut
dissections,
Etching ink and the crosshatchingand close
open
and
also have
striations of the etcher's needle
his
influenced
examined, may
imparted the
black
that
of a soft,absorbent
selection and
of the
theme.
The
treatment
specialqualities
he could
of the
not
reproduce in his paintings.Its
paintingshows the spread-eagledcarcass
also have
been
that it permitted
frame.
The
ox
hanging from a rude wooden
appeal may
the polarities gutted animal
between
with
self-illuminated
seems
an
emphasis on the contrast
of lightand
almost
darkness, with their imphcation of
phosphorescent glow. Massing his pigment
sea

savored

by

Rembrandt

life and

death.

conception of
the Cross

from

of

body

ordinary

an

the

by

attempt

in

Rembrandt's

Hanging

as

Christ is personal.

is the

human

artist

to

but

taut

being,
achieve

meager

with

no

sublimity

Christ's extraordinary
exceptionalmusculature.
a
spirit issue from
strength and
the
head
and
strikinglyerect posture, from
the radiance
about
it. More
than
Michelangelo,

in

an

Rembrandt
flesh

to

Christ's

Rembrandt
evidence
Christ.
secular

had

to

the

testimony of

sufferingmanhood.

avoided

the

more

violence

Middle

series,however, Rembrandt
of brutal

Ages,

the

ox

evoked

In

the

symbolic of St.

Luke

execution.

early
was

prefigure the sacrifice of Christ.

impossiblethat, with the Crucifixion
in his mind
theme
much
so
during the time of
this painting,the emotional
associations of the
thought
It is

Figure
The

to

not

240.
Three

Etching,

Rembrandt.
Crosses.
fourth

151/4 X 173/4".The
London.
Museum,

1653.
state,
British

viscous

patches, Rembrandt
the moist,
the animal's
muscle,

painterly equivalent of
with

the

wonder

partiallyhollow interior of the flayed animal,

formed
of complex substance
ing
and color. Allowit to dominate
the
its gloomy settingand
the
timid
woman
peering around
corner,
Rembrandt
the
heroicized
transfiguredand
his fascination
slaughtered ox and reiterated
with

patheticstrugglein the figure of

In The SlaughteredOx (PI.26), a small
after the
two
painting done
years

thick
a

of
rich substance
greasy,
bone.
He
showed
fat, and

obvious

of

Crucifixion
the

drawn

was

affirm

created

the mystery

To

juxtapose
a

is

bring together the

to

broad

interests.

death.

etching of

with

scene

from

of life and
an
an

The

butcher

poles of
past

Crucifixion

the

Amsterdam

shop

Rembrandt's

and

present,

rebellious

his fellow
and
With

head,

Dutchman
artists in

who

could

not

would

was

follow

meticulously documenting

praisingtheir particulartime and

grandiose projects half-formed
he

the
and

imaginary and the real,all of these alternate

interweave
throughout his art. Rembrandt

still take

the

time

place.
in
to

his

draw

Rembrandt.
Figure 241.
1657. Oil on canvas,
13
Cologne.
Museum,

c.

Christ
"^

at

the

Column.

10". Wallraf-Richartz

whatever
street

immediately attracted
along

or

the

Michelangelo made
Rembrandt

and

artisfs in
and

art

think

historyhad
paintin

Christ

Dutch

two

of

artist could

of
not

abstractions;
philosophical

the real and

shown

be

to

No

men.

antithetical views

more

verifiable that

imagination. For

his
had

of

terms

terms

instead,it was
kindled

in the

his^rt iri_teriXis
ofMan,

in

humanity. The

or

his eye

canals.

Michelangelo,

endowed

as

with

sublime

body to signifyhis divinity. When

Rembrandt
painted his Christ at the Column
(Fig.241), he showed the Saviour as an imperfect
physicalspecimen whose flesh hung on a
bony frame. Unlike Michelangelo'sennobled
conception of an impersonal and flawless skin,
Rembrandt's
small
to
painting is dedicated
stance
re-creatingthe particularsand material subof the
flesh belonging to
a
single
The
selection of a model
man.
(perhaps his
son
Titus) of such meager
proportionsand his
in a slack posture that speaks of
arrangement
brandt's
exhaustion
of body and spirit
dismayed Remand
critics,
been

undoubtedly

have

by Michelangelo.
the artist
such problems as this which
was
have posed for his students,for the painting

It
must

suggests
there

is

studio study from a live model, and

a
visible. It is likely
actually no column

drawing from life provided Rembrandt

the inspiration
to
paint subjectsfrom the

that
wdth
Bathsheba.
Rembrandt,
1654.Oil on
Paris
(Anc.
4'io"g"x 4'7"j". Louvre,
Coll. Vizzavona-Druet, Musees
Nationaux).

would

scorned

Figure 242.

Bible, which, when

canvas,

much

of the

realized, often
of their

retained

secular

origin.
paintingis a later version of Bathsheba
of the preliminary
(Fig.242), although none
drawings exist. PossiblyHendrickje,who was
the
model
for many
drawings, posed for
Bathsheba.
Her
have
been
inspired
pose
may
teenth-century
by Rembrandt's
encountering,through sevenengravings,of classical Roman
seated women,
such as
sculpturesthat showed
Recall Michelangelo's
Venus, in profile.
sis
syntheSuch

of

that

David;

Protestant
the

character

of

manner

the character
In

crowd

scenes

individuals.

outer

take
her

pose

in

Roman

He

tended

immobilize

to

placingemphasis upon
than

to

was

and

goddess to re-create
woman.
tragicHebrew
this
years, during the periodwhen
done, Rembrandt
painted fewer
and
preferredto treat isolated
of

his later

painting was

of Rembrandt
housewife

Dutch

reactions

for Rembrandt

to
were

events.
not

his subjects,

their inner
The

rather

great mysteries

those of

theology

Figure

Rembrandt.

243.

1636. Oil

Danae.
6' 1/2" X

6'8".

on

canvas,

The

tage,
Hermi-

Leningrad.

but those of
shows

the

himself,in

humanity. His paintingof

of Uriah, chosen
by

Bathsheba

wife
a

Rembrandt's

for

reflection. The

of troubled

moment

David

is

servant

her

David's

or

for the

fateful meeting

Bathsheba's

hand

tragedy.The
of the

arm

compliance

is the

with

the

control, though she

their

aura

is

maid,

she

all

in

has

With

his intense

the

the

Bible

the character

this

formula

type

of

in

still to

athletic

human

the
more

Rembrandt

added

Julius Held

painting

as

brandt's
Rem-

"of

making his models appear

remote.
physically
present and psychically

"

of

of

to the

cultures.
each

body

could

imposed

norms

His

the

privacy.

nudes

are

not

shaped by

seems

bodies
of its possessor. His naked
the impress of clothes, the
a

sedentary
relatively

rather

Gravity of mind

and

existence.
of conscience

are

sustained

in these

bodies.

heavy
In

revelation

invasion

show

effects of diet,and
than

the
an

body

stylesand

generalizedtypes;
seem

Italian

empiricism,Rembrandt

the naked

celebrated
earlier painting,Rembrandt
and
in amorous
beauty of a naked woman
(Fig. 243). On an
joyful circumstances
an

pression elaborately ornamented

initial im-

painting gives an
account,

submit

the pressure

no

of its eventual

aware

almost

by other

caught

which

over

of elusive,lyricalrevery.

characterized

both

of the

individual

reconstructed

While

of factual
an

actions
an

nude, and

becomes

king. In

incites the

of people
by the vulnerability
in tragedy,
unwitting involvement

Rembrandt
terms.

the

that

than

body

Moved

outcome.

and

with

note

rather

not

in the

not

were

and litheness.
perfection,
tradition,they are naked

in the Northern

More

prepares

expressionon her face, the limpness

the unthinking
holding the letter,

the stor^'of
circumstance

compose
of
web

who

messenger,

nudes

tradition,for they lack its classical

proportions,cosmetic

typicalof Rembrandt, for it reveals the

individual's
to fate. He has
passivesubmission
of recognition,
crucial to
depicted the moment
classical drama.
Bathsheba
is attended
by a
theme

Renaissance

bed,

Danae

awaits

the

coming of the god Zeus, whose presence just

by a golden
beyond the curtain is announced
light.The anguished, constrained cupid above
Danae
symbolizes the chastity enforced upon
been
her
her
father
the king had
because
Rembrandt

211

of his

warned

murder

own

tiiis

paintings of

In
Zeus

transforms

coins

and

future

himself

into

the

old

allows

him

uses

which

pliantbody in
the passiveand

rain

of

the

His

woman's

Danae

of

at

the

saw

with

women

Bible

distinct

and

hopes

in

Amsterdam.

in

with

deal

terms

of

men

personalities,
problems,
those daily encountered
he
painted Christ

unlike

not

When

(PI. 27), he

Emmaus

the

set

scene

in

from

the

tomb.

The

niche

also ties

of
figures and encloses the area
dramatic, but underplayed action. By temperament
Catholic
unsympathetic toward
theology
with
the formal
and
its association
centrality
shifted
of Renaissance
compositions,Rembrandt
the focus of the painting to the left of center.
Unlike
room

the

Leonardo,
in

deep

also, Rembrandt

but

transparent

bathed
shadow

the

and

to
light that the figuresseem
with
absorb
to
varying intensity.He
gave
Christ
unaristocratic
an
personality,stressing
his gentleness,capacity for love, and ability to
with the humble.
No painter before
be at home
close
Rembrandt
to
came
so
fathoming the
the
historical Jesus
Jesus of the Gospels or
(seeChapter 3, "Images of Gods"). Rembrandt
did
portraitlikestudies of Christ, probably
bearded
the Jewish
based
on
a
youth from

powerful

quarter
the

warm

his home.

near

Christ

bearded

In

the

retains

Emmaus
the

scene,

soft, gentle

endowed
him
qualitieswith which Rembrandt
in scenes
showing his earthly ministry. Only
the sad
expression of the eyes suggests the
suffering and fatigue of the Passion. Significantly,
of the
to
one
disciplesseems
study
Christ's face for signsof the miracle, rather than
follow
his
of
breaking the bread.
gesture
Deliberately avoiding Caravaggio's rhetoric

212

in

the

mid-

1650s.

As

est
great-

him

the

father

is

at

recounted

(15, 17), God

promised
a
ninety-nine-year-oldAbraham

the

give

to

and

son

of nations.

in

Both

to

themes

who
a
was
deep attraction for Rembrandt,
preoccupied with the family all his life and
believed
that the Jews were
the chosen
people.
Rembrandt
in the community
extension
saw
an
of the family unit; and in rituals such as Christ's
presentation in the temple, a linking of the
two

an

that
nated
domiroom
high-ceilingedstone
the figuresby its scale. Only the radiance
guishes
Christ
emanating from
immediately distinevoke
To
the painting from
art.
genre
him
the
set
apparition of Christ, Rembrandt
niche, which
directlybefore a sizable hollow
like a dark void recallinghis miraculous
looms

together

the

convey

Genesis

Purposes

of

Art

groups.
the
Bible

In

austere

emergence

to

emotion.

had

paintings

Rembrandt's

miracles, for he
and

sought

subject relating to an epiphany

drawing of God
announcing his covenant
Abraham
after Christ
(Fig. 244), done

make

anticipation.
Few

he

Another
the
to

type, but in her gesture and

expressionshe exhibits a warm-blooded

radiant

inner

objects,Rembrandt

accessory

said that

Emmaus,

not

figureof

recumbent

statuesque

is

and

gestures

himself

bed.
nosity,
lumi-

Venus

Italian

of

golden

of divine

bathe

to

artists,

Danae's

to

symbol
glow.

warm

grandson.

other

thereby gains access

Rembrandt

the

by

subject by

appearance
was

of

sign

unworthiness

Rough

it is

Abraham
fear

and

look

to

the

to

face

of the

thy protector."Rembrandt
Jehovah as the wrathful
but, instead, gave
He

the

flanked

his
thus

aspect

when

and

with
dove

them
The

the

men

upon

Michelangelo
God

the

images of
angels and

Christ.

the

Ghost,

above

Holy

symbolism

that

Abraham

to

appear

Lord

of

rhythms

moved

again promises

once

the

reed

God

and

Rembrandt's

hand

it

as

the

grainy white paper,

holding
presented an intimate revelation.
pen,
done
from
Abraham
not
was
posed

over

but

models,

broad

the

for the

movement

continuous

overlap

the

suggest

constrictive
in

gaps
fusion of the

the

shorthand

him

when

strokes

gestures and

figuresof

leave

or

and

long study served

imagination. The

from

establish

information

the

from

acquired

form

of

am

son.

drew

two

his
I

look

not

Testament

trinitarian

the three

Sarah, and

his

evoke

to

of

his

as

the

introducing the

recurs

of

Abram,

did
force

Lord

drew

head

Lord
not,

Old

the

benevolent

God's

at

his face. This

indication

an

"Fear

kindly admonition,

same

that
on

the face of the Lord.

upon
is,Rembrandt
enough
gave

the sketch

as

attention

written
fell flat

the

silhouette

body

of

limits

angels do

outlines, but
the

he
that

the

with

not

they
that
rounding
sur-

In the prostrate figureof

of the lines begin or
end

atmosphere.
Abraham,

several

within

body's

the

outline

termination.

With

Rembrandt

established

joined
extent

to

it

body and
projected from
the

have

and

singleflourish
where

where
the

and

body.

hooked

of the
limb
to

The

pen,
was

what

body

Left: Figure
God
Covenant

to

Drawing,

Rembrandt.
244.
Announces
His

Abraham,

c.

1656.

and

bistre,
X
10
7%
'/a". Kupferstichkabinett, Dresden.
Below:

pen

Figure

245.

Tobias
Tobit's

Blindness,

Drawing,

c.

brandt.
Rem-

Healing
1649-50.

and

bistre,
wash, 6 ^/lo X 5 14". Kupferstichkabinett,Staatliche MuBerlin.

seen,

and

its

clothing

directional

lines
the

example,

conceived

were

and

terms

of

weights. Observe,

for

of the Lord's

area

in

head

and

pen

ders,
shoul-

slashingsilhouettes of the angels,and

back. With
weighted outline of Abraham's
of light,a few
as
a
source
paper
expert
the

the
the

touches
the

of dark

Lord's

elements

as

establish

face.

To

the

clouds

hand
series of
The
the
with

swept

the

mood

define
and

detail of
accessory

the

brandt's
Remspace,
surface in quick

the

over

and
such

parallellines.
that

more

is learned

it is realized

more

certain

themes

about

Rembrandt,

his

preoccupation

how

satisfied

many

different

personal interests and needs. His drawing of

Tobias Healing Tobit's Blindness (Fig.245) is but
of some
one
fifty-five
interpretationsthe artist
made

from

the

Book

of Tobit.

This

Old

ment
Testa-

story of God's

compassion toward
men,
with its emphasis on
family unity and loyalty,
who
not
appealed to Rembrandt,
only had
for his son
strong feelingsof love and concern
Titus but also an abiding love for his own
father,
who
had
died
blind. The
drawing shows the
window
and
Tobias
an
subjects near
open
examining the sightless
eyes of his father before
curing them with the gallof a fish held in a bowl

!""

i1ifL"
S***-;

Rembrandt

213

The Sacrifice
ofIsaac. 1655.
Figure 246. Rembrandt.
Etching,61/4 X 5 Vg". Albertina, Vianna.

Tobit's

by

revealed

wife. The

the

archangelRaphael,
of

who

Tobias, stands
behind
the father and
like a guardian
son
angel or an attendingphysician.(It has been
shown
similar drawings,
that, in this and
Rembrandt
has correctlydepictedthe medical
means

to

cure

procedure for cataract

operationsthen being
performed in Amsterdam.) Rembrandt
depicted
in which
themes
sightor blindness are
many
understandable
because
important elements
"

of the artist's concern

with

vision

as

it related

his

and as the noblest means

for
profession
making possibleall forms of revelation. The
drawing possesses a weighted stillness and a
to

concentrated

attention

the

on

participants;Rembrandt
characterization

parents,

to

the

that many

so

also
whole

part

of

extended
bodies

the
his

of

the

of the strong accents

of

the

drawing occur in their garments and givean

balance to the whole
expressive
composition.
Rembrandt's
etchingof The Sacrifice
of Isaac
the roles of Tobias
and
(Fig. 246) reverses
Tobit, for Abraham
his beloved

son

as

tenderly covers
he is about

life.So intense is Abraham's

God's

with
Rembrandt.
247.
Son. After
1660. Oil on

Figure
The

Return
canvas,

Hermitage, Leningrad.

of the Prodigal
"7i/8"x 6'8%

of

command

the

that

angel, who

does
sacrifice,

not

affect

even

the intercession

physicallystays the
the anguished
at once

facial
of

the eyes of

deprivehim of
griefin complying
to

of the father.
expression
the subject,Rembrandt

In this last version

compressed the
figures,
and
the ass
and
servants
were
relegated to
roles. The
insignificant
deep black cavities
framing the sacrifice suggest the tragicmood of
the moments
preceding it and the symbolic
conversion
of darkness
to
lightby the angel's
action

in the close contact

miraculous

appearance.

One

of

Return

of

because
Rembrandt

of the three

Rembrandt's
the

of

last paintingsis the

ProdigalSon (Fig. 247). Perhaps

his

own

close

ties with

Titus,

repeatedlyinterpretedthe theme
of father and son.
In this picture,
the wordless
but profound reaction of all to the homecoming
the indivisible ties of the family.The
signifies
who
remained
with the father displayno
sons
but are
sympathetic
jealousyor recrimination
witnesses to a sacred moment.
Justas Rembrandt
understated
the drama, his frugalmeans
add to
the force of the painting.
There
is no emphatic
and
action or elaborate interweavingof figures
what
background. The individual forms are somerectangularand blocklike. This suggestion
of regularity
and self-containment
is offset by

Three
Left:Figure248. Rembrandt.
Trees. 1643. Etching, gV5"xiiV!i".
The

British

Etching,

Rembrandt.
249.
the River Amster.
1645.
British
71/4 X S'/s'. The

Museum,

London.

Below:
The

the dissolution of the

fusion

with

simple
wealth

scale

edges of

luminous

the
of

emphasis,

of color lavished

With

the

reduction

being

and

form

image

with

of

and

at

is

greatest

the rags of the

figuresto

supreme

Figure

Omval

their

There
the

solemnized

achieved

This

on

of the

condition, Rembrandt

the forms

ambient.

London.

Museum,

the
drama

son.

static
human

of persons.

forgivenessand

pity is

of self-revelation
own

From
number

that may
reflect the artist's
of conflicts with the world.

resolution
about

1640

to

1656, Rembrandt

did

of

drawings, prints, and

paintings
of landscape,which
earlier had appeared solely
as
a
backdrop for figuralsubjects.
Many of his
of the flat plains,picturesque
landscapes are
thatched
near

peasant

Amsterdam.

cottages, and
Dutch

artists

canals
were

in

known

and
to

make

the spot, but

on
drawings from nature
their paintings were
completed in the studio
and
often composites of different views.
were
In his etching Three Trees (Fig.248),Rembrandt
shows the tinyfigureof an artist sketchingon
a
in his more
hilltopat the far right. Unlike
humans
numerous
figurecompositions,where
dominate
their settingor
claim
of our
most
attention, in his landscapes Rembrandt
was
able to contrast
their small
scale and
quiet
routine
activities with
the grand sweep
and
endless varietyof nature.
By alternating zones
and
of dark
light,Rembrandt
suggested the
depth and continuityof the earth's surface and
dramatized
the rugged trio of trees againstthe

brightnessof
the
the

left,while
silhouette

blacks

of the

the

above
a

highlightedtraces
draw

our

beggar, so
in

even

them

on

of

bushes.

the

horizon

rich

Just

light
sun-

his wife

and

fisherman

the
city.From
foreground shadows

of

shaft of

clearingsky. A

the

illuminates

at

is

sensuous

the
emerge
he could

as

to and
dignifythe rags of a
and pleasure
provokes our curiosity
the meanest
vegetativescrub in his

attention
he

the River
at
etching The Omval
prints.The
habit of
Amster
(Fig.249) repeats Rembrandt's
combining large and small elements, a suggestive
Rembrandt

215

advanced

science

Dutch
is most

wth
in

those

of

brandt
Rem-

his

painting The
Anatomy Lesson of Doctor Deijman (Fig. 250).
Only a sketch preserves for us the painting's
it to a fragment,
originalformat; fire reduced
which

apparent

shows

foreshortened

the

us

presumably Doctor
standing next to it and

corpse
assistant

of the skull which

make

to

!i

to

depict

in

the

W--:

dissection

doctor
chose

occurred

as

amphitheater.

William

book,

that, while

shown

such

medical

Amsterdam

excellent

an

the

students, Rembrandt

or

public

of the

sioned
Commis-

removed.

portraitof

group

his assistants

and

been

has
a

view

Deijman or his
holding the top

and

Heckscher

it constitutes

tribute

In
has
the

to

science
over
superstition
triumph of modern
the
and
ignorance, the painting also combines
mori and
old
moralizing ideas of a memento
"the wages

Figure

Rembrandt.

250.

Deijman.

Dr.

such

nature

To

interest.

accumulations

graded

the

left

as

spaces. The
built up from

tangled

mill

the

and

but

and

what

of

it

canal

human,

for
out

have

as

if in

definition

at

conceals.

the

within.

arrested,

Rembrandt
the

had

figures he virtually
biographies of his buildings and

to

recourse

The

the advice

coincidence

i!16

of famous

of the

Purposes

of

Art

Dutch

discoveries

works

cadaver

has

as

of their

divested

are

men

on

Amsterdam

in

his arrival

talents

his

fellow

Dutch

demand

skins.

of

in

1632,

based

was

portraitpainter. Like
painters, he responded to
as

the

well-to-do

middle

class

his
the
for

friends
writers and doctors
Personal
portraits.
individuals
he pulled
and interesting-looking
"

in

his

Rembrandt's
insistence on
personal discovery
parallelsdevelopments in Western
European
science and
the empirical attitude reflected in
the great anatomist
Vesalius' opinion that the
is man.
Whether
study of mankind
proper
the
naked
searching a landscape or
body,
Rembrandt
the practicedcoordination
relied upon
of his eyes and
hands, and occasionallyhe
doctors.

that

was

"

non-

trees.

even

in such

where

left is

the

pronounced

on

corpse

piece
(Fig. 184). (A copy of" Michelangelo's masterhung in the Leiden medical amphitheater.)
before
Rembrandt's
early prominence, even

the houses

definition

character

The

foreshortened

life. The

precedents

untouched

perpetual transitory
and
growth, or of

"

death.

are

Mantegna's Dead
from
integrating
disalso has analogies
Christ,and the dissection scene
of
with the segment
of Michelangelo's Last Judgdetail,
ment

finite and

seem

and

with

more

linear

emotional

an

area

illumination

reveals

imposes
draws

wooded

spare

point does nature

it is captured as

condition

density and
large

contrast

of sin

in a sense
a
hanged thief, and this was
punitive dissection comparable to that shown
David
earher
(Fig. 145). Like
by Gerard
heir to the
Doctor
was
Deijman, Rembrandt
Renaissance
admiration
of the body not
only
standing
as
an
object of beauty but as the key to under-

of

copse

pictorial

the inside out, whereas

across

silhouettes

print enhance
compositions

his

places

shadowed

under

and

areas

the

or

caves

keep

Rembrandt

no

of
Rijks-

far. Secret

and

near

as

left of the

the

at

seen

.\t

Anatomy

1656. Drawing, 4^/3 x 5%".

c.

detailing of the

of

Lesson

Amsterdam.

museum,

in

The

of

from

their

the

of Amsterdam

streets

likenesses.

In

later

years,

also

sat

for

Rembrandt

experienced difficulties with clients who claimed

that
their portraitswere
not
good likenesses,
verted,
accustomed
the slick,extroto
since they were
often smug
and
images the fashionable
brandt
paintersachieved. After his bankruptcy, Remcontinued
to receive
portrait
important
the governing
of which, from
commissions, one
of the
board
drapers' guild, resulted in the
The Syndics(Fig.251).
as
painting known
group
of Rembrandt's
One
important contributions
to group
portraiturelay in his successful solution
of the problem of achieving an
informal, unself-

conscious,

convincing union of all the

paid for on the
portraitswere
of the figureshown, it was
amount

and

sitters. Since
basis of the
essential

that

all

of

the

faces

clearlyin

be

the guild
chose a moment
Rembrandt
during a
president.
meeting of the board with its stockholders,
immediately after a query had been made from
the floor. Within
the painting,the figuresare
in
united
their
to the president,
relationship
subtly
interlocked
who is rising
to respond.The
of the bodies give
groupings and the positions
The device of
of this officialrelationship.
a sense
in the
all attention outside the picture,
directing
direction of the viewer, unites the figuresat
and similarity
external focus. The sobriety
some
of their appareland the warm
heavy atmosphere
suffused with rich brown
and gold
of the room,
the walls and
the near
on
tones
edge of the
table covering,further the painting's
harmony.
evidence

As
in

that

and

in the

The

on

work, there is

best of Rembrandt's

underlyingconflict between
the real. The subjects
were,

Syndicsan

the apparent
in fact, men

who,

be given to
priority

the

and
of

status

occasion

and

solid

of the

achievement

board

meeting,

presentedan image of unshakable

probityand
To the far right,however, is set into
solidarity.
the wall panelinga paintingof a burning city.

Figure

251.

Rembrandt.

which

in Rembrandt's
time, as De Tolnay has
the cphemerality of worldly
shown, signified
It was
a
on
vanity and a
power.
commentary
warning to those of wealth not to be proud.
The

faces of the men

betray their inherent
which
individuahtyand those human
qualities
do not always accord
with
official roles. Rembrandt
did

But

program.

of each
and

these men;
units in

to

merely as
begin to dwell

face is to

matters

record

the

be

masked

as

and

by the occasion.

priceand

meeting, as

has been

the

room

each

figurecannot
prosaican event
astutelyviewed by
As

transformed

into

work

of

of the

of power.

nature

In

1662, the same

Syndics,Rembrandt

year

worked

that he
on

hall. Its

town

ancient

conspiracyof

of

Dutch, who

the

on

study
probing psychological

the Amsterdam

can

hand, for in this discerning

privatehistoryof

business

nor
a

group
the subtleties

oneself from

remove

at

Rembrandt,
art

caricature

not

faces be read

their

the

painted The
paintingfor
the
subjectwas
a

Batavians, ancestors
against Roman

rebelled

rule.

Untypical for the Dutch artist of his time

paintingof a past event not actually
witnessed
by the painter.It is an ambitious
example of Rembrandt's
yieldingto the urge to
make
a
paintingout of his head. In its original

was

the

The Syndics.
1662. Oil
Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.

on

canvas,

6' '4"

5'i I %".

Figure

Rembrandt.

252.

The

Conspiracyof Julius
Nationalmuseum,

Conspiracyof JuliusCivilis (Fig.252)

the largest painting Rembrandt

The

state,

probably

was

When

undertook.

ever

it from

the

town

was

hall and

rejected,he
cut

it down

moved
re-

to

1661-62.

of the

size. The
date of
nearly concurrent
the
between
the
contrast
painting makes
of
The
and
this
historical
Syndics
portrait
group
all the
Rembrandt's
work
more
interesting.
forth to the fullest in
visionaryinclination came
the midnight meeting of the conspirators.
He
was
inspiredby the swearing of allegianceuntil
death
the
sword
of Julius Civilis
an
upon
the mundane
ironic contrast
to
dispute in the
stockholders'
of
meeting. The confident reserve
the
an
fiscallywise
guild president makes
equallyinteresting
comparison with the heroic
of
the
one-eyed
JuliusCivilis,who was
presence
to
challengethe legionsof the Roman
Empire.
The
quiescentsunlightof the board room, with

relation
the

work

"

its connotations

givesway

to

the

of security and
permanence,
and concealed
brilliant,
inconsistent,

radiance

emanating from the conspirators'

light that transfigures
then
fades
varied, rugged features and
the surrounding gloom. The
faces of the
table,

their
into

im

strange

Purposes

of Art

with

01

"

within

their

intriguingdouble life
Each figurehas freedom

restricted space,

individuality without
to

surface

and

costumes

the

syndics is absent.

of movement

its

made

6'5y8"x

canvas,

of the moment;

roles

marketable

which

on

conspiratorsbelong

his

he

area

Oil

Stockholm.

of

the

liked most,

it

Civilis.

the group.
into thick

Layers of
crusts;

preserving
his

weakening
glazesbuild
color

no

of

and

the

up
is

area

colors

composed
pure singletones,
seem
suspended within a tangibleatmosphere.
the
of Rembrandt's
Characteristic
late style,
as
the
became
richer
and
more
mobile,
paint
in such
outward
action of the figureseven
a
histrionic episodewas
reduced, and they became
more
submerged within themselves.
in spiritwith
the Julius Civilis,
and
Linked
is Rembrandt's
likewise an imaginativeportrait,
Polish Rider (Fig.253). The
misnamed
proud
and

alert horseman

is based

upon

Eastern

ropean
Eu-

heroic exploits
lightcavalrymen, whose
in defending Christian
Europe againstthe Turks
in
Their
Amsterdam.
were
legendary even
in Western
service as mercenaries
Europe would
have

accounted

for

Rembrandt's

encounter

tary
subject,since he shows the full miliequipment of this type of soldier without
specifyinghis Polish or Hungarian nationality

with

his

or

darkened

personal identity.The

rider's

the

reUef

into

throws

of

inspired painting

the

based

costume,

on

the

and

and

tary
mili-

of"

red, white,

gold. A clue to the portrait'smeaning lies

the
warrior
in the
painting itself,in which
horse through an
rides his gaunt
inhospitable
by a massive fortress. The
landscape dominated
and

self-assured

unnatural

and

pose

enveloping the horse and

suggestive of his symbolic
knight
of

errant

Titian's

the
in

unified

more

of the

one

royal

combined
of the

work

makes

horse

and

and

gives
had

(Rembrandt

the

at

the

over

for

patronage

that

same

his

an

had

reflected

time

threat

Moslem
resided

in

he

associations

idealized

and

own

youth.
knew
Rembrandt
Raphael's portrait of
a
drawing of it. The
Castiglione and made
brandt's
Portrait of Jan Six (PL 28) epitomizes Remideals
tain
dignified masculinity, a cermingled with an
quality of cool correctness
warmth.
Rembrandt
enirrepressiblehuman

private hopes

"

253.
Rider,

The

Rembrandt.

Figure
Polish

c.

1655. Oil
4'^%"- The

3'io" X
Collection, New

York

on

vas,
can-

Frick

right).
(Copy-

Six

realityJan
a

both

was

successful

poet and

Rembrandt
politician. Significantly,
the great contemporary
The
military heroes.

and

subjectsin

his later life

did

not

Dutch

portray

political
compatible

most

such
men
as
Jan
who, like the painter himself, fullyindulged
their
both
intellectual
worldly and
appetites
were

Six

and

ambitions.

Personal

accomplishment
lived
a

no

notice

Such

part

of the

civic

impressed

for

codes

affable
The

who

men

natural

was

the

or

Portrait

of all that
the

the artist had

of

psiintingthat
great

with

sense

contrasts

assume

With

shadow,
the

learned

By

men.

both

was

he

is

extroverted

about

1654,

double

that

could

elegant

economical

expressive power.

is in

studied

as

done, Rembrandt

was

which

in

concealed

not

his limbs.

prim type favored at the time.

most
ofJan Six, like Rembrandt's
of any
period, is a summing
up

nature

portrait

does

dispositionof

represented

not

inspired work
and

viewer, and

pose in the
of his face

decidedly

Six

admiration

individual

than

have

to

painter who resisted the formulas of painting.

Jan Six stands to the right of center, takes

stable

in

rather

most

seems

by strong

for

trait,
por-

Europe's
his

active

an

the

theme,

triumphal
with

of

Rembrandt.
V

to

the regal and

equestrian motif

and
concern

perhaps
Christian

study the skeleton of a horse

medical
amphitheaters.)Although

opportunity

without

as

organism

greater character.

animal

role

of peril.Descendant
in a world
equestrian portrait of Charles

(Fig.281), Rembrandt's
rider

radiance
is

rider

livingsubject of his art with traits

and
a
contemplative life,for in

the

dowed

beauty

horse

triad

background

manly

means

and
he

his craft
when

the

produce
profound,
achieved

painting of Jan
portrait,a blend of

The

gives simultaneous

insight

private identityof Jan

of putting on
a
going out into the streets;

public and

into

the

Six.

The

the

automatic

glove prefaces his

the
tan
gloves, scarlet

coat,

green-grey

cape,
part of

hat
the
black
are
gentleman's
public identity.The actual public face has not
as
"put on" or arranged, but the
yet been
subject'sfeatures are relaxed in a momentary

and

of others

unawareness

as

his mind

gentle reverie. The collar and

have
a
firm, tangible appearance

in

the viewer
not

try

brush.

dazzle

to

He

used

singlestrokes
streaking of
critical

the external

to

with

of the

gold
in

of

areas

accented

restores

and

cloak.
as

was

also be

in

while

the

of

the

the vertical

painting.

Within

make

hands

the
and

strongly

more

Its

from

emerge

reserved
This

encouragement.
and

economy

the

in

area

the

the man's

on

sleeve. The

to

group

scenes,

for it

can

figures:
in 1668.
on

the

the

lightest
parts
in some
places

the

Studies for a Self-Porlrait faces at the viewer

Rembrandt.
Figure 254.
Adriaen
Brouwer,
Beggars. 1632. Etching, 4 x 5%".
Rijks-

liked

to

draw

ruffian

or

mobihty
He

not

"

and

Amsterdam.

tones

light.

most
thicklypainted, so that
pigment actuallyforms a relief which catches
the
shadow
and
the room
where
light from
painting hangs.
As we
have seen, Michelangelo's humor
in art
could
be
brandt's
Rembitingly vengeful, whereas
has many
that
art
amusing moments
often at his own
are
Early self-portraits
expense.
show
the artist clowning or making preposterous
are

style

fail on

not

one

Colors

intense

does
highlight,significantly,

faces but

this

strongest

most

of

gamut

count.

with

shadow,

for

convey

restrained

slightestmovement

the

sion,
posses-

bride

feelingfinds expression in

painting with but two

The Jewish Bride (PI.29), which
he did
the work
was
Though
possibly based

museum,

suggest love and

man

attitude

and

abilityto tell a story and to

narrative
beyond its literal meaning

restricted
seen

gestures of the

affectionate

cloth.

the
not

The

submission

in

Rembrandt's
widen

probably Titus and his wife. Into this

of
painting the artist projected his sentiments
a
family and erotic love. It proposes
frank,
sensual
of sharing, that is unlike
attitude, one
in
found
Renaissance
paintings of the
any
family.The story unfolded in delicate and subtle
be compared to the marriage porgestures can
traits
by van Eyck and Kokoschka.
(Pis.52, 53).
were

did

directed, grouped firmlytogether to suggest the

substance
of flesh against
rough and modulated
smooth

and
Isaac, its essential
concord, and the models

marital

was

his

the

and

story of Rebecca

theme

the

casualness

braid

focus, such
are

of buttons
that

virtuosityof

the

the

is absorbed

row

Rembrandt

man.

studied

shadows

head, the strokes

Biblical

gesture

some

work

he

himself

etch

or

unlike

whose

of his

own

could

be

face

as

young

romantic

dashing

created
admired.

by
He

country

type.

The

ing.
endlesslyfascinathis large,
unsparing toward
was

almost

scrutinize
himself
and
shapeless nose
he reserved
with
the same
unflatteringcandor
for the ragged forms of street beggars (Fig.254).
of his human
Nonetheless, some
vanity show,
in
he dresses
exotic
costumes
through when
in a mythological or
includes
himself
Biblical
painting, or romantically shades
portions of
the face without
lesseningthe intensityof his
in the etching illustrated. No
artist has
as
gaze,
left a more
intimate
history of changes in his face,
of
fortune, and family,with the result that much
his work

constitutes

portraitof

about

Rembrandt's

successful
and
of

220

Purposes

of Art

1635

done
then

wine
the

himself

(Fig.255),
ideal

artist. This
in

bold

private artistic chronicle.

and his firstwife Saskia,
of

hand, fine clothes,with

a

fine

was

and

man

includes

ideal

cavalier, and

what

shows

woman

suggestion
table

and

Figure 255.
Oil

on

Self1635.

Rembrandt.

Portrait with

Saskia.

canvas,

c.

'4"

Gemaldegalerie, Dresden.

surroundings.
employed by

proud

extrovert,

willing to
attitude
later

conversion

be

format

other

Rembrandt

scenes.

his

The

Dutch
shows

he

himself

of his material

liberal

with

used

was

artists for
as

one

brothel
sociable

possessionsand

them.

carefree

The

in this painting helps to explain

bankruptcy, and it also records his

seen

from

Amsterdam

coarse

miller's

son

to

an

gant
ele-

gentleman. It provides a
personal inventory, giving a visual richness to
the sword
hilt and glassthat rivals the rendering

of his

own

face. The

materialistic
serious

painting mirrors a type of

preoccupation that precludes any

human

revelation.

Rembrandt's

after 1650 reflect

self-portraits
personal crises and show a more
critical and
Where
perceptive self-appraisal.
the early self-portraits
in part upon
based
were
his own
as
a
model, his ostentation
availability
and
wholesome
self-esteem, the later portraits
a

succession

demonstrate
A

of

an

increasing desire

from
self-portrait

Rembrandt

the

to

1660s

221

know

self.
him-

summarizes

4'4".

The

his

organize

of its

which

he

used

he

to

device

achieve

older, he became

grew

to

matic
melodra-

transparent

convey

light.

was

lightas

paintings,to

As

Rembrandt

consciousness

eflects, and

symbolism.
in

by

principalmeans

expressed his human

Early in his career,

aware

profound potential.The luminosity

later paintingswas
no
vincing
longer the con-

more

his

of the

illumination
viewer

stands;

nor

in

room

it

was

which

the

rational

subject to

particularrelation of solids to
works
is a myslightin his mature
terious
and
enveloping radiance, tangible yet
independent of local colors. Its qualitiesproceed
of the subject.
Rembrandt
from the nature
of inner and
the polarity
used lightto play upon
theories

of the

voids. The

worlds, and he used a rich incrustation of

with
a
materiality previouslyunknown.
an
astonishing range
By doing so, he achieved

outer

paint
of

substances

light and
Rembrandt's
and

Figure 256. Rembrandt.

The
panel,13^4 x 9 1/2".

c. 1 660. Oil
Self-Portrait.
Museum, Aix-en-Provencc.

on

no

late

alter

elaborate

setting or

painting Rembrandt
There

is

no

It is

study of
the
poem.

calm

the

flesh

"

For

and

flesh

the

greatness

of

exterior beauty. While

artist's

the
last

enthusiasm

which
become

has

is

man

world

mirror

alertness of

Rembrandt

with

Rembrandt,

now

eyes
outward

for

play

is found

invests
human

ultimately a
in his brain;

that
his
its

he

no

one

knew

insecurity of
show

for life.

Purposes

better than

existence,
wonder

the

and

is

the

until

our

of his achievement

it is

Today

as

in

not

was

magnitude

him

acknowledged

the finest Humanists.

beings, whose destiny

body. In Rembrandt's

the

through

saw

with

of human

one

in
graphic works, man
appears
and
hero
both
historic and
as
privatemoments,
victim. To
the protagonists
of the Bible, legend,

paintingsand

mvth,

and

historv,

in

as

for

in

from

remote

history of

art.

Bibhcal
fallibility,
their frailty,and

gentlehuman
Rembrandt,

humanity
He

showed
and

heroes
the

being. Moral
took

artist's

the

personalityand

in the

their

businessmen

Kings

physicalbeauty.

of Art

it

but

the

rank

man

art

rulers

to

acclaimed

in
paintersurpassed Rembrandt
his
and
to
t
o
ability develop
sensibility paint
expressivepotential.His ideas and feelings

intellect

unrelated

materiality

other

no

sight, he gave
unprecedented

is

basic

"rediscovered"

was

century
realized.
was

about

His

of

always been

not

century,

than
rather
introspection
over,
Morethe early portraits.

portraitsstill

222

age

has

that

own

this
role.

or

evidence

solitarybeing.The
the

to

in this porself-pity
trait.
supremely comprehending

of resentment

mood

not

self-consciousness (in the literal

word). Although his life had been
suffering and bitterness, there is

with

marred

and

costume,

chose

is

total

of the

sense

(Fig. 256). There

images

infinite gradations of
profound synthesisin

is that

art

great artist. He

nineteenth
these

as

of forms.
spiritualization

Rembrandt
a

well

as

shadow.

King

of

sion,
expres-

precedence

over

12

IMAQES

this

country

In

the

"

more

their

is

historically

the

possible

opposed

the

to

accords

with

views
electorate.

More

it is the

bring

them

satisfy
of

human

famous

how

in

vital

future,
than

In

In

public

this

average

ruler

and

of

abstract
in

through
physical presence.

as

of

extended

or

of the

ruler.

honor

the

Mediterranean

in

the

and

sculpture,

the

inform

The

well

as

Ages,

in

of

in

painting,
and

Symbols

intended

art

vices
de-

cultures
to

heavenly

the

quity
antivated
moti-

not

was

succeeding

earthly or

dence,
resi-

recurrence

appeal

by

own

an

the

ceremonies

that

as

the
also

elsewhere

architecture.

of

of
was

to

and

historical

Middle

their

kingship

clearly

mind

related

symbolism

assimilated

were

to

that

its design

simply by

interpret

be

the

epiphany,

world,

during

ever,
how-

see

hieratic

would

on

certain

on

to

of authority

symbolism

appearance

also

In

people.

only

not

devices

that

way
the

architecture

to

but

subject

of

omnipotence

or

relied

traditional

the

populace,

Egyptian

glorify

monarch.

of

for

authority

in

of

means

ultimately

his

attributes

divinity
artist,who

the

KING/

THE

more

DEITY

personalities.

world,

art

and

of

in

ruler

the

the

to

and

better

shall

we

likeness

cians'
politi-

chronicles,

the

of
fell

prescribed

as

subjects or

served

concepts

means

man

their

chapter

has

human

ancient

the

of

written

its time,

effective

the

portrait,

state

king

the

decipherable by

most

photograph,

particularly

areas,

for

individual

important

official

best and

AUTHORITY

embodiment

no

great portraits of past rulers that

life even
to
today, continuing to
the
curiosity about
appearance

men.

projecting

mass

have

of the

the

tastes

historically art

many

the

sovereigns'

than

of

politicalauthority
The
development.

official

of the

dred
hun-

of

uses

modern

of

finest artists for

recent

informality

last

invention

government

separation

from

art

the

the

growth

of

upon

portraiture. This
advanced

the

leaders

longer called

since

"

and

photography
media

elsewhere, for

as

or

years

OF

art

was

making
concepts

one

of the

of

kingship.

antiquity usually
rather

The

than
burden

most

through
of

the

for

concrete

The
his

knew
the

king's

creating

an

The
for

Egyptian
he

god,

the

statue

includes
headed

pharaoh

the

was

ruler

of Khafre
the

god

regarded

was

descendant
of

the

and

heir

An

Old

sky.

(Fig. 257)
carved

Horus,

seated

symbol
who

is

lord

as

sun

Kingdom
on

of

the

of

^23

divine,

of the

the

throne
hawk-

rising

sought deliberatelyto be
The

pharaoh

is from

statues

ruler

is sometimes

office

or

the

as

variation

only

the

shown
and

crook

unnatural
in

the

as

elbows

the

down;

holding
flail,the

sible.
pos-

position of
staff

of

attributes

of

authority held by the lord of the underworld

and
Osiris. His tasks were
be shepto
afterlife,
herd
and
of

nature

ceremonious
the

extreme

judge of his people. The sacerdotal

pharaonic imagery parallels the
of Egyptian court
life and
nature
formality of the kings' public

appearances.

One

of the oldest and

most
devices
persistent
authority and divinityof
ruler is that of centralized
a
composition,which
meant
two
settinghim between
flankingfigures
whose
lesser stature
is shown
in their
literally
smaller
scale or
by subservient
gestures. The
pharaoh Mycerinus had himself portrayed erect
and
two
rigidly frontal between
goddesses,
signifyingnot only his divine descent but also,
for political
demonstrating his acceptreasons,
ance
by the local goddess of a province (nome)
in his kingdom (Fig.258).

for

showing

Whether

absolute

or

elements

not

of naturalism

and

techniques as bronze
casting,as well as
ward
Egyptian symbols of kingship,penetrated westinto Negro Africa
themselves
or
were
influenced
by older Negro cultures is a problem
that stilloccupies anthropologists
and archaeologists.

such

The

Figure
2560

c.

The

257.

Pharaoh

directlybehind

The

from

Giza.

Egyptian

Cairo.

Museum,

sun,

Khafre,

Diorite, height 5'6". The

B.C.

hawk's

the

head

wings encircle

of the

the ruler's

Pharaoh.

headdress,

symbolic of his origin and

The

Pharaoh
pose

for

which
three

over

historyand
century

which

is revealed

of

movement

with
of

means

human

the

is

to

Pharaoh
his

the

twelfth-

Chartres.

at

over

aloof

and

The

mortality
immutable

of
bodily
The stiffness and
expression.
the human
body and countenance
by which the sculptor,working

suggestion

no

facial

or

immobilityof
the

Christ

through
There

posture.

ancestor

was

enthroned

transcendence

were

divine
protection.
less
rigidlyfrontal,a timewas
repeated without deviation
thousand
of Egyptian
years

is shown

anatomy,

indicated

his

king from mortals.

imagery, dealing with
224

In
a

Purposes

the

distinction

short, pharaonic
cosmic

of Art

kingship,

West

African

civilization

of Benin

and
highly organized central government
a
kingshipanalogous to that
concept of sacred
in the
of European
countries
sixteenth
and
seventeenth
centuries. A bronze
relief plaque,
dating perhaps from the seventeenth
century,
Benin
shows
seated
a
king (or Oba) flanked
by two
kneeling attendants
(Fig. 259). His
immobile
ritual gesture, larger
posture and
and
scale, frontality,
possessionof a hammer
in Egypt
all symbolic of authority.Both
were
and
Benin, certain materials were
royal prerogatives
in art.
Both
or
monopolies for use
their own
their palaces with
kings adorned
effigies.
(Plaquessuch as the one illustrated lined
the halls of the Oba's
palace.)Both rulers were
from
dead
kings and
thought to be descended
had

to

be

of

attended
African

divine
their

nature.

public

Elaborate

appearances.
tribal societies,
the ruler and

ceremonies
In

wore
clothing (a warrior's
personages
for instance),and
nakedness
was
a

inferior social status.

certain

important
surcoat,
of

mark

Egyptian pharaonic

ima-

Figure 258.
Goddesses,
The

c.

The
2500

Pharaoh
B.C.

Egyptian Museum,

Between
Two
A'lycerinus
slate, height 38 Vi".

Green

Cairo.

allowed

gery

facial likeness;that of Benin,

some

however, insisted

imperialimage
principle.

on

stereotype,

WARRIOR

that

so

of
representative

was

the

abstract

an

KINQS

three
For
thousand
pharaohs were
years,
presented in paintingsand relief sculpturethat
and
proclaimed their godlike character
tection
proof the people. Shown
in battle,at the

hunt, in

the

company

at
state
officiating
effigywas placed on
and
temples. One

rulers, Ramses
century

B.C.,

of other
deities,and
ceremonies, the pharaoh's
the walls of tombs, palaces,

of the

III, who
followed

greatest of
lived

in

established

an

Egypt's

the

twelfth

tradition

by using the pylon of a great temple as a

billboard. In a relief decoration, he had
political
himself shown
hunting wild bulls (Fig. 260).
This

not

was

meant

as

secular

of

scene

frivolous sport, for all activities engaged in by a

symbolic of his fight
pharaoh were
religious,

againstevil. Wild
viewed

were

underworld

beasts
the

as

as

well

deity.While

the

reins tied to
because

unison

Ramses'

of

tribes

enemy

benevolent

god Horus flies above him, the

dispatches the fleeinganimals
The

as

partisansof Set,

the

demonstrated

waist

Pharaoh
with

evil

an

hawk

coolly

his spear.

seem

sary
unneces-

perfect disciplineand
by the chariot's horses.

Benin King (Oba) and Attendants,

from
Figure 259.
Nigeria. 17th century (?). Bronze, i6%" x 15 V^".
The

British

Museum,

London.

-^v^^

III Hunting Wild

Ramses
Figure 260.
Medinet
Abu.
from
a
pylon relief),

of

Sandstone.

The

Oriental

of

c.

(detail

1180

B.C.

Institute, University of

Chicago.
Images

Bulls

Authority

225

'*t

**.

's;'#' 1,

Above:

261.

Figure

from

Nimrud.

33'

8'4". The

Ashurnasirpal II Killing Lions,

Limestone
relief,
b.c.
850

c.

British

Right: Figure 262.

IVom

Iran.

engraved

L.

II

Sassanian

a.d.

partiallygilded,

and

(John

London.

f"-ingHormuzd

302-3oq

relief,diameter
Art

Museum,

Hunting Lions.
silver plate,

with

applied

Cleveland
8 "4". The
Severance
Fund).

cast

Museum

of

The

symbolically small-scale troops also seem

superfluous,for the divine ruler's victory was
inevitable. The
extended
raised and
front legs
of the horses
were
a
victorysymbol throughout
the

ancient

Near

Far

and

thrashing animal
with
battle reliefs. So

the

bodies

of

eflfective

was

of

gallop and fallen prey

imperial imagery into the
and

also

with

recurred

Guernica

demonstrates

dead

warriors

it

that

and

his

relief

formula

century

in Picasso's
of

synthesisof

retinue

in

persistedin

nineteenth

This

schematic

fallen
is interchangeable

this combination

the

hunt

naturalistic

(in fishes, reeds, and

stylizedor

Ramses

fine

horses

connotations

(see Fig. 466).

observation

the

new

The

East.

beneath

bulls) and
with

which

depicted. The
pictographic writing extollingthe

intrusion

of

Pharaoh

demonstrates

transcended

of

the

time

event

and

and
space

art

and

possessed instead

a
higher reality.
hunting relief from a ninth-century B.C.
Assyrian palace shows King Ashurnasirpal II
aiming at a lion poised on the rear of the royal
chariot
(Fig. 261). Assyrian palaces abounded
in symbolically repetitiousreliefs of imperial
warfare, hunting, and
religious ceremonies.

The

great

size

226

and

to
impress visitingemissaries
not
king's might. Assyrian kings were

they

of

number

Purposes

of

Art

reliefs

were

mortals

were

right

with

demonstrated

who

the

deified;
their

rule

through physicalprowess,
actually
jeopardizing their lives in stalking their prey
or

to

in hand-to-hand

king's acclaim
the

are

that

unities

intended

given

an

combat

of

courage

opportunity

relief shown

in

depended

here

his
to

indicates

with

their foes. The

part

upon

edging
acknowlwho

opponent,

attack.

The

the type

was

Assyrian

of hunt

the

utilizingcaptured lions
be
that, if recalcitrant, could
goaded into
fightingby the noise of cymbals and irritating
in
wounds.
Deliberate
his aim
despite the
release
beast's proximity, the king is about
to
king might

the

fatal

conduct,

arrow.

The

muscular

character

of

kingship is reflected in the strong

the flatter tian
to
modeling, in contrast
Egyp-

Assyrian
relief

forms, which

seem

to

lack

bone

and

sinew.

The

and
overlappingof figures

and

their abundant

show

earthbound

more

than

objectsin depth

detail,schematized
orientation

it

is,
ian
Assyr-

as

in

in

they do

Egyptian royalart. The

favored
for its ready
view was
in antiquity
profile
ness
of exposition,
and usefulidentification,
clarity
in renderinganimals
and figures
in movement.
art

Ancient

Persian

showing
the

At

rulers continued

of

court

combating wild
Sassanid
kings such

II,the tableware

muzd

the motif of

themselves

included

animals.
Hor-

as

silver drinking

bowls

bearing reliefs of the hunting triumph

a
(Fig.262). The use of this subjectwas
royal
made
in
prerogative,and the bowls were
astride a horse in full
palace workshops.Shown
II effortlessly
gallop,Hormuzd
pivotshis body
and
is about to kill a wild lion rearingup on its
This
hind legs.
shows to good advantage
movement
his horsemanshipand profile.
The ritualistic
rather than realistic depictionrequiredthat the
conventions
such
artist employ certain
as
under
the horse to
showing a dead animal
balance the one
stillalive,and ridingwith his
back

the

to

wearing

his

garment

as

horse's

head, the ruler is

To

shown

purity of
and focus on the royal profile,
the artist willingly
compromises realityby depicting the king's
as

as

he

crown.

the

preserve

in the

being blown

direction

same

is

mered
riding.The metal sculptorfirst hamhis design from
the back
out
(known
and

repousse work)

render

then

used

burin

to

the

elegant trappingsof horse and king

with
is
a jeweler'sprecision.
Just as admirable
the adapting of the composition to the concave
circular field of the bowl, and when
consider
we
this aspect of the artist's problem, his contractions
of

make

distance

excellent

that the
show

and

idea

developed that

the ruler

he

as

be. So successful

influence
into the
The

and

richest

found

in

Rome

from

in

two

dates

B.C.

from

such
a

ing
drink-

as

powerful

Mediterranean

art.

The

republic into

statues

to

artists that their

world

legacyof imperialimagery

Roman
a

not

ought

Ages.

"!' Roman

Emperor Augustus,
century

he

as

textiles,exerted

throughout the
Middle

subjects
antiquity

artists should

work, often transportable

wares
bowls

in

was

but

was,

Persian

were

of

placement

It
artistic logic.

was

is that

transformation

of

empire is reflected

an

the

rulers:
made

in

first,of

the late first

(Figs.263, 264) ; the second, which

the

late

Imperialera,

is

probably to

Above:

Figure 263.

Prima

Marble, height 6'8". Musei

Below:

Figure 264.
Fig. 263.

Prima

Porta

Augustus,c.

19

B.C.

Vatican!, Rome.
Porta

Augustus, detail of

Colossus of Barletta
Left: Figure 265. So-called
(Emperor Marcian?; reigned450-57 a.d.).Bronze,
Church
of Sto. Sepolcro,
height i6'9". Outside
Barletta. (The legs are restorations.)
Above:

Figure 266.

Colossus

of Barletta,detail of

Fig.265.
tured

eagle standards from Roman

legions,a
diplomatic feat of Augustus, signifying
his peaceful rule. The
figurebelow symbolizes
the overflowing cornucopias
Mater, and
Magna
to
the material
attest
prosperityunder
Augustus' rule. The dolphin by his leg alludes
belief in the divine
peror's
to the
originsof the Emfamily,and the Cupid astride it alludes
Venus
and fertility.
to
Thus, brought together
actual
historical
the breastplateare
on
an
strate
and
allegoriesthat demonevent, divinities,
historic

be identified with

266). The
villa

outside

Augustus\
usually referred
where

the

the

bronze

to

Italian

as

town

it is located.

military uniform,
His

gesture

Marcian

is that

as

the
on

the

the

Prima

coast

is shown

the

is

of Barletta,

Adriatic

Augustus

of the

his wife's

of Marcian

cast

Colossus

befitted

at

in

Imperator.

commander-in-chief

beneath
exhortinghis troops. On his breastplate
the approving figureof Jupiter is the scene
of a
Parthian
chieftain voluntarilyreturning cap228

Purposes of

Art

universal

the

(Figs.265,

Augustus, found
is known
Rome,
as

Porta

from

Emperor
of

statue

Pax

Romana

for

which

deified

by
provinceshe conquered, in Rome
its first citizen,
remain
itself Augustus chose
to
the
to
or
princeps, nominally subservient
is that
in nonmilitary matters.
His effigy
senate
and
of a
handsome
athletic,dignified but
humane
ruler, given to clemency as well as to
in
His
war.
weight is gracefully balanced
of the Greek SpearCarrier
reminiscent
manner
a
capable
(Fig.418), and the poisedfigureseems
x\ugustus

some

of easy

was

of the

movement.

famed.

Although

Like

It is

of the

survival

rare

of the

statues

also stood

statue

in

and

foes. In

of

that

Unlike

time.

of the

Augustus,
publicplace.
full-length
imperial

version

bronze

second,

Barletta

the

Augustus,

human
which
was
only slightlylarger than
impressively
scale, Marcian's
effigy towered
than
one-half
the crowd, more
and
two
over
times life size. No
longer mortal and responsible
is deified in
Marcian
to
an
earthly power,

aspect and

mihtary

wears

Both

crown.

were

emperors

Marcian's

figures,but

the

is

statue

quality'of human
mercy
exemplified in Augustus is replaced by the
severity of the later divine, uncompromising
guardian of the Empire. In the originalstate,
Marcian
probably held a sword
(now he holds
his martial spirit
giving comfort to
up a cross),
his many
non-Christian
followers and evoking
fear in his enemies.

As

of his

and
power
the orb replaced

symbols

accomplishment,the sword and

of Augustus'
the complex allegorical
program
The
relaxed
armor.
fluidity of Augustus'
movements
a

gave

to

way

by
a

limbs

body.

form

was
Augustus'
tough,unyieldingsurface,as

masculine

The
ceeded
suc-

well

as

of the

treatment

drapery.
Both
sculpturesare portraitsof the rulers.
of Augustus echoes
Classical Greek
The
head
tastes, displaying physical beauty, controlled
of the hair and
and
softened treatment
slightly
features, and

the

bronze
blocklike

form

of

air

an

of

head

Marcian
axial

and

The

composure.

has

symmetry

geometric,
enhanced

fixityof the enlarged irises.

relaxed portraitdoes not belie
Augustus' more
porize.
an
ability to speak eloquently and to extemMarcian's
mouth
reminds
us
tight-set
that on
public occasions the post-Diocletian
by

the charismatic

spoke

emperors

in

formulas

or

communicated

with

prescribed signs, avoiding spontaneity

and
the trivial gestures that might have marred
their godlikeimpersonality.
the Barletta and Prima
Porta figures
Between
in date are
other works
of Imperial art that
two
reflect politicaland
artistic changes. The
equestrianstatue of Marcus Aurelius (Fig.267),
between

made

medieval

161

because

it was

the first Christian

a

fallen

and

180

a.d.,

survived

ary
Imperial statumistakenlybelieved to depict

destruction

of Roman

emperor,

barbarian

Constantine.

lay beneath

the

clemency
the

held

orb.

to

his

standing
Free-

meant

severe

punishment.

Public

executions

and
a
performed before the monument,
prisoneron trial could touch the statue, claiming
and the rightof appeal to the emperor.
sanctuary
were

Aurelius'

horse

the

modeled

The

head
To

below

is rendered

that the

detail,so

veins

of the

bronze
and

at

in

the

meticulous

reveals
in

creases

Emperor

accommodate

and

cast

is less

strongly
the

flesh.

ever.
detailed,how-

beholder's

gaze

from

distance, the hair portionsare

deeply drilled and the planes of the face are

broadly modeled. There is an over-all lessening
of particularized
features and portraitquality,
an
making the figureand its gesture into more

and

stance

and

of

he

sculpturesof mounted
figureswere
the prerogativeof the emperor.
So
esteemed
this and other
were
imperialeffigies
written
that
laws
were
concerning human
conduct
prohibitedin their vicinity;violation
era

Figure 267.
c.

stiff and

more

firm

more

of

softness

sensuous

of the

rigidarrangement

gesture is one

his left hand

in that

The

militant.

more

Aurelius'

inally,
Orighorse,

161-180

EquestrianStatue of

A.D.

Campidoglio,

Bronze,
Rome.

over

Marcus

Aurelius.

life-size. Piazza

del

ideal
the

embodiment

of

the

near-deific

of

the

second

of

status

Toward

the

end

Commodus

had

(Fig. 268),

thus

beginning
America

sculpture of
of

Zeus

Roman
reflects

and

the

Lincoln's

from

arrow

that

of the
choice
senate

caliber

short

drive

in

the

and

this
with

gives

to

deify the ruling authority

over

the

the

emperor.

murder
diminish

after
the

of Rome.

between

as

dei

Hercules,

c. 185 a.d.
Marble,
Conservatori, Rome.

the

and

Augustan

14

and

and

it

intended

was

foreign and
and

sive
impres-

is

age

Built

B.C.

the

and
the

on

perors
em-

reliefs

ceremonial

beautiful

most

military parade ground

Rome,

Field

then

of

outside

publicize the
policy.The

to

domestic

Ara

carved

peror's
Emperor
Em-

his

of the
one
on
family are shown
joining in a procession led by the
priestseither at the founding or completion of
the altar. Only a detail of the relief is shown
here
the conscious
(Fig. 269), but it demonstrates
the
informality of the groupings and
of Augustus
indistinguishability
(probably the
exterior

figure
has

Figure 268. Commodus

Palazzo
height 43 W'

battles,hunts,

of the

(Altar of Peace), constructed

bow

before

of

One

reliefs of

Mars,

tion
indica-

some

resultingfrom

bloody
reign did not

soldier-

the Colosseum

of ruler

turbulent

in

Assyrian predecessors,Roman
in a wide
shown
variety of

paintings

functions.

Pacis

manner

Commodus

in its growing power

of the army
in electing and
sustaining an

Nonetheless, Commodus'
a

at

and

later

Greenough's

caused

It also

their
were

first century,

hippopotami

his box

cheering multitude.

Like

assumed

centuries

of

statue

five

had

enthronement

The

vanity
shoot

to

the
that

produced Horatio
George Washington

temple.

emperor
and

long tradition

Nero

RELIEFS

a.d.

the

gladiator-trainedemperor
depicted as Hercules
proclaiming himself immortal.
the
role of a living god
in

PORTRAITS

AND
century

himself

in

IMPERIAL

living Emperor.

sides

the

at

been

Like

the others

members

other

wears

left half

left, the

lost) from

laurel

of his

body

procession.

family, the
neither

but

crown,

of whose

in the

Emperor

in

posture,

positionis his preeminence stressed.

The
that
image Augustus sought to projectwas
of a
ruler
anxious
sincere religious
to
restore
observance
and the unity of the family.Dilatory
and
temple attendance
juvenile delinquency
unknown
not
were
already in Augustus' time.
gesture,

or

Over

three

and

Forum

older

to

Two

monuments.

(Fig.270)
from

the

It

victory of
adorned

was

reliefs taken

of

the

from
reliefs

new

Constantine

showed

receivinghomage
distributinggifts,
according

and

senate

tradition.

the

Maxentius.
with

great

the Colosseum

near

commemorate

over

sculpture and

new

later,

years

erected

was

to

Constantine
with

hundred

arch

triumphal

In

strong

contrast

the

to

more

Augustan relief,those
of the Arch
of Constantine
jar the eye with
their stunted
bodies, large heads, repetitive
total
loss
geometric alignment, and
gestures,
of individuality.
The
figuresare flattened out
have
and
lost all sensual
reliefs
appeal. The
intended
not
to
were
relativelysmall and were
for example, the
fulfill the same
function
as,
than
60-foot full-length
of Constantine
statue
more
that was
placed in his basilica. Although
naturalistic

the

best

did

not

force and

11)0

Purposes

of

Art

figuresof

talent
work

the

available

on

succeeds

the
in

at

the

time

relief,it still has

conveying

the

evidently
a

court

certain
ideals

Left:Figure 269. Procession

of the Augusti,portion of the
frieze
c.

of

the

Ara

Pacis.

Marble,

4-9 B.C.
5'3". Rome.

height

Below:
tine

ConstanFigure 270.
Receiving
Homage from the
and Distributing
Gifts,

Senate
frieze

the

on

Arch

stantine.
A.D.

Rome.

of

the

time.

In

the

all
Emperor's presence
according to a strict
ritual. The
importance of these reliefs lies in
their
culmination
of the
a
tendency toward
total
of composition, with
centripetalmode
focus upon
the strictly
frontal and
centralized
figure of the Emperor. No previous ancient
culture had
realized so completely the artistic

activitywas

conducted

devices
taste

in

of this

the

service

epoch

was

of flesh and
qualities
superseded emphasis
the

of

authority. Official

indifferent
blood.
upon

to

the

organic

Expression of
outward

ideas

form, and

sensual

in Greece
life of the body glorified
A new
and
earlyRome
passed into eclipse.
positiveesthetic evolved in accord with hieratic
and
have
been
spiritualideals that would

and

Images

of

Authority

of

Con-

Early 4th century

Marble, height 41 ^s".

231

)
S5C=="^

Narmer

Figure 271.

outraged by
the

taste

statuary and
the

The

that of
an
as
interpretation
sophisticated,
predominantly
produced the Arch of Constantine
the Barletta figure,
and this provided

Ravenna

as

in

medieval

Christian

mosaic

of Christ

apse

portion of

eastern

known

Palette,from Hieraconpolis. c. 3000

Cairo.
The
Egyptian Museum,

such

the basis for such

as

Votive

Pacis. A

Ara

urban

"^7

Byzantium,

330

with

the

Roman

founded

was

its

imagery
(PI.5).

Empire,

tine
by Constan-

capitalcity named
Earlier Roman
for the founder, Constantinople.
imperial devices for imbuing art with the
continued
majesty and deeds of the ruler were
and refined in the Eastern
turies
Empire in the centhat followed.
Art workshops were
part
of the Great Palace of the Emperors in Constantinople,
erected during the reignof Theodosius.
held
The
a
ruler, who
monopoly on
many
luxury materials such as purple dyes, sought to
that imperial art
would
continue
to
ensure
his people of perpetual victory and
remind
divinelysanctioned rule. Coins, public statues,
boxes, consular
credentials,
ivory reliefs on
textiles,paintings,mosaics, army
standards,
such
and
precious objects as silver disks presented
the imperialeffigy
for a thousand
years.
The
was
as
a
always shown
majestic
emperor
A.D.,

232

Purposes of

Art

B.C.

Schist, heigh 25".

in battle,hunting, officiating
authority, whether
at
public ceremonies, or attending the
in

games
berini

of the

the

hippodrome.

The

so-called

Bar-

Ivory (PI. 30) is an outstandingexample

image of the early Byzantine ruler. A

semipreciousmedium
imported from India and
Africa, ivory had the advantage of softness for
delicate and
detailed carving,combined
with
the capacity to
take
durability and
paint.
about

Made

Barberini

the

turn

of the

sixth century, the

probably part of a series

umphs
commemorating
militaryand diplomatic triof Emperor Anastasius
I. The
tripartite
be
that can
organizationis a design scheme
traced back
to
Egyptian imperial imagery of
the first dynasty, notably in the votive palette
of King Narmer
(Fig.271).
the top zone
In both objects,
is symmetrical,
its uncompromising formality being reserved
for images of a supreme
deity.Flanking Egyptian
gods represented in the form of bulls
precede their later anthropomorphic treatment.
On
in

had

the
a

panel

was

ivory, a frontal bust of Christ appears

held by angels. The
Christians

medallion

simply replaced

images

of the

emperor

earlier

with

pagan

Roman

those of their God

"

o
CO

1^

^
o

O
z

"
w
W
z
o
H
z

"

CO
CO
u

'm

CO

"13

-~1

o
O

"
u

Q
"

z
O
o

c
o
-a
c
o

1-1
c
o

3
O

"

a
o

CO

I
CO
CO

"

a
"
o
Q

m
CO

Plate

36.

Claude
Monet.
Rue St. Denis,National Holiday,June 30,
Oil on canvas,
24I/2X 13".Musee des Beaux-Arts, Rouen.

i8y8. 1878.

"a**^

and

preserved the hieratic format. The second

of the ivory shows
the Byzantine Emperor
on
horseback, his standard
largely obscuring
the
figure of an Asiatic chieftain. His stirrup
is supported by an
allegoricalfigure of Earth,
and
with
a
a
flanking official presents him
of Victory. On
the palette.King Narmer
statue
zone

is shown

hand,

in

ritualistic gesture, with

about
stroke.

single

by

in

mace

destroy his adversary with

(Reflecting Christianizing

to

the

time

Byzantine

emperors

battlefield

images

of

had
and

the

Barberini

reduced

the

fluence,
in-

Ivory

number

of

those

involving cruelty.)
While
subordinate
their
to
respective gods,
both
rulers assert
their importance through
their great scale within
the zones
they occupy.
Anastasius
is shown
in not quite frontal pose
so
that he tactfully
does not compete
with Christ;
he is relatively
his field,but one
central within
flanking official is missing. In the lowest, most
inferior register,
both
pieces have the greatest
mobility and, symbolically significant,their
least ordered
of Narmer
portion. The enemies
flee or are
dead, their disarraycontrastingwith
the King's composed solemnity. Below
sius,
Anastabarbarians
at the left,are
bringing tribute
and, on the right,emissaries from India bearing
relief carving in
gifts that include ivory. The
both
works
is of the highest quality precise,
clear, and
adept in shaping compositional
demands
The art of intervening
to political
ones.
"

is testified to

centuries
with

its greater
and

To

in the

Byzantine
variety of

sensuousness,

relief,

unfamiliar

complete
ideals.

that

of earlier

with

realization

Like

many

of

the silver Disk

made

the

at

end

politicaland

other

Ivory and

of the

derives

Rome,

works,

the

of Theodosius
fourth

from

religious

(Fig.272),

century,

show

in art that
of excellence
is
possibilities
in a
created
republican society. Wearing
is enthroned
imperial diadem, Theodosius

that

center

may

of

have

gabled

and

symbolized

arcaded
a

its

Barberini

the

the

29 Vs".

palace.

To

the

the

sons,

of Theodosius. c. 390 a.d. Silver,

Academy of History, Madrid.

left and

not

An

official kneels

of power

from

facjade of

person

is the

earth

his

receive

to

the

him

and

his

are

Arcadius,

at

the

official. His

his unWorthiness

of the

goddess

with

the

to

court

hands

are

touch

the

below

area

cornucopia symbolizing
Byzantine rule; at

the

under

time. Christian

to

In

Emperor.

abundance
this

investiture

giftor

Emperor. According

looks

one

divine

emperors

not

were

averse

symbolism. The
using pagan
Emperor's
in hieratic fashion by his
omnipotence is shown
to

great

scale,

his

an

arch

beneath
attributes

are

centrality,

symbolic

and

of

his

important

more

location
These

heaven.
the

than

vidual
indi-

personalityor features of the ruler,hence

the essential impersonalityof the image. Again,
the artist is depicting an
abstract
idea. An
witness
eyeheld
with
of
audience
a
an
description
Byzantine emperor
by Liudprand of Cremona
in

the

tenth
that

century
the

artist

wrote

of the

chamber

the

illuminates

led

been

Emperor,

Images

of

ment
environ-

expressing,but

was

describing. Having
literally
audience

structure

of

ing
holding orbs symbolic of temporal rule. Flankthe whole
are
pairs of imperial guardsmen.

the
in

right

Honorius

princes

cloaked, showing

Byzantine art,
it may
stiflf,
repetitious,and unfeeling;
appear
there is no
warmth
in the
display of human
the
imperial images, no
dialogue between
to
no
alternatives, Egypfigures.Accustomed
tian,
and
Roman,
Byzantine artists accepted
their assigned roles and
in creating
succeeded
inspired art within
officiallyimposed strict
limitations.
Much
of the power
of Byzantine
art, like

Disk

272.

ritual,no

ment,
move-

body perspectives.

someone

Figure
diameter

Authority

233

into

not

the

Liudprand

Before

the

stood

seat

gilded over, whose

birds, also made
uttered

different

The
species.
ouslyfashioned that
and

structure

air. It

with

over

tails and
and
of

throne

itselfwas

at

moment

one

another

at

of immense

was

lions,made

gold,who
a

bronze,

dreadful

marvela

into the

rose

guarded by

was

of wood

or

beat the

so

it seemed

it

size and

either of bronze

gave

of

filled with

were

of gilded bronze, which

cries,each according to its

various

low

made

tree

branches

covered

ground with their

with open mouth
the shoulders

roar

quiveringtongue. Leaning on
I was
eunuchs
two
brought

into

the

peror's
em-

At
approach the lions
presence.
my
began to roar and the birds cry out.... I lifted my
head
and behold, the man
whom
I had just

before

seen

had

seat

sittingon a moderately elevated

changed his position and was
the level of the ceiling.

now

sittingon

Unfortunately,no
throne

and

of

images

audience

hall

this marvelous

have

survived.

The

imaginativegenius that contrived the tree and

lions lives on only in Liudprand's words.
The
influence of Byzantine imperialimagery
felt all through the Middle
was
Ages. One of its
Figure

273.

Emperor

Otto

Gregorii.Trier. Manuscript
Musee
Conde, Chantilly.
Figure 274.
Minamoto

Fujiwara

Yoritomo.

goji, Japan.

c.

no

from

the
II,
illumination,

Registrum
c.
985.

strongest manifestations is in tenth- and eleventhmanuscript art depictingthe

century Ottoman
Germanic
married

Takanobu.

1185. Painting on

Portrait

of

silk. Jin-

emperor

Byzantine princesswho

her husband's

in

of art,

works

court

artists,which
influence

Ottonian

An

emperors.
a

helps

for

account

to

had

brought to
and possibly
Eastern

Europe. The Emperor

II had
Otto
himself portrayed in a manner
reminiscent of Theodosius
(Fig.273).Allegorical
figuresof four nations bring giftsto the impassive
ruler

Western

sitting beneath

architectural

an

canopy, itselfa celestial symbol.The perspective

of the canopy
is rudimentary and inconsistent.
To
the

preserve
arc

omitted

the ruler's hieratic

of the

the

canopy,

the fourth

To

column.

centralitywithin
arbitrarily

artist

have

rendered

the

from the
depth of the paintingconsistently
viewpoint of a spectator outside the picture
would have meant
subordinatingthe ruler to an
external
governed by the viewer.
system
Hieratic

conventions

schemes

or

were

used

to natural
fidelity
ance,
appearof suitability
to the theme.
only for reasons
The
Ottonian
portraitshares certain traits
with a Japanese portraitof the great Shogun
nobu
Minamoto
Yoritomo, by Fujiwara no Takaiconic representa(Fig.274). Both were
tions

without

concern

of power.

the

for

Takanobu,

irnpersonalsymbols

however, combined

and

stiff forms

of the

commander's

ceremonial

is seated

on

cushion

the

in

seen

throne,

place of

honor

in the audience

ceremony

when

1185,

was

Yoritomo

retired from

the

created
lasted

would

caste, into

military regime

the

the

and

active rule. Yoritomo

warrior

be

overthrew

pleasure-loving
Fujiwara regents
the samurai, the

Shogun

he

as

able
notice-

during a formal
of his palace.This
painted shortly

hall

silk

imposing portraiton
after

with

costume

likeness of his subject. The

facial

peror
Em-

brought
and

power

(Baku-Fu)

that

japan until the nineteenth

century.
paintinginaugurated a portrait
in Japanese art. The
tion
style,a continuaearlier periods,comprised largecrisp

in

Takanobu's

tradition
from

surface patterns,
silhouettes,clear ornamental
a
flat-toned,textureless flesh rendering,and an
austere, seemingly airless surrounding. Mineral
colors were
mixed
with glue to give opaque,
unmodeled
surfaces.
By Western
standards,
the

lines may
closer
on

but

deft

uniformly drawn,

seem

reveal

inspectionthey
in

changes

flowing,

first

at

value

wirelike

while

resides in the small, immobile

of the

head

are

the

sword
of

and

the

style are

his office and

the

power,

scepter. Nevertheless, the injection

evidence
for

shapes
The
position of
traditional,as

mouth.

hair
of

symbols
and

some

taste

and

nose,

eyes,

the

of

Yoritomo's

of

an

distinctive

encroachment

features

of the

naturalism, as opposed

the

to

National
H.

Verrochio.
terra

Galleryof Art, Washington,

Kress

Lorenzo de'
life-size. The

cotta,

D. C.

(Samuel

Collection).

occasional

preserving a
viduality
Shogun's indi-

quality.The

Andrea
Figure 275.
del
Medici, c. 1478. Painted

is

the
an

of

presence

mind

to

have

may

likelyit

been
was

intended

ideal

by

hung in a palace,
worship. More
his militaryand

for

memorial

administrative

recall

or

compose

appropriatecouplet.
Yoritomo's
which
portrait,
to

be

genius, to

venerated

as

later generations of samurai.

samurai

the concept

abstract

ethical

of

ruler's

example

portraitservingas

shared

was

an

Thus,

by East and

an

West.

facial types characteristic of previousperiods.

In Yoritomo's
shogunate the code of Bushido
into

came

therefore

ideal of
nobu

ascendance.

The

have

to

seems

samurai

of rational

nor

human

frame

times

exhibit

to

show

of

no

culture

samurai

opponent

samurai."

of

emotion

The

bone

finest

that

rectitude

sculpturalportraitof

Italian

century

de'

Lorenzo

course

make

He

man

animation
view
in

the

would
and

or

also

in

face

and

all

presence

serene.")

ever

the

that it was

at

portrait

unmanly
that
truly

part of his training. The

esteemed, and
in the

is

of

"who
possessedby him
anger." An appreciation

was

signof joy

who

Taka-

respects.

strict

is the

composure

the samurai

was

the

learning can

stoic

strong character
shows

that

.without

stature.

("A truly brave

absence

expresses

code

PORTRAITS

Verrocchio

Renaissance

Medici,

about
bust

terra-cotta

might

heat

even

spare,

of battle maintained

an

Duke's

and

power

Florentine

which

fifteenth-

ruler

is that

del
by Andrea
(Fig.275). This painted

impressivewitness

excellence.

stylewas

able

The
to

to

extent

when
authority is further demonstrated
is studied along with
Machiavelli's
in The
Prince,written in 1513 and
in
Lorenzo
1532.
Although
published

bust

Magnificent died some

twenty
their writing,these precepts were
tradition
to

has

art

can

out

be

knowledge
of which

placed upon
Images

he

in the

seen

of his
came.

years

Their

importance

Authority

to

the
ments
state-

235

first
the

before

influenced
career

appearances:
of

the

impart ideals

of

Machiavelli's

of

done

1478

bears

talent

The

"Rectitude

and

neither

of mind.

portrait is
Japanese feudal

illustrated in many

conduct:

gives firmness

in
disciplined

was

STATE

Yoritomo's

representativeof
the perfectknight,

and

by
the

relevance
the writer

Battista

Francesca.
della
Figure 276. Piero
Sforza, Duchess of Urbino. c. 1465-72. Oil
18 Vo"
13". Uffizi, Florence.

panel,

on

"

We

guard

encourage
their own

ought

to

of

commander.

.have

but
to

of

that

as

need

anything

It is
necessary

war.

preserve

other

no

take

nor

aim,

nor

else for his proper

for a Prince, desiring

himself, to be able

make

to

hold

his

Prince

faithful
and
subjects united
himself of the conditions
(ought) to serve

of the

Fox

...

and

the

Lion.

.and

let him

that

sees

and

all his actions

his
in

magnificence
the

with

fit times

Feasts

and

spread

and

of

abroad

worthiness.

the

the

i^36

He

name

of

ought
people

Masks.

bust gives Lorenzo

contemplative appearance.
in

entertain

year

Verrocchio's
but

cornicelike

face

gave

Purposes

the

lough, sober,
Subtle

subject a

of Art

Like

Chapter 13,

Lorenzo's

thrust of the
and

cap

severe

is distincltyseparate in
frame

of verticals

Skilled in the
was

also

hear

to

appearance.

strong forward

gerations
exagsome-

his

arts

owing

has

its

to

dress, and the

framed
by the

nose,

zone
on

of

Lorenzo
politics,
gathered in his
of
philosophers,men

and

war

culture, who

artists,such
a

bust

hairdo.
Every
composition built

brilliant circle of

On

be

palace,to

horizontals.

and

of

man

letters, and

in

in

militant
solid, even
appearance
firm roundness, unostentatious

court

him, all pity,all faith,

all integrity,
all humanity,
all religion. .for
all men
in general judge thereof, rather
by
to
sight than touch, for every man
come
may
the sight of him, few come
the touch
and
to
feelingof him. A Prince ought to endeavor
to

him

seem

discussed

use

to
honesty, and
lay it aside again
shall
Prince
a
require. Wherefore
ought not to regard the infamy of cruelty,for
to

leonine

what

....

in

go

thought,
art,

such
Princes
to
fortifyand
The
Prince
capital city
and
perform the office
person

Piero
Francesca.
della
Figure 277.
Federigo da
Montefeltro, Duke
of Urbino. c. 1465-72. Oil on
panel, 1854" "" J3"- Uffizi, Florence.

the

as

modest

more

young

scale

Roman

the Medici
also
emperors,
pageants for the city of Florence.
Italian portraitsof nobilityin

than

angelo.
Michelhad

the

staged public
the

fifteenth

century, like the design of their palace fa(jades,

were

Rome.
of the

stronglyinfluenced
Piero
Duke

della
and

by

ideas

Francesca's

Duchess

of

from

double
Urbino

ancient

portrait
poses

the

emulating coin and medallion

subjectsin profile,
of Roman
effigies
(Figs.276, 277).
emperors
The
the
profileview also served to conceal
Duke's
damaged right eye, for while a fair
considered
degree of portrait likeness was

period,that which seemed ugly

deformed, along with conspicuousemotion,

desirable in this
or

be

to

was

The

concealed.

the ducal

bridge of

adds

nose

to

strikingbroken
the impressivethe

of his birdlike

on
Un-Roman,
profile.
drop
of a landscape backPiero's use
contrary, was
Artful placement of the
for the portrait.
line perhaps implies
the horizon
heads above
and figuratively,
lord
that the Duke
is,literally
the land he surveys. The
over
couple'selevated
viewpoint suggests that they are depictedon a
tradition of
balcony of their palace;the Roman
the ruler's association with a loggiaor "window
of appearances" is also discussed in Chapter 13.
of the portraitpanels (Figs.
On the reverse
278,
ting
sitand Duchess
279), Piero painted the Duke
on
triumphal carriages;
Federigo is shown
of
being crowned
by Fame, and personifications
ness

virtues
The

both

accompany

revival

the

and

to

State

state

when

to

abstraction

an

men

The

blasphemous doctrine
kingswas beginning to be
in
Europe. The
belonged to the monarchs.

Above:

Below:

think of it.

of the

divinityof

in the

air
.

sixteenth

Figure 278. Piero

Triumph of the Duke of Urbino
portraitpanel (Fig.277).

called

should

DELLA
reverse

Piero
della
Figure 279.
Triumph of the Duchess of Urbino,reverse
portraitpanel (Fig.276).

where
every-

century

Francesca
side of the

Francesca.
side of the

"55S"5^^5gS^Siv

ries
centu-

of

triumphal processions
nobility.In the
of Piero's carts
simplicity
and
elaborate
complex

more

floats.

of
portraits

relevance

or

transference

the national

of the

pageants

Baroque period,the
way
gave
ceremonial

its further

wife.

and

fifteenth,
sixteenth,and seventeenth
witnessed

the past have

These

warmth

ity.
individual-

and

of concepts
portraits

were

and

persons,

littlepopularity

of their extreme

today because

formality,their lack of
of

husband

ruler. Gradually that ultimate allegiance

once
ferred
given to the universal church was being transin preparationfor
to secular sovereigns,

it is the

alien

well

as

character

as

of

absolutist

ideals that contributes

to
political
present-day public indifference or dislike. The
for the state
formulas
portraitthat originated
in exceptionalpainting of the sixteenth
and
seventeenth
centuries encouraged mechanical
in the hands
of uninspiredtechnicians
repetition
that continues
even
today in trustee portraits
on

in corporative board
or
campuses
the rise of the state in the sixteenth

our

With

rooms.

and

the task
centuries,it became
to
portraitist
give material form to the
immaterial
historian
entity of the state. The
seventeenth

of the

Garrett

Mattingly,in

his fine book

the

Spanish Armada, describes

which
state portraits
emerged:
The

deepest longing

divided
peace,

find

of

the

sixteenth
and

for

the

social

order

sacred, and

explicitno

matter

the

Defeatof

climate

So

in

and

unity and
men

could

they craved

was

the life of

even

preacherstaught,

duty

what

The

troubled

for
was
century
the only effective symbol

the person
of the monarch.
the wickedest
prince,most
was

the

the

of obedience
character

was

of the

"lk._

j.-^-

-!K^.-i
.."J^SK-iiS.i'-'.

in

Earlv

sixteenth

the

Clouet

Jean

century

painteda half-lengthportraitof Francis I that

is regal in subjectand
style (PI.31). Required
therefore restricted in
to portray grandeur, and
the

with

king
and

hand

one

the other

at

conveyed

swellingof

the

on

his sword

cloth-covered

upward

costume

shaped neck,
thought to be
with

as

rest

ideal royal

the

in

the

hands

finely

what

were

which

meant

and
masculinityof
exaggerating the breadth
relief to
the king. Clouet givesonly a subdued
the head, which
is so disposedas to permit firm
but delicate delineation
of the long regal nose.
The
of the eyes is a fitting
stare
remote
expression
who
for a monarch,
was
thought to exist
and

to

design
such

in

govern

total

of brilliant color,
sharp contrasts
the red tapestry againstthe black and
of the
king's attire. Cool, nontactile

as

add

surfaces

be

supposed to

the

to

and

literal or

too

and

did

pose

much

create

to

the

and

antiquity,the

he

as

should

that

The

ruler

who

dominated

he

as

was

from

even

was

in

"

the

and

obey the

the

sixteenth

of duty,
and sense
will,integrity,
in
and military success
along with his political
Charles
was
a
V,
global
empire,
puttingtogether
the last German
crowned
by the Pope.
emperor
Reformation,
King during the Protestant

by

Charles

warred

yet

sent

1527,
Trent,

a
was

and

with

Lutheran
the
for

the
army

power
most

heretics in

Germany,

that sacked
behind

the

of his life

Rome

Council

overcame

in

of
the

intriguesof rival kings such as Francis 1. The

for imperial portraitssuch as those of
demand
Ch.uics
\' was
so
great throughout Europe that
not
only copiesof paintingsbut also engravings
used
the royal image.
disseminate
to
were
Aeneas
Vico, an Italian printmaker,engraved
'^38

Purposes of

Art

Faith, leader

The

the

ruins

his armies

structure

wage

the

rightrefer to his conquests

in Italy.The eagle above
the portrait,
whose
on
back
stands
the
figureof Victory, is a motif
from Roman
triumphal arches, where it relates
the apotheosisof the emperor.
to
Against the
of its frame, the Emperor's
background activity
but firm; utilizingTitian's
visage is serene
characterization
of Charles, Vico portrayedhim
handsome

as

it was

during

at

and

wise. When

the

reignof

and

that such

diverse

reflects that

one

Charles

conducted

were
explorations

in the

territories

So
ideals
one

successful
of

Titian

was

monarchy

in

that Charles

else be allowed

to

that great
World

New
the

as

Sicily,Spain, and

Germany,

no

his

century

of the

lands,
Nether-

Portugal
from

an

capturing
V

ordered

the

that

One
painthis portrait.

enjoined to

be, not

Mattingly pointsout

just
told to revere
were
pulpit men
most
unscrupulousmonarch.
as

Clouet

as

of

left behind

the

defender

as

provider of prosperityare symbolized

and garlandsin the upper
by the figures
the landscape at
the print,while over

united, such extravagant

homage
Italian artist becomes
understandable.

aura

styleof

that of the ruler. As

was
portraitist

state

the ruler

show

with

same

an

The

was

roles

temple portico.

or

were

not

color, figureplacement,

symbolicallyunnatural.
such
successful royal portraitist
one

unsensual

All

and

war,

area

and Clouet's
lifelike,

of

design

abstract

almost

aloofness

State portraits
were
subject.

of the

character

that

Clouet's

isolation.

stresses

cream

Charles's
in

war.

well

proportions,as

fashion,

current

thus

triumphal gateway

outward
the

with

consonant

was

territories,
fame, and virtues (Fig. 280).
that resembled
set
against a structure

were

Roman

table.

are

from

culminating

the

shows

symbolicallyon

shoulders,

the

Clouet

use,

and
power
composure
in the
hands
alone. The

Rational

to

could

he

gestures

portraitof Charles V, based probably on a

paintingby Titian, in which the King's image
of conquered
framed with allegorical
was
figures
a

Figure 280.
ing, 20 '4"

Eneas
\

Vico.

Charles V. ^'^'=,0.Ensjrav-

141/4".Private

collection.

of

influential

many

Charles

of

did

portraitsthat Titian
the Emperor
shows

the field of Muhlberg,

ridingon

great victory

state

(Fig.281)

where

he

German

rival

two

over

won

rulers.

depictingCharles at the zenith of his power,

chose to adapt the old equestrianformat
result was
from sculptureto easel painting.The
the scale and monumentality of the
to increase
ruler's image and, though in a seated pose, to
him
show
full length.His mastery of sixteenthvalidated
in
century ideas of horsemanship was
In

Titian

the

noble

the

gold and

aristocratic

and

but

of horse

pose

the

was

and

the

and
most

rounded

scholars

bound

not

was

Titian

would

ought

to

then

portraitloses
Sixteenth-

sitter's

him

his

as

features,
he

painting

felt he
is

Clouet, Titian's

of

out

of working,

strict likeness of the

the

re-create

that

pointed

his way

Although

than

sensuous

to

studying

be.

not

quarter

sash-covered

have

Titian's clients favored

which

action

three

Titian
rider permitted what
view of Charles' face
striking

beauty of the

subject. After

the

locate

parade. The

breastplate.Many
that

with

isolation of horse

the

to

seem

back.
horse-

on

coupled

armor,

and

if on

as

him

gave

black

pose

rider,would

in battle

felt

Titian

bearing

The

more
state

none

of its majesticquality.

and

seventeenth-century Indian

rulers included

the

Figure
Oil

artistic repertory. A paintingof a Rajput ruler

horseback
on
impaling a lioness testifies to the

persistence of
Eastern

art

embodied
the

animal

II, for he

ritual

is

than

is

is
seen

from

motif

in

in many

respect

to

of

ways.

small, intended

evidenced

was

How

act.

that

for

be leafed through and

privacy.The artist was

with

hunt

by

is performing essentially

too

symbolic

or

painting
Venice

victorious

reaction

Hormuzd
a

the

(Fig.282). The Maharajah, who

solar power,
plunges the lance into
with
show
of feelingor
no
more

individual

an

Indian

remote

sixteenth-century
The

Indian

album

which

ing
paintwould

looked

and
in
at leisurely
completely self-effacing
he
artistic personality,and

repeated general types of hunter

and

hunted.

in an
coloringwere
impersonal
traditional style,
which
preserves bright surface
and cleanly edged.
patterns that are delicately
of drawing explain the thin, even
Conventions
rarefied,continuous outliningof the subjectsand

Drawing

the

use

and

of flat color

painterrather
set

down

the

on

281.
canvas,

Titian.

Charles

lo'io^/j"

V on Horseback.
1548.
p'l %". Prado, Madrid.

equestrianportraitin their

than

image.

areas,

by

often

filled in

the draftsman

who

by

first

Figure 282.
Maharaja Kesari
Overcominga Lioness, c. 1715-20.
Palace, Rajasthan.

Singh

on

Horseback

Painting. Lallgarh

Paul

Figure 283. Peter

Rubens.
Portrait
1622.
I2'i

of Marie

Oil
I

IV

Henry

ys

Receivingthe

de' Aiedici.

on

canvas,

g'8 V'g".Louvre,

Paris.

European painting of royalty in

century
Eastern

aristocratic
such

freedom

the

art, and

artists of

as

gence
intelli-

Anthony van
Dyck had discreet
innovate, as long as they suited the

ideal of the

patron. Rather

first

than

Dyck's finished painting of

Charles I (PL 32), let us consider the problem
of representation
it might have been posed
as
analyzing

van

in the artist's mind.

cavalier
arts

well

as

power

and

upon

Charles

as

the

himself

saw

perfectgentleman,

or

embodiment

king by

divine

his dress

more

than

and

the

theme

these aside. How

of the
then

he

had
on

and

available
horseback

Purposes of

show

the

he

set

Art

neck

with

bowed,

of the
presence
appropriate connotations.

next

scale, could

natural

gesture
have

King would
Placing the

royal

the horse
and
farther from
the
behind
pages
reduce their height
viewer than the King would
and

robust

stood
in the

that

some

might
regal
qualities and sportsmanship of a dismounted
the
monarch
in a landscape? Compounding
artist's problem was
the King's short
stature,
240

horse

state's

self
prided him-

put him

correct

an
ungainly problem of their relative
tion
Dyck with a soluheights.Titian suppliedvan
this last problem in a paintingwhere
to
a

of the

hunt, but

strenuous

in

present

of the

on

bloody physicalfeats. Van Dyck

to him
precedents for the ruler

as

his horse, rendered

to

patron

right.He

five feet,five inches. To

justabout

teenth
seven-

tradition-bound

as

as

to

and

taste

not

was

of

evidence

Nature

is made

also

frame
on

yet furnish

obtrusiveness

the

King. Van

small rise and

his

ruler

the

authority

to

support

Dyck

over

with
men.

and

suitably

stations the monarch

overhead

paintsthe

branches

royal canopy. The low horizon

line and
our
point of view, which allows the
the
on
King to look down
us, subtly increase
King's stature. The laxation yet inaccessibility

of

of

like

tree

Charles

itself a

work

depends largely upon

of

art, derived

from

his

art,

pose

"

notably

Its casualness

Rubens.

of

that

while seemingly
the

The

state.

in

rest

is

deceptive;

informal

an

was

cane

European courts of
along with the sword

in

King

Over

the

painting of

King's shoulder, the

his
gorical
alle-

figureof France shares his admiring

two
cupidsthat have taken charge of
King's armor
signifythat,for love, he had
The

gaze.

its presence
the
the gentleman-king. put

time, and
symbolized

the

the

enraptured by

as

betrothed.

moment,

gentleman and
perfect
a
royalprerogative

inch the

is every

King

chief of

at

aside

thoughts of

which

war,

then

was

actuallybeing waged in Saxony

perhaps the
explanationfor the burning cityin the distance.
Above
the bearers of the portrait
sitJupiter and
that the marriage of
Juno, ironicallyinferring
"

Just as the subtle pose depicts majesty,

Dyck's color,with its regal silver and gold,
does much
to impart grandeur to the painting
the
focus on
and
achieve
a
to
sophisticated
King. The red, silver,gold, and black of his

van

costume

the

are

most

and

saturate

of

intense

with
the
painting'scolors and contrast
darker or less intense coloringof adjacentareas.
Largely from Rubens, van
Dyck had learned
materials
and
the painterlytricks by which
the

could

textures

eye

with

moves

of the

sheen

and

harness
of

pleasurefrom the silverysilken

to the golden leather sword

then

to

on

the

more

similar

of colors in its

but

great

can

in which

esteem

darker

bination
com-

mane.

Van

and

coat

esthetic

and
artist'svirtuosity

surface

coarse

is evidence
Dyck's state portrait
be in sympathy with
not
may
The

the

coat

horse, with

the

that

be vividlysimulated, so

that,while

ambassador
lived like
was

Rubens

Paul

held

the

actually served

as

for

treated and
royaltyand was
of the aristocracy.
Rubens
of the
Baroque
greatest interpreter

rulers' claims

to

and

power

his broad

education, which

of ancient

imperialart, he

synthesisof

and

pagan

divinity,for
included

was

able

Christian

the
to

with

another

commissioned

occasion, Marie

Rubens

paintingsfor her
as
Queen of France
of her

create

for

Medici

paint a great cycle of

palace,dealingwith her life
and

to

ments
celebratingthe achieve-

late husband,

Henry IV. In his

painting of Henry IV Receivingthe Portrait of
de' Medici
Marie
(Fig.283), Rubens
mingled
fact and

fantasy.It

royaltyto
bride-to-be
seen

the

have

an

was

then

customary

among
the

important artist portray

have
for the groom, who
never
may
this scene, Rubens
flattered both

her. In

Queen

and

with

the

and

a
pagan
attributes

the

inspired

most

Rubens
portraiture,

state

King, equipped
monarchy

of

in
are

the

militant

of the

cane

shows
armor

the
of

courtlygentleman,

gracefully
turninghis body so that we see
length with the royalprofiledirected
toward
the smiling visage of Marie.
logically
him

full

Although

in the seventeenth

even

conceptionsdemanded
disbelief, Rubens

us

that

carries off the

for
persuasiveness,

such

verified
The

an

century such

willingsuspensionof

the

event

through the

artifice with

his

grand styleand
action quite convinces
this might well be
as

senses.

deification of Louis

XIV

was

full-time

project for

the

writers,and

poets gathered at the great

of

army

artists,musicians,

this brilliant coterie

lorenzo

bust of

King

the

was

in 1665

Bernini,who

Louis

in his bedroom

at

court

century. Among

sculptorGianthe magnificent
(Fig.284) that

carved

XIV

Versailles.

study

symbols

dc'

postures in

remains

absolute monarchy and the divine

interpreting
rightof kings. In 1635, for the triumphal entry
into Antwerp, Rubens
of Archduke
Ferdinand
was
givena corps of artists to decorate the entire

city. On

of these

made

was

peacock

of Versailles in the seventeenth

an

member

monarchs

(The eagle and

gods.) In one

masterlystaging of

one

by royaltyhas already been noted in Charles \"s

to Titian.
granting of a monopoly for his portraits
Peter

heaven.

vigor and

the
his message,
stillbe enjoyed.

painterswere

these Catholic

himself, for he portrayed the

Bernini.
Figure 284. Gianlorenzo
1665. Marble, height 31 V4". Palace

Louis

XIV.

of Versailles.

of the body is unself-consciously

posed
three-quarterview, staringinto space as
"inner light."The
responding to some
long

portion
in
if

wig billows

and

curls about

the

serene

tenance.
coun-

The

highly polished marble radiates

with light,reminding the spectator that Louis
the Sun King.
was
The
most
expensive portrait ever
painted is
by Hyacinthe
reputedly that of Louis XIV
(Fig. 285), for it is believed

Rigaud
artist

in

received

dollars

for

it.

Borrowing

Dyck, Rigaud's
of

of seventy

excess

work

that

the

thousand

van
liberally from
logicalculmination

is the

state-portrait
development.

.\n

imposing

in references to
full-lengthtreatment, it abounds
the kingly vocation
of the subject.The
great
column
is a royal symbol that goes back
to early
Greece. There
are
yards of purple ermine-lined

emblazoned

robe
stands

the

as

with

epitome

fleurs-de-lis. The

of confidence

and

King
courtly

with
his left hand
his hip and his right
on
His shapely legs are
holding his cane.
carefully
exposed, revealing their trained suitabilityfor
grace,

the
may
the

dance.

Although the high-heeled red shoes

observer as effeminate,

strike the modern

King

and

his

nevertheless

was

of

embodiment
of

demanded

his courtiers. The

length portrait does

inspectionof
Hyacinthe

Figure 285.
Oil

on

In

g'l'V

canvas,

his

5'10's". Louvre,

Louis

memoirs,
Christian

the ideal

Louis XIV.

Rigaud.

down

set

1701
Paris.

his views

king:

of

dwell

the

on

sees

he is of

rank

thingsmore

ought

to

trust

superior

to

all other

than they do,

perfectly
rather

to

the inner

he

men,

and

he

light than

to

not

accessories

elaborate

encourage

the face but

forces the
and

fullclose

viewer

to

splendor of the

King's office.
the last of the great rulers of
Napoleon was
important artists of
Europe to employ the most
his time. At Napoleon's request, the French
artist Jacques Louis David
showed
the general

leading his troops

As

proud of his manliness

the etiquettethat he

Alps
was

in

1800

still in

on

historic march

across

the

(Fig.286). Although Napoleon

the
the

office of
of

First

the

Consul, this

imperial
equestrianpaintings.Following the orders of
.Occupying, so
speak,
place
his subject,David
showed
Napoleon expertly
be sharers of His knowledge
to
God, we
seem
mounted
on
a
wildly
rearing horse, pointing
well as of His authority.
as
upward as if to the mountain
peaks or heaven.
Bernini
carved
his ideals of kingship, which
not
such a romantic
(It was
commanding gesture,
accorded
however, but great staff work and soldierly
perfectlywith those of Louis. The
bust forms an impressivecontrast
five days to
to Verrocchio's
fortitude that took
40,000 men
de' Medici.
Whereas
the
the mountains.)Napoleon posed briefly
traverse
sculptureof Lorenzo
that
latter rests solidly on
broad
David
for the rendering of his face, telling
a
base, with the
and
turned
down
the entire figure geonot
was
important: "It is not
eyes
metricallyclose resemblance
the
the exact
reflection of features,warts
on
organized, Bernini's King is poised
in the air above
cloudlike sweep
of drapery
that makes
a
a
likeness;it's the character
nose,
that
what
the
swirls about
base. The
and
animates
a
narrow
physiognomy, that
upper
information

which

reaches

him

242

Purposes

from

the

to

of Art

side.
out-

of

constitutes

last

great

be painted. No
to
one
inquiresif the
of great men
likenesses. It's enougli
are
portraits
that their geniushves in them."
By showing the
needs

advancing

in

army

under

from

the

middle

the

belly of

followingtradition
Napoleon himself

the

ground,
horse, David

matic

seen
was

but
perspective,
displeasedthat his men

and

rational

was

so
small, as if they could be
with
by the horse's hoofs. The painting,
its obviously staged quality,is indeed
dictory
contrathe Alps
to fact,for Napoleon crossed

shown

were

crushed

not

on

mule.

an

unstable

steed

As

stand-in

for

arm

made

of

shown

on

sure-footed

Emperor,

one

of

posed atop a ladder, pointing

tillit dropped. Separate studies were
Napoleon's white charger, which was

students

David's
his

but

the

rearing

in

the

manner

of seventeenth-

equestrian portraits.Despite such

was
contrivances, David
sufficiently
inspired
the
make
to
painting genuinely impressive.
and the pearly
A dark foreground,spotlighting,
century

grey

throw

of the
the

mountain

settingand

turbulent

striking
figureof Napoleon

into

relief. Reviving an
ancient
symbol of
victory,David represents the wind at Napoleon's
the
the area
around
back, thus further agitating
of a storm.
center
face,which is like the serene
The
of the painting was
that, like
message

sky
dra-

Hannibal

and

inscribed

with

Charlemagne, whose names

"Bonaparte" on the rock
left foreground, the soon-to-be
Emperor
lead

his

Unlike

country

to

new

are

in the
would

heights of glory.

monarchs
hereditary

such

Charles

as

and

Henry IV, Napoleon had to use art to help

legitimize his claims to power
and, in one
terrible
a
spectacular instance, to counteract

catastrophethat
against

turned

him

support in France.

and
After

his

lently
vio-

Egyptian army

threatened
the

his

base

fall of the

of

Syrian

city of Jaffa, Napoleon's generals violated the

terms

of surrender

and

slaughteredthe

entire

garrison. Shortly afterward, bubonic

plague
broke
and
out
nearly decimated
Napoleon's
Many construed this as divine retribution.
army.
At
great personal risk, Napoleon visited the'

hospitalat Jaffaand

his

passedamong

suffering

Figure 286. Jacques Louis

.Napoleon
Crossingthe

David.

Alps.

1800.

8'io"

"

243

Oil

on

7'7".Palace

canvas.

sailles.
of Ver-

from

retreat

placed by
could

as

Acre
the

and

Jaffa, he ordered

immobile

take their

wounded

poison

that they

so

lives.

own

of the past historyof art

aware
Very much
powerful politicalpropaganda, Adolph

Hitler

outlawed

modern

and

art

turned

technicallyproficientand

compliant

mediocrities

tradition

revive

to

the

to

artistic
of

state

A formal
portrait of Hitler (Fig.
portraiture.
287) equalsin craftsmanshipRigaud's portraitof
an

is

earlier monarch.

The

"Der

Fiihrer,"so

as

level of the viewer

eye

intentionally
placed well

below

increase his

to

the figureof
unimpressive

physicalstature. He is in uniform, backed by a

giganticsculptureof a powerful youth holding
an
eagle.The settingrecalls ancient pharaonic
imagery with the hawk
god and other portraiture
of
showing the ruler in the presence
deities. He

is shown

outdoors, and

groimd

scattered

buildingblocks

are

sign of

Order

and

can

be

seen

Figure 287.
Oil

on

canvas.

Ehrler.

Whereabouts

Fiihrer. 1939.
unknown.

Although not an eyewitnessto the visit to

Jaffa pesthouse,Baron Gros, working under
of
Napoleon's order, utilized written accounts
had happened to produce a painting that
what
is a fine example of counter-defamation
ganda
propa(PI.33). Baron Gros shows Napoleon in
of the plague-stricken
the midst
and, having
removed
and
a glove,calmly about
to reach out
touch the bubonic
boil in the armpit of one
of
men.

the

his soldiers. This

the actual
art

account

history, from

saints

taken

from

of his visit but

derives

from

which

Christ

and

gesture
works

not

was

in

healing the sick and from the

seventeenth-century imperial tradition of the
king as a miracle worker, by which the royal
touch was
thought to effect cures. In no previous
so
imperialimage was the public made
strongly
of death, for at the
base of the large
aware
are

shown

painting, at the viewer's

and
Baron

bodies

gangrenous

Gros

confirmed

casualties of the
same

time

eye

level,are

of the dead

reports

of

and

Egyptian campaign
Napoleon,

into
for so many
disasters,
responsible
king. When, in fact, Napoleon was

Purposes of An

faces

dying.

the

transformed

244

the

terrible

but

at

who
a

the
was

saviour-

forced

to

in the distance

the outline

for Nazi

and

construction

of Hitler's obsessive

architect. Off

Der

the

in the fore-

of

ments,
instru-

of the

New

self-image

as

on

low

an

horizon

stadium, the

bator
incu-

recognized Hitler as
their spiritual
father. The
painter gave Hitler
a
visionaryaspect by posing him in a threequarter view and directinghis gaze upward, as
if he were
contemplating the future. The artist
avoided
the uncompromising
frontalitythat
would
have brought portraiture full circle and
back
the image of the pharaoh. As in the
to
older
which
this was
based,
portraitureupon
the painter was
interpretingthe abstract ideas
of the Third
Reich
rather than
the personality
of his subject.Such
mood
or
a
painting shows
with
skilled propaganda, a
how,
legend of
Hitler's strength,
and immortality
invincibility,
could have grown
up in Germany. Nothing in
the handling of the figuresuggests compromise,
humility, or compassion.
of the
The
last portraitin this chapter is one
late President
John F. Kennedy, painted by
official
Elaine de Kooning (Fig.288). Not an
series
of
it
resulted
from
state
a
portrait,
sketches

and

youth who

paintings made

by

her

to

fulfilla

Library.One of
the few notable modern
painterswho does not
look upon
portraitureas inhibitingimagination
Elaine de Kooning had behind
or
self-expression
of
her years of doing portraits
of friends,many
fellow artists. She had developed a
whom
were
in a
single
style based on
quick execution
commission

from

the

Truman

"to get close to the essential

informal, and
gesture of the sitter." The restless,

ruddiness.

could not hold

energeticPresident by his nature
long and collaborate with the artist for
if
in the historical sense,
formal portrait
even
a

smile

and

bone.

Everyone

session,in order

stillfor

she

had

wanted

do

to

I, Elaine

and

Clouet

it. Where
Francis

one

de

Kooning

saw
saw

her

the

of humor

state

Though
was
was

not

the

sculpturalnewspaper
incandescent, golden. And
grey,

image. He was
taller than
bigger than life.Not that he was
the men
standing around him; he justseemed
to

be

by
eyes

different

dimension.

Also

not

revealed

his incredible
image were
newspaper
with large violet irises half-veiled by the

the

In
beneath
the
eyebrows.
jutting bone
struck
succeeding sessions of sketching,I was
of lightover
by the curious faceted structure
his face and
hair
a
quality of transparent
...

"

revealed

the laugh
impressed me

in

both

with

the

in

the

the eyes, but

his

was

quick sense

of his mouth

corners

lines around
most

be built into the

to

seem

is familiar

what

compassion

....

following

traits:
He

frown

and

style permitted

the

This
to
play of light contributed
extraordinaryvariety of expressions.His

the

often

executed

built

made

upon

from

in

few

her

hours,

drawings

numerous

television

portrait

that

were

and

appearances

with
photographs. "I had to contend
this 'world image' created by the endless newspaper
photographs." Dc Kooning's color keys
in the
portrait,unlike those used by Clouet,
her
from
the subject's
face and
come
strong
Both
in
the
it
was
personalfeelings.
painted
way
in her
and
portrayal of the President, the
her own
emphasis is upon
individualityas a
humanity.
painterand on the subject's
newspaper

Figure
Kooning.

288.

Elaine

President

Kennedy. 1962-63.
canvas,
man

5'4"

de

John
Oil

4'. The

F.
on

I'ru-

Library,Independence,

Missouri.

245

13

THE

ARCHITECTURE
AUTHORITY

OF

of

demonstrated

was

scholars

the

regarding
of

much

associations
times

had

kingship.

gateways

and

written

well

as

but

rulers

the

authority. When
the

ancient

should

The

descended

of

the

and

by Mussolini

and

as

their
The

the

history

powerful

Ages

symbolic

Adolph

image
destruction

the

in

tribute

monarchy

has

Ub

been

to

the

on

of
so

of

gods

into

home
the

palace

value

was

It is

used

Eastern

upon

with

is

which

its masonry.

their

lifetime

but

Roman

and
our

since
modern

of the

dence.
resi-

royal

States

its
the

of
has

dome

and

to

form

history,
of

heaven

divinity of

other

past

architectural

the

As

nineteenth

architecture

independently

they

sufficient

source

and

own

public buildings.

the

evoke

the

his

all

Near

monarchs.

those

best

was

to

symbolism

proclaim

to

he

usually

United

ironically

ancient

ruler,

there

was

today

and

republican

it is in

their

is

example,
country

of

the

over

though

Unlike

people

most

dome

serving

subjects.

palaces

for
in

for

and

coins

entrance

this

as

Ancient
often

governments,

strengthen

their

with

clear,

mingles

been
to

many

vived
re-

abroad.

the

whether

power

the

Capitol,

rooted

his

common

for

but

identify
anything

substitute

of

even

durability,

of the

of

know

tecture
archi-

architecture, by

king's image,
which

"

public,

But

ceremony.

homes

rendering

would

the

sense,

or

government,

the

from
a

The

modern

often

effectiveness

identified

bore

for

reminder

constant
at

the

associations, grandeur,

in

merely

temple

In

has

rulers

minds

wreaked

substantial

was

tions.
associa-

and

Hitler.

and

by

instrument

and

periods.

ideas

of

as

masses

and

divine

then, that the history of architecture

with

royal architecture

Middle

and

of

with

specially designed

public rituals,the

distinction
was,

relations

used

backdrop

such

surprising that

palace

Baroque

times, its propaganda

gods,

not

formal

rulers

symbolic

and
man,

just

not

of the

and

of ancient

through

Renaissance

such

connotations

like

it is

acquired royal
influence

period

mind

acted

architecture

have

ancient

acquired,

in the

kings,

as

their

without
its

turn,

mystical

features

themselves,

kings

interpreted

were

in

in

Over

facades

palace

In
ancient

as

religious

or

that

architectural

sources

of

churches,

served

art

by the discoveries

symbolism

architecture

certain

as

and

their

tecture
archi-

that
abstract

an

symbolism

from

centuries

from

be

earlier

buildings. Temples
derived

notion

the

always

must

form

is

misleading

How

of the

present-day

regularly
talents

with

to

called
struct
con-

tecture
religiousarchi-

century,

the

best

whole

has

developed

state, under

the

patronage

on

the

Fiajure 28q.

Below:

of

private

other

Figure

it has

reasons,

that

of

of

what

ancient

be

to

ruins

Pylon

this

difficult for

seem

civilization's

of

For

business.

become

III, Medinet

Ramses

King

Drawing

290.

and

persons

appreciate
impersonal
many

Temple

Funerary

dead

the

(Thebes).

Temple

of

20th

Dynasty,

Khons

at

ic)8-i

167

b.c.

Karnak.

and
to

us

and

embodied

once

from

Aljii

so

important political

most

values.

ANCIENT
Ancient

QATEWAYS
and

Egypt
of

much

human

cradled

Mesopotamia

civilization

evolved

and

symbols, notably that

important architectural
of the imposing gateway
to a city or
to a palacetemple complex. The
pylons, or gategreat
ways,
of
that
to
as
Egyptian temples such
III

Ramses

palace

the

at

Medinet

when

it

the

(Fig. 289). Upon

the

of

had

pharaohs
their

with

they

Roman

emperors

their

triumphal

recesses

from

form

walls
and

often

were

of the

from

to

Set

front

precinct
pylons,
records

painted

shown

later

arches.

to

sacred

descent

and
were

the

the

gods,

in company.

do

the

same

on

rectangular

into

the face of the

on

flew

which

pharaoh

also served

huge

carved

victories

whom

Abu

adjoined

in

consists

residence
of

flagstaffs
pylons were
signifyingthe god or
(Fig. 290). The
pylon

pennants

central

doorway, possibly surmounted

for

zone

by

the
solar

great
disk;

in
were
originallycovered
Completed by two taller flanking
sections,the pylon ideologicallyrepresented the
its hieroglyph denoting
to heaven, with
gateway
mountains.
the
two
(The
sun
setting between
have
its
in
derived
fact,
Egyptian pylon may,
fortified
three
divisions
from
Mesopotamian
gateways.) The
great scale of the pylons was
who
those
intended
to overwhelm
approached
them
frontally,along a prescribed path that
often flanked
was
by guardian sphinxes. Their
both

disk

lustrous

The

and

doors

metal.

Architecture

of

Auihoritv

247

Left:Figure
II
Processional
Staatliche

The

291.

Ishtar

Way,

The

left:
Figure 292.
citadel,Mycenae,

is

pharaoh

who

had

for

c.

Lion

announced

Gate,

his

august house

an

to

the declaration
to

million years.

entrance

B.C.

1250

explainedin

built him

endure

the
B.C.

575

Berlin.

Museen,

massiveness
a

of Nebuchadnezzar

Babylon (Iraq),c.

Below
the

Gate

(reconstructed by Koldewey), from

which

The

would

of

act

of

that he

god

passing

through the gate was a symbolicone, for within

lay the Egyptian equivalent of paradise.
it is known
Although they have been destroyed,
that when
palaces adjoined the temples (at
rightangles to the forecourt and central axis)
provisionwas made for the pharaoh to appear
of
on
a
balcony or at a window
(the "window
appearances"),from where he could look down
his subjects
in the first
and the ceremonies
on
behind the pylon.
open court
In Mesopotamia, most
of the prevalentmudbrick

architecture

extent

than

but the

have

has
the

stone

survived

lesser

of

Egypt,

to

structures

shape and meaning of its great symbolic

logical
are
known, and through an archaeo-

gateways

reconstruction
Ishtar Gate

one

can

see

the

famous

Babylon (Fig.291).The simple

tripartite
designconsists of two flankingsquare
lated
Crenelwith an arched portalbetween.
towers
of

battlements
the gateway.

its

simulating
decoration

The

crowned
for defensive purposes
arch was
a symbol of heaven,

and
the
curvature,
the comparison.
enhanced

apparent

in blue

The

king would often appear enthroned under

the arch of the gateway to his palaceor the city,
and there hold public audience
administer
or

The
justice.

distributed
Gate

animals
over

the

modeled

in

ceramic

tile

wall surfaces of the Ishtar

spiritguardians, and the king's

thus staged with
his people was
tangible evidence of his support by the gods.
The
persistenceof this type of tripartite,
in various examples
arcuated portalcan
be seen
in this chapter,
for not onlythe Egyptiansbut also
are

epiphany

Romans

the

from
as

to

and

medieval

lords found

it ideal

practical
standpointof defense as well
its long-standing
associations of kingship.

the

for

When

off to rescue
marched
Agamemnon
he
Helen, thus beginning the Trojan war,

passed through
Mycenae, which

the

Lion

dates

thirteenth century

B.C.

Gate

of his citadel

probably from the mid(Fig.292).The gate is so

Figure

named

because

relief above

The

293.

City

of the

Gate

heraldic

from

Miletus

lions carved

(restored),c.

in

the actual

of

intended

the

relief

rests

of

to

house

down

an

upon

signify the closeness

house with the city'sgoddess and
the royal family from
Zeus. The
the

to

of

the

ruler

the twentieth

had

the

column

column

included

with

the

altar,
royal

descent

of

association

of

the

columns

century, and

persists

rulers often

in their

While
portraits.
had
specific
its history it came
to
symbolism,
indicate
of
a
special place the royal house
king or god, and this continuing association
was
more
important than esthetic considerations
of design.
As Rome
the ancient
over
acquired dominion
world
and
the varied
tures
culgradually absorbed
of the conquered peoples, her
emperors
the
use
adapted to their own
imperial archiitself may
early in

a.d.

devices

Staatliche

of their

Museen,

enemies.

As

Berlin.

reminders

tectural

opening. The utilization

of sculpture and
to
symbolic figiares
heighten
the appearance
and significance
of an important
had
entrance
analogiesin the Assyrian humanheaded
winged bulls who guarded royal palace
entries. The
device of the lions flanking a single
is interpreted as
column
emblem
of the
an
royal house of Mycenae, for the ruler lived in
the only structure
fronted
The
by columns.
column

160

not

"

have

"

of

built
were
imperial rule, triumphal arches
in
conquered cities, and
special ceremonies
performed
celebratingthe emperor's visit were
before
this background. A reconstruction
of the
Roman
citygate from Miletus (Fig.293) has a
place for the emperor's effigyin the niche above
the
this was
central
portal, and
probably
flanked by statues
of Roman
gods. The columns,
niches, and
porchlike design possibly derived
of the
from
architectural
features
imperial
in
edifice
that
no
an
Rome,
longer
palace
exists. Of interest in studying Baroque development
later is
1500
of palace design some
years
articulation

the

of

the

gate, with

Miletus

its

by
projecting flanks and focus on the center
the
of the interrupted pediment above
means
an
imperial effigy.(A triangularroof line was
tural
imperial prerogative.)Here are early architecsymbols of centralized authority achieved
of the flanking parts and
by a subordination
recession
by a manipulation of projectionand
climaxes

that

One
that
what

which

The

in the

middle

niche.

palaces is
best-preservedRoman
built by Emperor Diocletian
at Spalato,on
is today the
of Yugoslavia, from
coast
at the beginning of the fourth
century he
of the

Architecture

of

Authority

249

Figure

Reconstruction

294.

Model

of the

(after E. Hebrard)

(Split,Yugoslavia). 4th century

ruled his half of the

Empire. The west gate had the

Mesopotamian design,but was augmented with
niches for sculptureflanking the door
and
an
arcade
an
above,
denoting
imperial
open
residence
and
of
callingto mind the "window
of the palace
appearances." A reconstruction
the mile-long arcaded
(Fig. 294) shows
loggia
his court
that afforded
the Emperor
and
a
pleasant stroll and view of the Adriatic. The
broad
cruciform
of the palace, which
avenues
bisect
areas,

the

the

over-all

served

into

square

four

different

only ordinary traffic but

not

also

diately
liturgical
processionsrequired.Imme-

many

behind
audience

and

the

colonnaded

ceremonial

banquet hall,and
octagonal structure

sea

wall

chambers,

the

are

the

state

the

imperial apartments. The

juttingout above the others
around
it is Diocletian's
tomb.
Opposite is a
two
temple precinct. The
large atriumlike
structures

were

and

residences

for members

of the

the

in
palace guard. The palace was
martial
effect a walled
order
city,with its own
of landscaping. The
layout provided for many
vistas whose
dramatic
focus
long colonnaded
was
on
imperial symbols such as ceremonial

court

courts

or

some

other

intended
for an
space
ruler
Axial
himself.
metry,
sym-

of the
appearance
found
initiallyin the

military camps,
250

became

an

Purposes

layout of Roman

imperial symbol
of Art

in

Palace

implementing
and
seen

of

Diocletian

space

the
on

organization of

strict

of the

structures

ROMAN

is this

in the great

city of Rome

CIVie

THE

ings
build-

scale. Nowhere

vast

impressivelythan

more

Spalato

at

a.d.

ruined

itself.

STRUCTURES

ARENA

The

that best commemorates

singlemonument
imperial, and uncivil, playground is the
70
Colosseum
(Figs.295, 296), built between
and 80 a.d.
by Vespasian and his son Titus, on
artifical lake on
the site of an
Nero's
palatial
The
Colosseum
estate.
was
inaugurated in
80 A.D.
with
the killing
of five thousand
animals
in the arena.
Within
the three succeeding centuries,
the
this imposing figure paled beside
expenditure of five thousand
pairs of gladiators
the

and

eleven

thousand

comparison with
gladiators paid by
series of games.
was,

While

Aurelius

martyrdoin
but

in

day or
2,500,000

one

of

bill

Marcus

The

numerically,

arena's

in

animals
the

minor

for

for

single

of Christians
item

the

on

bill of fare.
many

of

the

principlesused by the
earlier, no
previous

architectural
Romans

had

culture

had

forms
been

and

known

brought

so

Figure

The

295.

Colosseum,

ideas and
techniques together on such a
the
finest styles and
grandiose scale. Whereas
most
previously been
perfect buildings had

many

for

reserved

The

use.

barrel

dome
for the

the

imperial

510

and
feet.

thousand

upper

to

shading
manned

feet;

the

public
and

masonry

symbols

its three

arcades

were
was

the

the

ropes

spectators

catwalks

to

forming

with

but
of

an

of

is 281

by

itself

fifty

partially

tiers of

the

diameters

accommodated

The

shields, and
which

tiers above

and

arena

probably

of which

the

Above

masts

It

shows
two

windows,

(aerialview).

contributions

rises in several

spectators.

exterior

for

livingpopulace,

covering six acres

open-air oval amphitheater
177

Colosseum

Romans

the

they constituted

ground,
615

The

a.d.

benefaction.

Colosseum

The

of the

needs

time

same

the

Roman

were

Figure 296.

70-80

arch, buttress,

the

groin vaults, and

and

utilized

kings,

available

of

development

concrete

at

gods and

the

fine architecture

also made

Rome.

ruined

arcades,

the

sculpture.
wall
a
punctuated by
for the ship's
supports
filled with

for
were

the

canvas

fastened.

manipulate

the

awning
Sailors

LisT^'im'^^

awning.
The

Architecture

of

Authority

251

hke

times
at
was
painted
politicalpropaganda. On

which

of

billboard

the

the

exterior,

and
160-foot wall gained a muscular
rhythmic
the columns
engaged to the
emphasis from
marble
attached
piersof the arcades. Travertine
covered
the
wall. At
with metal
outer
clamps
to
access
ground level, eighty archways gave
the

The

arena.

exterior

had

handsome

nine

several
major thermae, which could serve
with
people at a time. Roman
concern
personal hygiene goes back to the city'searliest
history.By the time Emperor Caracalla built his
enormous
was
a
bath, there
long tradition
all
aside
Romans
set
at least the late
whereby
thousand

afternoon
both

line
mascu-

simplicityin the clarity,

vigor,and starkly
expressive design of its serial openings and

in

horizontal

and

The

courses.
arena

open

arches, vaults, and

quick
whose

tickets

showed

concrete

skeleton
This

and

entrance

their

of

piers,

network

mitted
per-

modern

masses,

stadium

arch

entrance

great

exit of the

like those of

"

them

on

corridors.

and

brick, stone,

supported

was

and

"

seat

vaulted
designation.The concentric, continuous
the second
and
third levels pergallerieson
mitted
shaded
strollingduring intermissions.
the arena,
with
Beneath
its floor of sand
(often
covered
wooden
network
of
a
by
boards), was
and
elevators
run
by
rooms,
cages,
ramps,
counterweights and pulleys that brought the
the field. Elaborate
beasts directlyonto
sewers
served
not
only for the disposal of blood and
when
but
also for draining water
the
waste
had

arena

The

been

natural

serviced

the

fleet in

in the

combat,

The

and

On

and

in the

and

hunters

stage
and

centuries

and

went

by

and

stalk

each

ambition
became

from

the

ficial
arti-

hold

through

which
other.

of
taxed

perversion
public demanded

to

the

lake

miniature

afternoon

and

battles.

Nero's

given day,

contain

managers

bigger thrills

IMPERIAL

would

drawn

naval
fed

forests

ingenuity, energy,

Colosseum

had

morning

mountains
animals

for mock

Colosseum.

might

arena

flooded

springs that

as

the

the
new

healthier
small

its slaughterhouse function

sense.

While

public baths,
252

Rome
there

Purposes

of

had
were

Art

there

Imperial

tend

to

baths

were,

in

modern

times

appreciably restored, are

The

Baths

built upon
1080
feet

of Caracalla

each

on

side

feet; outside

square

the

shops. Underground
and

water

(Figs.297, 298)
platform, which

great walled

steam

and

thermal

was

270,000

complex were
for heating
gigantic rooms,

furnaces

were

to

covered

were

the

warm

great hypocausts or ducts, and service corridors

vehicles
to
large enough for horse-drawn
pass
the walled
nades,
colonarea
were
through. Within
gardens, fountains, sculpture, lecture

halls, and

libraries

(in the
of

fields and

the

athletic

segments

and

east

the

circular
semi-

west

plan),

well

as

as

complex of
and
bathing halls, dressing rooms,
grand
For
first time
in
the
concourse.
antiquity,
bathing practices were
brought
sports and
together,permitting both athletic exercise and
cleansingof the body. The cultural facilities permitted
audition
of new
plays and of speeches,
of
examination
art
reading.
objects, and
for
"a
in
a
Juvenal's prayer
healthy mind
healthy body" could thus be realized.
Further,
the

baths

Personal

ideal

were

of

for

socializing

and

news

reputations
needless

were,

great central

to

say,

of

and

both

and

the

political views.
political fortunes
at

stake

during

bathing in the nude.

A
bathing ritual began with skin-scraping
then
and
of steam;
followed
a
"dry bath"
in a domed
immersion
hot pool (caldarium) to

of public diversion
the sole
not
are
understanding Imperial architecture
and Roman
society.No other government
vided
proits people with architectural
facilities for
as
extensive, practical,
enjoying life that were
The
and
handsome.
Roman
Imperial bathing
establishments, or thermae, provided recreation

of

thermae,

The

sessions of mixed

their rulers.

for purposes
of
means

in

mind.

typical.

the

and

the

to

go

and

cities. All are

truth, miniature
presently in
ruins, but those of Caracalla, built in 211 a.d.

creasinglyexchange
in-

BATHS

Colosseum

The

to

body

hundreds

eventually

south, passage

to

the

central

concourse

(tepidarium),for cooling ofT and conversation,

and
finallya dip into the cold pool, in a
chamber
the
to
the air on
(frigidarium)open
north
side of the complex. The
central
warm
hall

contained

people at one
provided such
enjoyment.
This
space

No

extensive

conquest,
was

estimated

an

time.

made

or

sixteen

hundred

previous society

had

indoor facilities for civic

creation, of

possible by

vast

internal

engineering.

Below:

Figure

Baths

Plan

297.

Caracalla,

of

Enormous

the

brick

and

of

Baths

211

tion
Reconstruc-

Right: Figure 298.

of

of the

Rome.

Caracalla.

vaults

concrete

raised

were

buttressed

piers.The
groin vault,
the
intersection
barrel
at
right angles of two
vaults of equal diameter, permitted support of
four
the structural
load on
piers.This in turn
huge

upon

freed

wall

great

Romans

but

also of the

fenestration.

The

not

only of spatialorganization

use

of

lighting.This light

rude
but on
concrete
upon
mosaic
floors and
pools, poly-

fell,moreover,

not

and

marble

for

areas

masters

were

marble
and
walls, and
gilded stucco
Exteriors
often stuccoed
were
ceilings.
marble, for the Romans
painted to simulate

these
the

buildings that put

baths

as

well

as

on

the
all

imperial stamp on
public

great Roman

The
monuments.
shaping and control of a vast
and
its vistas, the
impersonal interior space
of rooms
precise ordering of the sequence
according to function and scale,with the whole
garbed in the costliest materials, comprise as
the
much
an
image of Imperial authority as was
emperor's own
effigy.

chromed

coffered
and

lavished

their

interior.

Within

art

and
the

costlier materials
baths

the

average

on

the

Roman

delightand grandeur for the eye, endless

gossip for the ear, culture for the mind, the
of making fit or pampering the body and
means
of Caracalla's
the soul (the basement
satisfying
baths
the
included
shrine
to
a
god Mithras).
to

built and

emperors

the

baths

to

public,

but

organization

of

the

keep

the

with
and

politicalallegiance of
the
formal
design and

environment

created

influential Roman
Imperial structure
was
subsequent history of architecture
basilica,or public assembly hall. Its layout,
a
long central hall terminating in an apse
decisive
often with
a
flanking aisles,was
most

influence
basilica

supported admission

the

it is
the

The

for the

found

The

BASILICA

THE

by

form

the

on

While

groin vaults,
Architecture

as

on

Early Christian

the

Gothic

dral.
cathe-

basilicas varied, they

Roman

generally rectangular
roofs
pitched wooden

The

of the

and, ultimately,

is

seen

and
or

in

of Authority

had

either

barrel

masonry

the

were

doubleand

great Basilica
253

of

castle, which

symbol of

became

the

the medieval

fortified castles had

In

the

the
or

Middle

residence

of

descended
the

to
protect cities.
fortified castle became

the
of

men

with

from

wealth, lords, princes,

its turret-flanked

Roman

gatcwa\'

Imperial architecture,

of feudalism.

prime symbol

architectural

served

Ages,

kings and,

chief

In antiquity,
aristocracy.

The

castle wall,
by military
defensive
rather
than
by esthetics,
strategy
signifiedmany
loyaltyand service,
concepts:
the stronghold of the lord, for personaldefense
the

of the Basilica of Con-

Reconstruction

Figure 299.

or

as

a. d.

of

which

drill halls,were

military as

in

chambers
stock

Basilicas

(Fig. 299).
the

served

found

exchanges, and

host

were

oi' justice.
What

separate

as

Imperial baths,

saw

use

the

to

imparted

had

emperor
The

apse.

be

to

enshrined

an

plan of the
substituted
liturgy,

basic

the
in
the
emperor
have
edifices of this kind
known

that

they

in their

decorated

basilicas may

have

had

small

an

arcade

the

on

the

their

for that

with

area,

nearby

The

about

were

four

undermining

of

attackers

solved

the

was

the

the

on

castle's

walls

from

foundations

by adopting

the

by

Roman

not
only guarded the gate,
tower, which
castle's most
vulnerable
point,but also its

Better than
which

simple square
faceted

were

or

towers

were

drum-shaped,

as

severelybeautiful Castel del Monte, built

in Sicily
by Emperor Frederick IL (Fig.300) The
trend in medieval
castle design toward
larity
reguof plan and
integrationof the old keep
in the

entrance

addition

level would

there

defenders

protecting the

those

flankingtowers

the occasional

that

castles

performing this function.;

It was
the
surviving examples of Roman
teenth
military genius that in the twelfth and thirmuch
castle design
centuries influenced
throughout medieval
Europe. The problem of

corners.

some

over
a
specificgeographical
promise of protection for the
(In thirteenth-century
England

lands.

hundred

sumptuously
also that

serfs who

lord

the

alone, it is estimated

mural

corners.

parapet

to

the

the lord's protection by serving

his garrison. It established the political
hegemony

most
Though
destroyed, it is

often

the
cupolas above
which along with
faq-ade,
related

apse.
been

were

ica's
basil-

they found

interiors and

or

of

usually,

adaptable
image of Christ

of

law

the

basilica
the

of

aura

in the

Christians,when

as

istration
admin-

royalty and divinityto the basilica was

by which the effigyof a god or, more
the

the

refugefor

for

of the
Constantino

dictated

was

base of attack,

contracted

(after G. Gatteschi).c. 310-320

stantine, Rome

design

have

inner

fortified

and

palatialsymbolism, indicated that the

the scat
of royal power.
The
basilica was
Early
the contrastingplain
Christian bishopstook over

(the donjon,
baili'y(the outer

brick exteriors and

octagonal layout resulted in an interior plan of

each
level. The
of equal size on
eight rooms
is framed
by a medieval version of a
gateway
Roman
the
above
temple fa(;adc.The window
portal not only served practical functions but
also continued
the imperial symbolism of the

as

to

luminous
of

fittingsymbols

Ancient

visions of the

conditioned
structures,

by

the

the

house

of

interiors

the

Heavenly Jerusalem

Lord.
were

of earthly
sumptuous
the basilica.
was

most

of which

one

colorful

Roman

Roman
In

MEDIEVAL
AND

CASTLE
TOWN

the

breakup

HALL

ninth

and

decentralization

Europe

led

to

254

of the

tenth

of
the

CarolingianEmpire

centuries, the

in

resulting

throughout
political
power
development of the private
Purposes of An

influence

gateway
medieval

the town

tower)

circuit of walls) also

Castel

in

complex.
Europe the

independence from
freedom
by means
with

After the

or

hall.

the

of

del

attests

cities that

nobilityannounced
a

The

the
Its

Monte.

gained
their

connected
great tower
of
Comunale
Palazzo

Siena

and
(Fig. 301), with its soaring tower
a
huge
impressivered-brick facjade,dominates
horse
(where the famous
fan-shaped square
races,

or

Pallio,

are

still run). The

embattled

^ Left:Figure
Frederick

Below:

nale,

of

histories

cities such

fortified aspect of the

battlements.

The

Siena

as

building,with

blind

arcade

story of the

Castel

300.

II, Sicily,c.

Figure
Siena.

301.

del

Palazzo

1288-1309.

explain the
its stepped

that

below

runs

wings flanking the

be a vestige of the Roman
center
Imperial
may
ity.
of arcades
of authorto designate the seat
use
the pointed
are
Characteristically medieval
the mostly tripartite
windows
of the
arches and
the

third

upper

stories. The

served

practical as
enhanced

was

The

and

halls

in

well

of the tower,

symbolic

as

which

purposes,

ture.
portico containing sculp-

doors

numerous

frequent
town

with

two

entrance

remind

ubiquitous use
the
daily life

of

of

one

made

of

the

these

medieval

the

citizenry.

PALACE

Many
of

of the

FACADES
beautiful

most

architecture

were

those

facjades.Particularly from
on,

architects

greater

had

articulation

palaces and
fortresses

the

walls

in

designed
the

the
as

fifteenth

opportunity

history

palace
century
to

give

palace fa(^ades;and as
castles gradually lost their function
to

both

in the city and

countryside,
of design was
flexibility
possible.
than
Rather
significantengineering challenges,
palaces offered the architect the best opportunity
to displayhis talents
decorator.
as
a designerand

as

even

greater

The

Architecture

of

Authority

Monte

1240.

255

Comu-

of

Throughout the history of palace design,there

the imperativeof announcing the dignity,
recurs
and taste of its owner.
For both practical
power,
the
and
formal
symbolic reasons,
facades of
their
palaces furnish little notion of what
like. In comparison with an
often
interiors are
cold, austere
exterior,palace interiors might be
lavish
and brilliant in decor. The
public face
of the aristocrat,
according
of

code

courtiers,should

feelings;and
facjadeswas

to

inhabitants
had

the

laws

d'Oro, Venice.

in

right tone

true

palace

conforming to

achieving
of formality

amount

these

and

ations
consider-

influenced

1422-40.

conditioned
other

the degree of freedom

designer.In practicalterms,

the

to

choice

the

finish of

and

the

social

current

meant

of the

terms

of

architect

The

natures.

sumptuousness,

or

Ca'

of

problem

his inner

rule of urban

betray the privacy

not

their

or

Renaissance

betray

of the aristocracy,which

the

Figure 302.

cardinal

the

to

not

mitted
per-

this
and

stone

materials, the

proportional relation of
stories,
height and base to upper
of windows
and doorways, number
disposition
of openings,amount
and kind of ornamentation,
width

and

to

the scale and

elements

How

all

these

design focus
and

taste

parts

achieved

of

of horizontal

character

ing
divid-

the roof line.

and

interrelated

were

was

and

reflection both

of

changing symbols

status.

of
To

understand

certain constant
features of palace
fa(;adedesign,it is important to know that the
for
or
ground floor was not used for entertaining
but was
reserved
livingquarters by the owners
for servants, storage, and
stables. Stairways
be
to
came
increasinglyimportant after the
fifteenth century, graduallybecoming more
than
of moving
between
an
inconspicuous means
levels. The

States

true

would

firstfloor
be

the

"piano nobile," where

conducted.

were

often the

large

salons

quarters
the

highestin
were

Renaissance

what

"

second

Michelozzo.
1444.

256

Palazzo

Florence.

Purposes

of Art

Medici-Ric-

the

the palace, looked

down

on

banqueting halls. Sleeping

usuallyon the third floor. During
many

rulers had

most
structures, for the
lacking such conveniences

Begun

was

and

private apartments
palaces.Physical comfort
marks of prestige
inherent

Figure 303.

"

ing
receptionsand entertainIts ceilings,
which
were

small

cardi.

United

in the

story

within
was

in

self-enclosed
their

large

placed second to
large-scale
elegant

part

unheated

and

plumbing. The
conventional
a
proportion of the palace was
palaces like
greater width than height.Urban
those of Florence
and
Rome
frequently had
as

by colonnaded

courtyards surrounded

inner

and in some
loggias,
walled
a
garden at

the

Later

rear.

that many

used,explainwhy this discussion

drastic

is concentrated

Ca'd'Oro

Palazzo

and

built at about

were

designsmirror

their

time, but

of Venice

different environments

the

the

radically

and

Florence

in

arcades

canal-

The

all architecture.

is broader

simplerthan those
prosaicfunction as a
which
visitors quickly

and

its more
above, signifying

gondola landing from

of a
levels by means
courtyardstairway.The entire left half of the

mounted

the

to

upper

facadeis dematerialized into a rich pattern of

lightand dark. Emphasis of the piano nobilc
is subtlyachieved in the open clover-leaf arcade
terminating the lower
rhythmic sequences
and colonnades. The
established in the railings
design reflects

d'Oro

Ca'

remoteness

from

architecture

then

Michelozzo's
and

militant

and

its

also

in

changes
significant
evolvingin Florence.
Medici-Riccardi

Palazzo

of

because

rough-hewn,

story and the barred

historyof the Medici

lower

the

of

maritime

the

solemn

rusticated,or

Venice's

lands

Oriental

with

contacts

flavor

medieval

and

Eastern

Near

of

stonework

The

windows.
in

looks

heavy

the

the
bulent
tur-

fifteenth-century

able.
precautionsunderstandIn
keeping with the primarilysocial
function of the piano nobile, the stonework
finished variety.
changesat that level to a more
makes

Florence

Double

framed

windows

arcaded
arch

round

such

punctuate the wall

by a strong
vals,
regularinter-

at

maintaining the independenceof

by

not

street

aligningwith

the

windows

level.Round-arched

the

story
of the

largewindows

val
medie-

were

and the palacestillhas a fortress

carryovers,
marked
look. Each horizontal level is distinctly

by
and

horizontal

rhythm

contrasts

powerful overhanging cornice

The
ponderous base, the clear
the upper

slenderness

whose
stringcourse,

fine-scaled

zones,

and
lighter,

which

seem

to

the dramatic

of

the

with

the

roof.

delineation

of

progressively
termination of
grow

partakeof
of

Lorenzo

the

style

same

de'

Medici.

Both

bust and
palace have an aspect of solid
is quiteflat,
The fac^ade
out
withimpenetrability.

embellishment

palace,called
of the gilded
because
of Gold"
the "House
lavished upon itsinterior by a French
ornament
beautiful
of the most
has one
delicately
artist,
level arcade

bust

main

body

massive
If there

of the

window,
and

proportionof

same

Venetian

(Figs.302, 303).The

screen

roof

central

the
Chronologically,
Medici-Riccardi

as

of

their exteriors.

on

cornice and
Verrocchio's

the

also

was

interior decor, owing to the fact

old palaceshave
continued
to be

in

changes

there

instances

and

or

doorway, accentuation
vertical division into

side

wall

wings.The preponderant
surface to openingsassures

compact

effect.

analogyin architecture to the

secularization of painting, it
fifteenth-century
in the growing rivalry of churches
was
by
ambitious
palace design.The architect most
for givingsecular architecture an
responsible
importancecomparable to Renaissance church
designwas Leon Battista Alberti. His facadefor
the
Palazzo
Ruccelai
(Fig.304) has a less
martial and more
than
tone
imperialRoman
was

Michelozzo's
the

an

Palazzo

first Renaissance

Figure
Rucellai.

304.

Leon

Medici-Riccardi.

palace

Battista

1446-51.Florence.

with

Alberti.

It

was

repeated

Palazzo

enclose

With

space.

architectural
not

again

the

notable

have

nineteenth-

remained

Ruccelai
of

subtle

in

distinctions

The

over-all

vertical

the

two

and

villas.

country

some

stories.

upper

centuries

for

in

toward

tendency

became

heavy stone
palace design of

seventeenth

the

zontal
hori-

and

uniformit)', with

of

use

in Roman

thereafter

design for

later architects

of

its

and
and

of

twentieth-century
rightside of the faqade

balance

elements

do

advent

and

the

general harmony

great

Ages

until the

influenced

its fine

the

Middle

unfinished, Alberti's

Palazzo

and

the

counterparts

engineers.Although

terms

exceptions,

rare

engineers of

the

moded
out-

sixteenth

was

reserved

The

Palazzo

(Fig.305), designed largely by Antonio

the
Sangallo, with the top story facing on

Farnese
da

interior
done

for the

Figure

and

Sangallo

Antonio
da
305.
Palazzo
Farnese.

angelo.
Michel-

faqade and

of the
with

like

superimposed orders,
Alberti

Roman

of ancient

appearance
this aim
accounts

for

uniform

less

of

and

vertically
faqade into

aligned pilasters
dividing the whole
rhythmic rectangular bays, and the substantial
cornice, which along with the horizontal
courses
stringto

serves

balance

aligned windows
windows
Alberti's
rested

and
still

are

ideal of
the

on

of

other

all

classical

of the
to

beauty

meant

based

design. The

taken

Alberti's

character.)

hence

of beauty,
proportioning

of

in

structure

the

whole.

that

relation

to

Alberti,

For

nothing could be
a
perfect,ideally

from

away

grid arrangement

and

arched

in

mathematical

and

or

from

pilasters.(The

harmony,

added

verticalityof the

medieval

proper

parts

parts

the

flatness and
pronounced
the entire fac^-ade
is derived

interest

walls.

and

somewhat,
and

without

formal

tectural
archi-

Ages, Alberti
the

was

architect

rather

than

problems

practicedafter the Middle

largely responsiblefor making

wall

decorator

builder

involved

the

discovery

and

i?58

Purposes

or

with
of

of Art

new

ways

triangular pediments
piano nobile, and the

by the ornamented
directly above. At this

the
Farnese
make
his
Pope would
the
unlike
ancient
not
public appearances
tinued
contimes, Mussolini
pharaohs. (In modern
this
a
balcony of the
practice from
in
the
Palazzo
Venezia
of Rome.)
center
the Sangallo fai^ade
to
Michelangelo's addition
the
expressive unit
incorporated into one
window
earlier symbolic devices of the gateway,
and

of appearances,
time

in

palace

modified

to

of

coat

architecture.

create

for the

arms

The

slightrise

site
for the

first
also

was

central

doorway.
ceeded
sucMichelangelo
Sangallo and
making the facade of the Palazzo
of its strongly
more
expressivein terms
windows
and
powerful jutting cornice,

Although
in

Farnese

wall

and

the

the

seventeenth

palace

was
a

articulation

to

brackets.

resting on

window

arranger,

engineering

dows
win-

is enhanced
window

balconied

the exterior

architects

stone

device

distinguishthe
forms
give greater sculptural projection
and
emphasis against the flat stucco
The
main
portal begins to protrude

One

trainingwho

and

to

framed

many

framing
portal.The

new

main

pediments

of curved

tectural
transposing an archiidea
into linear organization on
twoa
dimensional
surface whose
own
logic could be
independent of the building'sactual structure.
of

in

details
of

use

tabernacle

more

flat

the

and

Alternation

helps

re-create

palaces,and

finelycut

the

masonry,

seum.
Colos-

the

consciously seekingto

was

the

or

those

the

other
the

stories are
surrounded
upper
tabernaclelike
combinations
of

two

elaborate

columns

various
reserves

providing a

corners,

for the

Rome.

1530-89.

and

courtyard

by Michelangelo,

still basically a flat surface

block

in

century,
of the

general
more

exterior

outlines.

In

sional
three-dimenwall

occurred

development of recessive or projecting

wings for urban palaces and villas. The Palazzo
with

the

(Fig.306),begun in 1628 by
completed by Bernini,has
tralized
a
facade that is more
openly symbolic of cenThis
was
appropriate to a
power.
family that gave so many
important popes to
Bernini's completed fa9ade has
the Church.
quahtiesof dignifiedgrandeur, lightness,and
His
before in palace design.
seen
not
openness
of glasspartially
for this
extensive use
accounts
in Rome

Barberini

Maderno

Carlo

effect and

and

also

reflects the wealth

its inhabitants.

enjoyed by

Each

and

story

security
had

The

autocratic

Barberini
windows

well
bavs.

by

as

The

the inherent

The

size

of

are

recessed

faqadeand also
piano nobile below.

the

is made

its windows

dominant
and

its

balcony, as well as through the range

flanking its arched windows.

Figure 306.
Palazzo

Carlo

GiANLORENZO
Barberini.

the

within

flatness of the

columns

and

as

what
frames, thus animatingsome-

emphasizing

piano nobile

greater

proportion,

rigorous vertical ahgnment of

windows
top-floor

their architectural

further

scale and

harmonious

by

the

projecting
of engaged

and
and

columns
all

helps to

lost their

have

subordinated

focus attention

the

his

design

to

the

which

ence
independthe

total

the central

on

most

extensions
thrusting

into

in

way

tural
spectacular architecof centralized authority, which

svmbol

viewer's space,
for the huge square
of

the

stories

of the
his

was

faqadedeep
nade
inspiredcolon-

before

Palazzo

(Fig.307),Bernini's use
and
unbroken
an
pilasters
of

the

projectingwings and the

portionsflankingthe middle

balcony. Bernini's
entailed

epitomized by
in

of

use

recessed

narrow

section

rule
echo

an

are

effect. The

distinctiveness,yet the over-all design is unified

through

has

of

St. Peter's. In

Chigi-Odescalchi
giantorders for the

vertical

continuation

influential in the

ning
planvery
subsequent palaces. Although poorly
altered by later architects,
and given more
bays
and
than Bernini himself had stipuentrances
lated,
this fac^ade was
perhaps as fruitful a
of ideas for Baroque symbols of nobility
source
Roman
as
Imperialarchitecture had been.
two

was

of

Maderno
Bernini.

Begun

1628.

Rome.

Figure
Bernini.

GiANLORENZO
307.
Palazzo
Chigi-

Odescalchi.

Begun

Rome.

159

1664.

Neumann

made
the ascension
from the ground
unforgettableexperience,for climbing
stairway is like promenading through a

level
his

an

gallery.The

museum

intended

not

was

traffic,but

great width
receive

to

of

the stairs

crowds

heavy

or

accommodate

elegant fashions
and
impart a regalatmosphere by an unstinting
of interior space, which necessarilysupposed
use
Each step is of slight
elevation to
great expense.
allow

effortless

an

visitor

to

look

to

that

ascent

back,

rather

than

down

carved

stone

balustrade

arrives

one

natural

directions

the

at

set

back

observation

this

of

and

pause

look

in all

surroundings.At the
white
walls have
glistening

allow

to

stair well, and

to

vals
inter-

at

statuary.
landings,there is

radiant

the
top of the stairs,

been

continuous

and

urns,

various

the

at

incentive

upward

is surmounted

by lanterns,decorative
As

and

his feet. The

at

the

encourages

around,

the

promenade

around

the

invitingambulatory permits
In

of others.

entrance

this

theatrical

and
actors
setting,audience
may
mounting
Surone.
continuallyinterchange or become
and
is
climaxing the whole scheme
the
vaulted
magnificent 60-foot-wide
ceiling
decorated
illusionistically
colorfullyand
by
Tiepolo, representing symbolically the four
continents.
Balthasar

Figure 308.

the Residenz.

Neumann.

1719-44.

Central

case,
Stair-

the

the

STAIRCASE

to

inventiveness
and

tastes

the
a

floor

of architects in

great

givingform

staircases. As

getting people

to

from

matic
pragone

inside

called for

The

another

an

was

enormous

the stairs. His

of the

double

260

room

to

house

designembodies the basic components

so-called "imperial staircase,"a

singleflightthat
which

resolved
brilliantly

two-storied

back

branches

off into

in direction.

Purposes of Art

the stairs,
it is

up

as

of the sky,and

area

two

parts

would

Thus,

absorbed

look down

though
into

over

working

his perspective

design the spaciousnessof the out-of-doors,

external
vista
but probably no
was
ever
so
German
bishops
sumptuous. Eighteenth-century
lived and acted like temporal rulers, and their
be
treated as
not
to
justifiably
palaces were
symbols of heavenly mansions.
(Skepticalof the

by the
Balthasar
Neumann
in designing the
German
main
staircase for the Residenz, the bishop's
the lowpalace in Wiirzburg (Fig.308). From
and
vaulted
dark
vestibule, one
begins his
of the stairs and
has
the
ascent
exhilarating
experienceof moving upward, back and forth,
with
through a dramatic
dazzling
space
perspectives.Neumann's
grandiose conception
to

those guests who

balustrade.

upper

indoors, Neumann

station of their clients extended

designing of
problem as

moves

as
allegorical
figuresare arranged to seem
the moldings, not
from above
peering down

unlike

The

one

the

Wiirzburg.

if

THE

As

if he is gazing into the open

reliabilityof the elaborate vaulted

client yielded when
the
enclosure, Neumann's
structural

offered

architect

THE

and

as

to

allow

cannon

to

be

fired

test.)

SHAPINQ
politicalsymbolism
boulevards

OF
of

NATURE

Baroque

is today forgotten.Few

squares
ber
remem-

that public parks have

a
history,that they
originated as private gardens for kings and
of the most
beautiful playgrounds
nobles. Some

in

history were
originallyconceived
privategardens for the exclusive use
few. No publicpark undertaken
times

recent

entailed

has

lavish

as

of

leged
privi-

in

vanced
costs, the adfinest art that are

technology,and the
in the old palace and villa gardens
of Europe and the Far East.
plete
Though survivingin an altered and incomstate, the gardens of the Villa d'Este at
Tivoli
Rome, still reflect the
(Fig.309), near
magnificence of their sixteenth-centuryorigin
the command
of that period'smost
secular
at
Roman
Catholic
prelate,Ippolito II d'Este.
With

the aid

of

Cardinal

laid out

villa

elaborate

an

gists,
archaeolo-

architects,masons,

and
sculptors,

French

fountain

experts, the

the slopinghill beneath

his
semble,
geometricallydesigned encomprised myriad fountains and

which

on

pools,walks and stairways, grottoes,

and
shaped pergola dividing herb
gardens,labyrinths,and groves of trees
in

the
of

ing
increas-

density as

contrived

the
in

furnished
spectacle was
by the
Organ (Fig.310), described by
writer
Montaigne during a visit

of the

French
1581:

The

music

and

the

of the

natural

thing, is

same

water

which

round

arched

which

organ,

organ,

is real music

though always playing

effected by means
of the

falls with

great violence

into

and

agitatesthe air that is

in there and
forces it.
to
go through the
and
pipes of the organ
supply it with wind.
Another
of water, drivinga wheel with
stream
certain
teeth on
the organ keyboard
it,causes
cave

to

be struck

imitation

in

certain

order

so

hear

you

an

of trumpets.

Pirro
Ligorio.
Gardens
Figure 309.
(engraving bv Duperac of
design).Tivoli. c. 1550.

d'Este

of the Villa
the

projected

artificial environment

imposing

an

sound

Fountain

cross-

flower

the villa. (There

they neared
secret
even
gardens and a tennis court for
Cardinal's residence.)The axial grid layout
the paths and
orderly pattern of the trees

were

were
patterned after ancient treatises on
pneumatics. Perhaps the most spectacular
water

and

more

the

be found

to

and

flattered the power

of its owner.
into the
Diversion
of river waters

that

fountains,

of the gardens was

made
pools,and channels
ogical
by skilled hydraulicengineers.Archaeolpossible
in

excavations

the

nearby ruined

villa

of

Emperor Hadrian suppliedthe gardens with

genuine antique statuary of pagan
gods and
for the contemporary
goddesses,as well as with models
who
adorned
the fountains
sculptors
nude
and
figuresexpressiveof
grottoes with
Reformation
attitudes.
anything but Counter
Likewise

inconsistent

warning

sprayed

Aiore

water.

unsuspecting

beauty

appearance

and

that

tion
voca-

without
with

guests

of

of the

sound

situation. Parallel
Lane

Cardinal's

the

devices

the

were
important, esthetically,

variety and

the

with

concealed

were

and

One

fountains,with
being gauged to

quiteclose

to

their
their

the villa is

Hundred

Fountains; here,
boats, spraying
into troughs on
two
upward or pouring down
levels. The
of the Dragon
Fountain
abruptly
emitted jetsof water
shots,
sounding like cannon

water

issues from

and

vases

while

yet another

fountain

with

singingbronze

birds

appearance

Fountain

of
noises

a
were

had

metal

frightenedoflTat

mechanical
achieved

screech

tree

the
owl.

hydraulically

Figure310.

The

Fountain

of the

Organ, Villa

d'Este.

Figure
Vau

Louis

311.
and

Palace

douin-Mansart.
of

le

Har-

Jules

Versailles.

1669-85.

and

Hearing

smell

sensations, but
the

garden

fan

and

shapes,

cascades
of

and

the

as

dominance
how
the

stone,
the

gardens
and

aural,

fine

and

verdure,

Roman

all one's

with

tactile,

the

man's

influence
such

only

in

visual,
of

Versailles

that

of

the

in
on

lives

only the residence

seat

The
600

yards

entire

main

wide,

the

traditional

Ibl

of

the

the

The

of men,

royal

of

itself

Purposes

in

of

the

views

ancient

the

Paris

Louvre,

of

the
a

court

Art

and

over

self-

and

public

the

the

miles

reflects

palace
of

pleasure
Here,

this

the

connecting

of

funnel

reserved
rule

was

for
over

the
nature

of

The
to

King
was

town

finances
the

rear

city

facade
square

many

of

area

an

the

King's

shape

addressed

was

faced

the

relationship.

private gardens,

Louis'

buildings

palace

source

The

manpower.

the

city

Geometric

symbol.

of

side

people,

along

and

Elysees

away.

royal

came

built

was

as

upon

road

central

Champs

authoritarian

the

of

palace,

converged

palace,

miles

the

on

palace. Just

now

The

the

the

as

squares

The

and

but

completely

like

nine

over

broad

plan

also

world.

the

and,
axis

same

became

of government.

of

roads

of
the

avenues

converged
the

its

as

up

direction, great

before

all

city

built

city and

ground

and

the

lay

been

that

the

illustrate

palace

design stressinglong straight avenues

tralization
cen-

swamp

From

capital

the

palace,

had

times,

ment
govern-

Versailles

at

(Fig. 311)
of the

side

one

which

parade

it. For

high

live

to

palace

rival

to

or

able

theater.

other

no

Europe

of Versailles

through

from

rooms,
halls, ball-

own

exile.

On

grew.

slashed

in

was

court

be

to

its

even

French

to

Versailles,

of

tectural
archi-

complete

man.

administration

in

elsewhere

environment.

in

joined,

were

or

Baroque

one

building
was

Tivoli
Palace

malaria-infested

the

the

the

French

of thousands

not

for

the

upon.

power

built

was

cost

and

is

and

symbolical relationship

main

delights

the

symbolized
of

such

authority

elaborated

or

Versailles

and

of

many

symbols
refined,

in

was

It

that

times
to

access

Versailles

at

It

and

Europe

Versailles.

at

recent

given

grounds

Copenhagen.

which

those

as

widespread

of

courts

comparatively
been

have

to

were

later

gardens

has

public
the

the

on

upon

as

gardens

there

Aerial

palace
Tivoli

splendor,

tantamount

the

water."

The

and

officials,not

and

refreshment

of state,

members

was

summers

senses,

rooms

France

their

out

of

hot

bathe

history

living quarters,

offices,kitchens, banqueting

size

in

contained

It

city.

business

In

bubbling

points

water,

deadly
to

were

his

demonstration

over

"during

In

contained

in

geysers,

to

Coffin

David

gardens,

significance

from

torrents

dribbles.

gentle

that

eye

harnessed

was

ranging

spitting

ful
delight-

the

to

Water

forms,

endless

receive

mainly

was

addressed.

was

seemingly

also

may

it

and
made

his

private
court.

patent

Figure

of

The
Court
312.
Versailles.

Honor,

the

of the
rigid but beautiful
geometry
planted according to the plans of
The
Notre.
stood
palace, which significantly

by

gardens,
Le

the

on

between
focus

was

thus

the

public

and

private, the

highest ground,
worlds,

two

of

The

and

man

gigantic court
the
palace
not

would

be

toward

series

entrance,

enter

of

fortified,blocklike

him

draw

to

marble

mounted
the

bedroom,
and

which

Louis
observe

the

that
here

in

the

main

had

its

doorway,
King's

balcony

from

The

been

given

of

the

public

most

of

developed in
resplendent

European

Riccardi

the

palace,

artists and

artisans

and

with

walls

lives of the

were

had

an

lavishly decorate

murals

gods, with

famous

Louis

depicting
whom

Gobelin
founded

Louis

tapestry
as

army

fortified

residence, since

The

were

became

or

seven

Over

The

Sun

King
of

the

great

of Mirrors

the

as

the

thick

Florentine

rulers.

Since

his

earthly

Light,"

designed
people

thousand

need

not

of this concept.
to

be

who

used

by

the

lived

at

the

levels of the gardens, Louis

the upper
often
fabulous
were
banquets, which

accompanied
for

and

Hall

materialization

were

all

On

ceramic

to

famous

of

ruled

did

Renaissance

the

to

for

need

He

to

suggest his strength.

to

the

for

been

armies

his

windows

"Lord

the

gardens

kinship.

royal monopolies

of

were

palace

held

the

barred

was

in

and

Louis

six

the

expressiveof

as

palace

in

the

Medici-

no

windows
huge floor-to-ceiling
mirrors

of

model

have

had

of Europe.
walls

the

set
was

inappropriate

as

Louis

much

masonry

Venetian

court.

events

and

rusticated

the ceilings

felt
and

of

Medici.

de'

and

expense

would

Lorenzo

and

nudes, and,

Palazzo

been

have

and

stucco

artistic center

The

Versailles

as

wall

carved
No

it became

royalty.

would
XIV

Louis

The

Within

this the

were

for the
of

gardens.

making

hundred

marbles

gods, nymphs,

world; indeed,

walls

appearances
"window

in

Western

tapestries,

one

royaltywere

and

rooms

of France

were

center

was

onto

make

yard,
court-

emperors

military reviews.

Egypt was
setting.

industries

Roman

Exactly

opened

hospitable

innermost

columns,

could

appearances"

The

like

out

the

all

castle, but

of French

naturally,
in

of

Hundreds

of

sculptures

spared

center

Moving

by long elegant

the

above

double

by

which

of

walls.

and

palace

framed

in. In

busts
the

on

the

stages.

ambassador
visiting

gradually embraced
palace wings that reached
arms

was
through the
(Fig. 312). This

palace

Honor

recessed

in

the main

would

of

was

of

toward

the

to

Court

decorations.

stairway
marble

nature.

approach

traditional

fulcrum

with
miles
supply Versailles
carpeting, and
moldings. Over
and
forty types of colored
assembled
from
all over
Europe

thirteen
the

many

Architecture

by

displays of

brilliant

hundred

waterspouts

fountains, each
of

Authority

fireworks.
were

designed
263

built

around

Figure
Palace

Prince
The
Katsura

Palace, Kyoto

(aerial view)

the

Toshihito

and

thickets

Katsura

River,

diverted

into

Louis

motif.
showed

implied in
trees.
Long

shaping
his

rule

the

water

advanced
of the

as

mathematics
to

and

Contemporaneous with Versailles

Japanese princelypalace of Katsura
the
316), built near
Kyoto under
264

skilled

neering
engi-

build.

Purposes

of

Art

is the

great

(Figs.313direction

of

At

nature.

Prince
power.

from

the

French

King

used

world

centered

was

were
as

by

sailles
traditions, Ver-

different

by

relation

construction,

in

to

the

imperial family was

the
shoguns, and
effective
no
political
thus symptomatic of his
of

outside
his
his

in

which
much

the

had

retreat

Toshitada.

of man's

of its

oppression
palace

New

by
adjoining the

formed

were

Toshihito
His

As

architectural

century,

the

the

bounded

of

waters

gardens.

time

the

acres,

and

authority and

seventeenth

feeling

the

Katsura

of

concepts

was

virtuoso

time

and

variously,

so

nature,

over

clipping of hedges and

the
garden prospects shaped even
natural
Great
open-air stairways, whose
space.
for
back to those built by Bramante
design went
the
Vatican
and
the
by Michelangelo on
Capitoline Hill, not only carried the promenader
from one
level of the garden to another
but
also gave
sensation
of leading directly to the
a
clouds.
The
gardens and palace of Versailles
constituted
a
private city that required the
most

the

In

Prince

son

screens

the

from

Shoin.

his

and

totally different
marine

Palace, view

Middle

palace occupies sixteen

bamboo

Figure 313.
17th century.

Katsura

314.
toward

world, whereas

palace

to

person.
builders

the

symbolize
Except in

the

the

avoided
Japanese
metry,
symwas
fully
careapproach to Katsura
and
and
natural
designed to be informal
to
provide by its turnings unexpected vistas of
the beautiful
gardens and finallyof the palace

temples,

the

and

itself. The
elements

the

accent

on

demonstrated

artifice
at

or

Tivoli

mastery
and

of the

Versailles

ttj -C

o
05
O

."

^--/-^J
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U

Z
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Q
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"-",-

^^f

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^

si

PL,

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03

"
C
O

a
o

CO
IT)

a.

p
o

Ph
"
o
o

o
V

'

l'

alien

is

toward

romantic

than
main

The

(there is
a

which

door)

French
Katsura

at

of

formal

main

more

was

of the

that

absence

no

aristocratic

Japanese

building

the

reveals

on

the

to

nature,

strong

stairway
;

or

is there

nor

attitude

passive

immediately
focus

central
forceful

accent

the

familiar

blockish

regard

the
made

to

of three large shoin,or halls,

zigzag arrangement
few
consisting of some
fortymodest-sized
rooms,
of which
have
designated functions. The large,

roof

slightlyconvex
motif, and

its

The
stability.

are

not

palaces.Many
at

Katsura

is the

for

design
structural

is basically a skeletal
walls
construction, with paper

are

load-bearing
of the external
made

to

allowing multiple changes

vistas into

dominant

is crucial

architecture

post-and-beam
that

weight

the gardens. The

as

and

slide
in

room

in

European

internal
open,

best

can

the

sense

the

floors

rightness of Katsura's

one

interior

proportions.)

court.

quality and self-sufficiency

the direction
of
setting.Under
Prince, Katsura, like its predecessors,was
ingly
to appear
perfectlyadapted to the seemroundings.
surunplanned variety of its natural
The
main
or
building is an echelon

European
with

(By sittingon

system.

portional
and

walls

thereby

layout and

aristocracystoically

accepted any discomfort of climatic conditions,

should
serve
essentially
feelingthat architecture
the spirit
rather than the body. Unlike
European
architects,Japanese designersbased their work
esthetic
ideal
more
on
on
preference than
when
it came
to formulating a
geometry
pro-

The

building

posts, both

is raised

because

off

of the

the

ground

sloping site

protection against floods. (The

walled
to keep animals
out.) The

uniform

level

with

Katsura

at

also

was

as

basement

break

by

and

is

floor

the

ditional
tra-

aristocratic

symbolism of different
levels that was
in earlier imperial palaces.
found
The
modern
Japanese architect Kenzo
Tange,
who
has written
fine study of Katsura, points
a
that

out

these

aristocratic
ideas

and

norm

energy

responsible for
and

the

deviations
reflect
of the
the

from
a

lower

No

the

historical

influence

new

of the

classes,who

plays, puppet

were

theater,

vital to Japanese culture

so
ceremony
enjoyed by the aristocracy.Prince
Toshihito
tion
employed as his director of construcNakanuma
a
garden and tea expert named
the
from
came
Sakyo, who
newly prosperous
tea

and

class, while

merchant
known

advice
and

have

to

been

the
priests,
susceptible to new

chief

low

Prince
ideas

fellow
to

seems

is

gardener

birth.

from

forthcoming

was

Zen

court

the
of

Although
noblemen
have

from

outside

most

of

been

of

the

well.

as

Katsura

does

continue

the

teristics
charac-

of

beauty

Its
Japanese imperial architecture.
the
utmost
depends largely upon

restraint

in

decoration,

as

seen

in the

spareness

h^m

^V*'^
S^"***
Katsura
Palace, Middle
315.
of the Old
Shoin.
the first room

Left:Figure
seen

Above:
Palace

from

Figure 316.
and

lawn

seen

Katsura
from

the

Palace,
Middle

265

the

Shoin.

Shoin

New

of its

and

rooms

the

clean

designers thought of
and

terms,

the

described

of the

viewed

be

given

to

of

sequence

patterns. Similarly, the symbolic

to

be

palace might

additive

sequentiallyand
contemplating

gardens
much

with
what

the

scale

foot.
under-

and

vistas in

fixed

over-all
Katsura
for the

of

from

symmetry.

of the farmers

houses

Unlike

the

left

harmonize

rough

suggest

or

Japanese brought

The

of space
lesson
The
that

of the

universe

in

high art
enjoyment.
a

be learned

from

the

the

gardens

basis

enjoyed

of

by

any

and

beaches,
are
one

garden

was

the

groves,

totallyunpredictable
part.

The

they

may

of

expanses

ritual

seventeenth-century royalty

on

tour

fol-

to

discrete
as

appear

aged

reference

no

that

their

at

normal
as

human
thev

aspect, and
endless
Worn

in

depths,
and

stones

preserved

trees

to

moment

one

appear
mountains.

and

sea

and

moss

viewer's

the

impression of being surrounded

by timeless
serenity. Impeccably cared
for, the garden's
tion
correct
informalityis preserved by the eliminaof mud
and unsightly collections of leaves.
such

environment,

an

of mundane

appropriate
(Fig. 317),

traditional

or

Usually

cleanse

could

men

concerns.

The
building most
setting is the teahouse

tea

such

to

where

is performed.

ceremony,
structure

one-room

the

rounded
sur-

small-scale

garden, at Katsura
the
seventeenth-century tea
pavilion, the
A religious
Shokintei, contains additional rooms.
ritual practice by Zen
monks
before the image
of Buddha,
secularized
chanoyu later became
of social meditation
into a form
but preserved
the
rules
and
solemnity of its origin. A few
invited guests assembled
at the garden gate and,
in prearranged order, passed leisurelythrough
hands
in a
the garden, cleansing their
rude
basin and
stone
usually entering the teahouse
through a low door, as a symbol of humility and
by

"

mounds,

next

sure
enclo-

of
not, as at Tivoli, for example, one
of nature.
at the
self-glorification
expense
The
is the loving creation of
garden at Katsura
fine
artists. Mingling
were
gardeners who

Katsura

the

chanoyu,

nature.

the

man's

ponds,

in

In

of all life in the

underlying harmony

recognized

their minds

to

the

or

contrived

possess

are

against

order

analogies with
to

gardens

activity,so

or

tion
decora-

ally,
is,intention-

incomplete

for human
to

closed

were

highly finished

or

dictable
pre-

The
of
openness
aristocratic symbol,

of Katsura

Versailles,that

often

the

interior,and

the

in itself an

becomes

elements.

the

nor

routes

Constantly changing
views were
unfolded
the eye, just as textures
to
ings,
subtly changed underfoot.
Except for the build-

were

palace does
of a total integrated form,
have
the sense
one
in contrast
the European
to
palaces with their
static blocklike arrangement,
planned and
more
within

Neither

without

flat

tion
atten-

was

prescribed water
paths and stepping stones
integral parts of nature.
lowed

Japanese

two-dimensional

in

space

interior
an

as

between

contrasts

elements.

horizontal

and

vertical

the

democratic

alcove

of

the

of the

nature
austere

tearoom

would

beautiful

the

tea

with

an

be

placed
display,or a single
thoughtful inspection

painting, a simple flower

object that, after
by the entering guests, served as a
discussion. Following strict ritual,the
a

In

ceremony.

source

host

intentionally crude

of
pared
pre-

but

utensils.

Simplicity and naturalness

the notes
struck by the environment,
the
were
tea
objects,the gestures, and the subsequent
touched
on
conversation, which
ideally never
business or politics.
From
the Buddhist
temple the tea ceremony
passed to a deceptivelysimple, light,woodenframed
stabilized
structure
by a
topped and
handsome

heavy

thatched

wooden
walls

Figure
or

Katsura

317.
Shokintei.

Gardens

and

Purposes

of

An

and
in the

Teahouse,
an

266

supports

roof.
were

translucent
wall

irregular way,

were

Between

the

exterior

lath
rough, mud-covered
ings
Openrice-paperscreens.
intentionallydisposed in

both

for visual

effect and

to

The

purest styleof

claimed

to

house

tea

be concerned

architecture.

with the material

not

of the

but with the emptiness

buildingitself,
It was importantto produce a space
would
reflect the transiency
of thingsin

within
that

....

this world...

and

compositions

this end

to

incompleteis stillwithin
is therefore imperfect.
This

asymmetrical

preferred:only

were

the process

what

is

of lifeand

worshipfulattitude toward imperfection

to
untreated
tree
introducingan

extended
trunk

as

partitionsupport

those

linking

within

in the

the

to

thus

room,

natural

world

without.

VILLA

THE
Thus

far,
palaces and

Figure318. Interior of the Katsura Shokintei,with hearth and tree trunk used to
support

the

of

guide

the

lightproperlyfor the

and
Painstakingly

the teahouse

at

tea

great cost, the

ceremony.
owners

of

building that gave

the impression
of austere
and
natural
rusticity
Devoid of interior furniture,
with
imperfection.
rice mats, arranged over
the guests sitting
on
the floor,the tearoom
has an air of emptiness
and contemplative space.
constructed

the

country

importancein

partition.

the

most

have

we

considered

garden of

house
the

or

villa

imposing

royal villa;but
itself had

great

historyof architecture. One

famous

and

influential

was

the

Villa Capra (Figs.319, 320),

sixteenth-century
Palladio for a nobleman
designed by Andrea
who
served the popes. The
which gains its
villa,
fainiliar

name

of "La

interior,is situated

Rotonda"

from its domed

hill

near
Vicenza,
Italy,and is set off starklyagainstits garden
and
inates
surroundings so that it completelydom-

the site from

atop

all directions. Palladio

was

to his
explainedthe significance the firstarchitect to apply systematically
of this quality
of "emptiness"
villas the facade concepts of ancient
Roman
according to Zen
and Taoist ideas as the means
of expressing
the
temples.In the Villa Capra, the basic cube of
the buildings
has temple fac^ades
sole reality:
graftedonto

Arthur

Drexler has

Figure 319.

Andrea

Palladio.

Begun

1550.

Villa Capra
Vicenza.

("La Rotonda"
Figure 320.

Plan of the Villa

Capra.

sides,givingthe residence

all four

from

appearance
Pailadio's

motive

this

religiousstructure
explainedby him in

ancient
was

made

I have

villas

the

because

architecture:

on

front

main

of

add

very

of

all the

show
frontispieces

such

an

residence

secular

book

of the house, and

entrance

(the pediment
frontispiece

the

portico) in

the

adaptation of

to
a

imposing

an

it is viewed.

direction

any
for

the

much

to

grandeur and magnificence of the work,

eminent
than
being thus made more

the

the front
the

rest ;

which

are

front. The
is

besides

they

are

in

seen

the

also made

remains

publicedifices

other

arms

use

owners,

of the

of them

as

of the

and.

and

took the invention

of the

put in the middle

commonly
ancients

commodious

very

placingthe ensignsof

for

the

temples, and
they very probably
[ofthem]
principles

private buildings,i.e.,from the houses

[The Four Books of Architecture,
II, i6, 1570.]

from

Pailadio's
did

archaeologywas

actually

not

the

see

incorrect,for he
facades of ancient

His supposition
of the originof
known
be wrong.
to
temple fac^adeis now

private homes.
the

Nonetheless, it
the

temple fa(jadehad

Right: Figure
Lloyd

Wright.

(Kaufmann
37.

Bear

Below:

Pailadio's

was

Run,

Figure
"FallingWater".

32

Frank
.

ter"
"FallingWa-

House). 1936Pennsylvania.
322.

Plan

of

conviction

secular

that

origin,which

explainedhow he might
privatevilla. The custom
to

Roman

imitate

of Italian

on

aristocracy

nobility of the past would

for

accounted

have

rationalize its use

the

client's

and

assent

pleasurewith this unusual designfor his house.

The
ground plan of the villa shows that it was
laid out
on
geometricpremisesrather than on
the basis of what

one

physical comfort

or

family. Such

would

to

assume

individual

needs

be

the

of

the

into
geometricalstraitjacket,
which
one
shaped his habits of living,was
unquestioninglyaccepted in Pailadio's day as
appropriateto high social position
; moreover,
it was
following the precedent of Roman
palace ruins,which appeared to sanction this
mode
of design.
of the most
One
beautiful privatehomes
in
modern

architecture

is the Kaufmann

house, or

"FallingWater"
(Figs.321, 322), which Frank
Lloyd Wright designedin the 1930s for Edgar
of a Pittsburghdepartment
Kaufmann, owner
does
In a societywhich
store.
not
know
the
historical European class system,
it is those
people with money,
imagination,and daring
who

been

have
to

design
"La

able

to

houses

Rotonda."

engage

the

comparable
When

best architects
with

Palladio

ladio's
Pai-

imper-

sonally

about

wrote

his service

to

individual,

and

the

his

villa,it

he

in

was

nobility,not

to

commented

his

on

of

terms

particular

of

use

preexistingbuilding type from antiquity.Here

is what
into
Wright had to say about what went
the
design and
building of the Kaufmann
residence

eloquent contrast
Capra and allows

an

integrate the

to

house

and

when
first time

work

in my

is

practice,where
in

concerned

dence
resi-

recent

years,

concrete

the

construct

of

the

making

cantilever

who

man

liked

loved

unlike

In

this

deep

forest, shelter

form

masonry
overhead

the

which

who
place sincerely,one
the
to
waterfall, might well
in a glen
design for livingdown

...

in

sion
exten-

above

upon

while

for

took

affluence
the

definite

on

glass

surface.

....

The

....

cantilever

and

the

clutching big
to
might serve
shelter

the

"

sound

The

indicate
of

sense

sense

by

effects you
effects.

see

they

the

but,
architect

site,and

thus

Kaufman's
secluded

and

the cliff not

as

reveals

tells how

Rare

as

of
steel

an

for

both

solve
brick

the

used
site

used

championed

for the

problem.

by

Unlike

Palladio

the

cover

the
of the

such

of

site

Mr.

that

is

the

frank

for
use

in

the

city

halls

that
motifs
and

house

stucco

to
over

that
not

of space

and

rials,
mate-

light.

materials

of autocracy

workmen

(Concrete does
steel,however.) The ground plan of
levels in "FallingWater"
makes
many

way

in which

governmental
in
in

us

the

tutions
insti-

over-all

republic are

our

state, and

federal

ings
build-

(or mangle) architectural

from
the temples, churches,

as

Massive

bleak

well

the

Germany,
walls

of

monotonously

flightsof

steps, and

Architecture

of

that

from

as

architecture

federal

from
basically indistinguishable

Nazi

The

to

county,

mingle

of

embodied

familiar

Union,
and

public buildings that

be
enjoyed

elective; yet American

of

his

been

borrowed

is

site.

his

over

the Renaissance
and
palaces of ancient Rome
and
Baroque periods. The governments
and
giant orders were
inspired the dome

walls, Wright
and

modern

and

his

stone

To

Lloyd

the mastery

to

sense,

Wright

as

can
authority which
their beauty and
for the

design. More

prestressed

as

first time

natural
opted for the
the actual
quarried near

one

such

particularcharacter

the

Materials

nature.

were

of

in another

civil

ficial
super-

importance

love

Frank

by

ARCHITECTURE

are

house

building grows from

engineering tour de force but
to facilitate his client's enjoyment

instrument

an

the
and

with

as

architect.

as

the

the

choice

this

as

well

as

the

organization

CIVIC

has

Wright

such

client
of

did

owner

of the

of

and

not

are

house

vision

with

employed.

were

with

MODERN

sense

used

used

in this house

of the

taste

seen

limitations

no

materials

in themselves

worked

structure

the

where

"

the

which

that

space
has

tural
architec-

carry

be

may
This

....

except

methods

here

They

boulders

structural

form

to

slabs

beams.

and

decoration
who

its appearance

viewpoints.

income
required a sizable
(though
homes
modest
more
design some
for other clients).
As opposed to our
past usage,
when
in terms
of
we
speak of "Falling Water"
architecture
of authority, we
an
are
referring
social status
and
not
of
to the
politicalpower

..

parapets

and

Wright
Wright

These

with
deep overhangs provide the interior.
the softened
diffused
the
lighting for which
indweller
is
invariably grateful, I have
found
This
building is a late example of
the inspirationof a site,the cooperation of an
intelligent
appreciative client, and the use of
materials
lining
entirelymasonry
except for an interof redwood
and
all
asphalt beneath
flooring.Again, by way of steel in tension this
its place and
achieves
its
building takes
form

his materials

imaginative

aflFord

still preserving protection

extensive

of

various

his structure.
sculptorsand paintersto enhance
of
historical
Notwithstanding the absence
devices
for showing
social
prestige, by its
dramatic
costliness
the
obvious
design and
Kaufmann
house
impresses the visitor with the

stream,

and

terraces

It also

Palladio,

the

privacy for
explains the

character

sculptureand

of

of

to

the

listen

to

live.

mountain

over

space

several

upon

the

needed

of this

system

cliff beside

living

stream

actually

was

as

Palladio's

exterior

areas

from

seen

considered

form
"

reinforced

many

of

Wright's desire

see

and

family and its guests.

nonblocky, unpredictable

the

interior

allow

yet

that

to

us

the

Wright
For

with

Villa

and

heavy

products

of the
Fascist

masonry,

Soviet

Italy.
squared

aligned windows, endless

are
grandiose cornices

Authority

269

iNiemeyer.
323. Oscar
of the
Dawn
dent's
(Presi-

Figure
Palace

Brasilia.

Palace). 1959.

traits that

equally well

describe

American

Throughout
and

in

the

bad

fiscal

and
earth

which
It

is

world

such

several

in

Palace

used

the

both

as

setting
of

manner

his

long

the

Ca'

that

of the

Dawn

glass

with

core

the

that
temporary
con-

One

Niemeyer
capital of
(Fig. 323),

Somewhat

d'Oro, Niemeyer

and

as

in

the

where

informally. The

idea

that
should

be

Niemeyer
plateau
i!70

visitors

to

observation

to

Purposes

of

Art

of the

conveys

by
at

site

the
all
on

presidential

how

sense

of

It

entrance.

Bernini

concrete

to

push

would

from

little

place
be

the

instead

elements,

supporting
off

is then

takes

of

out

scape.
landinvite

the

ground at
floating,or how
appearances" in

their pinpoint contacts

if
as
of
inappropriate a "window
the
form
of a
would
Michelangelo tabernacle
be
above
the
the
main
(Behind
doorway.
inverted
arcade
that are
are
lengthy balconies
from
accessible
and
private quarters
permit the
to
presidential family and
enjoy the
guests
view
without
by the crowds
being observed

outside.)

Niemeyer
design

officials

to

which

colonnade,

the

organic
seem

elegant

glass facade

advantage
spread the

the

which

an

elected

took

of

from

and

the

before

gigantic columns

fronted

government
open

toward

interrupted
imagination

has

its free-flowing lines can

enjoyed in the reflecting pool in
the
colonnade
is
building. Behind

meet

broad

truly

inland

the

functions.

the

India

and

president's residence

can

times.

of

and

Oscar

new

of

spacious veranda,

people

capital.

colonnade;

doubly

front
a

state

boxlike

curvilinear
be

for

ing,
Build-

architecture.

public

buildings

Brazil, is the

the

Brazil

intelligent

for Brasilia, the

designed

States

the

to

governments

of

for

solutions
of

United

dictory
contra-

led

his other
the
buildings over
reflectingpool and wide paths

movement

have

Office

and

palace

The

timidity

have

Senate

emerged

those

as

look

must

one

that
the

as

typify the
newly

to

the

architectural

extravagance

crushers, such

alike

and

taste

toward

tendency

foregoing

Democratic

history,

administrations

Republican

shared

all the

official architecture.

styles of twentieth-century

state

received

Corbusier,

Le
the

entire

of Punjab

concerned
areas,

Le

at

number

who

in

of
1951

capital city of
Chandigarh. While

themselves

Corbusier

the

to

Indian

associates
residential

the

concentrated

ideas

on

the

design

city,located
of a broad
the
end
at
plain at the foot
upper
The
Palace
of Justice
of
the
Himalayas.
(Fig. 324) is a long rectangular building of
unfinished
imposing
concrete,
topped by an

of the

upswept

administrative

with

his

began

umbrellalike

center

roof

of the

with

wide

over-

hang. Unlike
the

it, and
open

plan of

the
court

has

enters

by

entrance
one

of

of

flankingthe
from

Corbusier's

Lc
a

decorative

color

have

areas

has

structure

free

"sun

concrete

of

circulation
in

of the

functions
Unlike

are

tected
pro-

entire
painted. The
designed to facilitate the
air and
people essential
"

view

of the

and

climate

the

for

Baroque palacefacades,in his design

all
rejectedrigidsymmetry and overof forms. The
giant piersare used
repetition
The
structural,not for symbolic, reasons.

are

is to the left of center, and

court

repeated in

manner

and

Within

the

different

without

sections

in

hieratic connotation.

any

Corbusier

Le
as

of hundreds

affect the

Renaissance
whom

were

construction

with

the

and

structure

appearance
climate
is

material.

of

so

reduce

much

admirably

Frank

use

the
raw

suited

heavy
potentially
The
concrete.
dry
to

of materials

of structure

animate

which

the

and

use

of this

revelation

provide a model of architectural

ethics that
by the
might well be emulated
justices
presidingwithin. The avoidance of any
sign of lu.xuriousness or decorative show has a
for a government
frugalrightness
building.The

Figure 324.
The
195

Palace
1.

Le

of

daily lives

could

nized
recog-

beneficially

populationtoward
instill pride in

as

the

powerful

state.

In

its
the

contrast

to

have

selves
seriously involved themthe study of various

engineeringand

buildingmaterials,with the technologyas well

the
esthetics
of building.Moreover, they
have
ological,
sought to take into consideration the soci-

as

and

economic,
and

needs

of their

grounds
psychological backclients. Where

past

might be defined as primarilyan

of organizing and enclosingspace, the work

architecture
art

the

movement,

well

as

as

people.He

architecture

Niemeyer

Corbusier

backward

of

city,
merely

not

of
Baroque architects,many
without
practical trainingin
any
techniques,Le Corbusier, Wright,

Le

and

also

the

and

of

of

but

bright

entire

an

for the better the

attitude of the

government,
administration

has
created
Justice, Le Corbusier
ward
alternatingforstrong sculptural effects and

Palace

rectangular frame

of

his

of

of

relieve

his task

upon

of thousands

that

and

taste

challenge

influence

to

the

bare

looked

esthetic

an

means

motifs
looser

sparingtouches

please Indian

sober
building's
appearance.
In undertaking the design

sance
of Renais-

treatment

Corbusier

entrance

color would

and

building.

and

Le

architect felt also that

light by

breakers," organized into

behind which bright
grill,

balanced

the

natural

many

been

been

considerations

connect

hall

entrance

the

are

building. The

brilliant

the

yet

concrete

hall
that

concrete

raw

sheltered

entrance

the different levels of the

courtrooms

shield

to

molded

huge

of the

basilica,

wall

outer

way

between

space

piers.At the rear

"flying"ramps

Roman

the

no

conscientious

modern

takes in the art,

architect

like

technology,and

sociology of creatinga synthetic environment

for

human

and

use

contemporary

problems with
refused

to

symbols

such

each

repeat
as

authority.When
it becomes

Because

enjoyment.

architect is confronted

client,Le Corbusier

conventional

those
one

new

the

by changing

architectural

political
Egyptianpylon,

associated

recalls the

with

apparent that in his work

at

garh
Chandi-

tecture
developeda viable new archicivil authority that is
for interpreting
a
of the governed.
dependent on the consent
Le Corbusier

Corbusier.

of

Justice.
Begun
Chandigarh, India.

i^ti

14
TO

BE

THE
AND

OF

ONE'S

SYNTHESIS

PRESENT

IN

OF

its
to

that

isolated

history has

of

synthesis

values

century
the

the

at

bodies

of

continual

result

of

centuries

two

fields,
there

have

the

extent

influenced

both

by

style and
the

be

of the

to

the

present?

Louvre?

In

the

themselves,

entirely
after

Or
in

grounded

or

for
of

272

should

the
the

own

such

only
had

the

had

preting
inter-

time

for

and

be

did
the

already

alternatives.

theme

in

pose

first time

provided
Since

the

he

also
in

its

did

interpret
ogical
mythol-

style

taken
from

country
the

excellent
of

purpose

landscapes
to

another

been

the

nineteenth
alternatives

art

public.

should

Genre

be

and

to

the

the

change

happen

century.
artists
ideals

formal

were

both

these

at

the

of

church

art-school

rather

principally
conspired

in

terms

from
and

leading
the

state,

to
to

present

independent
and

patronage
as

in

of what

of the

beginning
the

and

questions

syntheses

separated
of

conditions

to

Many

made

was

century,
of

new

nonintellectual

it

matter.

answers

viable

produce
to

subject
number

by private collectors
for

for how

nineteenth

the

France,

base

esteemed
its

for

than

them

given

established

was

not

artist

to

and

periods

an

before

ennoble

value

high

In

justice

had

that

and

in

Even

there
view

painting,

themes

did

time.

the

resorting

other

painting

artist

showing

foregoing types of painting of people, objects,

and
nature
aims, and
sidestepped these noble

be

masterworks

questions

history

various

artist's

style that

historical

educate

which,

in

time, while

another

century
to

Should

past

both form

artist's

in

should

present.

Renaissance

problems

new

1800,

examples

imitate

in

other
which

opposites

ways
art

and

Should

yet

Baroque

another

the

nineteenth-

the

on

past

subject

moment,

in

synthesis that

many

their

which,

to

of

newer

inspired

painters centered

century

one's

conflicts

artist. The

and

perplexed
and

been

his

or

from

without

place

styles of

well

as

in

interested

permitted

that

of

aspects

and
of the

Dutch

example,

been

Portraits, still lifes,and

modes

rather

many

time

own

nineteenth

history in

artists had

paraphrase

were

for

century,

French

as

countries.

the

"worldly"

the

Like

dialectical

often

motivate

of

new

preceding.

has

art

of

seventeenth

calendar.

development, but
gradual loss of strength
a

PAINTINQ

their

water

movement

and

"heavenly"

beginning

not

was

width,

changing

or

checked
not
or
governed by the
the
irrelevance
ineffectuality and

old

the

ideas

is

The

to

leaving

art's

up,

and

depth

of

springs

new

and

course

dry

in

changing

PAST

NINETEENTH-

CENTURY

river
Like
.receiving

TIME:

well

as

training. Progressive

from
artists

after 1850

could hope for support from an

increasingly
largemiddle-class art-buying
public
and

of

from
art

the emergence

dealers. For

personalstudy
museums

in

to

came

of increased numbers

many

the

important artists,

Louvre

or

replaceacademic

other
art

art

schools.

Artistsrelied upon

other artistsand sympathetic

criticsand dealers for criticism and encouragement.

art

Independence involved

culture

and

gainingpersonalfulfillment from artistic

was
a
heroic
activity
strong incentive. The
focus in advanced
paintingshifted away from
to

the
Some

in art
are

to

";

Louvre,
i-]'h'^".

Paris.

Figure326. Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec.

Rouge. 1891. Color lithographposter,
Museum
of Art
55" ^' S'lO"- The Philadelphia
of Mr. and Mrs. R. Sturgis
(gift
Ingeisoll).

TOUS

LA

OOULU

Las

SOIRS

the masses,

the artisthimself

of the dramatic
in the

course

apparent

largecanvas
is

warriors

privatecitizen and

i2'8"

Below:
Moulin

substantial

risks,but the ideal of contributing

to

saints,statesmen, and

Above: Figure 325. Jacques Louis

David.
The
Battle ofthe Romans and Sabines. 1 799. Oil on canvas,

when

changesthat occurred
of the nineteenth century
Jacques Louis David's

The Battle ofthe Romans

juxtaposedwith

and Sabines

Toulouse-Lautrec's

graphic
litho-

poster Moulin

Rouge (Figs.325, 326).

Purposes,sources, and stylesare separatedby
much
than merely ninety years of time.
more
David's paintingwas
intended to hang in the
in 1800,
great palace of the Louvre, which
though stillservingin part as a residence,had
been converted
into a museum
for the nation.

Toulouse-Lautrec's

posterswere

pastedon

walls

"SffilBHtiaitmlte

Paris

around

kiosks

and

sought
times.) David
society by bringing together
Roman

and

as

Toulouse-Lautrec's

job
general public with

the

"

is, borrowed

Historyof Romulus.
interceded

David

assumed

would

comprehend

and

the

past

David

based

models

of

his

To

the

marriage.
inter-

the

to

of such
and

as

Valentin

and

provided him with

composition, as well as
of

archaeological accuracy
exactitude,

he

not

unstable,
measurable

His

flattened

which

history

perfect

his

though

to

such

personal

indebted

extent

Degas,

as

taste, visual

to

his poster

prided
improvise and

did

the

artist

observation
their

and

exaggerated
and

to

value

and

274

art

over

by
the

dancers

their

his

talent

style

that

direct

Both

the

"

of

of

equally

was

David

affirming

were

nature

Purposes

for

translation

Art

former

the

by

had

it is the

surface
and

colors

silhouettes

in

obtained
art

reference

is

rather

David's

day.
of

symptomatic

constitutes

historyof

the

it

the

This

moment.

toward

the

reflects

of

teenth-centur
nine-

toward

tory
his-

popular

social

attitudes

form

In

made.

was

poster

accompanied

was

attitudes

how

to

painting, the
changing

to

and

democratization

by

of

broad

artistic

changing
suitability of

from daily life.

subjectsdrawn
last
At
the
beginning of the
century
that
historians
and
painters began to show
ingly
accordof people, and
masses
history involved

ability

highly stylized,
surprising movements,
create

individualistic.

Toulouse-Lautrec

superiorityof

the

as
on

spontaneous
in

movements

Just

themselves

and

grotesque

even
so

style,
raries
contempo-

was
largely formed
perceptiveness,and

idiosyncrasies of his hand.

in

to

and

past

Toulouse-Lautrec's

choices.
some

the

shapes

sonages.
per-

the
of
turn-of-the-ccntury interest on
part
independent artists in capturing and developing
those
to
are
properties and experiences which
be
found
of
only in the graphic medium
do
not
painting and
prints, that is, which
to
readily lend themselves
paraphrase in other
media.
David's
work
is discursive
painting
talk about
whose
could
read
and
subject one

rather

from

decided

the

the

his

expression and
modeling, as in
that
and
impart character
of
treatment
segmented
expressiveness.The
Valentin
and
the
ambiguity of the yellow
globular shapes at the left (probably a lamp)
changes in the value of the human
presuppose
figure, compositional balance, and clarityfrom

relation

take

out, and

with

work,

without

should

all

and

space

facial

David's

from
of
skeletons posed in the manner
live models
painting, and then from
similarlyposed in imitation of ancient works of
It was
David's
art.
not
opinion that the artist
should
be original,
that he should
innovate, but

he

the
and

permitted

identify
has

poster

emphasis, whereby
than

since

rhetoric

stage
that

devices

physically to

firstdrew

that

three-dimensional

illusionistic

audience

are

for the

its

Lautrec's

the

artists

many

his model

the
pictorialpresentation was
performers on a stage. Toulousein a double
inimitable
figureswere
their postures
only were
uniquely
but
the
artist's conception negated

and

the

final

of

of

arrangement

^scnse:

for

as

Toulouse-Lautrec's

anatomical

assure

David,

For

fifteenth century,

those

stars

impersonal styles
expressing his own

through

temperament.

Moulin

Greek

ancient

latter

subject

thus

and

of

the

One").

style on

past

pose

that
women

through

Glutton")

Boneless

The

coniirmation

how

derived

observation

("The

art.

the
leader

audience

of

idea

the

to

"

was

Roman

frequent visits

("The

Roman

chosen

class conflict

direct

Goulue

le Desosse

details.

from

educated
the

in

from

of his poster

La

of the

Toulouse-Lautrec

Rouge

historical

upon

incident

wife

an

mediate

could

of

his
with
personal combat
stop
of the Sabines
and
her kinsman.

to

chief

Tatius,

The

the

when

moment

and

beginning

point for the present. His

Petrarch's
literary,
painting were

for the

sources

drew

business

the

at

moral

his

make

of

purposes

to

the

past,

exalted

the

homage

theater

was
spelled out
bring together the
virtuoso
performers in

the

David

that

episode

of each

Revolution.

French

tradition

to

century,

an

to

was

for

club

night

pleasure.True

in

even

message

literally;his

the

of

result

done

unify his
aristocracy

to

distrustful

class become

middle

other

had

(Artists

businessmen

for

work

commercial

for

advertisements

as

hall.

dance

Montmartre

the

of the

reactions

common

to

man

his

gradually replaced those of the epic leader.

In Chapter 12, "Images of Authority," we
saw
and
how
David
Baron
Gros interpretedhistory
fate

throtighthe
the

Romans,

kings

and

feats of
war

great

generals,

generosity toward
after

had

Napoleon's

been
the

militaryhero.
shown
victors

in

terms

and

vanquished. During
and
the
reign, war

the

Since
of
their

and
hero

Figure

Francisco

327.

Oil

underwent

concept

Francisco

Execution

Aladrilerios

(Fig.327),

he

the
did

The

not

choose

Execution

S'S-Vi"

canvas,

change
Goya

painting. When
of

Goya.

on

in

European
painted The

on

May

to

record

glorify war
instead

by

as

WO

field
battle-

French

shows
a

the

heroes,

Madrilefios

though
The

done

slaughter

firingsquad. The

yet defiant
and

artists had

are

of

before

the

pathetic

Synthesisof

real

ians
civil-

the

Past

and

Present

in

close

the

the

1814.

the

cold

To

range.

horror

true

volley of

the

contortions

of

histrionic

pose,

reactions
defiance

their
the

with

of
the

at

precision

of

the

shadowy

formation

any

order.

than

tive
instinc-

outright
Goya contrasts

and

shapeless grouping
of

Goya

the

soldiers, the
disciplined

those

or

may

may

the
actually witnessed
firing squads
the night of May
3, 1808, but he
on

have

not

out

Rather

death.

hostages manifest
grief,resignation,and
moment,

sprawls

and

in the unnatural

the

last

Goya

die before

to

troops

at

audience

moment,

foreground

violent

his

about

those

unfeeling single-mindednessof
carry

execution

impress

disarray and

close

the

out

carry

in the
lifelessfigures

require

furnish

con-

thcN'

illuminates
brilliantly

action

protagonists

ones;

brutally

to

doomed

anonymous,

in

machinelike

which

with

but

him,

defenseless

1808.

j,

querors

3,
a

May

on

Madrid.

are

with

occupation general
ordered
the killingof hostages in
Murat, who
reprisalfor the civilian uprisingin Madrid, was
shown.
not
even
Goya had
originally been
of
sympathetic to the Napoleonic invasion
that
it
would
Spain, in the
hope
bring
modern
ideas
His
his country.
to
painting
is a
of
manifestation
as
partisanship, not
an
being
oppressed Spaniard but as a human
protestingbrutality and injustice.He does not
scene.

of the Madrilenos
Prado,
ii''^^/^".

his

the

intermediary

strongly

Nineteenth-Century

felt

Painting

of

subject matter.
275

writer

not

in
did
to

Gericault.

Theodore

Figure 328.

Oil

on

iS'i^s"

canvas,

One

of the great nineteenth-century paintings

deals with
trophe
catasa
mass
(Fig.328), which
based
was
having political
implications,
not
on
a
historybook but on contemporaneous
reports and interviews by the artist
newspaper
with the survivors.
The
French painterTheodore
Gericault had ambitions
of doing a monumental
that
would
rival
painting on a noble theme

works

great

of the

past such
and

Judgment(Fig.210)
fresco of the
wanted
to

the

same

theme

Rubens"

as

adrift

cast

persons

on

raft for

depictedin

Africa
a

and

the past, but this overworked

treated with the stark

and

He

had

and
been

theme
diacy
imme-

intense

focus upon
human
suffering
with
brought to his huge canvas,
a
nd
sincerity
imaginativestaging.
a model
ship'scarpenter reconstruct

of the

studied

the
actual
not

raft,\vhich
onlv

276

he

then

the faces and

Purposes of

set

bodies

Art

but

dramatic

also the

afloat; he
of those

heads

putrefying limbs from

made
numerous
drawings

the Paris morgue.

He
painted sketches

shipwreck,

but

and

and

of various

finallyhe

moments

the

as

incidents

passed

of the
such

over

in favor

mutiny

of

showing the handful of survivors risinglike a

human
pyramid to signala ship in the distance.
The

level

eye

of

the

viewer

is

with

painting,so that one

jumble of corpses and
his dead

griefover

in

the viewer

learned

was

Gericault

This

son.

the

device

Baron
from

worked

evolved

man's

engaging

with

Gros.

over

lower

old
of

death

Although

hundred

liminary
pre-

final

studies, the

slowly by

the

at

is confronted

direct confrontation
from

drawings and

days

that Gericault
its emotional

criminals

hundred

several

been

never

of the

wreck

with
sensational
provided Gericault
a
often
topical subject.Shipwrecks had

had

he

subjectto

equallyheroic scale. In 1816, the

ship Medusa off" North
government
the ensuing tragedy of more
than

their ordeal

hospitalizedby
of dead

1818-19.

part of the

in order
be contemporary,
that he could paint modern
history on

prove

Raft of the Medusa.

23'9". Louvre, Paris.

Last

Michelangelo'sawesome
(Fig.184).However,

an

The
'^-

trial and

position
com-

continual

change. Its roughly triangulardesign has

cedents
pre-

Renaissance

painting,with hieratic
authority;
implicationsof social and political
of
but here the compositionalpyramid formed
in

suffering bodies
climatic
to

us.

has

unstable

an

figureis a Negro

excellent studies

period,that
sea-tossed

the

raft

this work

on

figuresadrift
were

has

the

his back

Eitner has demonstrated,

Professor Lorenz

in his many

base, and

slave who

on

and

the wind-

contemporary

its
and

metaphor

Fignre 329.

Jean-Auguste UoMiNiquE
Oil

for the

tragiccondition

on

i^'Q"

canvas,

of modern

who

scandal of the Medusa

what

interpretedas

was

calculated

cruelty of

officers toward
in

cuttingthe

raft with

the
hnes

the

ammunition

the

episodearose
the

and

crew

foes
political

persisted
long after
of

While

overloaded

act

provided

of the Bourbon
and

cannibahsm

the

event, which
of the unfortunates on

most

or

passengers

connectingthe

monarchy. Stories of mutiny

death

neghgence

ship'scaptain and

lifeboats. This

for

over

they

stillafforded the

in

as
great gifts

an

opportunityto

significant
change

matter,

and

liberallyupon
artistssuch

in

artists such

the ideas

art
as

and

was

in

Gericault

stylesof older

Michelangeloand Rubens. With

the dechne
and fall of Napoleon, artists of
confronted with
independentconvictions were
the absence of an inspiring
leader to celebrate
in painting,
and their shift of focus to humanity
and
its suffering
and joys produced a new,
humane

as

The

S\Tithesis of Past and

to

Charles

social,
political,

When

the

decorate

painter
a

ceiling

in the Louvre

in

theatrical

poet, who is being crowned

Before him sit personifications
of his

the enthroned
Fame.

The attendant
to the
Odyssey.
figures
rightare famous poets, musicians,and
artists who
homage to the great epic
pay
writer. The
painterPoussin,seen at the lower
With
left,pointstoward the ceremony.
ings
paintIliad and
left and

and
and

the

devices
art

such

world

this,both

as

were

informed

the

public

of the artists

of the past who currentlyenjoyedofficialfavor.

With what markedlv
difi'erentartistic effects
and

social connotations
could

the pyramidal composition

employed is attested in
Ingres' diverse conceptions.

be

Gericault's

and

The

organizationof

formal

the

was
Apotheosis

quotationfrom Raphael'swork,

service

art.

the

pantomime of the
deification of the Greek poet Homer
fFig.329'.
Before the backdrop of a Classical temple is

subject
drew

of
gallers'

government,
their
fitting

about

quo.

commissioned

1827, he created

by

his

of the

maintain

status

182-

artists working in France

support

to

cultural

for the

seen

prove

the

little problem

was

Ingres was

the

In the firsthalf of the nineteenth century the

most

and

raft.

artist.

majorityof

subjectmatter

saw

paintingma\'
a
nd
humanitarian,
pohtical
part

been

the

sought

there

the

Gericault's motives for the

have

The Apotheosis
of Homer.
Louvre, Paris.

For

and

man

his soul.
The

Ingres.
iG'ii".

of authoritarian

Present in Xineteenth-Centurv

ideas

about

277

Paintincf

^'

"

used in the

painting.

societyas

culture, and

complained

who
Medusa

the

Color

as

device

mind
is

and

body.

severelychecked,

such
as
expressiveinstruments
light and shadow, painterlytexture,

other

are

dramatic
and

emotive

an

its focus upon

he felt would

public.His own
models
of personal

are
poisedand robust figures
hygiene and control over

as

was
Ingres
Raft of the

of the

minds

the

ennoble

not

It

whole.

Gericault's

of
unhealthy in terms
disagreeable,which

was

and

death

that

brushstroke.

strong

Ingres represents

the

artistwho could
nineteenth-centuryconservative
his time,
to
terms
not
come
directly with
costume,
perhaps feeling that contemporary
and

customs,

beauty of

the

individuals

were

those few

the

dignity and

artists who

historical

sought

to

painting.To

build upon

the

his

from

self-imageand
found

women

transferred

battlefield

the

in

great
other

painterof

of strong

the

colors

Rubens

From

such

figurein

much

action and

strenuous

the
the

opportunity to

brilliance

of

Such

vicarious

historydid

in

large figural compositions frigidh'

like

young

dead

and rival
Eugene Delacroix, a contemporary
oflngres, is an example of the independent ardst
the same
who
at
time
was
a
literarypainter,
and thematic
drawing upon the past for stylistic
ideas. His Death of Sardanapalus
(Fig.330), also
based on
Lord
Byron's
painted in 1827, was
of the last Assyrian king, who
poeticaccount
and
himself before capture
destroyed his harem

From

Eugi-ine
The

Death

of

Sardanapalus.
1827. Oil
i2'i

Pans.

'

o"

"

on

i6'3".

the

the

rich

certain

others

rulers

of
the

romanticized
the

content

had

did

not

strong
accord
on

Delacroix
artist,

had

egalitarian
with

occasion

of their

means

past

painter,who
those

he

used

As
expression.

posed for

one

of the

raft.
Gericault's
celebrated
figureson
older man,
Delacroix received
slightly
the
monumental
a
history
impetus to make
positions
paintingthat would rival great Baroque comof
and yet do justiceto the concerns
his day. His
during the
opportunity came

antiquarian.

Figure 330.
Delacroix.

with

horses,slaves,and

of
reliving

always

not

paintingas

stvle

eye

dying women.

of

strong convictions, Ingres"view

hollow
and
his
history seemed
false, and

the

build

to

in
carnage
Delacroix

trappings and

flesh of the

of the

contrasts

dazzle

exotic

black.

rendering

how

of
through color. The scene
afforded
Assyrian king'sharem

any

effects

and

his forms

France, and

present

than

about

the

is the

the

red, green,

as

toward

who

built upon

he learned

orgy

painting.In

century, it is Delacroix
more
painterof passion, who
his time

the

boudoir, and

nineteenth

of the

the

the

attitude

this

openlv express

gripswith

to

sadistic

release

which

to

come

and

Persians. Delacroix

views
political

past yet

Louvre,

lacked

that, although living

past and
suitable for portraiture,
they

inappropriatefor

were

canvas.

events

the

by

of death

the

revolution

of Charles

of
X

1830, which
and

his

led

to

the

overthrow

replacement by

Philippe.Originallytitled by

the

Louis-

artist The

of July, the painting commonly

Liberty on the Barricades (PI. 34) was
Events

Delacroix's

express

government

well

as

in

Delacroix

like Gericault

Paris

well

as

sources,

of

had

as

skirmish

that

gunfire

included.

was

its

and

from

and

bravely
the

under

stirringpainting,
ment,
move-

blue

and
while

new

of the

dead

while

vigorous

red, white,

nature

momentary

feminine

Delacroix's

old

the

synthesized

flag

swirling smoke,

strident

troops.

who
from

their

the

cessfully
insurgents suc-

the

ammunition

planted

his

at

with

Cite

streets

needed

traditions

la

de

the

boy

other
for

place

of

with

the

took

government

and

paper
news-

memory,

the

retrieved

favor.

uprising,

rely upon

to

fighting off
Parisian

troops

ruler's

of the

on

bridge connecting the He

of Paris, with
Right Bank
The

to

enlightened

more

time

as

journalisticprints,and

accounts,

painting

the

at

gain the

to

as

Although

visual

for

hopes

known
meant

Figure

tones,

past

allegorical half-naked
figuresymbolizing France and liberty;

the excitement
came
specificmoment
of the place and
whom
participants,among
Delacroix
have
placed himself as a figure
may
in a top hat. From
Gericault
the pathetic
came

the

naked

and
the
corpses
climaxed
by the

pictorialtriangle, here
Amazon.

The

looking up
is

to

motif
the

translation

scene

gazes

Thus

of the

where
at

Delacroix

allegiance from

wounded

Napoleon as
was
showing

if to

critic

Daumier
of

the

thousands
of drawings
is
daily life,Daumier

time"
Rue
stark

his

the

became

attitude

the

was

French
and

most

In

in

prints taken

the

first modern

"one

be

must

his

of the

family by government
The

murder

of

Synthesisof

Past and

Present

this

is a

had

Delacroix,

of past

would
art

there

century

style were

foreshortened

artist

stillread

been

grimly but
generations.

and

reworking
the

print's

Paris in which

The

art.

antecedent

the nineteenth

have
be

not

lost

of art.

in terms
was

images

must

increase

an

the

the

to

sense,

service

of

secularization
the
a

and

new

and

the
was

with

the

One

life of

the

of

in

of

the

emergence

Ornans, deals
in Nineteenth-Century

the birth

most

of modern

themes

crucial
art,

ostensibly with
Paintina;

the

of modern

with

connection

human

the

spirit.

humanity
in

explicitrealization

found

the

celebrate

not

(for in religion as in
"lost leader"), they do deal

reUgion

It is ironic that

be

do

art

Church

Historically, the
to

one

growing
begun at
produced

had
religion,which
Ages; yet it also
viable
spiritualart. Whereas

there
politics

sincerely

In

of the

Middle

of modern

great works
Bible

manifestation

of

of the

end

values.

mundane

more

this is another

last century.

troops in retaliation

older

public that

closest

and

in

practice of artists' adapting pictorial

themes
for religious
designspreviouslyreserved

of one's

worker

The

state.

of Gericault

upon

that

from

lifelongideal. His lithograph

Transnonain, April 15, 1834 (Fig. 331) is a
disclosure

work

Christ, and

artist

the

superb draftsmanship and

dead

of

spoken
out-

With

state.

the

of the father

the

upon

principle or an abstract
concept. This is very
an
likely the last great painting in which
important artist frankly confessed his political
and
activism
optimism in support of a government.
disillusionment
with
Subsequent political
last
this Delacroix's
Louis-Philippe also made
partisan politicalpainting.
At
the
of personal imprisonment and
cost
the official prohibition of his political caricatures,
Honore

in

corpse

savior.

to

of

tenement

of

known

leader

from

predicated

soldier

transfer

individual

an

defiance

all
the
working-class occupants
systematically slaughtered.Daumier
subtly depicted the death of three
As

battlefield

enemy

labor's

title is taken

Daumier's

dying revolutionary

Napoleonic

for

dense

heroic

symbolic flag-bearingwoman
from

by Gros,
upward

for whom

Daumier.
Rue
Transnonain,
1834. Lithograph, 171/2 x ii's".

18^4.

the

came

of

Honore

331.

75,

capturing
From

event.

the

motif

April

comes

art

art

funeral

279

the

should

of death.

paintings
Courbet's

of

for

Burial
ceremony

the
at

Figure

Gustave

332.

Courbet.

lo's'/g" ^

near

French

Gathered

provincial town

the

at

side

grave

friends

the

pallbearerswith
the

foreground
Such

seem

to

its first Parisian

might say

into

funeral

the

the

and

unknown

with

his

answer

the

history.More

to

died

and

died,

devoted

burial

of

scene

of death

cause

buried

gives

us

at

Ornans.
of

most

our

the art
of painting can
consist only in the
representation or objects visible and tangible
the painter. An
to
be reproduced
epoch can
artists. I mean
only by its own
by the artists
.

who

have

century
represent

lived in it. I
are

past.

things of

the
It

is

of

an

in

280

this

a
sense

historical

Historical

contemporary.

that

artists of

one

fundamentally incompetent

...

existence

hold

art
.

is

past or
that
art

by

future

deny
applied to

.[1861].
Purposes of Art

to

tury.
cen-

its very

Courbet

nature

the
the

on

canvas,

himself

be

was

painted.There
the grave,

to

previous

be imitated

time

no

the

suggestionof a
promise of a soul or

heaven.

to

of those

man

he

leaves

women

by

change. Judged

subject.
he

its ultimate
in

the

hero

or

community.

the

are

their

the

that

life beyond

The

behind.

the enduring

of history,and

actresses

survives

now

for

seen

of everyman

death

for

meant

is no

protagonistbecomes
and
Ordinary men
its

as

of one's

that

say

the

grave
it was

anything he had not

ethically impossible as

therefore

was

far

so

To

might

one

the

that

and

actors

costumes

signify

prevalent critical

of

standards

is

who

than
significant

was

writings, Courbet

as
an

fiftylife-size portraits

some

identity and

is what

who

Courbet

his time.

in

memory

Earlier

Oil

into

cast

history of art, in

coffin

of Christ, the

those

Courbet

ascent

justa

1849.

Paris.

Figuratively speaking,

spect,
retro-

literarv' figuresalways

neighbors to

whose

person

In

Ornans.

at

as

how.

canvas

of his

than

grave

hardly

painting that

Ornans.

at

It

event.

would

implicitquestion of

why

as

enormous

In

open

the

over

audiences.
more

historical and

answered

died

that

paintingssuch

saints, or
well

sky looms

grey

daily ceremony
provide the basis for

one

his

the left

at

draped coffin. In the

digger kneels by the open

routine

shocked

went

priest and
scene

the

grave

leaden

grave.

(Fig. 332).
relatives and

are

of the
deceased, the
and justenteringthe
assistants,

Burial

'8-%". Louvre,

2 1

glowingly praised
art, which
a failure because
Ingres, Courbet's paintingwas
of

being recorded,
ditional
subjectin the traand
moral.
The
sense
no
figures
seemed
wooden
and
not
gracefullymodeled,
there was
no
carefullyorganized composition,
and
the thicklypainted surfaces were
offensive
of the public of the day.
to the eye
Courbet's
of
use
style did rejectany overt
older
pictorialcompositional devices such as
the pyramid, harmonious
reciprocalphysical
nothing
and

there

range

to

neatly

movement,

smoothly

was

consequence

seemed

finished

stresses

the

be

no

drawn

surfaces.
blacks

and

contours,
The

and

basic
greys

color
of

the

clothingand sky, againstwhich are set the ruddy

coloring of the begrieved faces and various
of conaccessories of the clergy.The
absence

ventional

from

preserve

the

their

to

jects
unarranged.His subin
he caught them

look of the

Manet's
generation (which included Degas,
and Renoir) was
disenchanted
Monet, Pissarro,
artisticmanifestations

with

and
athletes,

unimpressivenatural
Color and

accents

figures

desire

conscious

Courbet's

not

were

ordering the

of

methods

resulted

all-over

an

relied

were

postures
to

upon

together.It is incorrect

or

Their

ments.
move-

of strong
dispersal
hold the painting

Courbet

that

to say

piety,and

cut

the
previous
completely from
the way
he used
historyof art, for it is precisely
the attitude
the past that helpsus to understand
artists on
of so many
this subject:
modern

and

wanted

of the

art

and

masters

the

avoidingany preconceived
I have no more
prejudice.

with

of my

sense

To
individuality.

own

know

compositions,which
literary
be read

much

as

In

parison
com-

intended
of Manet

largelyindependentof the written word

ment.
environgrounded in his immediate
The
to be
validityof his paintingwas

were

were

judged

of artistic rightness,
his handling

in terms

of color and

he

to

frontation
con-

historical

were

viewed, those

as

shape,and

their similitude

to

of esthetic sensations.

present-day fame

of

into
mislead one
may
enjoyedsimilar repute in his

do:

to

be able

Delacroix's

to

The

in

involvement.
detached

passion by Manet.

Ingres'or

Manet

such
has
been
thought.
my
translate the customs,
ideas and
in a
time
I see
of my
them
as
appearances
this has been my
word, to create a livingart

order

or

the world

imitate the former

than to copy
the latter;
have I thoughtof achievingthe
nor
I have
idle aim
of art for art's sake. No!
from
draw
to
a
thorough
simply wanted
knowledge of tradition the reasoned and free
to

paintingwas

with

approached

and
I have studied the
art of the moderns,
system and without

in

political
ship,
partisan-

of the world, with alert observation

of
wit. The
alone
act
painting was

off

himself

To

ideal

of

strong emotional

an

artist such

as

believingthat
time

own

he

that

or

of the art then

being
representative
and accordingto
produced. Both in numbers
the gauge of publicapproval, it was
artistssuch

"

as

was

Thomas

Couture,

Manet's

teacher, whose

"

aim

[1855].

work

of
representedthe preferences

best

publicof

their

and
Edouard

Manet

manifested

his indebtedness

lookingart

his
discovering
individuality
by making drawings and painting
copies of such artists as Titian, Hals, and
Velazquez;yet in the 1860s and 1870s he was
recognized as the foremost painterof modern
to

art

museum

urban

life.

as

time.

In

the

last century,

conservative

rather

the

mirror

was

true

than

the

Like

culture

how

of the

Figure 333.

Edouard

1870. Oil

on

MetropolitanMuseum

Manet.

Funeral

28 ^s
of Art, New

canvas.

York

Fund).

his

art.

From

the old masters

colors worked

togetherand the
brush by which they were
to be

viewpoint, treating the

cloudy day as a pure
painterly
problem of matching tones of greys,
under
ditions.
blacks,and creams
given lightingconfavor

of

of

scene

As

remote

burial

on

result of

this

approach, it

is

impossible to focus for any lengthof time on

the actual funeral procession,since our
tion
attenis pulled toward the deceptively
shapeless
of color,their strokingand nuances.
In no
areas

previouspaintingthat
the

actual

theme

painting

dominated

our

we

have

process

considered
rather

awareness

than
to

has
the
parable
com-

degree.
The

of
Synthesis

Past and

Present

in

Nineteenth-Century Painting

in

martre.
Mont-

35 's'- The

"

applied.His painting Funeral in Montmartre

the opportunity
for sentiment
(Fig.333) rejects
in

tastes.

of

means

previoushiston.' of
learned

forward-

of social

Courbet's,
style was
distinctlypersonal,but inconceivable without
he

the
demic
aca-

i^BI

(Wolfe

Thomas

Figure 334.
Couture.

of the
1847. Oil on
15' 1"
2^'^".
Romans

Decadence.
canvas,

"

Paris.

Louvre,

Couture's

As

of the Decadence

Romans

commentary
Paris that

the

on

veiled

was

Couture

long as

moral

or

(Fig.334)

in

of

terms

other

any

antiquity.

artist couched

in

and

largely because

it

and, by

with

contrast

Couture's
between
naked

the

in

woman

the

contemporary

the

animated

painting, nothing
the
sexes.
Merely to

acceptable,but
add

was

woods

Manet
of

company

fashion

contemporary

have

would

had

the

and

dressed
his

of the

fine

The

prop,

but

character
to

the

studio
problem
landscape, still life,genre,

and

the

nude

"

at

the

same

he
synthesized
portraitsituations,
time

making

the

encounter.
a
painting appear
spontaneous
and loosened
the conventional
Formally, he reworked
of figures,
triangular arrangement
and
the posture
from Raphael he borrowed
of
the male
figureat the right,replacingthe nude

river

god of

the

282

Renaissance

Purposes

with

of Art

his brother.

discern

dialogue or interaction
a basic compositional
the
it also enhanced
sophisticated
of the subject.
With
Manet, we begin
breakdown
of psychologicalreciprocation,
mutual

awareness

exchange

or

proximity that, from

Giotto, artists had developed and
a
high form of pictorialrhetoric.

of

close

The

air
of his
figures may
sociallyappropriate to Manet,

also

life. It
about

to

reflection of his

Emile

was

Manet,
to

that

Zola
when

thousand

this has

been

leading paintersand
again and
widen

order

to

again

the

its notions
understand

said, in writing

who

he

new

with

case

art

of what
the

"one

art."

in

had
Since

of the

most

for

movements,

public has
what

his work

doing

was

things about
the

it

but
toward

attitude

own

looking at

appreciate what

forget a

Manet,

or

have

detached

seemed

his

tones.

into

order

essentially

to

us

refined

between

It is

reduce

to

force

had
art

to

set

should

artist has

aside

in

be

done.

Shortly before his death, the ailing Manet

brought together in one
painting
great
number

convincing
modeling,

any

figuresin

time

desire for

and

removed
figures

the
between

was

present.
in
which

the

see

the
seated on
strippingthe woman
her male
companions, with her
about
in the foreground. (The
clothing strewn
The Bather.)
originaltitle was
Manet's
paintingforms an important bridge
and

impact

closelymatched
of

absence

in

and

past

of

nuances

to

nude

in the faces. His

visual

optical effect lead him

sharpen silhouettes, and

the

beside

the

stilllife,
not

among

One
of the
unreservedly eyeing the viewer!
of what
the
witty inversions
public
many
have
his
would
expected in the painting was
ground
clothing of the woman
bathing in the back-

grass

types of painting,Manet

immediate

more

been

eftVonters'

show

to

shown
have

gentlemen

two

scene

goings-onof
happening

was

impressive legacy of
brought his
and
esthetic judgment
his
bear
to
on
eyes
visual allusions in welding the whole
together.
The
richest painting in the work
is in the area
different

a dead
language,he was safe from critical
Luncheon
the
Manet's
on
public censure.
Cirass (Fig. 335) was
scandalous
a
picture

sex

this

Notwithstanding

was

of modern

decline

of

refractorymotifs

that

summed

up

what

had

been

the

Bar

painter.A

of his

source

the

at

brings together a beautiful

the bar, and the

objectson
a

world

of

first time

art

of

background
of social

in

fateful

in which

one

enjoy it;is
barmaid
his
in

claims

no

her

subtle visual

between

the world

reflection. The
is the

objectsof

Manet's

are

made

the

its mirrored

foregroundand

daydreaming
the

is, what

elusive

maid
bar-

tangible

optical

What

is behind

reappears

in

behind.

mirror
that

viewer,

motif.

the

mingle with what is

before his eyes, confounding the separationof
the two
spheres. Enigmatically,the reflection
of a top-hattedman
is caught in the mirror at
the right like a phantom image, for it is not
surface,tends
reflecting

to

"

meant

be

to

the

artist

nor

anyone

visible

Further, the
there

is

reflected

scene

viewer

requiresa

on

our

indication

no

in

the

mirror

side of the counter, but

of any
such
person.

of these visual paradoxes,

Undoubtedly aware
Manet
quitelikelypreservedthem intentionally
to spicehis painting.

Edouard

Figure 335.
Luncheon
Oil

on

on

the Grass.

canvas,

Louvre, Paris.

Manet.

1862-63.

x S'lo's".
']''^A"

disguisingits

the handsome

softness of

subtle

traces, his brush

wine

bottles,the ripe

fruit,and

the

the

woman's

eff"ects of color

elegantcut

costume.

These

and

light and texture

be captured in a drawing, for, like
cannot
Courbet, Manet
sought what was
only possible
in painting.The
problem of distinguishingso
surfaces
for a master
was
one
reflecting
many
painter.His attentiveness to actual perception
him

induces

to

so
left,

upper

mirror.

He

visible

the

nineteenth

blurred

artist at

trapeze

only her legsare

further proves
world
as

be

can

eyes

ofi~the

cut

that

of

that

the mirror

through

seen

and

shown

obscure.

the

in the

image
human

It is in

the

that the

painting as a whole
faithfully
approximatesthe true experience

most

century

of vision.
For

on

takes no
side of the counter, and the barmaid
notice of him. Her reflection is of another
pose.

our

brush

color of the

orange

"

worldly pleasure caused

it as
a
"great consuming
such
needed
an
inspiring

describe

Without

re-creates

and

of

subjectmatter.

aristocratic eye of
his art
to
a
city

essential

was

eye." Manet's
is

the contrast

the

Paris

to

directlyand
of the

Manet,
Balzac

counterplay,in

head

real interest in

no

and
discriminating

crowd

to

seen

had
the

provision

those who

on

Manet
For

whose

world

intermediary between

effects of the

the

The
of
his
nature
unheroic, undramatic
view
that
paintings has led to the mistaken

entire

delight the eye, like the

The
wares.
poetic depths of
in psychological
insightsbut

is there

and

For

it is for purposes
than for the enactment

events.

paintinglie not
a

the

Manet,

pleasure rather

of

diversion.

occupies the
the
painting.When

is encountered

reflection of

mirror

35)

girl,stilllife

young
mirror

and
sociability

in

pleasuresas

Folies-Bergere
(PL

conservative

artists such

as

Ingres, the

painting other than a portrait

depended in largepart on its choice of subject
and
its affinity
with
approved styles of the
worth

of any

past; whereas

for

predecessorsin
resided

could
an

in how
not

anonymous

any

content

Manet,

the

subjectwas
himself with

naked

for

as

seventeenth

model

his

Dutch

century,

it

painted.Ingres
frankly painting
in the

studio, for

by traininghe
and

was

title from

appeal

For many,
wine

taste.

and

value
that

or

dignity of

Source

La

creator

for

Ingres'passionwas
of the

feminine

paintingin
for

to

and

accounted

for his

identified with

of the Classical

vulgarizedthe

even

be of one's
the

accept

barmaid

Ingresnude, such as
antique vase and titled
(or The Spring;
Fig.336).
purifyingthe silhouette

prop

or

his eyes. To

Ingres,

ancient

the

lowered

to

good

the intellectual

antique pose

an

beauty. Omitting
have

paintingof

which

body,

adaptationof
would

an

an

accessories

mythology

intellect and

Manet's

posed holding

by her

add

bottles lacked

with

seen

to

literature

beholder's

the

to

compelled

Renaissance

time

timeless

art,

urn

final

meant,
of

beauty

acknowledged

as

of his fellow painters.

by the public and most
(One might say that his ideal was, in essence,
to be of another
time.)
When
bodies

Ingres
of

wanted

show

to

the

bathing, in the
of La Source he garbed them

manner

identityof nymphs

or

exotic

or

Near

become

East

instead,

Daumier,
divested

of harem
North

the

mundane

act

with

the

girlsin
Africa.

of

act

of its exotic and

a

naked
remote

women

the

With

bathing

was

erotic associations

of

hygiene and

to

of

even

The Hot Bath (Fig.337) was

comedy. Daumier's
inspiredby the Parisian ritual of hauling boiling
of stairs to one's flat,
water
pouring it
up flights
into a tub, and
then
immediately immersing
the
oneself in the scaldingdepths to obtain

maximum

benefit.

thermal

He

shows

the

but

Figure336. Jean-Auguste Dominique Ingres. La

Source. 1856. Oil
on
canvas,
5'4 V2" ^ 2'8 Vi"-

agonizing bourgeois stoically

and
lowering himself into the boilingwater
in expression
instinctivelyelevatinghis nose

Louvre, Paris.

of his divided

prudent

and

Figure337. Honore
Lithograph, id's"

Daumier.
x

8 'A".

The Hot

Bath.

1839.

hell. The

martyr was
discomfort

apartment

instincts

dramatic

thus

and
agony

notions

of

heaven

of the Christian

humorously supplantedby

of the anonymous
dweller.

modern

the

Parisian

Degas shows us a woman

bathing,it is
glimpsethrough a keyhole, for unlike the
perspectiveof Ingres and Daumier, which is
that of the Renaissance, his viewpoint is close
above
the bather (Fig.338). This Degas
to and
example of his
pastel drawing is but one
When

like

disenchanted
the

view

which
figure,

Albert!

of

women.

Renaissance

Our

closeness

theorists such

to
as

warned
to
against, tends
produce
foreshortenings,
emphasizes the body's
and
awkwardness
angularity,and in general
precludesshowing all that Ingresstrove to draw
curious

paint in feminine beauty. For Degas, the

hke
the cleansing function
washing was
performed by an animal, and he dwells upon
and

of

act

woman's

the

the

to

Degas
after two

contortions

to

self
her-

accommodate

basin.

meager

art-school

formal

gave

up

years

and, like

training
independent

other

many
his

education
on
painters,continued
personalbasis,by making copiesin the Louvre.
His

desire

from

and

while

personal fusion

sensual,and

love

for

found

pastelsthat for
perfectunion. While

of pose
could

not

of his

time, Degas

It

in

was

intellectual

and

drawing
him

these

color.

last

two

fixity

admired

he

or

and

aspects of traditional art, he

in certain

bring himself

If Manet

Parisian

contemporary

the
contradictions,

resolution of
the

the

for him

was

learned

lessons

great artists of the past

other

painting
Art

scene.

the

honor

to

was

Giotto

render

to

preservedfor us the tones

captured its movement.
academic
repertory of approved

bather,

stress

gestures tended,
the

than

of his

subjects,who

the

The

in

as

were

lower

classes.

Cotton

Broker's

emotional

very

often

time

that

so
or

the

paintingis a

Officein

j\'ew

Orleans

Tub.

1886.

Pastel

Louvre, Pans.

for

members
of the
are
figures
of the Degas family,whom

New
he

Orleans
visited

being
of

Degas. Many

the

branch
in

1872,

modern
group portrait
daring informality is a

nineteenth-centurycounterpart

of Rembrandt's

The
struction
Syndics.
spatialconis from
the viewpoint of someone
actuallyin the brokerageoffice and standing in
innovations

in

so

corner,

from

away

the

the

that
us

the

the

into

with

room

diagonally

moves

would

depth. Degas
of actual

conditions

artificial frontal

walls and
their

whose

scene

genre

compromise

its institutional green

meant

life

chosen

in
business gestures of men
customary
black suits or shirt sleeves,
what
exemplifies

of one's

his

purely physical activity

the intellectual and

(Fig.339), with

The

has

rather

from

Degas.

has

These

to

Edgar

cardboard, 23y8X32"8".

tures.
pos-

Rejectingthe
he
drew
from
both
the
body movements,
practicedand the unthinking, routine gestures
of his subjectsas performed in their day-to-day
existence.

Figure 338.
on

static

of
perspective
the

of

its location

not

vision

for

the Renaissance,

viewer

at

from
the foreground figures.
greater distance
of vision led
Faithfulness to the idiosyncrasies
to

Degas' overlapping of

disdain

of

the

his relatives and

formal

his

and
figures,
him

caused

his

to

pose
their business associates in suit-

Figure 339.

Edgar

Cotton Broker's

in New
Office

1873.Oil
Musee

on

des

Degas.

The

Orleans.

28 3 g ^35%".
Beaux-Arts, Pau,

canvas,

France.

285

unself-conscious

and

able

fidelityto
had
be

an

With

poses.

business

American

its

office,Degas

that the paintingwould

hopes (unfulfilled)
English or American
purchased by some

industrialist.
In

the

visual

horse

of

in sum,

"

Degas
of

the world

of diversion

artifice,its places of performance

and

made

the

those

whose

Parisian

an

who

Degas,

and

of

gestures, and

memorized

yet

feelingtoward

lower

he

Absinthe

Drinkers

them.

no

Victorian

which

cialized
spepathy
sym-

takenly
mis-

was

England

as

an

Absinthe

Figure

340.

1876. Oil

on

Drinkers

Desboutin,

Edgar
canvas,

he

Degas.

36*4

posed

and

artist

his wife. Their

Absinthe
"

an

the

Degas

picture

history of

is

The

art.

the

Drinkers.

27". Louvre, Paris.

and

1885,

the

place

or

he

the

in David

of

and

phase

the

definite

remoteness

the

Ingres

of the

has

modern

between

1850

in form

which

that of

subjectmatter.
Degas does
figuresat the painting'scenter,

left

right

or

of center,

as

sance
Renais-

Baroque portraitpainter would

or

but

the

roughly
the radical change

the

to

even

and

occurring

was

which

specificin

most

spectator becomes

scene,

accompanied
not

from

viewpoint

is made

second

For

the

of

that

disappeared.The

rather, a

friend. Marcel

evolved, and

fidelityto visual experience

compositional forms had to be
in nineteenth-century art such as

seen

against the debilitating effects of

social critic but,
not
a
Degas was
sharp sociologicalobserver of his time.

alcohol.

new

stage construction

Some

(Fig. 340),

interpretedin
indictment

This
that

paration,
pre-

expression
of warmth
occurs
only in a Degas print of
prostitutescelebrating the birthday of the
madam.
The
psychologicalisolation of people
in public is captured in Degas" painting of the
or

rely for
encounters.

part of

classes

their

showed

the
expressionsconvey
ently
consistcafe-goerswho
chance
enjoyment upon
public

afflicts

and

professionaltalents
the

distracted

that

doxically, revolution,
spectacle possible.Para-

professionalsof
fascinated

there is

contemporary

halls, cafe life,

shops, brothels, and

modish

racing,

laundries

record

ballet, rehearsal

and

theater

boredom

meant

prodigiousoutput

unmatched

divergent and

them

locates

have,

the

eccentricallyto

upper

the periphery of our

if toward
field of
the devaluation
to
Degas thus contributed
of the painting'scenter
the prime location
as
for a subject (and to the upgrading in visual
importance of the peripheralfield).
For Degas and Manet, paintingcontinued
to
be figure-dominated.Degas did few landscapes
and
still lifes or
no
panoramic city views but
ficial
artiindoor
preferred instead
subjects under
Monet, Renoir, and Pissarro,
hght. It was
the
open-air painters, who
interpreted the
spectacleof Paris itself Under
great outdoor
Louis
boulevards
were
Napoleon, numerous

right as

vision.

built

in Paris

after

1850

to

Monet
infantry." When
he
did
(PI.
36),
Holiday

and

not

Rather
he

to

evoke

reveled

Paris

in

did

street

of violent

terms

as

the

fighting.

of the

pasl,

flag-bedecked
Unlike

window.

historical

with

heroic

tion
military ac-

thrilling esthetic

sunlightplaying over

suffered

trom

an

accustomed

eye
to

ordinarilyfrom

saw

Monet's

rience
expe-

citystreet

formed
trans-

disorder,

lor

they

were

seeingin paintingwhat
their

own

windows.

they
From

and
remote
viewpoint, the
vidual
flagsdissolved into countless indiEach
color.
sensations
of light and
of his brush
their equivalent,and
gave
elevated

and

street

touch
the

of

I'o
decoration.
by red-white-and-blue
public of his day, it appeared that Monet

the

not

deal

not

J^'ational

the

lo\'e for flags

of

barricades

from

seen

but, rather,
of

"light, air, and

contemporary

Monet

painting in

out

recollections

boule\ard

Delacroix,

so

depict the

than

let in

painted

purpose

of his discontinuous

touches

was

to

'"^'^

^^ftl^Pfe^^^^PF^^il
:

t.

I'll

^:^

Figure

PissARRO.

Camille
341.
Place du Theatre

Frangais. i8q8. Oil on

27^4" x 36I/4".The

canvas,

Los

Angeles County

of Art

(Mr. and

George Gard
Collection).

the scene's brilliant shimmer.

reproduce

in

observed

the

street

reduced

were

Figures
to

spots of dark
on

the

depersonalizationof

the

urban

crowd

is

cable
expliphysical perspective
of the artist. By disengaging his strokes
from
uniform
fused mass,
Monet
a
was
being
that is,seeking to convey
true
visually honest
tion
empirical perception but also calling attenthe

on

basis of the

remote

"

"

the

to

of

color

there

applied
and

touch

illusionistic

over-all

an

the

Paradoxically,

canvas.

both

created

was

image

the

on

of

existence

independent

its

was
a
opposite effect, which
random
dispositionof colors over a flat surface.
It is this all-over
roughly equal
pattern and

density of the strokes

fabric. The

color, born
visual
such

as

symbolic,

and

Pissarro's
free

of

appearance,
Seurat and

was

the

weaves

a
satisfying
sign of modernity, and the
that
did
much
to
physical transformations
Paris after 1850
beautify and mobilize
were
rather
than
criticized in
joyfully celebrated
their
paintings. The
Impressionists,unlike
Degas and Manet, painted directly from their
the
relied
their
subject on
spot and
upon
with
thorough artistic training to compose
rapidity a
perfect painting. Pissarro
great
makes
contain
to
no
preciselyor to
attempt
the
centralize
field of
subject, and like our
the
vision
the painting's borders
trim
scene
all sides,so that we
made
on
are
stronglyaware
of seeing only a segment
of a largerfluctuating

world.

for
to

positional
com-

later artists

boulevard

unpredictable ebb
(Fig.341). Mobility was
The

views
and

capture
flow

for the

Synthesisof

Past

of

and

city

Present

Pissarro

their

the

Impresand

who

was

figurebecause
personalizehis

Gauguin with its emotional,

decorative
possibilities.

later

there

is

line,

horizon

no

the

to

appears

Renoir,

consistency with

impress

Because

parallelthe painted surface,

between
thus
accentuating the ambivalence
spatialdepth and the picture plane.
street

intensity of Monet's

desire

and

traffic

which
new

De

Sylva

sionists
nected
discon-

color, which were

captured
by masterly single strokes. The

canvas

Museum

Mrs.

in

committed

more

street

did,

so

identity. His

treated

as

if focused

woman

standing

next

to

one

are

sometimes

spot, such

him, and

Nineteenth-Century Painting

to

Monet

figuresretain

some

paintings
on

than

more

scenes

that

the

to

training,tended

of academic

287

the

as

rest

of

Above:
Place

Collection

Cambridge,
Below:
c.

Right
England.

the

Oil

on

PhillipsCollection,

251/2

canvas,

Honorable

Figure 343. Honore

i860.

Renoir.

Auguste

Pierre
Figure 342.
Clichy. c. 1880. Oil on

R.A.

The

Daumier.

canvas,

sg-'i

Washington.

D.C.

"2i

'/)""

Buttler,

Uprising.

42 '/s". The

the image slipsinto a blur

that is analogous to
peripheral vision. This change in social and
be appreciated by comparing
opticalfocus can
Place
Renoir's
The
Daumier's
Pigalle with
about
1860,
Uprising (Figs. 342, 343), dated
shows
which
riotingfigureson a Paris street.
The
convictions
but
Impressionistshad political
of their paintings. Daumier
out
kept them
continues
the militant
terized
partisanshipthat characadvanced
painting of the first half
of

the

in

the

family. Although
drawing

of

the

intended

all

to

work

heads
be

is

1870

crowd

in

that

focus.

For

boulevards

and

the
"

fact

unfinished,

shows

in

new

1850

translates

individuals

into

part

the

he

and

century,

least

at

Daumier

the

sionists,
Impres-

constructed
be

not

were

the

tween
be-

shown

as

battlegroundsor parade sites,but as the locus of

the trulyImpressionistexperience,placeswhere
walked

one

sight of

and

casually

responding

esthetic

to

beautiful

without

destination,

perceptions such
sunlit

women,

as

the
and

trees,

elegant shops. From

Impressionistpainting such
of
that
could
as
never
Renoir, one
glean
Balzac's

lines about

famous

Paris:

"Paradise

for

Hell for horses."

Purgatory for men.
Moreover,
Impressionist painting, unlike the
intended
large-scalehistorical paintings, was
homes.
primarily for middle-class

women,

At

end

the

painted
object
with

and

the

of the

Theater

on

top

by Japanese prints,Bonnard
cut-out
shapes of a
cabs
of

the
and

woman

space.

The

mosaic

had

and

three

child

below

of

houettes
silmuch

the

horseat

women

the

against

seen

as

presents
row

cloaked

and

screen

which

screen,

flattened
drawn

in

performances,

illuminated

were
as

late-nineteenth-century Paris

the

by

Bonnard

patterned as an
style after Japanese art,
Paris square
(Fig. 344).

screen,

partly in
subject of a

Influenced
Shadow

Pierre

century,

beautiful

the

figuresof
great

empty

shimmering Impressionist colored

given way to large monochromatic
the consequent
flat
shapes and
emphasis on
surface pattern. The
third phase of the modern
revolution
but
subjects,
through new
away

from

unnatural.
the

The
not

288

Purposes

of Art

continued

these

with
were

formal

imitation

By

artist made

now

ideas.
of

nature

inventiveness
the

familiar

already established

given new
meaning
Art began shifting
and
stressingthe
of personal style,
seem

unfamiliar.

rightnessor veracityof the work of art was

determined
by matching it against

;^Mi;?-'?"^;?-^SSa

Figure
each.

Pierre
344.
The
Museum

Bonnard.

Paris

of Modern

but by its internal

shape and their emotive
appeal. The imperative of independent artists
after
1885
was
to
explore deliberately the
of the
of art
materials
expressive possibilities
themselves, such as line, shape, color, and surface
organization. The
Impressionist fleck of
color had
been
expanded to a larger, firmly

derive

bounded

devoted

specificplace

and

Square.1897. Four colored

York
(Abby Aldrich

Art, New

of color

coherence

flat

abandoned,

Modeling of
lightand

all

began

The

at

the

believed

area

illusionism

Lautrec

From
half

was

and

be

end

now

used

style

to

upon

itself. Both

of

they

as

the

at

nineteenth

The

illusion,
the

the

beginning
century,

Synthesisof

that

Past

and

artists

is, the
and

Present

for Bonnard

and

expression of

the

was

Ingres

this

sance
Renais-

and

Toulouse-

highly

sonal
per-

what

the
to

this

have

we

the

so

nineteenth

notion

that

depicting

far

in the second

seen

century,
advanced
second

one
might
painting was

Eden

on

earth.

Impressionism, there
prophetic developments of a different,
in other
countries, in art that
grim nature
the
of the
dealt with
modern
motif
city

also

in

true

was

street.

Even

progressive art.
artifice, on

everything,

was

ditionally
tra-

were

achieve

ejected from

was

surface

construction, natural

shadows,

of

While

more

value

or

it

and

of Classical

style.

were

to

stress

treated

implied an imitation
whereas
styles,

dark

known

for David

essence

color

and

but

moment,

representation remained.
forms, rational perspective,nuances

illumination

of art;

1-6 5""

panels, 4'5'

Fund).

and

but

of

lithograph screen
Rockefeller

in

artists did
and

in

late
look

in

nineteenth
to

the

century,

city with

some

sympathy

ugly and hostile aspect of

measured
by Monet, was
paintings by the Belgian James Ensor

optimism.

citylife,never
out

the
not

The

assessed

Nineteenth-Century Painting

289

WC' vJv1

factions

assailed each

became

other

the basis of

verbally and

cally,
physipersonalmetaphor.

The
inconspicuous figure of Christ at the
is drowned
in waves
of
painting's center
grimacing masks and commercial
slogans.The
of Monet's
boulevard
has been
airy openness
replaced by a claustrophobiccrowding of the

subtly inflected

street.

The

brush

contrasts

touch

Ensor's

with

of

assaults

Monet's
on

the

painting surface, his violent

twisting and
streakingof thick pigments. Ensor brought to
into the psychology
his paintingssharp insights
of crowd

behavior

stimulation
inhibition.

and
The

under
with

masks

conditions
the

of

extreme

resulting loss
intimate

become

of

tions
revela-

of the

depravity inherent in their wearers.

compulsively jammed every inch of the
thereby
paintingwith distasteful,hostile figures,
weakening the total composition. The painting
is important mostly for the arrestingquahties
of its details, as
the
and
expressive power
Ensor
means
by which
brought to art a frank
Ensor

Above:

Figure

James Ensor.
Entry of Christ
i88g. 1888. Oil on canvas,
8'5 1.4"
Communal,
14'! 1/2"-Casino
Knokke-le-Zoute,

into Brussels
X

345.

in

Belgium.
Below:
Karl

Figure 346.

Johan

47 H"-

Edvard

Munch.

Evening
33^
Mayers Samlinger, Bergen.

Street,

Rasmus

1892. Oil

c.

on

canvas,

on
x

self-realization

in

his harsh

themes

and

brush-

work.

painting oi Evening on Karl Johan

of its
is divested
(Fig. 346), the crowd
individual
identityand given no attributes of
human
warmth.
magnification of
Through
the faces have
become
psychologicalovertones
dehumanized,
presenting less expression than
the blank
arc
windows, which
given an exaggerated
In Munch's

and

the

Norwegian

Entry of Christ
a

a
religiousevent
painting reflects
and
feeling of

actual

events

of Ostend

290

Munch.

Ensor's

into Brussels in 1889

(Fig.345) is
perversion of
society's
into a vulgar carnival; the
the artist's personal disillusion
alienation
from
society.The

bitter commentary

streets

Edvard

on

that
and

Ensor

witnessed

Brussels,in which

Purposes

of Art

in

the

political

Street

treatment

pulsate.While

that
the street

makes

them

pullsthe

eye

seem

to

strongly

depth, physical passage is actuallyblocked

phalanx of the crowd. This is a painting
one's place
whose
true
subject is anxiety over
in a world
that
is inhospitableand
menacing.
Munch
imparted to his paintings psychotic
of the color and
distortions
shape of familiar
objects faces, trees, the rooftops, the sharp
In
recession
of the street.
previous art, the
within
the paintdistressed individual
was
seen
ing
if perceived by a rational onlooker; with
as
into

by

the

"

Munch,

of

environment

total

the

however,

the

colored
and
shaped by the
painting was
subjectivestate of the artist. Although influenced
of the
time
such
writers
as
by Scandinavian
insights, like those of
Strindberg, Munch's
in large part from
Ensor, derived
personal
crises. In no
previous period had the artist's
in
his
so
society been
personal uneasiness
franklypainted.
The
of sociabilityso
themes
prevalent in
not
to
new
nineteenth-century painting were
in
evidenced
the
was
history of art, as
Chapter 10, dealing with the table in art of the
sixteenth

seventeenth

and

Common

centuries.

the
Baroque table paintingswas
demonstration
by the subjectsof their awareness
of others, and
pictorialcomposition was
ported
supby connecting figures through their
eon
Lunchgestures and facial expressions.Renoir's
of the BoatingParty (PI. 37) continues, and
brings to a gloriousculmination, this theme and
its sophisticated
rhetorical devices. The last of the
form
conversation
paintings, its subject and
ing
people clearlymanifeststronglydepend upon
and

crucial

their

to

mutual

Thereafter, when

awareness.

together by other artists,the figures

a
diminishing (or nonexistent) sense
of mutuality or
Renoir,
personal interaction.
who
was
again
cognizant of older art, once
depicted his
brought the table to life and
friends enjoying the delightsof good food and
another's
one
drink, the
countryside, and
is seen
The
at
painter'sbride-to-be
company.
the lower
left,playfullyoccupied with her dog.
shown

revealed

is the

the table

Across

of

posture
backward

sittingon
and

in

either

century

public

or

and

in

moral

us

of

his

of

notions
art.

French

As

turned
did

not

decorum

seventeenth-

in

paintings,Renoir
commonplace. The

history of the
painting, which
Impressionism on the whole, was

gives

is

that

sportsman's shirt

whose

Dutch

Caillebotte, whose

chair

conservative

with

accord

artist

that

was

to

be

of

yourself.

The

painting'scolors

blue

for

festive

It is worth

reasons.

examine

how

mostly red, white, and

than
for
patriotic

are

rather

the

viewer's

color

each

attention

to

is varied

throughout
the composition, thereby tying objects,figures,
and
whole.
settinginto a radiant harmonious
tion,
Just as the subjects manifest complete relaxais the
beholder
at
so
enjoined to savor
leisure such
beautiful
of the painting
passages
the

as

still life

learned

from

colors

and

to

was

table
the

flesh.

abandon

as

or,

Renoir

had

delightsof contrasting

in

textures

dress, hat, and

Renoir

the

on

Rubens,

beautiful

Within
such

themes

woman's
few

years,

of informal

the Impressioniststylein favor of

subjectsinvolving nudes, treated
eling
tightersurface finish and firmer modthat he felt brought him
closer to
a mode
disciplined and
enduring painting

diversion

and

conventional

with

"

the

more

of

the

past.

Vincent
van
Gogh painted his Potato
of the
livingin one
(Fig. 347), he was
he
in Europe, where
found
his
poorest areas
His
dark
tones
subjects in Dutch
peasants.
of his grim
and
mood
matched
the character
his
In this painting he showed
environment.
for those
who
lived by what
reverence
they
When

Eaters

retrieve

could
Brabante.
the

simple

Figure 347.
1885. Oil
V.W.

the

from

solemnity

table

and

reluctant

soil

of

figuresaround

of the

its humble

fare

evokes

religiouspaintings of Christ and

disciplesor the partaking of Communion,

memories
the

The

van

of

Vincent
on

van

canvas,

Gogh, Larne,

Gogh.

The

Potato

Eaters.

Collection
32 '74 " 44%"Netherlands.
The

this

and

analogy

been

have

well

may
The

mind.

Gogh's

van

in

cheap religious print

hanging on the wall is like an attribute of their

poorly than his parish during
piety.Living more
this missionary period in his life,
van
Gogh had
failed
it

their

win

to

with

only

was

persuaded

were

Self-trained

as

of his

academic

the

skill of Renoir.

the

individual

but
in

lamp

also

endow

to

Van

Gogh

who

toil. The

with

past but
the

wear

reverence

struggle, borne

could
and

of his

women

the

secular

of

in the

time

own

subject

of

that

those

life

of

trustful
flinching." Dispainting pictures

believed

best be illustrated

again

whole

ever

and

subjects,he

unseen

of

stigmata

the

the saints
"all

plowmen,

without

of his memory
of

with

not

were

the humble

radiance.

believe

to

came

the

faces, but

disillusioned
he

of

glow

their

sympathetic

become

had

deserving of

of the

church, and

orthodox

those

them

his

of angular

sense

illuminate

to

in

peasant

physical labor,
feeling of their sharing

common

served

with

fiercelyasserted

Gogh

captured that
by hard

fruits of

the

oil

Van

achieved

also

how

student, let alone

conditioned

he

learned

not

identity of each

portraitureand
movement

artist,he had

an

mediocre

most

to

as

ments
gracefullythe glances and movethe
of even
figuresin the manner

interweave

to

preacher, and
difficulty that his subjects
pose individuallyfor him.
respect

that

the

Bible

guise of the

Munch
van

in

was

he

and

Gogh,

and
place. Once
figuresat a table

Edvard
Figure 348.
[896. Lithograph, 15

some

Munch.
14

",

21

ways

created

The

Death

Vi". Munch

Oslo.

wegian
Nor-

"Frieze

of

Chamber.

Museum,

that

which

dealt,

It

was

of

the

crises with

saints.

the

Like

life of Christ, the

or

endured

and
great personal suflTering

transform
others

became

Death

Chamber

and

Gogh,

van

Munch

sought

to

himself

death

that

beginning
and

(It

based

was

through art. The anguish of

In his
a
metaphor of his own.
(Fig.348), the theme of tragedy
so
was
prevalent at the century's
but

returns,

victims

is

his

on

print is

like

mori, except

in

homely

setting.

sister's death.) The

own

modern

it strikes nameless

now

presented

memento

of the

version
that

Munch's

medieval

focus

is

now

the great griefthat each of the livingmust

within
himself. The
stark use
of black and

upon

bear
white

and

the

such

outlining of

strong

sharpens the sense

the unbridgeable

of sorrow's

silhouettes

containment

isolation

of

of crisis. For

moments

every

and
in

man

Munch,

sionism
Impres-

superficialan art, an attitude

meaningfully with feeUng
and
the suffering in life. Like
van
Gogh, it
his desire to give to men
and
that
was
women
quality of holiness formerly imparted by the
too

was

that

failed

halo

and

Both

to

deal

to

induce

such

the viewer

artists continued, and

tradition

of

to

if he

paintings as

in

carried

than

his hat

remove

were

four

church.

further,

even

hundred

years'
humanizing the sacred and
more
servative
financiallysuccessful conartists who
repetitiously
exploited the
of
formats
and
devices
older
religous art.
Munch
and
van
Gogh created inspired paintings
and
of their strong, genuine
prints out
feelingsfor their fellow men,
hoping thereby to
done
as
was
once
by the
unify mankind
organized church.
a

more

standing, that
saintly.Unlike

of

abstract, idealized
but

art

artists

by

such

Chavannes

who

championed

of

and

culture.

history

widely

painter

different

continued
intended
and

his

tradition

symbols of

an

did not

progressive
Puvis

as

Admired

of

nineteenth

the
its

conservative

time

convictions

civilization. He

as

by

and

of

most

artists

tastes,

making

entire

the

de

values

of

Puvis

paintings
epoch

cultural

consider

nineteenth-

societyas worthy of or appropriate for

in painting.When
he was
treatment
missioned
comdecorate
the museum
in Lyon,
to

century
such

the
as

of

provided by

not

was

important

Art

prints,with

the

were

past that recorded

painters

of

and

Virgin,

The

Purposes

paintings and
women

in life.
continuallyconfronted
patterned after the great painting cycles

century

192.

in

and

men

they

before

men

acquired religiousovertones.
Edvard

Life"

ordinary

Puvis

chose

what

Lyon

golden

meant

interpret abstract concepts

in antiquity, for him

in

that

to

age

Antique (Fig. 349)

room

filled with

works

of

actual

with

imaginative
serenity

the

and

should

to

ponder

the

the

painting. Each

and

is shown

in

that

of the
for

the

that

cool

illustrates
of

what

he

grey

and

scene

in

the

in

for

and

be,

to

by

the

same

in

portrayed

but

on

In

his

island

an

Puvis

dealt

too

that

of the

(PL 38), Seurat's

a

prosaic
in

persons
source

the

into

event

first

at

seems

personal

mundane

essentiallyfrom
the colors, not

the

termed

Seurat

della

the

What

intuitive

to

can

as

that

of

Piero

could

be

psychological

achieved
and

be

whole

was

its

Despite the apparently

the
figures, none

position. A

is contrived

and

and

by

aligned shapes
distance, and
has

upori

purged
Seurat's

taut

that

positional
com-

relation

the

link

background.

fresh

the

execution, but

meditated

purposes,

ground,
foreThe

appearance
each

of

silhouette

extensive

preliminary
superfluous.For his
more
edges are
expressive
in

of

the

large,solemnly static figures

volatile
of minute,
ironically,constituted
of
touches
A
color.
strict systemization of
than

his faces. The

are,

without

Present

from

painting

studies

Impressionist color
meticulously divided

emotional

Past and

dispersal of

shifted

instantaneous

each

Synthesisof

spontaneous.

middle

rhetoric.

The

and

of silhouettes

of

believed
that

by artificial light,for unlike

had
explicitlyavowed
basis of working. He distrusted the

scheme

expressive traits of the

Ignoring the potential for
chose to present what
might
such

studio

informal

the

brightness

the

ImpressionistsSeurat

derives

moment

and

in

artist

his

subjects.
painting the

advanced

to

rendered

if the

theoretical

familiar

required keeping gesture and

minimum
a
and, moreover,

composition

conventional

warmth

painting

Francesca

movement

the

stilled life. Seurat

monumental

that

done

it is

do not
shadows
cast
by the sun
single light source.
Convincing
intensity of sunlight, the painting was

with

is the

as

Jatte

point,
single view-

within

of the
impressive volume
Impressionist painting gradually

that

accord

Paris.

painted from

size and

destroyed. The

from

figures themselves.
movement,

of

gaiety

restored

setting

setting becomes

Antique.

Lyon.

perspective,as
of
directly opposite each

monumental

of
a
wardly
outhaunting paradox. While
appearing to share in the enjoyment of
the figuresdo not
place and moment,
municate.
comThe

be

of

Vision

de

individual

Sein^at

an

transformed

gathering

figure

classes,

poetic occasion.

be

to

vision

is

each

figure

Grande

the

Musee

but

weekly

in northern

Afternoon on

Chavannes.

de

canvas.

landscape
an

were

was

with

the working
imagined Greek

an

large

that

years

in the Seine

Sunday

The

and

undertook

Puvis

on

the

from

Seurat

Oil

1885.

nineteenth-

holiday outing enjoyed by

as

Figure 349.

fact

the

gruesome

French

mural, he
eternal,idylliclife,but it was
not

door
out-

rational

by

shown

most

in

his

on

painter's

taste

art.

Georges

painting
working

A
the

and

art
ought
personalityis

caricatural

meditation.
establishes

governed

art

produced

When

was

premises of

Impressionism. Puvis'

private drawings

century

viewer

reflects the

color

found

artist's divided

sadistic

encourages

strong

immediacy
painting

The

figure is distinctlyisolated
in a landscape

of

tone

remoteness

be.

intellectual

reflective mood,

itself

dominant

notions

on

David, Puvis was

Instead, it is his

action.

been

expected

disdain

Roman
based

of
the
and
beauty
region's countryside and lation.
popueffect,he was
painting hfe as it ought

In

setting

and

evocation

of

have

to

Vision

museum

not

was

unlike

His
a

Greek

painting

history,and

unconcerned

decorate

to

ancient

The

art.

city's history.
was

of
the

in

color's

brilliance

style, Seurat's
strokes

of

esthetic

color

by adjoining it

Nineteenth-Century Painting

293

of

ensured
with

its

Figure

Paul

350.

Oauguin.

Ihe

optical complement
with

green,

in

size

he

was

By

contrast

yellow

"

so

painting
with

air

an

and

the

the

work

created

and

of

the

From

the

in

moments

violet, red

with

stroke

of

the

shape

Seurat's

theory. Seurat
minute

through

life of mundane

uneventful

city dwellers,

of

the

eternalized

heroic.
The

famous

most

day,

who

time

in

found

that

In

of

purposes

been

than

better

to

their

Purposes

of

Paul

artists

and

home

Art

his

of his

Paris, was

countries

own

of

be

quently
fre-

traveled

study (often to Rome,

cases
out), but in most

pointed
eventually returned
294

could

previous centuries,

left their
for

he

Polynesia rather

Gauguin.

artist

independent

as

im

Attia )
Bartlett

has

they

country.

Oil
i!i()4.

canvas,
27%"
Collection).

left Paris for the

South

firsttime

in 1890

reasons,

was

economic.
from

for varied

Also, Paris
an

on

Memorial

Gauguin

suffer

canvas.

grounded

were

recurrent,

impression

an

his

Munch,

esthetic
casual

varied

the

on

of

scale

objective and

were

calculation.

he

Chicago

His

on.

consciously formulated

achieved

of

direction, depending

and

distortions
in

and

nf the God
(Mahaua
(Helen Birch

Day

Institute

Art

inadequate appreciation

seemed

of

for the

of which

one

to

civilization

of

excess

Pacific

35'

him

(and

to
an

his

gifts).Among
the
simple
of the true
evidence
meaning of life and religion,
but
nonetheless
he
looked
his subjects
at
and Christian
through the eyes of a sophisticated
European artist who sought to sell his works in
Much
of what
he painted was
France.
ent
dependthe

Polynesian

natives

he

visual encounters,
upon
of Parisian
painting such

Puvis, and

on

his

own

amateur

sought

on
as

that

remembrances
of Seurat

studies in

or

religion

and
He
was
primitive art.
Impressionism as being too imitative
of the
and for lacking in imagination, qualities
and
the capacity to
mysterious and spiritual,
arouse
strong feeling.Yet, his painting Day of
the God
without
the
(Fig. 350) is unthinkable
and

in

ancient

critical of

of

work

Impressioniststhat

the
in

emulated

the

and

1880s

early

Gauguin

had

without

the

"This
the

Jatte.In place of
air
Parisians enjoying the pleasuresof the open
Sea
and
the beach, Gauguin
painted South
in their vaguely distinguishedsecular
natives
his own
version
and sacred rituals,ranged about
in
of a Polynesian deity. Their
postures are
natural
in
of
Egyptian art,
part
part paraphrases
The
movements.
positioningof the foreground
invention, perhaps to
figures is of his own
of creation
symbolize the powers
possessedby
of Seurat's

innovations

idol behind

the

to

have

is

Gauguin

meaning.

artist

modern

premises,and

the

who, while

of

prototype

discreditingthe

of conservative

values

universal

function

closed.

Even

influential

more

which

of

brightly
water

in

definition

but

emotional

which

for

audience.
argue
I

he

in

Whereas
defense

it," Gauguin

see
was

painting

the

of his

The

critic

painting, "This

look

very

of

Synthesisof

Past

and

thus

was

obliged

which

terms

worldly

were

art

encounters,

need

interpretationin
of
subject matter

sometimes

wrote

he

or

surface

the

devoted
the

At

out

compromised
with

patterns

for artists in the

end
to

of

of

century's

the

sense

programs
his
flat

modeled
twentieth

figures.
century

basis

great

end

for

ethical

itself
valid
bases

established, namely,
from

that
direct

that

in

Ages, which

Middle
world

the

came

as

modern

that

beginnings of

and
feeling,
subject of art and

the

abstraction.
of

was

of appearances.

the world

to
fidelity

positing art

the

the

simulating the

deliberate

and

Present

ordinary

and
purpose
his work,

since

is how

likelyargue
emotion, or

France

develop Gauguin's legacy further and more

The
nineteenth
consistently.
century witnessed
in
the logical culmination
of tendencies
art

Impressionist might

would
the

modern

artist

in

poets, defied

to

experience.

the

learned

painting.
advanced
nineteenth-century

not

It remained

his

risks of

had

The

involved

abstract

ground,
fore-

"

and

As

in

on

did

the

of

did
not
paint
feeling in nature;
rather, he sought equivalentsin shape and color
for conveying the feeling itself. To
define
an
eliminate
its mystery.
to
object preciselywas
Thus, he alone could judge the rightness of
he painted
what
a
premise that introduces the
of

source

modern

century.

previous
its meaning
centuries,and instead it surrendered
direct experience of the painting.The
to
public
has
been
slow to comprehend
this attitude
or
Gauguin vacillated in his conviction
approve.

Gauguin

Monet,

directly the

he

feeling in

of

based

of

the

create

summarizes
the

nineteenth

artists,musicians, and

translation.

Much

colored

the

which

communicate

was

than

art

treatment

the

the

resist

strong visual and

for later

and

symbolic programs
are
figure, however,
amorphous shapes in

dilemma

fellow

to

his

of the

end

possibleonly

and

Unlike

color,

to

academic

or

and
from
verbal

the

form,

continue
its unifying social
his
own
Utopian imagery on
and
terms.
By personahzing past influences
of conveying meaning, unlike
means
ative
conservartists who
drew
from
official public
an
iconography, Gauguin helped to open the gulf
between
artist and
public, with
respect to
has not
since been
understanding art, which
art,

strives

instinctive

an

the

at

Gauguin
possibihtiesof

already noted, he yearned for the universal

role that art had
played in the days of the great
a
nd
artists
allegorical
religiouspaintings,when
could subscribe
to public values
or
symbols and
interpreta theology in which they believed and
be
by which
they could
genuinely inspired.
But
also heir to new
ideas
of
Gauguin was
personal expression that
mitigated against
public painting such as illustrative or dogmatic
art. Like his progressive
contemporaries, he had
horror
of literature as providing the basis of
a
art. The
expressivepower of his means,
drawing

them.

would

I feel it."
and

was

of symbolism
was
tematic
unsyslargelyintuitive. His imagination
gestures, shapes, and colors that he

and

believed

artist

form

Gauguin's
led him

Grande

is how

problems

of

of

of

One
art

working

had

the
been

directly

vidual
private empirical experience in an indistyle, personally acquired, as a more
of realizing true
means
self-expression.

Nineteenth-Century Painting

295

15

THEMES

is
There
painting

continuous

no

to

the

until

art, and

first true

of

end

until

not

was

they became
artist's

focus

absence

of

significant

of incentives

and

the
in

nature

protracted absence.
The
painting of
by those

who

townsmen,

by

purposes

to

this

to

educated
the

the

been
land.

and

done
It

was

inquisitive

sophisticated coding

equivalent

trees,
on

earth,
the

and

painted

recording and the ideal

of specificnatural
locations
other
history than do many

Topographical

literal imitation

have

closest

seldom

shorter
of

art

landscape
296

art.

Indeed,

many

painted

with

Vesuvius

ideals

in

scholars

believe

presence

strong

following

looked

upon

possible that

her

dominant
its unreal

painting
of

good

bluish
or

relates
tone

of

his

gave

an

taste.

home
educated
Much

such

ties

shrine

Isis

as

Roman

her

the

To

and

well

to

had

who

it is

worship.

fresco

adds

have

such

Roman

with

(next

Romans,

to

and

landscape

deity,

natuie

mood.

in

sacred

goddess

enchanted

prestige of being
man

as

the

among

this shrine

present-day

had

of

Egyptian

they

native,
imagi-

were

Pompeiian

(Fig. 351) suggests

religion by the
the
tree). The

to

but
that

have

The

walls

that

so

depth of architecture
not
landscapes were

places

may

of

of urban

disguise the

painting,

These

were

eruption

owners

specificlocales

idyllicconnotations.

The

The

into

mysterious

which

the

a.d.

fresco

appeared to be views
the countryside.
or
of

the

oped
devel-

painting. These
walls of private

Pompeii

artists to

illusionistic

re-creations

in

upon

79

Romans

the

on

in

those

of

surface

fulfillment.

landscapes

following

illustrated
has

nature

mountains,

their

for

accounts

preserved

lack

by which

means

found

notably

villas commissioned

totally
The

b.g.

that

periods

were

their

Mount

The

past

to

and

European

nature.

largely

evolved

which

found

water

surface.
of

but

in

houses,

painting

past

its accurate

first century
first true

be

to

are

the

art,

the

men

in

artistic

art

lived

who

peasants,

systems

that

in

numbers.

painting

imply

theme

in

times
found

have

inimical

the
the

was

century
in

concern

imitation
In

fourteenth
first

seventeenth

the

not

this

medieval

of

uninterested

or

to

reappeared

landscape

of

render

the

in

of history does
unaware

of

antiquity

central

there

art

various

at

would

nature

not

NATURE

embodied

Roman

in

B.C.,

down
did

landscapes

Western

background

and

margins

landscape

times

interruption

Landscapes

century.

not

in

subsequently

the

ancient

first century

the

thousand-year

from

it

The

present.

appear

of

history

from

ranging

FROM

the

religious
painting was
as

Plate 44.
Jean-Baptiste Simeon
Oil on canvas,
i^y^x 12%". The

Still Life.c. 1 732.

Angeles County Museum.

Chardin.
Los

'"""^^^^"^^
based

on

Greek

architectural
from

elements

lost Greek

Unlike

the

art, and
may

paintingscontaining
have

painted scenery

Romans,

however,

been

derived

for stage
the Greeks

plays.
never

developed the illusion of natural

prospects
and
in depth, with a horizon
extending laterally
line, beyond the borders of the painting.The
like
other
ancient
Romans,
peoples, never
developed the unified geometric perspective
system of the Renaissance, but they did create
that
related convincingly to empirical
art
an
visual
not
experience. Thus, the artist may
have
systematicallyconverged all his receding
lines
on
a
single vanishing point (thereby
which
the
suggesting a fixed viewpoint from
is observed), but
he
alert to the
was
scene
of objects,
and the land
trees, hills,
appearance
and achieved
ing,
depth through atmospheric coloroverlapping of shapes,and the diminution
of
as
figures and
landscape elements
they
receded
from
the viewer.
The
prime Roman
device for conveying depth in nature
the
was
of the elevated viewpoint.(We have already
use
how
in landscape after the
this was
done
seen
Middle
systematicperspectivewas
Ages when
not
yet known.)
For

the

Roman

urban

dweller, these

scapes
land-

afforded

and
spiritualcomfort
escape
from
the annoyances
of his everyday environment.
with
He
the
was
brought into contact
the
beauties of the countrysideby paintingjust
as
his thoughts to the
reading of Vergil removed
idyllicpastorallife. (Today the travel poster is
familiar
means
perhaps the most
by which wc
indulge in such
imaginative displacement.)
The
of landscape art in China
a few
emergence

centuries

after

similarlybased
analogies, and

its
on

appearance

in

Rome

is

religiouspurposes, literary
the
escapist desires of its

collectors.
A
landscape painting by Hsu
Tao-ning
(Figs. 352, 353) indicates that by the year
1000
Chinese
art
A.D.
possessed a consistent,
integratedworld view with a focus on nature,
not
man.
Landscape painting had developed
from beginningsin about the fourth century a.d.
in
and
animistic
magical funerary functions
beliefs and afterward
passed into the service of
Confucianism
then
Taoism.
and
Chinese
torial
picof painting,and all
writingwas the source
artists were
first trained
in calligraphic
brushwork.
Artists
were
frequently scholars, poets,
and
their
philosophers, and
painting was

Figure

351.

Museo

Nazionale, Naples.

intended

Sacred

for

Landscape,fresco

audience

an

of

from

these

Pompeii.

groups,

constitutingtherefore an elite or aristocratic

rather
than
a
public art. Although its esthetic
values
were
appreciated, landscape painting
remained
closely tied with mysticism and a
the
function
of facilitating
beholder's
munion
comthe
with
realityof the universe. It
the
belief
all
demonstrated
that
things in
nature,

what

matter

no

their

size,were

of worth.

Although Hsu Tao-ning's painting is not the

literal recording of a specific
mountain
site,it
shares many
qualitieswith the mist-shrouded,
China.
Its
jagged, soaring peaks of northern
is an
subject, fishing a mountain
stream,
activityas timeless as it is universal in that
in Chinese
and Japanese painting
country. Never
the artist enjoined to imitate
surface
was
literal imitation
was
thought to be
appearance;
vulgar, an impediment to true insightand the
esthetic experience of
genuine spiritualand
nature
through art. The sign of a great painter
his abilityfirst to fathom
the meaning of
was
what
he was
painting and then to impart this
wisdom

to

his

art.

For

this

reason,

Chinese

and

in great part based

on
Japanese painting was
Nature
copying the works of venerable masters.
was
shaped according to conventional
types,
thought
signs,and symbols in order to convey
and
feeling.The painter learned by heart the
various

ways

to

render

mountains, water,

and

principalingredientsof landscape art.

to
Despite typificationthat extended
every
stroke
the
artist
might make, the sublime
trees, the

Themes

from

Nature

297

W!W:^

\^r--'-:7.^v,.^-,7^:--

W|#' '^^i^'^'^^^
^..Afrf?-.

Hsu
Tao-ning.
Fishing in a Mountain
Figure 352.
Rockhill
i'7" x6'ioV2" (four panels).The William

artist
"

followed

as
"

he
was

regarded by

was

able

to

transmit

those
his

Stream,

who

unique

Scroll

1000.

c.

painting

Gallery of Art,

Nelson

through
motifs

Kansas

silk,

on

City, Missouri.

landscape. Thus,

customarily is revealed

of

succession

in

about

area

an

The
classic format
of scroll
feet wide.
two
personalreactions to a given subject.The ideal
of paintingwas
that gave the appearmode
one
painting initiates the scroll with a depictionof
ance
the ground near
the bottom
of the silk,or
of being effortless (made possiblein part
atively, paper, as if invitingthe viewer to enter. In the
by mastery of types and strokes),as if,figurthe
artist
is led into the middle
allowed
his landscape to
next
passage, the viewer
distance by a path or stream, and subsequently
paint itself. To do this,he had to be able to
the distant peaks, and
to
finallyback again.
painting and
identifywith the subjecthe was
with
the resilience
This
is
be a part of the vital movement,
variations,
repeated,
sequence
resistance
of the water, trees, and mountains.
or
throughout the whole. At any point,the viewer
look
his
he has
form
of deep and
serious
to
a
can
right, from whence
Painting became
with
communion
the left,the area
still before him.
to
or
nature, permitting the artist
come,
and
scrolls took
realize a sense
to
the compatible beholder
Ideally suited to this format, some
of a river from
its
of oneness
with
the
their subjectthe course
as
perfect unity, creative
of the natural
world
from
energy, and essence
the mountain
its infinite space,
to
range, and
down
to the smallest
pebble.The great purpose

source

of

the

dweller

an

to bringjoy to the soul. A

paintingwas
city
who
possesseda landscapepaintingwas
of religious
experience
supplied with a source
and
from
urban
These
a release
cares.
paintings
to be approached with reverence,
were
humility,

and

intense

The

concentration.

scroll

painting, developed by such

Hsu
as
eleventh-centurymasters
at
Tao-ning and probably executed
tables, is
of the great vehicles of Oriental
one
painting
and
the finest format
for Oriental
landscape.
These
not
meant
to be viewed
paintingswere
in their entiretyand rarely by more
than one
or
be
two
to
people at a time. The scroll was
unrolled
right to left, in
gradually, from
reflection of the temporal progress of a traveler
tenth-

and

298

Purposes

of Art

to

in

its termination

no

dramatic

we

know

of the universe

measure

but

important

are

events,

as

is not

in this art; he

role in

small

There

sea.

painting.Man

in Western

them

the

climactic

episodes,no

the

plays
unfolding

of time.
The

construction

of

landscape painting does

positionof a spectator
Oriental
painting never
window-frame
the

viewer

the

from

constructed

began

forms, such

from
at
as

the

bottom.

The

Japanese

outside
used

fixed

painting.

the

tends

and

the

to

Western

separate

suggest

Eastern

many

the

or

assume

a
single
paintings were
viewpoints.Usually the

scene

The

top with

the

faint outlines

peaks, and then, in the

writing,worked downward
the

not

device, which

viewing point.
artist

Chinese

total

manner

and

most

distant

of mountain
of

Chinese

forward

toward

spatial construction

Hsu

Figure 353.
I

Tao-ning.

Fishingin

depends
within

of

an

moving focus of the traveler

painterwanted the effect
unmeasurable
space extending

the

limits of the frame

and

the

eye,

lived. This
things in nature
could be suggestedby pale washes
of ink
space
or
by entirely blank (that is, unpainted) silk
The
illuminated
or
was
by no
paper.
space
of ligfit
but rather by an
strong singlesource
in
over-all diffused light, concentrated
more
space

in

Nelson

The

scene.

infinite and

beyond

Rockhill

the

upon

the

Stream,

Mountain

William

'7"x6'ioy2" (fourpanels).The

certain

all

which

than

areas

others.

in

Shadows

were

rarely shown.
Color

Scroll paintingon silk.

1000.
Gallery of Art, Kansas
City,Missouri.

c.

\'aryingdegreesof
and

near

the
as

far, and

brush
well

This

as

create

ink

traceable

the

it demanded

is

what

of

movements

forceful directions

type of paintingwas

relative

establishes

suggest the substance

for the eye

of the

landscape.

for amateurs,

not

for

firm, disciplinedcontrol of the

of tonal
sense
values, and great

brush, a sure
sensitivity to sohd-void
relationships,with
particularcare to the use of empty space. Only
what
of the artist's
was
caught in the web
consciousness

in Oriental

definition. The

form
the

and
emerges,
the brush

the

once

idea

was

landscape
painting;ink and wash were
preferred.Free of
descriptivepurpose and seeking to infuse their
paintingswith qualitiesnot given directly to

fixed

the senses,
artists found
the gradientsachievable

quently
frepainting. Moreover, the paintings were
inspiredby poeticpassages. The place-

was

seldom

of

concentration

used

ideal instrument

an

with

in

ink.

In China
and Japan, Zen Buddhist
painters
developed a technique of splashed-ink painting.
During long meditation, the artist conjured up
the vision of his paintingin his mind
and waited
it
in
for the moment
of perfectunity with
Zen
of "enlightenment."
terms, the moment

artist
often
message

on

signed his name

he, a priest,or
or

line

of

Sesshu.
Figure 354.
Late
15th century.

with
a

spared.

was

paper,

woodblock,

he

achieved

his task

possiblein
The

ink

order

was

then

this
to

was

to

set

instantaneous
it down

sustain

as

poetry

Fisherman

directly

and

on

surface, in conjunction with

lation,
reve-

the ecstatic vision.

onto

controlled

the

,f^

brush

strokes also. A

at this type of
Japanese master
artist Sesshu.
paintingwas the fifteenth-century
In
and
his
Woodcutter
painting Fisherman
(Fig.354), a dozen quick strokes establish or,

rather, insinuate

the

environment.

There

are

"^

"^a

'"|'''iiiiriVi''iff"iMi"i"'iii"iiiriBr

the

Woodcutter.

rapidlyas

hterally splashed

and

poet might inscribe

"

When

The

,m^m^'

ink

dark

of the

weight

and

ment

with

was

an

writing
emphasis on total composition.The
and
the positionof the figurestestifies to the
sureness
required of the artist in locatinghis
forms
within the space of the painting,for he
had
no
systematicnetwork of edges or ground
lines to guide him.
There
are
important similarities as well as
in
the paintingof nature
differences between
West.

and

East

sixteenth-centuryFlemish

The

painter Peter Bruegel,hke his Oriental

was

geographers, philosophers,and

with

of his views
many
The
appreciatedhis paintings.

and

shared

who

landscape
related
a

in

art

its

storing

in

in

his

of

landscape painting also

geography. Like many

painters, Bruegel traveled

C'hinese

most

development

was
century
of exploration.
There
is

Chinese

roots

writers

who

sixteenth

the

forms

other

to

thesis that

had

parts,
counter-

of culture in close association

man

and

memory

sketches

of the

widely,
vast

repertory of motifs. His finished paintingswere

of specific
locales but were
not
attempts to
present a cosmic view of the infinite extension,

depth, height, timclessncss, change, and

of

The

order

earth,which he conceived of as a great organic

body, as described in the words of the fifteenth-

philosopherNicholas

century
earth

is

the rivers his

The
Return

veins,the

towering
of the Herds

side, like
sketched

an

Cusa:

has

the

to

gaping
wound.

and

his

are

in

right

in its

cavern

Breugel often

fissures in rocks

of erosion

"The

bones,

his hair."

trees

mountain

enormous

cracks

evidences

of

great animal, the rocks

and

the

and

He
decay in nature.
also attracted
to
was
signs of regeneration,
however, and this paintingwas one of a cycle
devoted to the seasons, which pictures
the death
rebirth
and
of the
land.
Before
Bruegel,
Oriental artists had done cyclical
paintingsof
the
same
subject,but in Bruegel'spainting
differences appeared. He
important formal
painteda continuous earth surface and sky, and
gave

greater

viewpoint
external

parts

more

observer

sustained

of

of

sense

was

in

to space. His
tangibility
consistentlythat of an
fixed
a
position. He

complex integrationof

the

and

scene

covered

the
the

many

entire

picturesurface

with paint,drawn
forms, and
particularizedtextures. Like Hsu Tao-ning and
the viewer
lose
to
Sesshu, Bruegel wished

of Bruegel's
art was
to
and
comprehension of nature
relation
man's
it. Like
Hsu
to
Tao-ning,
Bruegelfound the world governed by laws over

itssmallest parts the village

at the mountain's
the gallows and
base, the harvested fields,

which

realize that it

nature.

demonstrate

purpose

his

had

man

control

no

submitted.
passively
and
(Fig.355), men

The

In

animals

and
Return

bow

to

which

he

oj the Herds
before

the

himself within

the

he

paintingas

searched

out

"

"

was

not

imparted important
recognizethat man's

the human
drama
efforts

to

to

to

beings that
the

to

scene,

change

the

face

have
than
Man
loses his individuality of nature
impending storm.
produced little more
against the overwhelming backdrop of the
flyspecks.
world in which he lives;it is the face of nature,
Bruegel organized his landscape with a
and
that acquiresexpressivepower
not
clear, firm, continuous
foreground that falls
man,
of
into the distant valley in a series of overlapping
individuality.
Bruegel,again in the manner
away
Oriental

had
painters,

Figure355.
Bruegel
Return
Oil on

the

an

Pieter
Elder.

The

of the Herds, c. 1560.

panel, ^'loY^'x
5'2%". Kunsthistorisches
Museum, Vienna.

animistic

view

of the

areas.

Zigzag diagonalslead

the eye

to

Hasegawa

Figure 356.

ink

on

the

greenish-bluehills

below

the

dark

returns

cloud

cover

Pine

Tohaku.

Wood.

height 5'i".The

paper,

the horizon, and

us

to

the

ground.
fore-

The
partiallyvisible foreground trees
a
right and left create
framing effect
that
is never
in
found
Oriental
landscape
scrolls. The
composition may also be read as a
form
foreshortened, roughly ovular
beginning
in the foreground with the herd, curving back
the left along the mountain
the
at
to
range
at

the

horizon, and

rightby

the
tree.

in

holding

also

has

then

drawn

back

to

the

and
large,scarred mountain
Not
only does this design
the

vista within

connotations

of

the

lower
ground
foreassist

frame, but

recurrence,

it

like the

seasonal

cycleof which this paintingwas a part.

Chinese
scroll landscapes of mountain
ranges
tend largelytoward
lateral orientation,with no
such circular movement
pivoted on the viewer
is found
in Bruegel'swork.
as
A
talent of Oriental
distinguishing
painters
the abilityto evoke
the elusive
was
qualities
in a mist. One
of a landscape seen
of the most
beautiful examples of this type of painting is
a
depiction of a pine wood
(Fig. 356) on a
His inspiration
came
foldingscreen
by Tohaku.
the early morning view
from
of pines around
Kyoto. With but three or four ink tones, and
of the paper
leaving broad areas
untouched,
he suggested the
of a pine forest
appearance
suspended in a soft vaporous
atmosphere. The
one
tree
as
representedin distinct focus serves
stable
base for contemplation as well as for
a
The
strokes are
not
compositional purposes.
intended

to

imitate

the

surface

aspect of the

Early i 7th century. Folding screen,

Museum,
Tokyo.

National

but

to convey
a
more
subjective
impression
vertical
clusters of
sharp, compact,
the asymmetrical,individual
needles and
acter
charof every
Each
tree.
screen
panel is
complete in itselfand yet adds to the scope and
depth of the whole
composition. Fugitive as
thought, at one
point the painting offers
something tangibleand solid,then lets shapes
melt into the measureless
void. Mingled here are
the painter'sdelight in an
everyday scene,
for the pines as analogues of
perhaps an esteem
human
dignityand endurance, and an awareness
of spiritual
immanence
in nature.
tree

of

the

Tohaku
the time

died
when

in

1630, within

Dutch

Seghers made
(Fig.357). It
Seghers may

is possible,
but

artists

result

as

his

have

few

artist named

years

of

Hercules

etching Mossy Larch Tree

not
probable,that

seen

of

the
the

work
Dutch

of Oriental
East

India

with the Far East. Seghers'

Company's contacts
small etching, roughly four by seven
inches,
bears a deceptive surface resemblance
the
to
in
Chinese
and
trees
aged, picturesque
Japanese painting. The moody isolation and
morbid
undertones
of Seghers'print,consonant
with his other etchingsand paintingsof wild,
little
uninhabitable, rocky landscapes, show
analogy to the form and spiritof Oriental art.
Not
of Seghers' life to say
enough is known
that this tree is a personalmelancholy
definitely
metaphor, but taken with the body of his work,
it givesgrounds for speculationthat there may
the two.
be some
between
private connection
to ruin and
decay, and the
Seghers was drawn
Themes

from

Nature

301

The

which
underlay Tohaku's
of
Seghers' etching is but one

technique

painting and

basic differences

many

Monet's
select

into

transcribed
firm

between

their

work

and

BordigheraTrees (PL 39).Monet did

from
nature
propertiesthat could
lines

boundaries.
he

trees,

When

Monet

with

be

clear,

confronted

concerned

not

was

down

set

or

not

with

the

hidden

philosophical symbols, or
memory
concerned
with sensations
images; I'ather,he was
of sunUght and color directly
experienced
the moment
at
and place he painted. Chinese
and
and Japanese landscapesare without
did
essence,

"

seek

not

achieve

to

brilliance of Monet's

the

"

sunlight.
Tactile

volume,

soUdity, continuity,
identity of objects are
generally absent from Monet's
paintings.The
over-all
painting'sfabric is composed of an
accumulation
of short divided strokes of bright
color. Monet's
paintingreveals a discontinuous
and

sense,

sometimes

edge,

but

color

and

even

touch.

continuous

the mixture

of

of his Bordighera Trees

Eastern

painting.A

bushes
Hercules

Figure 357.
Tree.

Larch

Seohers.

Mossy
"

Amsterdam.

to

yellow; and

in

either

(unknown to Oriental artists),

plate is eaten into by acid
it is not
wherever
protected by a repellent
substance, lent itself well to the expositionof
his fantasies. In the Mossy Larch Tree, no
firm
solid connection
with the ground
armature
nor

from

exists. What

earlier

the metal

be

of the

seen

trunk

is

dense

succession

them.
in

The

the

painting

The

dark

were

raised

above

in
the

dispersal

the space.
the surface

with

his eyes. The

his paintingis clear
before

The

tree

each

the

fix with

quickly to

discoveryof

different from

from

as

what

inventiveness
every

pattern

root

but

Monet's

immediate
worked

he

fleeting

was

and

pointon
to

acquired

not

from

his

landscape

trunks, from

areas

adjacent to

or

seems

the brush

at

the

by the

follow lines established

not

and

from

blues from

bushes

the

technique was
but developed

tradition

formularized

areas

in

induced

and

oranges

This

others.

of the tree

within

some

strokes do

form

hover

from

whites

yellows and

and
itself,

nature

encounter

to

taken

light;violet

through

seen

dark
of discontinuous
light and
from the plate's
corrosion by
splotchesresulting
acid. Because
of its semitransparenttreatment
and
dispositionof weighted branches parallelto
the picture surface,the almost
phantom skeletal
seems

inch

square

counterpart

no

inch

right contains

green;

reflected

etchingmedium

can

lower

of green;
few flecks of red, the
a
many
in the eye
complementary color induced
by
exposure
and
sun

which

has

square

of

spectrum

in

touches

1635. Etching, ()^/^'x. "^ys"

c.

Rijksmuseum,

the

at

The

tones

the

canvas.

branch, show

express

the action of light upon

of

energy

no

continuous
color and

drawing on metal appealed

strongly to Seghers for delineation of the grotesque
angularitiesof branch
endings and the

unpainted. The
ground is covered with the thick tangled web
of Monet's
strokes, heavy-laden with oil pigment.
Monet
did not
his paintingby
compose
arranging his landscape like furniture;he made
work
the whole
ence
together through the equivalof visual Weights or densities of color in
In his personalstudy of the eflFectsof
each
area.

loose, raveled

mixed

during the printingprocess

paper

was

forced

into

the

when
etched

areas

of the

plate.This slightrelief helps to materialize

tree's substance
The

sharp

within

its nebulous

peculiar quality attainable

instrument

302

strands

of

moss.

Purposes of Art

form.

the moistened

the

ment.
environwith

No

part of the surface

color

on

the eye

is

of the beholder, Monet

learned

which

how

tones

advance

which

and

which

few

high-keyed areas
deeper tones. It was

abstract, but
Monet.

tract,
con-

recede, and
to

serve

not

balance
counter-

color

color, that

nature's

The

which

and

expand

in

four

was

the

excited
but

hundred

of
years later,in the secular Eden
luminescent, sun-soaked
landscapes,

Monet's
a

One

comparable optimism expressed.

of the painterswho
influenced
Monet's

direct focus

upon

nature

rather
itself,

than

landscape
the reason
for him to paint.
In contrast
to Sesshu's landscape,Bordighera

merely a landscapebackdrop for human

for purposes
of moralizing,was
or

Trees shows

in the

most

word.

No

up

those

who

was

not

an

excuse

finite space that does not

live within it. It is a

swallow

personal

relatable to the location,

that is directly
who
viewpoint, and
feelingsof the man
ment,
the Bordighera trees. His excitepainted near
from
betrayed in his brushwork, comes
space

direct confrontation

of the

scene

in nature.

In

fifteenth-century
landscapeforming part of an
Eyck, there is a gemaltarpieceby Jan van
earth that symbolizesthe second coming
strewn
of Paradise. And
one
might say that not until

Courbet.

His life view

that

was

of

of the
positiveand dignifiedsense
than
historyloved more
Courbet
the physicalsubstance
of nature, its
closed,secret placesand its vast openness. Two
these
demonstrate
paintingswhich beautifully
last two
in his art are
his Source of
polarities
the Loue and
The Waterspout(Figs.358, 359).
From
his oil pigments,usinga brush and palette
wrested
those properties
which
knife, Courbet
permittedre-creation of the material substances
of water

and

rock, the varied

Figure

358.

Courbet.

The

c.

of stones.

texture

Gustave
Source

1864.Oil

S'SVi" 4'4"- The

^

-"

Gustave

materialist

artist in

Loue.

Gustave
Courbet.
The
Figure 359.
1866. Oil on canvas,
16V2
Waterspout.
25". John G. Johnson Collection,
Philadelphia.

as

action

Knox

Art

New

York.

on

of

the

canvas,

AlbrightGallery,Buffalo,

Weather

and

effect

great
Sesson's

water

in

such

Wind

and

were
interpreted with
Japanese painting as
Waves
(Fig. 360). ^The

of any
horizontal
line and
curved
forms
aligned in one

absence

the

lative
cumu-

direction

instill

The
a
feeling of the wind's presence.
precarious tilt of the boat and the backward
curving thrust of the foreground tree imply the
force.

A
few
stylized strokes coalesce
forms, but it is the broad undefined

unseen

into

wave

of the painting even

that suggests
more
Sesson
did
magnitude of nature's power.
not
drama
by
attempt to emphasize the human
and
its tiny figures in the
placing the boat
and Japanese artists saw
foreground. Chinese
in the bamboo
and pine that bowed
before the
area

the

Shokei.
Wind
and
Waves.
Figure 360. Sesson
Hanging
Ashikaga
Period, i6th century.
scroll,
ink and slightcolor on
heightB-'/'.Formerly,
paper,
Nomura
Collection, Kyoto.

wind

the

filminess

technical

rain-laden

of

accomplishment,
to

response

confined

nature

its

to

lead

the

invisible
of

sweep

for

the

the

which

not

to

and

submit

da

is made

natural

the world's

of humans,

which

drawings

weathered

rock

river. Contrasted
of

with

its

infinite
works

the relentless

small-scaled

often in the

spaceof

fewhours.

this grotto, he would

with
dark
color. To
a

paint such
the

that

does.

and

clarifythe

is made."

When

nature.

seacoast,

he

he

is tremendous,

to

the

with

his

He

wrote,

whole

304

the
and
the

in

hat

"O

sea!

hand
Your

as

and

Art

nature;

balance

life

of

be

than

the

his

world

had

of

Were

disorder

forces

these

of

with

in the

occurred

such

He

nature.
to

of all

greater

Deluge.
of

the

as

used

wide
of

flow

formation, in order

empiricalobservation

of
and

precarious

scientific studies

rock
all

with

was

forces.

phenomena,

and

existence
notebooks

accomplished

made

of

harmonious

believed, the obliteration

to

prehend
com-

and

theory

interprethis experience.

interest was
broad
so
scope of Leonardo's
that there existed no complete models of drawing

The

for him

to

imitate

even

if he had

cataclysm drawing reproduced

shows

Leonardo's

mountain

on

away

and
move

wind, and

desired. The

so

here

for

its surface,scoured
the

its sides.

clouds.
of water

ancient

marks
mountain

the

in

is

by

As

powerful
of earthquakes

peels

of dust-filled air and

clouds
collapses,
outward

(Fig.361)
tracing the

dust

by the action

undermined

winds, reveals

in

devices

own

of water,

movements

voice

my

vision

preoccupation

powerful

Leonardo

variety

created

in

but

that

he

would

violence

or

the

reveal

belief

unleashed,

waves

of

and

with

and
disintegrating,

it shouts

and

roaring convulsion.
tion
religious
paintingsreflect his admira-

and

succeed

world."

Purposes

picture

spectacleof
painted the
foreground,

his

never

of Fame

sun

counterparts,

in

it will

the voice

out

by

the

the

trees

forces.

Leonardo

of order
man

water

canvas

without

as

points and
Oriental

himself

but

Nature
I do

first visited

showed

facing the sea

salutingnature.
drowning

his

his

watching him
"It surprises

dark.

so

obscure.

humbled

not

was

subjectssuch

said:

once

salient

Unlike

Courbet

name

is

canvas

my

is dark

sun

friends

subject,he

In

than

or

destruction

Leonardo's

and

nature,

first prepare

as

you

against the
painted these

set

of doors, directly from

out

painting,

sea

sky. Courbet

and

ocean

boats

of the

tion
confronta-

is the

nature

the

on

action

this intimate

with

of

pocket

the drama

concentrates

and

in form

tempest,

dramaticallyfelt. In Courbet's many

paintingsof waves, we are given a strong sense
of the hidden
grandeur
pressures of the sea. The
of the cave
the absence
painting depends upon
is

distance

They

Japanese painting is
subject,with Leonardo
Vinci's
series of drawings depicting cataclysms.
Sesson
Where
showed
a
convincing

Nothing

comparable,

The

Waterspout
tangible and

conduct.

cosmic

to

Chinese

in

human

danger of the moment

and
men
by which
the
adversity of wind

means

accommodate
waves

ideal

less the

habitual

the

grotto

the river

contemplation

depths. In

wind

and

in

cavities from

thoughts toward

our

of nature's

Courbet's

moreover,

surfaces,

such

Beyond

meditative

was

painting the deep

issues

air.

of

model

emphasized

centrifugalpattern.

Accompanying
precisewritten

the

were
long,vivid,and
the sequence
detailing
violent
and
psychological

sketch

of destruction, the

disaster,and
human

of

reactions

physical

and

men

the

of

wrath

God."

Into

visions

these

there

of the

avoid

the

the

make

each

will.

He

entered

artist's misanthropy,pessimism about

the

natural

order, and deep personaldisquiet.

seventeenth-century French
landscape
Poussin

artist Nicolas
and

noble

restored

nature

orderlysettingfor the

to

his

earth. The
is

body

bearers

solemnityof
read

be

to

in

and

and

Roman

which

one

To

events.

allow

not

act

by

of
a

scattered

were

the

in the

return

mien

on

the

of Phocion's

of the

litter

gravity of the landscape

ideas on
principlesof Greek

the

itself. Basing his

conceived

ashes

rhetoric

and

of

music, Poussin

of

model

calm

stressed
and

which
event

the

rational adherence

to

be

these

governed only
modes.

Nature

unlike

formed
precisely

order

based

Classical

aspect of

an

Nature's

Poussin

of

his

the

was

painting,
posed
juxta-

architecture
and

trees

mountains.

of the

the

scene's

critical passages

successive

of the

story and

creates

gentlyalternate with
and
into
soft shadows
lead the eye
depth.
Poussin insisted that extreme
values of lightand
dark
be smoothly modulated
by intermediate
and logical
ones; thus he provided a measurable
transition
from
the darkened
foreground to the

to

not

universe.

city.
tranquil atmosphere
from
the soft late-afternoon lightfalling
the landscape from
the left.This lighting,
device to suggest that the
was
a
partially
took place in the remote
past, illuminates

the

was

in

pediments

over

to

stabilityof the landscape is further

and
perfectedin the walls, columns,

Much
comes

did

as

trivial,and

expressionof his
the
philosopher

could
faculty of reason
of physical order.
nature
Poussin's painting as
an

true

ancient

with
The

viewer

painting,which

the

which

upon

showing

did

own

and

unopposed harmony,

control
his

believed,

mechanistic

the

controlled

appears

horizon.

effect of his art, he

emotions
influence
to

stroke

the

Nature

be

to

spontaneous

determine

sad

the

felt it

that

of "modes"
paintingin terms
could interpret
happy, calm, or

by

were

Descartes,

of

enactment

grandiose classical tragedies.Moreover, its

mood
is directlydetermined
by the human
within
drama
enacted
it. The
subjectof The
from
Funeral
of Phocion (PI. 40) is drawn
the
Athenian
Plutarch
and
concerns
general
Phocion, unjustlyexecuted by the state he had
loyallyserved. At his request, Phocion's body
Athens
carried from
to his native
was
cityto be
cremated, and

art

intellect. He

harmonious
The

constrained

These

to

by
that Leonardo
and drawings show
statements
have been
haunted
was
by visions which may
induced
by widespread prophecies that the
world
be destroyed at the end
would
of the
century.

thus

impose his will on nature

carefullyeverything within

animals

"pitiless
slaughtermade

the

race

and

by Poussin's
painter'stask to
and
art, to study
the
painting, to

statements

most

that

lightzones

illuminated
brilliantly

The

dark
from

the

apart
detached, sustained

and

on

area

scene,

distant

the

areas

hold

in order

to

foreground
awareness

of the

the
elicit

action

the

painting'swell-thought-outstructure.
Furthermore, the painteravoided rough edges.

Figure 361.
and

Leonardo

da

Cataclysm, c. 1516. Chalk

Vinci.

ink

on

paper,

6%

"

8".

(reproducedby
gracious permission of Her
II).
Majesty Queen Elizabeth
Windsor

Castle

305

Poussin.

jarringangles,or disturbingcolor combinations

effect an
to
area
graceful flow from one
easy,
His

another.

to

browns,

in which

areas

figures.The

the
and
of

the

within

are

the

for

the

also

these

for

the

ground
right foreprovide

portion of
his

meticulously constructed

the

canvas;

whole.

Poussin's
made

on

definition

of

surface

with

everything that one

is to please." His

art

under

sees

based

literature

on

conception of

the

mind,

encountered.

He

favored

in the

construction

colors

as

not

Poussin's
realized

who

his

reveal

of color,

Poussin, Cezanne

Unlike

thoughts.
firmly committed

light,and

air, the lessons

he

Alont
Impressionists. In
Sainte-Victoire (PL 41), he painted what
he saw;
he emphasized consistently
the lines and
colors
of

the

surfaces; and
the

defighting
demands
he

directed

the

Cezanne

senses.

given

this

mountain

somber,

up

exaltation

have

attraction

externalized

form, but
held

toward

made

and

desire
idealized

an

somewhat

306

on

mountain

no

became

climactic

Meyer

the

focus

of

Schapiro

basis

that

the

Cezanne's
for

"strivingand
repose." No single

nature

the

Purposes

as

same

of

Art

whole,

appeal

would

what

alter

he

what

if it did

saw

line

section

that

at

was

segment
would

without

or

some

the

frame

lacking

to

this

surface

the

In

reference

its

and

contributes

originalcontext,
the

to

the

coordinated
in

the

section

surface.

the

Put

it falls in

place
valley's recession.
foreground shape of

edge, color, and axis with

the horizon
fine,
Just above
adjacent areas.
of pine branches
whose
he
painted sections
massive
agitation heightens the mountain's
is the
immobility. Appropriately, the mountain
in its entirety.The
branches
only object seen
ground
back
the forealso bring the viewer's
to
eye
plane.
Unlike
tolerated
Poussin, Cezanne
sharp
and cool colors,saturate
juxtapositionsof warm
the

tree

trunk

and

isolation,

patches
backward,

and
to

pattern.

colored

forward

move

consistent

into

of

depth

trunk

pine

concern.

succession

back

Cezanne

coherent

with

in

nature

specific
object reference,
be

alternately
with

of

between

area

shows

any

to

spatially

of direction.

sense

view

presenting a stabilized
and with achieving a
left-hand

been

have

intentionally concerned

once

The

give firmness

to

otherwise

its

the

By the 1880s,
in
figural dramas

landscape settings,and the

a
personal obsession and the
his paintings from
nature.
defines

whole

literaryerudition.

upon

had

he

used

but

had

worked

repeatedly

and

or

more

tions
intui-

appears

tions
sensa-

He

painting

was

the
total esthetic
organization.
composition of Poussin, Cezanne's
be
landscape cannot
separated into definable
Cezanne's
or
tidy
zones.
building blocks
parts
and
are
simultaneously color
drawing, and
these
means
constantly fuse, overlap, or grow
of each
other. In the fields,for example, he
out

that

was

reproducing strong

to

from

setting down

method

fit into

Unlike

He

more

of

means

of Phocion

momentary

upon

already painted

ambiguous

closely
by Cezanne,

was

century

Funeral

Chinese, the dwelling

Cezanne's

relied

judgments.

painting

intellect.

art

had

and

whole

sunlight.

his

older

systematic

his

learned

he

painter.This admiration
principallytoward Poussin's logical
the

directed

method,

of

color

over

under

the

nineteenth

or

directly

as

did

nor

appear

to

definition

in the

admired

was

scene

drawing
;

is

painting

conceit,

highly selective,and

was

strongly addressed

was

and
the

over

not

of

Its end

sun.

his
a

of form

they actually

vision

His

is

colors

truly embody

not

for

and

and

the

did

work

imitation

"an

was

lines

definition, however,

this

empirical

he

finished.

was

entire

painting as
each
if using building blocks, with
shape and
sliadow
and tone
having an unalterable
position
in the

in the

for the

as

place of public gods.

Cezanne's
landscape painting involved more
of a struggle than
that of Poussin
in putting
for
in
Cezanne's
nature
order,
harmony
involves
difficult and
arduous
a
balancing of
unlike
forces
stabilityand instability,energy
and
Poussin
made
careful plans for a
repose.
could
foretell precisely how
it
painting and
would
look upon
completion. Each shape such
tree
as
or
a
a
building was
probably carried to
its completed state
before the over-all composition

Poussin

that

us

mountain

"

which

remind

to

coordinates

action, providing
second, natural

ruins

for that

serve

small

identifying
right and left

subtle

In

stone

anchorage

visual

as

scene.

some

strongest

to

the

at

used

frame

picture
for

framework

but

were

containment

and

the

essential

were

large trees

clouds

the

with

whites, reserved

they

dark

mostly

were

greys,

and

reds

colors, the

colors
and

greens,

The

Poussin,

for

was

may

for

and

dilute

tones,

area

of the

sky. The

Cezanne's

brush

such

are

as

brush
in

those
stroke

found

in

directions

actualitymore

the
of

essential

to

the

of

textures

in

as

which

sohd

such

decelerate

the

into

moves

the foothills of the

largearea

the natural world

fields. Cezanne

and

painting,

domesticate

master

Poussin

that

he found

emotional

his

and

admired

did.
and

in nature,

with

excitement

the

scene

through clearlyin the final painting.

Landscape paintingunderwent
great changes

comes

in the works

of the

discussed ; two

Dutch

artists

French

two

have

we

quicklyinto
emotional
was

that

avoided
Ruisdael

van

the
felt

of shadow
By alternatingzones
Ruisdael
controlled the
golden fight,van
which
the eye
at
moves
through the

and
pace

landscape.The

forward

roll of the clouds

the inward

counter

thrust of the

seems

earth,

so

the

that

foreshortened
a
composition assumes
wedge shape in depth as opposed to Poussin's
of successive zones
largelyparallel
arrangement
to the picturesurface.
his paintinga vivid
Van
Ruisdael
to
gave
of nature

sense

in

movement

its processes

"

of

growth and decay, the shiftinglightas the sky

changes, and the violent force of winds that

propelthe

clouds

stirred

the

by

and

the

contort

within

wars

the natural

painterspresentedstriking

well. Jacob

landscape.Poussin

the

involvement

essential.

so

to

and

emotional

nature

extent

or

the

through

preservedthe irregularity,
energy,

contradictions
and

to the

vitalize

accelerate

eye's movement

intellectual response
to
but never
did the modern

the

depth,

mountain,

the sky, and

as

of the
painting,as in the zone
sought an equilibriumbetween

Cezanne

the imitation

to

landscape. They indicate

in the

direction
such

than

structure
painting's

He

trees.

was

tween
herself,be-

nature

forces of life and

death

and

man's
Ruisdael, a
ultimately feeble attempts to conquer
A
shows
of
land
and
sea.
a
solitary individual himself,
Poussin,
divergent
contemporary
in
his
Ruisdael sought in his paintingto come
attitude
toward
nature
to
Wheatfields van
with
a
terms
(Fig.362). The only importance assigned to
great impersonal, indomitable
force outside himself
and the human
figurein
literary
subjectmatter
Ruisdael's work
is to contrast
their insigan
van
was
even
more
nificance The painting of nature
in relation to the immensity of nature.
for Vincent
van
deeply personal instrument

developments as

The
of

landscapeis not
the

moods

of

indeed, nature's
somehow
shows

indifference
to

road,

and

the

formations

rough

the

accentuates

that

to

man

attempts

to

the viewer's feet

to

road

cultivate

the wild scrub along

defy human
tangled
van

seems

painter.He

Dutch

silhouette and

the
Wheatfields

projection
painting;

the

the eccentric positions

of
shiftingshapes of enormous

characteristic of
In

the

as

within

wheatfields,human

the

are

conceived
men

comfort

nature, but he

van

lead him

trees,
cloud

alteration.

The

mass

of vegetation

style.

brought
more

almost

directlyand

much

so

may

Writing

from

Bernard

in

that

so

1889,

December,

is

The

sun

lines

furrows
fleetingaway,
the picturetoward
a
white

halo. Here

rising over

sun

Fields

Plowed

stated intent.
painter's
St-Remy to the painter Emile

painting that
reproduced here :

lilac hills. The

his

belie the

The
to

"

(Fig.363)

into

Ruisdael's
is

the

Gogh

van

field of young

the

and

one

wheat,

running
wall

cribed
des-

Gogh

probably

up
a

high
of

row

field is violet and

yellow green.
by a great yellow

is surrounded

I have

tried

...

to

express

calmness,

great peace.
iX?'

"#%

,,.v*

dael.
RuisFigure 362. Jacob van
c.
1650. Oil
Wheatfields.
on

canvas,

'i'

^Vi" ^ A'JiVi" The

"

of Art,
Metropolitan Museum
New
York
(bequestof Benjamin

Altman).

Vincent

Figure 363.
Gogh.

The

Oil

Plowed

on

'i'c^'j4t"

^^X
^

1889.

28/35

canvas,

Private

van

Fields.

"^ f'-

s"-

'

Collection.

mi
What

shock

the

last

flightof the fields

but
scene

the

"

sun.

tension

between

is the

leftward

into

viewer
the

is

like
arrow-

the

and

tilt of

the

with

the

pull of

stable

form

in the

competes
the

violentlyby

painting'sdepth,
prime focus of the
the painting's
Compounding
focus
perspectiveand spiritual

another

to

not

is ! The

sentence

and

pulled immediately

land, which

the

The

sun.

also

is

sun

simply

not

intense

he

himself

years,

gathered vigor and

basis

the

of his

the

"plowing
fields."

soil, and
on

my

the

work

heavens.

canvases

as

art,

life. In

being lay

himself, through the hard

man,

nature,

in

and

his last

attaching

of his art,
He

they do

wrote

to

painted are in a sense

them
excitingin the

He

made

in

Purposes

of Art

that

way

they

in

of the

conscious

always

are

tones, boldly
torrent
of staccato

set

life

the

Perhaps
stemmed
and

touch

thing

queer

from

his

absorbed

A
a

could

brush

touch

as

he

of

the

went,

than

more

for
investigation,
the

plant

Gogh

van

is the

life in

the

his Study

flora in

depicted the

in

minute

purely
his
and

close-up

which

German

natural

have

the

part.
artist

of marsh.
secular

This

scientific

subject Diirer
evidence

multiform

creativity.Diirer's

of

quantitativesurface

reproduction

would

Chinese

Japanese artists,who

and

effects

of Plants (Fig.364)

tiny area

the

soil

peace.
nature

accuracy,
in

state

true

for the individuality of the

Diirer

direct

decipher

to

he felt was

from

cluster

botanical

Albrecht

God's

brush."

uncertainty

of his internal

give him

theme

small

sought

the

Wherever

artist searches

was

and

through paintingthe sightsand

common

With

the

of what

Provence.

that alone

of

used

character

of

of

use

of the

stroke

wonder

extension

spontaneous

inner

is, the

Gogh's

van

of being. He

The

308

We

fields that

disappointing.

his strong pure

another

one

more

painter's hand, its obvious

power,
trained
responsiveness,yet inexplicableincfia
viduality.The
painter himself wrote, "What
of

of
their

in

coded

were

earth.

his drawing
The

color

Gogh

to

strivingfor impossible goals of

and the accompanying
perfectionand possession
of great
feelingperhaps explain why
purge
van
as
Gogh could write of the finished work
being calm.
his brother
and
Van
to
friends
Gogh wrote
in white
that his paintings should
be framed
and
hung in white kitchens or against plain
both
a
backgrounds. This was
sign of his
humility and a realization of how his paintings
could
be shown
to best advantage. They
be
can
in the
seen
strongest sunlight,unlike those of

of the

but

nature

the

wanted

Gogh

wanted

van

touches.

that

of it. He

smell

still surpass

Van

and

placed at the right and the very top of the

No
difficult point of access.
painting,the most
previous landscape painter had looked at and
so
directly.This act of
painted the actual sun
that of the medieval
van
as
Gogh was as startling
artist at
who
Daphne
painted the powerful
from
the
face of his god. For van
Gogh it was
brilliance

and

equivalentof

an

re-creation

against

sun's force and

v^kte^'

Ruisdael
van
or
Poussin,
intensityof the actual scene.

it is

only

entire work, but

"'

been

anathema

to

felt that

rather
concealed
than disclosed
opticalfidelity
the essential qualityof nature.
Ditrer,however,
found
challengeand meaning in the multitude
the
of shapes, colors, textures, and
precise
described
proportions and inclination which
clustered natural forms
The
each plant form.
different and lessstrict compositional
demanded
and
his large religious
solutions than
figural
paintingshad involved. He did not impose an
obvious
stilted ordering on the plantsbut carefully
of a casual,overlapping
preservedthe appearance

first.There

at

is

iar

ing
disarray,while unobtrusively contrast-

his

In

another.

one

stalks and

harmonizing the

and

and

is in nature,

leaves

with

words, "Art, however,

own

whoever

draw

can

it out, he

possesses it."
To

his fantasies

enact

Botanical

paintingsas
modern
small

Swiss

of

Theater

painterPaul

such
the

(Fig. 365),

Klee

staked

territory of his

uncontested

in

nature

out

optical aids as Diirer's

microscope. Klcc
perspectiveor the modern
and poetical
searched for a totallynew
approach
and
minute
lend
to
familiarityto obscure
inaccessible

such

to

aspects of nature,

night world
of

of

are

art

in Oriental

evolves

of the

intimacy

in

mind

in the

Through

became

or

the

that

scientific investigator,but

closed.

exterior world

as

plants.His viewpointis not

detached

conceptionthat
eyes
Klee's

such

his

fusion of the

never
way
Western
art. His

color Botanical Theater

seems

when

between

exist

the

compare
painting with

is

and

sky, no

or

distance

the plants.No
and

the space

oneself

or

means

the scale of the

real

landscape.

botanical

guide to catalogue the

plant life. Klee's world seemingly has its own
laws
of size, light,growth, and
species.He
believed in the interrelation of all phenomena,
and
his objects have
dual character, being
a
positions
Identical dispart vegetal and
part animal.
shared
The
are
by plantsand humans.
no

color

pungent

that

floats

and

over

permeates

the

in and
shapes, and the prickly textures
around
the plants recall experiencesof sight,

smell, taste, hearing, and touch. The artist's

derived
from
fantasies are
personal sensory
to varied stimuli. It is as if Klee were
responses
able

project himself into the subhuman

and
through
perceivethe scene

to

the

Klee's

method

drawing

automatic

the

; he

surface

as

feel of the

let his
if

inner

from

an

The

watchfulness
uninhibited

associations

induced

creative
and

by

disarminglyfamil-

"Art

is

reveal

spiralwas

simile of the

the

realitythat

the

and

act

begun,
two

He

he

as

for

instance,
leaves might
wrote,

once

Creation..
.

is behind

free

the

to

imagination

it might em.erge
as
a
snail,or
change into a pair of eyes.

explore

sprang
listeningand

response

interior and

water-

When

degree

some

brush

and

guided by impulse

materials.

from

to

was

pen

worked.

previouslyseen

the

of its occupants.

senses

meditations,

oil and

line

measurable

or

viewer

to

There

horizon

no

light source

night world

one

own,

definable

.Today

we

visible things,

Study of
Albertina,

DDrer.
Left: Figure 364. Albrecht
Plants.
Drawing, leVgXia^g".
1503.

Vienna.
Below:
1934.

Figure 365.
Oil

and

Foundation,

Paul

Berne.

Botanical

Klee.

watercolor, ig^g

-"

Theatre.

'zCiVn"Paul
.

Klee

behef

expressingthe

thus

merely

is

and

universe

that

there

his

comfort

his

the

to

other,

more

many

are

felt that

landscape.The

visible world

in relation

would

art

by reminding them that

confined
to
earthly

viewers

itself is

mind

the

that

case

realities." Klee

latent

the

isolated

an

not

potentialities.
Klee

for union

strove

the

where

might

he called the

of

within

the

universe
small

radius

the

intimate
and

essential

to

is

of his elbow

size

safely

done,

"

the action of his wrist. This modest

viewer

nature.
.

to

paintingswere

say,

what

key

secret

His

kept."

with

in the womb

"heart of creation.

one

Paul

of

art

Klee

it took

be

may

forni

from

his

termed

tion,
imagina-

and the root of the word

"imagination" is
"image." Imagisticpaintinggives form to that
is unattainable

which

Klee
to

for the outward

senses.

felt that the artist'smoral

search

"to render

imperativewas
his inner being for inspiration
and
visible those impressionsand
ceptions
conin

not

modern

and

artist Matta
Is

to

visible." Another

responded to inner
private images to

created

related

extent

Earth

themselves

painterwho

is the

nature

tions
sensasome

Chilean-born

his

painting Matta

flux. There

preserve

'-"~'

some

divisions

of the

line,with

horizon
of

sky

of
qualities

and

its

earth,

the Mexican

conditions

of

an

world

in

untravconstant

is

flora,primeval
fantasizing
upon
eruptivegeology, and a solar
In the upper
which
is the eclipse,
area
eclipse.
surprisinglyintensifies the light permeating
is in
the entire painting.
Every shape and area
the
of
and
outlines
are
changing,
process
birds, molten

smooth, undulant, and unstable. Matta gave his

shapes an insubstantial and elusive qualityby

wiping the paint on with a cloth at certain

color area
into
points,thereby dissolvingone
another
and obliterating
sustained reference to
the
pigment and its materiality.The poetic
from soft transparencies
ambiguity of his space comes
of logical
of shapes,avoidance
recession,
of phosphorescent
and unpredictable
areas
ambivalence
so

that

or

darkness.

absorbent

of direction

lateral

in

There

the

vertical

and

the

of

Leonardo's

as

created

uninhabitable

and

William
perspective,

retention

contingentmajor

'^'"^

In

and

his vague

H),

the disturbed

day.

landscapeof the mind, a transformation of his

experienceof the volcanic landscapeof Mexico.
of yellows,
Malta's tropical
reds,and blues
palette
a

his

brifliance

The
(Echaurren). His largework
Alan
(Fig.366) is an "inscape,"or

War

(World

times

ersable

words, "styleis the ego.'"

The

the

drawings reflected

and

ages
encour-

and prolongeddiscourse between

scale is
subject.The miniature
his style,and
again in Klee's

for
"imagistic,"

are
painter'stransformations
a
visionaryfusion of
genesis and apocalypse,of coalescence and
dissolution. Unlike
Leonardo's
clysms,
visionarycatathose of Matta
not
to
are
susceptible
are
they based on
literaryprograming, nor
scientificgeological
and climatic studies. Matta's
turbulent
imagery may reflect the anxiety of

elaborated,however, into

is

an

composition,

movements

are

of
nature
thus enhancing the cyclical
reversible,
the theme.
Putting Matta's work into historical
Rubin

rationalist Greeks

had

"Whereas

wrote,

used

the

external

image of man
(microcosm) to represent the
order, logic,and finite mechanical
perfection

"^'^

Figure 366. Matta.

Is

canvas,

Man.
S'l

1
i

Mr.

Shapiro, Oak

The

940-1 942.

%"

and

Earth

Oil

on

lection
7'ii %". ColMrs.

Joseph

Park, Illinois.

of the universe

(macrocosm),

of galaxies

vision

within

mystery

the

PAINTINQ

of

move

away

frequently entailed

nature

and

concerns

beyond
of

the

world

the

way

of the studio.

extended

The

paints reach
emotional
make-up,
man

psychologicaland

tions
implicahis

into

and

style
view. Furthermore,

is part of the artist's world

the
artist will often preserve
certain

important

that

commitments

sionistic work

of this century the artist's

from illusionistic painting

beginning
to

AND

NATURE

decision

invokes

infinityand

man."

ABSTRACT
At

Matta

suggest the

to

in

residue

his

nonillu-

of his earlier

Figure 367.
c.
1 1

Piet

190G. Oil on
''" " 15". The

Mondrian.

Landscapewith

mounted

canvas,

Museum

Mill.

cardboard,
Art, New York

on

of Modern

(Purchase)
.

based

imagery

be

This

can

both

stylesof

As
of

the

his

perception of nature.
by juxtaposing works from
singlepainter.
at the
turn
painter in Holland
upon

seen

young

century,

Piet

Mondrian

was

inclined

toward

passivedepictionsof the Dutch countryside

without
action or figures.
As in his painting

of

windmill
searched
(Fig. 367), Mondrian
solitaryprospects, small segments within the

for
vast

of

panorama

that

nature

reflected

an

inherentlystable and tranquilworld. Mondrian

selected a viewpoint that allowed
him to align
within
the scene,
those of the
principalaxes
bridge and windmill, with those of the picture
tion.
construcframe, thus permittingstable pictorial
The
reflections in the placid water
echo
and

reinforce

bridge,and
brush

pond,

strokes,such
are

but

cUrections

the

grid pattern
those

as

unrelated

to

of the

is
at

mill

and

Many

recurrent.

the left and

in the

literal observation

of

strengthen the design

of the whole composition.The artist's
armature
viewpoint,with the largeforeground area given
surface of the water, has
over
to the reflecting
contributed
to a
perceptibleflatteningof the
space, which, coupled with the pronounced use
of
repeated motifs, gives a strong surface
rhythm and pattern to the painting.During
Mondrian's
artist,
subsequent growth as an
well as in his writings,
his obsession with the
as
of rhythm became
possibilities
patent. Rhythm
nature

was

unite

serve

to

critical link by which

Mondrian

"the

the universal."

Hundreds
Mondrian's

individual
of
career

with

hoped

paintings intervened
from the Landscapewith

Figure 368.
Black, and
The
the

in While,
Composition

Mondrian.

1936.

Oil

Modern

of

Museum

on

4o'Ax4i".

canvas,

York

Art, New

(giftof

Advisory Committee).

Red
the Compositionin White, Black, and
(Fig.368) of 1936, but in mood and design the

to

latter

work

is
it

to

Though

in

ideal of

Mill

Piet

Red.

gave

condensation
up

specificin nature, his

manifestingthe
order

of

nature

Themes

in

from

of the

former.

representationof the
later art preserved the
underlyingharmonious

its broadest

Nature

sense.

311

The

of the later work, straight

structural components
lines meeting in a rectilinear grid,were
present
in

mill

the

painting.Junctures

become

now

all the
rectangular
crisp right angles, and
shapes and pure colors lie completely at the
traceable
Irregularities

surface.

the artist

is the
to

are

absent.

meaning

and

of form

relation of the

frame, treated

the

the hand

to

of

the

continuity
paintings
asymmetricalcomposition
Crucial

to

the

between

as

if what

two

is within

its

incomplete,fragmented view
of a greater order. The
irregularquadrature of
the later paintingis controlled not
by directly
but by the artist's
perceivedshapes in nature
borders

were

an

of balance

intuition

black

between

and

lines

Mondrian's
largewhite rectangles.
compositionalreflexes had been conditioned by
trees.
his paintingsof land, sky, water, and
title accurately
describes what is
The painting's
believed
in,the pictureplane.Mondrian
on, not
this type of paintingwas
importantfor humanity
because
it presented in purifiedartistic form
of equiUbrium, a condition imperfectly
a model
but
eternallysought in
experiencedin nature
task the
all forms of life.Seeing as the painter's
expressionof a vision of reality, Mondrian
of life through the
desired the purest expression
freeingof color,rhythm, and form from their
in nature.
In the
particularizedappearance
of the rectangularareas,
varying dimensions
with their impeccable arrangement
and
perfect

Another
Russian

the

early art shows

countryside. By

balance

black

of
be

tension,he feltsuch artistic liberation

white,

accomplished.("Space becomes

or

gray;

form

becomes

red, blue

or

yellow.")

Figure 369.

Wassily

Factory Chimney. 1910.

The

Solomon

R.

Kandinsky.
Oil

on

Landscapewith

canvas,

Guggenheim Museum,

26
New

""
31 1/2
York.

attraction

strong

1910, when

to

was

His
the

he

painted his
Chimney (Fig. 369),

Landscape with Factory

Kandinsky had proceeded to a point where it
difficult to match
his painting
was
increasingly
with
actual landscape. He
an
had
reduced
distinctions between
land and
sky, trees, hills,
and
and
near
buildings,between
far;
space
his paintingscoalesced
into strong arbitrary
color harmonies

that

less and

were

of hues.

by perceivedsequences
not

seek

based

stable

viewpoint or

less governed

Kandinsky did
a
geometrically

bulent
order, but instead he presented a turheaving earth. Against the broad

small red and

could

pioneerof abstraction after 1900

painter Wassily Kandinsky.

sweeping
diffuse
color

of the

curves

color

sensations

excited

mood

hills

patches, which
and

ragged and
produce intense

are

contribute

of the whole.

greatly to the

Unlike
did

painter,Kandinsky

the

not

sionist
Imprespaint the

mood

induced
in him
with nature
by contact
the landscape
but, rather, superimposed upon
emotional state. Kandinsky's
an
already existing
for wild, hillyterrain laced
predilectionwas
with

scape
precipitousdiagonals the kind of landthat might provide an
adequate carrier
of his feelings.
These
flood over
into
qualities
later
a
painting. Picture with White Edge,
No. 173 (Fig.370). Although not
consciously
intended as a landscape,it shows that his mind
"

the

and

of

movements

his earlier

expunge

his

hand

experience,for

could
within

not

this

seeming abstraction there remains a pictorial

sign language of wavelike hills and jagged series
of peaks and trees.
Taken
as
a
whole, the White Edge has an
of
apocalyptic mood.
Dating from the eve
War
have
World
been
I, it may
indirectly
inspiredby Kandinsky's response to the tense
atmosphere in Germany, where he was working.
Its brilliant color evokes a sensation of clashing
sounds. Kandinsky believed that sensory experiences
overlapped and that each color had its
equivalencein sound, so that paintingbecame
orchestration
of elements
an
having inherent
expressiveassociations with which the painter
could

strike chords

Framing
the

the dense

paintingis an

in

and

the soul of the

saturate

color

viewer.
mass

in

white edge, a color

irregular
that Kandinsky
of as a "pregnant stillness."
wrote
Like
Balzac's
Frenhofer, Kandinsky
sought a perfectfusion of drawing and color

Wassily

Figure 370.
Picture

SKY.

No.

775.

with

Kandin-

White

91 3. Oil

on

Edge,
canvas,

Solomon
4'7''4"x6'7". The
Museum,
Guggenheim
York.

like

and,

the

exquisitebut

fictional

painter, achieved
controlled

nonetheless

tossed

in

about

frame

of reference.

direction

of

1910

and

familiar
What

distrust of modern

givings
misto

nature

impelled
Edge was

White

the

and

His

1914.

of and
deep awareness
possibleimportant loss
the

abandoning

in

between

the years

him
a

art
as

in

the

growing

seen

is filled with

canvas

Kandinsky's departure from illusionism was

plete
gradual, hesitant,backsliding,and rarely comwritings show

boat

againsta disquietingsky. The

dense pigmentation,rough
The
shapes, and
subject
strong movement.
was
appropriate to the strong and aggressive

an

chaos.

of

temperament
first works,
and

nature

muscular

small

the

Pollock
a

need

format

strained

to

and

to

the

contain

asserted

his

his

rebellious

impose

his

will

and

nature

and

art.

The

both

energieson

artist. From

young

limits of the

the violence

canvas

of his

are

painting.

materialism, science,organized

and illusionistic art, all of which

religion,
he
to
came
regard as impediments to free
Inner
freedom
expressionof the human
spirit.
for Kandinsky the sole criterion for both
was
ethics

and

esthetics.

ideallymeant

purely spontaneous
Kandinsky
critical judgment:

and

however,

have

The

suspensionof

painted

did

rather

in

creative
process
and
consciousness
intuitive
fact

activity;
impose some

subconsciously in

of strong inner
tension.
So intenselydo
I feel the necessityof some
that
of the forms

state

tions
direchaving given loud-voiced
myself,for instance, "But the corners
learn to
be heavy." The
observer
must
must
look at the pictureas a graphic representation
of a mood
and
not
as
a
representationof
objects.
I

remember
to

The

scape
Jackson Pollock's early Sea(Fig. 371) is a moody image of a stormAmerican

Figure

371.

Oil

canvas,

on

Pollock, New

Jackson
12x16".

Pollock.
Collection

Seascape.1934.
Lee

York.

Themes

from

Nature

313

Krasner

R.
New

sixteen

Created

and

years

an

of

scale

the

From

the

conventional

rather

tack

prefer to

hard

wall

hard

unstretched

the

I need

floor.

or

On

the

more

surface.

I feel nearer,

I can
this way
sides and

The

expressionrather

is therefore

Just

floor I

am

around

at

more

artist's

the
a

in

it

its

late

the

artist

easel format.

1940s,

scale

but

resulted

and

impelled to
rhythm and

the

in

outlet

and

the

esthetic

In

Its

he

reasons,

medium

Pollock's

mature

work

of
determined
pre-

of

the

was

the

Pollock

viscous
continuous

fabric, the

dripping

walked

was

technical

more

permitted

linear

canvas

body found

both

up oil for enamel

freed of oil paint's

style.The

paint as

horizontal

around

heart

and

tering
spat-

and

over

fully
technique thought-

arrived at as the inevitable

deliberately
to impose his visions and
feelings
painting'ssurface and the viewer's eye.

the

and

Accidents
controlled
flow

of

no

and

paint :

chance

there

is

beginning and

no

"I

control

can

accident, just as
The

end."

no

but

encouraged,

were

corrected.

the
there

automatism

in Pollock's
colored
Kandinsky continued
drawing, but with less dispositionto repeat
obvious
landscape and
object forms. Pollock
be in his painting, more
to
literallywished
in its creation
than
had
ever
deeply involved
been physicallyor psychologicallypossible.

of

When

what

Tm

in my

am

painting,

I'm

not

of

been

making

about.

have

no

changes, destroying the

314

fears

about

image,

Purposes

of

Art

feeling
Rhythm.

of Autumn

felt that

he

must

sustained

lose

not

the beholder

must

attention, and

of leaves

and

not

relation

tinted

look

void

unstable

in

new,

ment.
environ-

netlike

configuration
densities, suspended in
or

inconstant

to

Seen

Rhythm constitutes

Autumn

tangled web

permitted

clouds.

to

surface.

the

through

the

The

web

eye

is

if into

as

that is

given atmospheric properties

by the spatteredcolor. This web is woven
by the
intimate
position
calligraphy of the artist into a comof coagulated
punctuated by nodes
and
color, congested tangles, and
airy
open
Like
surface
the
is
record
a
a
graph,
passages.
of the artist's hand
responding to his internal
state

lines

decision.
but

works

he

as

fluid

There
four

the

at

turn

back

in

of

the

relation

over

serving

are

as

the

entire

traces

of

is neither
sides the

surface, its
and

impulse

beginning

end,

nor

configurationtends to
if signifyingthe
as

itself

upon

nucleus.

The

and

parts

unpredictable, and

their

segment

no

is

key to the color harmony of

duplicated. The
the
painting is the predominance of black,
whites
in lesser
browns
and
are
against which
quantity,and the pervasive color of the canvas
in
which
has
become
a
itself,
positiveelement
the
artist's conception. The
title was
supplied
after the
done, perhaps when
painting was
found
Pollock
some
correspondence of qualities
He
mood
between
the
two.
or
placed his
finished
to

works

decide
autonomous

outside

his barn

in

their

field,not

similarityto nature
whether
not
or
they held their
objects.

appraise

SCULPTURE

OF

but
own

to
as

NATURE

of

aware

doing. It is only after a sort

acquainted"
period that I see what

and

ambiguous

limits
of

by which

means

is

of

the interaction

gave

he

also
of

out

on

scale

strongly

For

act.

this way,

and

the

of his whole

energy

associations, and

of

painting;

Pollock's

from

historical

the

his studio

evolving image, which set the

the
painting. Further, Pollock
well as wrist painting;
arm
as

paints.In
enamel

to

not

was

creative

spinning

comes

feelings

my

illustration of

physicallyimpenetrable, and

the

his

size of

finished
was

reduced

than

painting,so

image

an

terms.

own

painting.

ideal for wrist

system

the

full

for

ease.

from

the

artist in

of the

subject was

traditional

the

painting

them.

content-form

Pollock

as

possesses
a

the

express

painting,since

it,work

the

with

give

of

resistance

look

literallybe

painting

demonstrated

illustrate

than

the

to

canvas

the

part of the

walk

four

Vermeer's

to

had

contact

want

only

painting that the

it is pure harmony,

take, and

It is
...

the

Otherwise

mess.

well....

with

easel

what
gravitated toward
called
a
mural,"
"portable canvas
work
a huge
roughly 8^/2t"y17 feet. In 1947 the
painter wrote:

Pollock

give and

easy

out

painting
might be

life of its own.

I lose contact

result is

to, and

qualitiesoi^ .Seascape.

the seminal

from

painting has

when

Autumn

(PI.42) continues, refines,adds

Rhythm
subtracts

the

of

hundreds
Pollock's

drawings later,

paintings and

Until

the

from

nature

twentieth

"get
have

etc., because

were

century,

sculpturalthemes

usually decorative

foliate

grounds
architecture,synopticlandscape backfor figuresin reliefs,
or
personifications

motifs for

world

the
and

man-centered.

as

both

art

to

to

wars

counter

and society's
adulation
bestiality
In affirming
technological.
ally
peaceful,the handmade, and the irration-

the

rational and

conceived,

he

longed for man's

simple existence and

healthyart that would

more

"

natural

material

and

cares

should

art

an

human

of the

witness

revolutions,Arp wanted

workshop

as

nature

as

the seas, the animals

should

again

once

to

elemental,

release

fro

men

self-consciousness. "Works

remain
of

return

"an

of

in the .great
anonymous
the clouds,the mountains,

and

himself. Yes ! Man

man

become

part of nature."

Lipton's Earth Foroe No. 2 (Fig. 373) is a

of sculptural
emblem
of nature's processes

kind

in the

hidden

where

areas

effect
sculpture's

is that of

life is made.

The

horizontal

casing
emerging from and enveloping a spiral core.
The artist sought a form that held the promise
of

gradual, inevitable

Growth.

Arp.

Figure 372. Jean (Hans)

1938. Bronze, height 31V2
of Arl.
delphia Museum

The

the

Phila-

work

bowels

the

and the like. Two

fertility,
among
has
nature
sculptorsfor whom
themes
and
central focus
a
suppliedsignificant
the Alsatian
for art are
Jean (Hans) Arp and
the American
Seymour Lipton. Arp's Growth
(Fig.372) is but a singleexample of a lifetime
seasons,

modern

of work

dealing with

the

shaping life. In
sculpture,Arp has evoked
processes

of life's force

pressure

of the

ascension

form

Although
form

in

the

forces

unseen

this small
the

and

bronze

internal

its

theme

suggests associations

in

that

way

To

his abstract

Greek

fluid

of

the

during

is

with

the

on

in

winter

of

viewed

his

subjects

of relentless

generic,the

various

show

grace

Venus.
the

sculptureArp
great

as

Like

as,

have

for

below

or

1955.
The

gave

bestowed

Brooklyn

ality
sensu-

on

and

was

of

relatedness

in
phenomena
human
vanity

nature

that

the

and
viewed

Seymour

Monel

the

greater than,

Klec's,Arp's purpose

importance

recurrent

recompense

it continues

Figure 373.

root.

sculptormight

figureof
common,

suggests

sightinto

and

to

earth

meant

goes

human

level of

to

of what

serpentine the internal and external aspects of

His conceptionsare
multiple prosimultaneously.
tuberances.

plant
is achieved
shapes. Movement
through the flowing surface continuity,the
of clearly delimited
the
absence
parts, and
smooth
finish that permitsunobstructed
play of
shadow.
The
light and
sculpture gives an
impression of pulsation, enlargement, and
Arp has treated the lower area
upward striving.
and

unfolding.He

sense

soft

the

and

gestation.The regenerative process

by Lipton is accompanied by great
force and tensions,unlike Arp's view of growth
as
a
tranquiland unopposed natural pressure.
Their
sculpturalstylesand biological preferences
are
accordinglydifferent. Arp's forms
if shaped by cellular multiplication
seem
as
and,
invertebrate.
when
they are not vegetal,are
tinuous
Moreover, Arp's surfaces are
smoothly conand closed, showing only the external
aspect of his growths. Lipton'ssculptureshows
period

many

convey

as

of the

to

V-*^""?i

Lipton.

Earth

ForgeNo.

2.

metal, height 3i'h"; length 52 "'k".

Museum.

like

conflicting drives,

outward

and

inward

beholder

His
recoiling motions.
silhouettes
are
crisper than those of
surfaces
his
curving, roughened

thrusts, uncoiling

and

shapes and
Arp, and
envelop clearly defined
art
signify for Lipton
or

of contraries

coexistence

tension

and
Existence
spaces.
continuous
dialectic,
in uneasy

ships.
relation-

Through his art, Lipton seeks to give

and
an
intelligibleesthetic form
to

men
encourage
difficult character

accept

live

with

to

the

of existence.

and
Klee,
association, and

Like

and

this

Arp

Lipton

has

relied

on

the

insightsand
of widely disparate objects.Earth
reminiscenses
Forge No. 2,which mingles mechanical, botanical,
and sexual symbols, is an example of the compound
art. This
image frequently found in modern
type
of its parts
of imagery is greater than
the sum
the basis of any
all
and
is unpredictable on
or
of its components.
It requires a logic of form
and
an
illogicof events, such as combining in
work
forms.
The
one
plant and machine
parts
certain
of their
individual
give up
aspects
identity and share qualitiesor fuse with the
other
motifs
to
create
a
unique total image.
This
does
not
image
originate in
compound
conscious

Figure 374.
Hudson
1 95
The

written

irrational

an

David

River

Smith.

Landscape.

Steel, length

1.

Whitney

American

and

Museum

Art, New

6'3".
of
York.

or

verbal
intuitive

whole

it in

programs
creation.

but
The

is

is not

expected

into

its parts but

free and

whether

or

given

effective

The
died
into

sculptor

made

River

theme

of

upon

has

been

David

New

back

and
he

York,

impressions
him.

Smith,

who

welded

steel

Landscape (Fig.374). While

train

and

down

himself
to
expose
and
to
sense
way

1965, forged, twisted, and

on

break

to

try
to

artistic form.

his Hudson

riding
Albany

to

unprejudiced
the
generic

not

American
in

sketches

of transferring
process
reflexes into sculpture evokes

mental

the

Smith's

quality of drawing
configuration appears
flat surface.
a
(When
have
sculpture does

forth
drew

between

several

ink

the

moving landscape
sculpture has a unique

in

and
its steel
space,
have
been
lifted from

to
seen

from

the

side, the

projection and
recession
than
in the full-front photograph.)
appears
Smith
not
was
representing any
specificlocale or particular landscape feature,
for he himself
said this could
be any
landscape ;
but he found
the flow, contrast,
and
rhythm of
the Hudson
River
Valley appropriate to his
of making
sculpture. The
sculptor liked
way
to

view

his work

more

outdoors, with

the

countryside

through it,particularlyin winter, with the

and
snow
forming additional
complementary
the twisted
steel form.
The
of
use
shapes on
steel is not anachronistic, for only in the tensile
propertiesof this material could he achieve the
seen

highly personal style that

of

vision

Another
his

Roszak.

His

derives

its

and

Recollections

action

the

His

oxy-

shapes

plant and
perhaps

bones

and

implements that evoke the

desert. Ubiquitous crescent
in all directions, making
like a
menacing object.
has

lyrical

work

Roszak's

of

steel.

century

weathered

farm

(Fig. 375)

faces
belligerentsur-

on

the

from

the

deadly toll of the

forms
splay outward
the
sculpture seem
Smith's
sculpture
whereas

the
acids

found

is Theodore

Southwest

ofthe

from

and

derive
from

disused

the

private

has

steel

harsh, pitted, and

shapes

to

in

expression

acetylene torch
cactus,

sculptor who

American
of

mode

seem

his

conveys

nature.

seems

it,

to

sweep

somber

tion
medita-

the
and
violence
on
struggle for survival
this century
sculptors,
plant life. Until
longer than
maintaining tradition
painters,
utilized the human
figure to personify nature.
It is within
the last fiftyyears
that modern
personal metaphors for
sculptorshave achieved
The
works
shown
their physical environment.
the
tended
with
in this chapter have
tion
excepwith
the harsh
of Arp
realities of
to deal
rather
than
with
biologicaland botanical nature
motifs.
idyllicor ingratiatingnatural
Lipton

of

Figure 375.
the Southwest.
"

32

Theodore
Recollections of
J. Roszak.
with nickel-silver,
1948. Steel, brazed

The

48".

Pierre

occasion

the

Gallery,

New

York.

for putting nature

into a more
personal order while preserving

"

perfect

Matisse

and

"

and

face

to

us

believe

Roszak

death
and

that

Uke

with

important

value

have
not

some

all the
the

by

art

the

nature

stood

men

to

evil.

thought

way

these

of and

then

For

artists

Leonardo,

in

of

about

reality

relation

"

to

art

did

creation, his
where
the

he

and

universe.

making sculpturefrom
has in itself been
nature
as
important perhaps as
the knowledge
imparted by the finished works
of art, for it is during the art
process that the
with
artist feels most
strongly his communion
For some,
nature.
helped
painting from nature
The

the

act

of

artist

painting and

to

fathom

its essential

re-experience its genesis,but

for

from

externalize

to

of themselves
the

order

and

others

it

to
was

an

the

eye,

of life
of

daily existence, or
reality; satisfaction
The

in

terms

of

by Klee,

statement

between

analogy
He

is like the

moved

by

what

he

the
has

of

of the

forces

of the

in

time

things happen
to

occur

tree

he

stream

knows

like the

trunk

else than
the
nor

has

depth

and

all

the

It would

of the

demand

to

what

reflection

The

becomes
same
never

....

anyone

that

just a

and

and

and

conveys

work.

his

an

Afflicted

tree.

space
his work

shaped just

be

top

and
with

makes

he

which

treetop expands in all directions

visible

objective

producing an
is explained

nature

into

perceived

meet

to

for

of fantasy.

the artist and

trunk

a
diction
predifficulties

which

artist's

in

like

the

of the

tree, is

accumulating
passes

it

on.

be

artist,

reallydoing
what
He

its

cannot

...The

is below.

that

Everyone

ground

is above
of what

tree

roots.

comes

neither

thing
no-

from
serves

intermediary....
Beauty
merely passed through him.

commands;

Themes

to

past,

even

the

on

the stimulation

or

ideal

need

of the
impossibility
and objectiverecord

exact

from

images
given

not

an

present, and

of the future; escape

of

means

feelingsor

awareness

of the

the

nature

their

reconstruction

understanding

knowledge,

southern

or

of the

its makers.

know

motifs

action
inter-

cartographic function, but this was

in
Inherent
or
primary purpose.
discussed
in this chapter has been

artist's desire

gods, and
other

Holland,
because

Bruegel, Diirer, and

its sole

and

good

of man's

is not
Landscape art
ation
geographical inform-

felt,and

places
seen,
given esthetic form
as

history

it gives

China,

it has

were

such

of

record

nature.

because

about

France;

of life and

throughout

considerations

science, is

derived

have

encourage

dialectic

grim

aspects.

Artists
or

should

art

continued

has

is outside

Art,

the

to

up

that

its violent

heisan

from

Nature

317

16
PAINTINQ

understand

To of
remember

the

that

objects.

Aside

function

for

the

objects

toward

specific practical

artists

have

ingly

at

been

made,

Ages,

for

example,

saints

and

kings

the

holiness

or

had

rubbed

Even

today

have

special meaning
ice

these

personal
to

effects
his

pick, hammer,

of

President

Kennedy's

spirited bidding
Beatles

is

inanimate
and
We

bed

reminder

objects

mon
com-

murder

trial.

with

chair,

sheets

the

late

or

the

used

with

by the

still invest

irrational

meaning

the

tend

to

forget

objects. They

are

stretched
on

Throughout

which
most

318

that
are

color
of

selves
paintings themwood
panels or

rectangular

over

art's

has

been

history,

been

his

frame

their

limiting

disguised

exact

scale,
Since

used,

first

color,

time,
of

unite

commonly
Like

"

have

fascinated

been

quality

of

just being

applied.

produce

the

of artist

need

and

objects
restful

The

has

often

and

artists

fixity, their

combination

to

that

viewer.

painting

been

experience

viewer

surface

many

their

there.

visual
and

object's

of the
and

with

an

properties

of artist

movement,

to

appreciate
probably for
and

physical circumstance

the

obliged

of

esthetic

objects
touched

to

texture,

interest

the

be

aware

the

light

the

Thus,

eyes.

of

the

condition

cannot

way,

become

volume,

shape,

reflection

new

our

we

allows

therefore

are

in

solely with

them

the

we

can

size

small

painting.

or

picture

fun-

The

painting

painted imitations, they

them

artist

for

are

and

search-

possible

objects by
camera
lens, forcing the
severely
objects while
for

wooden

this

chapter,

look

The

surface.

their

vivify

can

this

many

context

upon

of

depiction

abilityto

invent

chosen

of

preservation
that

in

environment.

objects

most

shown

the

like

focus

to

the

framed

itself,objects lack

also

has
and

and

unfamiliar

an

using

be

had

long

experience

assume

people

that

with

or

man

value.

canvases

frames

rocking

for hotel

dead

can

witness

of

handled.

rope

by

some

relations
create

will

objects

spectator

figures

had

family;

or

used

if

as

revered

they

importance for the jury in

the public's fascination

great
To

of
what

on

Middle

objects

or

value,

great

power

oft'
the

relics

the

had

the

In

purposes.

character

painting

As

have

human

symbolical

illusionistic

by

movement.

make

or

static

damental
to

and
the
mind's
use
tendency to
analogies have throughout history invested
tions
objects with
multiple and
important associa-

their

OBJECTS

painting

neutral

not

are

from

the

centuries, it helps

for

we

which

that

appeal

had

has

objects

AND

see

used

of
to

satisfying

things

put

in order.

Placing two

another

one

more

or

establish

can

objectsnext
"dialogue"for

stressed various

painter.Paintinghas

forms

to

artists

the

of

on

homes

ence.
existmetaphoricallybeen models for human
Changes in composition as well as in
choice
of objectsoften parallel
important shifts
side
not
just in stylesbut broad developments outthe sphere of art. This type of paintingis
important in the sociology and psychology of
the
form of paintingin which
art. It is the one
artist has generallybeen superior to his subject
finished.
he was
and
could disposeof it when

and

the

in the seventeenth

of

form

one

subject was
created

from

beautiful

the

most

to

the

begin with,

superiorto the
paintingshave

considered

not

paintingitself.Many
been

century, it was

paintingin which,

modest

unlikely

or

subjectobjects.Before the nineteenth century,

it was
perhaps still-lifepainting that most
readilyallowed the discriminating viewer to
contemplate and appraise the judgment and
coordination

of the artist's eye

illusionistic rendering of

the most

require total

not

artist. We

of the

self-effacement
can

arrangement

hand.

Even

objectsdoes
on

the

part

recognizemany
choice of objects,
by
are
lighting.There
to

come

still-life
paintersby their
their

and

and

round wine bottle can

in which
endless ways
a
be convincinglytransposedto the flat surface
of
men

painting.Throughout
have

delighted in

the

history of art,
ing
challenge of reworkthe

repaintingthe
subjectand even
picture.
The
largestsurvivingpre-Roman body of
paintingconcerning itself with objectsis that
stuffs
of foodfound in Egyptian tombs. The pictures
and vessels in Egyptian reliefs and wall
still-life
constitute
pure
paintings do not
painting,or rendering of inanimate objectsfor
their esthetic value alone. They are accompanied
these
whom
of the deceased
by representations
of workers
in the afterlife,
to serve
objectswere
and
who
were
to make
gather the objectsin
of the gods who
the service of the dead man,
or
offerings.Their
were
to receive the objectsas
thus utilitarian.
in Egyptian art was
purpose
As long as ancient
art was
god-centeredand
religion,no
deeply rooted in magic and
legitimatetradition of still-lifepainting could
develop. But, by the fourth century B.C.,
the

same

same

ancient

literarysources

recount,

urban

Greek

achieved

highly illusionistic

niques
tech-

representingobjectsin stage sets and

portable panel paintingsand frescoes for

between
interchange or reciprocation
objects,
creating types of order or harmony that have

Beginning

had
of

and

shops.Though

istic
of this Hellen-

none

in the fifth
has survived, its emergence
fourth
centuries
B.C.
accompanied an

art

of
artistic subject
increasing secularization
in both paintingand
matter
sculpture.It was
part of a public taste for enjoying and capturing

immediate

the
a

material

Much

of the

still-lifeart

his

and

the

products
of the

imitation

plates

the
served, reflecting

were

guests and

of

by Greek

produced

the vessels and

social customs

and

tastes

in

meals

which

as

pohtical relativism.

artists dealt with food and

with

well

existence,as

growing religiousand

of the

artist's patron

the delight of city dwellers

Greek
of the country. The

fruits of nature,

its

with

notations
con-

and
connoisseurship,
sociability
later parallels
influence in Roman
and
had
examples of which
paintingand mosaic, many
of

survived.

have

the floor of a
mosaic, representing
The
swept
[Inis known
as
dining room,
Room
(Fig.376). Dating from the second
century, it is probably a copy by Heraclitus of

One

such

Roman

from

lost work

the

cityof Pergamum.

Greek

for guests at a fashionable

banquet to litter the floor with bits of food. The
mosaic
scattered objectsin the Unswept Room
It

not

was

uncommon

table discards,the refuse of

banquet such

are

ordered
ritually

a
as

discriminating,
would

be held

The
mosaic
tricHnium, or dining room.
consists of small,roughly squared cubes of white
in the

and

colored

color

range

Figure376.
a

lost mosaic

Lateran

stone

and

set

Heraclitus.
from

Museum,

into

cement

intensityof
The

Pergamum

the

base. The
stones,

or

UnsweptRoom, copy of
(?).2nd century a.d.

Rome.

"if
^;

\,^:fS"f:,

used

tesserae,

paletteof

the

by

Roman

the

fresco and

be

could

permitted subtle

cut

intricate

and
did

his choice

would

left corner

lower

objectsor

naturalistic

the

and

of

from

cast

in

mouse

cause

the

unsuspecting

an

Christian

and would
guest to tread carefullyin the rooms
tween
bediversion
doubtless provide conversational

heroes.

The

throne, for

instance,

occupiesan important place in Early Christian

the magniimagery. While the Bible narrates
ficence
of Solomon's
throne. Christian imagery
influenced
was
perors
emby the thrones of Roman

illusion-

color of the

relief effect

the

also

objects but
shadows

stones

gradations

only the shape and

Not

istic intent.

the

tonal

that the artist'smedium

so

curves,

inhibit

not

surpassed
panel paintersin

size in which

minute

antiquity.The

mosaicists

that

the artists had

of the throne
substitute

in

traditions.
in

as

and

art

lifealso derived

have

(We

connection

before their eyes. Use

objectand imperial

venerated

also referred

with

from

pagan
such
use

to

the

Buddha.) During the

Ephesus in the fourth
century, a throne, empty except for the Gospels
placed upon it,had the placeof honor as a sign
important

Council

of

courses.
Study of this seemingly
culation that Christ chaired
the conclave.
composition reveals the brilliant calA
to
and
mosaic
a
sensitivity
fifth-century
complex balance
(Fig. 377) from
church in Rome
illustrates how an objectcould,
exercised by the artist. Objects do not overlap
thus, replace the image of Christ himself. The
or
touch; nor are shadows
tangent at any point.
There
is no
is attributable
regal,authoritarian tone of the mosaic
singleorganizing axis or consistent

the

random

in perspective,

is rendered

speak, from any point in the dining

The
careful spacing between
shapes and
the over-all density established
and
to

so
room.

shadows
in

mosaic

The

lightsource.

large quarter of the floor

each

results

in

only

not

throne, with
the

of the

sumptuousness

preciousstones, elegant
colored cushion
beneath
brilliantly
sacred Scripture,
but also to the

drapery,and
scroll of

formalityof

the

to

its inlaid

the

Not

object'splacement.

unlike

in mosaic
ordering of a highly sophisticated the arrangement
images showing
Christ in Glory (PI. 5), the throne
is frontal,
type. Comparison of this mosaic with Egyptian
gelists
placed centrallybetween
symbols of the Evanpaintingsof objectsilluminates the changes that
between
had taken placein the relationship
man
John and Luke, and dominates the whole
harmonious

his environment

and
a

deep

need

of relaxed

attitude

an

From

"

the

fourth

fifteenth centuries

complete

For

as

underwent

about

their

attributes,symbols,

Throne
377.
Scroll and Symbols
iij the EvangelistsLuke

John. 5th century.

Rome.

320

and

making
of

art

of them

ensemble
throne
of the
the

in its size. The

is shared

years

in

or

painting,
in

the

accessories

for

by

Holy Ghost,

the

of

which

Christian

whites, greys,

Unswept

Room

the

mosaic
in

axis

mosaic,
had

to

source

In

and

rich, dark, and

surface

reveals

law.

subdued

mosaics

central

of the

the eyes of
and omnipotence

contrast

to

pastel tones

by

the

dove

the

and
Scriptures

enlightened beholder

Christian
apparently

were

ignored. The life of the

transformation.
significant

thousand

Figure

.Mosaic.

confidence.

sculpture,objectsserved

unth

and

to

in the naturalistic rendering

subjectsof works

mosaics, and

world

ments
art, the achieve-

objectsand

art

next

pleasureand

of secular

objectsin

of fear and

sense

the

through the fourteenth

forgotten or

main

in Western

of the Romans

the

from

security in

for

the

of the

fifth century.

acquired

luminous

more

color

sistently
con-

and

quality.The decorative border of the

also displaysless capriceor spontaneity

design
Roman

than

did the decorative

art,

symptomatic

motifs in

of the

lier
ear-

formality

the

of procuring the better furniture

to friendship.
poignant testimonies
Although the subjectis inanimate, van Gogh's
duce
paintingof his empty chair can nonetheless inline
disquietin the viewer. The heavy dark outof the chair
its object
asserts
aggressively
expense

would

seem

does

character, as

the

of

substance

the

thick,

the wood
strong yellow pigment re-creating

Unlike

and

the

impressivefrontal throne of
from slightly
below
and
Christ, seen
eternally
stabilized
againstthe backdrop of heaven, van
Gogh paintedthe chair from above and turned it
straw.

at

of

Vincent

Figure 378.
Chair.

1888.

Oil

Gallery, London

Gogh.

van

on

canvas,

(by

The

35V2X28".
of

courtesy

the

Artist's

The

Tate

Trustees).

angle

severe

the

to

He

room.

the

floor tiles and

made

attempt

no

the
to

corner

alignthe

objectsinto a simple deliberate pattern. To hold

the chair visuallywithin the frame, van
Gogh
joined its left front leg to the door frame and
brought the chair close to the picture's
top and
bottom
position
edges.The taut equilibriumof the commakes
it impossible to visualize
the
other position.Each
chair in any
part of the
whole vigorouslyappeals to the eye, prohibiting
the chair's
and in this way
tranquilinspection,
is
magnetism as an object and a visual form
for it is to it that we
to us
must
brought home
the throne
our
constantly return
gaze. Whereas
in Christian
art
to his god,
helped to relate man
to orient him
to the universe, van
Gogh's chair
"

and

that developed
stylization
along with the codification of

and

in Christian
Church

art

dogma

power.

Whereas
valued

was

Christian

in its time

its subjectand

the

mosaic

for the

of the throne

exalted

preciousness of

of

nature

the

medium,

for

Gogh's late-nineteenth-century
paintingof
chair (Fig.378) has come
own
to be valued
its artistic merit and
of
powerful revelation

the

artist'sfeelingabout

van

his

to

himself and

conscious

Gogh

van

of the earlier tradition

ject
of the sub-

of a god.
as
a symbol of a human
or
presence
Largely through instinct and an urgent need
himself
to attach
to others, he came
to endow
shoes,pipe and tobacco, books,
objects his own
with human
associations.
gloves, and flowers
him
The objectsthat moved
were
modest, and
"

"

their

appearance
of

one

was

shaped by

The

thirst

use.

painting to that of his own

Gauguin's chair, bought by

chair
van

been

have

was

trees

increased

by

love.
sanityand human
he painted,whether
and

his

wheat

fields,may
that

awareness

attacks

be forestalled through the

effort

of

more

than

painting.
storytelling
capacity of objects was

The

ago

what

possess

epilepsycould

of

by

lessons

five and

half

centrated
con-

cognized
re-

centuries

possiblyDomingo CrcsSpanish artist,

a
private book of religious

decorated

pi, who

and

prayers

for

King Martin

of Aragon.

dealing with the events leading up

includes a largepaintingfilled with an
to Easter
of objectswhose
assortment
conjunctionwould
with
be incomprehensibleto anyone
unfamiliar

The

the

section

details of Christ's Passion

in the

panion
com-

Gogh

to

objects,people,or

his relation

others. It is questionablewhether

was

artist'slink with

the

was

the

the

devout

single out

Bible

reader
an

and
of

objectand

the
the

(Fig.379). As

counted
re-

apocryphal gospels,
royal breviary

put it into the

can

context

in for an
moved
of the events
ill-fated stay
leading to Christ's death. But this
the religiousdrama
owes
Gauguin's chair was
characteristically abilityto reconstruct
Middle
the better-made, set on
in
the
in
Even
much
to
a
a
carefully
previous
painting.
carpet
it bore
and
decorated
and
the candle
tion,
Ages, with its emphasis on textual interpretaroom,
in details
book that Gauguin used for readinglate at night.
artists took
the license of filling
Both the giftof the painting to Gauguin and
omitted
by Scripture(forinstance, the insertion

when
at

the former

Aries.

Paintingand

Objects

321

There

is

that this German

strong possibility

have been inspired

positions
by commay
polychrome inlaid wood, called
intarsia,which were
developedin Italy before

advertisement
of

of the fifteenth century

the middle

and for which

major artists as Piero della Francesca and

Uccello willingly
supplieddrawings.Because of
Roman
Italian
its associations with
nobility,
such

rulers such
intarsia
of their

or

as

palaceswith

Fra Vincenzo

commissioned

of Urbino

rooms

this type of illusionisticart.

was

active in

designing

opticallydeceptiveinlaid

decoration

da Verona

for the

Showing his
problems, in
mastery of complex perspective
the panel illustrated (Fig. 381), Fra Vincenzo
simulated
a
partially
opened cupboard, whose
the viewer with
latticed shutters angle toward
the impulse
such convincingeffect as to arouse
Church

Crespi (?). The Instruments

Domingo
Figure 379.
of the Passion,from The Breviaryof King Martin of
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.
Aragon. 1395-1410.

the Duke

inlay artists to decorate entire

to

open

of Modena

them

further

or

1480.

close them.

Piled

on

the

liturgical
objectssuch as a cross
and a censer, while the hourglass
and skull above
the theme
since antiquity,
as they had
symbolize,
of medieval
by which the nails
picting
of mortalityand human
tongs or pliers,
vanity.Instead of defrom
and
Christ's hands
removed
were
the artist emfeet).
ployed
livingand dead figures,
and ready identification influenced
Purposesof clarity
objectsfor his memento mori. The French
of the objects,
the even
each
in his excellent
historian Charles Sterling,
art
dispersal
carryingwith it poignantassociations. The mystical
historyof stilllife,pointsout that inlay artists
of the paintingallows the painter
nature
and
to suspend objects
fragmentaryheads and
German
It

from

with

the medieval

tradition of

objects
Virgin,and the saints
that their independentsecular painting
emerged
in the fifteenth century. A German
painting
as

was

attributes of Christ,the

dating

from

1470-1480

by

an

unknown

artist,

Cupboardwith Bottles and Books (Fig.380), has

been interpreted
as
a pharmacist's
sign,perhaps
from a hospital.
(The tag on the flask says, "For
toothaches.")The lower half of the composition
of objects
is a neatlydistributed but static display
hanging on a wall or standing upon a shelf.
Within
this recessed niche, the objectsare susceptible
of light
and shadow.
to varyingintensity
The cupboard above is shown
of its
with one
doors partlyopen, as if it had pivotedinto the
viewer's space. Paintingsthat astonish the eye
by illusionistically
moving away from or toward
us

had

tradition

as

far back

as

ancient

times,

and

their reappearance
in the fifteenth century,
both in Northern
is thought
Europe and in Italy,

by

some

scholars

this ancient

to

be

conscious

practice.
322

Purposes of

Art

revival of

are

Unknowtst
Bottles and Books.
Geib
4i'y4X3i'-'8 The

Figure 380.

in space.

hands

lower

shelf

about

New

York.

Cupboard
wood,
Collection, Rochester,
Artist.
Oil on

1470-80.

utilized

the

advanced
most
techniques of perspective
developed by fifteenth-century
painters
and geometers
and
their inlaid
that, ironically,
in
work
sixteenthturn
began to influence
paintersto try their hand at illusionistic
century
advance
toward
to
seem
compositions which
the

Figure 382.
Oil

on

Caravaggio.

Basket

iQ%x2^ift".

canvas,

of Fruit,

Galleria

c.

1596.

Ambrosiana,

Milan.

viewer.

Heir

the foregoing illusionistic tradition

to
that
back
ancient
to
went
subject matter
Roman
mosaics, Caravaggio painted a solitary
of fruit (Fig. 382) that, hke
basket
the vivid
relief of his figurepaintings,was
stantial
subto have
a
impact on seventeenth-century painting.
This lowliest of subject matter,
by artistic
of the
standards
in
time, was
boldly centered
and

Verona.
da
Figure 381. Vincenzo
Cupboardand
Objects,c. 1480. Wood
inlay. Louvre,

with

Mche
Paris.

the

painting, preempting the customary

place
noble
this strong formal
figure. Within
emphasis, the artist preserved the informal
the basket and
over
disarray of the fruit spilling
of
the
out
than
picture. Rather
perfectly
of

formed
that

and

fresh

clean

dust-covered

fruit, he

showed

fruit

and

deterioratingfrom
and
the long interval
worms
required by the
not
painting.Caravaggio was
appealing to the
he
sensation
of taste, nor
was
moralizing by
using the fruit to signifythe transiency of life.
Rather, he was
pelling
giving a lesson in seeing,comhis audience
to look
long and hard at
what
he
they ordinarilytook for granted. That
finds the basket
of fruit worthy of comparison
with figuresubjectsmay
be supported not only
have been
required for
by the time which must
patient detailingof its properties but also by
the

was

fact of its illumination

of hard

lucid

with

the

same

kind

light.

friar
Spanish Carthusian
persuasiveevidence
that the serious painting,
of fruits and vegetables
can
satisfyboth worldly and pious temperaments.
Shortly before taking monastic
vows,
when
he was
about
forty years of age, Cotan
did
their
series of still-life paintings, and
a
in
sober
quality his
profundity far exceeds
sentimental
religious
figurepaintings(Fig.383).
Like a second
frame, he employs a stone window
in which
casement
a
quince and cabbage are
cucumber
melon
and
a
restingon
hung near

Caravaggio
Juan Sanchez

and

the

Cotan

Painting and

furnish

Objects

323

worth
of such
and
the
theme
a
intriguing
of emphatic side lighting
have
must
potential

encouraged Cotan

digressfrom his customary

to

pioussubjectmatter.
The

seventeenth-century Spanish artist

de Zurbaran, a contemporary
of
Cotan, exhibited a duality of interests that
and royal imagery
produced official religious
Francisco

as

well

as

meditative

reflects the
the

cloister,and

environment
over
can

Cotan.
Quince,
Figure 383.
Juan Sanchez
c.
Cabbage, Melon, and Cucumber,
1630. Oil on
canvas,
25-V4-32".The Fine Arts Society of San
Diego, California.

of

seen

in

it

one

at

captures

That
objects.

attitudes from
be

stilllifes.His

existence
painter's

mode

art

as

the

whole
and

court

in

domestic

Zurbaran

carried

of lifeto another

his Still Life with four

Vessels

(Fig.384). Four beautifully

made, variously
modest
posed
shaped, but relatively
objectsare disin a line
along a stone ledge,like a litany,
parallelto the pictureplane.This arrangement
suggests an array of offerings
placedbefore the
altar in a Spanish cathedral of the time. The
mood

of

the

whole

echoes,

fashion,that of Zurbaran's

in

inanimate

images of humble
paintings involving

Unlike
Dutch
carefully
staggereddisposition monks.
objects,this picture gives no suggestion of
objectssuggests musical notation, but
whether
casual use
this was
not
sociable situations. They are prehis inspiration,
or
Cotan
or
sented
hit upon
for serious contemplation,not
unlike
an
ingeniouslysimple device to
the individual objects
the monk's
practice of meditating at length
separate and dramatize
and their relationship.
that Cotan
It is known
The syma
singlepassage of Scripture.
upon
metrical
interested in geometry, and this painting
was
placement of the four vessels is
for Zurbaran
of the
have resulted from personal meditations
was
deceptive,
deeplyaware
may
between
contrasts
and worth of each object
in
and elicited
on
individuality
shapes conceived
far beyond the number
and
the human
of contrasts
nature
mind. By cuttingopen
a
range
the melon
of the objects.
and using a niche which interrupts and superficial
appearance
the strong cold light,
Oriental
the
he expands the variety
include
of
painting does not
in which
Western
his subject.
know
The
we
can
ways
category of stilllife. Despitethe fact
that
of the objectsfrom
Chinese
artists produced magnificent
gradual advance
left to
with a history
of importantreligious
and
rightculminates in the cucumber
precariously objects
esthetic use
in temple,tomb, and home, they
balanced
the edge of the sill,
on
that the
so
artist counteracts
created
entire paintings devoted
the impressionof a mononever
to
tonous
inanimate
Closest to Western
horizontal
stilllifes
to
objects.
alignment and seems
of fruit detached from the tree is Six Persimmons
loan of one
make a partial
of the objects
to the
viewer's space. Caravaggio'stestimonyto the
(Fig.385), by the Chinese artist Mu-Ch'i, who
the

of

ledge. The

the

Figure384. Francisco de
Zurbaran.
Still Life with
Vessels. 1633-40. Oil
on
canvas,

181/8x33".Prado,

Madrid.

324

Six
Persimmoris.
Figure 385. Mu-Ch'i.
Ink
Sung Dynasty, late 12th century.
width
i^V'i".Daitoku-ji,Kyoto.

Southern
on

paper,

and

discrete

share

intervals,yet these objectsdo

even

invisible

an

line. No

ground

not
two

their
nor
are
same,
proportions
predictable.To alter any of the
be
to
foregoing subtle relationshipswould
disrupt their internal harmony in the eyes of
The
esthetic judgments
a sensitive viewer.
many
in his study of the
made
by Mu-Ch'i
mons
persimstems

the

are

and

direction

resulted
final

from

sustained

revelation.

Mu-Ch'i's

and
an

the

toward

seventeenth

century,

objects began to depart from

"inventory" styleof alignment
them

that

us

be manifested
life may
the smallest, most
modest
subjects.

through
In

and

vessels

remind

persimmons

artist's attitudes

concentration

Zurbaran's

in

informal

more

of

and

with

and

ways

painters of
rigorous
to dispose

the

greater

painter named
from
Bauguin, who derived much
Caravaggio,
constructed
a
painting of objects that to his
audience
evoked
the pleasures
contemporary
the
of all
of the table as well
as
gratifications
the senses
(Fig. 386). Their seemingly casual
and
in a continuance
disarray implied recent
use,
sense

of

the

tricks, the
the

dictates

painted in

the late twelfth

centuries.

Mu-Ch'i's

in ink

paper,

on

are

and

early thirteenth
six pieces of fruit,painted
from
divorced
setting
any

they hover in an undefined

space as
if suspended in the viewer's
consciousness.
It is
only their proximity to the lower
edge of the
relation
to
a
hanging that suggests a normal
tableor the ground, or at least an
ment
acknowledgof the pullof gravity.(Because the painting
the
has been cut, it is impossibleto comment
on
relation
of the objectsto the total field.)
The
spiritualspeculations of the artist are
suggested by the fact that the persimmons are
in various
rendered
stages of their life cycle.
or

support

(For this

life,nature

reason

morte,

alone, the French

or

"dead

term

nature," would

illusionistic

mandolin

the viewer's
not

In

reach.

meaning
their

painting such

Figure 386. Bauguin.

on
panel, 2I%X2834".

us

is

Five

Louvre,

Senses,
Paris.

seem

inappropriate.)The Chinese painter dealt only

with
livingthings,and he found the life cycle
of the persimmon
as
important as that of man.
Each
fruit has a singular shape, tone, weight,
relation
the
to
density, and
adjacent fruit.
Unlike
Zurbaran's
ment
regular spacing, the deployof Mu-Ch'i's
naturally
persimmons seems
informal. They are related by overlap,tangency,
Objects

his

juxtaposing

for still

Painting and

this,it

discover

to

pairing and
The

as

visual

toward

objectsthat
trusting to gambler's

invites

for

out

of the

purpose
Not
locations.

Oil

jut

to

or

decisions

of

tradition

seems

luck, Bauguin
reasoned

French

depth.

325

c.

1630.

objects, such

different
fluted

in

edges

the

order

geometric

the

as

mandohn

of the

repetition of
and

purse,
and

board

gaming

Dutchmen

the

and

adjoining table area, the shape

against the octagon of the mirror,
the
of the
the
glass versus
geometry
pure
of the melon.
natural irregularity
Sophisticated
of the

disorder

of

flower

in

audiences

seventeenth

the

the

artist's enthusiasm

and

the

exercise

and

the

musical

form

art

of

esthetic

significance.In
Roman

have

still lifes

the

to

the

countries,

in
In

centuries.
were

symbolic
in

situation

estant
Prot-

Dutch

important sponsor
developed to
satisfythe needs and taste of a secular, largely
middle-class
clientele. These
paintings were
for hanging in the
modest
objects,intended
other
home
possessions.
prized domestic
among
Still lifes were
also
purchased as financial
that the Dutch
so
artist,anticipating
speculations,
of art, and

his
know

modern

his

the

buyer. The
passive quality of
with

the

middle-class

Dutch

painted

scenes

ancient
after

Rome.
1620

meals,

It

still

atmosphere
recall

the

pleasant objectsand
urban

from

dwellings of

Dutch

paintings
described
partially eaten
suggestion of
consequent

their

physicaldeterioration, that
of the themes

subject

Dutch

the

home,

inside

was

which

with

always

not

esthetic

insulated

tranquilizingeffect of the
rural

did

counterpart,

lifes,in accord
of

an

future

and

matter

not

was

still-lifepaintingswere

oivanitas

still another
and

tion
evoca-

death

emerged.
The
Dutch
love
of finely painted objects
testifies to a distaste for the passionsof epic and
dramatic
did
not
images, which
suitably
reflect the secure
and
of
complacent character
Dutch
culture and prosperityin the seventeenth
land's
Holstill-life paintings record
century. The
and
of
material
wealth
an
acquisition
extensive
home
The
meals
the

fact

trade

overseas

country

exotic

that

Dutch

pride
326

Dutch

most

also makes

that

returned

objects,foods, and

paintingsemblems
hospitahty. They are

Purposes

of

Art

the

wines.

still life refers

of these
in

to

to

of
fit

invite
There

portraits of

to

share

to

us

was

wide

affable

their

wine

of still-

range

painting,involving different types of meals

degrees of opulence or modesty, depending
such

upon

factors

as

they originated and

end

of

were

and

the

the

different

their

seventeenth

cities where

date.

Toward
the

century,

the

still lifes

precious, exotic objects

composed of more
began to display more
complex arrangements
and

produced

as

and

The

painting

to

well

as

contrast

Catholic
Church

would

sixteenth

life

paintings
who

company.

dolin
man-

lightsource

that

Holland,

seventeenth-century
an

of the

angles and

and

have

would

basis of the

calculation

mental

fifteenth

late

perception

and

and
pictorialharmonies.
central
object became

The
the

the

on

surface

varying

visual

shadings

correct

calculated

admired

for

of intellect

the

appreciated

shared

century

companion

the

feminine

more

air.

Dutch

enjoyed seeing inanimate

objects
organized in stable compositions.Objects were
him
to
placed close to the viewer, as if soliciting
share intimately the knowledge and experience
of the artist. Both
the painstaking creation
and
the appreciative seeing of the art
best acwas
complished
while
seated. Absorbing the satisfactions
of a Dutch
still-lifepainting demands
the same
kind of savoring as is required in doing
justiceto a finelyprepared meal. As illustrated in
a work
by Pieter Claesz (PL 43), the Dutch artist
and his patrons delighted in a calculated
chaos
unlike
the pristine
that was
much
neatness
very
of Cotan
Zurbaran.
The
and
presented
reobjects are
in disarray, as
they might be seen
who
had
after a meal
by someone
just pushed
back from
the table. A suggestionof the meal's
part
originalorder and the timepiece at the left imtouch
of temporality.
a
slightly morbid
Before undertaking the painting,the artist spent
a
great deal of time thoughtfully arranging the
of shapes that
"rhymed,"
objects in search
and
of linkingdisparateforms
means
easing the
the
and
an
angle
eye's course
through
painting,
that

of illumination

values

to

off

set

offered

both

maximal

the

of

range

materials

and

the

highlightof the
singletang, such
the
lemon
from
that obtained
a
as
peel,so was
perhaps a
painter's cuisine dependent upon
color
touch
of brilliant
against a prevalent
shapes of
meal

the

objects.
Just as

the

might often derive from

monochrome
tints. The

forms,

or

within

transition
from

near

narrow

from
to

range

vertical

distant

of subdued
to

items,

zontal
horiwas

accomplished through careful adjustment of

came
ultimately beobjectsand lighting.The drama
of light,illuminating and
annealing
one
the multiple shapes and
textures.
both
Europe were
Originated in Northern
its
table
and
the
of a meal
the theme
on
spread
within
artificial illumination
by a light source
In
the sevencandle.
the painting, such
as
a

fine local

wineglasswith a sensible utilitarian

venturingbeyond one drink. The
fascination that objects
held for still-life
painters
was
comparable to that found in the human
De
Wedig wants
anatomy by figurepainters.
how
us
to see
a
hinged top works, the difi'crbetween
sides of a single-edged
ences
the two
knife,the distinct ways that lightpasses through
and
an
wineglass.
a
wax,
eggshell,
yellow-tinted
As salt flavors the egg, so the painter
complements the various related round forms
a

base for those

with

the

crisscrossed bread

the inherent

mysticismof

stilllifehas

Figure 387. Gotthardt

c.
Candlelight,
1630. Oil
Hessisches

de
on

Landesmuseum,

Still Lifeby
panel, i3V2"io5"".

Wedig.

Darmstadt.

for all times of day and all

for painting.
cookerybecame subjects
We can partially
reconstruct
gastronomichistory
the basis of stilland the art of table setting
on
life paintings.
Just as they dazzle the eye and
the
assault the salivary
so
glands in painting,
recipesfor some
great festive meals boggle the
mind, and very likely
stop the fainthearted with
the first line: "Bleed
two
pigeons from the
and stufi the blackbirds
pigeonrun
; "Bone
with juniper-flavored
game..."; "Singe and
then bone it
scrape the head of a boar carefully,
completely,
takingcare not to tear the skin. ..."
teenth
manner

century, meals
of

"

Out

of consideration

shall oflTer a

more

for the novice

modest

chef,we

repast, painted by

German
artist Gotthard
de
Wedig
(Fig.387). His depictionof the single-edged
cuttingknife (which graduallysupplantedthe
dagger) and wooden
plate accuratelyreflect
for the knife,
table setting,
contemporaneous
the

fork,

and

spoon

were

not

customary

table

equipment in Europe until the middle of the

eighteenthcentury. Metal and porcelainplates
such
slow to replace
shown
as
by Claesz were
the wooden
trencher of de Wedig's painting.
in Italy,
passed
Glassmaking,which originated
from Venice to Northern
Europe, where local
artist shows off
styles
developed.The German

more

and

Cotan's

robust

knife. Without

work,

sensual

ern
North-

character.

of elegantobjects,the French
By means
painter Pierre Subleyras fashioned an alter
image of Francis I, Duke of Este and one-time
commander
of the
in
French
Italy
army
(Fig.388).The objectsare indicative both of
the attributes of the Duke
and of the earlyideal of a ruler. Francis I is
eighteenth-century
marble bust
visibly
represented
by a handsome
carved
by Bernini in 1651-1652.
Ironically,
the bust itself was
made
from
its subject's
that we
the
see
so
portrayalin two paintings,
Duke
ultimatelythrough the eyes of four
artists. The
white glovesand
red carnations

StillLifewith Bust
Figure388. Pierre Subleyras.
of Francis I, Duke of Este. 1 730-45. Oil on canvas,
4'5V4""3'4"-The MinneapolisInstitute of Arts.

resting

on

exotic

bird

plumed

his

for

taste

the

astrolabe

in

military

bronze

food.

of

which

the

and

war

the Duke

stood

intended

as

ruler

shows

forms

these

variegated

and

prowess
The
the

ethical

children

in

signify the
life against

may
to

contrast

life submitted

firm

the

as

the

to

Bernini's

to
by the
over,
bust, more-

of

ing
loosely flow-

subtle combination

in the
copper

protector.

as

court

with

those

Francis'

threat

official occasions.

on

and

armor

and

informal

an

highly ordered

Chardin

display of objects seems

Subleyras' casual
if

and

hunt

supporting

of

viewer

guide. The frightened woman

the
painted background
terrors

the

science.

Hercules

of

self-assured

of the

pose

painting and the bust

the
epitomize
eighteenth-century aristocratic
ideal of intermingledformalityand informality
thing, but in fact being another.
seeming one
in
The
beauty of Subleyras' painting was
ruler

Both

himself

the

"

respects assured

certain

undertaken

objects

chosen.

before

the

intrinsic

the

by

This

work

about

was

of

the

art.

In

quality

art

was

eighteenth-century still life,however,

made
of inferior
of art
a
was
superior work
French
found
in
objects.The
painter Chardin
of wonder
utensils a source
and
simple household
for life-longexploration (PI.44). Even
matter
than
could
more
specifically
religiousor political
accessories,the objectschosen
by Chardin
reveal the strong morality of the painter. The
and
recolored
sturdy basin or pitcher, worn
another

from

daily

for Chardin

was

use,

silent evidence

of

and
It
frugality,temperance,
constancy.
served
his passionate interest in the mysterious
in
effects of light upon
material
substance
other words, reality as given to the eyes.
Like Zurbaran,
Chardin
aligned his objects
"

on

shelf beyond

research.

surfaces

his

subjectstook shape
but from
manipulation
viscous propertiesof his
was

created

exception
in

the

admired

Dutch
are

works

from

not

firm

of light values

as

hard

medium.

The

inconstant.
of

Purpose

of

of

Art

the

durable
With

Rembrandt,

conscious

outlines
and

still-life painting that

we

328

the

by

of the

for visual

out

Caravaggio, and Cotan,

elusive
equivalences of

and

warm

set

cool, dry, and

the

of Zurbaran,

Chardin's

and

reach

Unlike

oil medium,

painting's

The

astronomical

the

reminds

to

of the

platter
body of the
his participation

his interest

suggest
and

silver

pursuit of

gourmet

sculpture

world

refers both

the aristocratic

in
to

finely embossed
The
courtly mien.

his

announce

the

the

nowhere
Chardin

physical

nature

brush,

and

the

sheer

surface.

coaxed

From
rich

the

material

touches

of

the

substance

of

the

few

of

gamut

basin. When

such

as

closelystudied,

contradict

tones

pigments,

tones

the

initial

impression of the basin's solidityand simplicity.

Working without preliminarydrawings, Chardin
established

each

sensations
the

of

in

tone

light

to
response
dark
given

and

minute

directly

for

example, in the ladle

expressed the forceful
the
between
contrast
pitcher'sbulge and the
concavity of the basin, the irregularedge of
the cloth
of the
against the regular contour
pitcher,and a rhythmic continuity by means
of tangencies among
the
handle, basin, lid,
and
artist used
the
pitcher. The
pyramidal
climactic
composition favored
by academic
paintersof the time for exalted figurepaintings.
Instead
of mounting a goddess or
king at the
of the whole, Chardin
ironicallygave
apex
this important place to
succulent
side of
a
meat
hanging from a hook.
tion
Subleyras and Chardin
exemplify the distincand
between
"picture makers"
"painters."
Picture
makers, such as Subleyras, wish us to
to
experience the object in a literal manner,
in closely matching
observe
their success
the
distinctive propertiesof objects in a seemingly
airless space. It is as if one
might reach out and
pluck a flower from within the picture frame
the
oil
and
thereby perfume the air. Neither
to

as

eye,

seen,

the left. The

at

medium

the

nor

the

viewer's

his

eyes.

Chardin,

artist also

hand

of the

Painters
while

such

they

of

objects,also impart

of

artifice,the

traces

artist intrudes

of

awareness

the

as

create
to

them

of oil and

illusion

Rembrandt

upon

before
and

plausible illusions
visible evidence

brush,

and

make

impossible to separate the object from its

unique painterly environment.
Manet
Edouard
was
a
painter,not a picture
To
maker.
enjoy his painting is to savor
the
of color and
subtle
matching of
nuances
the
tasteful dispersal of color
accents
tones,
the field of the canvas,
the bold applicaover
tion
His
the painting's surface.
of shapes to
intended
not
as
paintings of objects were
inventories
incentives
to
or
as
pliilosophizing.
constructions
of broad, strongly edged,
Manet's
and
of closelylinked tones
relatively flat areas
quickly to the eye than do any of
appeal more
the previouslyconsidered
paintings.The painted
it

O
o

to
CO

to
CO

cS

S
^

Z
"

"
D
O
Q

in

Plate
The

46. Juan
Museum
in memory

Gris.

of Modern
of her

Guitar and Flowers. iqi2. Oil on canvas,

441/8\ 27%".
Erickson Levene
Art, New York (bequest of Anna
Theodor
Levene).
husband. Dr. Phoebus Aaron

Plate

48.
The

Agnolo

Bronzino.

Portrait

Metropolitan Museum

of

of a Young Man
York
Art, New

c.

1535-40.

Oil

on

(H. O. Havemeyer

panel, 37%

Collection).

29

1/,"

of

fabric

and

that of Chardin
There

objects and background is

than
more
looselywoven

Manet's

apparent

more

is

still-life
masters.

the Dutch

and

consistent

more

of

awareness

the

picture surface; breadth, direction, and

flat

most

the

lemon
as

tone

off to

the

to

object.Manet

reserved

for the

patch

small

of

hues

brilliant

side. Less

one

and pinks occur

more
yellow, but less frequently

brown

coppery

frequentlythan
than

the

to

as

brilliant

the

such

well

as

attention

call

twists of his brushwork

surface

the

and
Manet
to the greys
greys.
gave
fillthe largest
part of his painting,

the

whites, which

of nuance.
Still Life with
greatest range
Carp (PI.45) was painted for the cultured vision
but
time a limited,
of a sophisticated,
at the
The
audience.
important
objectsincluded were
not
they set up challengingtonal
only because
their
in themselves
problems, but also because
able
qualitiescreated a discriminatingand pleasuresthetic experience.
the

Whereas

Manet

content

was

the

accept

to

generallyperceived shape, if not the tone, of

insisted upon
reexamining all
objects,Cezanne
he painted as if he were
propertiesof what
seeing the object for the first time. Cezanne
could
not
unquestioningly repeat anything
that was
given to the senses, but instead he was
impelled to re-form, recolor, and reorganize
whatever

entered

satisfied

with
fidelityto the
object.Previous paintershad
the objectsto compose
allowed
their paintings;
the criteria of paintingto
Cezanne
relied upon
The
trate
the objectschosen.
apples illuscompose
this point, for Cezanne
in
realized them
paint both from the outside edge inward and
from

art

in

felt

no

the craftsman's
but

Cezanne

calculated

was

the

maker,

ceramicist, or

objects,
glass-

the

the

to

even

farmer

whose

truction
apples he painted (Fig.389). His reconsof objectswas
motivated
by a desire to

search

out

their essence,

to

increase

their visual

tional
particularcomposiof the painting.
and expressivedemands
Neither perversity
nor
ignorance of perspective
techniquesled him to reshape the compote into
an
asymmetrical,flattened oval ; rather,his main
need of added
the pictorial
consideration
was
interest,and

and
stability
High-keyed
at

the

the base

of

This

Each

at

the upper

was

assembled

to

of the

right,and

compote

the

successive
some

raised in

frame

weight

the

increase

composition.
the

leftbalanced
the dislocation
necessary

apples

and

to

of

monize
har-

glass.

basin of the compote.

in the painting
decision made

stretchingthe

meant

solved

tones

lower

with

the

visual

the

the

meet

with

coordination

cloth

to

all

other

daub

direction

of

their

coordinated

with,

fix the

to

or

in

movements

of the brush

flatness,warmth

or

on

an

the

apple

lightvalue, hue, curve

of a particular

coolness

of
sensation.
Any part of Cezanne's
painting yields to the pull of adjacent areas
because
of the thoroughness with
which
all
devised
have
been
fitted together. Cezanne
of
such blunted
shapes as those in the mouth
and used the ingenithe glassand the compote
ous
connection
of objectsand touches of bright
color
ambivalent
achieve
an
to
relationship
the objects
the picture's
surface and
between
in depth. Cezanne
repeated the objects,but
his mode
of painting them. The
never
ance
importarea

of
of

Cezanne's

his

art

Meyer
of

handsome

making
allegianceto

was

against,the directions of the

the pileof fruit itself,
and

seen

ultimately of
painting.Each

admire

could

the Dutch

and

Zurbaran

be

must

The

out.

surfaces

knife,the cloth, and

At
canvas.

concern

inside

the

stroke-faceted
and

of the

has

contribution

and

the value

succinctlyexpressed by

been

Schapiro:

of his

the boundaries

within

than

appearance

esthetic or compositionalproblem
rather
preceding stage of the canvas

the

that
ideal
be

threshold

our

century

stands

the

art

imposes on us the conviction

in rendering the simplestobjects,bare of
meanings, a series of colored patches can
of perfectionshowing the consummit
centrated
of a great mind.
and powers
qualities

Figure 389.

1879-82.
Rene

of

Cezanne, which

Paul

Oil

Lecomte,

on

Cezanne.
canvas,

Paris.

6^/;'//
Life with Compote.
iSygxai'^s"- Collection

Fortified

Cubist

the

world,

of

assertion

Cezanne's

by

obligation

artist's

to

restructure

break

with

the

the

visual

imitation

the

of

in nature
was
a
relatively
object as seen
Picasso, Braque, Leger, and
quiet revolution.
select radically new
Gris did not
subject matter
the

of

represented the literal form

perceived in three-dimensional
time

Cubism's

(1909-1914)
the

derived

area

of

from

their

the

objects

the

studio,

object

the

At

space.

as

restricted

with

specifically,
favored

and

two
frequently being one
photographs of Braque

between

the

latter
Old

same.

and

1910

cafe,

the

Picasso

and

floor covered

walls, tables, and

immediate

artist's home,

the

studios, made

and

More

associated

and

is maintained

in

their
show

1916,

with

within

ignore) the surface

as
spatial volume

randomly

look

to

of

by the
(that is, to

beyond

Gris'

painting

is possible with
With

work.

conscious
is very
in imposing a

one

laid down

rules

new

artist. It is difficult

most

environment.

were

the painting'sstructure.
to
There
is no
manipulation of lightand dark according to a
fixed lightsource,
found
in Bauguin's work,
as
but
effect of flickeringlight and
shadow
an

no

important years
these
artists completely redid
nounce
objects, however,
object. Their

during

were

who

attacking those

manifestoes

violent

issue

or

essential

the
of

into

the

modern

the

ing,
paint-

artist's inventiveness

structure

new

teenth-century
seven-

upon

objects (such as the guitar) that otherwise

remained
of
unchanged for hundreds

years.

Gris

of the

the

wants

constructed
is

area

object

neutral

both

viewer

aspect
or

to

of

be

his

of

which

no

Space

and

intricate

torial
piccomposition
frame.
Bauguin
conceivably have finished the painting of
object separately,always keeping in mind
part

scaffolding that holds

the
tautly suspended within
could

aware

in

"fill."

merely

become

verv

work,

had

an

the

each
juxtaposed objects, and the object character of
is stressed by their
their final appearance
and
With
Braque's paintingsthemselves
arrangement.
being on the floor (Fig. 390). The objectsfound
Juan Gris and other Cubists, the artist began
without
in their paintings are
such
such
fixed
not
a
costly or rare
assurance,
sessions, without
posbut were
conception of the finished work, and while thus
prized for esthetic or personal
in daily activities,
and
the
utilized
back
and
forth over
reasons
were
improvising moved
of
whole
often
intimate
sense
viviality.
conpicture surface at all stages of the painting's
conveying an
Death, moralizing, personal crisis,
development. He continuously adjusted
all excluded
from
in the painting to its adjacent
element
world
were
events, and so on
every
and the over-all design.It is this approach
Cubist
of simple,
areas
paintings in favor of themes
which
mostly domestic
requires that, the spectator judge for
pleasure.Although the objects
dered
rensentiments,
they were
conveyed human
in

still lifes. Nor

objectsin
setting.
If

showed

that

way

attitude

toward
did

the

the

the

artists'

older

the

Cubists

of

arrange

ever

of their

prosaic sequence

timental
unsen-

tradition

original

Bauguin's still life. The Five

with
Juan Oris' Guitar and
Flowers
(PI. 46), the significanceof the Cubist
in form
revolution
clearer. Bauguin
become
may
follows the shapes, textures, and
colors of the
Gris asserts
his
whereas
objects quite literally,
all the objects in his painting.
right to rework
we

Senses

Gris
of

has

joined

surface

but
brush

that

in

is

that have

strokes

are
are

textures,

330

natural

no

within

disposed

objects and

closure

they fuse

in

and

with

complex patterns

confined

not

the

destroyed

objects, so

are

is

compare

(Fig. 386),

autonomy

other

the

on

shapes

counterpart.

areas

The

zones.

artist's

similarlyindependent
used
and

Color

distinctlybounded

broader

to

create

visual

Purposes

decided

patterns
of

Art

or

painting's

of the
tions,
direc-

that

are

Georges
Gallery (LIFE

in
His
Braque
Magazine (" 1949

Figure
Maeght

390.

Inc.

rights reserved).

All

Studio.

Time,

esthetic

Tightness rather

of
appearance
studio table.
a

for

than

our

attention

artistic

creation,

By drawing

to
ficlehty

under

objects arrayed

the

Hght

on

the

physical
painting's
pigment and strokes, Gris is also affirming the
of the painting. Although he
object character
into depth and
simulates
ward,
forsome
movement
conscious
we
are
primarily of the
The
of
positional
compainting's surface.
tangency
elements
with the edges of the canvas
various
vertical and
at
points and the many
horizontal
reiterate the physicaldimensions
accents
of the painting. Gris
does
not
depend
the
intrinsic or
preexisting beauty of
upon
esthetic value
from
each
objects, but wrests
touch
and from
the firm and lucid total design
he has invented.
To appreciate his achievement
of

aspect

demands
each

that

not

puzzle, but
the

try

seemingly
painting, as if

that

work

he

should

Figure 39

Georges

scattered
it

The

lage,
3. Colof Art.

ponents
com-

jigsaw
pleasures

were

the

savor

Braq^ue. Le Courrier.
Philadelphia Museum

reconstruct

to

painted parts and in the

Gris' discipline and
harmony of the whole.
method
be
those
of the
to
compared
may
musician, whose improvisationsare governed by
a
profound knowledge of musical structure.
paper
Georges Braque assembled
pieces of a news(Le Courrier),a cigarettepackage with

its

in

the

20x221/2"-

viewer

from

object

in the

of

the

to

to

its

seal, and

government

textured
and

to

with

simulated

wood-

and
pasted them to each
paper
the paper
surface over
which
he

other
drew

charcoal

he
chose
not
(Fig. 391). Thus
in painting materials
that were
flat
to simulate
in nature
and
susceptibleof incorporation in
his compositions.There
wit and playfulness
were
in
Cubist
collage (pasted paper); here, for
heart
from
instance, Braque cut
out
a
a
article about
Italy and alliances.
newspaper
of daily newspapers
Use
helps to date these
them
of
compositions and makes
quite literally
their
and

The

time.

assembled

image

Unlike

older

drawing

he

with

of familiar

his

painting, Braque
from
composition outward

the spectator. With

charcoal
integrated the pasted paper
ments
segeach

other

and

with

compositional

accent

without

consistent
a
as
light source
Bauguin. Thus, even
lightand

was

the

white

for purposes
reference
to
in

seen

shade

Gourds.

matisse.

25y8X3iy8"- The
York
(Mrs. Simon

made

were

the
now

subject

Cubists

such

to

gave
"

1916.

Oil

of Modern

Museum

Guggenheim

on

Art,

Fund).

adherence
or

to

faithful

to

It

Braque, Picasso, and

art

freedom
and

artist's will.

the

to

as

modern

of art

toward

background, introducing shading

of

activities.

illusionistic

actually built
surface

the world

to

New

Henri

392.

common

readily identifiable,linking the composite

artistic

the

objects were

Figure
canvas,

to

how

declaration

they

conventions
the

what

choose

world

may

about

of
are

was

Gris

the
who

ence
independthe

rials
mate-

be used, without
what

was

noble

of

appearances.
refer to
the

It is unnecessary
to
original
objectsin order to evaluate and enjoy Matisse's
Gourds (Fig.392). Line, color, and composition,
to
a
though influenced
degree by his contact

Painting

and

Objects

331

His

shapes

the

visual

and

colors

possess

tie with

tenuous

rather
Painting from memory
than
from
direct perception, Matisse
liberated
drawing and color from the specificproperties

world.

of objects

that

so

feelingsof joy
in

art.

In

What

in

they

and

1908, the

artist

after, above

am

Expression

to

my

face

betrayed by violent

place occupied
empty

.\s with

by

the

figures
them,

whole

or

objects, the

the

proportions,

part.

what?"

do

we

Matisse's

behind
its
expressive because
clearly lie not
only skill and

not

drawing
but

taste

is

there

execution

also

will.

strong
The
also

not

human

The

gesture.

espressivoin music,

term

"expressiveof

does
a

upon

pictures is expressive. The

around

spaces

everything plays

ask

thinking

passion mirrored
of my

his

expression

all, is expressiveness.
of

way

of the

arrangement

release

of

wrote:

consist
or

could

turn

his views

serve

irregularityof objects in Gourds, though

occasioned

by the subtle

painting'ssurface

structure,

the

the

of

extremes

delighted in

Matisse

objects as well
of the linear

Cubist's

framework

of the
extend

not

to

manipulations.

the formal

in the

as

demands

does

of

completeness

entire

painting.Instead

of the

Cubists, he

set

up

a
seemingly loose dispersal of shapes on
blue-black
ground,
backstrong asymmetrically divided
of his few
achieving a daring balance
objects against their ground. The
painting
a

Giorgio

Fitjure 393.

Grand

Chirico.

de

Interior. 191 7. Oil

Soby,
James Thrall

37

canvas,

on

physical
Meta-

tion
27". Collec-

Connecticut.

Farmington,

makes
with

visual

the

became

world,

personal inventions. The

qualityin his art "were
exceptionallygood taste
and

artistic intuition.

Gourds

fullyto

the eye

the

viewer

being affected
The

occurs.

process

forceful

of

standards

control

supplied by Matisse's
and dependence upon
gives itself immediately
fresh sensory
experience,

and

as

primarily

before

reasoning
number, and

any

choice, limited
of

rendering

objects eliminates
tions
quesTheir
clarityof contour
sizes
dispersalwithout
overlap emphadurability. The
familiarity and

of their meaning.
and

careful
their

objects'internal coherence
the

flat

broad,

of the

Matisse

"dreamed"

purity

beyond
the

range

the

and

total

33i!

frame

bright

and

rightness

and

harmony.
of

art

an

ance,
"bal-

of

Purposes

because

contact

provocativeness
of

of

Art

his

contrasts.

of

of intervals

use

correspondences, and
weight of a color when

visual

such

Matisse's

eyes

he

responded

he

had

set

result
The
not,

These

but
with

did

not

before

instinctivelyas

him

cannot

color

brown,

chords

sequences

pleasure to
"I

down.

to

came

of

areas

particulartone

copy

nature,

in

and submit
interpretnature
I have
spiritof the picture. When
the
the
relationship of all the tones,
of tones."
be a
must
living harmony
could
Italian painter Giorgio de Chirico

servile way;
it to
the
found

Gourds.

as

the

upon

New

contexts.

established

in

originate

in

seen

well

as

plays

blue-black-reddish

as

in

sounded

were

in different

size and

chords,

in

another

must

sense,

accept

the

visual

world

expressing his views of reality.In

Interior (Fig.393),
de Chirico's Grand Metaphysical
fanciful images
the painting of objects involved
what
is given
that
from
imitated
not
were
as

having

effective

very

linear

varving

color

serenity." His imagery endures

first moments

and

pure
the
eye

for the

importance

the

of

areas

quickly establish

within

of

basis

directly

to

tor

the

senses.

The

stimulus

of external

sensations

objectsof
part

Chirico's

de

and

context

which

is

human
behind

is

painter is that they are

objects are set in an interior

not

not

interior

this

ItaUan

It

is

shade

sky, but

blue

is

the

in

room

presence.
window

suspended
a

because

right

the

at

exterior.

green

of

world

an

is thus

to
picture frame
become
more
one
inexplicable object. Painted
with equal illusionistic precisionin an
adjacent
various
framed
normally unrelated
panel are
panels are
supported by
objects.The framed
of draftinginstruments, ordinarilyto
network
a
with
rational
be associated
design. De Chirico

displaced, consigned

perhaps

can

obscure

but

sense

been

have

They

terms.

these tools with

endowed
we

to

irrationality.The
the

and

room

independent
of the

its

is all the

convincing
The

word

an

and

of its

of the

because

rendering.

"metaphysical"

title refers

the

in

the artist should

belief that

the

ambient

uncanny

compelling

more

exactness

de Chirico's

to

make

in

also

position

the

or

usage

culated
cal-

are

shapes, space,

Shadows,

precise

shadow

spatial construction

pervasive stillness
that

fix in

part of

as

light and

of traditional

viewer.

that

meanings

cannot

used

paint

He
higher reality than that of the senses.
and to
therefore sought to restore
to art
mystery
paint the obsessive hallucinatory images which
a

he felt mirrored

the

alienated

from

rationale

of

world
a

is that

meant

to

be

in

contrast

connotations
in Matisse's

work.

canvas

as

the

those

structure

requireswith
my

some

eye.

of his choice
social

and

Cubism

used

in

the

empty
of

of

istic
hedon-

spaces

or

in

the

picture
object according to

a
body or an
ited
humor.") Objects in older still hfes exhibinvolved
some
unity of origin and
use,
of
reference.
shared
frame
Perhaps

influenced
de

"

ment
environ-

only by the

nature

("I fillup
the

closed

eyes are
uninhabitable

to

of

Chirico's

the

traversed

personal

intimate

objects is

my

when

De

artists.

previous
seen

became

pictorial

and

empiricism

cool, dry, inert, and

The

of his soul. He

state

the

by Cubism

Chirico's
of

irrational

objectsfrom

and

its collage

dislocation
the

technique,

and

everyday

be

position
juxta-

world

he

true

fringes of

deepest recesses
For

oneself"

to

the

to

response

of the

in

the

tions
inhibi-

felt that

demanded

art

consciousness

and

the

self

Marcel

the meaning and value

Duchamp
depended on its interpretation
in the viewer's
mind.
"The
brings the
spectator
in contact
works
with
the
external
world
by
deciphering and
interpreting its inner qualifications
of

of

work

Within

painting

exterior

iamiliar

it knows

interior

naturalistic

villa;the

that

sense

an

important in loosing
fantasy of later artists who

were

and
"to

most

identified, but their

ehide definition. Indeed,

for the

The

enigmatic.

for the

painting can

distrusted

The

and

connection

is crucial

what

artist's inner

sensations."

"'strange

to

inventoried

be

the

replaced by

was

attentivencss

creative
Bare

by

art

and

thus

act."

The

Her

adds

against traditional
the

notions

painting illustrates

Figure
Bare
wire
Museum

394.

his contributions

Marcel

of
the

Duchamp.

The

Bachelors,Even. 1915-23.
glass, 9'i '4" " 5'9V8 "" The
of

Collection).

the

meaning, whereby
is fully
title and

by Her
on

to

painter of The Bride Stripped

Bachelors, Even
(Fig. 394) was

Art

(Louise

and

Walter

Bride
Oil

Stripped

and

lead

Philadelphia
Arensberg

the
basis
of a
on
personahze the act oi viewing art. Duchamp
preexisting
was
what
he called
to
"world
of
a
giving form
iinowledge. The Bride, instead, was
unknown
intended
on
as
a
quantity," of which the visible world
cynical commentary
art,
is only a shadow.
be made, he felt,
Art should
the machine,
sentimentality,and sex.
reason,
"The
artist
intentionally dry, academically
Duchamp's
only by intuition and revelation.
courage acts
dislike a mediumistic
meant
to
being who, from the
precise painting of objects was
labyrinth beyond time and space, seeks his way
praiseof the virtuosityof his hand. He
the
baffled
to
trace
to
out
a
origin and
clearing."
attempts
The Bride consists of two
meaning of his objectsand deflated technology
glasspanels mounted
in an
that do not
aluminum
frame
by producing irrational machines
measuring roughly 6 by
9 feet. The
be seeking the
produce. For those who
shapes were
applied to the glasswith
may
sentiment
subject,
paint, varnish, and lead wire. (The cracks, of
suggested by its nominal
there
the
is little likelihood
of
with
which
artist approved, resulted
from
an
empathy
Done
accident
is
Bride
her
"bachelors."
in shipment.) Technically, the work
or
Duchamp's
marvelously made.
Objects are not represented
during a period of personal crisis, The Bride
is a complex metaphor or privatemyth, modem
the glasssurface ; they exist on the glass,as if
on
other
in its obscure
habitat.
From
knowing no
personal origin,incompleteness,
Duchamp's
and
used
his metaphor
it appears
that
the
ambiguity. Duchamp
notes,
top panel is the

understandable

common

with

wit

in

humanize

order

mechanize

to

the machine,

to

love

depersonalizeart

and

"bride," and

but

The

Figure

Jasper Johns. Target.1958. Encaustic

395.
with
and
newsprint on
plaster casts
canvas,
Leo Castelli,New
York.
wood, 4'3 " 3'8". Collection
"

lower

the

one

the

"bachelors."
left corners,

upper

suggestive plumbing
forms. To the right is a perforated cloud shape.
At the lower
nine objectsrecallingthose
left are
used
in dry-cleaning plants; Duchamp
called
consists

and

the

herself,at

"bride"

intricate

of

these his "malic

Below

them

which

one

and

molds,"

looked

or

"bachelor

slide,"

is "the

into

machine."

waterwheel,

or

idealized

an

on

extension

painted his objects on the

looking through the glass,
our
we
world, not one
see
own
imagined by the
the
forms
artist. Within
an
object-filled
room,
of The Bride seem
hover
and
to
existing
move,
from
viewed
in ever-changing contexts
when
different angles.
Chirico
The
of de
art
transposed familiar
situations.
Duchamp
objects into unfamiliar
invented
objectsthat insolently parodied objects,
human
situations, and the body itself. Target
American
by the young
(Fig. 395), a work
the
artist Jasper Johns, is itself
painted object.
There
is no
illusionism, and the painting has no
reference
to
anything outside itself.The subject
of space.
window

is

Duchamp

in

that,

so

target coincident

two-dimensional

painted papered
artist

the

When

dimensional
closeted
lids

set

us

with

be

taken

above

numbers

at

in

to

row

with

three-

introduce

made

plastercasts

of boxes

with

the

it exists.

and

movable

principal motif. He presents

and
asks
only that his work
its face value. Johns removed
twoa
objects in this case
target,
the

"

the
"

wished

which

riddle

no

elsewhere

on

objects,he

them

dimensional

surface

from

American

flag

their accustomed

or

stenciled

surroundings

connotations.

and
them

de

into

did

He

Chirico's

and

settings.Johns exaggerated the

or
object through increased
color, and
viewer

have

to

In

texture.

Johns' positionreflects

put

enigmatic

vividness

of the

intensified

short,

direct

"a

however,

not,

uncanny

he

size,

wished

the

painting experience."

the

of

view

current

art

empirical experience for the viewer, with

the work
of art regarded as
an
independent
object of entirely surface
importance and
the artist may
brought into being by any means
as

an

choose.
This
in

permissivenotion of
Rauschenberg's

(PI.47).

his

From

of

Broadcast

York

New

is illustrated

means

Robert

1959
the

environment

objects that he brought

The
objects have a
together into "combines."
of personal souvenirs, like
general character
the
entries in a diary of the artist and
city.
As
There
is no
illusionism
of objects involved.
before
in
their
been
used
such, they have
everyday existence,and are used directlyagain
in the combines.
According to Rauschenberg,
"A pair of socks is no
less suitable to make
a
painting with than wood, nails,turpentine,oil
artist

and

culled

fabric."

with

host

combined

He

automobile

an

thermometer,
bats. Coca

of

live grass.

Cola
His

In

eye.

radios
can

be tuned

news

radios

and
are

to

from

with

billboards

Andy

bottles,and,

on

he

in

mounted

adjusted them
only one station.

sports, the

Figure 396.
1962. Magna
Gallery,New
indiscriminate

instance,

one

not
objects was
careful judgments

of

involved

Broadcast

and

goat

stepladder with

celebrities,mirrors, baseball
selection

but

stuffed angora

tire,a

scraps

photographs

of the

of

other

ing
work-

two

that

so

One

music.

each

transmits
Near

appropriate photographs

of

the

racing,
"Help."

police beating a rioter,and the word

improvisation of parts and the over-all
structural
effect of the paint produce a jazz
quahty in harmony with the sounds transmitted
ment
by the second radio. Broadcast is thus environhave
than we
painting in a broader sense
heretofore
encountered.
bines
Rauschenberg's comlike fanciful time
are
capsules,bearing
The

witness

for

the

future

to

his

life and

times.

sounds
smells and
Rauschenberg has included
the pathetic, comic,
along with sights,and
means
vulgar,and exuberant
by which modern
societyhas expresseditselfas brashlyas the artist.
We
began and now
approach the end of this
from
the
chapter with art made from discards
table, from the life of a city,and from a super-

market.

Warhol.

Campbell Soup Can.

5'io",\4'6".Leo Castelli

canvas,

York.

The

first

share

two

random

and

sophisticatedcomposition while at the same

time
preserving the flavor of their sources.
Both
Heraclitus
and
Rauschenberg have given
durable
life
society's leavings a second, more
American
through art. The
painter
young
recent
Andy Warhol's
painting Campbell Soup
Can
(Fig. 396) infuriated not only the public
but

critics and

many

artists have
One
and

is reminded
if

artists

been

their

of what

Zola

as
own

well. Traditionally,
worst

said about

critics.

Manet,

is to

enjoy Warhol's work, to be sure,

things about
forgeta thousand
the
painting, but there are some
things from
his behalf. The
remembering on
past worth
one

it is
necessary

to

strongest criticism

that, aside from

presents

no

subject,no
Such

"

been

seen

leveled

against the work

is

magnified scale,the painting

of the
imaginative transformation
exercise of artistic judgment.
apparent
fidelityto the object has already
in
seventeenth-century still life,
its

Painting and

Objects

335

while

And,

however.

order, imagination
Warhol
bent

as

opened),
belongs

flattens

out

often

the

is

but
to

perhaps
the

of

not

in

involved

was

(which

can

it

when

case

high

both

cases.

appears

has

been

this respect his flatness of style

and
is characteristic
this century
in

of commercial

as

(One might indeed

well
argue

noncommercial

as

that

any

art.

yet

when

painting put

the

public

ing
object of commerce.) In selectmuch
Warhol
the
was
doing
soup
he selected
de Wedig
when
Gotthard
same
as
The
beautiful
handmade
an
objects of
egg.
of their time,
and
Dutch
German
painting were
and
by selecting a mass-produced product and
continues
such expression
its container, Warhol
up

for sale is

of his

an

can,

own

If the

era.

artist continues

to

choose

part, the

any

is, historically,that

answer

in

past

centuries

often most
important to
subject was
the public and the artists themselves, and after
the intial shock
or
repulsion toward the new
has worn
can
off, one
subject matter
judge the
painting on its esthetic merits or demerits alone.
"

"

Warhol

Furthermore,

336

does

Purposes

of

not

Art

this

artists such

believe

in

to

seems

public

same

Warhol,

he has

is

had

as

Warhol

deliver

what

been

have

clamoring for,
outraged. Fortunately for
more

than

success

the

Ford

Motor

had
its Edsel
with
model,
Company
which
was
designed exclusivelyfrom exhaustive
market
research
of the public'swants.
This introduction
the artist as a painter of
to
of his perobjects has suggested the range
formance,

be free

certainly
subject today, Warhol
ing
has the right to draw
inspirationfrom advertisthe charge that
the supermarket. To
or
and
painting such as this is all subject matter
the
artist's
shows
no
individuality on
stylistic
to

selfindividualityof style,and his calculated

his subject is as
effacement
before
old
the
as
most
naturalistic still-life picture making. The
of this century the
great irony is that for much
stand
underpublic has cried out for art that it can
and
that clearlyrelates to its experience;

from

imitator

to

creator

to

of

fabricator
of
objects; from
familiar
inventor
surroundings to
environments.

selector

illusionistic
of

new

from

playful
deception through storytelling,
personification,
moralizing and philosophizing,metaphor and
emblem
making, esthetic contemplation, and
meaninglessness. The painting of objectsreflects
only in style but also in
great
changes not
man's
whether

He

toward

attitude
it be

has

one

of

ranged

his

environment

fear, reverence,

curiosity, pride, dependence,

pleasure.

"

wonder,

distaste,

or

17

THE

IN

PORTRAIT

PAINTINQ

AND

artist

the

knows

in

face

that

SCULPTURE

should

still have

of that
a
significantrecord
since
the
people before or
of how
it is made,
how
be conscious
features
Romans
so
extensively in
indulged themselves
carved
colors
work
and
swell, how
painted portraits.
Worship of and
up
taper, or
merge,
and
ancestors
to one's
through the skin's surface. He thinks in terms
a
healthy strain
fidelity
of distances
and
these
of egotism accounted
for countless
death
masks
proportions, and how
and
to
area.
home, tomb, palace,
Although modern
change from area
portraitsfor Roman
of physiognomic and forum. A Portrait of a Man
psychology has taught us to be wary
(Fig.397), from
the
have
been
a
analysis in determining a person's
Republican epoch, may

The
differs

from

character,

the

features
is

way

that

assume

the

civilization.

must

individual's

habitual

of
set

The

way

man

personalityor social
has

his coat

wears

back

in the mouth
of

has

In this century

the

dead

death

sunken

are

head

man.

area

mask,

and

the

as
might
Except for

leaders, the Romans

no
period made
attempt

be

to

seen

)f demands
that

In the

conflict with

without

infused

weakening

If all that
the

their

their

had

an

honorable

powerful portraits

many

remained

of imitation

personal esthetic.

past, however, imitation

history and

degree

individuality of style.
of

ancient

sculpturalportraitureof

its

Rome

the

flatter themselves

of

portraitfunction, and
portraiturebecause
some

on

graphy
photo-

artists avoid
for likeness and

pulled

effigies
Repubhcan

was

citizenry, we

Portrait

Figure
a

B.C.
I

ject's
sub-

the

official

of the

of their

for

flesh is

been

in artists' studies

status.

preempted

modern

many

sitsor

consideration

from

copy

checks

this

the head
is usually
at which
and gestures of
held, bodily posture, formation
the hands, and
even
ful.
clothing can be meaning-

important

No

of the

features,the angle

an

marble

personality

of artists. Adherents

concern

"science"

of it. He

an
study of how
his soul, spirit,
or

reflect

old

an

knowledge

our

397.
Roman,

ist

century
ble,
(Republican). Mar-

height I4'2''-Musei
Vaticani, Rome.

of

and

the

preferred to portray
that Uving left upon

evidence

remained

has

much

of

stark, harsh

the face. Since

Roman

culture,

so

the

Romans

that

their
values
placed on
against the testimony of the
surviving portraits.In
theory, the
many
citizens
of the
Republic and
early Empire
valued
honesty and
frugality,self-reliance,
of purpose,
firmness
and
a
simplicity,
gravity
that revealed
of what
a
sense
was
important.
in
They believed
toughness and
discipline,
organizationand a pragmatic approach to daily

weight
may

be

balanced

life.

Roman

literature

reveals
these

spectacularexceptionsto
Roman
Pax

of the ancient

conquest

furnish

Romana

the

The

did

world

evidence

but

the

and

the

that

during

and

the
early Empire many
by these elevated standards.
the sculptortoward
his subject

Republic

Romans

much

and

many

values,

live

attitude

of

in the

portraithere illustrated shows an honest

and
tough-minded desire to record the man's
the
dented
skull to
his
individuality,from
saggingjowls.The simulation of flesh and bone
is a compelling achievement,
there
for us
to
the
natural
between
touch. The
discrepancies
sides of the

two

Even
the
be

with

the

man's

face have

would

originalstate, there
the

and

outer

in

were

to

appear
shrewd
gaze
of the

third

Christian

and

fourth

centuries

Roman

of crisis which

was

the

of

the

centuries

these

Empire. It was in
sculptorsand paintersgave

of

decline

the

witnessed

era

to

the human

public.

at

once

done

at

when

time

had

there

was

Portraits

search

for

old

the

fallen

individual

material

and

and
children
of men,
served
conwomen,
of the
wide
a
geographical area

artist

for

reflect

and

sensuous

this

patron
or

climate

of this

material

of

change.

show

era

less

likeness. No

surface

cuts.

The

axis of the

geometric, and
or

its structure

of
idiosyncrasy

338

head

has

become

lacks the

earlier work.

Purposes of

The

Art

regard

longer is

supple and highly finished.

and
treated by deep drilling
synoptically
the

The

Hair

is

shallow

world.

the

axis

For

Roman

The

set

are

the

to

new

in conflict with

and

world.

There
the

future

became

life,not

Christians

apparent

spiritand
as

the
in

only
well. In

For

almost

antiquityto

tween
be-

Christians

but

art, esthetic

in

and
non-

emphasis
in order

reduced

on

to

forcibly.

more

thousand

the end

of

end

Ages,

the

the

portrait conceived

fifteenth

conflict

body, the present

physicalattractiveness was
impart metaphysical ideas

rigidly specificindividual
flexibility European art. Its

face has lost

attitude

an

eyes

of the rest of the face.

disposition
the eyes were
the gatephilosophers,
way
of the soul,and through their expressionthe
and focus
sculptorcould capture inner qualities
the
men
spirituallife. No longer were
upon
in
their
confident
of
the
mastery
physical

art.

from

Empire

"

change that underlined

ideals in life and

new

of

the traces
or
potentialof mobility except for a
the enlarged eyes, which
mate
anisinglefeature
these sculpturesand
reveal the formal
ancient

disreputeand

into

a.d.

Arts, Boston.

face

No

religiousvalues

Fine

that

comparably large body of

exists in the
portraiture from
single era
any
history of art. The late-third-century
portrait
of a Roman
(Fig.398), perhaps a senator, was
and

Figure 398. Head of a Roman,

c.
265-285
(Imperial).Marble, height 15^2"- The Museum

inner

man.

The

sense

retained.

not

the
discrepancy between
experience-worn features

any

and

been

painted in, as they

eyes

centuries

years, from
of the Middle

as
was

return

realistic likeness
not

to

be

in the fourteenth

coincided

with

of

the

in

found

and
emer-

secular

the

art

missioned
com-

by royaltyand a powerful,prosperous
merchant
and
banking class in northern
southern
Europe. There are no surviving

and

antiquitythat equal or

paintingsfrom
anatomical

in

in

of naturalism

gence

of

those

exactness

the

The

fifteenth century.
wrote:
Eric Ambler
once

paintersin
writer

surpass

the

rather, his dress, pose, undifferentiated

and
that

Flemish

believed

modern

number

features,the bone
tissue which
covers
it,are
man's

biological
process;
himself.

It

is

of

statement

for their

fears demand

It is

mind

he

his

device

be

must

desired.

be

able

to

the

as

the

of

accumulation

Only
see

the

finest
of the earliest and
Eyck, one
Jan van
such a painter,
in European art, was
portraitists
capable of graspingthe difference between the
in the human
and the psychological
biological
his portraitsof the
face. In
1430s, which
easel
the
earliest
number
portraitsin
among
art
history,there is an amazing coincidence of

virtuosityand powers of observation.

also
of Balduyn Delannox, known
portrait
The Knight of the Golden Fleece (Fig.399), no

technical

an

infinite

details would
to

stantial
provide the circumidentifythe character as
of his

physicalaspect

hundred

the

complementary

been

have
painters,
through the face.
men,

that

number

prying
a

nakedness.

his mind's

to

screen

few

his

which

mask;

If he is afraid, then
his own.
to
feared; if he desires,then he must

due
dignity.His face is a silent resiIt is as if van
Eyck

after

years

French

van

artist Gericault

for

which

protectionfrom

it like a devil
wears
eyes. He
in others the emotions
to evoke

and

life of action.

of

Four

habitual

his

for their fulfillment and

desires need

of

creates

attitude

attitude; the

emotional

the

product

his face he

but

and

structure

the

conforms

evidence
well

he

composure
of a

ground,
back-

the sparse props

all suggest
aristocratic ideal of
to
an

even

of insane

patientsof

subject.
Eyck's painting,

portrayed

his friend

Doctor

strate
a
Georget. This series was
projectto demonGeorget'sbelief that insanity proceeded
from
physiologicalrather than psychological
and that pathological
evidence could be
causes,
obtained
by close study of the face. The same
van
Eyck
discerning scrutiny with which
thus
employed for
approached his sitter was
clinical purposes.
The patientsknew
they were
dress
allowed
to
being painted,and they were
and act as normally as possible.
Nothing in the
background, dress, or general pose of the
portraits reveals that the subjectshad been
Gericault's task was
to study and
hospitalized.
record

the

set, but
behind
a

mask

into

it. In his

monomania

the

face had

been

grinding impulses

of a man
afflicted with
portrait
theft (Fig. 400), Gericault

for

to

bear

399.

Jan

brought

the

which

mirror

also to

all

his

sensibilityto

subtle

In his
as

physiognomic detail escapes

of the
Even
the capillaries
This

face is not

unlike

inflections of the

map

the

painter'seye.

rendered.
eyes are
all the
in which

terrain have

been

ically
microscop-

recorded.
to
Eyck displayedgreat sensitivity

Van

the

accentuated
he
by
head, which
intensely that part of the face
fightingmost
farthest from the viewer, with the near
portion
Both
the lighting and
in half-lights.
rendered
mass

of

the

of flesh reveal the

treatment

study of

head

the

empirical
painter's
skeletal

as

well

as

qualityof the
telling
extremely subtle tonalities,

vivid and

muscular.

The

flesh is

result

structure,

of

of the use
of oil
part because
both capture and repelthe light.
Despite the impassiveset of the sitter's face,
in

achievable

glazes,which

generated in the visual intimacy

Eyck with the ffesh and its
subject'sindividuality
unique biography. The
action
is not
or
setting;
proclaimed by specific
there

is drama

achieved

by

van

Figure

van

Eyck.

The

Knight of

Oil
Fleece,Balduyn Delannox.
1430-35.
Staatliche Museen,
Berlin.
panel, \o'^,%'.?""
Golden

the
on

sitter and
The

the

Courtier

painter. Castiglione'streatise
the requirements for the

forth

set

ideal Renaissance

man

his skills,
conduct, and

"

Castiglionecould
objectives.
model
a

for his

brilliant scholar, and

and

only

his

on

of birth, I would

wit, and
him

ideal

that

"besides

he

have

not

of person and
certain grace
which

comely shape

also

but

countenance,
shall make

as

poet,

the

follows

as

nobleness

served
was

sador
outstanding ambasbook, Castighone

an

In

courtier.

comments

have

book, since he

own

first

sight acceptable and

whosoever
beholdeth
him."
The
loving unto
perfectcourtier was also expected to be capable
of feats of arms
and hardihood, to have ingenuity
and
loyalty,and to be pleasant to every
always witty and discreet. Everything
man,
that he did was
to be accomplished with
grace.
On
the
clothing of the perfect courtier,
Castiglionewrote:
Gericault.
Theodore
Figure 400.
Kleptomaniac.1821-24. Oil on canvas,
Musee
des Beaux-Arts, Ghent.

Portrait

of a
2314X K^a".

black

than
his

color

painting of considerable
psychologicalvalue. The

esthetic

of the man's
of tension

sense

well

as

obvious

most

malady lie in his

as

toms
symp-

and

eyes

the

and

interests

style,temperament,
ideally suited for this project.His focus

were

often

was

on

subjectswithout

figureswho
thrown

back

external

age,
anchor-

by force of circumstance
their

upon

own

resources

were
"

men

in
of tense
state
a
portrayed in action or
oscillation mirroring the severe
inaction, an
social changes occurring after
political and

Napoleon's fall.
Gericault
painted portraitsof
were,

in

Renaissance
of

those

flourished

victims

those

who

society;the
Raphael painted portraits
comprising the elite society that
in
the
early sixteenth
century.
sense,

of modern

artist

(Raphael was
society,marking

himself
the

admitted

into

artist's increased

this

social

that
at
time.) The
Raphael that best
social ideal both in
epitomizesthe Renaissance
styleand subjectis that of Baldassare Castiglione
of speaking,the picture
(Fig.401). In a manner
made
before Raphael took up his brush.
was
The
the comwhich
position,
largelydetermined
pose,
was
probably a joint decision of the
stature

340

so

himself

Purposes

of Art

him

see

Courtier

do

any

drunkard,

nor

illcondition,nor

Figure

401.

Oil

canvas,

on

grace
this

in garment
for
mean

ought

mine
deter-

to

will appear
be
to
his garhimself, and make
ments

that

ought

He
.

what

to apparel
to
help him

of them

even

nor

in his facial muscles.

Gericault's

.and
.

inflections,thereby creating

surface

better

color.

ordinary apparel.

and

and

has

other

any
with

color

at

be

he

such

counted

hear

him

not

riotous and
and
filthy

Kaphaei..

one,

speak, nor
of thing.
Our
manner
to professto be a glutton
not

inordinate

unclean

in his

in any

living.

Baldassare Castiglione.
15
323,5x 26'/2'-Louvre, Paris.

10.

Not
only did
Raphael faithfullyrecord
and
but he
Castiglione's
manner,
appearance
also enhanced
the man's
and bearing by
grace
subtle plays of shadow
and
light.The pyramidal
shape formed
by the figureand locked
within
the
The
frame
its stability.
ensures
forms
a
figure'sadvancing left arm
gentle

barrier

between
that

him

the viewer, a suggestion

frontal
by the more

and

is balanced

face, which

promotes

cordialitywithout

certain

impression of

excessive

intimacy. The
unostentatious,placement

careful,yet easy and

of the hands further exteriorizes the man's
grace

One

of mind

matter

"

of

the

Florentine

(PI. 48)

of

Jean
to

the

Clouet
tastes

clientele. His
refined

is the

as

of

inner

physique.

painters of sixteenthAgnolo Bronzino, whose

great

century courtlylife was

style,like that
attuned
perfectly

well

as

in

France,

was

of his aristocratic

Portrait

of a Young

embodiment

of

Man

glione's
Casti-

ideal courtier,a comely man,

discreetly
elegantin dress,superbly in control of his body
and
and feelings,
a
gentleman of letters whose
parison
learningincluded art and architecture. In comwith
Castiglione's
portrait,Bronzino's
detached
youth has a decidedly cool and more
to indicate the premium placed
air,which seems
upon

the social

and

remoteness

exalted

gery
self-ima-

Philippe
Figure 402.
Man.
1650. Oil on

de

Champaigne.

Portrait

of

35*/2X27%"- Louvre,

canvas,

Paris.

the

tween

formed
perfectly

beauty of

the

subject's

of his elite group.

Full comprehension of this
portraitat the time of its creation presupposed

face and

the subjecthimself.
a beholder
as
sophisticated
The
allowed
more
three-quarter format
ample display of a manly figure and at the

uglinesscould derive from the same

imagination
intriguedBronzino and his clients. An austere or
ascetic appearance
often masked
highlysophisticated
entine
erotic imaginationand indulgencein FlorThe youth'scostume, for example,
courts.
has such features as a tight-fitting,
constricting
and an
cut
to the
coat
exaggerated codpiece.

as

same

time

distance

established

than

the viewer

at

greater

the

bust-lengthportrait.It also
contrive
to
a
permitted Bronzino
striking
design involving the body, accessories, and
architecture. The architectural backdrop underscores
the youth's erectness, and
its olive tones
complement those of the flesh and costume.
The
purple tones of the table and chair, like
those

of the wall

that

reflect

painting is
indicative
than

behind,
taste

are

for

ultrarefined

an

of the
the

fact that

unnatural

artifice. The

study
there

accents

entire

in contrasts,
is more
here

untrained

The
youth's
eye.
body is treated like an abstraction,its contours
and
alternatelysmooth
irregular,the spine
rigid and the wrists supple. The aristocratic
meets

attitude
it

of the

elbow

posture has

had

added

to

aflfected

spread of the fingersagainstthe

interests of
hip. The complex, even
perverse
this societyare
besuggested by the contrasts
an

The

and

the grotesque carved heads of the table

chair arm.
That such extremes
of beauty and

Over

hundred

after

years

Bronzino's

paigne
portrait,the French artist Philippe de Cham(Fig.402),
painted his Portrait of a Man
possiblythe Huguenot leader Arnauld d' Andilly,
with
a
conception totally lacking in courtly
rigidityor subtle allusions. While
making it a
into his figurecentralized within
formal portrait,
simulated
window
casement
a
Champaigne has
introduced

ideas

that add

naturalness

without

compromising the dignity of the subject.The

man
gracefullyleans forward slightlybeyond
the
and
looks
casement
thoughtfully away
from us, as if sharingin our
space and hght, yet
held apart. Like still-life
discreetly
painterssuch
in
interested
as
was
Cotan, Champaigne
opticaltricks,and he clearlymeditated
upon

Portrait

in

Paintingand

Sculpture

341

of the
revelation of the oval volume
light's
just as the former might have studied a
cabbage. The
portrait'slife-givingtension
the
suggestion that at any
depends upon
the man's
moment
lipswill part in speech,his
eyelids blink, or his relaxed fingers move
The
eflect is as if the man
has paused
lightly.
reflect while conversingwith the beholder.
to
Champaigne's taste and dramatic skill caused
the

head

him

to

make

extensive

use

of cold

greys

and

for the pleasurable

satiny blacks to prepare
sensual paintingof the
surpriseof the warm,
flesh. Unlike Bronzino's
agelessand unmarked
the
faces,Champaigne's portraitis built upon
evidence of vigoroususe of the facial muscles,so
that his subjects
for
always convey the potential
great mobilityof the features. The beauty of his

discriminatingbrushwork
not

which

to

colors

compete
and

in the man's

with but

shapesthe

to

robeis calculated

augment

that

features of the face.

An
entirelydifferent ethic of manliness and
painting resulted in the seventeenth-century
Dutch
Portrait of a Man
by Frans Hals (PI.49).
and frank
Quiet reserve has given way to a warm
shared
viewer
a
affability,
intimacy between
and subject.
Calculated
affected composure
or
is supersededby an appearance
of good-natured

Figure 403.

Jean-Auguste
Dominique
1832. Oil on canvas,
yiVi". Louvre, Paris.
Monsieur

Louis Berlin.

Ingres.

3'io"-

spontaneity.The

Dutchman's

dress, unkempt
complexion ruddied by
make
him not a perfect
courtier but the
excesses
ideal male
companion for his time and place.
ulate
Raphael's and Bronzino's smooth, immacpicturesurfaces,so in keeping with their
subjects,has analogies only in the undertakingly
paintingof Hals' portraitstyle. After painsdetailinghis subjectin a relatively
tightsurface treatment, Hals rapidly painted
the
in slashingstrokes and
entire work
over
ragged patchesof color. Moreover, it is possible
that by this late stage in his career
Hals had
dispensedwith the underpainting.
Raphael may
be judged a superb picture maker, Hals
a
consummate
painter.In contributingto the
hair, casual pose, and

total

effect,the material

of

substance

Hals'

pigment is as vivid as are the man's physical

themselves.
qualities
Making no effort to fuse
or
disguisethe touches of his brush, Hals set
down
few brilliant highlights,
a
rawly exposed.
Against these key values, he scaled

lightsand

darks.

strong esthetic
from

the

Unlike

that

accents

face

man's

Raphael,

created

the eye
touches

draw

random

"

his other
he

away

that

of the whole
stability
isunrelieved
area
single-color
large,
vigorous brush manipulation.The

contribute,however,
No
painting.
by traces of
painter's
gusto
avoided

is

to

the

in

apparent

the staid architectural

the

he

way

has

posture used

by
Raphael and instead twisted the hat, face,and
body into anglesopposed to those of the frame.
Raphael's composition directlyrelates Castiglione to an
impersonal ethical coordinate
to
provide his own
system. Hals' sitter seems
moral
In

esthetic axis.

and
the

nineteenth

the

ened
looscentury, portraitists
of the

conventions

their

subjectsto

poses. Portraits
seated pose
a

by Ingres and
be

genre
more

assume

Manet

indicative

and

mitted
per-

personal
show

how

of

divergent
personalities (Figs. 403, 404). Ingres had
sittings
struggledunsuccessfullythrough many
the strong
find the right pose to manifest
to
of Louis-FrancoisBertin, a
character
paper
newsowner.

friend, Bertin

can

During a conversation
unconsciously assumed

with
an

tude
atti-

that

caught the painter'seye, and even

singlestroke had been painted Ingres
"was
informed his client that the portrait
done."
The
resultingportrait has the suggestionof
some
great predatorybird. The disarrayed hair,
before

the

attenuated

nose,

and

the

talonlike

hands

disguisedbut, rather, are accentuated.

ample girth is stressed,and Bertin

not

are

The

man's

the wrinkled
his chair. Even
quiteoverwhelms
his
at
magnifies his energy. Ingres was
in the
painterly best not
mythological or

suit

narrative

discussed

scenes

in

elsewhere,

the

nineteenth-centurypainting,but
when
he was
face to face with a unique and
human
being who inspiredhim.
strong-willed
chapter

on

of

One

the

portraitsin
visit by the

relaxed

most

history of

the

informal

and

from

resulted

art

poet Stephane Mallarme

the

to

of

As they
a
friend,the painter Manet.
together, the artist decided to jot down
color
the
distinguishing gestures of his

studio

talked
in

friend.

With

hand,

he

only

he

at
piece of canvas
had
completed the
by painting directly

nevertheless

portraitin
what

small

few

Mallarme

hours

No

saw.

into

attempt
conventional

made

was

portraitpose

attitude of social correctness.

an

format, unusual
the

situation. The

chair

and

and

pocket

resting on
that

it

was

between
In

poet is shown

cross-legged,with
other

the
some
a

the

cigar

to

put

world

once

Portrait

as

whitish

if contemplatingwhat

attenuated

head

concept

of

is
no

as

eloquent

he

given readily

impulsive way
himself
had

the

entire

of
with

to

the

laying on
broad

color

Figure 405.
York

El

Greco.

435sX375'g". The

St.

Jerome,c.

Frick

(copyright).

acter
charwhat

Hals'

and

tenting
con-

appearance

strong appeal for Manet.

historyof portraitureincludes images

of the livingbut also of the dead. The
Spanish painterEl Greco portrayedSt. Jerome
thousand
a
(Fig.405) over
years after the saint
had
died. El Greco's portrait
is also the personification
rather
than
of an ethic,but a spiritual
his figure
secular
El Greco
removed
a
one.
from
setting,and as painted by the
any specific
the
artist, the saint embodies
qualitiesof
only

asceticism

and

inner

vision.

The

of

aura

The

Portrait

in

Paintingand

Sculpture

1600. Oil

on

Collection, New

The

not

to

has written.

and
body exteriorize
spiritualenlightenment.

face. Manet

surface

worldly
other-

seems

and

while.)

Frans

eye.

clue
and

believed

probing attempt to define the

his gentlemanly subjectbeyond

of
was

as

the

on

saint,who

preliminarydrawings, as well as in the

final painting,Ingres wrestled
for a month
with
detail of his subject'sface and
every
drew
with his brush, and his
clothing.Manet
rapid strokes established the color and direction
of every
surface. He
did not
graduate visual
interest to a
climactic
point in the sitter'
expression,and the paintingof the poet'sright
made

Paris.

the paintingis
lightpervading it

his

hand

ofMallarme.

that characterizes
the stark

El Greco's

canvas,

in

Manet.

io'/4x 13^4". Louvre,

canvas,

artist's concentration

the

The

his

little smoke

Edouard

reflections of the

in his
in

(Mallarme

idea

good

oneself and

to

to

pause

hand

holding

papers.

both

from

slouched
one

or

coolness

horizontal

The

derived
portraiture,

in

fit

to

Figure404.
1876. Oil on

343

venerable
his

has

peasant

local
convey

colors

beatified

the

earth.

introduced
love

Gogh's

van

been

with

lifelongcontact

for

through

The

into

the

trary
arbi-

the

face

and

man,

the

insisted upon
identityof every feature is fiercely
brush
through drawing as well as color. The
strokes

in the face

directed

are

the

field, pulling

viewer's

like

magnetic

toward

gaze

the

man's

expressive eyes, which

give eloquent
hands
testimony of his humanity. The worn
further testifyto a life of travail,marked
by
infinite patience and
of suffering.
endurance
in itself
The
which
life-size,
painting is over
be

might

construed

as

gesture of love

and

El Greco's
friendshipby the artist. Unlike
distant and
unapproachable Saint Jerome, the
old

absorbs

peasant

personalityand
man

Figure 406. Vincent

1889. Oil
on
canvas,
Chester
Beatty, London.

The

head

Patience Escalier.

7'''4 22-'4". Collection

"

exhortation

portraitis an
contemplative life
The

Gogh.

van

that

and

El

the

pursue

of the saint

hands

magnetic poles,and

to

fort.
ignores physical com-

Greco

does

like

are

let the

not

what

intervenes.
Despite the
tarry over
figure's
quiescentattitude,the paintingis veined
with tension rather than repose. The activity
of
the lighton
the cardinal's robe, the angle of the
eye

beard

in relation
of the

the head, and

to

all

the suggestion

even

in relation

beneath

body

the

to

the whole.

feeling
give a
Van
old
French
Gogh's painting of an
an
peasant, Patience Escalier (Fig.406), forms
modern
interesting
counterpart to El Greco's
of this painting:
saintlyimage. Van Gogh wrote
garment

of

Instead
I

taut

trying to reproduce exactly what

before

have

arbitrarilyso

eyes,

my

use

color

myself
express
of the man
I have to
to

as

I think

forcibly.

to

vivid
tones

as

iron, and

red-hot

of old

gold

in

hence

the

head

had

seen.

When

study
as

Van

Gogh
thinghe

could
could

have

never

not

see

He

person

did

not

paint the saints of Church

historybut, instead,
made
holy the ordinary people he painted.The
area

not

behind
of the

the old

man's

skv but of the

-"^44

head

has

the

color

soil of Provence.

This

Purposes of Art

made

of every

ismatic
char-

But

had

is

there

(Fig. 407),

just a precise

than

more

is

skull;there

of skin and

rendition

intensityof expressionin the

and

transfixed

the

forehead

unrelated

were

real

to

able
unbearmouth

unformed

lumps on
final, sculpturaltouch,

The

eyes.

an

taut

anatomy,

crucial

yet

in
bringingthe effigyto life.Unusual
is the deliberate
historyof portraiture
from

head

Rodin

both

sought

who

lived

The

head

gaze

were

of

dead
head

man

for
was

resembled

to

the
create

directed

toward

his

thought.

own

could

who

had

he

never

seen

had

found

Baudelaire

and

cast.

photographs

He

of

the

chest;
poet

intellect.

if the

poet's

invisible

some

Paradoxically,

from
living
only model
portrait
compelling spiritual

thirty years

some

severance

portraitof

to

the whole

the

and

neck

completely the life of

is tilted upward
as

examples, made
a

physical
superb

accurate

an

even

successive

these

gives Rodin's

what

as

of
is the revelation
its final power
In his head
of the poet Baudelaire

modeling
character.

of

well

as

exhaustive

an

of the head,

view

When

joined,he

were

felt

out,

work,

to

above.

resemblance.

but

painted a

began

from

horizon

before him.

to

gave

of the social ladder

searched

he

was

views

be

to

seen

Rodin,
or

human

reserved

more

the shadows.

his

Gogh

propertiesthat in the Middle Ages had

for images of Christ and
the saints.
For the sculptorAuguste Rodin, the making
of a portrait demanded
an
all-encompassing
knowledge of his subject.Every inflection of the
been

of the

luminous

in

viewer
Van

the lowest rung

on

more

paint,
terrible in the furnace
of the full harvest, the
full South.
Hence
the stronsf
shades,
orange
...

the

warmth.

the

poet

who

and
when
a

young

been

artist who
resorted

to

guidance.

But

had
for

had

this bronze

poet'slife and work by

insightinto his subject's
of the
His own
description
complex personality.
interpretation
portraitreflects a stronglypsychological
Rodin

also

the

knew

heart, which

studied the human

his young
Giacometti
wrote:
that

of

been

Baudelaire.

resembles

that

conformation
is of

shows

that

one

draftsman

it is

There

Baudelaire.

characteristics

bust

.but
.

are

head

a
a

that

named

series of

all the characteristics

Malteste

mask.

Claudel;

See the

the

eyes

the

mouth

draw

who

The

finest

will be able

of disdain;

is

of what

From

dilemma

always

I render

vision of the

to

outer

as

not

it,and

see

to

we

learn

the

man's

character.

For

to

he looked

his

sculpture

alone.
a

His

fascination

of the external.

penetrate

was

that

satisfyGiacometti
inspiration
lay in

trying to
a

this is the
still,

attempting to do. All that I

make
will be only a paleimage

his elusive vision

with

he tended

century

to

see.

and

problem

twentieth

am

this statement

has

of the

meant

was

little portraiture.
The
best
relatively
been
have
done
been
portraitsthat have
intimate
and
probing studies of unstable
individuals.
Twentieth-century artists have
turned
from portraiture
because
generally
away
of
of traditional
demands
fidelityto the
subjectand have chosen instead subjectsor
that fulfilltheir personalnotions of what
areas
be. The
Swiss-born
art should
sculptorAlberto
Giacometti
was
an
exceptionto this avoidance
From
of portraiture.
his earliest works, he care-

art

head.

only thing I

reveal

included

of my

account

have

...

sarcastic,bitter in its sinuous

line, but the swellingof the muscles, a little
the voluptuous appetites.
In
fat, announces
short,it is Baudelaire.
the

by which

means

and
of the face.
It is
particularly
utterlyimpossiblefor me to model, paint,or

of the Baudelair-

look

the

me

world

enormous

have

for

myself an

the cerebral
preserve
calls the type; this

forehead, swollen
at the temples,dented, tormented, handsome
nevertheless,the face described at length by
ean

brother

Sculpture,painting,and drawing

of facial features:
It is not

face,almost exclusiveK
Diego (Fig.408).

fully

him

gave

surface

He
and

was

to

Giacometti, the
he focused on
that when
a
detail,
lose sightof the whole, and when

from the live model

to the clay
what
shaping,he struggledto remember
he had seen.
Given
his portrait
of Diego, the
of Giacometti's
complexityand precariousness
almost
art is manifest. Diego has an
Egyptian
like an
order of being unto
itself.
remoteness,
The fixity
of this state is paradoxically
achieved
through an inconstant surface;the more
closely
he

we
seems

away

was

the
it
remote
head, the more
become, for no part is a literal match

examine
to

Figure 407. Auguste

left:
Head
of Baudelaire.
diana
1892. Bronze, height 8". InUniversity,Bloomingof Mrs. JulianBobbs).
ton (gift

Far

Rodin.

Left:Figure 408.

Alberto

Diego, c. 1955.
Bronze, height 15^2"- The
polis,
Art Center, MinneaWalker

Giacometti.

Minnesota.

for the

surface

to

invariablyan

the

face

he

which

in

sees

his

which

OF

PORTRAITS
Until

has

constantlyeludes him.
him, the finished sculpture is
unhappy compromise.

imaginationand
Therefore,

face

actual
face

the first is the face he observes;

is the

second

the

the

Giacometti, each

existence:

dual

of

features

or

portrayed. For

WOMEN

last quarter of the fifteenth century,

of men
and women
tended
to
portraits
be in profile,
because
the nobilityof that era
preferredto have only half the face committed
This
to
preferencefor the profile
posterity.
influenced
by ancient coins and
portraitwas
medallions
that bore profileeffigies
of rulers.
The
of antiquity's
attraction for
significance
Renaissance
societyis shrewdly put by Johan
Huizinga in his book Homo Ludens: A Studyof
Italian

the

Play Element in Culture:

If ever
of its own
an
elite,fullyconscious
the
merits, sought to segregate itself from
of artistic
vulgar herd and live life as a game
the circle of choice
perfection,that elite was
Renaissance

.The
spirits..
Antiquity was
.

of

imitation
earnest..

.The

.for

was

of culture

of the Renaissance

of

solemn
an

mental
of

one

attitude

at
are

masquerade

idealized

past.

of the

play....This

nobility of form

beauty and

and

livingin
pursued in holy

Renaissance

instance

whole

of

game

play. The
nothing but
in the

ing.
strivis

an

splendours
a

gorgeous

accoutrements

This

elite segregationand search for beauty

nobilityof form is manifest in the design
of fifteenth-century
Florentine
palacesas well
in
as
profileportraits.Renaissance
palace
inaccurate
designswere
attempts to revive the
of ancient Roman
principles
palaces.Both art
be conceived
forms may
of as the public,social
Neither
facadesof their owners.
a
encourages
feeling of intimacy with the viewer. The
relevance of such a comparison is apparent
in
Alberti's Palazzo Rucellai (Fig.304) and Piero
PoUaiuolo's
Portrait of a Young Lady (Fig.409).
In the profile
portraitthe sitter is caught in an
attitude that is permanently aloof and detached.
A background of blue sky serves
to elevate the
figurebeyond earthly reference. The careful
and
settingof the head within the picturearea
the broad-based
taperingform created by the
and
dignitydesired by
pose add to the stability
the profile
the patron. While
eliminates
pose
the
of a searching psychological
possibilities
the
stress on
a
study of the face, it encourages
of the
esthetic grace
subject. Renaissance
and

and

costumes

reserved

share

tastes

surface

certain

elegance.The

cool,
tight-

woman's

hairdo, and plucked

pronounced rhythmic
and
continuous
a
gracefulsilhouette.
sequence
There is no strong accent, modeling, or coloring
of the face within its contours, so that emphasis
the edges.The
fashion
remains
cosmetic
upon
favored
that
an
artificiality
disguised the
natural potential
of the flesh. In her grooming

fittingbodice,
eyebrows

and

in

Rubens'
Susanna

natural
clothes
of her

role

nor

has

woman

it

and

continues

of

the

costume

nature,

upswept

create

ideal woman,
Fourment

sensual

flesh. She
held

as

altered

the

in his

seen

artist

portrait
her

and revealing
graceful

textures

neither

herself

herself
that

(PI. 50), enhanced

with

endowments
whose

said

might be
this spirit.

flattered

affected

aloof,but

was

an

those

imitative

desirable

in

and body. To givefullest expression

personality
that delightedhis eye, Rubens
to
the charms
used
a
three-quarterfrontal pose, which was
of the
modest
The vitality
and alluring.
at once
her
and
woman
outgoing personalityare set
off" with
turbulent
a
sky and a splendid hat,
it has
which
been
perhaps a
suggested was
Portrait of
Pollaiuolo.
Piero
Left: Figure 409.
Toung Lady. c. 1475. Tempera on panel, igYtX
of Art, New
The
i^WMetropolitan Museum
York
S. Harkness).
(bequestof Edward

is also the

He
as

first portraitist
to paint the

actuallytend

we

the

upon

whole

to

of vision

is

the

face

and
in

central

not

woman's

hands

the eyes

and

with

the

are

at

range

does

not

tion
defini-

same

which

nose,

body
our

is less sharplydefined, Renoir

paint the
as

of

area

time, whatever

one

face

it.Because, in focusing

see

the focal

done. This
pointsfrom which the portraitwas
softeningof peripheralareas, of the woman's
also to heighten her charm.
The
outline,serves
fine

of delicate color evoke

nuances

with

perfume

cosmetics

or

effects of these small sensations of

Cezanne's
to

lack

the

the

other

portraits

depictionof

saying
the

one

without

Figure

Pierre

410.

Renoir.

Auguste

that

attractive

sightand

smell.

at
portraitof his wife seems
outgoing qualitiesand warmth

(Fig.411). Many
his

associations

the

and

he

than

of

considered

have

we

first

have

compared, unfavorably,
paintingof bottles,
displayed no more
feelingfor
to his

women

for

the

other.

feeling toward

his

Cezanne
human

was

not

subjects.

Madame

Henriot.

canvas,
1877. Oil on
'2i^n-2i^^". The
National
Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. (gift
ofthe Adele
R. Levy Fund, Inc., 1961).

of
the
umbrellas
or
flatteringrecollection
accustomed
canopies under which royaltywas
to stand. It is possiblefor the viewer
to enter
sitter.
into a private dialogue with Rubens'
a
This, unlike PoUaiuolo's
portrait,was
very
personal painting, portraying a close friend

whose

sister Rubens

younger

Rubens

formed

his

later

was

subject of

to marry.

rich

color,

tempered or heightened by soft shadows

brilliant highlights.
The astonishingrange
brushwork

is revealed

of

and

the

more

sky

large

tightlyexecuted

in

the

broad

areas

of the

forms

ofthe

hair, the subtly graded strokes

the deft touches

created

that

earringsand eyes.
in
of feeling

and
of his

treatment

sleeves,the
feathers and

in the

flesh,and
highlights in the

Both

the outpouring and

traint
rescompleted paintingwould
ofthe woman
seem
to reflect the mood
portrayed.
teenth-century
Rubens'
passionate portraitsfound a nine-

the

in

counterpart

painting of beautiful
Henriot
(Fig.410).

Madame

convince

can

painting

an

with

presents

us

to create

wav

as

us

individual
a

woman
an

Renoir's

The

that
and
who

ideal ofthe

he
a

pathetic
sym-

such

women

as

giftedportraitist
is

type.

is French
French

at

once

Renoir

Figure

411.

Paul

Cezanne.

Madame

in such
woman.

The

Cezanne

in

361/4x
Conservatory,c. 1890. Oil on canvas,
of Art, New
Museum
Metropolilan
283/4".The
York
(bequestof Stephen C. Clark, i960).
the

Portrait

in

Paintingand

Sculpture

347

however.
In
as
portraits he presents them
introverted, passive types, seemingly with
infinite patience.(The endless hours they were
sit for the artist would

requiredto

requiresuch

or
forbearance.) Accurate
flatteringlikeness
not
and he struggled
was
enough for the painter,
with
adjustinghis figure to her surroundings.

The

tree

head

tilt of the

Madame

Cezanne's

and

and

wall behind
of the

harmony
unfinished

directions

broad

woman

are

tion
stages of its construcstillevident ; the artist proceeded from

are

painting,the

of color
sketchyoutliningand thin filling
a

of

picked up in the
total
a
her, thus effecting
and her place.In this

body

deepening and
of the

of color

saturation

Even

to

areas

in the

seen

angles of the
brush strokes reiterate the major axes
of the body.
area

shoulders.

as

the

The

of Rubens
and Renoir
joyous hedonism
shared by Henri
was
Matisse, as attested in a
Matisse,commonly known
portraitof Madame
Woman
with the Hat
as
(PI.51). Like Susanna
Matisse
wears
a
Fourment, Madame
glorious
hat piled high with
flowers. Matisse
did not

insist upon
It
Rubens.
enticement

and
of

the

not

that

paintingof
warm

climactic

is

facial
flesh

Matisse

his wife. He

nor

focus, as
a

celebrates
has

did
of

mood
in

painted her

this
as

esthetic

delight.Her face is handsome

sympathetic,a strong, quietfoil for the riot
color

and

movement

around

her.

Matisse

and unfettered
color from
painted ecstatically
previous obligationsto modeling and texture.
Rubens
accentuated
and modulated
his bright
colors by placingthem
hues or
next
to subdued
in partialshadow.
The
flat
by setting them
of brightcolor in Matisse's painting are
areas
modulated
only by degrees of saturation ; they

Right: Figure 412. Queen

Nefertiti.
14th century B.C.
Limestone, height 13".
The
Egyptian Museum,
Cairo.
Far

right: Figure

413.

GlANLORENZO
BeRNINI.
Costanzn Buonarelli. 163639.
seo

Marble, lifesize. MuNazionale, Florence.

from

and
pastel greens
pinks to fullorange-reds and purples. The
large
color patches of the background complement
others
within
the figureand
blocks to
serve
as
stabilize the form
within
the frame.
Setting
range

bodied

aside the

finesse of brushwork

of which

capable, Matisse
applied his paint
haste, scrubbing and
stripingto
immediate

he

was

raw-

effect

the

release of his exuberant

dispersed his
needs

with

color

of esthetic

accents

structure

painting,like Madame
bouquet of color
Sculpture as well

"

Matisse's

hat,

painting has

as

faces of women,
portraitsdating from

with

the ruined

early

as

workshop

has

unfinished

(Fig. 412), the

head
of

wife

of

finest

Egyptian

as

of

lived in the fourteenth

an

recorded

of the

some

sculptorwho
come

ful
beauti-

sensations.

many

times. From

He
feelings.
according to the
thus making the

Egyptian

an

century

B.C.

Nefertiti

Queen

Akhcnaten

(Amen-

broke
with the
hotep IV), the pharaoh who
traditions of Egypt and acknowledged
religious
only one divinity,that of the sun. He also broke
with

tradition

humanize

in

himself

demanding
and

and

queen

portionof

upper

fitted with

of
the

crown

the

diagonal line

the

stone

indicate

the

artists

family in their work.

sculptureis an image both

Consequently,this
of

that

his

handsome

that would
of the

The

woman.

sculpture was

to

have

have

been

continued

tilted face. Marks

that

the eyes and

in and also that

on

eyebrows

the artist
be painted
to
produced the face in perfect symmetry
by
dividingit exactly in half. Completed Egyptian
stone
usually fully
sculpture portraitswere
to
painted. Despite his recourse
stylizations
were

such

as

that of the eye,

the

artist gave

to

the

obdurate

surface

of the

tions
sensitive undula-

stone

that

of
thtimply direct observation
accompanies the
Queen. A quiet sensuousness
full
serene
seen
dignityof the Queen. Whether
the portrait
has an
immutable
face or in profile,

self-containment

and

of mood,
in
permanence
of
art's
assuring
Egyptian
purpose

fulfillment of

subjecta tranquileternal life.

Nefertiti's portrait is
Very different from

the

Bernini's

of

bust

Buonarelli, done
(Fig. 413). The
the

mistress

the

world;

the

Bernini's

her

verge

as

transcends
is

woman

is rendered

She

the

on

century

Nefertiti

moment.

if
as
movement,
Bernini
re-created

Costanza

seventeenth

visage of

temporal

decidedly of

his

in

an

of speaking.
impressionable,

vital

person. In removing the extraneous

also lifted ofT all that masks
the

he

and

unguarded,
conduct.

The

impulsive

intimate

is

woman

and

garment
of

form,

the

confines
it. The

in

but

rather
to

seem

excitement.

bust

knows

no

of

stone,

private,
woman's
of the

nature

sculptor

her

hair, which

internal

an

the

hinted

facets

emotional

relationshipbetween

in

and

the

disheveled
be extensions

As

a
sculptural
symmetrical blocklike

boldly twists into the space about

is irregularand
agitatedyet

silhouette

carefully controlled
lies within

it. The

return

to

iris of the

eye

eye

is incised

to

Figure 414.
Pogany. 191

what

the

to

of Modern

Bernini's
complete the surface reception of light.
outside
unseen
figurespresuppose some
presence
themselves
receive the outpouring of their
to
feelingand action.

Constantin
he
in
as

Brancusi

considered
order

alienated

Baroque

what

of the egg,

The

and

characterized

by which to prove his

underlying unity of living
realize
absolute
to
an
beauty
by simplicity,
purity,and equity
in

He

the

used

reduction

in facial detail

arbitraryredesigningof the

features

in his

in

art.

He

insisted upon

he
the

naturalistic
called

steak"
"beef-

hard, smooth.
The

of

metal, which

the
sculpture from
interminglingart and visible

the

with

the

the

on

evocative

the

and

work

the

of

its

art

double

and

often since the

in

lies

flesh but

not

in

in
its

constantly changing
surface,and
selfof the design. The

the
composition harmonizes
withdrawal
of the
quiet,introspective
The
retains
a
sculpture
quality of
measure

has

become

that

of

of the woman
against the spirit
personal ideal of beauty.

PORTRAITS

MARRIAQE

Portrait

head

polishedbronze

power

Brancusi's

Egyptian

and

of

"likeness,"but
the

the

features

in

gesture,

containment

The

what

in

of

expressivenessof

total

abjured its surface

virtuosity and

work

ideal of

reflections

woman.

fideUty that produced

the

animation

portraitof Mile. Pogany (Fig. 414).

He strippedaway
those very characteristics
and
of the
woman's
face which
so
idiosyncrasies
delighted Bernini; and
by rearranging his
subject,he created an impeccable clarityand
continuityof rhythm and shape. The head has
been
contracted
into
a
simple egg
shape.
Trained
in a Budapest art academy, Brancusi

bronze

Mademoiselle

reality.

layers of superficial
appearance
essential,seminal forms, such

the ovoid

of existence.
and

through

Brancusi.

closed, reflective surface inherent

find

to

privatebelief
forms

worked

Constantin

Bronze, height 17V4". The Museum

York
Art, New
(LillieP. Bliss Bequest).
3.

portrait, already known

times, has occurred

Roman

fourteenth

Painting and

century.

Sculpture

349

The

in

quite
type of

double

considered

be

portrait to

here

is the

notary

and
His Bride (PI. 52) was
Arnolfini
Eyck. The painting
painted in 1434 by Jan van
that took
depicts a private wedding ceremony

in

Giovanni

banker

Italian

of the

bedroom

in the

place

of witnesses

painter himself, indicated

"Jan

above

the

mirror,

Until

the

sixteenth

mutual

of

bride

rites

people by
legitimate

of

here."

was

two

contract

the
marriage outside
Van
Eyck's painting is

presence
the
was

inscription

Eyck

van

century,

could

consent

the

by

wealthy

living in Flanders. The

of whom
is inferred, one

Church.

the

superficial
there
of the occasion; quite literally,
document
than
the eye
in this portrait.
is more
meets
It exteriorizes all the implicationsof the union
in order
of man
and
to
accomplish
woman;
this,van
Eyck used a settingfilled with objects
well known
whose
were
symbolic connotations
of his society.
members
to
shown
The
bride and
are
full-length,
groom
standing

in

the

of the

center

show

To

than

more

joined.
requires a greater interval between
is
subject; consequently, less area
the
face. Despite this diminished
facial
did

characterizations

attempt

not

morbid

flatter the

to

and

sensuality

equine

portrait

viewer

and

devoted

groom,

Eyck
whose

resemblance

is shown
through strongly.The man
figure by his frontal pose
toward
solemnity, while the bride turns
come

the

in

dominating

deference.

Some

of the bride

actualityshe
The
the

it

choice

event

up

to

of the

and

sanctioned

was

for

signsof

is holding

long skirt

mistaken

have

the

the

her

to

the

area,

Van

strong.

are

hands

with

room

figure in

entire

the

the

pregnancy,

as

and
him

proportions
but in

folds of her voluminous

as

the

setting for

symbolic, for
painting was
by a long religioustradition

Northern
medieval
nuptial chamber.
the
Annunciation
to
painting usually showed
in
her
bedroom.
The
as
occurring
Mary
lightedcandle in the chandelier relates not only
masculine
in
to
a
symbol but also to its use
marriage rites and its implications of divine
and, possibly,
light.The dog is a sign of fidelity
of passion. (On
medieval
tombs, a dog was
him
in
to
serve
placed at the feet of its master
death.) The lightfiltering
through the windowhave
alluded
the purity of the bride.
to
may
The
mirror
directlyabove the joined hands of
the newlyweds
was
a
symbol of the all-seeing
as

350

Purposes

of Art

and

seal. Within

miniature

its presence
the convex
of the

more

is like

celestial

mirror

are

seen

of the

contents

room

in the rest
than are
evident
of the painting. Its
the
mirror
spotlessreflection of reality made
of the
a
reflected
symbol of truth. This use
objectspermitted a second
wedding, that of the

visible

with

invisible.

the

Poetic

extensions

of

the

to
figures themselves, the objects serve
identifythe locale and to symbolize the hidden
spiritualand sexual relationships.
Oskar
Kokoschka's
portraitof the newly wed
HansTietze
and
his bride Erica
(PI. 53),painted
orate
early in this century, does not depend upon elabsymbols, setting,witnesses, or prescribed

and

man

show

to

gestures

wife.

the

The

bond

self-awareness.

seen

around

space

ephemeral colors, and

into the paint
etched
hard

the

the

them,

Kokoschka
able

but

woman,

bridge between
an
incomplete

it is

Hans

Tietze

is the

the

couple.
height, lack

his wife's

of

relative

bring

to

He

valued

inner

impelled by
evidence

of

ment,
self-containcertain

not

was

the

and

movements

for the

forces,

in

outlet

gestures

tangible

as

and

suggested, but
complex
their relation

to

depths
themselves

there, Kokoschka's
own,

visual

instance

study
science.

terms

of modern
of

man,

while

within
and

to

Freud

the

more

would

the

mate
ultiin

ing
others. Work-

teaching

was

furnished

of

his

made

in

yet

another

artists' attainments

independent

of

individuals

findings were
and

surface

Kokoschka

circumscribed,

never

Vienna

in

subjects'diaries.

his

social

pierce the

to

awkward

power
he
subconscious.
What
presents is even
private and less decipherable than what
find

posed

he searched

the

existence

the

essential

Arnolfini,

surface

the

to

This
private weaknesses.
studied
portrait;Kokoschka
character
of his subjects,as
that permitted him
moment
veneer.

their

Giovanni

of
more
dependent member
profile pose, slightlyshorter

His

seem

touch.

not

unbreach-

an

two,

to

contrast

do

sensed

the

between
In

all

have

to

seems

gulf

warm

wiry, scribbled lines

surface about
the figures

gestures suggest

and

the

the

the hands
since,significantly,

span,

of their

of his brush.

end

hand

man

specific

no

terms

painter'sintuitive expression
feelingsresulted in the absorbent,

of their

The

if in

as

The

measureless

by

exists between

that

picture is given

locale; the figuresare

isolation.

waist.

bedroom

God,

of

eye

marriage portrait.

in

contemporary

the

SELF-PORTRAITS
Having

of the

examples

seen

portraitartist's
conclude

to serve
others,we may
purpose
the artist's study of himself. At

da

Vinci

with

the

that he

is

his observation

The

eye

Leonardo

tuated
accen-

the focal

point of the work.

endlesslyfascinating
organism

as

an

was

of

drawing (Fig.415)

objective likeness,but

an

his eyes
for

same

brought to
respects,his

In many

nature.

the

approached

countenance

with

sixty,Leonardo
drawing of his own
cernment
curiosityand dis-

Leonardo, who

small

dimensions

could

be

was

amazed

the

whole

perceived.In

graduated focus

from

top of the head

and

the

the
the

that within
external

drawing

broad

is

there

outline

cursory

its

world
a

of the

undulant

ment
treat-

of the beard

through the darkening and

detailingof the brows, mouth, and
culminating in the deeply recessed

increased
and

nose

and

shaded

head
is a summary
eyes. The
and
muscle structure, as well

studies of bone
of the
the
the
to

about
painter's
curiosity

mind
new

behind
modes

he

Just as

of the action

set

sequences

of

age

his face.

upon

made

of weather

also Leonardo
thin

elicit sympathy

developed
upheaval of
painstakingstudies

and

water

on

the

to

He

Arrieta.

Goya.

Francisco

Figure 416.
Dr.

1820.

Oil

Minneapolis Institute

on

of

surface,
closely matched

made

further

415.

Leonardo

portrait.1 510-13.
Reale, Turin.

effects of

the

to

attempt

no
a

personalinter-

J"-

-Hv-^Sg-"

-"

Vinci.

da

Red

45 'ax

31". The

Art, Minnesota.

the
himself
and
viewer.
change between
he omitted
reference to his hands
Significantly,
and
the upper
drew
part of his body. He
of his
attention exclusively
to the fountainhead

extraordinary ideas and

Figure

with
Self-portrait

canvas,

the earth's
in

down

parallellines

or

recalls

beard

Leonardo

drawing

capture flow of

dust clouds.

so

of

operationof

the

face. The

the

of
as

chalk.

Self-

Biblioteca

^="

"^

k0-

died

^\ \

but

or

for

Art

doctor.

the

from

.#

visions.

Spanish painterGoya has left perhaps

of any
the most
artist,
poignant self-portrait
of
time a moving portrait
which
is at the same
As
his
a
man
416).
profession(Fig.
practicing
he had
often depicted himself
man
a
young
as
a
gentleman artist,a dashing and romantic
when
beset
he was
After the age of forty,
figure.
with such personal afflictions as deafness, his
searching
self-portraits
changed and became
of his face for signsof insanity.
examinations
In 1810 he became
gravelyill and would have
The

the

skillful ministrations

history is filled with

as
ex-votos,
cured
to their

or

works

offerings of thanks
saints,Christ,

patron

Virgin.Goya dedicated this paintingto

physician,inscribingit with the following

words:

"Goya

sureness

and

from

the

care

with

serious and

Arrieta

his friend

thanks

which

he

saved

for the
his life

dangerous illness suffered

351

his

missioned
com-

the

his

h'-

of

of

end

the

at

the

1819

year

Painted
seventy-three.

shows

self-study,Goya

his

and
to
vulnerability
helplessness
tenderlysupports him with

with

other

the

priestand

are

wild head

The

offers the

hand

at

of

age

this

In

doctor

glassof medicine.

the

at

in 1820."

ing
amaz-

total

own

death.
one

arm

dying

he

and

their relatedness

man

right barely visible

left

an

death's door.

else would

had

have

rendered

someone

features. Miro

could

not

be neutral

The

therein, and
the

by

in combination
the irrational
His

associations

in

on

the face but

the asymmetry
not
pair of features.

of each
and

have
tangibility

structure.

only

He

of the

an

exaggerated
face, but

Weight, texture, shape,

been consistently
reworked,

in their
art

own

by

were
way
the intellect

Miro
perception.

emotional

basis of

celebrated
art

and

life.

tion
their funceyes transformed
of sensations
from the external

into

objectsof

that of

internal

paintingand sculptureof the

and
been linked with religion
the livingand
ties between

in

secure

of its new

Goya

typicalshapes come
in this portrait
much
The self-portraits
art.

sensation.

Portraits fulfillmyriad functions. The

playful
unique

forms

receivers

as

well

invented

matically
auto-

move

rendering of the

world

has

integralpart

and

with
and

face.

the

surface, responding to
His previous
trance.
a

his earlier

and

to

shared

are

in

were

drawing
to

to

ideas induced

outside

hand

affirmations of the control of

any

his

the

if he

of

his

the

unable

shapes

and

through,nevertheless, for

feature

his

and

textures

of

sense

itselfseems

of sensations and

across

impulse as

erupts into flamelike

head

permitted

of Leonardo

superpose
them
made

into knifelike

destroy any

both within

areas

Miro

in each

expressibleonly
pictorial
language. He did not

accented

suggesting

parts of the body. Lines

and eyelashescaught

forehead
that

hold the wealth

part of the head, and he found

of his face deeply personal as

as

and
also

transformed

closure. The

head's

is traceable

toward

hair

were

conformations

himself

him

seen

the head

mouth,

other

to

in the

his interest and

different

during
his crisis. Miro
drew directly
his part intuitive,
because
self-imageat a time when
part mental
of poverty
tions.
and hunger he suffered hallucinafrom a reflection in a
Drawing partially
convex
mirror, he gave free play to fantasies
the sight of his own
induced
at
by irritability
as

the

Miro used the facial muscles

as
a
projections.
fanciful configurations.
pointof departurefor self-involved,

habits

Miro, has

Spanish painter,Joan
of
intimate
self-portrait

(Fig.417). Goya

nature

found

as

in

at

at

was

Another

existence,as in

such

background at the left

possiblyGoya's housekeeper.
far

their

parodied functions. He

or

openingsin

to

and

In the

the

the artist inverted

drawn

The

Goya's shoulder may symbolize

Death
of the apparitions
of the artist's
or
one
fevered mind. By honoring the doctor with his
who
portrait as a man
thoughtfullyand
humanely
practiced his profession,Goya
brought to art the first image of the artist's
privateemotional turmoil, at a time when like
his mind
other men
and body had broken down
the darkness

and
was

ing
render-

human
the

face

need

to

their dead

and
certain primitive
in Roman
was
Egyptian royalty,the portrait
of immortality by providing an
assurance
Status in
eternal abode for the soul in an effigy.
social spherecould claim
exalted political
or
an
in many
the rightto portraiture
societies. The
likeness and pose of an important figurecould

ancestors, as
cultures. For

serve

to

conduct.

perpetuate

an

ethic

Concepts of manliness

of ideal
and

social

femininity

in Renaissance
important interpretation
Inquiry into human
portraits.
and
conduct
nature
as
expressedthrough the
evidence
physiognomic traits and psychological
another
function of portraiture.
of the face was
ments
intimate personalsentiThe
desire to convey
found

and

Figure

Joan
417.
Self-portrait.
1937-38. Oil, crayon,
and penci on
canvas.
The
4'9y2""3'2y4".

motivated

Miro.

Museum

Art, New

of

Modern
York
lection
(Col-

James

Soby).

Thrall

Baroque

many

artists,whereas

the

essence
problem of findinga mystical human
joined with the quest for personalabsolutes of
attracted others. A major
beauty and perfection
thus that of building
function of portraiture
was
a

bridge between

human

the

environment.

artist and

his natural

and

18

THE

elasticityof

The

been

not

the

rather, by
of the

absence

of

in

appearance
intrusion

The

and

body
in

testifies

ideals

of the

to

in

the

norm

for

the

repeated

its

used

was

involving

concepts
rather

than

in the

history of

its

tion.
representa-

ulterior

no

instances

many
it

and

for its intrinsic

body

interest, with

in which

and

possessed
chapter, the

purpose,

to

man

been

human

the

Ideology

in

body

turies
cen-

abstract

served

often

more

art.

in Greek
to

and

appearance

the

art, from
Classical

constitutes
civilization.
process

not

one

Its

the

development
seventh

period
of

the

of the
finest

development

encountered

of

mastery

and

ideals

Carrier

This

it

of the

century

down

B.C.

fifth century

legacies
implies

earlier

in

the

of

nude

B.C.,

Greek

civilizing
ancient

the

extension

and

signifiesits

and

now,

not

within
nude
where

man's

The

ken

is the

man

Classical
be

and

reflects

thus

termed

latter

man's

in

What

term

vague,

The

man-centered

focus

and

Greek

without

rather

suggests

shame,

than

had

brought
Classical

of all

"nude"

here

mystical

world,

measure

figure

ego,

the

times
was

perception.

of

hero

own

Homeric
feared

any

represents

with
on

by
B.C.

Achilles,

soldier, or

speculation

only

with

known

Hermes,

concern

distant, and

remote,

The
must

his

us

century

of

art

man

made

was

nude

into

death.

to

Classical

creator's

of

reconstruction

fifth

figure is not

an

Spear

relation

down

the

gods,

nude,
of

of self-confidence.

come

in

The

gymnasium.
frank

the

one

represent

may

of the

messenger

the

Elder

the

the

The

culture.

that

has

of

expression

copies and in a
archaeologist,

identity of

certainty;
a

which

German

Polyclitus

formation

become

Roman

duality

subsiding
dread.

cosmic

or

Greek

of

had

statue,

The

the

(Fig. 418) shows

through
by

fear,

collective

aspect

world

the

gradual

associations, experiences,

into

it

important
to

world,

man's

went

of the

overcoming

the

needs,

of

making

been

The

and

subjects or

SCULPTURE

OLDER

signifiesan
man

Particular

IN

FIQURE

THE

the

over

personify
nature.

or

biologs' has

pared
com-

SCULPTURE

It

between

social, religious,intellectual,

esthetic

world.

but,

was

this

surprisingly infrequent phenomenon

with

has

art

anatomy

historical

sculpture

celebration

anatomical
a

of the

discussed

of strong

emotional,

in

objective knowledge

some

continuing

its

sculptor's skills,incentives,
While

artists

the

body

human

by

physical aspects

by all

is

the

Hmited

imagination.

IN

FIQURE

one

things.

clothing
"naked."

self-conscious-

353

measure

as

insurance

an

of

perfection

matical
in his art.
is known
of

to

have

of

an

been

lost,Polyclitus

recorded

his

perfectedcanon

based

his

system

proportion. He

division

it has

Although

ideal

body, whereby

upon

each

part

could

be expressed as a fraction of the whole,

example, the head as one-eighth or oneninth of the body's total height.The application
of mathematical
proportion to the nude human
figureevidenced the Greek propensity for giving
tangibleand sensual form to abstract concepts,
for making rational abstractions
into a delight
The virtues signified
in the nude
to the senses.
those of hygiene,courage, and
SpearCarrier were
a
dignifiedself-composure.
The
Classical view of beauty depended upon
subtle manipulation of opposites.The
fiftha
condition
of
a
century "beauty pose" showed
balance
tween
berest
a
tempered by movement,
perfectenergy and perfectrepose. (Vigorous
and
movement
were
displaysof energy
reserved
for sculptures of the
gods.) The
artistic device that permits the capturing of this
dualism
is counterpoise; that is,for every movement
in one
direction, there is a countering
tendency in another.

for

Greeks

The

of the fifth century

believed

that

the
everything had an ideal form, of which
more
or
phenomena of ordinary existence were
less corrupted replicas.It remained
for the
artist to see
through this imperfection and to
left
had
nature
perfect what
disguised or
unfinished.
Classical sculpturewas
not
a
mere
juxtapositionof limbs and body parts that the

artist had
view

Figure 418. Polyclitus.

Spear Carrier (Doryphorus )
after an originalof c. 450
reconstruction
by Romer
B.C.
Bronze, height G'liV^". Glyptothek, Municli.

of

functional
,

makes

observed
ideal

in his models.

form

was

necessityand

Classical

art

so

a
an

Greek

The

balance

between

ideal schema.

What

effective is the continued

of imagination and positive

design.
Large-scalestone sculpturedeclined after the
fall of
its abandonment
Rome,
reflecting
carved
Early Christian
apprehension about
revived
a.d.
only after 1000
images, and
Executed
than 1500 years after the Spear
more
Carrier was
a
Romanesque sculptureof the Old
Testament
prophet Isaiah, from the southern
French
Abbey of Souillac (Fig. 419). This
relief sculpturewas
based
other contempoon
rary
carving and manuscript painting rather
the long tradition
than
on
a
or
living model
the
of free-standingsculpture. Furthermore,
with architecture.
Isaiah figureis seen
in connection

presence

ness,

For

unaccustomed

an

instead

is one

of sin

The

nude

without

ease

figure

garments.

Greeks, the ideal of nudity separated

the

them

state.

at
perfectly

from

the

or

shame

barbarians.
in

had

They

respect

to

the

no

sense

unclothed

body. Through the perfectlyformed nude body

the Greeks
expressed and re-experiencedtheir
ideals of eurhythmies. The balance
and rhythm
of the Spear Carrier signifies
not
only control of
the body but the training of the mind
and
the Apolline values of moderation.
This proper
is partlyparalleled
standard
of human
conduct
in art by the Classical sculptor's
love of mathe354

Purposes

of Art

These

factors

account

for the

relative

of the form

flatness
to

wall

the

and

and

its orientation
invisible

an

Isaiah is presentedin what

of ecstatic
scroll

excerpt

are

from

be

kind

arm's
at
length a
originallywritten an
form
and
his prophecies. In
figureof Isaiah is the antithesis

similar.

of human

to

was

meaning, the
of the Spear Carrier;in
two

appears

parallel
plane.

dance, holding
which

on

surface

Both

were

purpose,
concrete

however,

the

realizations

permitted a complex
of

axes

his

form.

assumed

Classical

ideal

has

prophet's body

variation

violent

in the

countermovement

The

the

upon

Greek

of

tranquilcounterpoise.The
joints and the lack of synchronization
of his gesturing arm
the
with
multipledirections of the rest of the body are
prophet's many

stressed. While
Greek

it is not

hard

conceive

to

of the

carrier
smoothly
spear
it requiresa greater effort

shiftinghis
of imagination
alteringhis rather

presented the viewer

stance,
visualize Isaiah
to
being in the guiseof heroes
testifies
is that the Greek
precariouspose. The reason
greater than himself. The Christian figure
and
basis for
to the existence
superiorityof a spiritual sculptorused a strong physiological
the Romanesque
world transcendingthe mundane
the body structure, whereas
sphere of the
linear
in
viewer. The
abstract
armature
Romanesque Christian sculptor, artist used an
unlike
did not
of
celebration
no
Polyclitus,
adopt a singleproportional organizing his figure,with
muscular
The
for an
ideal figure based
coordination.
carrier is an
norm
on
spear
numerical
ratios. His
proportions athlete in the usual physicalsense; Isaiah, an
constant,
and
athlete
varied according to the rank of his figure
of the spirit.
The
were
movement
portion
proand
the expressive
needs
of his design.
of the Isaiah was
directed
in its appeal
There
is an
The
less to the eye than to the mind.
elongatedproportionsof Isaiah, which
in the
excitement
deemphasize his material weight and volume,
prophet's pose, a sort of
spasticand unself-conscious total gesture that
The
mirrors his spiritual
intensity.
exaggerated
dictine
Isaiah,from the portal of the BeneFigure 419.
of
the
crisscrossed
Romanesque
oppositions
Abbey of Souillac,Lot. c. 11 10-30.
with

ideal

behefs, which

modes

of

work

create

more

in

the

drastic

self-involvement

Greek

design.However,
whereas
the
is an
expendable design
spear
the scroll is needed
to complete the'
accessory,
of
the
balance
prophet. This
suggests the
relatedness of the Christian figureto elements
is found

than

himself

outside

complex

understand

To

for the

costume

and

his

existence

hierarchy.
of Isaiah's
the appropriateness
figureitselfand to gain further

understandingof the remoteness

interpretationfrom
Greece,

within

universal

one

may

compare

esque
of this Romanof

that

Classical

this

sculptureto a
Acropolis,Nike

the
relief from
fifth-century
Greek
AdjustingHer Sandal (Fig. 420). The
the
chiton, clings to the goddess'
garment,
of the
form
in a revealingmanner,
because
practiceof oilingthe body prior to donning a
robe. The
drapery folds are dependent on the
articulation of the body, and hence the
modeled
veilingof the female form in no way reduces
is a flattering
its sensual appeal.There
cal
recipro-

relation

between

skin

and

garment

that

of the woman.
heightensthe physicalcharms
The
Romanesque drapery, like the treatment
beard

of the
abstract

with
interplay
The

and

hair, shows

taste

the

for strong

designthat has no organic

body.The Greek draperycarv-

linear surface

Figure in Sculpture

355

B"

Above

left:Figure

from

Nike

420.

height 42". The

Nike.

left: Figure 421.

Portal, Chartres Cathedral.
and

c.

10

Sandal,

Jamb

ble,
Mar-

B.C.

Acropolis Museum,

Below

ing is deep

Adjusting Her

of Athena

Temple

the

Athens.

Statues, Royal

12th

century.

produces strong rhythmic effects

of

French
light and
shadow; the medieval
modeling is shallow,on the other hand, in keeping
with

the reduced
sensualityof the whole.
mid-twelfth-century
jamb figuresof the

The

Portal

Royal

of

Chartres

medieval

another

figure (Fig.421).

It

strate
demon-

of the

human

be remembered

must

such

with

simultaneously

Cathedral
ideal

Old

that,

Testament

called upon
figures,Gothic sculptorswere
a
variety of other subjectsand in

to

represent

doing
The

human

the

treated

certain
form

in

with

movement

other

In

Gothic

century

is bound

axis

they

found

in

Greek

porch

of

the

serve

the

is relaxed.

human

is

system
from

the

for
of

roof of

the

movement.

legsis stiffly
poised,indicatingthat

Each

that

on

this member;
is allowed

maiden

demonstrates

essential autonomy
form.
He
could

the

antithesis of such

structural

still

of their

mobility

cipal
prinbuilding to

caryatids (Fig.422)

weight is carried

the

The

nonhuman

vertical supports
displayfreedom

as

porch,

One

that of the

columnar
their

the
Erechtheum
on
fifth-century
Classical maidens,
Acropolis.These

Athenian
who

of

twelfth-

strates
sculpture demonexample. The

been

to

in

human

in this

attached.

are

absorptionin

all

not

given a
emphasis, for

figures have
rigidityand vertical

ways.

surprisingdegree

cathedral

jamb

which

the

render

words,

propertiesseen

the

in several

repeatedly that

they could

contexts

naturalism.

ol

form

artists demonstrated

so

the
and

not

the

other

degree of

view
sculptor's
integrityof the
conceive

even

of

an

inorganic basis for bodily construction, despite

the

context.

The

sculptor willirigly

Gothic

foregoes this libertyin his

saints

in

order

to

impressionof the power and superhuman

attributes of his subjects.
The
ideal through
expressionof a spiritual
the
the
Gothic
artist
to
body did not mean
of reality,but
imitation
a
an
reorganization
enhance

the

invention

and

jamb figuresare
their
to

nonnatural

or

caryatids,who
ground,

devices.

also dematerialized

elongatedproportion.In

the

base

of

the

stand

Gothic

in

The

part by

contradistinction

confidently

saints

are

on

poisedon

their toes, almost

suspended, in a way that

of corporeahty.

if

as

their

announces

transcendence

jamb figuresmanifest

The

other;

world.

material

experience of

sensorv

which

alien

to

from

refuges

appearance
emblematic

could

not

The

closer
The

the

Yakshi,

on

who

gate of the
in

the

sacred

Yakshi
of the

Early Andhra
figure.

(Indian Tree
Great

Period,

than

ist

herself

Stupa
Her

personages.

world
Greeks.

world

the

with

Sanchi

at

Christian

medieval

no

look
out-

Gothic.

goddess (Fig.423),

tree

entwines

Great

to

the

has

tree
no

constellation

generous,

curving

body with its globular breasts belongs with the

rather
(burial mound)
hemispherical stupa
than
amid
the
pointed arches and rectilinear
of
With
Chartres.
towers
nothing of the
associations

columnar
Greek

maidens,

or

constriction

abandon

the

of the

of

the

Yakshi's

sensuality of her form

fertilitygoddess. No
internal
skeleton
impedes the suggestive
apparent
torsion of her inflated "Subtle
Body."
Buddhism
The
Yakshi
was
symbolic in both

posture
and

accentuates

recalls

her

the

role

as

The

Figure in Sculpture

Goddess),

Stupa,

himself,

Gothic

reflected

too,

Greek

is

with

of

outlook

ripe Indian

warm,

or

place

the

India,

to

Gate

relaxation

and

The

the world.

accept
of

art

Bracket

East

comprise

There

world.

of the repose
man's
concord

of

Figure 423.
the

from
the
porch of
Caryatids,
The
b.c.
Acropolis,Athens.

420

parts.
counter-

saints

hint

his societyor

with

from

c.

artist,with

Gothic

his

Gothic

natural

the
or

Below:

422.

uncertainties, tensions, and

the

of

anxieties

of

of the

bodies

Figure

the Erechtheum.

was
optimisticfigures,

for

untenable

or

The

and

attitude

Greek

the

his

animated

he

the

from

off

shut

rational

The

of each

awareness

no

is

each

moreover,

Above:

357

Sanchi.

century

B.C.

and

the

had
to

being

merely
of

exaggeration
who

those

spiritualcommunion
proportions, sequences
of

the

did

parts

based

the

directly on

shared

of

some

the

from

human

More

tactile

sculpture successfullyembodied
of Indian

eroticism
To

of

but
later

painting,
potential of
the
spiritual

artists.

from

turn

system

body

than

so

and

shaping
a

arbitrariness

three-dimensional

the

gods. The

and

curves,

actual

design.

Romanesque

of

initiate

to

the

proceed

not

parts

intended

was

her

upon
with

their

itself.

sexual

and

looked

in

end

an

Yakshi's

the

rehgious motivation

a
arouse

teachings and
to
higher

their

erotic instinct

human

than

purposes
The

in

which

Hinduism,
convert

art

Sanchi

the

Yakshi

to

Donatello's

Mary Magdalen (Fig. 424) creates

an
interestingjuxtaposition.Although Donatello is referred to as a Renaissance
sculptor,his
the
of
life-sized, painted wooden
image
the expression of an
tially
essenMagdalen remains
Christian

me;dieval

attitude

incompatibility of body
Donatello

often

and

carved

attractive

toward

soul.

healthful

and

in

age

figures

an

the

Although
metically
cos-

that

admired

of
physical beauty, he retained much
penitentialspiritof the late Middle
Ages.
Intended
for the
Baptistery of Florence, his
sculptureis a merciless study of the body made
less than
first through self-indulgence
human,
and then through a self-denyingasceticism.
He
the

renewed
inner
has

the
truth

late medieval
and

become

reminder
the

of

the

like

living corpse,

of death

zeal

flesh

dichotomy between
beauty. The Magdalen

surface

and

the

the

animates

convert

of

wages

medieval
sin.

Only
leathery

of

this skeletal figure,holding out

the
hope as baptism. The spiritualintensity
cends
transimparted to the sculpture by Donatello
its physical repellence and
makes
the
work
estheticallycompelling. The
slight gap
between
the hands
tension
creates
a
life-giving
that complements the psychologicalforce emanating

same

from
the

the

rigidityof

head.
the

that

of

it is

self-imposed.No

the

is further

curythmy;

Chartres

from

yet

the

Essential

Greek

Donatello

Right: Figure

424.

c.

Polychromed

1454-55.

to

Classical
did

make

Donatello.

Purposes of Art

is

from
here

ideal

art

of

sculptures

Magdalen.
height 6'2".

Mary
wood,

Baptistery,Florence.
358

this focus

differs
body, which
jamb figuresin that
sculpture in Western

of the
It

body
was

which

Donatello

share
who

certain

Classical

created,

in

ideals.

his David

the first life-sized nude

figuresince
was
antiquity.The work
probably
commissioned
by a privatepatron for his home.
In
1430
the
not
sculptor'ssociety was
yet
prepared to see a Biblical hero such as David

(Fig.425),

the

end

of

an

Florentine aristocratic
early-fifteenth-century
ligence,
youthfulmasculine beauty and intelwith the latter faculty
triumphant over

ideal of

the brute

strength of Goliath.
half century later, the scientific
of another
Florentine sculptorand the
curiosity
About

heroic connotations

produced

an

ideal
and

considerable

of strenuous
physicalaction
tello's
importantdeparturefrom Donaof passivebeauty.The
full enactment
revelation of the
human
body's
rather than its potential
strength,

force, is what

Pollaiuolo's

separates

small

bronze

sculptureof Hercules Crushing Antaeus

the
(Fig. 426) from
strugglingfigures in
ancient Greek art. The Greeks would temporize
the full

or

tension

in order

manifestation

extreme
to

body's design with

Pollaiuolo,who

of muscular

conformity of

ensure

ideal

the

fluid grace.
the opportunityto dissect
an

had

of

breakingnew
ground for sculpture
corpses,
excited by the discoveryof means
of
and was
convincinglyembodying the human
energy
in gestures of violent pushing and
demanded
houettes
more
pulling.The
angular and active silof his figures,
in comparison with
was

those of the Greeks, resulted from direct observation

of how, for instance,the shoulder bones
of the human
outward

as

form
the

tighten.Unlike
muscular

Hercules) are
(e.g.,

arm

muscles

systems of the

Interest
Above:
Head
Museo

David
with the
Figure 425. Donatello.
of Goliath, c. 1430-32. Bronze, height^'qY^".

of

Nazionale, Florence.

Pollaiuolo.
Hercules
Right:Figure426. Antonio
CrushingAntaeus, c. [475. Bronze, height 18" (with
base).Museo
Nazionale, Florence.

commemorated
For unknown
the

in

an

reasons,

vanquisher of

unclothed
Donatello

Goliath

boots, accouterments
The
Greek sculptors.
the
ol
body was

representation.
chose

wearing

unthinkable

to

hat

and

for Classical

counterpoisebeauty
borrowed

show

from

pose

ancient

figureis a synthesisof
posturalderivation and personalobservation of
the body. His youthfulmodel
lacks the fluid
the
and
contours
joints and
pronounced
the
articulation of body structure, such
as
joiningof the legsand torso, found in ancient
The
athlete figures.
David nonetheless furnishes.
statuary. Donatello's

through
the

the

and

David,the skeletalbody thus clearlyoperate

and

rightdown
in

pushed

stretched

in Donatello's

in the Pollaiuolo statue

construction

are

arc

to the

to

be traced

depicting human

body reached

in its

feet of Hercules.

climax

Baroque sculptorBernini.

psychology
in the work

His

David

static,self-contained,and

the

Dissatisfied with

Renaissance
aloof aspect of most
nevertheless,
figures,
Bernini disposedthe body in corkscrew
The

fashion.

the

about

of

work

David

Bernini

with

art

the

its ideal external

in

from

Gianlorenzo

Bernini.

(Fig.427),worked on
male
mature
body

from

1622

in

mobile

David.

Borghese,

to

1622Rome.

1624, shows

position
"

in

the Donatello

which
satisfied
figure,
the ideal of a free-standing
figurein repose. Like
Renaissance
however, Bernini's David
sculpture,
had
it was
most
one
viewpoint from which
in terms
of disclosing
the full,
seen
effectively
uninterruptedsweep of the gesture. The body
is coiled,spiraling
in space, as David
prepares
to loose the stone
tary
againstGoliath. The momencontrast

of

to

of the muscles, and set

stance, contraction
face establish the figure'smood
and

the

It is

impossibleto question Bernini's

and the movement
understanding of anatomy
of the body, for he was
heir to the great achievements
of the
Renaissance
and
Michelangelo.
purpose.

360

Purposes of

Art

of

of

to

1917

in

traditions

ancient

which

date, there

was

the

and

in sculpture
brought to
sculpture of the body a fresh and exciting
time preserving
while at the same
naturalism
of imitatingits external
the broad
conventions
His CrouchingWoman
(Fig. 428)
appearance.
dismisses the studio pose and the making of art
from
the art of others by presentinghis model
emotional
in
condition
of physical and
a
for
contraction
brought on by fatigue.Where
from
centuries sculptorshad generallyworked
conventional
a
easily
repertory of poses and
apprehended rhetorical gestures, Rodin sought
the instinctive movement
inspiredby the body's
To reproduce the
natural response to the spirit.
in the flesh,and not just
mirroring of the spirit
of

life size. Galleria

further

there

was

of

Rodin,

SCULPTURE

1863

beginnings of

Marble,

until

sculpture of Auguste Rodin,

the

culmination

24.

physiology
in terms

sculpturalimagery

MODERN

IN

ranges

the

His

TRANSFORMATIONS

FIQWRE

Figure 427.

the

Not

century,
in the

move

long tradition

body

appearance.

change
significant
the body.

In

of

the human

nineteenth

the

to

unite

to

of the beholder.

space

artist celebrated

the

psychology of

and

induced

sought

culmination

the

was

in which

is thus

viewer

statue.

surface

Rodin

the

thousands

form.

and

muscle,

sculptural bodies

his

up
of touches

Rodin

of bone

manifestation

built

revolution

modern

human

the

based

on

actual

from

search

of

his eyes and fingers,

and as
how
the
result of long meditation
a
clay
upon
to
receive
had
and
bronze
to be conditioned
the

livingform

by

lightthat would bring it to life.No previous

movements
so
sculptor had probed so many
different models, in
extensivelywith so many
festations
order to bring to sculpturethe endless maniof being alive. For Rodin, the great
practicalconsideration in basing sculptureon
the

the

form

human
of

surfaces

volume, and
to

express

the

the

was

the

and

fact that

perfectjoiningof

life force

both

silhouettes,mass
that

many
animated

sisted
con-

and

parts
them.

,^*ii'-^

Plate 49.

Frans

Hals. Portraitofa Man.

c.

Oil
1661-64.

on

canvas,

:.
3-1i/g

Kasscl
25%". Staatliche Kunstsammlungen,

T^^E^^S^^

i Jlii

Plate 50.
Peter
The National

Paul

Rubens.

Susanna Foiirment. 1620. Oil

London
Gallery,

by
(reproduced

on

panel,31 X2i %"

Trustees).

courtesy of the

Plate

51.

Henri

Matisse.

Collection

Mr.

Woman
and

Mrs.

with the Hat.

Walter

A.

1905.

Oil

Haas, San

on

canvas,

Francisco.

32

23

y,"

Plate 52.

and His Bride. 1434. Oil on panel,32 % x

Eyck. Giovanni Arnolfim
van
National Gallery,
London
(reproducedby courtesy of the Trustees).

Jan
The

23I/2'

When

all these things worked

in the

well together as

soundly functioning
body, good sculpture

could result.
Rodin's
model
involve

the ideals of

than

express

To

he

not

relied

allowed

to
feelingor inspiration
through the mastery of his

themselves

hands.

past ages did

for
duplication,

mechanical

his eye and

on

imitating the live

of

lifelongideal

rather

the

preserve

look

of

the

natural

his
drawing from and suppressing
knowledge of past styles.To study the surface
of his Crouching Woman
is like exploring
the
unknown
know
territory.We
body in
both

meant

narrow

such

specialized
ways

or

of the
lover. Each

athlete,or

focuses

of these forms

occupations
pre-

designer,
of knowledge

various properties
of
rejects

and

on

the

as

doctor, fashion

body. Rodin instead ignored nothingand

Our eyes and hands
are
sought out everything.
the

accustomed

not

the

to

of modeling,
intensity
surfaces
which,
sculptural

revelations of his

the

derived

from

be felt

must

The

broad

Rodin's

work

familiar

most

our

well

as

possession,

seen.

as

of

range

human

in

gesture

related in such figures

partially
and
his John the
the
as
CrouchingWoman
Preaching(Fig.429). In the former, the
Baptist
in its maximal
contraction ; the
body is seen
could not be compressed
figureof a woman
into
to

is

smaller

solve

makes

his

as

Rodin

But

area.

this

abstract

an

convincing

art

did

set out

not

problem. What

to

is that

us

his

to have
figuresassume
postures which
appear
been
by feeling.The
genuinely motivated
the other
figureof the Baptisttends toward
in
that
is
extreme
a
body
brisklymoving and
on
expanding.Restingfirmly a base, the body
is re-created as a continuously
enclosed,solid

articulated

dictated

Structure

mass.

by anatomy

derives

from

the

observations,and
heaven

and

the

The

source.
literary

earth

modeled
inner

by

structure.

as

his

motions.

In

theme

from

comes

The
as

human

toward

form

of
was

given to his eye

comprehended its
ately
sculptoralso passionmarvelously expressive

it

was

But

the
as

and

counterbalance.

he
sculpturelifelike,
of

appearance

physiology;expression
psychological

artist's

his mind

loved the body

organism of balance
make

are

within the conventions

are

Rodin

hand, and

movement

prophet'sgestures

sculptural rhetoric.
and

and

and

being
his view,

man,

resume

not

it

To
the

gave
of successive

the saints,
was

AuGUSTE
Rodin.
Crouching
Woman.
1880-82.
Bronze, height 33".
The
Rodin
Museum, Philadelphia(courtesy
the Commissioners
of Fairmont
Park
and
the PhiladelphiaMuseum
of Art).

Figure 428.

Rodin.
Figure 429. Auguste
John the
BaptistPreaching.1878. Bronze, height
The Museum
6'63/4".
(Mrs. Simon

York

of Modern

Art, New

Guggenheim Fund).

the

holy, and
It

symbolized

that

The

of the

vigor

organic growth
realized

spirit.

what

much

as

himself

express

and

he
the

and

the surface
up
The
animation.

and

studies

gesture

sculptor's

of the

energy

Rodin's

from

so

figure'sstance

built

he

fingersas

the

tension.

by the

matched

to

urge

resultingbodily

was

Rodin

moved

instinctive

model's
his

the temple of
was
nor
Baptist'smessage

body

the

not

was

to

suggest

body

was

of

hundreds

of

figuresperceived from all points ol view, a

technique he claimed to have derived from the
reception and
study of Greek
sculpture.The
rejectionof lightby the surface givesa pulse to
the bronze, making the flesh responsiveto the
The
bold
figure's psychological condition.
attitude and thrust of the arms
bring the sculpture
it decisively
from
into our
space and remove
the cold realm
of academic
sculpture.In his best
Rodin

work,

intimate

created

that

presences

into the world of the viewer.

disturbingly
Few
modern
Rodin's
sculptorshave shared
of
use
psychological interests and
generous
dramatic
sculptorwho sought to
gestures. One

intrude

extend, but
and

not

imitate, Rodin's

to

bodily rhetoric

Wilhclm
heroic

Rodin's
those
Rodin's
vision

the

was

In his search

Lehmbruck.

of

celebration

positivelegacy
of

heroic

the

Lehmbruck's

the

from

themes

solemn

sculptor

for

modern

'War

stylebefore World
with

naturalism

German

I, he drew from
living (other than

the

to

in

past).

Lehmbruck
human

consecration

Part
was

of
the

suffering.
of the

body
(Fig.430) proceeded from
equating an exaggeratedly human
figure with
the spiritual.
The
body is given monumentality
loss of a
without
through meticulous
measure,
of its organic development. The
sense
youth is
not
posed in the assertive stride of Rodin's
stance
John the Baptistbut is fixed in an erect
Wilhelm
Lehmbruck.
Standing Touth.
Figure 430.
which, in conjunction with the elongated proof Modern
portions, 1913. Cast stone, height7'8".The Museum
of elevation.
his qualities
accentuates
York
Rockefeller).
Art, New
(giftof Abby Aldnch
The
from
its
sculpture'svisual force comes
the figure,
lack of physical movement
back in upon
to
turn
and
the necessary
gestures seem
willful reduction
of the
imphed strain. The
suggestinghis essential isolation and a need to
know
Lehmbruck's
and
himself. The
difficult course
with
the
master
body conveys
concern
tense
It is not
of his life is suggestedby the abrupt thrusts and
strivingof the human
a
spirit.
trained, lithe body that permits Lehmbruck's
changes of direction in the silhouette of the
the eve
of World
War
figureto survive; the body of this naked youth
I, this
on
body. Done
has been
Lehmbruck's
statue
shaped by his individual character.
hopes
perhaps expresses
In the manner
for youth. In
Lehmbruck's
of Isaiah, he is an athlete of the
sculpture done
the body seems
spirit,not of the flesh. Lacking the more
to
during and after the war,
obvious
rhetoric of Rodin's
the artist's
break
down, quite likelyreflecting
art, the meditative
in his

Standing Touth

362

Purposes

of Art

loss of confidence
is

Lehmbruck

in man's

of the

one

of his fate.

mastery
few

modern

sculptors
pathos in

along with Rodin, achieved

body.
portrayingthe human

who,

of Rodin's

One

dramatic

most

to

contributions

Rodin

convinced

became

that

an
complete work of art did not presuppose
He cited the example of portrait
entire figure.
busts and pointed out that in Greek
fragments
we
can
appreciateperfectbeauty (a premise to

themselves

Greeks

the

which

Rodin

objected).When

would

have

the

eliminated

head

he also removed
its
from his sculpture,
and arms
for rhetorical
and the traditional means
identity
expression.As pedestriana subjectas a man
took
the aspect of universal
on
walking now
drama, and for the first time biologicalman

became

the

angles the

certain
and

with

forward

the
and

off from
and

to

the back

downward

simultaneous

in full stride

part of his

tilted

torso

the
to
right,appears about
powerfullegssuggest a pushing
of weight
foot and a receiving

the
pressure on
condition
that is

front

foot

"

impossible in
sculpture.(The

life yet believable in Rodin's

left leg is slightlylonger than

the

right

to

of weight and allow

shifting
for the extended
stride.)Like Michelangelo,
in the
Rodin
was
willingto adjust anatomy
When
asked
interest of artistic plausibility.
why
he
left off his figure'sarms
and
had
head,
Rodin
walks on his feet."
replied,"A man
Another
drastic departure in this exciting
of the
his retention
was
sculptureby Rodin
of his
of its fashioning,
the gouges
marks
raw
shoulder
of
the
the
a
nd
fingers
ragged separation
accommodate

from

the

creatingan
the

natural

the

omitted
art

that

would

His

arms.

had
seem

the
at

dedication

complete
first to

Maillol
At

and

Gaston
turn

his
in

ideas and

integrityor

the

evolved
form

Rodin's

of

own

of

their

without

own

Aristide

strength were
Lachaise.
the

way

its external

of

century,

Maillol

celebratingthe
appearance.

had

human

With

few

himself
the
to
exceptions,Maillol confined
female
body, always choosing models whose
and proportions
his personal
met
temperaments
ideal of perfecthealthful beauty and equanimity.
Maillol's
alternative
an
sculpture was
surfaces of
to the powerful but
more
nervous
Rodin's
Rodin
shiver of
art.
brought a new
excitement
established
a
to sculpture;Maillol
The
former's precedent of estanew
blishing
serenity.
the validity
of the partial
figureresolved
certain
problems for the younger
sculptor.
"Arms
known
are
Calvary," Maillol was
my
he would
often divest his figures
to say, and
of their head
of their arms
and
or
legs.For
of its volume,
Maillol, through a refinement
the

torso

of

woman

in

itself held

all

the

From

concern.

Walking Man,

upper

The

toppleover.

artistic

central

extend

loss

that parts of
his demonstration
was
historically
the body were
dispensablein a finished sculpture.
he
In
1900
exhibited
publicly for the
armless study
first time a small headless and
Some
for his Johi the Baptist.
made
years later
he
and
it the title
enlarged this work
gave
(Fig.431). Inspiredby his study
Walking Man
of the
fragmented figures of antiquity in
museums,

exceptionsduring and after Rodin's lifetime

the best sculptors
have found
new
possibilities
for the figure.
Two
able
exceptionswho were

have

to

look

of

been

compromised by this action,until we recognize

that Rodin
was
retainingby deliberate esthetic
choice the natural evidence of sculpturemaking.
Great
naturalistic sculptureof the human
in this century, for with few
body has waned

Rodin.
Walking Man. iQ-jQ-Qo.
Figure43 1. Auguste
The National
Bronze, heightss'/e"Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C. (giftof Mrs. John W. Simpson).

Left: Figure
Chained
c.

Action

432.

Aristide

( Torso,Monument

Maillol.

Blanqui )
1929). Height 47".
(castin bronze
of Art, New
Metropolitan Museum
(Fletcher
Fund).
to

1905

The
York

Torso.
Lachaise.
Figure 433. Gaston
1963). Height gV-/'.
i")32 (cast in bronze
The Estate of Isabel Lachaise
(courtesy,the

Above:

Felix

Landan

the Robert

essential

young

Action

To

ingredients for harmony. His Chained

(Fig. 432), a striding female figure,is a
personal reworking of Rodin's
Walking Man.
Maillol recognized that the male body could be
more
dramatic, but like many
sculptorsand
convinced
that a
painters before him, he was

artists

some,

Gallery, Los

Angeles, and
York).

SchoelkopfGallery, New

at

the

it seemed

beginning

of the

melodramatic

and

century.
deficient

in
made
strength.In a statement
spelledout this criticism without
I am
Rodin:
"What
to
reference
specifically
after,above all is expression.
[which] does
woman's
consist of the passion mirrored
surfaces and
a
not
body, with its smoother
upon
firm sensual
the basis for the most
face or
human
volumes, was
betrayed by a violent gesture.
The
of my
whole
perfectbeauty.
picture is
arrangement
Lachaise
made
robust, full-blown
"picture,"Matisse
expressive."For the word
many
recall statues
of
substituted
could
have
sculpturesof his wife which
"sculpture."
made
to
Matisse
prehistoricfertility
tributed
congoddesses and which
important contributions
modern
to
was
honesty of
prophesied by
sculpture an
sculpture,and his statement
attitude
of his
work
toward
His
bronze
The Serf{Fig.434), done between
his own
torso
sex.
wife (Fig. 433) drew
of the
her natural
1900
and
1903. The
lower
arms
heavily upon
clay
but
its proportions and
of The Serfhad fallen off before casting,
version
endowments,
shaping
also were
indebted
to
the legacy of the partial
and perhaps inspiredby Rodin's
partialfigures
Matisse
did not
figure. Unlike the proportions of Classical or
replace them. This suited his
Indian
attention
work
ideas
not
on
were
art, those of Lachaise's
expression,drawing our
dictated
do to
by abstract numerical
relationships from what the figure is doing or can
but
in his working of the
what
Matisse
has done
were
frank, direct expression of strong
sensual
feelings.In selecting only the torso,
Although it reveals
body's surface and mass.
Lachaise
created
the influence
of Rodin's
right
outa
personal image
art, it is also an
strong and
of woman
the source
of life,which
of the use of facial and gesticular
as
invited
rejection
the kind of
reformation
illustrated.
as
expression in such works
John the Baptist.
generous
Rodin's
both
art
and
attracted
The
surface of both sculpturesreceived accents
repelled

364

Purposes

of Art

in

formal

1908, Matisse

of

modeling

ward
wholly dictated by the outthe
male
body. Matisse's

not

character

of

dense and compact than the

more
figureis even
John the Baptist.Both sculptorsat some
point
went
beyond
empirical knowledge to create
changes that brought to the eye new
expressive
esthetic
sensations. Certain
shapes and kinds
of surface
finish
more
are
expressivethan
be seen
by comparing these
others, as can
in
qualities

model

the

Maillol

with

those

of Matisse. While

essentiallypassive,the sculpture
becomes
dramatic
through the activityof the
total effect of The Serf,rather
sculptor. The
than

is

its facial

expression,makes

moving. Matisse
and
body of the

had

sought

in

it

both

visually
the

face

and

day

with

Rodin's

the lessons he

Walkino

written
of Futurist Sculpture,
this indebtedness

for

source

We

learned

in
as

from

Manifesto

1912, he discloses
a

idea

new

of the

sculpturalharmony:
that

proclaim
fall in

must

well

as

had

In his Technical

Man.

upon

the

whole

visible
with

merging

us,

world
and

us

creatinga harmony measurable

only by the
creative imagination;that a leg,an
arm.
having no importance except as elements of
plastic[sculptural]
rhythm, can be abolished,
.

order

in

not

artist wishes

imitate

to

fragment,but

to
to

conform

create.

Greek

Roman

or

harmony the
sculptural
entity.
to

the

for in art the human

only resemble itself,
exist apart
from
the logic of
figure must
physiognomy.
can

evidence
of a deep
model
gravity that he felt existed in every human
being.For Matisse and Rodin, the purpose of
their near
Boccioni was
obsessed with the visible and
to convey
rendering the body was
invisible movement
and interpenetration
of all
life,symptomatic of
religiousfeelingstoward
the replacement of "religious"
in Space
In Unique Forms of Continuity
by "spiritual" matter.
art.
sculpturein modern
Fig. 435), the closed shell of the body was
drama
and
Relative
inaction gave
dignity
ripped open and forcibly penetrated by the
to

Lehmbruck's

body, but
saw

the

force.

human

Matisse's

and

the Italian

concepts of the
Boccioni

sculptorUmberto

form

only

Reacting against

of vibrant

in terms

academic

sculpture,
its insistence
with
imitative
on
modeling,
sublime
ennobling subjectmatter,
poses, and
the body in terms
he
Boccioni
of what
recast
the science and
thought was
technologyof his

Figure
I goo-03.
ler Art

434.

Henri

Matisse.

The
Bronze, height361,4"York.
Galleries,New

The

Serf.

Knoed-

space

that

about
act

muscles

path

of

instead

it. The

solid

portions of

the

body

shown
not
are
as
taut
upon
space
in a fixed position
but, to indicate the
their
an

motion

through

undulating

the fusion

of the

its environment.

molten

acquire

ens
heightirregular silhouette with

Boccioni

paintingthe edges to

space,

flow that

enhance

even

the

considered

impressionof

Umberto
Boccioni.
Unique Forms of
Figure 435.
in Space. 1913.
Bronze, height 43y2".
Continuity
York
The
Museum
of Modern
Art, New
(acquired
through the Lillie P. Bliss Becjuest).

there

cubes in the sculpture.

It was
Lipchitz and the Cubists to
sovereigntyof the mind of the artist,

no

are

pure
of

intention

the

the

assert

of "nature,"

not

rather

language
wanted

we

fit

to

Cubists
than

find

it is

human

not

been

man-made

language

for

one,

adequately

to

is less attached

to

of
pure invention
body has
imagination."The human

Nature,

the

interview,

an

chose

naturalistic

new

feeling.Cubism

our

Mother

In

the work.

over

"We

Lipchitzsaid,

more

but

deformed,

intellect and

esthetic

language

inherited

the

reformed, by

artist's

judgment. Anatomy and

physiology, the traditional vocabulary and
of the sculptor,have
to
given way
grammar
what
might be called a new
sign language a
"

not

from

the

ages,

but

one

of his time and

Lipchitz thought was
personalinvention. Flattened, mostly rectilinear
which

of

segments

angles

to

The
Man

with

Guitar.

Figure 436. Jacques

of Modern
1915.81006,height 38 1/4". The Museum
York
(Mrs. Simon
Art, New
Guggenheim Fund).

continuum.

Although
pubHcations

Futurist

extolhng

machine

the

earnestlycommitted

and

bronze.

Where

contributed

Boccioni

to

enthusiastic
and

was

its

to

writings
dynamism, he

the

human

body

translated

resides

in

not

dramatic

represent.

from

the

Renaissance

to

the

esthetic

at
to

and

this

hallowed

gesture

but

in

the

ing
shaping and joining.In arrivdid
violence
of
no
art,
Lipchitz
type
subjects;his figureis anonymous

activity.Lipchitzdetached

Sculptors

an

of the

it

to

into

various

arbitrary
figure.

objectin Cubist art. The basic change is from

is
the body seen to the body constructed. There
no
ture
separationof inside and outside. The sculphas its own
and logicof organization.
spirit
These
along with structural rightproperties,
become
the sculptor's
and expressiveness,
ness
criteria. The
expressivenessof the sculpture
character

meant

at

an

generallyvertical

is

body

set

construct

cated
sculpturesindiscience
Classical
a
by having
figurehold
scientific instrument, Boccioni
a
imparted to
of the scientific attitude
the body itself qualities
was

academic

another

for the

armature

Lipghitz.

varying thicknesses

one

is involved

of heroicism

and

in

is itself

what

social

an

himself from
or

moral

esthetic
notions

correctness.

in transforming
But
within a few years, he began to feel that
from
his crystalline
too
structures
remote
were
general,a lover, or
virtue. While
academic
human
a
qualitiesand
gradually introduced
sculptorsaltered the
forms.
sensual and volumetric
more
identityof the model, Jacques Lipchitzand the
Cubists acknowledged his or
1926
between
her identitybut
In his Figure (Fig.437), done
revolutionized
"with
the appearance.
Cubist
and 1931, Lipchitzshowed
new
a
concern
tors
sculpsuch
the
and
direction
pensability
dislife.This work
as
art
Lipchitz demonstrated
began a new
of surface resemblance
in body imagery
for figural
both
in his own
and
art
in modern
sculpture.Lipchitz'Man with a Guitar (Fig.436)
sculpture.Lipchitz created a new
perhaps first impresses the viewer
by those
sculpturalmetaphor for a state of being. His
things it is not. This is not a sculpture into
figuration
interpretationof tension is a chainlike conwhich the viewer can
oval in which
climaxed
horts
projecthimself or which exby a concave
him to be a better member
of society.
The
small cylinderssuggesting eyes. For
set two
are
have
of mental
such verbal
has not been
crisis we
moments
body, which lacks flesh and feeling,
"imitated from nature"
What
and does not correspond
stomach
is
tied
in
knots."
as
"my
images
to the
Lipchitzgives us is not a view of a tormented
sensory experience of our
eyes and hands.
The label "Cubism"
is also misleading,since
else, but
individual, as if seen
by someone

present
a

time

studio model

366

have

into

succeeded

god,

Purposes of

Art

rather
an
imaginative interior image or a
sculpturalmetaphor of tension or distress.
is revealed, not
A poetical"internal" anatomy
the contents
of an
X-ray plate.Lipchitz'form

suggests the

stresses

and

forces

unresolved

to

subjectedand,
being may
as
by the integratedwelding of base
signified
resultant immobility of
to the link forms, the
internal
oval suggests an
and body. The
spirit
which

or

be

human

introverted

normally convex

sense

in

of

its reversal

head, its elimination

the

of useless

of the eye forms. (Photographs

fixity
of shock show
of people in a state
a
kindred
suspension of consciousness, their
immense
but
under some
entire being rigidified
concerned
invisible pressure.)Lipchitz was

detail,and

wath

the

the

effects rather

than

the

s^sj"

WR

growing involvement

feelingsof
The

brought
seeing

of

and

had

decades

introduction

with

the

inner
if

subject,seldom
sculpture.
of the

1920s

and

ever

1930s

life and

sought
saw

the

into

sculpture and painting of

excitingfantasies on the human
body. The body
in terms
conceived
of the artist's personal
was
ideas and
privatefeelingsof desire or repugnance.
While
dreams
the primary
were
not
of the

source

new
conceits,novel forms were
tions
by the artist's irrational associawith body parts.
Spanish sculptorJulio Gonzalez sought

often induced

victim.

his

after in earlier

of such

cause

Man
here is not a hero but
paralysis.
Cubist
painting and sculpture had
of older habits
about an interruption
and
body
rendering the human

provided unlimited alternatives to the imagination

to the bodycould be
by showing that reference
achieved with forms unlike those of actual anatomy.
The
of Man
with a
primarilyesthetic concerns
Guitar were
thus enriched
by the sculptor's

The
to

restore

to

fantasy,and
Combing Her

sculpturepropertiesof mystery,
diabolic.

the

even

Hair

(Fig. 438)

His

resists

Woman
the

Left: Figure 437. jAcquES Lipchitz.

Figure.1926-31. Bronze, height y'lVi"The

Museum

of Modern

(Van Gogh Purchase

Below:

Art,

New

York

Fund).

Figure 438. Julio Gonzalez.

Combing Her Hair. 1936. Wrought
of Modern
iron, height4'4".The Museum
(Mrs. Simon
Art, New York
Guggenheim
Woman

Fund).

old

criteria. There

according
his image
the

of

He
and

body

contraries

of

he

woman.

woman's

evoked

with

of

series

forms,

closed

rounded
opposed to the customary
soft and
smooth
shapes, hard and rough versus
exist as
surfaces. Space does not
something

sharp

as

outside

around

and

but

the body

becomes

be

something to
possession,
pierced and set off by what
considered his "drawing" of strong

intimate

of solid and

union

1930s,

time

beaten
Gonzalez

swords

fashioned

civilized

In
objects.

this metal

ceased

science. Today

be,

to

of

of

which

to

Under

his

of his

the

hands,

delicate

as

naturalistic

example
on

and

many

Alberto
Cut
woman

for

the

stone,

modern

well

as

cast

or

iron

by
projections
metal.

yielded

constructs

strenuous

later returned

he

forms, Gonzalez'

to

personal

created an important influence

sculptorsusing metal.

Giacometti's

Woman

with Her

dissected

fulsome

and

nude,

recomposed

skeletal arrangement
that
sadistic image. Giacometti
himself in

the

see

Alberto

Giacometti.

Woman

qualities,and

The

of fantasy and

with

other

many
the true

forms

movement

1930s

imperative
his belief

was

the conviction,

that abstract
sculptors,
for sculpture.

have
been conscious of the
sculptors
ventional
body in ways different from the con-

human

human

abstractly,

at

body consists of parts that

shape and proportion.Its masses

widely in
unevenly distributed,so
blocky
limbs
to

form

torso

are

to

yet

which

are

pairsof roughly tubular

is surmounted

by

cylindrical

differ

that the rounded

of the

different

two

hinged
joined

aggressive

an

by

moral

in

primacy

of the

in

transparent

created

art

Modern

created

ovoid

an

The

neck.

head

esthetic

of these
disparateshapes poses a
the twentieth
to
problem, and down
the
sculptors relied heavily upon
century
generalfamiliaritywith and acceptance of the
their
anatomical
of bodily parts and
sequence
formal disparateness.
But in this century artists,
to
no
longerconstrained by an ideal of fidelity

balancing

difficult

(and,

thanks

Rodin, being able

to

troublesome
parts),
dispensewith esthetically
could
imaginatively reshape the body to

body

achieve

engage
to

with

1932 (cast 1949).Bronze, length34I2".

of Modern
Art,New York (Purchase)
.

named

esthetic

this

illustrate

To

visual and

harmonious

more

balance.
compare

imaginative
presents a frankly
not

cohesive

in Giacometti's

are

he

to

an

could

and

landscape with tensions

in opposing directions.

appearance

Throat

model
a
renderingdispassionately

Figure 439.
HerThroatCut.
Museum

we

in

within. Here

configuration,
antipodesto
Classical forms. The
figurelost

its skeletalizing
in space became
construction. The body resembles

attached

welding,

takes
(Fig.439) literallyand figuratively
off the pedestal.
Instead of the languid

posture of

The

and

art

later

compact

somewhat

the

by

Iron

toughness of

imagination.Though

more

hammered

inexpensivemeans
shapes, angles, and

impossiblein wood,
most

the

Gonzalez

achieve

calm

and

the

not

it afiected

wav

layman's view. Looked

mechanical
super
is open for this material

artist."

an

and

him

the body

saw

in the

violent

all its

the

exciting media

sculptor,
gave

the

murderer

last, forged and

at

and

new

be

moved

into

lyrical and
words, "It is time

aspect but

round

forms

own

indifferent. He

was

spiky and

shared

the door

peacefulhands

This

alent
equiv-

iron

to

he

in its external

and flesh. In the

spirit
being
plowshares were
throughout Europe,

his

instrument

simple

forms.

of

when

into

shaped

is for Gonzalez

void

the coexistence

to

its

Gonzalez

and

whom

his life and

re-formed

and

movement

instead

open

"

be no rational principle
projectedinto sculpture

to

seems

which

to

development,we can
Greek
made
torsoes
by an ancient
sculptor
Apollonius, the Rumanian
Brancusi,

Constantin

Alsatian-born

the

Hans

Arp, and the Englishman Henry Moore.

the Belvedere
as
Apollonius'sculptureknown
have
been
of a satyr,
Torso (Fig.440) may
and
originallyit was
certainlya complete
The Greek ideal of beauty was
grounded
figure.
in wholeness, and a partial
unfinished figure
or
would

have

been

ideals

contradicted

of moderation

excessive

muscular

imbalance

between

attention

to

in ancient

unthinkable

Apollonius'statue

both

in

its focus

development
mind

anatomical

and

in

the

an

in

an

and

details unbalanced
the

Renaissance,

upon

(hence,

body)

imaginativeover-all design.After
rediscovered

times.

earlier Classical

it

torso

by
was

gained

partial-figureconcept
who

in

such

ancient

had

turn

Brancusi

developed by Rodin,
his inspirationfrom

derived

fragments as
stripped his body

Belvedere

the

Torso.

point where its

shapes have been generalized into a few cylindrical
volumes.
(Despiteits title,the ambiguity
of its gender creates
of this sculpture a kind of
"impartial" figure.)Simphfication to the point
of absolute
reductiveness
the
was
means
by
he
which
thought his art could approach the
"'real sense," of things.At a certain
or
essence,
point in the process of reductiveness, as Brancusi
become
found, the body can
associated
with
other, nonhuman
or
shapes of a botanical
technological character, depending in part
upon

whether

the material

(This piece

be

to

wood

was

or

bronze.

exhibited

even
successfully
if inverted, something wholly impossible in
naturalistic
tions,
a
art.) Thus
pluralityof associathe
which
broaden
frame
of sculptural
can

reference, are
to

the
His

Figure

440.

century
Rome.

B.C.

Belvedere

Apollonius.

Torso.

height s'li". Musei

Marble,

2nd

Vaticani,

emulate
Belvedere
final

modeling
reducing

influential

artists from

Michelangelo

added
this torso,

the

Torso

admired

was

for

compressed

Rodin

learned

tension

as

also how

state, and
vital

the
As

sculpturesof
the

outcome

soon

also

the

1922

not

of

rubbing and
polishing.By
the
torso
to
elementary but kindred
and still sensual shapes, he was
able to achieve
for him
sculpture that was
perfect in its proportions
over-all

concordance.

of

tors
sculpof

Belvedere

of muscular

drama

torso

the

body's

could

inner

be shown

student, Brancusi

art

young

Brancusi

as

had

made

Figure

exact

gave

up

after his arrival

renounced

naturalism.

of

Rodin.

of hfe.

core

anatomically

But

desire

of

ture
replica of the musculaof the human
evidence
body, which
gave
of a technical and scientific knowledge equatable
with
that of Apollonius. (In fact, for many
Brancusi's
an
as
plaster figure served
years
school.)
object of study in a Budapest medical
an

no

proportions
Michelangelo and

it the

the

are

had

"beefsteak"

its heroic

expression of

an

the

or

the

latter in his well-

the

energy.

from

Both

Torso

called

allegoricalfigures

centuries

For

work

their versions

to

his

tombs, and

Thinker.

known

in

the

Rodin.

to

limbs

former

for the Medici

and

and

heads

in

existence

he

surfaces
but

and
and

new

possible. Brancusi

what

His

in

Rodin's
Torso

(Fig. 441),

academic
Paris

type

in

of

modeling

441.

Constan-

Brancusi.

Torso

of

Young Man.
1922.
Wood,
height 19";
marble
base, height
Philadelphia
7". The
a

of Art

(Louise
Arensberg
Collection).
Museum

and

naturalism

1904, and

of a Young Man, carved

depends on

nonetheless

TiN

he

and
in

the

The

Figure

in

Sculpture

369

Walter

of the human
body but only in terms
sculptureitself.
Sculptorssince the Egyptians and Greeks had
frequentlyused the human
body to personify
used
some
(The Greeks
aspect of nature.
recliningmale figuresas river gods.) Modern
have
sculptorssuch as Arp and Henry Moore
tended
the body in terms
of nature
to
and
see
fuse qualitiesof both
to
into a single work,
thereby suggesting the unity of all life.
life and
Woman
receives a new
serenityin
the work
of Henry Moore
(Fig.443). In terms
of the
problem of disparate and unevenly
distributed shapes referred to previously,
Moore
standard
of the

transformed

the

body

effect

to

factory
satis-

more

sculptural balance, consistency,and

Moore
reduced
the size and
continuity.When
definition

of the head, eliminated

hands, fused normally distinct or

body parts,

and

introduced

by

of the torso, he was

desire to shock.
superficial

body

surface

investingit

and

and

created

strong
suggest linkages of

for him

His

with

fluid

(Hans)
Figure 442.
Jean
Spectral (Torso of a Giant). 1958. Bronze, height
Collection
Mr.
and
Mrs. Burton
Tremaine,
471/4".
Meriden, Connecticut.

Hans
has

Arp's

Human

Lunar

certain affinitieswith

yet remains
of the

Spectral(Fig.442)

the Belvedere Torso and

suggestively
ambiguous. The torsion
recalls the flexibility
of the Greek
lacks any definite evidence
of spine,

former
but

work

muscle. There
or
pelvis,
lower portionsof both;
hint of

skeletal

or

also affinities in the

but

Arp's form givesno

muscular

substructure.

Brancusi

Both

helped introduce into modern

"sculpture without
parts." Unlike
Brancusi's torso, that of Arp seems
capable of
growth or swelling and contraction, thereby
having greater reference to organic life. Rodin
had defined sculptureas the art of the hole and
the lump, yet as something always tied to the
and
body's configuration.Arp gave a purer
obvious
demonstration
of sculptureas a
more
and convex
logicalsuccession of pliantconcave
surfaces enclosinga volume.
The
rightnessof
this
is measurable
not
against the
sequence
Arp
art

and

are

370

Purposes of

Art

abrasive

and

of the

action

tissuelike

rhythms

"

and

Lunar

rephrasing
a

man

"

Human

motivated

not

His recliningforms
of wood
and
down
shaped that is,smoothed
Arp.

in

great hollow

the middle

of the

the feet and

unconnected

stone

by

that

nature.
seem

the

elements.

rosive
cor-

The

associated
recliningpose had been traditionally
and
notations
tranquillity
dignity,and these constill honored.
The
were
livingbody
of
use
openings, and Moore's
possesses
many

with

hollows

derives

esthetic

and

inner

from

mixed

associations,from

centering on the
body, the womb, as well as
and holes
inspirationfrom caves
rock. His personal image exalts

sexual

reveries

cavities of the

fantasies

and

in wood

and

and processes sensed, if not

qualities
body and elsewhere in nature.
Since

the

World

War

extensive
at

illustrated

the

and
end

works

there

have

in the

been

developments in
figure developments
varied
be typifiedsumto
marily
of this chapter. The
three

unprecedented changes
sculpture of the human
too

H,

seen,

done

and

"

since

1945

have

been

because
arbitrarily,
they are
strong
manifest
efforts
the mature
sculptureswhich
which
add signiof exceptionalsculptorsand
ficantly
to the historyof figural
sculpture.It is
works
these
also possible to compare
recent
selected

with
upon
as

two

what

from

the past, and thereby

gained and lost in

has been

result of this

to

reflect

sculpture
century'sdevelopments.

Figure 443.

Henry

Moore.

Cranbrook

The

RecliningWoman.
of

Academy

Art, Bloomfield

Giacometti's

City Square (Fig. 444) reflects

change in the early 1940s from fantastic
tempts
conceptionsof the body to a mode involvingatat a personal faithfulness to observation
of the
has
himself
human
figure.Giacometti
pointed out that in the past sculptorsrendered
the figureas if they were
only a few feet away
from
the model, so
that the knowledge and
combined
with
touch
experience gained from
the
human
figure. Unlike
sight to re-create
Rodin's
striding
Walking Man, Giacometti's
as
figuresare modeled
they are viewed by him
fi"om a considerable
distance: extremely attenuated,

lacking
flesh

and

the

out
to

simulate

us.
a

The

Rodin's

base

from

is meant
of the group
to
Giacometti
captures
of five figureswho

encounter

All that

is

important

to

the

heroic
facts of

or

everyday existence
in

surface

by Henry

Lipton. Two
men

truth

Moore

infinite

and

the

with

help
century
available
possibilities

made

elusive

of these

own

perceptions.The
trouble

not

Seymour
by

subjectfrom
remember

to

to

his

shared

these
the
the

interpretation

Giacometti.
City Square.
Alberto
Figure 444.
1948-49. Bronze, base 25'' 17"; height of tallest
York.
figure8". The Pierre Matisse Gallery,New

distance
his

mystery

executed

similar
us

are

work

from

American

themes
a

the

arises

his vision

militant

contrasted

fifteenth

to

basis for

the

as

Giacometti's

that

appearance
at

attempts

which

preoccupation with

Giacometti's

is the

separatingthe human
figure
literaryidentity and accepting

sculpturaldrama
is grounded.
of

ences
differ-

Rodin, it

of

of

Giacometti

by their
another, their motion, and

bodies
one

from

example

those

and

fascinatingvisual phenomenon

human

that

latter's

the

subjects.Despite
from

of his forms

to
place yet seem
with
interchange. As
stridingfigure,identity or goals arc

irrelevant.
is the

extent

citystreet, and

unity of time
other
experience no
a

the

and
indistinguishable,
according to the profile they

momentary

share

to

clothing are

flattened

present

definition

of his

appearance

his

in

1946. Wood, length 76".

Hills, Michigan.

sculptor disclaims any symbolical

intent, avowing that he has enough
justin seeing and modeling the external

mms^mm

figure.Donatello's St. George

publicimage with which
The
could
the
citizens of Florence
identify.
civic symbol of manliness,
a
saintlyknight was
(Its commissioning by
strength,and courage.
the

of

human

(Fig.445) was

armorer's

an

The
interest.)
its

in

armor

posture, and

heroic

guild

also

served

figure's
humanity
the
the

handsome

Moore.
Warrior.
Figure 446. Henry
1953-54.
Bronze, height 5'2".The Minneapolis Institute of
Arts, Minnesota
(John Cowles Foundation).

commercial

shines

face,

palpable pressure

through

the

erect

of

bodil\-

weight against the ground.

Henry
on

his

Moore's

own

rememberance

Warrior (Fig.446)
initiative,
possiblyas a
of the

heroic

and

was

done

personal

defiant stand

St. George, c.
Figure 445. DoNATELLO,
141 7.
Museo
Nazionale, Florence.
Marble, height6'8'/4".

of wounded
Nazi

Britain

in

bombings. (We

nineteenth

changed
and

the

century

to

the

patheticone.)Along

demonic

figure,unlike

will

of

head

the

his earlier
Moore

in the

external
evade
his

figure. The
intuitive

re-formations

the
hero

the

with defiance

sense

in

of

Though

the formation

Woman,
Reclining
has

surprising

cleft where

has

taken

of
the

the

ideas

nose

from

art, incentives to depart from

and
also has sought to

appearance,
ethnic
specific

personalmixture
an

of

mutilation.

Warrior

form

early Greek

very

of the
in

to

protrude.Moore

should

days
how

survival,Moore's
partial
those of Rodin, carries with it

body than

inversion

seen

concept

deliberatelythe fact of
more
stronglynaturalistic
the

earlv

have

or

temporal reference in
body is Moore's

warrior's

of anatomical
of

what

knowledge and
are

expressive

(suchas the hollow of the stomach)

and

For

good sculpturalform.

imitated

would

torso

and

Donatello's
have

otherwise,

warfare

St.

been

as

going back

as

Moore

have

to

George or Apollonius'
impossible,ethically
late medieval

to

worshiping the Greek gods.

One
of the most
powerful sculpturesbased
the
human
form
since 1945
is Seymour
on
Lipton's Sentinel (Fig.447). Despite its lack of
or

reference

familiar

the

to

the

body, such

the

sculpture possesses

external

found

as

Sentinel is in

the

in

figure,

human

strong

of

anatomy

Donatello's

tradition

ence.
pres-

of twentieth-

imaginative metaphorical sculpture.

of a
Lipton conceived
sculpture to signif)
and
demonic
force.
His
brooding power
century

metaphor,

which

associations

than

of reminiscences

has

internal

wider

and

George,is compounded
helmeted
figurein armor,

the St.
of

batteringram, a fortress battlement, Chinese

tration
calligraphy,a heraldic device, and the orchesof feelingsof push and
pull, human
dignity,and life's mystery. Lipton's metaphor
exists as part of a profound personallanguage
and
is, one
might say, "open-ended." The
a

work

is

be

dissected

to

have

its components
systematically traced.
The
sculptureis about 8^ feet tall,so

that

meant

not

to

nor

it is

possibleto approach it and stand under the

arrow-visor-battlement
shape at the apex. The
sculpture has both an inside and an outside.
It deals with
an

defiance

fantasies
to

attempt

in the lifeof

of Monel

on

of
a

with

conceits

and

logy
psychologicaldepth and physiofor the body.
In modern
sculpturethe body has lost many
its previous heroic and religious
functions as
a

new

vehicle for abstract

thought

forms
of life
gained new
being imaginatively turned

phorized, and
or

sheets

cut-out

nickel, silver,or
his

out

it is

struggle and

Using

man.

metal, brazed

bronze, Lipton carried

created

internal anatomy;

exteriorize the inner

shapes whose

other

forms

Greek

and

nature

by

of

reconstituted

"

Renaissance

ethics.

It has

inside

out,

of

man.

has

linked

art.

forms

not

it with

often reversing the

ideal
The

Art

meta-

of

interpreting
sculptor
has claimed
a
personal and complete authority
the body, reshaping it according to private
over
values and in sculptural,
rather than theological
or
The
biological,terms.
complete physical
be frequently and
body has come
to
frankly
rejectedas indispensableto a perfectwork of
means

Monel

Seymour

447.

Lipton.

Sentinel.

Yale
metal, height 8'6". The
Haven, Connecticut.
Gallery,New

1959.

University

by
spirituality

in unnatural

ambivalence

organic life

and

and

Figure

modern

While
be

the

judged

modern
to

be

as

sculptor'svision may
as
intelligible

lofty or

of his predecessors,he

that
be

honest

we

can

nonetheless

seeks

to

in

interpretingwhat he actually sees

that are
and feels in ways
possibleonly in the
and
of sculpture,both
old and
media
means
new.
Moreover, the modern
sculptorhas made
conscious of shapes and
us
rhythm apart from
of the body, to a degree that
representations
sculpturewhose

be

by the esthetic values

originalmeanings and

background

forever

The

moved

are

lost to

Figure in Sculpture

us.

373

of older
cultural

19

PICASSO

than

Moresymbolizes

other

any

they

animals,

the

of

combat

of

and

of

of

the

emotional,

we

Picasso's

Despite

there

is
what

out

1964

Picasso
"

that

but

and

his

is

does

insecure

reflect

not

this

up

of

his

quality

self-doubt

the

but

the

creative

he

exceptions

with

themes.

Picasso

has

of

to

the

cultural
but

age,

his

By

fundamentally

am

with
our

himself"

of

spiritof

I often

artist

original

an

discontents

is close

with

from

away

show

society."

Picasso

the

he

has

been

man

Picasso

however,

be

who

have

explained

artist is:

in

does

is

by

not

one

of

his

attitude

of modern
few

toward

theway

human

the

is

variety

body.

Picasso's

diversified

equally

an

of

ject
sub-

series

in

utilized

the

same

modern

This
what

of

period.

the

artist's

words

own

relevant:

are

of

subjects I have

suggested
the

lies in

interpret the

to

flesh, light,

to

tendency

mold

specialized.

attach

not

tune

may
the

different

hesitated

to

of

adopt

imply either evolution

adaptation of the idea
the

means

to

express

have

expression,

I have

wanted

ways

not

and

374

able

styles,sometimes

never

artists

Unlike

its laws.

"I

attitudes

decided

proved

he exists outside

as

and

deep philosopliicalimportance
and
pigment, though his strength

If the

break

and

Rembrandt

to

man

church

organized

Rembrandt,

Again

and

cerned
con-

an

assessment,

own

not

religious problems

spiritualconcern

matter
sure

us

ests,
inter-

seemingly encyclopedic

few

Accompanying

mind,

for

good

bility
sensi-

aspect

restless

curiously

tions.
distinc-

life. In

of

physical make-up

artist's
in his

summed

[1935].

himself

the

have

class

no

work,

Where

spider'sweb.

sky,
from

paper,

and

esthetic, social, psychological,

and

it

of

scrap

that
the

war

with

the

interests

find

can

from

themes

extent

demonstrate

of

range
to

where

reinterpreta-

The

art.

passing shape, from

things are concerned
We
must
pick

"

Biblical

subjects

tremendous

the

earth, from

the

emotions

over

children,

animals,

suffering,and

receptacle for
the
place:

all

art

myths,

and

and

men

works

past

variety

and

of literature

between

pleasure

tion

mothers

studio,

is

from

from

most

older

artist

come

of

census

for the

of

The

the

still lifes,
self-portraits,
landscapes,

lovers, illustrations
and

that

those

to

Picasso

public

art.

reveals

conform

portraitsand

general

of modern

revolutionary aspect
his subjects, however,
part

artist, Pablo

the

to

to

them.

one

express

This
.

or

wants

that

does

progress,
to

idea

but

an

express

[1923].

ethical

There

is

modal

system and

an

media

basis,then, for Picasso's

his

such

to

recourse

sified
diver-

painting,graphics, drawing,

as

and

sculpture.
Throughout his

certain

life Picasso has returned

and

themes

basic

to

problems, feeling
has brought new
of
superiormeans

in growing older he
to bear, as well as
insights
realization. With his pridein craft and concern
with its problems and potential,
there coexists
of inquiryand sympathy.
humanistic
sense
a
Merely the outliningof the statistics of
Picasso's personal history,his travels,outstanding
and the people who
have
projects,

that

influenced

would

him

take

entire

an

up

begin with, however, it should be

noted that there were
no
importantand famous
teachers in his youth,no sponsors of the stature
of the Renaissance
fact that casts lighton
a
chapter.To

Figure 448. Pablo Picasso. Drawingfrom a Cast

of the
of the Figureof Dionysus(East Pediment
tion.
Parthenon).1893-94.Conte crayon. Private collec-

"

the

conditions

under

which

many

books

The

artistswork.

many
on

modern

Picasso make

his fascinating
biographyeasilyaccessible

to

the

interested student. Let it suffice to say here that

Picasso was
born in 1881 in Malaga, Spain,the
of

son

teacher,with whose

art

an

passedwith

examinations

entrance

in 1895

and

for

assistance he

amazing speed the

distinction and

two

Barcelona

emies
acad-

1897.

of the publicstill
to draw
accurately
ability
from a subject
from an unfamiliarity
with
stems
his naturalistic student drawings,such as a
conte
cast
renderingmade from a plaster
crayon
from the Parthenon, which
of a reclining
figure
was
given as a problem to the Barcelona art
students (Fig.448). This early exposure
to
making art from art deeplyinfluenced Picasso,
and years later he was
continue
to
making
in which his version of
drawingsand paintings
and
ancient sculpture
its fragmentswould
be
this early
the subject
What
basis of his style.
or
control
drawing demonstrates is the precocious
the young
Picasso had
over
drawing as an
The

uneasiness that much

has about

instrument

Picasso's

and

the
preserving

the

acuteness

proportions
as

the motif before his eyes. In

in
and

contact

with

an

of his vision in
well

as

of
profile

Barcelona,he

importantgroup

came

of artists

intellectuals and

with advanced
European
day. By his third tripto Paris in 1904,
he had decided to settle in that city;by this
was
time, also, critical success
beginning to
art

of the

come

to

his work

privation.

after earlyyears of

neglectand

Picasso's

art

before

1905

was

filled with

sincere
were
images of poverty, which
a
of his own
economic
expression
plightand that
of his Spanishand Parisian friends. His subjects
were
bohemians, artists,personal acquaintances,
the part of societyforced to live a
difficult marginal existence. The FrugalRepast
of Picasso's first prints,
a
(Fig.449) is one
virtuoso performanceboth in its techniqueand
in itsdemonstration
of the artist'sability
to wed
modes
of drawing to the mood
of his subjects.
The
be a
seated figures,
of whom
one
may
reflect Picasso's early search for
self-portrait,

pathos in postures.Joined by

Picasso.
Figure 449. Pablo
X i4''/4".
1904. Etching,1 8 1/4

the

The

arrangement

FrugalRepast.

In

his

if the

ink.

The

etching needle

were

inflections of the
is

flesh,cloth

evokes

ingly

and
disposition,
his blacks

the

trom

shaded

rich in the number,

scale,

tone

over-all

of strokes

in

is held

paper

of the needle, such

fan-shaped clusters
the figures.
behind

on

in

as

wall

the

Frugal Repast^ Picasso

The

after

used

Picasso
full

The
lightest.

white

the

years

The
affect-

tones

bony flesh,and

over

the

deepest to

intensityof untouched
check by faint touches

Two

added.

are

by which
through a

means

moved

and

tion
of observa-

nuance

etchingis

bottle glass.This

appear

actually touching

some

soft
exquisitely

modated
accom-

potentialof

silhouettes

no

arms;

and

missed,
of

gamut

the inherent

styleto

needle, acid, and

as

etchings, Picasso

earliest

his

(Fig.450) that
painted a vigorous self-portrait
the human
reveals his changed attitude toward
of pathos and social
bodv and art. Elimination
consciousness

coincided

have

to

seems

with

improved financial status and artistic

life
Throughout his work, the painter's

Picasso's
success.

his

and

I'lguie 450.
Oil

on

ol'Art

190G.
Self-portrait.
PhiladelphiaMuseum

Picasso.

Pablo

36 28". The
canvas,
(A. E. Gallatin C;ollection).
"

limbs, the

of thrir

make

bodies

stable

closed

with the apparent

composition that contrasts
and divergenceof their attention and
instability
is an
Their
bony attenuation
personalities.
time conveys
device that at the same
expressive
and
elegant
privation and permits extreme

figure distortion. The

greys and blacks of the
subject.
etching are appropriateto the morbid
At

of

use

was

exploringthe

latitude of

entire

to set

nuance,

Remarkable

work.

over-all

blue and

singletonalities (such as

with wide
an

Picasso

this time

green),

the mood

of

hands, of even
is the way
that
greater importance artistically
with the objects
Picasso interrelated the figures
of the

reconstruction

the

table.

weight

of the

on

the

shadow

of

at

bodies. The

human
bottle

the

the

elbow.

Adding

hollow

of

the

is echoed

in

in the

curve

the

curved

left and
in the
upper
the depressingaura

to

empty

declivity of the man's

metaphor of hunger.
376

and

The
structure, placement, and
vessels can
be felt in relation to

emaciated

neck

faces

bowl,
torso

Purposes of

seen
as

Art

if

the colors of the

to

above

it was

that

remark

all the hand

which

painting.In this self-portrait,

those
details which
Picasso
stripped away
to the concentrated
might mitigate or be extraneous
the

determined

and
become

had
the

immediate

the

reflectingthe urgent
of the

effect he

desired. He

resides
expressivity

that

aware

in which

way

of

means

art

feelingsand

artist. Picasso

the

the
manner
drastically from
of the eyes and
etching. A contrast
in both

man

their
The

is
It

one

rightarms
rightarm

is

most

born

from

incised in the
contrast,

two

an

metal

major

man

more

in

beautiful
a

his

of
ears

the

of the

but comparing
revealing,

even

of the

of the

was

is

works

gence
intelli-

reduced

here

in

used,

are

means

is the

visual

that

willfulness

his will, eye, and hand

and from
Years later,Picasso was
palette.

from

comes

In

tones.

new

man's

against the

this

portrait Picasso
joined altered
manly and what was
conceptionsof what was
melodrama
is no
or
art. There
plea for sympathy.
Instead, the portraitexudes frank selfconfidence ; Picasso keeps no secrets. His power
avowed

is the sensitive

as

intermingle in confessional, playful,

art

boastful

or

thousand

plate.In

effective gauge.
The

FrugalRepast

in

Picasso's

art.

tiny openings
the

painting,by

strokes establish the

arm's

shape, weight, direction,and robust strength.

What
forceful
Picasso was
a
seeking was
reduction
of means,
not
necessarilysimplifica-

Plate
The

54.
Museum

Pablo

Picasso.

of Modern

Les

Demoiselles

Art, New

York

d' Avignon.1906-07. Oil on

(acquired through the Lillie

canvas,
P. Bliss

8'

7'8"

Bequest)

tion.

This

colors,

reduction

few

leave

may

strokes,

and

shapes, yet its residual

simple. The
self-portraithas

effect

esthetically
successful,paintings.The
in its creation
energies unleashed

is

its failures

make

ideas

and

well

as

as

it

important in the historyof

immediate
effect but reveals still more
after a
Picasso's
The
art.
the
was
painting, which
slow and
thoughtful reading of its part-to-part
largestundertaken
by Picasso until that time,
construction.
No
in the painting is
destined
arc
or
was
curve
to incompletion and
inconsistency
each
contains
of the
with
irregularities because
geometry;
rapidity and excitement
pure
that come
Picasso's feelingfor the nature
from
which
his art
month
was
to
changing from
of the shape and
his need
month
and from
to preserve
vitality
painting to painting.Thus, in
not

and

of line. The

interest

those

of

neckline,

the
of

contour

he

face

the

had

etching. The
developed from

two

lines of the

the

brows,

earlier,such

silhouette

the

of

the

of

the

white

in

shirt

contour-probing of the
in
The
Frugal Repast.
Accumulated
experience provided the basis for
that
the seemingly intuitive judgment
guishes
distinlines appearing
the bold black contour
in the shirt,for example.
Picasso
admired
the intensityof expression
in primitive masks, but
he admired
the
more
constructions
of
asymmetrical
symmetrical
features
and
human
art.
objects in Cezanne's
tablecloth

Also

and

from

creating
there

the

Cezanne,

Picasso
in

received

the idea

where

art

in

vice

discontinuities,and

were

bottom

and

reduction
other

of

The

versa.

shapes to multiplesof
comprehension in Picasso's

of ovoid
of the

the

within

forms

shirt

same

and

The

area.

recognize

in

the

head

the

jugation
con-

and

the

artist was

arcs

ing
learn-

For
from

some

and

Picasso

reason,

his hand

removed

the

brush

in the

painting,and the heaviness

of the pigment's application suggests that
he
the paint with
might just as well have worked
In these years
his fingers.
Picasso was
searching
for a new
of
feelingof what the primal nature
and
could
be. Preserving a certain
art
was
he gave
of means,
the completed work
rawness
look.
Picasso
had
a
even
rugged, handmade
eliminated
shown

the

left side of the

Les

customary

of

use

mirror,

by the placement of his right

most

on

as

the

painting.

Demoiselles

Picasso's

arm

but

idea

by

54)
no

is

means

of

one

most

of many

and

and

impulse
drawings

taken

be

artists of the
of

esthetic-

in

past. It

youthful

compulsion

series of

work

to

out

through
paintings which

and

isolation

they

as

but

every
related

it flooded

as

was

energy

cannot

his

into

enter

artistic

development.
Demoiselles
d'Avignon was

Les

and
surface

he

both

for Picasso's

nursery

seemed

to

On

its
the

with

war

wage

ground
battle-

art.

accumulated
traditions
of Western
painting,
of pictorial
order.
accepting solely the demands
The
tearing down
accomplished in this work
it presented as
by what
was
partiallybalanced
and

new

fruitful

alternatives,for it

additional
and

of

thousands

fact,

in

sculptures
"

fulfill all that

take

to

was

drawings,
lifetime

vases,
can-

to

"

begun or hinted
at in this one
painting. The painting'stheme
began in sketches as an allegory: "The
wages
of sin is death."
Prostitutes in a brothel paraded
realize

and

before

sailor

in

and,

was

instance,

one

death's

departure of the skull

also
sailor from
the successive
and
designs was
The
the
moralizing intent.
painting passed
through numerous
stages until it lost any
prohave
been
then
gramatic meaning and would
head.

to

to

Demoiselles

long

suave

esthetic

an

delight the

female

was

object

beholder.

conventional

the

nude

well

as

as

other

drawing, color, and composition.

its conception and
execution, Les
nonetheless

d'Avignon descends

line
In

as

and

of

category
toward

moving

of
are

as

traditional

was

stripping away
of the

conventions

nudes.

move

meant

sentiment

Brutal

the

Picasso

primarily

painting
intended

of

fit into

What

genre.

This

the

Accompanying

awkward

d'Avignon (PL

notorious,

emotionallv

question

also of Picasso's

Picasso

manipulate the emotive

of certain shapes in varied combination,
power
and in his self-portrait
he made
of himself more
an
objectof esthetic rather than psychologicalstudy.
to

only

not

each

multiplicityof

young

the
the

Cezanne's

shirt.

the

myriad

found

neckline

of

of

nature

palette,for instance, is locked into place in

with
by its close coincidence
self-portrait
sleeve

lifetime output

arms

continuities

1907, both

ally, Picasso was

incapable of producing a
In a
large,complex, and homogeneous canvas.
of
this phase his production
of
single year
drawings and paintingsequalled or exceeded the

sands
thou-

those

as

and

1906

arm,

and

distillations

are

drawn

strong

of

genteel and

retrospect, it

sensuous

nude

seems

studies

Picasso

from

paintings of
almost
a
parody
by such Baroque

robust

377

painters as
and

Rubens.

Picasso's

againstthe woodland

elbow

innocent

sinless

who

bathers

for

concord

symbolized

nude

females

nymphs, goddesses,
so

with

many

tions
genera-

nature

and

fertility.

Picasso

the

women

left

seems

seemed

undecided

indoors
to

have

whether

out; the
farm woman's

or

to

figureat

stage
the

tan, unlike
to her.
next

tional

of

means

uniting a

of

group

figures:
viewpoint,

focus, activity,moods,

common

setting,and
limb

light and shade

no
longer met

give his canvas

and settinghad
contours

were

coordinated

or

his needs.

arrangement

its

own

to

relinquishtheirs.

broken

autonomy,

the
The

into,and parts were

To

figures
body
made

almost

interchangeableby their reduction to

such basic shapes as the V repeated in crotch,
breast, elbow, and jagged background forms.
Cohesion
of surface demandand expressiveness
ed

pink complexion of the woman

formed
are
women
objectsof display transby the instincts of the artist,which
than
flat rather
The
the canvas.
voluminous
enter
freely onto
prostitutes
bodies, the
of support,
are
obscuring of the figure'smeans
ethnologicalbackground,
given a mixed
excitement
with
Picasso's new-found
making space relationships
inconsistent,and
reflecting
the assigningof accents
and visual importance
ancient art (the central two
figures)and with
that rivaled the bodies themselves to intervals
Picasso's
African tribal art (thoseon the sides).
between
The
figures.
rhythms and force set by
primitivizing
tendency adopted certain models
the restructuringof the bodies spillover
have felt was
the
of distortion and what he may
into
the indeterminate
These were
sexual intensityof African sculpture.
background.
The
painting's
pinks,blues,whites, browns,
graftedonto the Greek Classical beauty pose in
tonal
and
blacks are
the center, the rigidvertical Egyptian stance
a
of all
recapitulation
Picasso's previousperiods.The
the
at
and the seated studio model
blue between
at the left,
the central
and
right figuresis glacialand
right.In the profilefigureat the left Picasso
used
the Egyptian frontal eye, while in the
sharply appealing to the eye. Picasso's conflicting
two
nose
on
a
impulses led him to mix outline and
adjacentfigureshe put a profile
and
flat surfaces,and
frontal face.
edge, modeled
black,
The
at
the
blue
silhouettes. He
face of the woman
could
white, and
not
green-striped
into
modes
rightmay have derived from primitive resolve so much color and so many
upper
masks
a
a
singledominant
showing scarification,
harmony of contrasts; yet
process echoed
in Picasso's painting.Each
of the painting's
much
initial appeal
ironically,
figureis either an
ethnic
derives from this very freshness of color and raw
esthetic hybrid,and only the stilllife
or
of the fruit is finished and consistent. Left with
Picasso
a
juxtapositions.
probably intended
too
he
with
shock
forced
and
was
value, to stab directlyat
painting
ideas,
fragments
many
to
the senses
the emotions
rather than
the
or
suspend his growth to complete the whole.
Within
intellect. With
Matisse and others of the time,
the frame
of the painting,traces
of
Picasso's strugglesto destroy and
Picasso shared an ethic of the primacy of feeling
reconstruct
in art
well as in life. His dilemma
are
notations such as
to
as
a
as
plainlyvisible,even
the rough blue outline superimposed on the leg
painterlay in possessingthe instinct for lucid
at
the lower left. Picasso had
control
and
linear organization;ultimately,
set aside tradithe

Picasso's

he

unable

was

could

as

Pablo
Figure 451.
Apple, and Box. 1909.

Picasso.
Collection

Drawing of Head,
Douglas Cooper.

Picasso's

to

liberate both

color and

ing
draw-

Matisse.

development was

ly
rapidand extremesimple continuous
toward his completelyCubist paintprogression
ings,
shall try, briefly,
but we
illustrate this
to
latter direction. Head, Apple,and Box (Fig.451)

varied.

shows

more

There

was

no

consistent

style than

d' Avignon. It illustrates the

of the Cubist
the

human

mode

form.

The

to

objectsas
head's

Les Demoiselles

artist's extension
well

as

to

anatomical

and the shapes of the objectsdo not

predictthe premisesof Picasso's drawing. His
of
designdoes not follow,say, the musculature
structure

the face, the natural

of the features, nor

His drawing and
color
visual
curves
meant
as
were
as
proportions and
planes of the box
equivalences of his love for Eva in the same
way
that
the
increased
the comwords
"Ma
plexity
Jolie" could be equivagenerally perceived. He
lences
and
of a song
without
and
a
woman
really
expressivenessof the face through
facets.
Though
new
passive in
looking or sounding like either. In a sense, the
angles and
face is activated
and
cool color alternation
and
pulse of warm
mood, the woman's
by the
the shimmer
of countless
the
as
touches
of the brush
energized drawing in such inventions
of
"vibrations"
to the
give a palpable presence
peaked eyes and the arbitrary placement and
There
is no
her life as Picasso felt them.
The
increased
degree of shadow.
diagonals and
vertical massing of the planes arc
dominant
symmetrical vertical axis in any of
vestigesof the
connected seated human
artist clearly preferred disthe
the
forms;
not
figure.Still,Picasso wanted
the

box, with

The

sequences.

its inverted

multiplication of
planes,
perspective and
becomes
a
crystalform of increased weight and
Picasso was
At
this stage of Cubism,
stability.
in light and
and
still interested
shadow, mass
the
sensual
and
swelling of flesh.
volume,
the swinging
of his drawing was
Characteristic
by
rhythm of repeated parallel movements
from
which
he worked
lightto dark, re-created
found
a
the rotundity of the apple, or
tinuity
conthe right side of the woman's
between
under
the chin. No
face and
the arc
large flat
uninflected, no
surface remained
parallellines
features
of the same
were
length, and no two
richness, his

variety and
to

and

love

"Ma

with

whom

who

died

JoUe"

title of

the

and

was

on

the

traditional

"inscribed"

he

to

been

before

radical

break

with

through
consisted

could

his
not

he

it,

put

words

the

Cubism

art

With

to

the

emotions

Expressed
did

not

in

deal

with

of the
another

way,

Picasso
the

in

painting
produced it.
in Aia Jolie

world

regard for its distinctions

ogies
anal-

Picasso

woman

statements

Cubism,

on

dealing primarilywith

art

an

when

idrm

is realized,

it is there

Drawing, design and

and
color are
understood
practiced in Cubism
that
in the same
they are
spiritand manner
all
other
understood
and
practiced in
schools.
We
have
to our
kept our eyes open
brains.
We
give to
surroundings and also our
individual
form
and
color
all their
cance.
signifiism
Cubfact that for a long time
The
live

its

why
if I

has

is

life.

own

blank

understood

been

not

do

read

not

book

to

This

me.

the

does

English language does

should
I blame
anybody
understand

cannot

what

means

English book

English,an

not

not

else but

I know

mean

exist,and

myself
nothing

about.

similitude

final

artist who

directly with

only

found

the

case,

own

past

is...
and

nothing. I

sance
Renais-

century,

The

design has

are

the

to

forms,
to

portrait manner.

be
to
empirical verification was
of the painting itself
the terms
of the
to be appreciated is that

hold

her

imitating the physical appearance

the development of Cubism,

in

nature.

at

seen

to

important in understanding
and
its
conception of its nature

1923,

artist's

that
of

hand

position

zither's

this

of Picasso's
in

relation

past. From

in

and,

the

nineteenth

of

were

I.

so

the

the

artist
loved

in

the

canvas,

made

"Ma

and

Eva"

never

of the

painting's vocabulary of forms.

While
music did not supply the theory or model
for Cubist
the
bond
bv which
a
painting,it was

War

as

The

Zither," probably

in

of

beautiful

the

to

deeply

her, with

and

Marcelle

Jolie."Such sentiments
a
literally
part of the
work
fact that Picasso accomplished
of art. The
this without
disrupting the integrityor logic
of the painting is in itself a sign of Cubism's
"J'aime

had

instrument.

Some

Picasso

but

woman

with

originaltitle. Part
right is properly

the

was

his love,

devoted

canvases

the

stretcher

"Woman

lower

World

Picasso

the wooden

wrote,

the

lines.

painting of

1911-1912,

of the years
paint her in the

part

Picasso

of

unified, moving,

restricted

resultant

the
were

literal appearance

painting,
object.On

joined. Though the resultingorder

of the painting reflects intellectual
precision,
the whole
done
with genuine passion.The
was
drawing and painting of Ma Jolieis disciplined
and of great beauty.

during
both the epithethe gave
to
a
popular song. In line with

ideas

In

means

curved

simple straightand
Jolie (PL 55) was

Ma

Humbert,

all

Still, with

identical.

were

the

of appearances,

and

logic.

Picasso's
the

sculpture in a
painting. One
works

is

creative

inexhaustible

fertile ideas

the

led

of Cubism
manner

of
wooden

as

him

to

work

unprecedented

Picasso's

most

construction

Picasso

379

and

energy

as

in
his

influential
Mandolin

Picasso,like other advanced

rebelling
againstthe

was

of "noble
and
in

media," such

"noble
heroic

in

the

artists of the
academic
marble

as

such
subjects,"

as

action. Whatever

Mandolin

time,

conception
and

bronze,

the human

figure

heroism

resides

is present
and
courage

the

in

daring of the artist's defiance of tradition;

Picasso helped to
and
literally
figuratively,
from the pedestal
of tradition.
remove
sculpture
His is not relief sculpture
in the old sense, for it
has no rectangular frame to contain the sculpture
balance
and coordinate
the shapes
to
or
within.

The

absence

the
shadows

cast

the

onto

the work.

vibrancyto

is no

into the space

an

Pablo

Figure 452.
Construction

in

Picasso.

to

appear
been
not

Its fabrication

resist the label of

and

1914.
of

appearance
it has

for
sculpture,

cast, modeled, or carved; it does not

sit upon
base, and its subjectis a musical
a
For
instrument.
Picasso
used
his materials

bicycle

hanging

them

from

child's

that Picasso

Mandolin

shaped to
being put

fulfill utilitarian
to

his

processedand

been

functions

purely esthetic

selection of these scraps was

not
he was
attracted initially
by the

forms

purposes.

His

haphazard, for
grain,size,and

to

of its formation, for

marks
was

sanded.

The

rude

Picasso's ethic and

of the

none

is
finishing

esthetic

sense.

tial
essen-

The

assembled, constructed,
sculpture has been
of joining
literally
manipulated; this method
along with the expanded tolerance of artistic
materials

was

modern

380

to

have

strong effect

sculpture.
Purposes of Art

on

in

sculpture

beholder, and yet

overlappingthat
and

tains
main-

outward

on

had

and

seat

wall, he

toy. His

taught

him

handlebars

earlier
the

and

creatingart

was

construction

of
possibilities

before

have
been
used
shapes. Some
pieces may
without reworking;in these,the "found object"
is preserved intact in the sculpture.
Most of the
scraps had something done to them, however,
by paintingor sawing, flie curved white piece,
like the planesin Cubist paintings,
reveals the

rough

this

of the conPicasso painted some

struction,
reversing the trend begun with
Michelangelo,one of the first major sculptors
to giveup paintinghis figures.
As an artist,Picasso has frequently
indulged
in playfulactivity,
making his seriousness of
When, for example,
suspect to some.
purpose
the Head
he made
taposing
of a Bull (Fig.453) by jux-

from boxes and canvas

ers,
stretchscraps of wood
discards that lay about his study. The wood

einployedhad

than

more

of inward

ambivalence

or

relief

movement.

Mandolin.

wood, height 23^8". Collection

the artist.

(Fig. 452).

of the

inconsistent

display

an

consistent

successive

which

to

be referred. Even
planes can
Cubist
painting,the planes of
advance

also introduces

There

plane

rear

frame

play of irregular
wall by the projecting
giveadded depth and

these shadows

parts, and
uniform

of the

of
possibility

quent
subse-

Head
Picasso.
of a
and bicycle seat,
of the artist.
Collection
iBi/g"Pablo

Figure 453.
Bull.

1943.

height

Handlebars

transposing

and

manipulating

and

story

his

and

seventeenth-century painter who

life to achieving a perfectbalance,
painting,of drawing and color. In

eye

of
second
life. Much
mind
a
today's
gave
of discarded
sculpture involving the rehabilitation
derives
its artistic value
objects,which
the witty and
from
imaginative visual plays of
manual
than
from
the
forming,
resculptor rather
owes
as

deal

great

of a Bull. Picasso
playful activities

such
He

would

has

done

art.

he

lost

as

in

this

as

constitute

works

is not

adults.

As

that

literarycriticism,that of

modern
obsessed

by false absolutes
critic

both

cause

enjoyment

of much

and
that

unlike
is too

is true

what
soon

often

of greatness that may

audience
forfeit
to
is

good

or

interesting.

In

with
art

Rembrandt,

appears
versions

artist

the

or

SERIES

the

and

repeatedly in
of this theme

theme

model

Picasso's
reveal

of the
in

work.

Picasso's

making

the

studio

Diflerent

abilityto

in different modes.
An
ject
etching with a subis Painter
revealing the way Picasso worked
with Model
Knitting(Fig.454), an illustration for
Balzac's
The
Unknown
short
Masterpiece.The

Figure 454.
with

Museum

Art,

New

of
York

old

but

woman,

hofer's

also
of

in

thought and
is

canvas

the

form

of

spiritof
hand

the

to

series

no

the

Fren-

it is not

body, but
or

feeling.The drawing
of knitting,in which

into

is translated

bears

continuation

but

his art.

its attachment
as

color.
ing
draw-

small

design

drawing

shown

be

time,
rivals

appearance

catch

that

show

to

it must

external

it does

dictum

enough

the

the

to

and

artist's

the

single

artist,recognizing

tension
exon

the

of interwoven

of

the
is

In

model.

not

thought

1935,

Picasso

and

out

said,

settled

".4

hand.
before-

While
it is being done, it changes as one's
it is finished
it still
thoughts change. And when
of mind
the
to
state
on
changing
according
goes
of whoever
is looking at it."
It is unwise
to

call the

"abstract."

said in

to

try

drawing
On

to

label

of the
the

Picasso's

use

of this

or

word, Picasso

1935:

Picasso.

Modern
of

Church).

Picasso

modes

tion
in his illustra-

model

Knitting.

(gift

his

Balzac's

Etching, yS/gXiiSs".

1927.
The

Henri

Pablo
Model

within

emerges

foot. The

etching,

resemblance

work

Painter

of which

color, out
woman's

the

basis

As

devoted

considered

were

failure,destroys himself

his

picture
of

certain

rhythmic configurations.Unlike the painting in

in Vermeer's
Art of Painting,the
come
outprogress
the
of the drawing is unforeseeable
on

ARTIST

MODEL

AND

Rubens

and

and

superb

woman

THE

with

drawing and
championing, respectively,
The
artist's final masterpiece is a chaos of

what

of much
is too

art

that

great

that

us

Poussin

works

claimed

first to remind

such

become

we

earlier

never

youthful imagination

to

occurs

be the

such

to

has

Head

is concerned

Frenhofer,

materials

which

already existingobjects,to

381

is

There

abstract

no

all

remove

traces

of

can

you

There's
reality.

danger

no

of the

the idea

indelible

left an

will have

always

must

Afterward

because

then, anyway,

You

art.

something.

with

start

This independence from likeness and conventional

jects.
modeling of the figurein paintingwas
accompanied in this work by Picasso's separation

object

of color from

It is what

mark.

off, excited his ideas, and

stirred up his emotions
(that) will in the end
form
an
be prisonersin his work. ...They
started

artist

the

In

its character

and

1927 Picasso also did

into

woman

became

of

Painter

the artist was

was

of Picasso's most

one

fertile in

ment
body imagery and imaginativenourish-

of his art.
diverse

painting,The

forms, and

Fantasies

on

the

took

body

in this

particularpainting
has
the model
been
to
an
brutallyreduced
animallike
and
shape.
precariouslybalanced
Strong sexual feelingfreelyentered Picasso's
work
all times and inspirednew
inventions
at
such
those here seen
for distinguishing
the
as
and

man

imaginationstillfurther

alternative
which

appearances
in paintingand that

1927.
collection.

preserve
Pablo
Oil

Picasso's

again took up the

(Fig.456),color
became
wedded
the rigid compositional
to
skeleton,itselfa logical
outgrowth of the earlier
Cubist weblike
entire painting
The
structure.
surface has a continuous
of distinct
interlocking
flat shapesthat affirm the flatness of surface and
theme

the

when

cutting

motifs.

Picasso

The Painter and his Model

of Picasso's

artificial character
nonillusionistic,

on

reference

Picasso.
canvas,

The

to

painterand model have

only token reference to actual bodily features,
and even
these are rearranged to accord with
the over-all surface emphasis. The
surprising
element
in the paintingis the handsome
ralistic
natulined
profilethat the artist has heavilyoutcreation.

his canvas,

upon

Picasso art

Both

can

reminder

for

that

the fantastic into

from
slipeasily

the naturalistic.
In 1933
dealer

Picasso did

Ambrose

series of

VoUard

that

etchingsfor
contain

the

rich

modes. Many
of themes and stylistic
plateswere devoted to the theme of the
sculptorin his studio. Despite their obvious
reference to ancient
sculpture,Picasso's own
interest in this medium
duringthese years makes
He
kind of self-portrait.
these printsanother
the bearded
shows
clining
sculptor,for example, reand contemplatinga finished sculpture,
assortment

of these

the

was

could
there

be

were

in strong feeling
originating

means

to

Figure 455.
Model.

after Cubism

that external

dispensedwith
by

liberated

What

woman.

conviction

1928

contours,

areas

an

of

late 1920s

angular linear frame and the

a
hybrid entity,with drastic
bodilyfeatures. The periodof the

remade

relocation

It forces

nature.

appearance.

(Fig.455),in which

and His Model

terms

of

is the instrument

not, man
him

on

In

when

amorphous

several of the drawn

across

their presence is
Whether
he likes it or

integralpart of it even
longer discernible.
no

the limits of drawn

that it is disposedin

so

human

Painter and

sub-

His

7'i4"x6'6%". Private

the

model

mask

for which

raised above

in the

lies next

previousworks,

to

him

with

(Fig.457). Unlike

her face

Picasso draws

the

artist,

which
style,
is his personal version
of classical drawing,
inspiredto a large extent
by that of Matisse.
The clean purityand unerring limning of contours
in this printpresuppose
Picasso's academic
trainingand consummate
knowledge of the
body. The
strong suggestionof the body's
roundness
conveyed by the character of the line
made
thereby conserving
shading unnecessary,
the surface unity as
well. The
print is also
Picasso's personal ideal of the tranquillity
sary
necesfor a creative life. He recentlywrote, "I
have
an
unquestioningfaith in the expressive
body, untiringdevotion to
power of the human
of the nude."
the glories

model, and work

It
with

was

natural

etchings,to

of art in the

for

same

Picasso,when

think

of

he

Rembrandt.

worked
Not

Pablo

Left:Figure 456.
The
Oil

Painter
on

and

Mr.

Beloiv

and

Mask

Mrs.

Sidney

457.
Model

with

York.

left:Figure

Picasso.

Picasso.

Model.

1928.
Collection
4'3''8"xS'S'/s"-

canvas,

Janis, New

His

Artist

and

Pablo

March
Beforea Sculpture.
Etching, ioy2X7%".

1933.
Museum

of

York

Modern

27,
The

Art, New

(Purchase).

Below

right:Figure 458.

Picasso.

Rembrandt

with

Woman.

February 18,
sVaxSi/i".

Pablo

Young

ing,
Etch-

1934.

detailed

of the old master.

He
self-portraits
resist framing one
of his own
women's
heads in the pendant worn
by Rembrandt, and
the model
could
only be Picasso's creation.

could

What

not

unites
artistic

he fascinated
by the older
gradationsof black, but Picasso
several printsof Rembrandt
based on
ter's self-portraits
in which
he dressed

only

was

etched

in
a

fur-trimmed

gold chain

Rembrandt

across

robe

and

artist's

own

as

mode

and

their

their

prolific
of

abjuring

commitment

to

the studio portraitsituation.

fascination with the
life-long
his repainting
subjectof the artist and art itself,
of EI Greco's Portrait of an Artist (Figs.
459, 460)
is logical.
like plagiarism,
To some
this may
seem
but we
have
seen
how, in the historyof art,
artists for centuries
before
Picasso repainted
versions of) each other's
(that is,did their own
Picasso
Contradictory as it may seem,
pictures.
thus paying his respects to a painter he
was
tones, the positiongreatlyadmires. The somber

himself

soft cap and hung

1934 he etched
his

lines and

systematictheories

their

the lat-

called them,

of involuted

besides
artists,

working from

his chest. In

(Fig.458), with

Picasso

two

also did

"elephant-like
contemplating a
beautiful bare-chested
model, appropriate in
view of Rembrandt's
teachingsand works on
the subjectof life drawing. Picasso evolved his
eyes,"

the

production, is

their dense

the picturesqueand richly

grouping to interpret

art

and

which
life,

is most

presentedin

Given

Picasso's

Picasso

383

ically
graph-

P.'^lo
Picasso. Portrait of
Figure 459.
Artist (after El Greco). 1950. Oil on
Mile.
wood,
39^4' S'^i"- Collection
Angela Rosengart, Lucerne.
an

El Greco.
Portrait uf
)
(Jorge Manuel
Theotocopuli
'^i''/%"22".
1600-05. O'l o" canvas,

.ibove:

Figure 460.

Artist

an

c.

Museo

ing of

the hands

of the head
to

implements,the enframing

and

by

the

coUar, all these details appealed

Picasso's eye, and his redrawing of the

intended
not
caricature.
was
as

There

Provincial, Seville.

is far less

decomposition of objectsthan
and shapes
Jolie,and familiar textures
facilitate reading the contents.
What
is new
and
in

Ala

artist's features

unfamiliar

New

unpleasant sensations the objectsinspire.The

inedible state, unlike
objectsare foods in a raw
the more
of earlier Cubist
palatablecontents

life to old themes, as

give new
well know
from
we
popular musical arrangements.
If the artist is trulythe source
of creation
for art, how
plausiblethen that Picasso should
have made
the artist himself the inspiration
for
imaginativepainting.

stylescan

WORK

Although
Guernica

and

be

can

unrelated

his

art

own

go

back

many

found

such
among
subjectsof the 1920s as

of

its

years

seemingly
still

hfes,

dancing figures,and bathers and during the

1930s in his interpretation
of the Crucifixion
and
Greek
themes, bullfights,
mythology.
The

still life of

testifiesto
to

the

Picasso's

the

alertness

384

Ram's

viabiUtyof
to

Head

the Cubist
new

Purposes of

objects that

horn

left.Violence

"(PL56)
styleand

subject matter.
Art

is to

of teeth in the

consonant

with

textures.
to

the

The
left of

fish

ram,

head

of the

and

ram

fish mouth

gaping
abrupt conjunctions of

yellow of
the

and

Picasso

sharp edges against

like the squid at the
in the subjects
be seen

the arsenal

the

touch.
of the

hair

and

of

range

connotations

the

to

in the severed

"

is the

art

their sociable

appealed

the

contrasted

themselves

paintingof the bombing

painted until 1937,

not

was

within

sources

still lifes,
with

lower

QUERNICA

Picasso's

Picasso's

shells with
scales, and
moist, pulpy substances

LEADINQ

TO

in

the blue-veined

"

lemon

ram's

patch cut by the

of
conspicuous note

head, a rectangular
circular
a
lemon, adds
color

to

the

dominant

painting.The
of the paintingsof the
black linear scaffolding
Ma
position
Jolie period has disappeared; the comincludes
large,free-swingingcurved
and join with
fines anji planes that alternate
The
in
rectilinear
tight cohesion.
passages
blues, whites, and

browns

of the

colors and

lie flat upon

textures

the surface,

The
affirmingits two-dimensionality.
objects
are
tautlygrouped and held within the frame
by such inventive drawing as the free repeat

of the serrated edge under

spineof the fish.

the ram's

head

and

in the

Another

of sensation into which

area

sensibilities forcefully
expanded in
1920s
in

that

was

Three

naked
artist

body imagery,seen
(Fig. 461). Traditionally,

Dancers

1925, Picasso had become

fantasyas
appealedto

mid-

of internal

figuresin an interior
was
studying anatomy

of

Picasso's
the

exhibited
Picasso

and

the

poses. Bv

interested in the

by

Miro

and

art

Arp. What

their bold incursions

were

into the irrational and

that

meant

the

unlockingof

tions
inhibi-

with respect to form and content.

Rather
than having created a studio study of the way
three naked
models
might look to someone

else,Picasso
the

to

and

even

imagined their own

are
givenover

their bodies

as

of

abandon

dancer

have

to

seems

inner sensations

frenzied

dance.

Each

possesses a phantom double, a second

a third self This is made
apparent in

the black areas, which are not literalprojected

shadows
but poeticextensions of each figure's
consciousness

of the

body

the left is

given an

second

right a

silhouette and
intuitive way,
of great
a

in which

largerhead
In
an
expression.

the

figureat

breast,that

extra

and

to

the

of different

unclinical,

Picasso showed

physicalexertion
new

area

localized. The

are
strongest feelings

how, in moments
and erotic stimulation,

self-consciousness may

into

come

being.AflTected by these conditions may be the

emphasis,size,weight,color,shape,location,
and even
orientation of the body parts. All the
seem
to be boneless,for example, and
figures
much

of the

fleshyareas.
as

continuous

for this
and

distortion
Cubism's

new

occurs

closed vessel was

imagery

other artists could

intimate sentiments

in

on

extend

art.

Guggenheim Fund).

most

body

most

completeinternal as
well as external reconstruction of the body in
his figures
fictive transparart. Picasso gave
a
ency,
that we
the pink of
so
see
simultaneously
the flesh and the suggestions
of internal organs.
In Bather Seated by the Sea (Fig.462) of 1930,
Picasso was
making a reconnaissance of an
idea for a huge sculptureto be located on the
of the body
Mediterranean coast. The solidity
there
is an
broken
was
and
intriguing
up,
to

Picasso.

Three Dancers.

7%"x4'8yt".

Figure
462. Pablo
Sea.
Oil
on
1930.
Museum
of Modern

Picasso

their

Pablo

canvas,

The

Tate

1925.

Gallery,

London,

the foundation

in Picasso's
now

the

of the

breakdown

Figure461.
Oil

the

^^v

Picasso.
canvas,

Art, New

Bather

Seated

by

the

5'4y2""4'3"- The
York

(Mrs. Simon

"bather"
or

has

flesh forms. The

and

fusion of bone
an

substitution

viselike

head

of the

astonishingand ominous
for

the

pincer
jaws. The

sculpturederives from
transparent-metalsculpture constructions
transparency

of the

his

have
the

attracted
initially

drawings,was
but

him

subjectof

the

to

Crucifixion,judging by the preliminary

rather

Christ's agonieson the Cross

of Mary
passionatesufferings
the complex and
expressive

not

the

Magdalen and
interweavingof limbs and faces. With his own
armatures.
The "cross-pollinating" breakthrough in body imagery of the late
his pictorial
of Picasso's work in different media
has always
of the
state
1920s, whereby the emotional
to
transfers are his
been strong, added
which
subjectcould be exteriorized by drastic changes
in the appearance
of the body, he could thus
seeminglyinexhaustible ideas for metamorphosing
in a personaland subjective
artist had
the impulse to
the body. The
one
reinterpret
way
make
heroic and monumentally scaled sculptures, of the great themes of art that had been given
modern
artists.Unlike the symbolic
certain artistic
feelingthat there were
up by most
traditions which should not die and to which his
objectsin the Breviary
of King Martin of Aragon
and relate
viable art could give new
life.This impulse to
(Fig.379), we cannot
easily
interpret
all the parts of Picasso's painting.
It is possible
revitalize artistic traditions even
when
they
the crucified Christ and the figureon
work isillustrated
to run
counter
to identify
to his own
seem
ladder
the Cross, the
themes
to
a
nailing a hand
by his takingup of secular and religious
soldiers
that had been overworked
and demeaned
gambling for Christ's cloak, the
by
who
mounted
centurion
insincere and uninspiredhandling.
lances Christ's side,
and at the far rightthe draped Magdalen figure
two

before,which

years

themselves

grew

out

of
of

with

outstretched

The

arms.

fantastic

heads

gaping jaws seen in difi"erent parts of the

which
springfrom Picasso's previous
painting,
AND
QWERNICA
have been introduced
secular imagery, may
to
of the event.
symbolizethe animallike brutality
The firstpaintingby Picasso in which he treats
(A crowing cock to illustrate the episode of
of explicit
a theme
violence,as contrasted with his
Peter may
be the creature
The
the left.)
to
artisticviolence in paintingpassive
own
subjects,
within such a small format
painting's
i
ntensity
is a small picturedone in 1930 after many
ings,
drawresults from its hot red and yellowcolors,which
entitled Crucifixion
usual
(Fig.463).This is an unlike the shapes are
crowded
into a restricted
in
It was
paintingfor Picasso
many
ways.
the drawing, these colors
as
space. As much
the firsttime he had interpreted
drawn
a subject
Picasso's passionatefeelingand, rather
convey
from literature,
the Bible,and it was
or
a work
than being decorative, add
to the emotional
for a church or the pubhc. We do
not intended
dissonance of the conception.
not
know
what
caused
him
to
take up
this
1930s
Picasso
was
During the
strongly
theme, and its relation to his personallife or
attracted to ancient Greek
mythology, partly
his possiblereaction
to
the
a
painting on
reaction to the futility
of rational conduct
as
a
What
to
seems
subjectcan only be conjectural.
CRUCIFIXION

with

in the face of the rise of fascism. There

Figure 463.

Pablo

1930. Oil

wood,

on

Picasso. Crucifixion.
February 7,
20K26".
Collection of the artist.

resulted

in Picasso's art, notably in his etching Minotauromachia (Fig.464), the formation

of private
rather

than
literal interpretations
of
taur.
legendsas Theseus and the MinoIn many
drawings,prints,and paintings
preceding this etching, Picasso had created

myths,

such

Greek

fantasies based

the

upon

Minotaur,

the

bull,

bullfight.
These, coupled with prior
themes in his art, were
brought togetherin the
Minotauromachia
with
rational
no
plan or
and

the

discernible
the

narrative.

The

illusionistic surrealist

instinctive

creation, as

chapter. The

artist

whole

is

image

discussed

responded

model

built
in
to

the

of

upon
next

obsessive

Pablo
Minotauromachia.

Left:Figure 464.
Picasso.

.-27%".
1935. Etching,ig'/^
Museum
The Philadelphia
Art
of
(gift of Henry
R. Mcllhenny).
Below:

Figure465. Pablo
in Pain,
Picasso.
Woman
studyfor Guernica. May 24,
1937.

Crayon

on

ii^/gxg".Collection
extended
on
artist,
The

of

Museum

Art, New

paper,
of the
loan

to

Modern

York.

from the myriad references and ambiguous

of time, place,
and action.
interrelationships
In May, 1937, Picasso began work
Both
in his previous interpretations
and
in
studies
on
for a largecanvas
the Minotauromachia,
the bombing
Picasso deviated from the
to commemorate
In antiquity, of the Spanish Basque town
of Guernica
originalstory of the Minotaur.
by
Franco's German
dive bombers.
the Minotaur
This was
his
was
a destructive being to whom
first paintingdirectlyinspiredby a specific
sacrificed. In Picasso's art the
were
girls
young
Minotaur
shown
was
as
a
severally
pathetic historical event. Nevertheless,the studies and
the completedpainting
outlet and
were
a logical
victim,as a tender abductor or objectof love,
and as confounded
summation
of his imagery of the late 1920s and
with the person of Theseus.
In the Minotauromachia
1930s that had dealt with
and
tasies
fanthe Minotaur
is not a
brutality
the
brilliant sketch
body. One
menacing figurebut is shown reachingfor the
upon
(Fig.465) shows how Picasso became
lightheld by the young girl.
Just to the left of
deeply
the Minotaur's
in the nonpolitical
the
is
white
i
nstead
of
a
engrossed
sail,
legs
aspects of the
of
the
human
black sail that in the
Theseus
project notably the theme
myth was
in the suicide of
erroneously kept, resulting
toreador
Aegeus. The horse and the woman
from the earlier bullfight
series;and as
emerge
themes

and
violent,
minglingthe bizarre,erotic,

innocent

comes

in free association.

"

before,the
In her

shows

woman

dreamlike

state

horse with the sword

who

also has been

evidence
she

rather

of violation.
the

menaces

than

fused with

the
the

gored

Minotaur,
bull in the

series.The figure
bullfights
ascendingthe ladder
who
looks over
at the left,
his shoulder in the
direction of the

hght, is Christ. The theme of

mounting to his death is an old one in
Spanishart. Above the scene, in the niche of a
are
two
blockhouse, are
girls,who
young
but whose
seemingly witnesses to the scene
Christ

attention

is upon
two
derive from

also
figures
combat.
occur

before

The

birds

doves.

These

witness

earlier studies of

arena

standingbefore a niche
in a paintingdone
by Picasso's father
1900. Much
of the etching's
fascination
two

Pablo

Figure 466.
Collection

of the

Guernica.

Picasso.

artist,on

extended

1937. Oil
loan to The

on

head has been

deranged by pain. The woman's
from the body, and each
completely detached
feature's response
to
pain is shown
separately.
of eyelashes,
Even
the normally neutral areas
The
brows, and hair participateaggressively.
eyebrows do not lie passivelyon the forehead
but cut into it like deep scars.
The
hair pulls
from the head, resembling rawly exposed
away
such as are
also suggested in the lines
nerves
from
the right eye running down
the cheek.
The
eyes have been pulled apart and transposed
into teardrop forms
filled and
surrounded
by
splintering
shapes.A large dark patch between
the

eyes

localized

another

aggravation.The

nostrils,
one

from

swollen

head

the nose,
seems

it is twisted
The
in

are

divested

climactic

feature

and

almost

intense

detached

flared. The

of its cranial

into soft and

of

area

angular

is the mouth

the

entire

skeleton

as

contortions.
burst

open

lipspeeled back to reveal the

irregularand precariouslyrooted teeth, the
lining of the palate, the black cavity of the
of the tongue into
throat,and the rigidification
a
sharp,cuttinginstrument.
Griinewald's
Isenheirn Altarpiece
a
(PI.6) was
of this drawing. From
children's art,
source
Picasso took the use
of crayon,
and deceptively
childish scribblingwithin
the facial contours
achieved
a
graduated series of vaguely defined
irritated spots. The
drawing betrays the fierce
with which the crayon
was
pressure
dug into the
and
hair.
particularlyin the brow
paper,
a

scream,

388

Purposes

of Art

ii's!^" "25'8%".
Art, New

canvas,

of Modern

Museum

York.

Picasso's sadism, extended

his

to

means

well

as

subject,is frankly manifest.

In the final painting of Guernica (Fig.466),
Picasso avoided
unmistakable
or
specific
cal
politireference to the locale of the tragedy,to the

as

his

to

fascist aggressor,
his attention

modern

to

or

ing
warfare, focus-

agonies of the
cipherable links between
the

upon

combatants.

No

figuresand

groups

while

exist,and

non-

the

Picasso

may

have

had
private symbols in mind, he
his intent.
refused to spellout
consistently
various

signifiedFranco
assignto the bull
is

and

At
has

Spanish people. To

the horse
spear. Beneath
clutches
whose
a
arm
flower. In older

gallopinghorse

are

head

body pierced by
of

segments

broken

sword

man

and

figurefallen beneath a
victory symbol, but this

was

in

in

the

the

Guernica. From

his

Barcelona

academy,
Picasso had made
drawings of figurecasts and
them
into stilllifes during the
had introduced
in from the rightis
1920s. The
figurewho runs
of earlier paintingsof gigantesque
descendant
a
the
nudes
running along a beach, but now
student

woman's

days

its

art, the

ended

was

is the distended

center

dying horse, with

tradition

bull

at

victim. In the

of the

the

the

art,

the left the role of aggressor

clear indications that the bull is

overlook

to

also

Picasso's

in

times

has

form

is swollen

exteriorization
Other
mother

reminiscences
and

child, and

and

constricted

of her

internal

in exaggerated

distress.

of earlier work
the

woman

who

are

the
leans

from

the window

have

vague

to the

ambiguity as
the action
indoors

holding the lamp, who may

of justice.
There
is

connotations

interior

or

exterior

(the people of Guernica

locus

died

of

both

and

dancy
outdoors)and a puzzling redunGuernica is in part a
lightsources.
at the right,
study in panic; the two women
drawn
to
deprivedof all reason, are inexplicably
rather than repelled
by the center of the disaster.
of

The

great scale of the Guernica

Picasso,and

compositionand
of textures
and

made

he

and

whites

ended

colors. The

not

was

for

new

drawings for the

by reducingthe number
many

use

of

only eliminated

flanking areas

through

toward

the

brown

ruins below.

blacks,greys,

aerial tactics rather than

certain

whose
guided the Nazi painter,

color

has

the

democratic, humane

black

and

white, furthermore,

and

continuities
dis-

shapes.The part thus

tends to predictthe whole, since no single
figure
is shown
in the same
its shape be
can
tone, nor
from
detached
that
it is adjacent.
which
to
It is interesting
Picasso's comto compare
mentary
with
on
war
a
painting by a Nazi
artist.Dive Bombers over England (Fig. 467).
this looks like a paintingof a bright
At first,
cloud-filled sky over
a
city, but then the
be seen
bombers
can
diving out of the sun

problems, but it also created suitable and

dramatic
accompaniment to the nightmarish
The
theme.
stippledtexture in the horse and
over-all

continuities

of colors and

with

indebtedness

some

perhaps
history.For

those

the

to

most

Concern

suffering
style,ironically,
French
sionism,
Impresin
art
pacifistic

people who
art

with

human

must

feel
have

that

complete

Nazi
the qualities
of newsprint and jourpaintingsshould give pause.
nalisticlegibility,
So many
ideas emerged in the process
of
photos of violence during the turbulent
before the painting. (He did not work
paintingthe Guernica,as evidenced by changes
years
in the final work, that their momentum
from
photographs for the Guernica,however.)
was
Picasso's recourse
carried over
Classical pyramidal
studies even
to additional
after
to the
the paintingwas
exhibited.
compositionis not out of character,for he had
One such postscript
taken many
motifs and devices from Classical
is a paintingof the head
of an
He could not, however,
art in previous years.
agonized horse (Fig.468). Picasso continued
the ideas excited by the
the pyrto build upon
accept the Classical insistence upon
amid's
internal experiences
of pain.To the horse's head
and
centrality,
symmetry, and stability,
resemble

the climax
human
knew

but

of the

pyramid is

terrorized

the great

beast.

paintingsof

Gericault, Delacroix, and

Louvre.) The
Figure 467.
England.1 94

pyramid
Georg

an

idealized

(Picassoclearly
and

war

Baron

disaster

Gros

is interlocked

Lebrecht.

Location

not

by

he

has added

hairyand
and

smooth

simulation

of the texture

flesh of the outside

the roof of the mouth.

This

of the

of the head

singlehead

set

in the
with

Dive-bombers

the

over

unknown.

Picasso. Horse's Head, study

Figure 468. Pablo
for Guernica. May 2, 1937. Oil on
25'/2X
canvas,
extended
loan to
on
36^". Collection of the artist,
the Museum
of Modern
York.
Art, New

Picasso

389

Right: Figure
Picasso.
Oil

on

The

Below:

Oil

on

of the artist.

Figure
Seated

Picasso.

canvas,

Collection
Victor

Pablo

1948.
5'8''g"x 8'2%".

canvas,

Collection

469.
Kitchen.

Mr.

470.
Woman.

Pablo
1959.

4'gy2"^3'9"and

Mrs.

Ganz.

the total
Since

Guernica, Picasso

content

cultivate

to

later works

match

his

He

garden. Few of his

tained
profundityand susbeen more
playful

recreative, less self-critical. He

his

rework

to

has

the old
relate

earlier themes

own

and

masters
to

his love

of

become

have

to

seems
own

his earlier

inventiveness.
and

has

and

chosen

the

art

of

modes, particularlyas they

his own
children, women,

animals.

and

The

Kitchen

the Cubist

In

linear

of the

late

1920s

(Fig. 469),
structure

reworked

Picasso

of his studio

by making

it

painting
pliable.
plays against

more

secondary color pattern that

ligaturesalso descends from one
studio series. Picasso could
never
bring
The

the black

to

of

black ground is like a summation

anguish of the larger Guernica.

against a

remain

in

consistently abstract

of the
himself

series

of

paintings,always feelingthe need to introduce

reference
to nature
some
or
objectsand thereby
tinuing
holding on to what he feels has been the conadhesive
force in the historyof art.
His Seated Woman
(Fig.470) shows how late in
life Picasso could
and
still vigorously conceive
paint uningratiatingsubjectsin a strong style.
The
angularity of design and hairy armpits are
edgment
a
disenchanting but amusingly frank acknowlthat

his

390

Purposes

of Art

own

art, he

this

is

studio

model.

continually reacts

Within

against his

delightfulmythological figuresand
and then reintroducing
by now

concocted
beautiful

earthy type.

an

work

as,

I often

he

women

look

added,

compassion

at

"I

1944.
Museum

471.

the

often

and

of the human

Figure

Picasso

has

described

his

own

"whimsical, tender, biting,garrulous,

of Art.

as

record

"

satirist..
.

life with

exalt the greatness and

situation. ..." [1964].

Pablo

Bronze,

world

Picasso.

height 7'4".

Man
The

with

But

profound
anguish

Lamb.

Philadelphia

This

last aptly applies to one

of Picasso's
ness
sculptures.Always exhibitingan awareof his great facility,
Picasso's sculptureMan
with a Lamb
(Fig.471) is in part a suppression
of this giftin order
to create
a
sculpture that
and
surface
moves
not
us
by virtuosity
appeal
but by the simplicityand
depth of its theme.
Like many
of his works, it was
preceded by
and
drawings
long meditation. Execution in clay
done in a singleday during World
War
II.
was
The
shepherd's gentle cradling of the lamb
is as much
mals
a
part of Picasso's feelingsfor anithose
as
drawings and paintingsin which
used
themselves
to
they are
destroy or are
a
destroyed.During the war
plastercast of this
work
the artist's
to
came
greeted those who
stands
in the
Paris studio. Today a bronze
cast
southern
where
French
village of Vallauris
finest

Picasso

has

worked

indicate
about

how

art

take its place in

The

animal

and

Both

years.

feelingof

strong

the

tions
locaartist

still
images the artist and can
public to unite the community.

of the

theme

Egypt

to

for many

the

with

man

ancient

the

Greece,

lamb

where

goes

back

it indicated

sacrifice and

votive giftto a god.

was
a
an
again revives and transforms
and
old idea, giving it relevance
his
to himself
This
age. It is Picasso's personal peace offering.
with historyand
aspect of Picasso's involvement
his motivation
to continue
painting and sculpture
what
he meant
when
helpsus to understand
artist has been
he said, "My
whole
life as an
than a struggleagainst reaction
nothing more
and the death of art" [1937].
Picasso

Since
influence

once

World

War

II

Picasso

has

exerted

less

the

important younger
painters,
for new
have
been
problems and possibilities
into art. Many
introduced
important developments
in the early art of this century
occurred
for which
Picasso was
not
responsible,as will
be seen.
Abstract
a peripheral
art, for example, was
interest with
Picasso,whose thinkingwas
form. The
riety
notomainly centered on the human
of his highly publicized private life and
carefree ageless
due perhaps to reviappearance,
talization by incessant creation, make
a serious
work
difficult. Few
can
appraisalof his recent
disagreethat before 1940 his protean energies,
nical
attention to feeling,and sheer techintelligence,
skill produced art of the highestqualityin
Not the least inspiration
astonishingabundance.
to

on

Picasso at all times

and

delightwith

was

his curiosity,
concern,

the faces of art and

Picasso

391

humanity.

20

ART

IMAOINATIVE

far
so
presented
book, thehistory of

AS
been

largely
We

reason.

service
how

and

it

frequently

was

Men

purposes.
and

and

books

good

its

usually

beautiful.

and

and

world

of dreams

of

in

day

of

the

These

and

the

"Imaginative

Art

that

art

imitation

about

of the

the

art

"

this

the

and

the

cultures

as

these
us

traditions

produced

during
392

light
ings
draw-

Under

the
is concerned
other

visible

world.

visionary, revelation,

fancy, hallucination,

well

as

histories

us

and

still another

changes

that

have

the

last

and

taken
one

the

the fantastic.

the individual

subjects is
the

and

origins tells

moral

the

night

sources

waking,

these

from

the

ugly,

chapter

from

include

social

clarifying for
past

the

art

fore
there-

The

seen

present.

bizarre, the grotesque,

history of

from

of

revery,

produced

of various
The

has

derives

sources

dreams,
Art

the

demons

to

other

realm

and

art,

disrespectful.

antiquity

with
than

and

selectivelyupon

encompasses

the

respectfully

painting, sculpture, prints, and

from

heading

focus

practical

to

been

loyal
whole,

museums

However,

history, also

irreverent,

as

dedicated
have

gods

man's

to

society

reverently depicted. Our

survey

of

and

state,

have

performed

art

this

in
to

seem

tribute

how

seen

church,

to

must

continuous

have

reader

the

to
art

hundred

frames

of

the

public

years.

masks

upon

cultural

complex

of

life view
understand

today

and

in

experience

to

of

work

and

research

to

case

social

grew.

We

of

out

that

has

the

artist

valuable
led

without

but
much

to

artist

past,

sufficient

knowledge

of which
an

to

of

result

of artists of the

or

the

easy

predecessor.

been

and

histories

Evidence

discern

always

not

drawn

context

about

must

from

has

interpretation

conclusions

reference
art

is

appropriated

tool

result

the

cautious

more

genuinely the
from
a
symbol

psychology

unhistorical
and

was

unraveling

manifestations

It

now

measure.

art, with

be

art.

been

has

Western

beliefs

only

are

small

in

"fantastic."

what

have

may

of

full

the

and

we

even

different

imaginative
separate

that

must

we

describe

dream

in

word

the

using

to

African

and

customs

scholarship

years

pictorial riddles
that

and

creations

pure

masks

tribal

to

many

made

artist

ferocious

not

previous

beginning
For

the

Thus,
are

reflecting

risky

in the

time;

concepts

our

imaginations; rather, they depend

largely

tastes

way

of his

artists'

with

art,

present

our

originally have

intelligibleto

Polynesian

their

Freudian

artists.

been

older

in

us

with
or

rational, could

and

to

accord

not

logical reference

is

sense

or

does

it

of what

fantastic

seem

may

much

departures
place

What
because

the

of

the

artists'

of the

past

Plate 55.
Pablo
The Museum

Picasso. Ma
of Modem

Jolie.191 1-12.
Art, New York

Oil

on

canvas,

39%

25%"

P. Bliss Bequest).
(Lillie

^^,l^jSWWfl^r^

Plate

Marc
57.
The
Museum

Chagall.
of Modern

/ and

the

Art, New

Village,
igi
York

i.

Oil

"

on

(Mrs. Simon

6'3^" X4'i 1 14
Guggenheim Fund).

canvas,

'

'

IN

^z

1"
^

"S

-a
O
a

"

CO

tive
completelycreative or entirelyinvenof his symbols does not in
itselfdetract from the potential
importance of
that artist,
have
for he may
sought to preserve
familiar to his audience
a signlanguage that was
while
skill and
demonstrating considerable
imagination in reinterpretinghis acquired
was

not

artists introduced

in the formation

human

the

symbol. By

token,

same

artist has
of

out

originateda symbol
his own
fantasyhas not
in art.

of excellence

For

the
or

fact that
created

been

an

purely

guarantee

discomfited

the reader

being created
chapter,
concerninga protest written eightcenturies ago
againstthe meaninglessnessof imaginativeart,
by the imaginativeart
around

may

him

today,the

sees

be welcome.

LITERARY

AND

SOURCES

FOR

great Western

ARTISTIC
NATIVE

I MAQI

OF

ART
The

he

firstpart of this

THE

PAST

tradition of fantastic art has

and

and

monsters

of

animals

hybrids of

unrelated

the

the

to

text

itself

(Fig.472). On the great cathedrals and

adorned
cloisters,
sculptors
imaginatively
column
water
capitals,
spouts or gargoyles, the
underside of choir seats, and many
other places
of importance secondary to
the location of
such as the framing
significant
religious
subjects,
of the great doorways. When
the medieval
areas
in the

artist was
devil

called upon

hell,or

to

or

give a

to

to

moralize

the

to

presence

about

vices,he

license to indulgehis imaginationas well as

earlier art which
dealt with the
reinterpret
same
subjects.Medieval
imaginative art is
largelyrelated to the war of the Church on sin,
and the propagation of its views on
the hereafter.
As with the making of religious
painting
and
sculpture of a beatific character, the
and grotesque was
conceptionof the monstrous
had
to

prototypes in

tied to

art.

The

"Hell

Mouth,"

jaws in a twelfthcedents
precentury manuscript (Fig.473), has many
in medieval
sculpturalrenderingsof
seen

as

the

Last

leviathan's

open

But

that all of

conclude

Judgment.
antiquity,but the subsequent
in
medieval
fantastic art
located
religious
Middle
Ages experienced a more
significant
and
to
was
rationally
buildings
intelligible
and influential expansion and development of
looked
it is to
justifiedby those who
upon
with
the
painting and sculpture concerned
witness
such
most
a
ignore
against
important
demonic, the infernal,the unnatural, and the

its roots

in

bizarre. From

the twelfth

through the fifteenth

manuscripts and the sculptural

centuries,in
decoration
remained
the

central

architecture, this type of art

and figuratively
literally
marginal to
of

focus

of the

religiousimagery of
Christ,the saints,and the Bible. In Chapter 5,
"The
Sacred Book," it was
pointed out that in
initials and margins of medieval
manuscripts.

In

argument.

letter to

about
But

what
in

Brethren
those

an

he
the
who

abbot
saw

century

great

Clairvaux, who
ecclesiastical reform, wrote

Bernard

his life to

devoted
a

twelfth

the

St.

churchman,

to

of

in which

he

complained

in the cloisters:

of the
the eyes
cloister,under
read there,what profit
is there in

ridiculous

monsters,

in

that

marvelous

_to.Ouiuiuis
Far

left:
Figure472.
from

Les

leries,
DrolHemes

gnon,
et Recueil de Prieres. Avic.

_nf

aOtfuuw

lOuuniirfcihua.
fi
niiapiioiia.
|iairaaf
"

cript
1360. Manus-

illumination.

^*

bliotheque

Bi-

Nationale,

Paris.

Left:Figure 473. Mouth

of Hell,from the Psalter
Before
of Winchester.
mination.
1 161.
Manuscript illuThe

Museum,

London.

British

ity?
comeliness,that comely deform-

deformed

and

what

To

lions,those

fierce

those

those unclean

are

purpose

into

centaurs,

monstrous

fifteenth

the

centuries

striped tigers,those
fightingknights,those hunters winding their
under one
bodies are there seen
horns ? Many
heads to a singlebody.
head, or again, many
beast with a serpent's
Here
is a four-footed
tail;there a fish with a beast's head. Here

symbols

again the forepartof

paintingw'as

half

those

behind

it,or

quarters of
marvelous

those

men,

horse

horned

trails half

goat

the hinder

beast bears

and
short,so many
the varieties of divers shapes

horse. In

are

we

are

on

more

of these
God's
ashamed
not
are
sake, if men
follies,
why at least do they not shrink from
the

saw

agents

St. Bernard
number

of

know

had

exactly which

looked

examples

upon,
survived

have

idea

of their appearance
St. Bernard, who
ironically,
an

existence,gives us

tures
sculp-

give us
(Fig.474). But,
to

protests their

marvelously vivid

and

of these sculptures,
description
showing
how long he had observed so many,
and making
convincinghis closinglament about distraction.
exact

It

is also

evident

who

patrons
ashamed

of

sculpturesSt.
found
of

in

both

that

the

commissioned
"follies." The
Bernard
the

artists and
them

for

sources

described

sculptureand

are

the

the
not

were

to

the

be

painting

earlier

of which
sur\'ived from
time, some
books on animals.
or
antiquityin "bestiaries,"
an

THE

HELL

teenth
thir-

cataloguedthe types

and

hell

the

of hell's

estimates

as

The

first made

artist who

consistent

central

the Netherlandish

and

physical
demons

focus

of high
painterHiero-

Bosch. His renderingof "Hell," from a

three-panelpainting entitled The Garden of
EarthlyDelights(Fig.475),has impressedmany
as
being a premonitionof modern fantastic art.
No rational explanationor analogies
to modern
life are
available to the viewer today to permit
him to "read" the meaning of Bosch's hell,hence
the conclusion

sufficient

well

as

dream

study by
not

and

of

dimensions.

or

do

we

centuries.

twelfth

demons, and the sixteenth century

ingenius census-taking of the devil's

expense.

While

had

sixteenth
the

nymus

so

tempted to read
in the marble
than in our
books, and to spend
the whole
day in wondering at these things
rather than in meditatingthe law of God. For
hand, that

every

and

since

Demonographers

apes,

that this

was

work

of pure fantasy
the artist.Serious

experiencedby
art

many

that Bosch

historians has shown,

ever,
how-

and
heavilyupon literary
in his inspired
sources
work, and that it
pictorial
is possible
to compile an
ings
encyclopediaof meanfor his various symbols.During, and long
the Church
before,Bosch's lifetime,
taught men
in the world was
that all that one
saw
symbolic
of the invisible,
whether
godly or demonic.
Bosch

drew

drew

from

the

rich

sources

on

this

in folklore, popular sayings,

subject found
and Christian and Jewish
treatises,
allegorical
religiousliterature,including medieval
clopedias,
encywell as from astrolog\'
and writings
as
on
alchemy. Despite his preoccupation with
his belief that

sin and
truth

through sincere

could

one

and

contemplation,Bosch

did

service of the Church.

He

attain divine

deep
to

seems

and

prayer

work

not

have

in

the
been

and
skepticin his attitude toward both reason
savinggrace promised by the Church.
that the terrible underworld
of hell
of his time, Bosch viewed
Like many
pessimists
was
realityand that livingman
the preponderance of immoral
activityand
demons
by numberless
persisted follyabout him as proof positive
that the devil
had conquered the earth. His paintinghad a
of man's
moralizing function, the exposure
to vice and the devil's temptations.
susceptibility
of evil.
By art he gave visible form to the nature
St. Anthony, whose strengthof
Bosch's hero was
evil.
soul alone permitted him to triumph over
OF

HIERONYMUS

BOSCH

the divine

The

belief

was

near

surrounded

While

Bosch
of

Figure
from
church

Capital,
474.
the crypt of the
of St-Eutrope,

Saintes,France.
1081-96.

had

advanced

available
Flemish

to

him

the achievements

painting of the
fifteenth century in, for example, perspective,
he seems
chosen an archaic,
to have
consciously
or
Eyck style,as being more
pre-van
priate
approhe had to say. Thus in his panel
to what

"Hell," the elevated viewpointpermitshim to

lay out in a vertical format a vast cross section
of hell,climaxed
at the
top by the vision of
later to take many
burning cities. (Bruegelwas
and symbolic ideas from Bosch, such
pictorial
the burning cities he appropriatedfor his
as
Triumph of Death
[Fig. 211], but not the
moralizing, the pessimism, and the view of
While
folly as evil held by his predecessor.)
the
historians cannot
unanimously agree on
of

Figure 475.
from
on

The

Hieronymus

Garden

Bosch.

Hell, side

panel

ofEarthlyDelights.1480- 1505.
panel,height6'5". Prado, \Iadrid.

Oil

meaning

exact

implicationof

or

each

of the

symbols and allegorical

images of the various
the intellectual
can
re-create
they
episodes,
atmosphere of Bosch's time which
inspiredhis
creations
in

and

Bosch's

re-creations

hell

symbol made
bodied,

and

Within

the

is
of

of

hell. Prominent

the

heretical

compound
human-headed,

eggshellbarren-tree-stump-legged
figure.
up

shell, alchemists, wizards, or

served by satanic innkeepers.
The
(Alchemistsused eggshellsin their recipes.)

intellectuals

bagpipe
carnal
of

are

on

platterabove

signboard for
on

tied

or

for

remorse,

the

to

derive

may
who

The

rabbit
both

do

harp

and

from

and

De

has

fied
cruci-

lute represent
were

Lord.
in

Sexual

the form

of

severed

the Biblical reference

devouring a

the word

of the

man

have

and

excess

type

instruments

lanterns. The

hear

not

sins of

Charles
Bosch

signified

inn. Those

musical

these

knife,key, vases,

those

to

this infernal

praise of the
abound, presumably

references

ears

head

with

identified

the

the

love,and obscenity,thus making

may

to

Lord.
related

the fear of death.

Tolnay, whose

major study of
more
painter'swork
believes that the figureof a

made

this

to us,
intelligible
the sides of the great broken
man
leaning over
eggshellis Bosch himself,and that the artist has

shown

himself

before

us

his mind.
in

art

This

for

dreamed,

depicted the
the

would

have

we

available

daydreaming

originated or

vision

only

to

scene

within

be the first time

the

Hugo

van

of the

the dead

dreamer
Goes

der

that

and

the

earlier

descending Christ
Virgin and not to

disciples
(Fig.140).

REVELATION

AND

DtJRER'S

IN

Throughout
century there
of the world
in

not

seen

if the

as

contained

was

DREAM

ART

Europe at the end of the fifteenth

was
widespread fear that the end
was
coming. Bosch was not alone

giving form to his premonitions of

catastrophe. The
great German

Albrecht
text

the
book

and

Diirer

publishedin

fourteen

1498

large woodcut

Apocalypse. (This
made
and
paid

was

the

the

wide
world-

artist

complete

illustrations

of

first illustrated

for by a singleartist.)
John's Revelations
concerning the end of
the
world
had
a
long history of previous
but
artist had
been either as
no
illustration,

St.

ImaginativeArt

395

altar

golden
And

which

the smoke

before

was

of the

the

God

angel

of

out

took

the

the

throne.

ascended
.

before

the

incense.

angel's hand.
and

censer

up

And

filled it with

fire of the

altar,and cast it into the earth ; and

there
were
voices, and
thunderings, and
The
first
an
earthquake.
lightningsand
angel sounded, and there followed hail and fire
cast
mingled with blood, and they were
upon
the earth; and the third part of trees was
burnt
.

and

up,

all green

burnt

was

grass

And

up.

the

second

angel sounded, and as it were

a
great
mountain
into the
cast
burning with fire was
...And
the
third
sea.
angel sounded, and
there fell a great star from heaven
burning as
it

were

lamp.

And
.

the

fourth

angel

sounded, and the third part of the sun

smitten, and the third part of the moon,
the third part of the stars; so as
darkened..
And
was

of them

was

and

the third part

I beheld, and

heard

an
angel flyingthrough the midst of
heaven, saying with a loud voice, Woe, Woe,
Woe, to the inhabiters of the earth.
.

Hgure

of

illustration

Durer.

Albrecht

476.

Revelations

Seven
and

Trumpets,
from

the

15V2X 11V4. The

University, Bloomington.

Apocalypse. 1498. Woodcut,

Indiana

Library,
literal

the
in

or

as

extensive

vengefulGod.
the

for

Bible

thus

wrath

able

of
find

to

perfectexpressionof his fears

same
time, to bring to bear
engravings all the skill and learning

upon

his

artist and

chosen

was

for

the

at

of

an

depictingthe

the

and,

man

in

Diirer

Lilly

educated

illustration

In

man.

the woodcut

(Fig. 476),

Diirer

was

interpreting
Chapters 8 and 9 of Revelations,
thereby compacting into a single but large
compositiona succession of catastrophicevents.
the
Biblical
account
Taking excerpts from
best to explain the action, but only a
serves
study of previousapocalypticillustrations,here
the reader
the
to
impossible,can
bring home
inventiveness
and
imagination employed by
in
Diirer
undertaken
treating subjects not
in making
them
before, or
vivid and
more
plausible for
seventh

the

culture

of his time.

After

the

seal has been

opened, and its subsequent

silence, St. John writes:

half-hour
I

saw

God; and

the
to

seven

them

angelswhich
were

given

seven

stood

before

trumpets.

And

another
and
stood
the
at
angel came
altar,having a golden censer;
and
there was
him
much
incense that he should
given unto
offer it with

396

the prayers

of all saints upon

Purposes of

Art

the

Diirer
showed
an
eagle,instead of an angel,
Because
the eagle
crying "Woe, Woe, Woe."
is the evangelicalsymbol of St. John, the stibstitution and message
were
appropriate.
In
with
Diirer's interpretation
of
contrast
St. John's revelation of the end of the world
is
his own
color of a dream
depictionin a water
that he had
in 1525
(Fig.477),which is probably
the oldest example of an
artist attempting
such
transcribe
to
a
personal experience.
When
he painted his dream
he also wrote
it a lengthy description
below
:
In

the

and Thursday
night between
Wednesday
this appearance
Whitsunday, I saw

after
in my

how

sleep
"

heaven.
miles

from

away

the whole

earth

it

land.

four

about

terrific force

with

me

noise, and

tremendous
drowned

the

fell from

waters

great

many

first struck

The

broke

was

so

and
and

up

afraid

sore

fell,
they fell they were
powerful and
very
of them, some
further away,
there were
many
And
down
from
nearer.
so
they came
some
to fall with
great a heightthat they all seemed
that

I awoke

and

as

from

it.Then

ecjualslowness.

an

touched

that
And

the other

But

the

the

when

earth

had

waters

first

water

nearly

very

it,it fell with such swiftness,with wind

roaring,and I was so sore afraid that when

reached
and

I awoke

my

in the

arose
as

whole

I could

while

saw

not

body
recover

morning

it. God

turned

trembled

and

for

myself.So

long

when

painted it above here

all things to the best.

What
he

interests

about

us

is that

Diirer's dream

careful to comment
and
velocities,
waking observations
not

in which

Diirer

but

did

he

his

record

of nature.

have

itselfdoes

things as distances

such

on

and

the

look

treated

paint

the

or

own

thoughtful,

The

water

styleof

another
earth

as

let his

to

color

vision,

landscape,

artists had
animal

unnatural.

was

introducingtrees and houses to give scale to his

nightmare. Although he did not show figures,
of his
the image of the Lord, at the end
or
he implied that God
the cause
was
statement
and
of his well-being
of what
he had
seen
thereafter.

he

used

bird

or

hybrid

(or

To

could.

all

in medieval

experience

of

Two

available

and

only

another

well

was

TEMPTATION

OF

ST.

ANTHONY

art

and
works

bizarre

of art which

seventeenth

holy man
This
not

from

the

Middle

of the
are

tesque
gro-

the many
Ages to the

in the

Christ but of

theme,
'"temptation"

saint. In the thirteenth

artist of a
manuscript showed
lifted above a church
being literally
by the devil's agents (Fig.478). In medieval
Christianitybeauty was
equated with God,
uglinesswith the devil, and the artist of the
St. Guthlac
kidnaping and torture was encour-

century,

the

St. Guthlac

the

of other

that

if his

abroad,

necessary

to

the

with

Museum,
the
The

der

artists

as

Weyden,
a

engrave

more

unattractive

erties
prop-

and

could

monsters

actually

or

477.
Waters

and

Albrecht

from

water

Heaven
color.

have
to

do

Durer.

(Dream

be

seen,

all the
so.

Landscape
Vision).

Kunsthistorisches

Vienna.

Below:

of such

fly,they would
or
equipment
anatomy

Pen

1525.

"

men.

He

monsters.

pointed

walk

Flooded

scripts,
manu-

dwelt at greater length

prickly,equipping the
demons
with
a
larger arsenal of dangerous
and
more
repulsivebodies. As with
weapons
St. Guthlac, St. Anthony's quietface,expressive
of his stoic resignationand
inner
strength,
with the extreme
contrasts
pugnaciousness,the
mentors.
stupidity,and the vocal assaults of his torthis
to make
Schongaucr's giftwas
unnatural
event
to his audiences, such
plausible
of

on

Left: Figure

demons

other

drawing,a brilliant German

printmaker, Martin
the identityof this saint
Schongauer, converted
to that of St. Anthony, but preservedthe motif
of the aerial kidnaping (Fig.479). Fortified by
the great developments in naturalism
of the

able
Schongauer was
inventory of

take as their subjectthe

century
attacked by the devil and his demons.

is often shown

justof

by the Church

him

to
as

half centuries after the St. Guthlac

extensive

Exemplifying the encouragement

and
what

the
interpreting
but
also drawing

fifteenth century, in the work

van
Eyck and
Rogier van
THE

human
convey

he

man,

the

extensively
upon

to

most

antiquity,

of the

three)

sculpture,as
that not

so

Since

inspirehis imagination,the

manuscript artist had

the work

man's

forms

gruesome

the

imagination concoct

aged

diately
compelled to write about it, immeinto
his
irrational
experience
translating
also
rational and
public language. He was
felt

Figure 478. Kidnapingof St. Guthlac,from

HarleyRoll. c. 1230. Manuscript illumination.
British

Museum,

London.

Martin
Schongauer.
The
Z,?/}; Figure 479.
Temptation of St. Anthony, c. 1480-90. Engraving,
Gallery of Art, Washingi23/s":gVs". The National
ton,
D.C.
(Rosenwald Collection).
Below:

Matthias
Figure 480.
St. Anthony, from

Grunewald.
the

Temptationof
piece.

Oil

51 2-15.

Altar-

panel, 8'8%'X4'6%".

on

d'Unterlinden, Colmar,

Musee

The

Isenheim

France.

Perhaps the most

inspiredand persuasiveof
that
of
Temptations of St. Anthony was
Matthias
Griinewald
(Fig. 480). His painting
of the
is one
panels of the Isenheim Altarpiece
"Crucifixion"
cussed
dis(PI. 6), whose
panel was
in
Chapter 3, "Images of Gods."
Grunewald
showed
St. Anthony
crying out
On
a
against the attacks of the demons.
piece
of paper
in
lower
the
right-hand corner,
Grunewald
"Where
wrote:
are
good
you,
the

Jesus, where
and

come

were

dress

well

be

that

of the

? And

you
my

wounds?"

why

did

This

plaintcould

not

you

that

of the beleaguered saint, but also

rottinghuman
corpse in the lower
left-hand corner.
Dermatologistshave identified
its sores
as
a
syphilitic,
diagnosis that relates
the content
of this pictureto the skin afflictions
of the patientswho
were
brought to the altar
painting to begin their therapy. Grunewald
went
beyond Bosch and Schongauer in depicting
surfaces

the
their

various

of his

forms

of

showing the
fleshycovering of

the

with

carried

into

over

monsters

as

of

symptoms

corruption.Not

content

lurid, scaly, feathered, or

foreground demons, he

the ruined

house

of the

hermit

saint the

jagged silhouettes and elusive forms of

the devil's legion.Unperceived by the hermit,
the patient who
but significantly
to
apparent
looked
first with dismay upon
the painting,
at
the Lord
be seen
can
looking down on the trials
of

the

saint.

Emerging

about

the Lord's

radiance
armed

will

who

angels

darkness.

With

the

the

from

throne

are

disperse the
of

resources

brilliant
luminous
devils

of

painting

Grunewald

the
re-create
was
inspired to
transparenciesof heavenly light and gangrenous
of dark, demonic
flesh, the opaqueness
bodies, the shine of reptilian
scales,and mucous
from

the
nose.
Many
things in
paintingand Schongauer's engraving
both to previous art
partiallytraceable

dripping

Griinewald's
are

*#Jb.^^'

and
St.

to

the

Anthony"

Legend, which
The

written
in

dates

of

text

Jacobus

de

from

painterprobably

the

"Life

Voragine's

the
read

thirteenth
the

of

Golden
tury.
cen-

following:

he

into

went

hole

he

anon

devils, that
him

bore

there

much

beat

so

had

were

assembled
done

dead.
and

his

and

into

pit again
to

his

wild

that

Anthony,

others

that

to

And

with

other

devils

those
comic

the
in

came

snifRed, and
with

one

the

forms

to

that

others
rent

well

to

die.

Then

came

clear

brightness and

The

great seventeenth-century French

all the

Callot, shortly

beasts

before

fled

the

more

is

than

on

the
the

irreverent

justabove
printobscene

demons

into

monsters

An

conducted

body

...

what

now

in

scene

saint

the

with
more
war

who

is

the

at

reverse.

with

his

fire into

enormous

the rocks, spews

joined together infernal scenes

of the temptation, but the effect is
than
devils make
frightening.The

transformed

assailed

horns, the

the

and

the
to

right, ringed by other devils, a

naked
and
a
fire-belchingmonster.
woman,
Perhaps caricaturing the extravagant weapons
of
war
nobility, Callot
sponsored by the

another

and

brayed

Overhead

stage.

themselves

seen

evil

devils

of whom

savage,

on

him
so

the

the devil, chained

hell. Callot

would

had

summon

teeth, and
claws, and

paws
he supposed

Jacques

plain of
figure of
demons

as

hermits

bear

to

their
and

servant

death, and

they

and

howled, another
another
cried, and

their

the

began

battles.

beasts

his

of

his house

servants

where

one

St.

the
his

...

of diverse

that
into

When

made

him, and

beaten

again

himself,

service, suddenly St. Anthony

revived
the

him

wept

hide

great multitude

his shoulders

upon
been

if he

have

found

to

cave

or

...

and

to

St.

one

or

canons,

the

is
religious service
Anthony, and throughout

"services"
another.

are

As

rendered

pointed

by
out

away.

artist

death

he

a
coming, made
drawing for a
was
Temptation of St. Anthony which
engraved
the
by Israel in 1635
(Figs. 481, 482). Here
temptation theme was completely recast in terms
of its focus, setting,and
characters.
Probably
inspired by Italian popular theater and the
in the
of
theatrical productions put on
courts
the
Florentine
staged the
nobility, Callot
temptation on an epic scale. Literallystagelike
is the device
of the framing of the scene
by
rocky cliffs on either side, the ruins of a tall
arcaded
stone
building at the right, and the

knew

cast

was

of thousands

that

sweeps

onto

the

broad

Above:
The
Figure 481 Jacques Callot.
Temptation of St. Anthony. 1635.
Etching (by Israel),14 " 181/4".
.

The

Museum

of

Indiana

Art,

University,Bloomington.

Left:
Figure 482. Jacques
Detail
of Fig. 481.

Imaginative

Art

399

Callot.

earlier in this
there

booiv,by

a
frequently

was

the seventeenth
century
recession of the heroic or

It is a

far-from-pleasant
assemblage,and at
a
nightmarish experience or
aggressivegesture toward human
dignity.But
Arcimboldo
court
was
a famous
painterwho did
other
this and
pictures for the Emperor
on.

first it suggests

taken the
to have
saintlyfocus, and Callot seems
trialsof St. Anthony as the occasion for delivering
be to us today,
obscure
as it may
a commentary,
on
worldly institutions and human
practices. Maximilian

AND

ARCIMBOLDO
The

that

century

secular

religiousand

coexist in

art

In

art.

evidence

fantasies

same

war

of the

that

on

In
subjects.

nonhuman

(Fig.483)

ingenuityArcimboldo
certain

we

found

in

distance, evoked

human

head

and

shoulders.

himself, the

painterwas
astonishing
repertory of
forms,

shark, a

ray,

so
a

some

that

crustacean

head

to

Bosch, Arcimboldo
the

explanationfor

rational

focused

bizarre. There

what
the

from

detract

not

in the way

he

is

did, which

artist's skill and

repeating
and

an

brate
inverte-

dissects into

eels, a walrus, and

starfish,

and

identifies the

paintedthis work.

he

his series on

to

from

source

all of his motifs. The

drew

life

human

which

and

to

nature

relation

the

speculationon

The

man.

Arcimboldo

existed in

body

from

Man

Nature."

European

of

scientific
to

man

comparison of
had

to
a
great organism
previouscentury and
which was
pointedout

The

elements,

precedent for relating

the human

to

the

and
literature,
notably philosophical

context, and
aspect of the
assemble

Water, relates
title.

non

what

of marine

Without

able

the

painting

with

form

positionand

life that
from

upon

image

cleverness

the

see

can

of

his entire

does

Italian artist,Giuseppe
secularism, an
Arcimboldo, painteda series of heads composed
illustrated

not

statement

and

of
entirely

sin-consciousness

Reformation

the

he served

could

that the

year

preparing a

was

part of its

as

the

1563,

Trent

of

Council
on

Ages and
provide abundant

Middle

of the

art

sixteenth

IMAGERY

DOUBLE

There

II in Vienna.

painterbut as a decorator for pageants

and
first
set
designer for the theater. The
the grotesque more
than
Italian painterto make
a
marginal or decorative element, without the

only as

been

made

known

was

in

nature,

the earth
in

the

Bruegel,

to

Chapter 15, "Themes

looked

upon by many
intellectuals in the sixteenth century
was

so
as

world

the

in

miniature,

"Man

"

the

little

Cartographersequated land forms with

artistshad used human
figuretypes. Previously,
world."

Water. 1563.
Arcimboldo.
Figure 483. Giuseppe
Oil on
Kunsthistorisches
26%-2o3g".
canvas,
Vienna.
Museum,

forms

symbolize

to

Arcimboldo

and

riature

using

was

natural

its

forms

seasons.

to

bolize
sym-

time, was
and, at the same
catering
his society'staste for metamorphosis. The
man

to

sixteenth

century produced

curious

blending
inquiry into
a
facts,but also tolerance of fantasy.It was
in the courts,
time of half-science. Particularly
of science

and

myth;

the
intellectuals,

among

there

was

medieval

taste

for

edge,
or
symbols of all aspects of knowlallegories,
The
of Arcimboldo's
persisted.
accuracy
renderingsof water denizens,coupled with their
substitution
for facial features,thus epitomizes
the dualityof thought in his own
age.

CARICATURE,
AND

THE

What
of

to

seems

the

shown,

ANATOMY,
BIZARRE

human

as

to

be fantastic transformations

figurein sixteenth- and

prints and drawings

in the

from

us

case

of Arcimboldo,

rational systems

or

to

teenth-century
sevencan

have

motives.

be

proceeded
Martin

Martin

Left:Figure 484.
Caricature

Luther.

of Veau-

"

Moine

"

( Calf-Monk

Geneva.

Right;

Figure

Valverde

).

Print.

1557.

485.

Hamusco.

de

Skeletal Figure,from
The
Compositionof the Human
Body.
1556. Engraving.
The
Hispanic .Societyof

America,
Below

Figure

Giovanni
the

Luther, for example, created a figurethat was

human,
part animal, and
part bird
(Fig.484).The pennant with the crossed keys in

background and Luther's

Rome
explain that this

the
to

what

known

was

"Calf- Monk.
as

"

the time

at

famous
was
as

Its various features

manifestations

of such

caricature

to

were

characteristics

lust,heretical obstinacy,and
the Catholic

among

the

meaning

in the written
An

verbal

and

animated

frame

language

Human

be read

and

as

motifs

that

THE

IMPORTANCE

did

were

entirely of human

seventy years

Braccelli,who

OF

THE

SELF

time.

shows

later,a Genoese

us

MODERN
After

IMAGINATIVE

Callot, the

major artist to devote a

drawings, prints,and
the Spanish
imaginative was
next

considerable

number

paintingsto

the

whose

ART

of

artist

the bizarre,

suite of printsin which

the human
figure
composed not of muscle and bone, but of a
ted
varietyof nonorganicmotifs. In the printillustra(Fig.486), two warriors are "skeletonized"
into open frames serially
connected
and inflected
where
the jointswould
be. Life is thus suggested
by its antithesis. Long before Braccelli,artists
a

was

such

as

Diirer

and

Leonardo

had

IN

was

treatise The

figurefrom

in
specialized

invention.

tween
be-

form

muscles

Almost

struction,
con-

over
nature
triumph of human
intelligence
of reinterpreting
the body by means
of

named

thereafter,

the ideal

of the human.
movement,
continuing a tradition of showing

the

fusion,
con-

others

even

Braccelli

dangle (Fig.485). Not content

simple,stationarydissection,the artist
felt impelled paradoxicallyto bring the corpse
to lifeand
put his figureinto dramatic movement
while showing its head jerked backwards
by a
through the skull.
rope drawn
with

and

was

and

used to demonstrate

was

of

of the

Body of 1556

but skeletonized

geometry

or

connection

Valverde's

and
proportions,

metry
of the former

hypocrisy

the caricatural

illustration from

Composition
of the
an

The
clergy.
and

illustrate ideal human

art

antagonism
Veau-Moine

the

to

in the

utilized geo-

Imaginative Art

401

Warriors,

Bizzarie. 1624.

Print.

part

486.

Battista
Two

Bracc.elli.
from

York.

New

court

he

Don

painter
published

Caprichos, which,

of

though

divided

sequences,

Goya. In
prints entitled
in

not

into

roughly

and

and

witchcraft

humans;

One

separate

added

they do
the

In

after the works

predate

not

of

work

Callot, the

fantastic

then

much

very

of folklore

veiled
and

has

references

institutions

obscured

for

the

Fortunately, Goya

published
6, 1799,

February

on

of his series of

etchings that

by

of purpose

statement

Collection

Invented
Since

the

Poetry)

may

the

the

has
as

multitude

of

civil

vulgar prejudices
ignorance,

custom,

thought
for

the

Goya.

censure

vices

of

province

in every

common

Francisco
that

(though they may

Eloquence and
also be the object of Painting,
as subjects
adequate for his work,

the

he has chosen
from

accompanied

Capricious Subjects,

by Don

and

errors

be

to

newspaper

announcement

was

follies and

and

interest,those

or

from

as

lies authorized

suitable

most

blunders

society,as well

for ridicule

by

that

he
well

as

exercising the artificer's fancy.

and

has

among

divided

kind

the

in this work
to

expect

with

the

neither
been

followed

able

Nature

is

as

succeeds

shown

in

toward

her, has had

that

to

so

as

so,

who,

far have

the
the

of

And

nature.

seurs
connoisartist has

others,

esteem

some

holding
eyes

when
must

aloof

forms

existed

nor

if imitating

it is admirable

put before the

and

be
from

confused

Purposes of

Art

from

suitable

the

that

not

of

For

From

many.

servile

such

imitation

for

it is

which

the title of inventor

and

copyist.[Diariode Madrid,
Jose Lopez-Rey.]
this

reasons,

in the

the

because

art

is interesting,

statement

of the

context

important
to

results

by Professor

"

many

and

own

personage
that nature

characteristics

successful

versal
uni-

its

to

ingeniously arranged,

of

translation

imaginative art

the

of others

artist

and

disclaims

claims

self
for him-

giftof invention. Living in the Age of

Enlightenment, he professesto expose the night
world
of human
conduct
and
imagination to
the clear light of reason.
One
of the most
famous
of the platesin the series is that in which
the artist has
shown
himself
sleeping at his
out
and from
writing table (Fig.487). Behind
of the darkness, presumably of his subconscious,
a
comes
flightof owls and bats. Written
the desk is, "The
on
sleep of reason
produces
monsters."
In the ink drawing for this etching
"Universal
and
Goya wrote:
Language. Drawn
Etched
by Francisco de Goya. Year 1797." The
word

"Dream"

also written

was

part, and below the

artist dreaming. His

drawing

was

on

the

added

upper
"The

is to banish
only purpose
harmful, vulgar beliefs,and to perpetuate in
truth."

of

of

the

deserted
United

monsters.

mother

solid testimony of
noted:
etching Goya
by reason, begetsimpossible

caprices

Beneath

"Imagination

all arts,

the

with
and

reason,

the

source

she
of

is the
their

Despite these writings by the artist,

of the Capricesis still open
the intention
to
strength,and
conjecture.The
great number,
inventiveness
of these many
etchings show not
sion
only the artist's fascination but also his obseswonders."

with

tudes
atti-

only in the human

tration,
by lack of illusby the unruliness of passion.

and

excited

402

that

examples

doing
him

mind, obscured
or

the

copy from
difficult

to

of

part

they will realize

as

one

majority of the objectsrepresented

be too daring
not
are
ideal,it may
that their defects will perhaps meet

forgivenesson

chooses

singlefantastic

artificer deserves

good

this work
Since

one

particular

the

audience.
a

circumstances

recourse

of

Etched

in

an

artist is convinced

of human
seem

of Prints

and

Capriceswhich

modern

in

demon-

individuals,

to

in the

form

any

art,

own

of

article

Goya's

and

in mind

ridicule

to

it considers

combination,

Spanish art and culture

Jose Lopez-Rey believe that there

many

customs,

the

have

aware

compositions which

order

it reunites

the

first appeared in his

scholars

like Professor

time

ends:

suggested associations
example, popular sayings.The artist

ology, and
are

its illustration.

was

to

seem

with, for
was

what

conceptions.
before

ignorance
the public

warn

artist had

Painting (like Poetry)

finished ;

subject existed

or

conceptions often
and

artist's

to

For
truly, to say so would
mean
the boundaries
of talent,
narrowing overmuch
and
used
mistaking the methods
by the arts
of imitation
in producing perfect works.

Diirer, Bosch, Griinewald, and

title

of art, which

work

the

the

much

too

were

defects.

roles of

were

assuming

individual, in

in Los Caprichos,
which
means
beings.Unusual
fantastic
notions,
caprices,
fancy, or whim, is
that the titles of the etchings and their inscriptions
were

be

this series has

subject
stupidity,

markedly

would

of the fine arts, if one

that in none
of the

Los

of

areas

examples of human
folly,or
dishonesty; donkeys enacting the

matter:

1799

Francisco
series

the

power

of

dreams, hallucinations,

human
servience
subwith
superstition,
to passions,
to
impulses,and
response
tormented
by
indulgence in folly.Goya was

and

visions

of

deafness

and

concern

mind

own

sickness and

by

mental

own

only speculateon

how

personalfantasies.

been

have

may

his

over

and we
can
equilibrium,
of the Caprices
much
are

at

times

His

disordered

anxiety.

of blacks,
etching, a medium
whites, was
appropriate for this
invisible world. When
Goya showed humans,
The

greys,

choice

of

acted

like

monsters.

In

his

etching

Nails (Fig.488) monsters

The
grim and
vanity of humans.
the ludicrous interminglein this conceptionof
foul creatures
preoccupiedwith what may strike
us
as
reads, "Long
hygiene. (The inscription
nails are
harmful
that they are
forbidden
so
the witches.") Goya's hybrids,
even
among
beingsthat are part human, part animal, and
into intelligible
part bird, lack the decipherability
symbols of those in the work of such an
artist as Bosch. The vague
separationbetween
with

human

and

animal

in the faces of the witches

of

between certain types of human

correspondences
and animal
physiognomy, and the belief that
ruption.
physicaluglinesswas
proof of the soul's corbased on his own
Goya's etchingswere
drawings,but often the printisstronger in taking
to

motif, such
be

as

cut, and

elsewhere,

as

the witch's

using it
in

the

as

nail that is about

work

of art.

REDON
OF

AND
THE

THE

LOGIC

INVISIBLE

menacing shape
wings. The

textural gradientshe extracted from the

etchingprocess made possiblethe evocation of
convincingtextures for wings and flesh,as well
the dark mysterious depths and spaces
in
as
these

monsters

After

his death

France

Goya

during

only in

the

the work

of

there

imaginative prints.Odilon
though less well

known

but

century,

artist were

one

in

greatly admired

was

nineteenth

today than

parably
com-

Redon,

such

of his

contemporariesas Monet, Seurat,and Gauguin,

the great nineteenth-century
artist
French
was
of fantasy.His reputation
is based on the many
charcoal
drawings, lithographs,and pastels
that he did, works
the

Chapter
the

that have

of the nineteenth

art

From

14.

the

late

first part of the twentieth

refused
world

to

and

after

the

wrote

in

resemblance

no

1860s

manner

1868

in

through

century, Redon

direct his vision toward

the

to

century discussed

external

the

production of pleasingsubjects
He
of the Impressionists.
that the

of Manet

concerns

the

constituted a
Impressionists
paltryresearch and that while

and

restricted and
true

artists.
.

scissors and

many

which

into

Their Own

the

reflects the artist'sinterest in the old studies

conception

and

they often
They Pair

act

he was
in the gripof a vision when
he did these
don't know.
Their
drawings and prints,we
careful working and
reworking in large and
small
shows
the artist's persistent
areas
consciousness
of the necessityof converting the

thrived. Whether

or

not

recognize the necessityfor a basis of seen

that is
to them
true
art lies in a reality
reality,
have other
that we
felt. We must remember
that we
thingsthan the eyes to satisfy,
carry in
ourselves.
troubles,joys,or pains to which
.

the great artist knows

how

to

address

himself.

Far

left:Figure 487.
Goya.

Francisco

The

Sleepof Reason

Produces
Los
from

Monsters,

Caprichos.

796-98

(announced for sale,

1799). Etching, 81/2/
6". The

M.

Metropolitan
of

Museum
New

York
Knoedler

Left:

Art, New

(giftof
Co.).

"

Figure

488.

Francisco
Goya.
They
Pare
Their Own
Nails.
1797.
6". The
Museum
York

Etching, 81/2X
Metropolitan
of

Art, New

(Rogers Fund).

Redon's
imaginative
Impressionismby comparing his
(Fig.489)
lithographwhich shows a window
One

understand

can

alternatives

with

of

any
in

views

final

in the

or

Window

of the

Death

"The

14

Chapter

art

Redon

CailSquare : Abstraction." For Monet, Pissarro,

looked out upon
or
Bonnard, the window
lebotte,
In Caillebotte's paintthe real world of the city.
ing,
shows

which

in

framed

(Fig.505),what

room

is of the

of the window
is seen

what

view

street

Redon

without.

shows

of
us

will

illuminated
brightly

But

as

focus

we

the

arrival

appears, but afterwards

it.
to remember

segment

the

this is

window

we

not

no

describe,but

can

we

of the

scious,
"uncon-

is achieved

by
submitting
by docilely

of the
be

"unconscious."

quick

when

it

it is of littleimportance

The

side of the window

our

on

he abandoned

through his window.

tree

and
that
ordinary room,
softlyluminous
shapes hover in the
vague,
darkness. It is as if Redon
were
metaphorically
showing us the mysteriousdark world that exists
behind the human
we
see
through
eye. What
that

see

...

...nothing in art
alone. Everythingis done
to

realityas

the

the artist.

on

analyticalspiritmust

The

suggestive
which

fantasy:

to

of

stimulus

"

dow
win-

this operation

that

describe how

to

on

the

Fantasy is also the messenger

this side

lies on

order

same

by

to

itself exerts
went

himself

material, and

life. I believe

to

much

owes

material

chapter,

Life of the

and

other

any

brings it

window-

nineteenth-century

the

or

crayon

to

what

lies in

front of it has been

not
defined,
only suggested,
poeticthought.Of his
that they ''inspire
drawings he wrote
yet cannot
be defined. They do not
determine
anything.
Like music, theytransport us into the ambiguous

fantastic world
created by Redon
was
intended, as Goya's probably was, to make

comment

the

It is

spaces

of his

of immeasurable

and, often, of infinitesimal beings.Of

great influence

Redon

on

introduced

the

the

was

named
biologist

giftedFrench
who

behavior

people and
private world

on

time.

artist

work

Armand
to

of

Clavaud,

the world

of the

and, especially,
microscope,of natural history,
of botany. Redon
obsessed throughout his
was
life with
for his
finding a logicalstructure
parallel the
imaginary beings that would
newly discovered laws of biologicallife. His
world of the undetermined."
Sad and Human
Face (Fig.490)
his
Redon
conscious Swamp Flower,a
subdeliberatelycultivated
was
part of a series of lithographsthat he
for his imagery; he also
as
a
source
dedicated
to
Goya. Rising from an endless
relied upon
the stimulation
he received from
and

this is the

working

in

letter of
Redon

goal of his

charcoal

and

lithography.In a
he
1898, describinghow
worked,

confessed

expanse of water, beneath an infinite black sky,

is Redon's
imaginary growth, which blossoms
into

radiant

of which
A sheet of white
me

paper

horrifies

me.

disagreeablyto the point of

of the
depriving me

sterile,of
work.

I
...

easel, to

am

forced

scrawl

on

Left: Figure 489. Odilon

Redon.
The Light of Day,
from the Dreams series. 1891.
Lithograph,8^4 GVg".Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.
"'

Odilon
Right: Figure 490.
Redon.
Swamp Flower, a Sad
and Human
from
HomFace,
graph,
ma'ge a Goya. 1885. Lithoio3,8x8".Bibliotheque

Nationale, Paris.

but

as

it

soon

with

as

It

impresses
making me
taste

it is

charcoal,

on

any

other artist.This

drollery, but

for

whose

head

an

which

medieval

with

the

be

cannot

models,

has

nor

new
a

lugubrioushead, the likes

found in the paintingsof
is no
and

fantastic

seriousness

artists had

the

revival of

and

neither

trainingto

medieval

organism

for
mystery
the means,

render.

Redon's

fantasies
from

or

its separation
conjunction with
suspension in space.

involved
either

of hfe

or

singlefeature,such

and

these heads

given

because

for

them

his

as

intimate

the

lonelyworld;
creative

he

was

intent

involve the spectator "by

attraction,in all the allure
to

Of

soul."
lies in

such

were

sudden

of

of the

uncertain."

followed

Andre

Masson,

Redon

by

statements

was

means

them

spirit,among

in

the
to

interest

great importance for artists who

him

by
not

was

public.His

his

reform

or

my
thus

of

artist stimulated

an

whose

process

criticize

and

of his own
experiences,the
private, undecipherable, but

cultivation
of

preserved

fantast

them

seen

echoes

as

owe

which

child, had

"I

faces

I have

because

be

Often

own.

eyes,

omitted,
would

recollections

sorrowful

modernity

creation

be
eye,

life of its

those

my

Redon's

the

as

childhood

were

country
I have
drawn
my

would

features

instances

many

detached

to

head
and

body
form

another
In

the

on

the

as,

'"My

originalityconsists in bringing to life,in a

Giorgio
CmRico.
de
Figure 491.
human
improbable beings and making
way,
Melancholyof a Street. 1914. Oil
them
live according to the laws of probability,
Mr.
and
Mrs.
1/2"-Collection
but putting as far as possible the logic of
New
Canaan, Connecticut.
"

the

at

of

service

Stanley

CHIRICO

art

"

open,

old-fashioned

railroad

de Chirico's
is his

much

twentieth

centur\',
obviously involved

fantastic

art

was

creation

of

the

of

with

the

in
the
of
form
monstrous,
unnatural
hybrids,and of strange inaccessible
placesexistingonly in the imagination.While

this continued

artists,the
art

have

More

in the

and

sources

changed

and

more

work

of certain

character

whether

consciously

Redon

departed

from

art,

and

moralizing

time.

our

1900, artists followed

precedent,
and

of fantastic

considerablyin

after

modern

as

or

the

not,

of

hterature, previous
a

source

for

their

As

if through

look

down

a
on

of

divorce

in

pictorial
mas,
enig-

into
what

window
a

the

such

silence from

and

previous rational associations

construction.
They are transformed
or
unexpected inversions of
ought to be.
balcony, we

What

paintingthe qualityof

intentional

their
the

child

the

van,

rolling a hoop, the projectingshadows.

shadow, space,
things as light,

ENIGMA

AND

In

Objects," the

uncanny

to

Resor,

Chapter 16, "Painting and

of Giorgio de Chirico
was
in
the
form
of
introduced
his imaginative
choly
handling of objects.In his Mysteryand Melanthis
of a Street (Fig.491), we again meet
in terms
of a
new
type of imaginative art
person and a place.Everything in the painting
is recognizableor
familiar
the arcades, the
imagery.

givesto

Down

R.

invisible."

the

Monet
and
Writing at a time in 1880 when
his contemporaries were
intent
on
capturing
the painterlyequivalencesof natural lightand
on
abandoning the human-figure landscape,
Redon
wrote
propheticallyof himself, as well
others to follow: "Man
is a thinking
as
many
the
being.Man will always be there; whatever
role played by light,it won't
be able
to
turn
him aside. To the contrary, the future belongs
world."
to the subjective

DE

Mystery ana
34^8

canvas,

"

visible

the

The
on

scene

or

they
from
that

is

unfolding before us. Things are not as they

first seem.
Perspectivelines of the buildings do
recede to a common
not
vanishingpoint; the
inconsistent with a
are
angles of the shadows
In
the
the sky is green.
single light source;
the child
tend
to read
we
painting'scontext
tioned
against the van, which while open is so staas

to

conceal

part of its interior. De

Imaginative Art

405

is a painter who
poses
questions.He gives us no

Chirico
answer

literary sources

or

but

transcribe

to

does

his

not

notes

program

CHAGALL
OF

AND

THE

THE

REALITY

INTERIOR

WORLD

image. His
The

imaginative privateworld of Marc Chagall,

he painted in / and the Village(PI. 57)
while
in Paris in 1911, differs from
eradicate
but
does
not
their
tionality.
irrathat
Hving
preserves
of de Chirico
of Goya, Callot, GriineThe
by its abundant
quahties of joyspaces
fulness,warm
still formed
arc
wald, and Diirer
sensuality,
fragrance,and delightful
according to
in
devices
of a childthem
the
hood
vertigo.In his private souvenir
perspective
employed by
in Vitebsk, Chagall painted a green-faced
Chirico's
depiction of rational subjects. De
illusionistic world
is constructed
the basis
boy holding a sprig of blossoms and confronted
on
of
intuitive
irrational
of devices
by the transparent head of a donkey. Surface
or
an
use
and depth, rightside
for the
rationalization
of
freely
originally evolved
up and upside down
de
Chirico
distilled
interchange, as Chagall's picture of loving,
sight. In his memory
resists translation into the
certain
pleasurablememories
physical,cultural characteristics of his
normal
native Italy,and
while livingin Paris between
language and syntax of rational painting.
Both
1911
and
bered
Chagall and de Chirico
1914, he painted not a world remembring to
modern
but one
which
became
drop
backpainting the practiceof free association
a
literally,
for mysterious relationshipsand
whereby the selection and conjunction of objects
pected
unexmotifs are
or
Silence for de Chirico, which
encounters.
irrationally
suggested to the artist
he sought to evoke
in painting, had
different
during his conception or execution of the work.
characteristics,depending upon
Chagall felt,however, that these associations had
whether, for
also to work
in terms
of the structural needs of
trophe.
example, it existed before or after a catashis painting. The
circle and
in the
X forms
Except for Redon, in the previous art
of fantasy noise was
lower center
of the painting may
assumed
have had some
or
suggested. A
for de Chirico
a
private symbolism for the artist,but they also
personal art became
refuge or
unite
alternative
the waking world
to
of reality,an
motifs
to
on
serve
a
disparate formal
of great
surface. De Chirico
common
restored
art
to
personal consolation
despite its
ing
paintthe dramatic
of deep, clear space,
he did
disturbing quahties. In the same
power
year
the painting illustrated de Chirico
whereas
wrote:
Chagall created an immeasurable, unpoetic gift

is

when

situations,and

To

become

barriers
childhood

vision
be

must
secret

and

But

of

recesses

write
these

regions of

and

is

his

artist from

when

I close

powerful.

more

should

rid

art

recognizable
subjects, all
symbols must
hold

must

essential

my
is

It

material

banished

living,
is

we

of

familiar

popular

forthwith.

We
.

faith

the

even

that

contained

date; all
ideas, all

traditional
be

vision

my

it has

to

is

see

important

more

of all that

enormous

that

eyes

the
What

being.

valueless; only what

in

revelation

ourselves; it is
receive.

we

which

has

no

in

sense

means
subject, which
the logicalpoint of

How

personal

was

itself,which

of

solids

has

diminution

not

absolutely
nothing from
.

detached

houses

to

or
solidity,
not

are

consistent

fixed

viewpoint.
of

transparency,
the

function

of

There
and

how

tive
reflec-

be

can

seen

when

the

is nothing anecdotal
fairytales no literature
For
legend associations.
covered
with
a plane surface
"

time.

done
at

the

objects
"

order

Purposes

of

Art

from
whose
objective observer
is constructed.
physical vantage point the scene
Rather
these propertiesreflect the weight and
impulse of feelingand fantasy in the painter.
Older
artists interpretedanother
person'svision
in pictorialterms
that, like the literature in
dream
which
recorded, served
experienceswere
of dealing with the irrational.
to codifythe means
Chagall, de Chirico, and the artists that follow
their example fightcodification
or
intelligibility
on
a
public level. Years after his painting of
/ and the VillageChagall wrote
:
or

this world

his temperament

406

cannot

one

the

or

view.

foregoing painting is compared with one

artist working in Paris
by a Russian-born
same

in which

voids,

of size related

no

of

and

Scale, color, and

figures and

ments
state-

I hear

environmefit

must

Profound

the

by

which

common

once

the

enter

dream.

drawn

art

logic and

interfere.

only

he

traversable

of

work

limits:

broken, it will

are

irrational

by

paints these images

truly immortal

will

sense

haunted

he

all human

escape

most

be

to

in

in

anecdotal

"

me

of folk

sense
a

picture is

representationsof

beasts,birds, or humans
which

pictures

my

in the

"

in

illustrational

certain

logic

has

importance. The visual effectiveness of

I am
first.
painted composition comes
"fantasy"and "symbohsm"
againstthe terms
no

the

...

themselves.

in

All

interior

our

world

ings
is

than our
so
reality..perhaps more
apparent
world. To call everythingthat appears
illogical,
would
be
"fantasy,"fairy tale, or chimera
admit
not
understanding
practically to
.

fact

The

nature.

I made

that
and

roosters

architecture

as

forms

born

somewhere

certain

of his

"aroma"

work.

But

do

certain

...

essence

"

which

the

me:

important thing here is not "subject"in the

sense
pictorial
"subjects"were
painted by the
vital mark
old academicians.
The
these early
influences

leave

it were,

is, as

the

on

most

artist
nature

writing
hand-

of the artist.

THE

same

there

BRIDE

years
were

before
so

many

World
formal

War
and

during
psychological

of the
breakthroughs in modern
art, one
that of the
was
important innovations
imaginativelyinterpretingthe internal
of the human
body by denying its surface
appearance.

his

birthplaceclingsto

misunderstand

not

INSIDE

is because

from which
they are part of the environment
which
I spring and
undoubtedly left the
of
deepest impression on my visual memory
Every painter
experiencesI have known.
any
is

of

In the

provincial Russian

source

my

of cows,

use

milkmaids,

the work

of any other
artist. This imperative
originalityderives largelyfrom the
ethic of faithfulness to one's
nineteenth-century
own
experiencein a stylepersonally acquired.
to

More

famous

for

his J^ude

Descendinga Staircase of 1912, Marcel Duchamp

his Bride (Fig.492).
painted in the same
year
The
former
described
somewhat
painting was
Roosevelt
pejorativelyby President Theodore
as
resembling"an explosionin a shinglefactory."
The Bride in turn avoids all that is sentimentally
associated with the title something old, something
new,
something borrowed, and something
blue
in favor of showing woman
of
as
consisting
a
complicated pumping and filter plant.The
an
painting is at once
imaginativedissection of
both the body and publictaste. With the detached
attitude of an
anatomist, Duchamp
ironically
"

de Chirico

Both
very

different and

had

not

the

At

the

of Paris acted

been

paintersif they
young.

the

as

well

imagination as

have

still very

of this century

turn

environment
on

less effective
Paris while

to

come

Chagall would

and

excitingart
force
liberating

a
as

the

on

styles of

Cubism, for example, was

painters.
young
the artist'sdeclaration of independence from the

"

many

world

of

Chagall
that

appeararlces.
influenced

were

they could

not

Both

Chirico

dc

and

by it,despitethe
themselves

content

fact
with

imitatingthe forms of Picasso and Braque, nor

be wholly satisfied with its dark colors and conventional
subjectsof still life and the figure.
When
of

the

Cubists

objectsand

space, this
boundaries
believed

was

for

that

closed should
in

broke

up the closed character

destroyed rational,measurable
crucial breakthrough of old
a

painters who

the world

one

by

sees

inclination

with

the eyes

its imaginativequalities

preserve

painting.
It is in the twentieth

such
a

artists

as

conscious

aim for the artist. Following the

Ages artists sought individuality,but

Middle

Chagall wanted
anything that
be

century, beginning with

becomes
Chagall, that originality

at

seen

art

an

had

which

the time.

come

Goya

the titleof inventor, but his

are

at

times

Rembrandt

did

before

not
or

claimed

look

that

like

could

for himself

drawings and prints

form
closer in spirit
of
or
to those
and Callot than are Chagall'spaint-

Marcel
Duchamp.
The
Bride
Figure 492.
(Le
Passage de la Viergea la Mariee). 1912. Oil on
of Modern
Art,
2338x2114". The Museum
canvas,
New
York
(Purchase).

the inner

reconstructs

organs

in

terms

ical
of mechan-

of pipes
forms, a network
quasi-organic
and filters,
painted in a brownish color,with a
shck, even
slippery,
type of surface that,more
than
the individual objects,
visceral
a
conveys
qualityto the whole. In the chapter "Paintingand
Bare by Her
Objects,"Duchamp's Bride Stripped
Even of 1923 (Fig.394) was
Bachelors,
discussed,

MAX

ERNST

AND

"NO-SENSE"

and

after World

ART

and

and

in the earlier

the

beginningsof

and

science.

whose

work. The Bride,we

invent

this artist'sfantasies upon sex

the moralizing of Bosch,
man

led him

human-animal-mechanical

Duchamp's conception is divorced

largerframe of reference and derives
reflections

shock

Right:
Max

Figure

Collage.

1922.
Below:

Figure

VIax

Ernst.

Rex.

canvas,

92

493.

Tlie
Repetitions.

Ernst.

Invention,from

1.

494.

Oedipus
Oil

on

lection
4534".Col35
Claude
Her"

saint, Paris.

to

receive

hybrids,
from

this

from

sonal
per-

the nature
and purposes of
on
later wrote, "A painting that doesn't
isn't worth
painting."

He

art.

see

Unlike

cynical views of

and

can

During

nationalities
of

the

free

upon

logicof

and

1915

I, artists of

1922

the

there

confederation

many

explore the possibilities

to

based

art

intuition,or
about

War

continued

association,

Between
illogical.
was

loose international

artists who

of

called

themselves

"Dada"
Dadaists, the word
posedly
suphaving been picked by chance from a

Larousse

dictionary. It

dedicated

to

was

that made

art

championed

irreverence

rather

conscious

movement

no

that

one

sense,

and

and
irrationality
disclaimed
all system
esthetic pretentions
or
(which in itself required a system).It was the
first movement
in art historyopenly to seek
and a complete break with the past.
originality
Painterlytechniqueand questionsof stylewere
damned
of the group, who
by most
sought a
directness in their imaginativeimages,thereby
opposingwhat they felt was the cult of painterly
Their appeal to the
virtuosityor individuality.
intended
be on
the instinctive
to
public was

than

believed

that

or

verbal

level. Dada

the

much
as
a
unexpected was
the predictable,
and infinitely
part of lifeas was
more
stimulatingto creativityand audience
One
of the most
imaginative and
response.
productiveof the Dadaists was the German-born
Max

Ernst.

Western

In

his desire

technical

collage,or

pasted

Cubists

done

to

move

and

away
he

from

developed

beyond what the

paper,
elevated it from a means

principleof organization.(Composition

was

had

to

traditions

the

rule from

one

In
Dadaists.)
Ernst

context.

the past observed

by

the

his

collageThe Invention (Fig.493),

wood
cut out
nineteenth-century
ings
engravof objectsand
pasted them into a new
The

title may

refer

assemblingthe picture,for

to

the process

of

captionedhis
after they were
works
done
according to the
ideas suggestedto him by the finished pieces.
He
transferred
to
painting the principleof
of familiar objectsin
irrational ju.xtaposition
unexpected situations or locations. Ernst liked
to
repeat Lautreamont's
phrase, "Beautiful,
like the chance meeting on a dissecting
table of
umbrella
and
an
Ernst's
sewing machine."
to
have
paintingOedipusRex (Fig.494) seems
been

based

artist added

upon

The
and

Ernst

but
Invention,

now

the

unpleasantsimulation
while
extended
the fingers
through the window
are
penetratedby the objectthey hold. More
a

new

"

Plate
Oil

on

canvas,

6o.

WiLLE.M

DE

"^V-2,"X4'i". The

Kooning.

Whitney

Woman
Museum

and

Bicycle.1952-53.
Art, New

of American

York.

Salvador
Dali.
The
Figure 495.
Persistence of Memory. 1931. Oil on
of
g'i^ 'S'- The Museum
canvas,
Modern

collage,the painting was

the

than

that

methods

almost

were

done

with

or

tionary
reac-

academic

rendering of objectsand space.

againstthe earlier
of
Cubism
and
his
was
revolutionary styles
appeal to the good taste of such artists as
in their

reflects Ernst's reaction

This

achieve

to

without

the

imposing

not

of

total illusion of his

like

is Ernst

life for

condition

them,
and

act

and

for

The

good againstevil.

set

and

Bosch,
art

to

was

this
did

Dadaists

absurd

was

In

brush.

the

accept

work
sionistic,
epitomizes the illuimagistic, "hand-painted" dream

picture of
created

during
of

fact
this

imaginative art has

essentiallydifferent

1920s
two

expression.One
of

appearance

Ernst's

polarized
modes

of

has, since the

pressed
Oedipus Rex, been exmodes

blank

to

the

molten

watches.

of the verb

as

in

freelv upon
his own
past for ideas that

often, either by themselves or

spaces are
is availin their components,
based upon
what
able

austere

act

of

pieces
time-

The

child

mastery
render

of academic
with

(The French

word

for

is the

personal imperative
used by a doctor
montrer
asking a
his tongue.) Dali drew
to
expose

is montre,

watch

canvas.

been

have

sick

these

by the

limpid
punning references to
the artist'sconceit over
bending time to his will,
in which
or
regressions
perhaps to childhood
of his soft tongue
Dali compared the exposure
the

by artists creatingillusionistic irrational

sional
paintingswhose deep, three-dimenin
approximates,
many
respects,
space
of older illusionistic art. The objectsfilling

images
that

of these

induced

often

accordingly.

HALLUCINATIONS

the

He

works

rocky

may

Since

Dali.

sincere

obsessional features such as

subjective,
of Spain, the arid plain,and
coast
watches
the startling
confrontation
of "melted"
with
fetal form and a dead tree positionedon
a
blocklike object.Frequently Dali would
a
paint
a
picturein parts, working on individual areas
cinations
and objectsas they appeared to him in halluthe

staring

around

inspired and

most

the late twenties

and
early thirties.
these.The Persistence ofMemory (Fig.495),

at

DALI'S

is Salvador

Surrealism

his

contains

was

subject

ness
consciousspectator's

the

on

of his hand

evidence
alone

Ernst

By these reactionary means

Matisse.
able

York.

artist whose

The

One

Art, New

extraordinary and disturbed

training and
professional

his

drawing

enabled

him

to

dazzling precision.

The
of Dali's
enactment
psychologically
usually takes place in a
inspired dramas
and their satellites,
from 1923, the aim of
profound, lucid space. The paradox he loved
from
seemed
cull
this exact
to
the
conscious.
subof what
to
was
was
painting
scientifically
transcription
The
"inner world"
make
the juxtapositionor fusion of
was
no
sense:
thought to be
of a higher realitythan
the external
world.
unrelated
objects;inversions of the familiar or
and inanimate;
of expected properties
of the animate
They adopted the Dadaists' device of working
free association
and
with
from
the unpredicdouble images like those of his own
head,
table
but images that resist the programatic transjuxtapositionof the familiar.
to

us

in

the external

world.

For

the Surrealists

Imaginative Art

409

of what

he

sees

the

as

"unexpected" in the
(Fig.496), for
of subjects
segments

tions
visible world.

His

example, shows
that

Six Elements

six framed

in themselves

have

made

describable,but

are

this

it is

possibleto go
subjectsand scenes
Magritte used the device
(or picture frame), with

these

associate
But

Rene

Figure 496.
1928. Oil

on

c.

Museum

The

Magritte.

Six

Elements.

QS'/gX 39I/4". The

canvas,
of Art

delphia
Phila-

(Arensberg Collection).

of

those

of

mingling
motifs

into

as

art, but

did

not

instead

Reason

of

and

new

their

liberate

psyche became

Like

Surrealism
were

was

not

artists

many

aspects

an

things

creativity

demonstrating

the

readily

...

whether

moments

shut.

consciousness.
sub-

has

said:

love.
.

.we

get

drops out of sight in

explanationitself or a
hypothesis.

they

creativity.

my

avoid

are

eyes

open
the

explaining
enrichment

no

from

thing explained.In effect,the thingexplained

doxically,
para-

underground dungeon."
in

modern

homogeneous, and
who
accepted only

of its program.

world.

favor

of the

more

practical
intelligent

less

or

...

function

any

movements

many

intentions,Magritte

certain

at

(which
the Surrealists as scientists),
and,
disqualified
in the words
of Herbert
Muller, "the studio in
the

normally

we

familiar,external

I conceive
of it,consists
art of painting,
as
representing through pictorialtechnique
the unforeseen
to me
images that might appear

their

but,
mind,

strict limits for

denied

was

which

are.

frame

The

in the

own

freeing the

they

window

in

upon

materialism;

mechanistic

established

his

or

systematic exploration of
They sought to
from

look

of

imaginative painting of the twentieth

century, and that dating back to Redon, the
window
is no
longer associated with conscious
experience.Even Magritte'sframing device is
of joint,inflected or bent in a way
out
that is
comparable to the dislocation he has made in
the expected sequence
of his subjects.
Writing

mineral

scientific documents

as

of the

where

are

the

work;

animal, vegetable,and
molten
hybrid.

Surrealists

Many
work

Arcimboldo's

in

we

in

about
lation

views

once

simple, rational observation,

further in explainingwhy
no

Its great

value

of
possibilities

art,
there
certain
was

in

instinctive

and
in opening up
of
sources
new
new
imagery, thereby widening to a generous
the possibilities
available
artists.
dimension
to

defined

As

in the

discussion

of

Paul

Klee's

in

work

from
Nature,"
Chapter 15, "Themes
Magritte is what might be called an "imagist,"
who paintsconceptionsthat are unavailable
one
the

to

external

of his audience

senses

(untilhe

paints them), but conceptionsthat he is able,

after long meditation
on
objects,to conjure
and
then
fix in painting:
first in his mind

creation

Certain

images

that I like
other

than

painting. I
MAGRITTE'S

DISLOCATIONS

with a word
like "surrealism," as
difficulty
with many
is that it does not describe,
art labels,
or
illustrate,
explain what the artists identified
it have

done.

There

is little agreement

the various
style,subject,or intent among
beyond what they will not show
external
appearance.

gives

us

world
The

in

terms

paintingswhich
410

of its familiar

Belgian artist Rene

are

Purposes of

exact

Art

in

the

logicof
Magritte
transcrip-

models

have

no

my

be

for the

to

me

through painting,
extraordinary. The
.

them

in

the

objects,without

Magritte thus playsagainst our

to

the

rationalize

the

most

accept every
he

what

we

see.

natural
He

nation
incli-

wants

to

mysteriousand the unpredictablein

see
commonplace subjectsthat we

and
What

to

sentiments

or
illustrating
explainingthem.

either

evoke

ings
paint-

opinion nothing
represented in

desire, therefore,

titles of my
paintingsaccompany
that names
correspond to
way

realists,
Sur"

the

paint.In
images should

express ideas or
if they seem
even

The

with

are

to

day without

paints is

paramount,

second

thought.

but

Magritte

takes little

the

pleasurefrom

of

act

painting.

for this artist paintingis the most

Because

his revelations,
he
realizing
to be viewed
primarily
for its esthetic quahty..This
explains why
Magritte'sstyleis coolypreciseand dry; it is a
while
styleto enforce the identityof the subject,
unobtrusive
means
as
as
making the pictorial
and
displaysboredom
Magritte even
possible.
disgusttoward the paintingprocess. If there is
attitude in older art,
a precedentfor Magritte's
for

instrument

does not

his work

want

it may
be in the work
who
scorned
new
devices

and

maximum

minimized
stress

to

of such

artists as

Bosch,

painterly
hand
to give

techniques or
their

their

own

image.

of painting
At the same
time, the possibilities
who
feel
privatefantasies have attracted men
about paintingitselfand who
pride
passionately
themselves

and

the inventiveness

on

color,and

on

the power

of their forms

of their art to

Max

Beckmann.
Museum

The
7'%"x 3'3i/4".

Departure.
1932-35.
of Modern

DEPARTURE

By adhering to the morality of being

own
experiencesand needs, many

true

creative artists of this century

most

to

of the

have,

out
with-

question,produced works that are largely

to the general public.
unintelligible
Frequently,
when
the artist has wanted
to express something
of importance to mankind, the very nature
of
his meaning, which
like his form
is
partly
has been incompletely
derived from intuition,
or
understood
inconsistently
by the layman. It is
for the meaning of a complex
not at all unusual
paintingto change for the artist while he works
on
pletion.
it,and even
subsequentto the work's comOne of the most powerfulpersonalstatements
the complex
by a modern painter,
expressing
of his responses to himself,to his times,and
is Max
Beckrace
historyof the human

the

three-panelpaintingentitled Departure
(Fig.497). It was paintedin Berlin in 1932 and
dismissal by the
1933, followingBeckmann's
of an
Nazis from
his directorship
art school.
Fearing confiscation of his painting, the artist
mann's

move

as well as throughthought
esthetically
and feeling.
Such an artist was
Max
Beckmann,
whose
while not Surrealist,
reveal his
paintings,
of the major problems
involvement
with some
to the
confrontingthe modern artist committed
and use of his own
imaginationfor
exploration
and experimentalartistic purposes.
new

sides

ANN'S

one's

to

the viewer

Figure 497.

BE CKM

tive
effec-

Oil

Art, New

wrote

on

the back

of the canvas,

Shakespeare's
Tempest." The
however,

on

canvas,
York.

the

center

illustration of

j'Vi"^"i'Q^s"

"Scenes

panelswere
a

from
not,

literarysource.

Beckmann's

at

hope

that

the

upon

all

their

felt that

He

once.

was

meditate

would

viewer

sympathetic
panels

three

visual

of
his

Departure.In
thoughts on

his intentions.

Historically,
precedents in
possible that

had

three-panel paintings
altarpieces,and it

such

Christian

is

intentionally revived
its religiousconnotations,

this

Beckmann
with

for his reflections

two

and

more

of

available

movement

of other

work

of which

tortures,

Beckmann

This, however,

is

not

all

was

too

well

and
explicit,

made

kind

every

mental

and

men

"

women

"

are

see

of

memories,
murder
life

can

you

you
have

the

drum.

of

life.

carries

Freedom

plays
Queen

themselves

of the
them.

overcome

greatest

treasure

"

her

on

matters

"

is
lap. Freedom
it is the departure,

start.

new

On

child

thing that

one

the

her

as

"

the

life

and

King

past,

your

while

have

They

of his

time

some

yourselfof

themselves, freed

Queen

the

at

that corpse
carry
In the center, the

tortures

The

free

never

failures, the

and

wrongs
commits

to

freed

have

another

toward

essential

It

timelessness

occasion

is
of

of the

as

the

realities

if he

is

human

spiritto

illusion of life

that

lie hidden

commenting

oppression,but

itself. But

renew

parture,
said, "De-

Beckmann

departure, from

the

beyond."

to

your

everyone

yes

attach

aware.

right and

see

of

pain

torture,

and

artists

modern

symbolic significanceto objectsand

previous art does not give
gestures, Beckmann's
the basis for interpretinghis imagery, for the
us
German
painter has not been consistent from
painting to painting in the associations or values
Each
contents.
object must
assignedto the same
The
be related to its particularcontext.
brutality
in the left panel may
possibly relate to Nazi
who

is

the

by the three

the rightwing you

to it equally.On
yourselftrying to find your way in the
stair-cases
darkness, lighting the halls and
with a miserable
lamp, dragging along tied to
of your
as
a
you
part of yourself,the corpse
can

more

the

tragedy, but

subjected

its characters,

to

of the

vehicle

center

Like

down

set

physical

ferent,
panel immediately establishes a difmood
and
hopeful, but solemn
before
examine
we
implication. Thus, even
individual
cance
figuresor speculate on the signifiof gestures, we
the importance
can
sense
and
of these
fundamental
readily apparent
Eliot
that
S.
believed
contrasts.
an
(T.
major
before he is understood.)
artist begins to communicate

the

he

format,

the

as

end

can

left. Life

"

freedom

friend

only be understood
parts together. Life is what
you

darker,
flankingpanels are narrower,
congested than the central one, and
both
filled with
ture,
arc
unpleasant images of tornoise, and nightmarish situations. By its
the
greater size, its bright spaciousness,and
The

to

painting:

is the

center

meaning

spiritualhistory.

human

on

letter

the

ships
interrelationThe

reveal

would

also

it is tribute

to

the

of Beckmann's

power
described

so

on

the

the city
capaoverstride
evil and
on

painting that once

eloquently what he feels

poetic
he

about

has

its

the work
with still
return
to
meaning, we can
tions
more
questions,or the feelingthat its ramificaare
even
deeper and more
complex. Where

direct
considered
more
a
Picasso's
Guernica
Beckmann's
Departure and
of this painting's
the scope
share a common
ground is in their mingling of
dignities
potential reference. While
inventorying the inFascist movement
myth with the contemporaneous
and violence to which
the human
body
of the 1930s. It is in the artists'
the

artist would

statement

has

been

Disasters
us

that

sure

for

that

There

We

cannot

of

references

to

of

tion
interpretatopicalyet timeless,
felt against the forces
survival
of the spirit.

that

ranges

the

drummer's

from

draperiesand
remind

the uniform
ermine

to

of the central

crown
us

of

collar

that

Beckmann

action.

the
of

clothing
bellhop and
the

ancient

This
figures.
does

not

specify the who, when, where, what, and

412

Purposes

of

Ait

PAINTINQ

IMAQINATIVE

ambiguity

stage.

AND

AUTOMATISM

columned

They are of an
makes
it impossible to localize
is also an
intriguingmixture

should

in

be

even

tioner.
stripe-shirted
figure is an execusettingsof the framing panels are

mixture
and

room

violence.

subject that was

the reaction
they both
inhumanity and for the
of

the

The
curious

to

subjected, not unlike Goya in his

Beckmann
prises
surof War and the Caprices,
by not introducing a plausibleweapon

instrument

or

to

have

limit

want

why

far in

this

illustrated

has

So

chapter
had

an

all the

imaginative

illusionistic

art

character,

subjectsexhibited as if in a three-dimensional
the
the
surface
of
existing behind
it
has
been
or
Further,
possible
print.
painting
relate
and
to
identify objects and
figures,
entities physicallycomplete despite their often
its

world

hybrid make-up. Shortly

at

the

about

artist

Hans

Arp

to
began
during the
immensely

and

Chapter 21),
there

evolved

that

art, one
wide
a

an

for the

device

influential

of

the

work

the

I,

Alsatian

(see
early 1920s,

appear

and

fruitful

creation

and styles.
This
of temperaments
the device known
as
"automatism,'" and

was

range

been adopted in a nonillusionistic context

emphasizingthe surfaceness of the drawing
or
paintingby such artists as Masson, Miro,
Gorky, and Pollock,who have produced much
it has

of the best

art

Automatism

to

has

appear
had

between

the

of the

since 1945, and it is the second

that have
major modes
engaged

of automatism

Breton,

Writing in
Breton

the

impresario

"SURREALISM.

by which

seeks

one

Dictated

control
any
aesthetic
or

real

and free
by reason
preoccupations."The

moral

of the

of
principle

music

would

be what

consciousness"

known

was

as

of

"stream

For the
jazz improvisation.
is practicedin "doodling,"
layman, automatism
into one's
or
saying the first thing that comes
head.
of the artists employing automatism
Many
did
to

into

the

and

not

Breton's

live up

creative

process

played

some

its literal

well

as

part

to

at

let

their
in

what

definition,
enter

reason

all. The

commitment

previous trainingand
as

to

injunctionnot

taste,

artists'
to

he

his pen

position,
com-

did.

The

of automatism
historical emergence
related
was
of manyartistswith the problemof
to the concern

in

an

to

be

of the subconscious.

drawings and sand paintings

Andre

Masson

between

and

1924

fi.xedsand

sometimes

brush

or

the

to

if in

move

but,

canvas

definite

predeterminedor

no

uration
config-

let
trance, Masson
the surface until he

across

began

to see
possible
images emerging. Thus, his
"painting"began abstractlyand then, with the
introduction of certain instantaneous judgments,

in the direction of

moved

human

configuration.

begin without

an
image or plan in mind, but
paint rapidlyaccording to my
impulses.Gradually, in the marks I make, I
of figures
see
or
age
suggestions
objects.I encourthese to emerge,
tryingto bring out their
I consciously
even
as
implications
try to give
order to the composition.

Just draw

These

or

decisions

did

of
possibilities

the

apparent, Masson
but

he

interruptthe

not

of his

movement

hand, however.
certain

image

made

them

his

drawing

took

tinual
con-

When
became

articulate,

more

paintingto
During the
the
process of evoking the final configuration,
artist was
both creator
and spectator, observing
what
resulted from his unconsciously
controlled
the

never

hand

it became

considered

and

art.

Like

the
was

much

historyof

made

encompass
elastic word

has

that

they
they were

the word
it.
ever

"art"

("Art"

is

invented

not

in this

work

antitury,
cen-

is that after

stretched

was

probably
by

doing

were

happened

Masson's

artists in

other

what

"beyond painting,"but

as

or

literal.

Masson

movements.

mid-20s

the

it

that

stage

undoubtedly

they

to the "liberation"

automatist

from
use

world,

tap all of

not

of important imagery
was
make-up. Automatism
thought

again, with

1924,

in literature and

automatism

did

perhaps the purest utilization of

this artistic device. He approached the sheet of
with no
or
preconceived image
canvas,
paper,
in mind.
To stimulate or irritate his imagination

other

exercized

mechanistic

illustrate

1929

mind.
workings of
by the unconscious, in the absence of
the

manner,

or

The

express,

any
the

in

reason

potentialsource

produced by

psychic

to

in

trulycreative
belief that

essential

Surrealism.

Pure

verbally,in writing or

the

artist's

leader, high

of

First Surrealist Manifesto

of

the

said:

it

became

who

chief

automatism

be

most

was

priest,and

two

interest

explorethe imagination.
important definition
given by the French writer

earliest and

the

(Fig.498). As

works

of artists whose

Andre

the

to be

and

wars.

continued, widespread

use

The

two

how

of

of works

artists expressing

employed by

was

War

World

after

time

the

to

most

man.)

Figure498.Andre

Masson.

Battle ofFishes. 1927. Pencil,

oil, and sand on
canvas,
141/4X 28 -^4". The Museum
of Modern
York
Art, New

(Purchase).
413

"^

|t"^

who
artist,

second

his

many

of

1920s

and

most

worked

Miro.

Spaniard Joan
method

can

the

see

quences
conse-

it

radicallyaltered the look

in two
The
paintings.
Farm (Fig.499), was
done in

how

and

meaning

We

assimilation of the automatic

of Miro's

and

like Masson
produced
important paintingsin the
the
"automatically,"was

of his

art

entitled The
first,
1921-1922, while the artist was

at

his home

in

Montroig, Spain, and then in Paris. For the

land.
picturehe used souvenirs of his beloved homeThe
intense
of
all
particularization
objectsin an airless space contributes to their
charm
and eventual ambiguity.Simultaneously,
we
are
given the diversityand unity of a
number
of objects,
become
so that we
staggering
of a conjugated series, of visual puns
aware
holes and
based on
circular patches,scalloped
and peaked shapes,
radial spokeforms in the trees
and grass, paralleldiagonalsand horizontals in
roof and

earth. The

paintingcome

from

vividness and

interest of the

tion
distribueven
relatively
of overlap in a wide
of shapes,from the tiny pebblesthrough
range
the buildings
and trees to the infinity
of the sky.
The
was
fantasy incipientin The Farm
and

the

unchecked

the

avoidance

in

Miro's

The

Hunter

(Catalan

flat
a
Landscape)(PI. 58). Suspended upon
surface of yellow above
and
pink below is an
aggregate of lines and shapes derived from the
eariier painting.Now, however, the drawing
has suggested the object,
so the undulatingfine
lives an
ubiquitous life as a mustache, the
animal
horizon, an
and
birds.
body, waves,

Certain

shapes and
them.

Figure 499.
canvas,

"

Hemingway,
Modern

The Farm.
Joan Miro.
" ^'iV^"
Collection
'^'Vz"
on

Art, New

extended
York.

loan

to

Oil

1921-22.

Mrs.

Ernest

the Museum

from

objectsthat generated
playfulmocking of

of the ruled

use

are

the

is

There

in the

geometry

the

line and

triangle.First,the triangle
appears in its more
familiar state
at
the lower
left,but then it
becomes

and,

part of the rabbit's tailjustto the right

the

above,
hunter

smoking

for the

hunter's
has

head.

large

chase, an

The

pipeinappropriate

not

ear,

exposed heart, and

whose

scragglybeard

shapes appear on
mossy
in the earlier painting.
the wall of the farmhouse
The

trail

dotted

he

that

playfully against the

follows

lines of

meanders

his

body

and

Influenced

arms.

Miro

with Cubism,
by his contact
a
large eye from a head and
letters sard,
perhaps from the

detached

introduced

Spanish
The

the

word

earlier

sardana,

random

more

minute

to

work,

but

Catalan

of
disposition
and

whimsical.

here

folk dance.

elements

is retained

large

has become

The

range

from

the

from
earlier

Miro

has
magnified and
such as the rabbit
objects,
and insect forms, in a much
more
arbitrary
according to the weight of the objectsin
way,
his generalawareness
of them
and the dictates
of fantasy.
While vestiges
of a scene
or
a subject
pherable
remain, they are
accompanied by less decielements, and the painting's
poetry is
in its
obvious in its rhymes, more
more
arcane
is no
meaning. There
longer the intent to
follow the logicof nature's appearance.
Miro's

reconstituted

certain

live only on

creatures

the painting'ssurface. The

artist's full conversion

the restraint of

on

lines obsessive to Miro

disassociated

now

or
instinctive,
was

moral

The

oi"

Comb

in

seen

one

Arshile

and

art

based
the

upon

not

upon

encouraged,

outpouring of fantasy

one.

art

the practice of automatism

partlyby

be

with

automatic

an

divergencepossiblein
great stylistic

induced
can

to

but

reason

comparison of Miro's painting

by the Armenian-born
Gorky, entitled The

American
Liver

artist

Is the Cock's

(PI.59). Miro's motifs are cleanlydrawn,

they float in an airless,imaginary, and

face.
surseeminglylimited space or on the painting's
stillmore
are
Gorky'sconfigurations
ible
illegand
difficult to decipher,being tortured

twistingsthat
in

an

fuse

or

separate from

another

one

Color
intenselycongested environment.
from deep earth tones
to hot patches,

ranges
and
none

of the color is related

outlines. The
his

artist's technical

paintis far greater

the linear

to

range

and

more

in manipulating

subtle

than
Miro's.
Gorky derived his imaginative
composition from a drawing, or, as he thought
of it,a blueprint,where
he mingled fantasies
thingsdirectlyobserved in nature, visions
upon
of

internal

he

had

human

his creations

composing
in terms

work

consciousness

of the
is in

that they made

so

related

way

art

of the need

painting'sform.

no

of

recollections

organs,

and

seen,

The

title of the

the

to

for

sense

painting's

inceptionand providesno clue to its interpretation.

Often Gorky's titles were
suggested,at his
the firstartist
not
invitation,by friends. He was
to rebel againstthe "tyranny of the title." Gorky
demanded

audience

an

attention

that

his

to

would

tinued
con-

pay

painting, not

the

to

words

labeled. With Surrealism,

by which it was
has
as
Gorky's biographer Ethel Schwabacher
written, "art entered into man," which implies
that
artists were
through art, as
exteriorizing
the inner world of their own
directlyas possible,
and imagination.Gorky, in turn, wanted
feelings
his paintingto enter, through sympathetic eyes,

into the consciousness

his audience.

With

subconsciousness

and

time,

becomes

one

only of the implied violence

not

and

strong sexual

references

in

of

aware

of the

motifs

Figure 500. Jean Dubuffet.

Sanguineet Grenat. 1950. Oil on
Collection

Alfonso

frequency might

intimate

like something

beauty of its drawing, the painter's

ment
handwriting,with its delicate or vehe-

to each

careful adjustment of colors

the

shape they share with

composition.To content

other, and

with

of hide-and-seek, or

game

about

what

few

specificpassage

of brush

his

clusions
con-

substances

in order

is

or

art

true

the

its form

of modern

abbreviated

tive
imagina-

unpleasant,and that for

problem
poses a parallel

people
many
in being contrary to conventional

taste.

But

his lines

who

this

from

steam

roller

it looks

in

medium

that

his

cising
imagination.By inwith the end of a paintbrush or
invited comparison with defacement

woman

newly paved

run

street.

over

by

Second

in

publicplaces.What

in

repressedside

or

The

Corps de Dame
with

to

he
of

character

visible,
type of art, its expression of another, in-

likened
on

achieve

to

leave their mark

been

naked

wall

stick,he has
of walls; in fact,DubuflTet,a middle-class
wine
former
merchant, has spent many
years
in the study of Tart brut
the "raw
art" or "unschooled,
art" made
unadulterated
by psychotics,children, and the "self-taught"draftsmen

indicating

finds interestingis the direct,frank

even

or

to

on

stimulate

synopticsampling of older
from irrational experiencehas shown
art derived
that there is a precedent for art's contradiction
us
of the polite,
the prudish,and the pleasing.
and familiarity
Tradition
make
Goya and Bosch
acceptableto those who rankle at Gorky or the
artist Jean Dubuffet.
French
One
cannot
guess
how many
times, during exhibitions,the images
in Dubuffet's Corps de Dame series (Fig.500) have
our

own

in itselfwould

that

comment

"

that much

deals with

the

public
Gorky paid homage to the
painting,DubuflTet literally
recipesfor paint and other

While

room.

"cookery"

association.

It is indeed

rest

be

concocted

the

might be, is to deny the occasion for seeing and

feelingthe conception of a Gorky paintingas a
of interrelationships
whole, with its abundance
that
resist exhaustion
throughout a long and
continuous

Ossorio, East Hampton, N.Y.

scrawled

self
one-

the

linear fabric of the

de
Dame,
45^8^'35"-

Gorky's work,

but also of the

passages,

A.

Corps
canvas,

brutal
as

a
no

men

and

comparable

are

of
the

favoritism) submitted

but
to

women.

treatment

handling,not by someone
in paintingsof anatomy

martyrdoms,
women

of

by the

be found

artist

in the

of

men,

body
painting,

dissections

or

himself.

in Leonardo's

Ugly
drawings

subjects,in Goya's Capricesas

vanity and evil, and in countless

deformed

symbols

lowed
fol-

series (which Dubuffet

Imaginative

Art

415

"

raf'~ '\-

"'"

"

of

dates,

there

was

conscious

no

change
ex-

cidence
of influence

De

Kooning's
he

subjectof

Woman

done

had

between

the

series

form

feminine
to

In

it,however, the ideas

jected
continuallysubduring

are

finished.

the artist's life at the

according to
it

there is

that

image is completelyor
The
or
painting grows

the

which

confronts

Surrealism,

reconstruction

and

vigorous paintingoperationsso

point at

abstraction.

depends

destruction

to

and

in part upon
matism,
autospontaneous release of ideas.

Kooning's work
the

two

Abstract

as

de

and

painters.
of paintout
ings
grew
involvingboth the

in the 1940s

referred

Sometimes

the

fades
he

moment

it. His

with

is involved

or

no

ocably
irrev-

series and

ous
subsequent abstractions are reallyone continuchanging moods
painting tied to his own
like a personal diary of partiallyeradicated
entries. As

Kooning's
but

in the

with

action

painting by
In
Paul

Figure 501.
Oil and

Klee.

The Limits

color,2i"g

water

of Reason.

1927.

Private collection.
iSi/s".

their gruesome
subjectsin a world of space
as
lightand sought to make them appear

possible.Dubuffet
was
working

as

the

which
motivated
scientific
in what

said that

with

"a

in

doing

general

assuming he
toward
moralizing caricature
Dubuffet's
women
investigation.

the

prevents

artist has

immateriality";they
the substance

personal antidote
"woman"

created

known

illustrate

habits

cept,"
con-

our

referred
are

made

of the medium

conjecturewhether

His

has

series he

and
like
life-

to

was
or

exist

"a state

as

of

and

used. One

of

live in

only

can

Dubuffet's
to

the

in France

of work

"

which

are

"

New

York
for

thereafter

person,

beautiful

not

to

materializes

form

On
irritate

"Women

the

woman.

would
change. Somebody
didn't
I
mean
woman.
aged

irritation in

mental

canvas.

from

by the painter'sslashingapplications
of paint to the surface. She does not
allude
or
intentionallysymbolize, allegorize,
to any
one
specifically
person or publicconcept.
She belongs to the realityof a painted surface
for the painter.
and
is a recurring hallucination
his obsessional
The
artist has described
image
ings
of his inner feeland suggestedthe intervention
subconscious
and
during its realization:
with the idea of a young
'T always started out

by the

image but to respond to

stimulations offered by his matrix as itis brushed,
stillallow
troweled, or scraped on the surface
for the expressionof strong and deep feelings
about the final subject.
In the same
was
doing his
year that Dubuffet
Corpsde Dame picturesin Paris,the Dutch-born
American
painterWillem de Kooning began in
a

Her

conveyance.

monsters."

media.

the

on

is threatened

conception is a
popular notion of
mass

de

remaking the

and

making

of assaults

means

of

depicted,

Bicycle(PL 60), the subjectseems

teeth, and breasts,standingpassively

all eyes,
and

Dubuffet's
caricatures, but
predecessors in
Western, post-Renaissance painting located

of

action

any

and

Woman

by her

in

violence

the

Dubuffet,

lies not

art

another

out

to

make

occasion

sometimes.

me

Woman

noticed

step

"

them

middle-

them

such

he

said:

painted that

series, that's all." De

irritated
potentially
Kooning is a reactive artist,
gestions
by a wide variety of sensations and visual sughis painting
In one
from all over.
sense
is antidotal to the disease of emotional
insincerity
of women
in societyand its publicglorification
within

the

context

of

cleanliness,motherhood,

De
and
sex.
Kooning's
happiness,youthfulness,
and
Woman
method
and Bicycle,
of working on
build
the other picturesin the series,
to
was
up
series called Woman,
which
a
an
tinued
conimpremeditated image from scraps of his
the next three years and intermittently earlier drawings, cutouts
from
or
newspapers
and
to the present time. Despitethe coinphotographs,freehand drawings of letters,

416

Purposes of

Art

nical
lacingit all with techpreoccupationsrelatingto his craft. Like
and Bicycle
is a
Frankenstein's monster, Woman
syntheticconcoction of used parts. "Whatever
I see
becomes
shapes and my condition.
my
in
The recognizable
form people sometimes
see
the pictures
after they are paintedI see myself,
but whether
or
not,
they got there accidentally
the dictates of emotion,

who

knows?"

died in 1940, it is fitting

clude
to conchapter with a work by Paul Klee,
consistentlyexcellent
gifted and
imaginativeart in this century. In

he

Although
this
the

most

of

creator

from

Chapter 15,"Themes
was

introduced
An

creation.

REASON

OF

LIMITS

THE

to

some

Nature," the reader

of Klee's ideas

artist endowed

with

whimsy and
express both
worked
with facts,fables,and
to

regarding
ability

the

wisdom,

who

fantasy,Klee
renderingof the world
of paintings
with closed eyes. His hundreds
seen
the
how
he
could
reveal
special
preserve
of images of the mind. Klee invented
qualities
of drawing,charted new
his own
modes
spaces,
and
fresh artistic laws for lightand
enacted
with the external world,
In his contacts
gravity.
his

devoted

with

art

to

he

what

the

saw,

heard, and

read, Klee

the
continually and consistentlynourished
of his imagination.
sources
Science,philosophy,
terpret
and art fuse in his images. Klee could reinold idea, one

an

which

had

verbal

or

history,and give it new

marked
with his personal touch.
dimensions
Consider
his Limits of Reason (Fig.501) and a
wood
late nineteenth-century
engraving by
Carlyle'sSartor
E.J. Sullivan from Thomas
that man
Resartus (Fig.502). Sullivan shows
ascends the heights
of knowledge on a mountain
of books. The path to enlightenmentis paved
established

with

the

visual

written

word.

One

could

read

Tower

of Babel. Though made

in 1927, Klee's
conception prophetically
suggests present-day
devices
seek to explore the
we
by which
unknown
In

of the universe.

spaces

the

study of art, it is one thingto become

of its possibilities,
and
its
aware
another
This
book
has been very much
impossibilities.
for the
concerned
former.
"With regard to
imaginativeart, we can learn that it is impossible
for us
understand
to
completely the
meaning and intention of paintingsby Redon,
de
for
Chirico, Magritte, and
Beckmann,
example.Just as there is no objectiveway to
prove good and bad values for art, so is it in
for the artist to
cases
impossibleeven
many
verifythe meaning of his work. Meyer Schapiro
admirably summed
up the situation for many
modern
he wrote
:
painterswhen
The

artist does not

wish

to create

work

in which

alreadypreparedand complete
indifferent and imperto a relatively
sonal
message
receiver. The painteraims rather at such
of the whole that,unless you achieve
a quality
and feeling
towards
the proper
set of mind
it,
will not experienceanything of it at all.
you
he transmits

Max
many

an

Beckmann
in

his work.

employ

what

that

realized
who

his audience
He

hoped

he referred

to

there

could

not

that viewers
as

their

own

were

stand
underwould
inner

looking at his
sympathy" when
paintings:"I can
only speak to people who,
consciouslyor unconsciously,already carry
similar
within
them
a
metaphysical code."
the public and
art
Contrary to what
many
"creative

educators

may

wish,

art

is not

for every

man,

is not for art. Both

creating
justas every man
the experiand communing with art involve
ence
and
trainingof imagination.

this

descriptionand in the absence of Sullivan's

printstillconjurethe image in one's mind. But
how
Klee's
diflEicultto evoke through words
hnear
conception! The
contraption at the
of his picturebroadly suggests modern
bottom
inventions,the means
technological
by which
man
aspiresto reach what Klee shows to be
via
the
of
ladders
ultimately unattainable
In Bruegel's
earlier in
time, and even
reason.
the Middle Ages,the analogouscommentary
on
the depictionof the buildingof the
follywas

Figure 502.

livan.
E.J. Sul-

Sartor Resartus.
1 898.Wood
engraving.

21

DEATH

THE

THE

OF

WINDOW

LIFE

AND
THE

The

SQL/ARE:

abstract

of

emergence
constituted

1909

in

the

history of

of

illusionistic

concept

in

evolved

of

one

after

The
picturewindow
had
painting which
and

century

thrived

five hundred
unchallenged for over
years
rejected by several artists before, during,
World

and

in

is

not

new

with

burdened
to

describe

to

fit

various

of

the

of artist Harry

this

all

to

1910

since

esthetic

longer
For

for

meaningful

these

artists

picture surface

with

dimensional

visual

from

likeness

418

intended

sixty
those

to

to

years,

paint

to

found
as

the

illu-

artists

illusionism
of

way

seemingly

its simulation
world
in

dead.

was

art

Purposes

did

of

not

Art

no

painting.

transparent
of the

the

the

crucial

the

variety

in

steps

taken

of the

toward

and

of

artists

many

to

square

nonrepresentational

satisfied

it has

way

and

ing
differ-

tastes.

Window

The

over-

of Art.

View

woodcut

his

from

treatise

on

the

old window

painting.Diirer

has shown

understand

certain

table

theory
the

looking through

of illusionistic

artist stationed
an

height, thereby giving a

through the sight,the
model
through a framed

Looking
seated

by Albrecht

Portrait

(Fig. 503),
perspective, helps us to

Diirer, Draftsman Drawing

hind
be-

eyepiece set at a
fixed viewpoint.
painter sees the
piece of glass

of
that
intercepts his line of vision. The
pane
and
surface
is the actual
glass is like a window
on
sees

the

upon

model
the

is

he

which

to

fifteenth

"to

glass the

present

surface

as

artist thus

two-dimensional

century,
the
if it

what

he

transfers

the

painting. By painting

surface, Alberti

three-

ence
Independcome

of

abstraction, adopting the motif

dening
"Har-

ethical, philosophical, and

have

reasons

be

disease."

art

last

since

who

for

attempts

Holtzman,
is not

chapter

pioneer
territory

the

compartments,

painting of the
painters continue
many
it relates
sionistically
; rather

apply

with

or

tidy verbal

into

The

uncharted

creating their own

shapes
replace those provided by
in art.
This
lines
chapter out-

to

tradition

few

temperaments

used

terms

categories produces

title of

The

movements

the

and

suggest

art.

generally

not

of

explanations

paintings

for,in the words

will

reader

The

convenience.

problems.
into

with

composition

word

like

faced

were

and

and

it is used

"Gothic,"

and

"Baroque"

its

moved

and

nature

nonillusionistic

adequate or correct
painting but,

an

this

describe

terms

of

abstractionists

was

nonrepresentational

cases

many

"Abstract"
to

I in favor

War

after

without

or

night

tions
revolu-

great

art.

fifteenth

the

ABSTRACTION

painting

tlie

OF

regard

had

instructed

of

forms
were

surface.

with

the

to

Earlier
the
the

objects

transparent

in

ing's
paintartist

on

pane

this
of

glass"[1435].Alberti's

likewise illustrated in Diirer's

paintingis
print:"Painting,

then, is nothing other

cross

visual

definition of

than

ficially
surface, arti-

certain

a
pyramid upon
representedwith

section of

lines and

color

at

given distance,with a central stance established

and
lightsarranged. ..." How
painters
many
be
actually employed Diirer's device would
hard
to
estimate, but the translation of the
three-dimensional

world

the

onto

surface,regardlessof device

used,

painted

was

more

than

turies
justa mechanical
operation.It took cenextensive repertory of illuto develop an
sionistic devices,such as modeling and atmospheric
effects achieved
by lightand shadow,
overlap,recession of lines,and diminishingscale
of subjects.
These
techniquesdid not all vanish
immediately from paintingat the end of the
in Chapter 14,
nineteenth century, but as we saw
"The Synthesis
of Past and Present in NineteenthCentury Art," they were
graduallyset aside as
to interpret
means
a reality
paintersfound new

that

was

The

confined

not

Renaissance

the visible world.

to

window

theory

painting
beyond the making

had
of

of

that
we

also
can

serves

as

and
figures

used

model

to

create

of harmonious

ideal

an

social and

world, the

natural

objectsin

shape

and

rhythmic

comfortable

is illuminated

of numerous
by means
Like
the glass in the windows,
windows.
look through the painting's
we
surface,aided
by the receding black and white tiled floor

Below:

Figure 503.
Drawing a Portrait.
MetropolitanMuseum
Henry Walters).

Right: Figure 504.

a

Dutch

National

House.

Albrecht

Pieter

1658. Oil
Gallery,London.

Dxjrer.

Woodcut,
Art, New

1525.
of

on

de

Hooch.

canvas,

Draftsman

5yg 6". The

York

that

the

rectangles
the

map,

window
metrical
make

would

an

Within
figures.
the
Dutch
his spatial box
painter could
his figures,
maneuver
adjustingthem to the
the fixed relationbut relyingmore
ships
on
setting,
of the latter than
those of the figures.
on
The
the

the

map,

middle-class
into order

well

and

eyes

almost

loved
made.

the

At

Dutch

denuded

of

than

centuries

two

for

giving

up

of

of its varied

by abstract

knew

the

conceive

people,places,and
of naturalistic
number
feel that

of
the

to

it is

art

paying homage

not

the

occurrence,

time, while

same

they could

geometry,

much

things put

see

Because

conditioned

tidiness of

how

to

frequency

if the artist is

as

square.

the

understand

to

Dutch

repetitionand
modern

the

architecture,and

help us

room

the

to

the

teenth-century
seven-

principlesof
of painting
things.More
paintinghad

circumstances
time

was

right

illusionism.

Closingthe Window.

neat,

order

interesting
paintingwithout

paintingreached

The

room.

rafters,the squared shapes of

the
painting, and
fireplace,and
frames and
flooringestablish a clear

Interiorof a

in

all of

from

order.

seventeenth-centurypainting
Dutch House (Fig.
.504)is a model of

set
polite sociability

the

of which

means

of the

Pieter de Hooch's

interior that

by

distance

our

that went
before
to
a
implications
pass
In the Renaissance, systematic perpictures.
spective permitted artists to
was

device

measure

(giftof
Interior

of

29^25". The

The

window

its culmination

approach
and

denial

to

in

nineteenth-century Impressionism.A painting

and
a friend of the Impressionists
by Caillebotte,
and painter,
a wealthy boat
builder,art collector,
of

a
man
standingin front of an open window
epitomizesthe Impressionists'
approach to life

Left:Figure 505. Gjjstave_Caillebotte. MatLot

Window,
c.
1875. Oil on
canvas,
46x321/2".
Private collection,
Paris.

fl

he

described

in

paintingssuch

the

window

it is encountered

as

those

as

of

Caillebotte,

Monet, and, later,Pissarro:

From

that
within, it is through the window
with the outside;the window
is stilla frame which
accompanies us without
while we
in the house, and
are
cease,
lasting
communicate

we

this time

is considerable.

frame

The

window, according to whether we

it or near
it,whether we are seated
off the outside

cuts

the
for

the

us

which

is one

Monet^

(PI.36)
Bedecked

most

the

changing manner,

eternal

or

standing,

most

pected,
unex-

procuring

variety, the spontaneity

zests of reality
[1876].

of the great

paintingof
is

in

scene

of the
far from

are

view

from

street, and

in

the
a

Fourteenth

window

of_July
flag-

of the

of his boulevard

some

showed
paintingsMonet
top-hattedfigures
leaningout of windows
lookingat the crowds
below.
use

and
Caillebotte,
Pissarro,

the

window

as

centralized focus upon

Monet

did

framing device
a

few

not

for

figuresin static

situations;
rather,they preservedthe quality
and

isnot restricted in his

505).The man
(Fig.
view by the mechanical sighting
device of Diirer,
but casually
stands at an angleto the window,
hands in his pockets,
lookingout on the scene
below. An impressionable
joying
enperson, he isquietly
the esthetic moments
of seeingthe lifeof
the street without himself beingseen. Around
the
time of Caillebotte's painting,
Edmond
Duranty,
writer sympatheticto Impressionism,
a
wrote
an
in which
essay entitled "The New
Painting,"

Left:
Claude

art

Figure 506.
Monet.

cester
Lei-

Square. 1899Oil on
1904.
canvas,
32 "^ 25". Collection
Michel Monet.

Right.

Figure 507.
Pierre
Bonnard.
House on a Court. 1895.
Color lithograph,
I35"
10V4". The Museum
of Modern
Art, New
York
(Larry Aldrich
"

Fund).

of trafficflow in and
The

out

of

our

frame

of vision.

of the street makes

the picture's
tilting
depth difficultto read and serves as a device for
the unarranged and ambiguous expepresenting
riences
the city
of seeing
from an elevated window.
Shortly before 1900, while in London,
Monet
paintedLeicesterSquare(Fig.506) seen
on
a
rainy night.It is as if the artist was
viewingthe citynot from an open window but
through the rain-spattered
glasswhich caused the

and

delightful
prospects
only

to

modern

Leger, the
complex to be

For
too

in

details revealed

selves
them-

the unhurried, discriminating

eye.

citywas

from

seen

too

window

or

big and
caught

He
passionatelyloved the
engineering that produced
the new
a
metropolisand could only condone
urban
istics.
characterstylethat captured these new
He did not see himself as an eye reflecting
who
the visual world, but as a painter-engineer
intellectual
constructed his image with the same
of viewpointsas city
precisionand multiplicity
builders did their blueprints.
Cubism
provided
Leger with a new
syntax for presentingas picconnected.
connected
torially
objectsthat appear to be disa

lens.

camera

machines

and

the

those

His colors,unlike
the

are

or

those of metal

patterns

and

The

cement.

tising,
advertextured

iron
inspiredby railings,

were

the

of Vermeer,

of commercial

hues

strong, pure

Eiffel Tower,

ways,
stair-

of duced,
mass-probillboard fisnjres

segments

stenciled letters,
and
or
nothing that might suggest the handmade
surfaces
traditionallypicturesque.The smooth
"

and

edges were
painted impersonally.
Robotlike
tants
figureson stairs are the ideal inhabiNatural
of Leger'smechanized
metropolis.
light,so important in lending poetry to the
urban
and
the Imprespainting of Vermeer
sionists,
plays no part in The City.As with the
nating,
painting of Matisse, the shapes are self-illumirarely tempered by shadings.They are
always clear,clean, and hard, unnatural in their
Monet
lighted
deand
edges and juncture.Vermeer
in paintingsoftclouds ; Leger mechanized
smoke
into a globularsequence
above
the stairway
Smoke
for him was
ization,
a symbol of civilfigures.
hard

and

his

affirmation

an

In

use

of hard

of his

it was

lines to harness
masculine

own

512.

Oil

canvas,

on

Moderne,
as

The visual spiceof his

importance of contrasts.
from
painting comes
unpredictable contrasts
such as brightand dull colors,a round
column
against flat shapes. Contrast of scale depends
the singletall column
that stands against
upon
and
medium
so
small shapes. In moving
many
from the natural, Leger's shapes tend toward
away
the geometrically
curved and angular, but

that

he could

artists to

the rectilinear. (This would

his ideal of contrast
For

as

Leger,faithfulness

be discussed

restrict himself

not

to

The

have

life and

contradicted
artistic ethic.)

perception,to
Death

the eye

of the Window

and

art

as

of the

out

Eiffel

d'Art

lens,had

camera

at

Tower

to

be

"

Eiffel Tower,

the
and

the

required for

were

can

be

loved

the

which

top. Delaunay

knowledge

and

its construction.

skill
Like

to bring to painting
Leger, Delaunay wanted
the
objectivityof the
inquisitivenessand
scientist. Although lacking the systematicand
consistent
of the latter,he sought to
method
of light and color
inquire into the possibilities
the dissolving
and
effects of their interaction
sohd forms as perceived by the eye. He
upon

sequently,was
sub-

solelyto

City.ujio.

National

from
conception resulting
the intellect and feeling.
The
window
as
an
imaginative rather than
the
rational frame for viewing the citybecame
subjectof a series of paintingsbegim in 1910 by
the Parisian painter Robert
Delaunay, which
in 1915 in abstraction. In an
culminated
early
version of his Fenetre,
or
Window, series (Fig.512),
Delaunay gives us a view from an imaginary
window
curtain-framed
overlookingParis in the

made

the abstract

window, mirror, or

replacedby

giving up illusionism,
however, Leger preserved
of its characteristics,
some
notably the

unlike

The

4'9%""-3'8".Musee

Paris.

direction

command.

Delaunay.

Robert

Figure

also conscious

of Cubism's

liberation

from

of
possibilities
years
ished
constructing
painterlycompositionsthat diminthat
illusionism
and
emphasis upon
stressed the components
of painting,notably its
likeness in

Life of the

these

Square:

and

Abstraction

the

423

abstract
to
see
painting lacking frames or
simply bordered with thin stripsof wood. The
the first,in the early
Impressionistswere
1880s, to frame their paintingsin simple white
borders, thereby reinforcingthe intensity of
their colors. Seurat painted inner frames
with
the complementariesof those
colors that were
in adjacentareas
of the canvas,
which
ensured
of

brilliance

the
black

frame

carved

frames

gold

had

museum,

every

it but also

to

character.

The

art

Window.

Delaunay.

Robert

Figure 513.

Oil

1.

191

on

First Simultaneous

15%

canvas;

tion
iSVg".Collec-

as

the

Jean Cassou, Paris.

In

surfaceness.

and

superimposed a

his

checkerboard

1910

Fenetre he

pattern of color

parts of the compositionin order

over

to

link

plane and
of color throughout.
to activate the contrasts
In a
1911 version of his Fenetre (Fig. 513),
and distance beyond has
reference to a window
been
eliminated, as have distinct buildings.
What
has been preservedare certain segmented
that recall perhaps the profileof the
curves
Color
is laid down
in large
Eiffel Tower.
patches
Jt

distant with

seemed

what

is

as

that

the surface

softlyvibrate

if color

Delaunay was
making color

is

in the viewer's

through

seen

moving
interaction

in

the

the sole

its illusionism

death

of illusionism

Sides

eye.

prism.

direction

of

subjectof

his

work/As with Matisse, but more

from
removed
the world
of objects,
formal
Delaunay wanted

in

had

concepts and

the

to the

perimeternowhere.

The

for

until abstraction

century

we

and
circles,
triangles,
a
long history of symbolizing
values. All three of these shapes,

was

without

square

in modern

Square.Up

twentieth

the

center

window

or

picture
painting.

new

as

example, have stood for

philosopherPhilo compared

as

in

of the elaborate

for

circle whose

elaborate

thought not only to

paintingand dignify

of the

shapes such

that

squares
color

past, familiar

the

the

enforce

evolved
know

of

settingfor

than Four

More

or

also the demise

was

frame

traditional

Dutch

been

establish the worth

The

latter.

the
the

of

Roman

The

God.
God

to

infinite

an

everywhere and whose

Chinese

spokeof infinity
circle has stood

angles.The

the earth and

resurrection,
eternity,

the ideal

and
city,perfection,

systems.

Walt

heaven,

Pythagoras
referred to the triangleas symboUzing human
knowledge. In Christianitythe shape has stood
hieratic social
for the Trinity,and it has signified
Whitman

on.

extolled

"Chanting the Square

as
priestssymbolized man
poem

drawing Leonardo

so

da Vinci

God

Deific."
a

used

in

square.
a

his

Egyptian

square

In

and

these shapes could

proportioned
figure
perfectly
be the purpose
of his art and
to
relationships
(Fig.514).Squares have been associated with
the source
tural
of its enjoyment.Unlike the physicist, talismans
against plague, mystical architecwho
relies on
science for his color
and
studies,
puzzles.The
ground plans,games,
the
four
taste
has
or
Delaunay depended finally upon
variously
symbolized
square
in the selection and juxtaesthetic sensibility
position seasons, the elements,the pointsof the compass,
include reds, blues,
of colors,which
the earth, and the sun. Our language has many
and
Drawing, shading, perspective, idioms that utilize shapes such as the square as
oranges.
of lightand
servative,
textures, and strong value contrasts
metaphors to denote variouslya social conof illusionism,
the
or
no
dark, the prerequisites
were
honesty, true
relationships,
Behind
the symbolism
of accounts.
longer the basis for his painting.He extended
straightening
his color contrasts
of the square
in history
and in current
on
to the
lar
vernacubeyond the canvas
the
border of the paintingitself,
thus denying even
is
fact
that its meanings had
language
None
to the picture
frame itstraditional enhancement
of the past public
a
public currency.
of illusion. We
tend to take the pictureframe
associations with the square, including those of
for granted, and for many
by
peopleit is a surprise the geometer, have been drawn
upon
424

Purposes of

Art

circle

contain

to

illustrate

how

.2

c/T o

"

"(5

r7:0
O

Si

1-1.2

"j

"

"-

u
.

ff-^"A"ii^^

Plate

62.

Henri

Matisse.
The

Tate

n-u

The

V
,7
Snail.

Gallery,

,,,-o
1953-

London

r.ouarhe
ijouacne

(by

courtesy

on
ou

cut-and-pasted
cu

of

^
the

l.usteesj.

paper,
^

-T

9'4" xg's"-

Plate

63.

Mark.

Tan

Rothko.

Collection

Mr.

and

and Black
Mrs.

on

Red.

I. Donald

1957.

Oil

Grossman,

on

canvas,

New

York.

X4'53
^''j'%"

I I !

Plate

64.

Richard
Collection

Anuszkiewicz.
Mrs.

Janet

Injured by
S.

Fleisher,

Green.

Elkins

1963. Liquitex
Park,

on

board,

36

36".

Pennsylvania.

-2

abstract

artists, despite

intended

their

art

to

in

sympathy. Beginning
firstappeared in modern
each

has

artist

intuition

his

physical

by

and

of

the

to

has
eflfectiveness,

been

painters.Artists have
the

similar

square

rendering

through

shape has been made

of the artist,so
that we

Human

to
'.1.

art.

and

personal extension

would

confuse

not

,""."!"

the

in

seen

historyof

the

ink, 1312^9^4". Accademia, Venice.

many

face

changing

change

The

other

for

Leonardo

Studv

Vinci.

of
Proportions
Accordingto Vitruvius.
c.
1485-90. Pen and
DA

while unimportant
previous symbolic

given
the

Figure 514.

the

to

paramount

to

Christ

of

"

relation

its

to

or

its

size,
distinctiveness,

square

relative

"

geometer

The

square.

dispositionwithin

painting, and
canvas
edges

the

shapes or

shape

Whitman

feeling,or

the

the

they
with

the

reason,
in

of

appearance

color, weight, texture,

field

when

1913,

values

of delineation

means

that

viewer

the

art, like Walt

found

own

fact

the

move

abstract

other

artists in

Russia

country.) Kandinsky

was

than
the

in

any

first of the
_

Mondrian

by

square

with

by Rothko.

one

another

sense,
being closed or
edge, a square belongs to the
and variation
objects.Its theme

like those

are

of the

the

of the

dimensions

of

meanings

The

the

modern

and

revolution

Cubism

and

Futurism

with

politicalupheaval

systems
World

Switzerland,

and

the

after

social and

new

viewed

was

their

by

and

Germany

cooperation
utilization

abstract

and

conscious

for

abstraction

was

were

the

upon

to

the

more

maximum
view

of

criticism

of

socially
in painting and sculpture,
imagine that during and
upon

Russian

looked
new

collective

technology. In

its insistence

after

expressionof
there

us

and

inimical

as

Communism's

naturalism

immediately

emergence

upon

and

men

new

Soviet

it is hard

the

revolutionaries

all

the

present-day
art

during

hold,

political
systems. Individuality

these

among
of

as

took

efforts with

society founded

new

in the

responsible for the

War
I. In Russia,

abstraction

war

artists linked

be viewed

to

artistic revolutionaries

Holland,

1920

of the square

entrance

came

politicaland
the products of social
tragiccatastropheof

upon

Communist
museums

Russian

Revolution
as

the

true

society. (By
of modern

art

abstract

artists.

The

second

was

Kasimir

in 1913
Malevich, who
began a series
his
pencil drawings that departed from
paintings of peasants and Cubist assemblages.
One
of a pair
drawing in his abstract series was
of black
meticulously placed within
squares
the white
of the paper
(Fig. 515). In essays
and
begun in 1915
published in 1927, The
the
reconstructed
World, Malevich
Non-Objective
of

circumstances
pure

in

of

eyes

to

are

square

and
Europe. Naturalism
such as
pre-1914 avant-garde movements

many

of

in

these

unlike

for the

coincides

art

with

verbal.

or

Lifeof the Square.The

into

art

apple

acquiresnew
previous

square
but

meaning,
objects,those

of

modern

personal history and

artist,the

discursive

not

in

an

class of

bottle, glass, or

into

set

intentions

by

broad

still-lifepainting.As

historyof
objects,when

often

bounded

In

in

which

he

created

an

art

of

:
feeling,the feelingof "objectlessness"

Figure

515.

Kazimir

Malevich.

EleSuprsmatist

jnejitsj_JOwoSquares.igi^. Pencil, 6^/4 iiYf,

The
Museum
margins;
19-% x 14V2", sheet.
Modern
York.
Art, New
\

ruled
of

the

in

When

exhibited

We

black

in

are

it

fear when

on

nothing but
But

of timidity bordering
leaving "the world of

to

came

which

lived

had

and

I believed.
reality of which
blissful sense
of liberating non-objer-

in

worked,
But

is

us

is lost.

tive
spiritof non-objec-

the

kind

idea," in

and

will

public

loved

pervades everything.Even

which

gripped by

field, the

background!"

white

sensation
was

and

nothing

the

we

tivity,
objec-

of

them,

Before

desert.

of
form

white

on

which

on
a
square
this desert is filled with

square
consisted

square
with

black

the

in

and, along
sighed, "Everything
critics

desperate

my

ballast

the

picture which

than

more

from

art

refuge

took

in

191 3,

year

free

to

attempt

the

forth
me
tivity drew
nothing is real except

feeling
.

and
.

where

feeling

so

life. This

of my

substance

the

became

"desert"

the

into

Figure 516. Xazimir-JMalevich.

no

was

White

I had
exhibited
'"empty square" which
the feeling of non-objectivity.
rather

but

White,

on

Museum

Vi". The
3i'/4

.The

SuprematistComposition:

191 8.
of Modern

Oil

c.

on

canvas,

Art, New

York.

..

black

field

white

the

on

square
which

first

the

was

symmetrical dispositionin the

Malevich
painting for
gave
up

to
non-objective feelingcame
be expressed.iThe square
feeling,the white

in

form

field

in which

referring to,

was

objects and
those

sea,

by

from

resulted

"Is

mind:

that

stylewas

did

it

not

the

wish

runs.

which

brain

my

which

be

to

is the

true

iron-transformed

new

the

maker

as

end

abstraction

Stalin

such

Communist

stylesevolved

during

signs of

wish

to

1918

other

brought
dead
on

did

he

White

against

In

in

varieties
a

his

of

"The

the

white

art

to

of nature."

it would

van

Similar

Malevich's

to

blue

white

the

square

is

background.

color

of clouds

is

Purposes

of

be

of

addition

Doesburg
the

aims

esthetic
Both
can

of

van

here
De

and

the

of

language
poetry

art,
be

to

was

and

society, and

and

art

positive,

artistic

individuality
spiritualand

and

for

sacrificed

universal

new

The
come
over-

in

movement
a

as

previous

to

Naturalism

systems.
to

intended

artistic rehabilitation
a

in

logic,
ideo-

on

Suprematist

Stijlwas

alternative

architecture,

ruptured and
representationof

Art

Utopian

seen

system,

true, real

Russia, De

were
or

and is therefore freed from the coloured

infinity,
background of the sky." This
painting is
first one-color
historicallythe
conception,
achieving its only contrast, tension, or drama
is
by the acute
angle at which the inner square
in relation
set
its field, as
to
opposed to its

426

in

social

seem

conclusion

white

Suprematist
as

forms

and

an

Supre?natist
Composition:White

within

or

not

of

movement

painting which

(Fig. 516),

artist wrote,

enters

spoil the

millenniums

end.

I do

movements.

of

economic, and social grounds.

1917, a small group of artists led by Theo
formed
Mondrian
movea
Doesburg and
called De Stijl(The
in Holland
Style).

In

...

and

copy

object and
In

inner

my

force

century

condemns

...

new

this

its basis

the nineteenth

Communism

that

cultures

power

political

Ironically,

has

art

to

support

of Malevich.

that

as

The
of

placate

to

of

returned

Communist

to

present-day

rnent

of the

army

an

he

desire

and

drawing.
number

longer abstract.

no

such

when

and

work,

Russian

the

brought

the

factory,from
world

captured
objects and

art

an

it his

of nature,
but that
appearance
of the human
inventiveness

the

imitate

not

of

was

air.

the

after this

leaders

that

absence

the

sight.It

lay beyond

what

in

years

of

encounter

not

mystical art

feelinginduced

Malevich

include
infinity,

desert, and

the

wanted

Malevich

do

we

confront

to

seem

the

on

experiences that

life

moving

The

feeling

this

beyond

void

the

1913

publications of

design,

formed.

In

Stijl,
giving lectures on
his
illustration
of this art, using as
transformations
of a cow
(Fig. 517).
paintings
Doesburg's and Mondrian's
the

to

toured

serve

as

van

Europe

visualizing the aims

of

means

Stijl.Sentiment
were

subjectivityand

or

be

subject
curve
signifiedthe former,
The
style of De Stijlmeant
matter

De

to

The

eliminated.

the

cow

the

latter.

rhythmical

rela-

tionshipsof rectilinear conjunctionsof lines

and
against
primary-coloredrectanglesseen
white.

The

visible what

task set by these artistswas

to make
the laws of nature.
they felt were

be copied:
beauty of nature cannot
living
The
it can only be expressed,"
Mondrian.
wrote
their appearof things,
reasoned structure
not
ance,
what
and van
led Mondrian
was
Doesburg
to straightlines joiningat
rightangles.They
felt that the rightangle is the perfect
objective
of dynamic relationships
in nature
expression

"The

and

lines

be

to

Mondrian

color

universal. Van

sought

accordingto
aid

black
straight

of
elementary means
necessary
that the De
content
Stijlartists

a
expressing

the

and

the

were

felt had

all tensions.

rectangleresolves

that the

Primarycolors pluswhite

of.

and

to

"set

Doesburg

the

world

and

right

with
pure aesthetical principles
of
.discords and.
.consonants
.

form.
...

By

being

of art, the
affected by a purely visual work
contemplator immediatelysets himself right"
as
[van Doesburg, 1918]. Painting such

Doesburg'sand Mondrian's was intended

public with a vision of true
harmony and beauty otherwise unavailable to
them, thereby bringingspiritual
peace. It was
performinga function analagousto that of de
Hooch and seventeenth-century
Dutch painters.
of
van
Looking at the transformations
Doesburg'scow, the reader must wonder what
the artist felt was
his final subjectmatter.

van

present the

to

Van

Doesburg

lack

nature,
in

wrote:

"The

modern

of

lacks subject-matter.
But it does not
subject.This subjectis of a pictorial
it isaesthetical balance,unity,
harmony

highersense."
Van
Doesburg characterized
This
"peripheric
composition."

aesthetically the

work

indeed

art

later version of the

his work
we

can

see

as

in

cow.

(C. E. M. Kupper). Left:The Cow. Three studies from a series of eight

Figure517. Theo van Doesburg
Above right:
(The Cow). 1916.Gouache, I5"8\23V4".Below right:
drawings.\Jnd3.\.e.d.
Composition
Composition
of Modern
(The Cow). 1916-17.Oil on canvas, 14^4x25".All,the Museum
Art, New York (Purchase).

!"

I
iJ

Left: Figure 518.

1926. Oil

Blue.

of Art

diamond

Mondrian.

canvas,

Museum

made

Piet

on

Compositionwith
delphia
23y2y 231/2".The Phila(A. E. Gallatin Collection.)

shape

vertical and

remained

within

which

his lines

in relation

horizontal

to

In his

with Blue (Fig.

518),
Composition
he
with
created
four
but two
lines
straight
blue) having at
shapes (three white and one
least one
rightangle but varying in scale and
demonstrated
how
of
sides. jyVIondrian
length
the viewer.

much

be

could

of time

course

the

"pressed"

etc.) has
towards

the

center

...

composition is

the

position
symmetrical com-

Cross, Guitar, Bottle,

(Christ,Mary,

itself

and

more

more

degree, that
entirelypivotshaped and
such

to

blank and
remains
periphery of the canvas
therefore gives an impressionof emptiness.
of the
Very important is the essential renewal
the

composition.Gradual abolition of the

all passiveemptiness.
The composition
ter,
developsitself .instead of towards the centowards
the extreme
vas,
peripheryof the caniteven
to continue
beyond it.
appears.

method

and

and

transformations
By its pictorial

specificidentity,but
that

argued
of

form

the

De

lost

cow

Stijlartists

part of the universal

became

While

philosophyof

the

always shared

not

was

it thus

nature.

the

De

artists influenced

by

Stijl
by

the total
its emphasis upon
movement,
uation
expressivedesign of the painting and devalsuch
of a previouslyclimactic
as
area,
was

of

enormous

consequence.
believe in the

.So strongly
did Mondrian
and

Tightnessof

of the
when

his

the

individual's

Doesburg

van

around

art

rightangle as
relation

1925, the

of thought and intuition,and

not
hand,
by machine.
by
Broadway
Boogie Woogie gave form to

balance

dynamic symbol, whereas

neutral

he

found

form.)Mondrian
giftedartist of
innumerable

without
For

example,

into the

felt the

of New

York,

life.The

where

than

diagonal

to

rectangle,
of richness

variety. Set against a white

ground,

the

Piet
Mondrian.
Broadway Boogie
Figure 519.
Oil on
Woogie. 1942-43.
4'2'y4'2". The
canvas,
York.
of Modern
Museum
Art, New

Si
I"

"

I
"

"

"

"

it was

his

vary

"

positions
com-

his basic beliefs.

introduce

"

"

diagonal

composition,he turned
paintingforty-five
degreesso that its four
Purposes of

achieve

of elementary

up

upon
maximum

most
native
imagiStijl
group, and

field of his

428

to

Mon-

rhythms

spent the last years of his

he

units, variations
and

the

compositionis made

entire

orchestrated

and

the

was

the De

compromising

rather

their
was

for Mondrian

ways

music

drian's love of American

tion
execu-

that

broke

men

of trial

hours

eflfectvisually

each

diagonalinto

two

an

the universe

introduced

(Van Doesburg
friendship.

and

to

purity
expression

endless

judged
intellectually.
Although his art has the look
"feel" of geometry, its originis based upon

the

the center,

but

Mondrian

in which

its

His

calculations

of

and

center

his

painting

been

has

1945

"less is more."

that

the

and
little,

so

American

on

predicatedupon the behef

has an
termined
art
elegancedeby the high ratio of output, to input, or
minimum
contrasts
means
achievingmaximum
had also been an importantpioneer
Mondrian
in 'what is referred to as "relational painting."
His last completed work, Broadway BoogieWoogie
(Fig.519), depends upon our seeingand sensing
the rightness
of color and the
of its relationships
to each other.
proportionsof these colored areas
the making
its
impersonal appearance,
Despite
matical
matheof paintingssuch
this involved
not
as

since

In

with

achieved

influence

considerable

the

"

"

"

-fci

"

"

"

^^a

sides

Art

x:
"

"

"""

"

"

"

"

"

Left: Figure 520.

Jean
(Hans) Arp. SquaresArranged
to the Laws
According
ofChance.
1 9 1 6- 1 7
Collage of colored
.

191/8x1358".

papers,
Museum
New

of

Modern

The

Art,

York.

Right: Figure 52

Jean
Collage.

Duo
(Hans) Arp.
1 918.
Collage of

colored

cardboard, 33V8X
papers on
26". Collection
Mr. and Mrs.
Burton

Tremaine,

Meriden,

Connecticut.

of red, yellow,grey, and

precisionbut also unpredictability
in Mondrian's
structural analogue of jazz,
and
with its discipline
His intentions
improvisation.
set forth in writing:''The art of the
were
rhythm. .veiled by subject
past established
and
In
matter
our
time,
particularforms.
and
more
accentuated, not only
rhythm is more
in art, but in mechanized
realityand in the

colors

are

black.

tones

pure

against rationalism, nationalism,

they felt were
destroying

were

selves,

is

There

miUtarism, which

and

art
Europe in a senseless holocaust. The prewar
identified
Germany, France, and Italywas
with
the corruption of civilization and
the
alienation of the artist not only from societybut

of

also from

the true

...

whole

life." The

feel and

he admired
manifestations
show
for

nearer

to

him

the natural

ly
Private-

instinct and

the

basis

art :

than

into form:

In the

nature.

...

level.

gave

During

notions

War

The
the

Alsatian
French

artist Hans

and

German

Feigning mental
in
and

and

sought by

was

for which
to

Zurich

sympathetic atmosphere
new

Arp

for

he

had
he

for the

no

cruitment
re-

of

Death

of the Window

Isolated

their

of oil

or

formula,

"the

appeal
on

did not
in

were

to

conscious
sub-

and

Holland

from

aims

art.

humanity

know

the

accord.

and

most

noble

medium

sentiment

for

or

repetition
the virtuosityof the hand
upon

the first
of genius." In
formation," as he called these
made
by tearing
rough squares were

brush

stroke

"architectural

paste ups,
dark-colored

sheet

and

the

as

painting,beauty based

of avant-garde artists,
art. .\ group
poets,
themwriters,the Dadaists, as they named

The

in which

one

the Dadaists

which

to

of

pathy
sym-

creation

convinced
human

up

both

found

but

and after the war

years Arp gradually
in wood,
painting in oil and worked
to
and
According
Squares
Arranged
string.
paper,
the Laws
of Chance XFig- 520) and Duo Collage
(Fig.521)-werereactions againstthe traditional

conscription.

where

"

During

fighting.

incompetence, he escaped

causes

went

the

to escape

armies

extent

of artists and

number

not

was

Russia, Arp and

ed
alreadybeen stiffened up, orderThe
by the human
spirit.
proportion and
the rhythm of patch and
line in architecture
will speak a more
direct language to him than
the capriciousness
of nature.
In the metropolis
beauty expresses itself more
mathematically.

World

for art

was

that would
the subjectbut one
and imagination,
unitingmen
spirit

it is

metropolis

has

writers fled to Switzerland

need

His vision of art

the

polis
metro-

the Dadaists

againstall previousart, Arp

was

the

sees

irrational. While

the

of the continued

artist
genuinely modern
as abstract
livingconverted

Arp
feeling

and

imaging

of

city as

of art.

sources

thought

to

were

of the

free

to

from
and

youth and the sensual

city's
the city'svitality.
His writings

styleof

new

dancers.

creative

wanted

the

that he conceived

The

the

not

of musicians, instruments, and

others

such as illusionism
previous conventions
restore
to art by affirmingthe
vitality
of working from
artistic importance and validity

visual concept of music

important to Mondrian,

were

and

of

achieved
a

and

paper

paper.

The

pastingthem on a grey
composition was

random

by lettingthe

paper

flat surface. In the second

Life of the

Square:

Abstraction

squares

fall upon

paste up, Arp

429

col-

paper
The

act

uniform

Taeuber-Arp,
composed

his wife, Sophie

with

laborated

develop

grid structure
probably on

cut
squares
of ordering

chance

by

or

a
Arp called
gesture against what
"earthly confusion, disorder, futilityand

that

he

parts

artist

and
of

their

imitates

that

he

felt

unnatural

of his desire

because

the

the
of

fact

to

answer

art, which

world

which

prewar

morally

was

was

from

square
because

the

the

pidity"
stu-

responsible for separating the

He
his audience.
preferred the
in these
compositions
grid forms

and

wrong

Arp's

were

indi\idualistic

in

impersonality with
and
arranged and

made

were

collaboration

sensed

and

saw

The

him.

producing

art

an

"Our

commented,

Arp

nature.

and

appearance

avoid

to

and

cut,

pasted

commercial

colored

lavender, with

the

of his colors, but

to

respect

viewer's

and

and

With

service

devoted
and
with

these

to

but

numberless

and

line that

their

be

as

writing

in

could

flat surface.

there

activated
work

inexhaustible

variety of form

as

collages demonstrate
Arp's two
basicallydifferent types of compositions, one
the
static and
other
dynamic, adjectivesthat
naturalism.

describe

the

What

components.
and

discovery

writing
whole

the

built upon
Matisse's
when
The

of

art

small

Klee's
minute

and

often

it alludes

to

elements

year

430

before

of his

which

up.
deal

construction

most

is minute.
abstract

his death, Matisse

Purposes

to

as

that

(Figs.365, 501),
large scale, even

subject that

Snail (PI.62),one
done

been

feehng
opened

paintings

embraces
a

the

had

the

of excitement

sense

his inductive

individual
art

subject,was

world

new

Unlike
with

lent

of

inaction

or

early abstraction, as well

to

the

on

action

relative

of Art

In

ings,
paintassem-

them

when

acts

the

he

quick idea of certain

compositions. Illness,
led

as

of

conviction

"have

also

of

its complelike
sensibility

inner

The

gong.

artist

needs

fresh,
from

and

shimmer
the

of

The

comes

blue, for instance,

the

be

must

to."

effects in

with

able

to

in

to

get

planning large
his

use

this medium.

to

red

strike
cut-out

desire

limited

which

him

same

Working

Matisse's

also

well

as

them.

upon

stroke

whole.

the

colors

with

facilitate

to

affectingthe feelingsof

originated from

papers

of

That

working stillpreserved his cherished

draftsmanship and of realizinga work
of color is supported by his
entirelyin terms
statement:
"Cutting colored papers permits me
this way

distinct

at

by

yellow;

his hands,

tionists
Abstrac-

certain

are

done

be

properties of color
depending upon
of art, propertiesthat

inherent

in the
as

well

as

on

that

can

context

them

art

Klee

Paul

Swiss-born

exploring what

elements

believe

give

in

themselves

teaching

and
composition no
description,artists such

of
the

and

Kandinsky

as

and

color,

drawing,
in the

longer

of

power

accompanied

mark

be decorative

to

conveying
philosophicalassociations.)

are

disciplined control

composing,

look

sentational mentaries,
reprethe sudden
tional,
my^ical,emo-

while

art

or

who

of
and

taste

inherent

those

brush

absorption of

that colors should

the

their surfaces

neutralized

texture

drawing

fruitful alternatives

colors

and
green,
orange,
of the paper
showing

white

of

most

then

His
early development
through in large areas.
of self-luminosity
of color, or
color light,continues.
the transparency
He
varied
or
density

lifetime

first and

his

and

out
his shapes with
bright shades of red, blue,

cut

They
approach reality.
ing.
hate artifice,vanity, imitation, tightrope walklead
...Art
to
should
to
a
spirituality,
'tThus
the square
and squared
mystical reality.
appealed to
compositional armature
many
of
artists in the early days of abstraction
as
one
the

mixed

of paper,
scissors. The

the

to

attempt

Madsse

papers,

colors, painted sheets

own

combination

colors. They

nine

of diverselyshaped
by nine feet. By means
rectangles,allusion to the snail is restricted to
their roughly spiralplacement. Paradoxically,
of the
of the
snail's
none
curving structure
shell is literally
Not
referred
to.
satisfied with

cheerful

constructions

are

scale

feet

of lines,surfaces,forms,

works

on

paper

bled,
of

cutter.
paper
calculation

was

around

to

values

to

of

of

in

draw

the

color.

For

me

it is

matter

of

of establishinga
tour,
consimplification.Instead
it
the
and
then
one
filling with color
I
draw
other
directly in
modifying the
.This guarantees
color..
a
preciseunion of the
one."
two
they become
processes;
and
All that Matisse
European art stood for
alien to the American
were
painter Franz Kline.
"

"

Matisse

never

countenanced

consistent

tion,
abstrac-

claiming that he always began with an

He
moved
toward
the
abstract.
object and
his color, shapes,and compositions to be
wanted
the
world
of objects and
referred
to
people.
Kline's
big black-and-white
paintings of the
allude
to
early 1950s
nothing, and they have
from
the
and
a
rawness
tough strength remote
of
finesse, and
ingratiating character
grace,

7. 1952. Oil on
mon
". The SoloS'g^/i
4'9i/2"'"

canvas,

Museum,

Guggenheim

R.
New

Kline.

Franz

Figure 522.
PaintingNumber

York.

work.

Matisse's

The

Kline's

of

traces

creative

a
explicitand emphatic. With
brush he enlarged small sketches
housepainter's
onto
big surfaces,preservingor enhancing the
tensions
and
competition of his blacks and
whites, a renunciation of colors rare in European
of his capacity to
stantly
conpainting. Confident
Kline refused
create
new
configurations,
draw
to
a
repertory of shapes. The
upon
in PaintingNumber
1 (Fig.522) is
seen
square
unusual in his work. But his square has qualities
before. It is formed
have not seen
if by
we
as

gestures

are

from
within
pressures
white and black seem

to

around

white

the

the

in

edges.The

black, for

should

be

and

and

seen

Kline's

Kline

without,
into

eat

is

felt

another

one

that

the

painterly gestures

iKline's visual
and

contrasts

the

againstthe edges of
For

years

Kline

committed

to

many

painter

characteristics of
to

the

abstraction

squares,

suspension

it

was

to

free his art from

from

variety of

visual

Abstract

emotionally
not

painting became
expression of what

direct

more

the

achieve
meant

true.

Kline's

was

wrist
the

shapes

was

that

Death

feelings
ences.
experi-

for Kline
he
arm

painting of European
big black swaths across
working with
sweeping
The

ideas.

It

felt

was

painting,
art.

his

To
vas
can-

motions

of the Window

Their

eye.

that

as

was

realized.

was

directed

inner

wdth

with

and

relational

his work

to

The

would

fell in love with

its study.He

the Bauhaus

and

teaching,but

students

of art

has

to

rather

has

his life

system

or

encouraged

study color, to

propertiesand

inexhaustible

than

fifteen years,

more

has

years

University,

devoted

established

not

Klee

with

who

color
has

whose

bring them
artist Josef

German-born
at

painting

viewers

sensitive

for many
influential teacher at Yale

its many

would

painting,however,
literature

Mondrian's
toward

peace.

an

and

wrote

sole purpose

until this century, with art

of Matisse, that their vision of art

such

learn
binations.
com-

in his

hundred
one
paintings called
Square (Fig. 523), Albers has in
a
sense
painted the same
picture.He has found
ideal reproducibleformat by which
to show
an
endless color relationships.
The
paintingsare
size, and the basic
approximately the same
format
is a series of concentric
(which
squares
the
include
paintings'sfour edges) with the
smallest and innermost
square being generally
series of

Homage

over

the

to

located

toward

squares

have

vary

and

Delacroix

whose

not

was

For

favor of expressing strong

resulted

delightthe

painting^

descriptionin

and
art

an

always connected

serious

a
representational
painting the specific
he turned
given place.When

in 1950

of

rules in his

blatant

of

be to
was

to

Matisse's

lies in

drama

taut

Poussin

as

dreamed

been

faired

or

such

Albers, who
taught
and
Kandinsky and

two

clean

the

are

involved

esthetic reaction

simultaneously.Absent

and the trued

joining of the corners
Mondrian's
of
and
Malevich's
edges
well
the sharp scissor cut
of
as
jas
cutouts.

the

important as

as

believed

and

the entire body. Analogies with

calligraphyare deceptive,for Kline's
pictorial
writing is his own, not imitated, and
intended
not
to be deciphered.
Long before the twentieth
century, painters
that

oriental

in

Life of the

the
a

proportion
Square:

of the

bottom

central

common

and

Abstraction

size.

canvas.

These

axis, but they

The

431

greatest

series is

in Albers'

variation

him

color. For

in his

seen

of

use

of colors

combination

any

is

preferredformat allows him to

do something they don't do by
and to study the various properties
themselves"
and
of colors displayed when
they interact
depend upon each other. Paintingsuch as this
His
possible.

make

"colors

allows

to

us

appears
the
color

Albers

in

his

Homage

relation

the colors

each other, their

to

variety

Square series further

the

to

ception
per-

color the

rich

in

located

are

amount

or

"

"

related
to
changing neighbors and
size square in
changing conditions." The same
different paintingswill, depending upon
two
different
in
its color, appear
size, weight,
the
distance from
viewer, and in degree of
Like the Impressionists
transparency and stability.
and

Seurat, Albers

is

certain

that

aware

produce after images,or complementaries

of their

color,so that

own

to stare

violet and

at

look upon
white will suggest yellow to
the viewer. In composing his color chords Albers
then

to

takes this property

He
seeks
account.
such
normal

along

with

thing as an "ugly" color, and

prejudicesagainst certain

be dissolved within
Albers finds
colors.;

the

renewal

constant

our
can

of

use

employed

to

stroke is

subtle directions.

create

no

attempt is made

or

the

In order

focus

to

distraction of facture and

paint texture.

This

the medium

with

that

two

area

color

the
situating

Newman

Mark

and

squares,

inside. This

areas

have

square

the

to

below

Purposes of

Instead

he

and

Rothko

that
occupiesareas
rectangular
shape of the
effect and
to the painting's

Scale iscrucial

canvas.

is in

largepart

coefficient of the color

chosen.

In the past the scale of a paintingmight have

been determined
or
tions
convenby a wall, subject,
of

publicexhibitions

and

man,
New-

commerce.

Rothko, and others,however, judge scale

in relation
the

themselves

to

paintingas

often have
pause

or

"

standingin front of
paintings

it evolves. Newman's

vertical

horizontal

or

tension,depending upon

interval,a

the individual

of a single
painting,between rectangularareas
color (Fig.524).Geometry is not even
thought
man
Newof as governingthe shape of the color area.
"It is preciselythis death
has written:
fronted..
image, the gripof geometry, that has to be con.Unless

we

face up

to

it and

discover

there is
principles,
image based on new
no
[1958].In his final
hope of freedom
worked
its size,measure
out
painting,Newman
a

new

between

intervals,and

arrives

The
Mrs.

Frank

Stanton

Fund).

the
no

of
at

of pronouncing

way

other.
the

the

location

of these

Homage to the Square:Josef Albers.

igSi: Oil on composition board, 40^- 40".
York
of Modern
Museum
(Dr. and
Art, New

Silent Hall.

type of effect

each

on

textures

medium,

with the

by applying

paletteknife.

the

is crucial

central

432

paintingsshow

his

to

can

Usually

insistence upon
of
arranginga number
different shapes.Color in the work of Barnett

physical

eliminated

effect is achieved

drawing lines around

their edges from
the
an

the

on

has

of the

face.
sur-

there isno

coveries.Figure 523.
dis-

experience,and

attention

of color, Albers

call attention

to

physicalsubstance

since the eye is part of the mind, Albers believe^

in the high significance
he
is doing.^
of what
character

all of the

unobtrusive, it

color

color is for him

of visual

be

if not

most

occupy

brush

...

composition of
potentialnew

excitingand filled with

Experimenting with

and

spread out

"

that
hues

of his

context

the

no

at

is

there

that

of different colors

techniquethat results in
different vibratingrelationships.
V^incethe late 1940s one of the most significant
developments in paintingin the United States
has been emphasis on
the effects of color,surface,
and scale)
This focus has led to largescale paintings
in which one, two, or three colors

others into

many

show

to

intervals

bottom,

roughlyaccord

measure,

their quality that is, their

their number,
and the
of hue
intensityof lightor brightness
means
by which they are separated."Colors
flux, constantly
present themselves in a continuous

colors

varies the

top and

While

it really

as

fact makes

in art." The

where

upon

seen

never

is. This
physically

depends

visual

"In

written:

has

relative medium

most

it

than

the

commercial

the

to

color is almost

it

as

"

other

ways

is subordinate

message.

is

in

color

see

advertisements,for example, where

in

Albers

By

center,

Art

u'^":jft-3";-.-^ji3r:-

intervals

he

as

the surface,responding

paintedover

he
of the color with which
energy
and to his personalassociations with it.

the

to

worked
While

it is

think of his

tempting to

decorative, they

as

music

background

be

to

nor

largepaintings
intended

not

are

as

of

out

seen

the

and
of one's eye. Their
scale,intensity,
phrasingcan compel attention in those who will
let the paintingwork
them.
For Newman,
on
color by itself as well as completed paintings
do with
to
convey
strong feelingsthat have
rich
experiences."The
earthly and sublime
corner

of orange

tones

he

brown,"

the

to

has

lowest

written,

of dark

octave

can

"the

express

ties with
the earth."
majesticstrengthof our
Many of his titles are Biblical,for example,
and The Beginning,
Adam, Genesis,
or, like Ulysses
allude to the epicand the heroic.
and Prometheus,
These titles stem
from the artist's personalassociations
with his paintings
and are not illustrative
in the sense
of older figural
artists have
art. Few
in explaining
been as terse as Newman
why they
paint: "An artist paints so that he will have
man
Newsomething to look at." More specifically,
looks upon
the rectangle
of his paintingas
"a living
thing,a vehicle for an abstract thoughtcomplex, a carrier of awesome
feelings."
Mark
Rothko's paintingcan
be characterized
silent and almost immobile, and it might be
as
described

as

and

are

scale

art

Tan

as

canvases

based

the

and

color sensation.

on

Color

basic

two

Black

of such
ingredients
Red
on
(PI.63). The

Figure
Oil

on

Mrs.

so

Ben

that the final effect is

upon
form
which

color. For

that Rothko
beholder

to

become

Rothko,

like

liberal in
takes

selectinghis

over

color and

the color

has

paintings

is not

the

size allows the

the painting.
or
dispassionate

as

colors

as

makes

it his own,

proved rightfor

is Albers.

his

He

after

His
feeling.

less like color demonstrations

group seem
exercises than
those of Albers, and

as

or

There are no allusive

they attain greater gravity.
in the painting,only soft,
elements
vaporousedged,rectangularpatcheshoveringagainstand
in front of

by

drawn

or

finds its own

in value
and white
the

canvas

one

as

another.

hard

Color

content, the sole

varies from
painting

boundaries;

shape.Often

the

it breathes

colors

are

so

and
close

their reproductionin black

to make
Rothko
soaked or stained
meaningless.
in addition to brushingon
the color,
-The

Death

of the

Window

the

and

of all obstacles

ideas, and

pension
sus-

painting and

to

Objects,forms,

would

between

between

painter

the

the idea

and

the

of the artist's

marks

varietyand
large
ness
color areas
interact,so that, for example, redand blackness induce anguishwithout
being
translated into a specific
situation.
With
of modern
much
painting,we may be
of
assured of the artist's sincerity.
The
burden
the beholder
and the
often rests with
sincerity
There is
he chooses to receive the painting.
way
ethic to viewing a paintingas well as to making
an
it,and the observer must
adapt himself to the
this
affords.
new
art
experiences
Just as for the
drama

be

"obstacles."

in Rothko's

artist,there

must

The

from

the way

art

comes

be

decisions,openness,

and

viewer/Rothko expressedhis
about
the life of a painting:"A picture
feelings
lives by companionship, expanding and
ening
quick-

risks taken

is unconstrained

lying

be described
which, to oversimplify,
as
a
may
withmood, perhaps,of tragedy,exhilaration,or drawal.
In the painter's
"the
words, he wanted

hand

same

largescale

in

absorbed

Newman,

the

evoke

not

they do on
employed. The great

indefinite

Rothko, color is
carrier of his idea,

and

observer."

red do

the

1951-52.
Mr. and

color

opaque

of absorbent

power

as

not

rather

and

tan, black, and

emotional
responses

Adam.

surface, but

elimination

surfaces is necessary
to the
of his color sensations. Used
in a smaller

Newman.

Collection
"j'ii%"y 6'j'^.g".
York.
Heller, New

largesize of Rothko's
area,

Barnett

524.
canvas,

by

the

in the eyes

of the sensitive

observer.

It dies

In
this connection
the
token.")
by the same
in
that
illustrated
this
paintings
chapterrequire

Life of the

Square:

Abstraction

433

thousand

forgettinga
the

things about

artists in this last section

at,

(All of

art.

want

look

to

you

into, their painting.)

not

five feet
(neutral,shapeless)canvas,
square
wide
wide, five feet high,as high as a man,
as
man's
outstretched
a
as
arms
(not large,not
trisected (no composition),one
small, sizeless)
form
horizontal
vertical form
negating one
(formless,no
bottom, directionless),
top, no
three
non(more or
less) dark
(lightless)
contrasting (colorless) colors, brushwork
brushed
out
to
remove
brushwork, a man,
flat,"free hand
painted surface
(glossless,
textureless,non-linear, no hard edge, no soft

edge) which
Figure

Ad

525.

ig6o-6i. Oil

on

Reinhardt.

Art, New

Modern

Abstract
The

5x5'.

canvas,

Painting.
of

Museum

communion

with

talk

Reinhardt

much

of what
is

they say

This

not.

or

much

Rothko,

about

and

their work,

what

their painting
but
misinterpretation,
of the historyof art

concerns

is to offset

reflects how

it also

write

and
how
they have
rejected in their work
strongly and uncompromisingly they paint for
Reinhardt
epitomizesthe exclusivist
purist view and has approached invisible
painting:"The one thingto say about art is that
and
it is one
thing.Art is art-as-art
everything
else is everything else." He
has
given the best
descriptionof what he has done and not done :
themselves.

or

clearly defined
from

separate

in which
choose

or

meaning
where
be

make
is

not

see

anything

detachable

we

or

and

be added

nothing can

taken

objects and

cannot

we

of it

want,

difficulties of

Abstract
derive
artist
read

from

we

[1955].

statement

Reinhardt's

of 1961
about

comment

painting with
434

we

(The
we

looking
sympathy demands

Purposes of

Art

"

schools.

art

Stella
in the

for a
art, the rectangular format
Sonnabend
his Ileana
(Fig. 526),

of

after

Paris

noted

dealer

art

who

Stella
artists,

American
like

rhomboidal

what

several

For
enclosing empty
space.
Stella has been painting colored

painted
picture frame
years

stripesabout
separated by

looks

and

two

half

inches

wide

slightlyirregularinterval of
These
exposed canvas.
stripes consistently
of the canvas
and
follow
the axes
produce
concentric
concentric
or
right angles
squares
radiating in four directions from the center.
Stella's

and

reminded

are

Manet

in

than

has

Reinhardt's

apparent
it is all black.
are

discouragesits reproduction.)When

his

Zola's

the fact that

anti-art).

of the basic constants

challengedone

historv

whose

translatable,
nothing can

reproducing

Painting (Fig.525)

has

named

unphotographable, unreproducible,
inexplicableicon. A non-entertainment, not
for art-commerce
or
nonmass-art-publics,

The

colleges rather

arts

supports certain young

free, unmanipulated and

away.
ducible,
unmanipulatable, useless,unmarketable, irre-

for oneself

(absolutelyno

has not
Malevich, Reinhardt
given up
logiche continues to
painting,but after his own
black
paint essentiallythe same
painting.
A
generation of paintersincludes
younger
of the artistic
those who
have
accepted many
premises of the four artists just discussed, but
who
have
extended
earlier ideas and developed
view
their own
of painting. Frank
Stella, a
University, is repregraduate of Princeton
sentative
of an
of American
increasingnumber
painterswho received their trainingin liberal

stances,
circum-

whatever

expressionnist,not

Art

painting. In

object, independent and

all other

but

thing

is
Unlike

given to the eye.

directly
When
painterssuch as Newman,
Ad

what

"

"

York.

achieve

reflect its surroundings

not

pure,

no

viewer

the

does

abstract,non-objective timeless,spaceless,
changeless, relationless, disinterested
painting an object that is self-conscious (no
of
consciousness) ideal, transcendant, aware

colors
"

and

"

variables

among
his selection

itself. Mondrian

of

him, only

at

square
a

have

them

number

move

canvas

of

been

black
for the

had

made

and

his

shape
the

in this direction

choice

metallic
of the

first

of

paints
canvas

and, for

by turning the
with
edge. Stella has worked
different shapes,includingX and U
on

Before

illusionistic paintingsimulated

shapes.Where

Stella's Ileana Sonnabend

of space,
frames space.
literally

the enclosure

real world

Imperceptiblein

duction
repro-

and

Stella
stripes.

the

between

continues

the

of abstract

art

which

could

viewed, and

be

picturewas

illusion of the

through

an

statue

was

replica.Non-objectivepaintingand sculpture
defined a work
of art as an
independent
objectas real as a chair or a table. Perceptual
abstraction
its existence
as
an
object desurface
emphasized or nullified by uniform
a

reflectingaction of the metal

interval
the delicatelyinconstant

is the

paint

the advent

window

inquiry

"

twentieth-centuryartists concerning

earlier

of

the minimum

conditions

successful

painting.For

only

historical value

the

the

is

But there
has been

way

this

making
pursuithas

demonstration,

of

into

painter painting himself

suggests the
corner.

for

necessary
some,

that

evidence

no

For

found.

the end

treatment,
and
a

reflective

the

and

or
a

of

painters
younger
stillhas many

this type of reductivism

like Stella,

unexplored possibilities.
artists represent

last three

The

type

has

painting that

international

recent

of

been

Op Art by the critics and public,and

PerceptualAbstraction by William Seitz,who
has written most
knowledgeably on the subject
and who organizedThe Responsive
Eye exhibilion

named

at

the

basic

Museum

of Modern

it does
world

induce

not

associations with

(The

is that

the

visual

symbolize ideas independent of

or

paintingitself/The

is with

artists' concern

the eye and mind

phenomena achievable

way

are

in 1965.

Art

premise of PerceptualAbstraction

respond to
in

by

paintings
tightuniform

network, often symmetrical, of small and/or

repeatedunits. There are usually no climactic
variations in
shapes,singlefocus,or significant
the scale of shapesthat permit us to isolate them
with case, as in Matisse's art. This is not painting
that soothes ; rather,itattacks the eye and the
mind.

Its effects

images and
Instead

of

occurs

depend

induced

upon

or

after

tendency to fuse what isseparate.

movement
being depicted by the artist,
our

in the eye

Seitz summarized

and
the

mind

of the viewer.

historical

in
PerceptualAbstraction
The Responsive
Eye exhibition

his
:

positionof
catalogue for

transparent materials,
"

cornea

The

the brain.

Seurat

Impressionistsand

mingled

experiencesof seeing the visible world

optical effects of strong unmixed
These
close juxtaposition.

artistsgave

with

the
in

colors

vibrancy

intended
that was
to their paintings
reproduce a quality of the visible world.
Delaunay was one of the firstto build a painting
entirelyupon color interaction in the eye and
mind
of the viewer, relyingupon
taste as much
science in selecting
his colors. But by comas
parison

or

shimmer

to

the

certain visual
The

art.

generallycharacterized

the

or

exists
battery of optical devices
primarilyfor its impact on perceptionrather
than for conceptualexamination.
Ideological
focus has moved
from the outside world, passed
as
an
through the work
object,and entered
the incompletedexploredregionarea
between

with

the

work

of

these

three

last

soothing
artists,Delaunay's paintings are
of soft,luminous
because
of the large areas
color

and

their

selection

invites the viewer

to

to

please.Mondrian

consider

the

rightncssof

proportionsand subtle placement of his

of
use
segmented black grid,and his abundant
white providesvisual relief from the vibrating
in
Broadway Boogie Woogie. The
passages
PerceptualAbstractionists are not interested in
balm for the eye or a symbolicform for universal
order but intend the new
experienceof seeing
the

unrelieved
and

intensities and

shapes. They

believe

dissonances
that

our

of colors
eye

can

this type of viewing,justas we

adjust
intricacies
vision in examining the minute

adjustto
our

of medieval

manuscript initial illumination

Figure 526.

or

Frank

Ileana Sonnabend..

Stella.

1963.Oil

on

7'5"x lo'y".Leo CasYork.

telli Gallery, New

canvas,

looking

filled with

at

van
Eyck that is densely
microscopicdetail. After the
a reaction
similar,perhaps,to
the artist feels
or
plane ride

small

almost

initial irritation

"

in

one's firstsmoke

"

will

the viewer

that

into

enter

type of

new

experiencethat can be emotionallystrong.

has evolved
of PerceptualAbstraction
Much
from
studies in optics,
psychology,and design,
thereby reuniting art and
remembered
bodv

imagery

from

came

mathematicians

study and

that

ideas from

outside

and
a

good

varietyof

the world

example.)The

abstraction

by

of

art.

it leads

entine
of Flor-

anatomical

from

to

taken

artists have

inside

both

sources

art
(Illustrative

importance of

future

in the

what

perspectiveand

discoveries

and

for centuries

wide

be

science. It should

Renaissance

that

is

perceptual

mined
will in part be deterinfluences as well
or

it has

toward

is contradicted
complete individuality
throughout the world. Also challenged is the
view
that
should
art
please the eye, shown

by the fact

that

artists are
interested in
many
total range
of visual responses.
has been a frequently
used motif

discoveringthe
The

square

by Perceptual Abstractionists because it lends

and
itself to repetition
coordination
with the
of the paintingsurface.
axes
In Straight
Curve (Fig.527),the young
British
from
artist BridgetRiley worked
a
singleunit
that she found
serial repetition.
to
susceptible
(It is of interest to note that this artist employs
unit used
technicians to finish her works.)The
is a rectanglesubdivided
into two
equal blackThe
artist kept constant
the
and-white
triangles.
subdivision as well as the four straight
sides of the
but she varied the proportionof the
rectangle,
cal
heightand width of the rectangles.In each vertihorizontal
stratum
or
uniformityof these

already achieved.
that
much
of the interest
Stijl,
has generated among
units is avoided.
What
the illusion of
creates
Perceptual Abstraction
European artists is due to the possibilities curving lines,where there is not a singlecurved
young
line in the entire composition,
for anonymity and
is the changing of
objectivecalculation provided
have
by this kind of art. Single works
proportionsfrom one layer to the next. Unlike
in
Mondrian's
been
Broadway BoogieWoogie,so densely
Italy, Spain,
produced by teams
the rectanglesin Straight Curve
France, and Germany and exhibited under the
grouped are
that it is difficult to isolate them, and we
are
authorship of Group 57, from
Spain, or
forced to look upon them in largerareas, which
Group N, from Italy.This practiceresults from
the part of the artists for anonymity
the shapes to seem
blurred. Riley has
a desire on
causes
of identityand nationality
and is reminiscent
varied diflferent zones
to give the composition
what

as

As

with

Dc

of collaborative
The

art.

ideals

of

De

Stijland

twentieth-century abstract
An

in medieval

efforts undertaken

But many
Op artists
impeccabletechnique,as

other

want

well

early-

thus

groups

individuality.
as

1963.
Victor

essential for this type of art to insure purity

of response in the viewer. Thus, the idea that
the

Renaissance

art

has

on

Musgrove.

calculation,
Right: Figure 528.

are

since

Ernulsion

Riley.
StraightCurve.
board, 28X24I/2". Collection

Bridget

Left: Figure 527.

tinue.
con-

been

:^^^^^^^^^^^;

moving

Benjamin

Cunningham.

1964.Syntheticpolymer paint

ocation.
Equivcomposition

of Modern
board, 26 26". The Museum
York
(Larry Aldrich Fund).
\

New

on

Art,

also
pulse or change of pace. This variation
helps to create the impression of hnes curving
look
and
back
forth in depth. To
at
Straight
a

Curve for
times

is

of the

long time
induce

to

direction

to

or

look

at

it at different

different responses in terms

of movement.
and
character

the painting's
forced to move
over
eyes are
it is impossibleto take
in the
surface because
Our

whole

all at

To preserve
the
in the eye rather

once.

illusions created

painteron
istic art,

her
texture

Curve
Straight
the square

and

the
the

characteristic

Another

background. The

binetto

Stampe,

dei

Disegni

Florence.

of

between

is the lack of distinction

the

Paolo

529.

(1397-1 475).
PerspectiveDrawing of
Chalice. Pen and ink,
a
llS'sXgSg".Uffizi,Ga-

surface,as in traditional illusionof drawing have

and evidence

eliminated.

been

purityof
than
by

Figure
Uccello

basic motif

of the surface.
occupies the entire area
In
Equivocation circles seen
Benjamin Cunningham's
againsta uniform red background.
Anuszkiewicz
is aware
that the eye tends to
(Fig.528) an over-all checkerboard
pattern is
figuration
so
blend
manipulated as to suggest an abstract conseen
they are
separate colors when
result is a compromise
existingas a relief in a concave
simultaneously.The
back into
color: thus the same
red appears
different when
depressionwhose outer edges curve
simulated
depth. In the fifteenth century
seen
against green and blue circles. The
eye
made
Paolo
Uccello
alter
also tends
focal lengths when
perspectivestudies that
it is
to
divided
objects into grids (Fig. 529). This
exposed to red, blue, and green. Without
using
technique is evident also in the ring about the
achieved
a
singlestraightline, Anuszkiewicz
neck
of one
of the strugglingfiguresof his
the illusion of three squares, with the innermost
fresco The Flood
Uccello,
(Fig. 157). While
one
appearing to be set at a forty-fivegreen
artists used
Leonardo, and other Renaissance
degree angle to the others. He thus achieved the
a
perspectivegrid as the basis for establishing suggestionof a shape by its antithesis:
the space of an entire painting,it became
laid
overand has
My work is of an experimental nature
concealed
or
by figuresand objects,thus
centered
into the effects
on
an
investigation
or
as
an
existing partiallyrevealed
implicit
of complementary colors of full intensity
when
substructure. Delaunay had experimented with
juxtaposed and the opticalchanges that occur
checkerboard
a
pattern applied over
parts of
as
a result. Also, a study of the dynamic effect
his early Fenetre
series, thereby combining
of the whole under changing conditions of light,
in depth
seen
vestigesof illusionism (the areas
and
the effect of light on
the color [1963].
the
behind
vibrating surface
pattern) with
The
interaction. Cunningham, who
is much
older
refers to
light effects that Anuszkiewicz
in which
than
Stella and
those of the room
takes the
his paintings
are
Riley, figuratively
alternatinglight and dark pattern loved by
hang, not simulated lightin the paintingitself,
Dutch
artists for the floors of their paintings
characteristic of illusionistic painting.As the
a
and
makes
entire pictureout of it. Alternating
an
lightbecomes brighteror darker on the painting
the various interrelationships
sizes of the squares,
the angle of their
of the colors and
of the suggested squares
or
muting the shades of white, he was
change.
setting,
and
able to evoke
Seurat
is the
forward
ward,
backmovement
Historically,
pioneer whose
have
round
and flat surfaces.
lead Riley and
Anuszkiewicz
followed.

/One

reason

that

it is difficult to

PerceptualAbstraction
is that colors having
used

paintingfor
a

maximum

look

at

the firsttime

intensityare
(PI.64)

Richard

of
student
AnusTiKiewicz, a former
Albers, restricted his colors to red, green, and
blue, with the last two consistently
applied in

Death

of the Window

systematic studies of color with respect

achieving the greatest intensityby placing

complementary colors adjacent to each other
well as his reliance upon
as
systematicstudy of
optical phenomena make
Injuredby Green a
descendant
of Z,a Grande Jatte(PI.38). La Grande
Jatte in turn depends upon the work of Imto

In his Injured
by Green
repetitively^

The

Seurat's

and

Life of the

Square:

Abstraction

437

such
Monet, who
as
brought a new
pressionists
brilhancc
to painting,the equivalent of sunUght

flicker, by the

and

influenced

been
who

from

much

this

with
and

side

Ages, and
into

quity,
anti-

into

Near

Eastern

This
is art
history,and
not
Injuredby Green may
painting before it,it presupposes
art.

like any

than selection,it is
historyof art. Art is more
all abstract
also rejection,and
painters made
decisions, historical as well as personal, when
they decided not to paint in a certain way.
the

After

they

white,

left

had

stretched

on

"Themes

not

surface.

new

it

of

logicallyout

nature

or

artist

Chapter
pointed out

Pollock

and

task, but worked

of composition,
painting,for example,

representational style.Habits
from

derived
could
In

naturalistic

still manifest
work

the

last

section

there

not

easily

come

abstractionists, and
write

thousands

behind
the

for

evolve

was

the

art.

new

century

gave

artists the
to

make

as

well

the
pioneer
impelled to
explaining the motives
not
was
photography,
any

felt

caused

these

first

of

art

itself in

generation

of

he
art.

which

must

we

to

view

it

pleases us.

as

severelycriticized
world

of

art

each

other.

To

is identified

auctions, galleries,loft studios

438

Purposes

of

Art

chance

familiarize

ourselves

if

we

whether

like

art,

are

not

or

religion,presupposes
acquires it or

either

one

the

with

context

understanding,
Abstract

continue

to

has

art

with
television
into as
he can
or
escape
illusionistic painting. He
feels that the painter
or

has
is

given him
possible,in
that

the

painting

and

exposure

to

nothing. While this

highly probable
layman has given nothing to the
the
of sensitivity,
artist in terms
too

little or

some

art,

it is also

cases

and

an

music, poetry,

mind.

open

baseball,

or

Painting,
life

to

comes

knowledgeable, experienced, and

pathetic
symUnlike
audience.
Baroque painting,
of figuresat a table
whose
rich interpretations
drew
experiences,abstraction
vides
proupon
many
with
its audience
experiences that are
abstraction
does
not
artistic in origin. That
lives is
much
touch
that is important in our
readilyacknowledged by the artists themselves.
But as these artists have
ethicallydefined what
for

art

is for

decides

is

them

they

have
in

and

their

artists make

and

civilization's

of

concessions
is

As

who

to

ask

history,freedom

the

dilution

of

art

art

has

only after a long struggle, and

right to preserve for the health

our

urge
for

in their

In
individuality.

of

To

well

as

lives
that
sake

their
as

in

achieved

been
it is

this

in

done

aspects
tastes.

the

whole,

painting

many

variety

of communication
freedom

lives.
of

touch

wide

today

able
art),it is not possibleor desirother
than
to
anything
paint
is most
painted, that which

staggering variety
does

artist

it is the

(and

them

what

for

this

on

the

Abstract

the
does
To
is
not.
layman, abstraction
To
he wants.
less than
what
always somehow
in it
see
a
painting with only a colored square
been
makes
people feel that they have
many
cheated.
Execution
is favored
over
conception,
of the old gospel of labor.
a
possibly symptom
There
of labor, no moral
is no tangibleevidence
be seen
talked
about,
or
or
symbol that can
the layman
identify
can
nothing with which

century

with

been

ever

continuity of
accepts or rejects,and
in
and
anguish when

one

and

the

crowded

artist, it is

that

art

cartoons,

historical

he

faith, and

important

incentive, courage, and momentum

break. /Artistsencouraged

has

it with

to

abstract

which

historyof

what

what

toward

of

the

of exhilaration

or

artists

of nature,

nature

character

tradition,

this historic

nonartist, the
museums,

the

true

of illusionism

of

attitudes
(Positive

and

purpose

It

that

the

reality,or

denial

naturalistic

of the

novelty

gradual development
situations or beginnings

many

their decision.

desire

to

of words

exhaustion

artists in this

all of the

is

abstraction.

in

themselves

of almost

the dramatic
that prepares
described
above. The

did

ideas

his studio

like

and

early illusionistic

their

that

of

sense

moments

15,

In

was

this

to

itself

of the

Kandinsky,

unarmed

come

Not

frame.

Nature,"

only

canvas

or

inventiveness

like Mondrian,

artists

did

from

that

All

canvas.

of paper

the

seem

its shape. The

was

wooden

fill the

to

was

sheet

but

previous art

the

of

window

the

object was

up

gave
would

only the rectangular,

them

to

surface

of the

remained

artists

representation,it

and

flat

certain

when

1900,

illusionism
that

has

work

every

the

Anuszkiewicz'

look

Yorker

artists and

formal

tracing
through the

York, New

and

of

keep

New

parties,critics,dealers,
the
serious
opening nights. To
made,

learned

in

Street

others,
power

turn

back

excursions

Eastern

Far

in

could

way

Middle

the

Renaissance,

among

emotive

the

We

Rubens.
in

influences

while

of

Delacroix

color.

pure

areas

Delacroix,

by

convinced

was

strong

the

and

Monet

colors. And

of pure
Impressionistshad

of small

use

10th

cocktail

of all

precious
society.

CODA

ARTIST

THE

Wntilquite
a

commune)

was

have
and

clearly

was

of

the

and

of

served
and
the

the

world

most

Since

the

end

artists have
that

character.

the

part,

last

are

unprecedented

be

continued

history, in universities;

taught. The
to

part,
receive

artist

young

training

schools

in

of other
often

future

for service

for

institutions

may

learn

he

views

or

the

as

to

able

be

by

to

artist

art

may

himself.

of

in

The
such
at

and

satisfactions

the

values

the

other

detachment
vision

or

in
the

order

study

to

of

opportunity

to

celebrate

preparation

uncommon,

to

be

preliminary

give expression
Art

may

prove

to
to

the

be

include

art

rational

gesture

or,

objective

it affords

common

or

irreverent,

or

or

properties

the

art;

reverent

the

quest

of invention

thoroughly

elements

personal

self-dramatization

as

extreme,

"

wide-ranging

possibilitiesof

present-day
disparate

the

out

is
for

painting,

that

artist

to

there

is greatest

beauty

the

to

with

responses

art, but

making

involve

be

to

talking

In

importance
The

are

their

continues

of

purpose

its

may

who

appear

different

as

state.

tion,
educa-

as

print, or sculpture still holds

challenge of perfection and
can

ever,
how-

jobs in other,
teaching. While

on

attraction

many

the

that

researches

the

of

artists

generation.

each

question

discovery.

most

its

receives

artists,one

can

self-

take

profession

with

many

entirely by

fields such

dead,

or

increase

the

Most

related

full-time

dying

themselves

work.

sometimes

as

of this number

professional

support

creative

as

fraction

as

been

there

today. Paradoxically,

small

classified

and

his craft, to

stimulated

be

have

era

found

are

only

first time

looks, for the

not
self-sufficiency,
to

the

artists. Formal

young

quite varied,

to

be

range

example,

they

or

still

to

in

or,

schools

criticism, and

company

for

art

present

open

as

agreement

Western

options

for

education,

in

to

century.

possibiUtiesor

in

entertainer.

previous

no

artists

the

it.

had

Their

in history he

and

have

the

cate
edu-

intellectual

artist sought

would
of

the

to

scientist,propagandist

decorator

others

as

of

his

by

values,

times

and

art

expected

was

community

and

various

At

His

moralizing,

He

delight

magician

as

ambassador,

For

them

heroes

unlettered, and

connoisseur.

has

the

and

their

to

religiousrule

and

pageantry.

gratify his patron

to

celebration

estabHshed.

making

and

In

the

his service

politicaland

ritual, of myth

philosophizing

that

seen

chief, bishop, prince,

tribal

instrument

an

and

times

in

(whether

patron

or

we

his cukure

recent

artist's role

TODAY

or

the

against
439

of

the
the
to

sensual.
death

or

of

act

an

way
none

artist often

in

Art

conformity

used

were

new

love.

can

resistance

mean

to

satisfying
of participatingin society. Acknowledging
of the traditional
symbols that in older art

social

to

unify

feels

instead,

or,

that

from

it

over

more

the

community,

the
he

discover

must

signs for society,but

his own
experience and
This pluralityof motives

resulted

the

their

or

invent

be

must

and

last

one

that

art

hundred

has

years

produced a reflection of ideals, tastes, and

feelings that, quantitatively at least, is far
of the Gothic
the encyclopedic art
greater than
stillthought by some
to be
are
cathedrals, which
the most
perfectmirroring of a society.Although
the conscious
of painters and sculpnot
tors,
purpose
of the
art
provides an important record
of the human
life.
encounter
spiritwith modern
in
Both
in
temporary
theory and
practice, the conartist has the precious right defined
in his books
MuUer
the history
on
by Herbert
of freedom
: the
right to choose and pursue his

Figure 530.

Economics

Jackson

may

Pollock.

i*!*f

^v

*"*"

^'i^^

S"asai4"'.^i"

dissuade

force

him

Number

to

engage

1948.
(detail).

activitypart time, or
negative opinions

him

from

contributing
other

any

hand

true

of

and

culture

than

of

critics

may

fulfillment, but

artist greater

freedom
to

the demands

opportunities

possibilitiesfor
available

are

in

occupation.

long history of art joins the anonymous

Altamira
(Fig. 2) with that of Jackson
as
(Fig. 530). For the latter to appear
in a painting has required that art evolve

at

Pollock
it does
from

its

oflTers the

personal

The

the

and

ideallyart

values.

have

purposes.

dealers

for

modern

source

in creative

service

society

to

appearance

the

to
a

tribe, church,

gratificationof
had

to

move

the
from

state,
self.

and
Art's

collective

public symbols, through phases of naturalism,

and
Pollock
had
to
on
complete abstraction.
the entire history of art
available
to
him, but
that
he
personal principles demanded
reject
this legacy in order
art
to extend
meaningfully
How
his own
terms.
on
fittingit is that the last
make
can
object of significantvalue a man
by
in this technological age
himself
should
have
been
signed by Pollock with his own
handprint.

See

Fig. 3. The

Museum

of Modern

Art, New

York.

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NDEX

References

to

are

by plate

numbers.

numbers,

and

numbers,

page

textual

Vivian Presenting the Bible

Bold, from

surrealism.

Abstract

Abstraction.
Academic

See

Charles

to

Viviau^s Bible,

Count

tite

del Disegno

Accademia

di San

Lucia.

James.

164.

Ackerman,

Acropolis of
Adoration

Athens.

of Vasari.

13.

Art

13.

62-63, 65, 83.

of tlie Magi;

Warning

Divine

and

Codex

of Eihternaeh.

dealers.

17.

29-36.

Old

5-7.

H Killing Lions.
.ishurnasirpal
AssyTian kingship. 228.

Akua

35-36.

27.

Athena.

248.

Albers,

Josef.

Hall.

Homage

to

23,

21.

the Square: Silent

432, 431-432.

Alberti,

Leon

9,

14, 127, 284.

Palazzo

-Altimira

caves.

Ambler,

Eric.

Amiens
Beau

Plan
Ananda

255, 255-256.

the Great.

Parinirvana

of

Frenhofer

Unknown

RiniARD.

Injured by Green.

Bandinelli,
Baoule
"

Roman

copy.

Temple

43.

Olympia.

Colossus

of

Basilican

of,

fBoetia). 40, 39^0.

Belvedere

Torso.

Symbolism

of.

See

448

The

Beau

141,

called.

148,

228,

77.

51, 74,

17.

Max.

Bellini,

13.

Purposesof

PL

Cathedral.

55.

Art

140-141.

St. Francis

369.

Le Courrier.
in his studio.

331.
330.

413.

Agnolo.

Portrait of a

Toung Man.

341.
Adrian.

Smokers.

220.

192.

Filter,

II, 317, 395,

Elder.

the

Cartying of the Cross.

Return

169, 168-169.

175, 175-176.

Fainter and the Connoisseur.

Peasant
in Ecstasy.

Po-

400.

The

417.

Giovanni.
18.

Mademoiselle

The Blind Leading the Blind.

318.

Departure. 411, 411-412.

246.

126.

349.

Georges.

Brouwer,

1 1 'arriors. 401.

185-186.

of a i'oung Alan.

Bruegel,
325, 325-326.

Two

166.

Chapel.

Breton, Andre.

The

B.

Constantin.

Brancusi,

Braque,

7/5,113-114.

126.

PI. 48.

Five Senses.

Dieu, Amiens

Beckmann,

chapter

so

54.

castrum.

Beatles, The.

369.

69, 248, 249, 251.

83.
Archbishop of Besan^on.
Architecture,Kingship and.

Horseback.

on

228, 229.

Baugliin.

Thebes

Delights.

of Venus.

114.

Terapietto. 185,

Bronzino,

Baudelaire, Charles.

", 40-41,42.

Donato.

Photographed

Basilica, Early Christian.

42, 43.

Giovanni

Torso

35.

Emperor

232-233.

Tenea.

Arch.

Earthly

Birth

Last Supper.

Braccelli,

gany.

228-229.

55, 55-56.

after Phidias.

"

Diptych.

30.

Detail

also Fig. 69.

ApoLLONius.

of

Sandro.

Bramante,

Brancacci
9.

17.

figure.

ancestor

Barletta.

of Zeus,

Baccio.

Barberini
PL

Sculptor*sWorkshop.

di.

41, 41-42.
.Strangford.
from

Masterpiece. 312,

figure. 26, 26-27.

ancestor

Nanni

Banco,

437.

copy

411.

122.

Garden

Brancacci.

Bambara

42, 43.
see

in

381.

39-44, 48. 53, 55, 56, 61, 148.

Roman

from

Pericopes.
alle Quat-

186.

402,408.

of the Magi.

(?).
Self-Poitiait

23.

skull guardian.
Bakota
32, 32-33.
de. 290.
Balzac, Honore

the Buddha.

66.

from

Hieron^-mus.

Adoration

Bouts, Dirk.

Apelles. 6.

Detail

Bosch,

Hell,

22.

peoples.

Baga

.skull. 34, 34-35.

Belvedere.

229.

See

S. Carlo

(S. Carlino).

Fontane

tro

of.

Villeneuve Pieta. 57, 56-58.

97.

Francesco.

BoRROMiNi,

71.

,'\ntichrist. 122.

Apollo.

420, A2\.

Court.

141-142.

57, 56, 58.

Anuszkiewicz,

on

395, 394-395.

55.

Anaxagoras.

House

of Perieopesof Henry lU.

6.

78, 78, 79, 81.

PI. 64.

Book

Botticelli,

Cathedral.

Ancestral

BookofKells.

65, 66.

339.

Attendingthe

tinuity
of Con-

365, 365-366.

Paris Square. 289, 288-289.

4.

Dieu.
of.

Aztecs.

Forms

Unique

Pierre.

BoNNARD,

Equestrian statue

master.

96,213-214.

Umberto.
in Space.

250.

Aurelius, Marcus.

(15, 17). 212.

Testament.

228-229.

Augusti, Proeession of the. 231, 230-231.

Avignon

Rucellai.

228,

62, 63, 64.

Aurelius, Marcus.

Battist.-^.

419, 421.
.Alexander

Parthenos, efligy of

Athens.

259.

87-90, 91, 100, 101, 206, 207,

BocciONi,

23.

63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 83.

Athena

'Ba. Ashanti-style doll.

187, 186-187.

211,294.

Artist in antiquity.

peoples.

Buonarelli.

241, 241-242.

Chigi-Odescalchi.

Genesis

414.

24, 26.

Agamemnon.

Louis XIV.

15, 439.

Africa.

sculpture.

Costanza

360, 359-360.

Palazzo

.Ashanti

societies.

225,225-

Attendants.

Lorenzo.

Bible, The.

190.

Secret

and

Ecstasy of St. Thesesa.

Aesop.

Ancestor

are

titles

348, 349.

of

Laws

David.

ancestors.

the word.

100.

and

King(Obaj

Bernini, Gian
the

to

17.

for dead

school.

artists

BeowulJ. 98.

429.

critic.

of

226.

history of. 39.

Departure; Presentation in the Temple; from

Golden

Benin

400.

Speelral. 370.

Lunar

Chanee.

Accademia

Water.

Squares Arranged Aeeording

12-15.

Academies.

italic page

by

names

Collage. 429, 429-430.

315.

Human

13-15.

Royale.

Giuseppe.
Duo

Growth.
21.

The

identified

are

indicated

type.

roman

Arp, Jean.

416.

Chapter

plates,which
are

descriptive citations
printed in italics;

are

Arcimboldo,

91.

color

illustrations

by lightfacenumbers.

references

Titles of art
given in Capitals.
of examples in architecture, in

Abbot

for

except

Black-and-white

Wedding.

of the Herds.

Triumph of Death.

PI. 22.

II.

188-189.

300,300-301.
/"/, 181-182.

Sacrifice
of Isaac.
Buddha.

44.

Nirvana.

45, 56.

of.

44.

of

Attending the Parmirvana

57, 56, 58.

from

Gandhara.

Head

of, from

in Majesty.

47.
56.

Gandhara.

V.

238.

Charles

the

Bold.

Chartres

47, 47-48.

Preaching in the Deer

45-46.

45,

Sect.

Nahayana

Sect.

Code

Bushido,

44-47.

of.

233.

Byzantine

art.

Byzantine

artists.

79.

window,

at

Window.

420, 404, 419^20.

Callicrates.

Callot,

65.

Jacques.

Card

Players. 200.

Temptation of St. Anthony.

Detail
Camera

of.

399,

obscura.

422.

Robert,

Campin,

Mcrode

399^00.

Hill.

plan

the Master

or

of Flemalle.

106,107,421.

394, 393-394.

147, 163.
of baths
of baths

Reconstruction

Caravaggio,

Pltvts

ritual bronzes.

Card

Renaissance.

Carracci,

Annibale,

Caryatids from

190.

357,

132-134.

Andrea

140.

Geometer.

as

the Good

134.

del

Monte

of

Frederick

II,

Sicily.

Church.

255, 254-255.
Treatise.

340.

and

Keep

Cathedral,

Gothic,

Clavaud,

structural

diagram

of

81, 80-82.
Cave

painting.

Lascaux

Codex
EI

Castillo, Spain.

(Dordogne),

France.

4.

Paul.

Madame

16, 377.

Cezanne

in the

Conseri'atorv.

Mont

Sainte-Vtctotre.

Still Life with

Pl. 41.

Compote.

329.

306.

347,

the Sea

on

II.

of Galilee.

21.

408, 409, 429.

76.

Dali, Salvador.

Daniel, Book

92, 92-93.

Dante
Vilale and

the Heavens.

The

Persistance of .Memory.

Ecclesius.

Daumier,

the

The

Honore.

Bath.

Hot

Transnonain, April 15, 1834.

The

Uprising. 288.
Gerard.

David,

Jacques

Battle
word

127, 163.

Rue

David,

88, 87.
of

54.

of (7:7).

Alighieri.

Punishment

of Sisamnes.

119.

15, 17.

Louis.

the

of

284.
279.

and

Romans

273,

Sabines.

273-274.

in.

Napoleon Crossing the Alps. 243, 242-243.

De

St. Eligius. 117.

70, 75, 89, 91, 92,

179.

De

326.

Colonna,

Pl. 31.

The

258.

148,

228. 228-229.

of.

249.

rehgious
as

Hercules.

Brokers'

Tub.

art.

230.

186.

286.

Officein New

Orleans.

285,

285, 284-285.

Stijl.426-427,

Delacroix,

Column,

symbolism

Bicycle.

285-286.

93.

De

Colossus ofBarletta.

Commercial

Cotton

238.

147.

251. 250-252,

and

15, 17.

Edgar.

Degas,

262.

13, 14.
Vittoria.

nedy.
F. Ken-

Pl. 60, 416.

Gertnidianus, St. Valerian from.

Colbert.

Woman

Willem.

Kooning,

.Absinthe Drinkers.

I.

John

245.

404.
Francis

President

Elaine.

Kooning,

106,

70.

Still Life. Pl. 43.

Armand.

105,

394.

188,

monasteries.

Jean.

Commodus

322.

Bonks.

300.

409, 409-410.

Petrhs.

Colosseum.

347-348.

of

art.

Dadaists.

56.

Coffin, David.

PI. 3. 19,

19-20.

Cezanne,

Clouet,

Equivocation, 436,

Ben'jamin.

Daedalus.

Saints

Pieter.

Claesz.

bailey. 254.

36, 36-37.

statues.

48.

79, 78.

The.

Cistercian

254.

88.

330, 331, 366, 379, 385, 407, 414,

48.

Shepherd. 49, 49-50.

166, 170,

Castiglione, Baldassare.
Castles.

Gospels. Pl. 9.

Cycladic

50.

as.

Upon

59.

59, 58-59.

53, 76, 120.

88-89.

Christus,

Passion.

Lindisfarne Gospels. 93.

Cupboard with Bottles and

55.

Christianity, significance

Supper. 135, 134-135.

of the

53, 76.

with

as

Sealed

139,

del.

Instruments

437.

50.

of

of the Decadence.

423.

52. 53.

Pl. 5.

Romans

Lmdau
Cubism.

54, 54-55.

Enthroned

the Last

61.

Coming.

184, 184-185.

Eater.

280,

Omans.

at

Allegory of

of.

Cusa, Nicholas

of Sorro\\'S.

Enthroned.

Thom.\s.

50,212.

Judgement.

Head

painting.

David.

"

God.

Crowning King Henry

Erechtheum.

1 59.

Life.16.

Detail

48-49.

Orpheus.

356-357.

C.^STAGNO,

Shepherd.

185.

of

9,

303, 303-304.

Tears of My

Cunningham,

to

90, 95.

Burial

of thorns.

Cult

Similarity

Bean

porch

111.

56-58.

of God,

Crown

100, 100-101.

of St. Paul.

244.

Chapter

282.

48.

253.

PI. 21.

Emmaus.

106, 107,

58-60.

Handsome

Son

See

Real

Cross Page, from

.Metaphysical

87.

paintings.

of.

u\.

324, 323-324.

Crucifixion. 58.

book.

historic Jesus.

Man

323.

Conversion

Last

.Attribute

of the

Apollo.

Merisi

16.

Waterspout. 303, 303-304.

71, 76.77,89,
76.

Good

Studio,

Seven

Grand

to

252-253.

perors.
Em-

Quince, Cabbage.

propaganda.

Source of the Loire.

transepts.

29-30.

Asleep during the Storm

Carolingian

Castel

48-61,

Ascension.

Last

the

320.

Gustave.

Couture,

de.

Similarity

189.

at

Giorgio

Second

Sharps. 195, 195-196.

Christ

Ca.jjonf

Christ.

"

of

322, 321-322.

Chinese

as

of

Camille.

Cucumber.

Crespi, Domingo.

253, 252-253.

Michelangelo

of Fruit.

Courbet,

Vision .Antique. 293,

de.

297.

Christ.

Basket

75-

70, 71.

China.

as

Basilica

172, 177, 180, 181-186.

75, 74-77.

of

212.
Bacchus.

and

nave

portals. 76, 15-71.

Execution.

crypt, St-Eutrope.

Caracalla,

facade.

west

West

as

Palace

Reformation.

The

Crucifixion.

Joseph in His Carpenter'sShop. 107, 106-107.

Capitoline

crossing of

at

Catacomb

399, 399^00.

Altarpiece. PI. 13.

Capital from

75, 74-76.

Interior. 332. 332-333.

Alan

Senate

the

279-281.

Chavannes,

Gustave.

Caillebotte,

of

program

and

Counter-defamation

facade.

west

facade.

256, 257.

of

Sanchez.

of Ephesus.

Counter

292, 293.

Venice.

d'Oro,

Melon

77, 77-78.

Chirico,
Ca'

81, 81-82.

Juan

Council

West

232.

Byzantium.

side.

356, 356-357.

statues.

Chartres, city of

233.

Great

Baptiste

Jean

Cotan,

82, 82-83.

278.

Byron, Lord.

Corot,

70,70-71.
south

Vaults

235.

from

reconstruction

Constantinople:

117.

from

44-^6.

Receiving Homage

Distributing Gifts. 231, 230-232.

232.

Pl. 7.

Sculptural

17.

297.

Constantine,

76.

Hinayana

Buddhism.

Still Life.

425-426.

St. -Luc.

254, 253-254.

Interior.

Rose

Park.

and

Simeon.

Buttresses

46, 46-47.

Seated.

Constantine

Cathedral.

Nave.

.Mathura.

Soviet.
de

Confucianism.

266.

74, 90, 92.

Charles

Jamb

51.

Communism,

328.

Charlemagne.

47-48.

Ananda

the.

Portrait of a .Man.

de.

Jean-Baptiste

Pl. 44.

46.

45.

Standing.
Symbols

Philippe

(tea ceremony).

Chardin,

Thalam.

Proportions.

Buddha,

57.

341, 341-342.
Chanoyu

Mudras.

Seated.

the Village. Pl.

Compagnie

Ch.^mpaigne,

56.

Death.

/ and

Marc.

406.

725,128-129.

51, 56, 61.

44-i8,

from

Chagall,

73, 127, 144.

Filippo.

Brunelleschi,

Eugene.

436.

16, 17, 389, 431, 438.

of Sardanapalus. 278.

Death

Liberty Leading the People. Pl. 34.

Delaunav,
The

Robert.

279.

435.

City. 423.

First Simultaneous

Inde.x

Window.

449

424, 423-424.

of Apollo.

Delphi. Inscription
William

Dinsmoor,

Bell.

The

Oedipus Rex.
249.

250,

Evangelists.
Ezekiel.

138.

Golden

David

with

70, 93.

Gonzalez,

the Head

St. George.
order.

67, 66.

Flemish

panel painting.

Florence.

6.

Les Heures

HecueU

et

de Prieres.

Ford
"

393.

DuBUFFET,

Jean.

-/yj, 415-

de Dame,

Corps

Found

416.
Marcel.

DucHAMP,

407, 407-

Bride.

The

408.
The

Even.

StrippedBare

bv

DuPERAC,

for Capitoline

plan

74,

Hill.

DOrer.

420.

Albrecht,

402,

10, II. 317.401,

406.

Drawing

Portrait.

419,

418-

419.

Gandhara

artists.

Gardens.

260-266.

Vision.

Melencolia

I.

10,

10, 15.

nightmare.
painters.

396-397.

Business.

309, 308-309.
396-397.

15, 17.

humors.

Games

and

Prodigal

and

painting.

104.

PI. 11.
des

St.

Mark,

93-94.
15.

mask.
schools.

Georget,

26.
5.

Architects.

6.

Book

Dead.

of the

Hieratic

St. Peter

Ehrler.

Der

Greco.

at

276.

an

Artist.

St. Jerome.

Ghirlandaio,

1 76.

His

Studio.

Scribe

Presenting the

from.

92.

16,

PI. 46.

330.

Visiting the
244.

15, 274, 276, 279, 389.

402, 406.

Matthla^.

Grunewald,

60, 388.

Altarpiece. PI. 6.
of

Temptation

from.

St. Anthony

398,

398-399.
Bible

to

Guelph Treasure.

School.

Cologne

59,

58-

59.

First artist's autobiography.

14, 127.

Guild.

8, 9, 13, 16.

Guthrie, K.

40.

D.

/.'*, 128-129.

The

Domenico

Adoration

of

with Her

15.

Giovanni,
God.

290.

Gods'
Golden

Purposes

of Art

146.

Frans.

Hand.

3, 3,

Haniwa

Palma.

Cut.

Harlev

368.

Hartt,
How

Michelangelo

on.

Epiphany. 36-37.
Codex of Echternach.

Jules,

Titian

Head

and

Le

Vau,

of

St.

Guthlac

from.

160.

154, 157.

Fred.

of

338.

Roman.

Jerusalem.
William.
Maerten

Heemskerek,

199, 198.
100.

PI. ^9, 343.

262, 263, 262-264.

Versailles.

Heckscher,

146.
147-148,

Alan.

31, 30-31.

Roll, Kidnaping

Heavenly

174-175.
di.

'397.

72^,123-125.

Description
of

Bertoldo

horse.

Louis.

Throat

Portrait of
4.

Hardouin-Mansart,

131, 145, 146, 287.

Raising of Lazarus.

Registrum Gregorii. 234.

Davide.

antd

City Square. 371.

H.\ls,

345-346.

Woman

Giovane,

Entry of Christ into Brussels in

450

107.

Jean. Napoleon
at Jaffa. PI. 33.

Baron.

276, 276-277.

Alberto.

Worked.

academics.

in

Kleptomaniac. 340, 339-340.

345,

412.

Ensor, James.

403.

42, 43, 48, 151.

George Washington.

Horatio.

Antoine

Gros,

389.

Artist

Diego.

Giotto.

343, 343-344.

Emperor Otto II, from

1889.

177-178.

384, 383-384.

Resurrection of Christ.

flails.

Own

Gris, Ju.'VN. Guitar and Flowers.

Domenico.

Giacometti,

177, 177-178.

Portrait of

art

Changers

167, 166-170.
177,

Their

of Nyassa.

Gregory

the Shepherds. 139, 138-139.

Legend of St. Maurice.

Eliot, T. S.

Ghirlandaio.

Christ Driving the Money

351, 351-

Self-portrait. W, 9-10.

244.

from the Temple.

Detail.

5, 5-6.

3,

403, 402-403.

Reason.

Pest House

Sacrifice
of Isaac.

Work.

Fuhrer.

Eitner, Lorens.

201.

Gros,

9-10,
29.

May

on

Arrieta.

Dr.

sculpture, classical.

Greek

191.

Lorenzo.

Ghiberti,

247.

paintings.

Egyptian Craftsmen

English

Codex,

Gero

223.

Madrilehos

275, 275-276.

Greenough,

Raft of the Medusa.

53, 90.

223.

Pylons.
Tomb

406, 407, 415.

of the

230.

189,

an

73, 74.

Francisco.

Isenheim

Portrait of

symbolism.

Pharaoh.

192-194.

allegory.

339.

of

78, 79, 81.

measure.

They Pare

15-16.

6, 319.

art.

74.

glass. 80.

Sleep of
195.

Theodore.

Portrait

Queen Neferliti. 348.

Egyptian

Dr.

Gericault,

74, 77.

352.

195.

Senses, the.

"

organization. 73,

Self-portraitwith
198-200.

Sociability. 200.

Beaux-Arts.

Orumanu
art

of

Symbol

74"75.

75.

1808.

Self-preoccupation.

Gospels.

72, 73,

72.

Execution

197.

son.

the

light. 79.

and

and

GoYA,

ter
Chap-

193.

Prostitution.

Echternach

also

203.

music.

Moralizing

builders.

of kings.

Symbolism.

See

194-195.

Four

Upon

79.

and

Stained

187-188.

assembly.

Family

Seated

st^le. 80-82.

Plan

74, 245.

294, 294-295.

Artist's table.

Trumpets. 397,

"

108, 185.

esp.

the

77, 78.

Galleries

Nave.

17, 287.

subjects.

of

70-82, 89, 163, 393, 440.

master

windows.

Meaning

of the God.

Day

Christ

sources.

Labyrinth.

44.

Heaven.

to

Sea

88, 87.

of

C'ircular

234, 234-235.

Paul.

397, 396-397.

Study of Plants.

Egypt:

Biblical

Minn-

history. 326-327.

Gateway

Genre

Dream

Ecole

of

Interior

Gauguin,

Draftsman

Easel

Portrait

Gothic

"

the

on

96.

Cathedral.

Bay system.

14, 274.

Takanobu.

Gastronomic

Christ

of Meschede,

Storm

78.

6.

164.

80.

Edmond.

Duranty,

Dutch

side.

angelo's
after Michel-

Engraving

89.

St. Afattkew

100, 101.

from.

Architects

Foundry. 6.

"

163-164.
Durandus.

Dijrer's

Gothic

380.

Toritomo.

moto

PI. 10.

Hilda

St. Maxim,

Heavens

333, 333-334.
Etienne.

Seven

Gospelsof

Bronze

no

Cock's

PI. 12. 96.

the

Evangelist from.

Her

at

336.

Revolution.

French

Baehelors,

Her

"

painter.

FujrwARA

Bride

Lady

of.

Company.

Opposite

is the

Gospels of Judith of Flanders, St. Matthew

School

object.

Foundry

Her

96.

of Otto HI.

Galilee from.

105, 108.

147.

Motor

Uota.

Asleep During

6.

Toilette. 201, 201-202.

267.

from

Liver

of Archbishop Ebbo,

Gospels of the Abbess

18.

Chapter

Chapter

Fontainebleau,

Drexler, Arthur.
Drolleries

See

art.

74.

Combing

the Evangelist from.

Flemish

Helen.

Dow,

See

Bol.

414-^15.

of Abbess

Gospel Book

141, 151.

in sculpture.

Figure

358.

Woman

The

PI. 59.

Gospel Book

art.

21.

372.

of Sanos.

Douris

Imaginative

Ficino, Marsilio.

/.'S, 129-130.

AlagdaUn.

Mary

Archile.

Gospel Book

35.
See

art.

Fertility images.

of Herod.

Doric

Fantastic

of Ham

Julio.

GoRKY,

Fagg, Bernard.
359, 358-

of Goliath.

Portrait

367, 367-368.

Comb.

359.
Feast

Hendrik.

11.

168.

127, 130, 140.

DONATELLO.

of St. Gall,St. John the Evangelist

95, 94-95.

Goltzius,

93-95.

Last

Zampieri).

of St. Jerome.

Communion

Codex

from.

Hair.

(DoMENico

DoMENicHiNO

El

408.

69, 246, 251.

Dome.

Egu

Invention.

408, 408-409.

67, 354.

Eurythmy.

of palace of.

Reconstruction

Max.

Ernst,

249-250.

Diocletian, Emperor.

Dissection.

39-40.

67-68.

Held, Julius.

211.

58, 74, 79.

216.
van.

Family

trait.
Por-

Helmet

with

mask

25, 25-26.

costume.

The

Heraclitus.

JoRDAENS,

320.

Dionysus, from

68,

Parthenon.

exterior

and

interior elevations,

Gilbert.

Hinduism.

of

nave

Picture

173.

with

White

No.

Edge,

313,

Pieter

Interior of

de.

Dutch

House.

Kidnapping of

75-76.

Adolph.

Mother

F.

John

Limits

142.

Humanists.

318.

Theatre.

Harlev

Roll.

Louis

IX.
XIV.

Louvre

IcTiNus.

"

"

Oscar.

Illuminated

books.

Imaginative

La

See

Chapter

5.

Chapter 20.
imaginative painting.

and

Tour,

Georges

Lachatse,

Gaston.

"

L'Art

And

Beckmann's

Departure. 411-412.

Caricature,

anatomy

and

Last

the

bizarre.

Last

400^01.
of interior

reahty

world.

and

Inside

The

Limits

of

Le

406, 408-409.

Bride.

Le

417.
artistic

393^00.

410.

"

and

Le

408-

art.

and

logic of

the

invisible.

Impressionists and
14.

impressionism.

Ingres, Jean-Auguste

16.

Monsieur

Intarsia.

Ishtar

277.

Bertin.

342, 342-343.

art.

Japanese

Le

Notre.

Le

Vau,

193, 192-

80.

84,

PI. 8.

haniwa

Jeanneret,

Chapter

7.

funerary sculpture.

Charles-Edouard.

CORBUSIER.

151, 212.

Adoration

30-31.
See

Le

33, 33-34.

White

269, 268-269.
at

Supper.

15, 17, 403.

Funeral

199,

Hardouin-Mansart,
262,

Georg.

Dive

Mallarme.

of

Over

Mara,

343.
PI. 45.

Carp.

Led

Cushioned

329.

Christ.

Dead

Andrea.

St. James

389.

283, 282.

the Grass.

on

Mantegna,

263, 262-264.
Bombers

282-

35.

281.

in Montmartre.

Luncheon

Still Life with

Versailles.

216.

140.

to His

Execution.

Throne

with the Assault

of. 44,

44-45.
The

Wilhelm.
Vinci.

hall

City. PI. 61.

423.

Market

StandingTouth.

362.

Marmion,

9, 10, 12-14, 134, 139,

of the Magi.

143, 142-143.

144.

at

St. Peter Baptizing the Neophyte.

The

Masolino.

Studio

Masse.

The

Study of Human

Masson,

Andre.

54, 98.

Battle of Fishes.

72, 82.
72.

Massys
A

PI. 4.

127.

126-127.

27.

127.

Self-portrait.351.

Hughe.

PI. 16.

Money.

Tribute

Last

Proportions. 425, 424.

112, 112-113.

Pieta.

130, 132, 140, 146.

Masaccio.

24-28.

Supper. 172, 172-173.

77, 77-78.

Mereville, France.

Simon.

Movable.

of

425,

Squares.

283.

Mask,

Tombstone

426.
Two

Folies-Bergere. PI.

the

at

Masks.

Libergier,

White.

on

32, 33-34.

with.

tion:
SuprematistComposi-

Edouard.

Manet,

Cataclysm. 305, 304-305.

Leviathan.

364,

33, 34.

Kazimir.

Portrait

Studyfor.

Overcoming

Action.

Chained

Style masks, cult house

87.

166, 169, 212, 317, 401, 415, 437.

II. 248.

85.

263.

DA

410,

425-426.

Peasants

and

Horseback

on

Suprematist Elements:

PI.

Fern.wd.

Leonardo

See

rites.

Malaggan

of the Fine

14.

wall.

Louis,

Elements

239.

Spirit boat.
Mori.

198, 200.

Lehmbruck,

of Nebuchadnezzar

herd
Shep-

82-85.

Louis.

Six

Alalanggan pole. 33, 33-34.

Academy

of Justice.

Nain,

Leger,

178.

322.

Gate

the Good

as

Bar

Leerecht,

115.

Italian

Palace

thenon.
Par-

363-364.

Memento

Sciences.

south

The

ARisTroE.

M.aillol,

49, 49-50.

Corbusier.

Palazzo

195.

Kesari Singh

Lioness.

204.

Sebastien.

England.

Louis

the

Malevich,

Clerc,

L.

18.

Rene.

Maharaja

53.

Separatingthe Sheep from

Jean.

G.

Bernini,

259.

410-411.

52, 53.

Jules.

284.

Inquisition, Holy.

Jews.

D.

Apotheosis of Homer.
Source.

Isaiah.

Clerc,

Le

See Chapter

17, 287, 289, 291, 292, 294, 295,

389, 403, 404.

The

and

art.

Magritte,

82-86.

403-

of Veau-Aloine.

Carieature

Magistrate with Boy Holding Peplos, from

15.

19, 20.

Sarcophagus, Christ

Interior

405.

Reliquary of Charles the

235-236.

C,

Magical

Chapter

Notre-Dame-du-Haut.
"

no-sense

409.
Redon

Martin.

Magdalene, Mary.

197.

19.

Pieter.

Arts and

sources.

See

Cheat.
364.

193.

407-408.

Magritte's dislocations.
Ernst

{?)

118, 118-119.

PI.

Lazarus, Raising of. 49, 48.

400.

reason.

Literary and

Max

Judgment:

from.

405-406.

13, 272, 273,

Museum.

68, 68-69.

of.

Judgment. 52,

409.

enigma.

imagery.
association.

Free

Ger.\rd

415.

caves

Lastm.an,

The

Torso.

painting.

Lateran

hallucinations.

Chirico

Double

"

Goats.
and

406-407.
Dali's

La

Tietze-Conrat.

de.

painting.

brut.

Lascaux,

412^17.

De

and

350.

Landscape

See

art.

Automatism

Chagall

13,241,242.

Maderno,

21.

Good

125, 125-126.

MachiaveUi.

Island.

Effects of

Ambrogio,

220.
Erica

and

63, 62-69.

3i, 35.

402.

Jose.

Barberini.

Idol, Cyclades

233-234.

56.

Luther,

149.

King.

of Cremona.

Bold.
7. 431, 430-

65, 67, 69.

Idea.

Ife

53.

Callicrates, Parthenon.

And

373.

Palace

Loyet,

416, 417.

PaintingNumber

Tietze

Hans
27.

315,

401.

KoKoscHK.'V,
mask.

2.

8.

Louis

431.

Ibibo

Forge No.

285.

309, 309-310.

of Reason.

Earth

Government.

Hunting Lions. 226, 226-227.

Fr.anz.

Kline,

168.

Sentinel.

430-431.

Botanical

367, 366-367.

366.

Seymour.

Lorenzetti,

St. Guthlac, from

Paul.

Klee,
346.

Johan.

Humanism.

Hormuzd

King

205, 204-205.

77.

Walter.

Huizinga,

the Cradle.

at

Guitar.

Lopez-Rey,

397.

419.

with

Lodge.

97.

President

Kennedy,

418.

Harry.

of.

248, 249.
Figure.

315-316.

264-267.

Palace, Kyoto.

Kells, Book

88.
93.

97.

Jacques.

Liudprand

Katzenellenbogen,

248.

Crucifixion.PI. 9.

Gate, Mycenae.

LiPTON,
312.

Katsura

45.

yoga.

15, 188.

HoLTZMAN,

430, 438.

Landscape with Factory Chimney.

313-314.

Hitler, Adolph.
HoUand.

Wassily.

Kandinsky,

81, 81-82.

189.

on

from.

Page

Man

44.

Bhagavad-Gita

Horn,

252.

Villa

the

Lindisfame Gospels, Cross Page from.

of

Drawing

of

230.

Gospels, The

LipCHrrz,
DE.

Gardens

261.

Lincoln, Abraham.
Lindau

19.

Cathedral.

Reims

The

190,

Lion

ViLLARD

HoNNECouRT,

Hooch,

Family.

Peasant

d'Este.

119.

Herskovits, Melville.

Highet,

191.

50.

Justinian.

Juvenal.

68-69.
Heroditus.

the

Pirro.

Ligorio,

King Drinks.

190-191.

97.
and

Hermes

The

Jacob.

Satyr and

The

Hercules.

Target. 334, 334-335.

Johns, Jasper.

319, 319-

Unswept Room.

of Baron

15.

413.

Metsys), Quentin.
Changer and His Wife. 194.

(Matsys,

Money

Gros.

405.

Index

451

15, 60, 61, 82, 147, 409,

Henri.

Matisse,

Broadway

Ave

The

Serf. 365, 364-365.

The

Snail.

PI. 62.

348.

PI. 51.
The

Echaurren.

Matta

is

Earth

Alan.

Medici,

Lorenzo

Medici

art.

Medieval

decorated

illuminated

Storytelling miniatures.
Meiss, Millard.

Death

Chamber.
Street.

Johan

From

292.
290-

290

9, 10, 12, 17, 48,

8.

Chapter

146ff., 166, 170,

145,

186, 264, 380.

Brutus.

151, 146.

153, 152-154.

St.

John.

147, 146-148.
Etienne

after

Duperac

Head

of Joseph of Arimathaea.

Last

Judgment.

158,

146, 157-159,
162,

into reading

210,

Guinea

ancestor

skulls.

funerary

art.

157.

Moses, plaster
Palazzo

dei

150, 146,

cast.

Pitta.

St. Peter's,apse
St. Matthew.

Judgment.

from

The

the

carrying yoke.

Psalter of St. Louis.

Indians.

Coast

Nudity

St.

PI. 8.

Minotaur.

The

Hunter.

155, 154,

Oil

painting.

Op

art.

Art.

41,353-354.
victors.

41.

of

See

St-Pierre.

Monastic

414.

third

Chapter

century

B.C.,

Ottonian

54.

377-

387, 386-387.
His

The

Painter

and

His

with

Alodel.
Alodel.

382.

333, 382.

Knitting. 381,

Alodel

of

381,

Piano

414.

Palazzo
Enthroned.

52,

Head.

Rembrandt

109.

13.

Chapter

nobile.

Picture

346.

PiERO

Siena.

Andrea.

Villa

makers

Purposes

of Art

387, 387-388.
and

painters, distinction

328.

window

concept.

418-419.

Fr.\ncesca.

della

Battista

255, 254-255.
Capra,

267, 267-268.

140,

145,

"

La

"

Ro-

176,

Sforza, Duchess

of

236,

Urbino.

236-237.

Fedcrigo da

Duke
ALontefeltro,

of

Urbino.

236, 236-237.

267, 268.
ceremonies.

385.

in Pain.

293, 322.

256-259.

Comunale,

Panathenaic

383.

390, 390-391.

Woman.
Dancers.

"

384.

Young Woman.

Self-Portrait.376, 376-377.

Three

touda.

7.

PI. 56.

with

Seated

Palladio,

Greco).

384, 383-384.
Ram's

24, 25.

See

(after El

Artist

an

kings. 96-97.

mask.

Plan.

452

Pl.

391.

and

struction.
recon-

Fa{;ades. 255.

7.

artist.

412.

380.

Painter

Woman

53.
Monasteries.

378,

Box.

379.

Lamb.

between.

Christ

Apple, and

d'Avignon.

The

Portrait

16.

435fr.

Palaces.

PI. 58.

of

390.

PI. 55.

with

Alandolin.

Medici-Riccardi.

Self-Portrait.352.
MoissAC,

Demoiselles

249.

Farm.

Figure

389, 389-390.

Les

Picture

The

the

380, 380-381.

Alimtauromachia.

90.

387.

Mir6,Joan.

of

378.

84, 85, 82-86.

256, 257.
City Gate.

Bull.

^Majolie.

24.

Olympic

roll of

Odyssey

Owl
Palazzo

385, 385-386.

Cast

Head,

Kitchen.

Alan

Objects, painting

Bartholomew),

Medici.

before

422.

159.

de

Aiask

375.

The

101.

27.

in Greek

19.

Chapter
with

by the Sea.

Horse's Head.

356, 355-356.

with

headdress

Ark, from

See

,388, 226, 388-389,

of

Painter

156.

Miletus.

Goddesses.

Frugal Repast. 375, 375-375.

Guernica.

Dawa.

150, 151.

163.

west.

Last Judgment.

Michelozzo.

Sandal.

Her

dance

149, 148, 149.

of Guiliano

423.
of

165.

161, 146, 160, 161.

Self-Portrait (skin of

Tomb

Two

378-379.

146, 150, 151.

Conservatory

Rondanini

from

Adjusting

Honoring
150.

Adam.

Notre-Dame-du-Haut.

Last

Seated

Head

Northwest

159.

The

Osc.^r.

Kwakiutl.

Minos, Prince of Hell, from

Moses, marble.

223-224.

Between

Alodel

Drawing of

34-35.

33-34.

23.

156.

Virgin. 156,

staircase,

Palace

Barnett.

Niemeyer,

Nike

and

Dionysus.

Ireland

161-

162, 162-163.

room.

Central
260.

New

Noah's

de Medici.

Balthasar.

New

Nimba

Library, vestibule.

Medici

7, 7-8.

7, 65, 69, 82.

386.
Crucifixion.
Drawing from

270.

163.

The

of

424.

Bather

Residenz.

The

161.

212, 216, 220, 276.

View

435^36.

Sculpture. 383, 382.

412.

Newman,

164, 163-164.

plan for Capiloline Hill.

Lorenzo

Mycerinus

Artist

6.

Neumann,

Virgin and

160.

Laurentian

"

63, 65, 69.

Picasso, P.-^blo.

232.

389.

paintings.

Nero.

154.
the

by

69, 68-69.

on.

64, 65.

Khafre. 224,

Philo.

286.

325.

morte.

Nazis.

of Adam.

Engraving

67, 66.

metopes

abstraction.

Perceptual

Phidias.

277.

242-244,

Votive Palette.

Narmer

Nazi

157.

Crucifixionwith
David.

65,

Perspective, 130, 132, 297, 394, 436.

246, 258.

Louis.

Napoleon,

Nature

Ceiling, Sistine Chapel.

Creation

and

west.

Pharoah

Napoleon.
See

Buonaroti.

Slave.

trance
en-

procession.

of Henry III, Book

Pericopes

16.

Mussolini, Benito.

western

225, 224.

66, 68.

Bound

"

207.

Michelangelo

above

64, 64"65.

drawing.

Triglyphs

Pharoah

Metopes.

cella.

Panathenaic

Sectional

325, 324-325.

69, 410, 440.

121.
Mennonites.

frieze

Panathenaic

and

and

63, 62-69.

65-66.

120, 120-

Judgment.

Last

371, 370-

Ictinus

Acropolis,

Callicrates.

261.

Pericles.

Museum.

66.

Adagistratewith Boy

68, 68 -69.

northwest:

Plan,

Karl

on

detail of longitudinal

of sanctuary.

and Dionysus and

Detail.

99.

Edvard.

69.

and

Holding Peplos. 68, 68-69.

291.

101, 102, 180, 192, 216, 292.

Hans.

Memling,

Hermes

372.

Evening

99-104.

140.

mori.

Memento

view

420.

Eyquem.

section

cross

30,

From

Six Persimmons.

Munch,

of evangelists. 93-97,108.

Images

Holiday, June

420, 420^21.

Muller, Herbert.

initials. 97-99.

Illuminated

Parthenon,

302-303.

to

Mu-ch'i.

93.

Frontispiece. 89-93.

68.

Sculpture. 64, 65, 68,

Reclining Woman.

of Hell.

66.

Optical refinements.

90, 94-95.

Henry.

Mouth

116, 116-

century.

80, 82-85.

62-69,

Hecatompedos.

288-289,

Michel

Warrior.

scripts.
manu-

5.

Chapter

115.

283, 285-286.

371.

and

See

Irish.

Moore,

100, 102.

page.

PI. 36.

Montaigne,

150.

Chapel.

Medieval

Cross

142, 146, 235, 236.

Paris.

89, 93. 98.

Monks,

13.

de.

311,

311

PI. 39.

Leicester Square.
Monks.

400.

de, I.

Cosimo

Red.

438.

St. Denis, National

Rue

36, 37.

II, Emperor.

Medici,

Claude.

1878.

relief.

stone

Maximilian

and

428.

Blue.

Bordighera Trees.

310, 310-311.
Mayan

Black

Landscape with Mill.

Monet,

106,

shield, fifteenth

Parthenon.

Compositionwith

430.

with the Hat.

Woman

Parade

117.

311-312.

421, 422.

in Red.

Harvimy

428, 428-429,

Woagie.

Compositionin White,

331, 331-332.

Gourds.

Boogie

435^36.

61,

421, 421-422.

Table.

Dinner

de la Croix.

Chemin

Le

and

Panofsky, Erwin.

435, 438.

Piet.

Mondrian,

423, 430, 431.

64-65.

The

Flagellationof Christ.

137, 137-138.

Resurrection of Christ.

The

Triumph of Ibe

of the Duke

Triumph
Pierre

Place du

Playgrounds.
Plutarch.

118.

Crushing

Hercules

St. Sebastian.

of

Martyrdom

PlERO.

painting.
architecture.

138.

Rhythm.
1.

PI. 42.

dome.

The

PoLYCLrros.

Spear Carrier.

354, 228, 353-

Christ

Loyet.

Deposition.

Carucci).

169, 169-170.

337.

Chapter

of

men.

Portraits

of

women.

17.

346-349.

PoussiN, Nicolas.

Andrea.

Prehistoric
Priest

at

Prima

Porta

"

305.

Triumph

18.

Seated

Before

166.

Psalter of St. Louis,

22.

Three

David

Ark

and

ship

101.

Saul, from

ville
Belle-

burial

Sutton

94.
of KJiona,

Temple

drawing

of.

247.

third

state.

424.

213, 213-

7.

140, 144, 147,

work.

Riley,

of

the

Ramses
Ramses

Lazarus.

III Hunting

Raphael.

temple

Wild

Bulls.

of.

Rodin,

245.

225, 225-226.

School

340, 217,
Castiglione.
of Athens. 7^7,166-167.
Robert.

Rauschenbero,

340-341.

Broadcast.

PI. 47.

at

335.

and

Argenteuil.

The

St. Anthony.

242.

Their

Dead

Light of Day.
Flower, A

404, 404-405.

Counterparts from.

101.

406.

The

Last

St. Luke

404, 403^04.
Sad

and

Human

Rohan

Face.

de Rohan.

Church.

of Abbess

Uota.

from

Gospel

89.

capital from

Conques,

394, 393-

crypt.

of

Dead

EvangeUst. 50, 53, 79, 88,

the

the Evangelist, from

St

patron

St

PI. 12.

Confronted by

Hcures

Matthew

the

de la Famille

St

Peter's

the

from
Evangelist,

basihca.

of

Gospel Book

of

the Gospels of

96.

147.
from

94.

Index

Gospel Book

96.

the Evangelist,from

St. Sebastian, mosaic

coU.

of

96.

Judith of Flanders.

9.

396.

Codex

of guilds. 9.

the Evangelist, from

Aiatthew

Golden

95, 94-95.

Otto HI.

Ill, III-1I2.

Alan

ment.
Judg-

spiritual exercises.

St. John

St. Luke

121.

Grandes

Last

tympanum.

Loyola,

St. John

St. Luke,

the Virgin. PI. I.

102.

74.

Celebrating the Mass,

Archbishop Ebbo.

Judgment.

393-394.

Brigitta.60.

St. Gall.

183.

the Cross.

Drawing

Master.

53, 97, 107.

52, 53.

112.

Lord, from

37-38.

of Clairvaux.

St. Erhard

121, 121-122.

from

5.

130.

183.
361.

345, 344-345.

Weyden.

Damned.

92, 92-93.

394.

St. Bernard

St-Foy,

363.

der

from.

297.

precincts.

436, 436-

Crouching Woman.

Man.

Detail.

Raising of Lazarus

Chapter

Sacred Landscape.

72.

Luzarches.

van

Descent

Odilon.

Swamp

conversation.

St-Eutrope,

Lou'ls XIV.

of Baudelaire.

Walking

The

See

St. Ignatius
de

Rogier

Recueil de Poesies Fran(aises, Three Living Nobles

Redon,

Sacred

John the BaptistPreaching. 361, 361-362.

10, 17, 144, 166, 277, 282.

Baldassare

Head

Chapel,

St. Denis, Abbey

Garden

Straight Curve.

Auguste.

346.

394.

Hyacinthe.

Robert

49, 48.

III, Funerary

the

Wheatfields. 307.

van.

art.

St.

291.

437.

Raisingof

Jacob

Sacred

227.

Bridget.

from

310.

St. Augustine.
Luncheon

Place Clichy. 288, 287-288.

RiGAUD,

PI. 50.

Founnent.

Book

Repousse

Demons

Sacramentary of King Henry II, Christ Crowning

17.

Pythagoras.

II-

49, 48.

347.

Henriot.

12,

Beggars. 220.

Auguste.

Painting in His

Monet

184, 276.

179, 179-180.

Sacrement

Boating Party. Pl. 37.

de'

240, 241.

William.

RuisDAEL,

205.

Chapter

179.

209.

215.

Pierre

Madame

from

221, 221-222.

160, 191, 256, 421.

Hoo.

PI. 19.

King Henry II from.

See

PI.

179.

Ignatius Exorcising

Sacred

Renaissance.

Red.

on

Receiving the Portrait of Marie

Church.

209, 208-209.

state.

Black

11,12,438.

the Cross.

PI. 20.

IV

Susanna

Healing Tobit' s Blindness.

Renoir,
at

St.

214.

from.

Paul.

from

Judgment.

Rubin,

Crosses, etching,

Trees.

Tobias

166, 177.

NoaKs

206.

and
Self-Portrait

and

12.

208, 208-209.

Breviary. 102, 103.

lid, from

for

the

of

Self-Portraitwith Isabella Brandt.

219-220.

PI. 26.

Tan

Peter

Medici.

214,2li-2l5.

Saskia.

Recollections

317.

Mark.

Henry

215, 215-

Syndics. 2/7,216-217.

The

Three

Reformation.

PI. 28.

Temple.

of the Artist.

Fourth

Proscription of image making.

Jean.

of

The

Propaganda.

PucELLE,

Table

227, 227-229.

227, 228-229.

Amster.

219,218-219.

Slaughtered Ox.

Cathedral.

432.

Rubens

Last

Studies

29.

Detail.

the River

with
Self-Portrait

Chartres
150.

Theodore.

Detail.

Omval

Studio

Augustus.

Protestant

Ignatius

19.

Memphis
Offerings.28,

Abraham.

to

Self-Portrait.222.

of St.

See
Earl.

Southwest.

220.

The

The

art.
art.

Covenant

of the Prodigal Son.

Sacrificeof Isaac. 214.

182.

Pre-Colombian

217-

Descent

in the

17.

window.

Roszak,

John

Presentation

Notre-Dame-du-

407.

Salvator.

63.

Six.

of

Chapel

135.

PI. 29.

Rtder.

47.

82-86.

Rosenthal,

212.

the Baptist Preaching. 207, 207-208.

Polish

337.

of Augustus.

Rothko,

at

used.

337-338.

Rossi, engraving after The Flood by Uccello.

PI. 27.

His

252-253.

238, 249.

7, 295.

Rosa,

210.

Bride.

254.

(thermae).

Roosevelt, Theodore.

Rose

of Dr. Deijman. 216.

Return

PI. 40.

masks

Haut.

211,2X1-212.

Portrait of Jan

69.

'31
."-1

of Phocion.

Loyola.

13,

210, 210-211.

Jewish

The

346.

lintel system.

Pozzo,

II.

13.

Chapter

47, 227.

art.

Romans.

216.

Self-portraits. 350-352.

Funeral

Lesson

Announces

The

337-346.

Profile portraiture.

and

59, 58-59.

Chapter

See

arches.

Portraits.

213, 212-213.

337-338.

portraits. 349-350.

Portraits

baths

by

Conspiracyof JuliusCivilus. 218,

God

Roman.
See

Double

See

Rijn.

Enimaus.

at

Danae.

146, 152-154.

Julius II.

of a

surmounted

218.

6.

(Jacopo

Portraiture.

of church

Guelph Treasure.

van

Anatomy

The

POLYGNOTUS.

Pylon

architects.

century

Christ at the Column.

354.

PoNTORMO

complex.

Imperial

Ronchamp,

The

Bathsheba.

4.

6, 42.

Gateway

Death

184, 185, 200, 374, 382.

440.

POLYCLETUS.

Purse

4.

the Bold, Gerard

in form

Rembrandt

Seascape. 313.
Polychrome Bison.

253-254.

Statues

Reliquary of Charles

313-314.

5, 4, 5.

Detail.

Basilica.

Roman

Chapter

338.

337, 337-338.

a.

architccttire.

Triumphal

118, 118-119.

Autumn

Post

Honnecourt.

428.

for twentieth

Reliquary

4,5,413,438.

Jackson.

Number

Pope

interior

Painting. 424.
See

of a.

Portrait of

86.

of a Young Lady.

Portrait

and

de

Abstract

Religious

346.

Pollock,

Portrait

exterior

Relational

Head

Roman,

Roman

of

Ad.

Problem

359.

PoLLAluoLO,

drawing

Reinhardt,

Antonio.

234.

Coronation

81, 81-82.

6, 65.

Anteus.

from

elevations, by Villard

Fran^ais. 287.

260.

PoLLAiuoLO,

Detail

Virgin. 56.

the

Nave,

16.

Theatre

Cathedral.

of

237.

BurghleyNef.

The

CA^ULLE.

PiSSARRO,

Reims

237.

of Urbino.

Fleming.

the

Registrum Gregorii,
Emperor Otto //from.

56', 136-137.

of Urbino.

Duchess

453

S. Pietro

in Ven-

Taoism.

182-183.

St. Theresa.

St. Valerian,from
Samurai.

Codex

San

Vftale.

PI. 5.

St.

301.

Mossy Larch

Tree.

302,

Fisherman

and

Grande

and

of Hughe

Jatte. PI. 38.

293.

theater.

Shang

ceremonial

La

Verrocchio,

Flood.

The

136, 140, 322.

288.

Sir John
type.

29, 29-

30.

United

Hawkwood.

Office

Smith, Baldwin.

Valentin

Hudson

River Landscape.

355, 354-355.

Valvarde

67, 69.

The

Van

der

Van

der

200.

Inn Garden.

Ileana Sonnabtnd.

Frank.

435, 434"

204,210.

Van

Conjectural
Stradanus

(J.an

of

Martyrdom

van

I.

178.

of

Bust

Sutton

purse

417.

ship burial

Echtemach

94.

Gospels. Pl. 11.

18, 92.

art.

Ey'ck,

Van

Gogh,

Plowed

Tange,

Kenzo.

Tao-ning,

Hsu.

298-299,

of the

ocean.

22.

265.

Fishing in

Alountain

Stream.

297-299.

454

Potato
Van

of

1.

PI.

His

Bride.

PI.

Purposes of

Art

52.

Fleece.

Winchester

Bible,

Winchester

Psalter.

Window

109, 109-

the

Fields.
Eaters.

Uylenburgh,

Vanitas.

326.

Vasari,

Giorgio.

initials from.

Mouth

of Hell.

98.
393.

237, 248, 250, 263.

Nuremberg

Michel.

Chronicle.

104.
8.
Frank

Lloyd.

Falling

Water.

268, 268-269.

Study. PI.

14.

Hubert.

Baptist. 103,

Vincent.

335.
dlelight.
Can-

424-425.
two

of appearances.

Woodcut.

109, 108-109.

and

Can.

Life by

126.

Walt.

Whitman,

Wright,

Jan

Still

de.

104.

110.

in His

28, 29.

327.

339.

Rolin.

28, 29.

Thebes.

Thebes.

Campbell Soup

Andy.

32.

tomb,

Gotthardt

Workshop.

108.

of.

Plan

268.

Birth
103-104.

17.

321.

Patience Escalier.

Polynesian god

Charles

Chancellor

Artist's Chair.

Tangaroa.

Legend. 398-

Sanguine Temperament.

of Nakht,

White, John.

with

St. John
of

purposes

tomb

Wolgemut,

St. Jerome
Van

93-94.

Symbohc

Studies

110.

at.

The

de.

Warhol,

Rooier

141,205,220,303.

St. Barbara.

lid from

Symbol of St. Mark,

See

Theodore.

Anthony.

Detail.

409-410.

Golden

de.

painting, from

Wall

From

350.

Aladonna

Surrealism.

78, HI.

Jacobus

114,

15,

Wedig,

Knight of the Golden

Sartor Resartus.

PI.

116.

Arnolfini and

Giovanni

Still Life with

Voragine,

382.

Otto.

395.

240-241.

426.

Suprematism.

81,

193; 193-194.

427.

VanEyck,Jan.

80.

E. J.

tions,
eleva-

Cathedral.

58, 71, 76, 88, 106, 110.

Vos, Marten

Weyden.

der

Dyck,

The

327, 327-329.

Sugar, Abbot.

Hoo,

Van

291.

Pierre.

Francis

Straet).

St. Agatha.

Strindberg, August.
Subleyras,

interior

and

Reims

399.

Rogier.

Weyden,

der

Cow.

38, 37-38.

der

of

the Portinari Altarpiece. 115.

from

Doesburg,

Van

37, 37-38.
reconstruction.

Composition

Shepherds.

the

of the Virgin.

van

20.

Figure sculpture.

Sullivan,

Death

artists. 4, 18.

Stonehenge.

261.

organ.

73, 81.

256, 265-267.

Simson,

117-118.

Hugo.

of

Detail

age

the

116, 138.

16.

Chapter

Stoffels,Hendrickje,
Stone

of

Vollard, Ambroise.
Von

401.

Elst, Baron.
Goes,

mians.
Bohe-

401.

body.

Adoration

435.
Still life. See

of

exterior

nave

197-198.

Hamusco.

de

Skeletal Figure.

260, 264.

portraits. 237.

Stella,

PI. 24.

human

Staircase, imperial.

Steen, Jan.

Fountain

of

102. 99.

Soldisrs and

Boulogne.

de

316.

24.

Spcngler, Oswald.

State

Apprentices. 13,

Honnecourt.

Virgin Mary.

74.

Pacific.

and

238.

V.

Drawing

270.

Building.

fcr Psalm

of Christ. 59, 59-60.

Souillac, Isaiah from.

South

Artists

de

Villas.

Head

David.

263.

81-82.

Glaus.

Smith,

de' Medici.

216.

Villard

Sistine ceilling. 146.

Sluter,

of Levi.

Lorenzo

del.

of Honor.

d'Este:

26.

Sieber, Roy.

Andrea

Eneas.

Villa

437.

132.

Senate

States

Christ in the House

262, 262-264.

Charles

Chalice.

Utrecht Psalter. Illustration

Niche

12-13.

131, 131-132.

Perspective
Drawing of a

and

Cupboard

237, 237-238.

Vico,
Paolo.

UccELLO,

204, 204-205.

da.

Paolo.

Versailles.
Court

422.

vessel of Yu

Vincenso

Vesalius.

of

Island

205.

Objects. 323, 322-323.

170-172.

67, 66-67.

Triglyphs.

PI. 25.

174, 170-172.

Rouge. 273, 273-274.

of

Weighing Gold.

Veronese,

15.

de.

Studio.

195.

of Delft. 422.

with

72.

Libergier.
Henri

133, 132-134.

381.

Procuress.

Verona,

301.

304.

Waves.

the

Shadow

Wood.

Tournament

the.

147,314.

The

154, 157, 217, 395.

de.

Jan.

Artist in His

Woman

of

Sta. Croce.

The

View

22.

194-195.

20.

shop

of Painting.

of childbirth.

299.

Woodcutter.

Afternoon on

Charles.

Seymour,

25.

Master,

in the Piazza

287, 424, 432, 435, 437.

Georges.

Sunday

mask.

Vergil

204,210,213,214.

Pine

Jasegawa.

Moulin

hehnet

Wind

Sesson, Shokei.
Seurat,

son).

PI. 2. 12.

127, 132.

of Willendorf.21,
49, 297.

174.

and Child with Saints. PI. 17. 130.

Vergil.

Art

Thorns.

goddess

Charles

Trent, Council

fire spitter "

Sesshu.

with

(Rembrandt's

Tombstone

Domenico.

Madonna

239, 238-239.

Toulouse-Lautrec,

6.
"

Scnufo

of tfieEvangelists

(Las Meninas

90.

Vermeer,

Horseback.

Tohaku,

435.

Carrier of Seville. PI. 23.

Venezlano,

V, portrait of. 219.

Tolnay,

Hercules.

Water

Supper. 773,172-173.

Tlazolteotl,Aztec

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Seneca.

On

Titus

Philosopher with figuresPaying Homage.

Seitz, WiUiam.

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Counter-

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10, 204.

Christ Crowned

103, 103-104.
Seghers,

Dead

320, 320-321.

John.
Last

Charles

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Seated

and

Tintoretto.

St. Peter, from

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Venus

Luke

of

92.

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Scroll

Their

de Poesies

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Titlan.

to

and

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12, 16.

Maids

Vellum.

Recueil

Philosopher with Figures

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Diego.

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6.

101.
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415.

Scribe Presenting the Bible

Codex.

Living Nobles
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Temptation

Ethel.

Men

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Samos.

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Theodosius, disk of. 233.

Saints

398, 397.

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Theodorus

306, 329, 417.

106,

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Schvvabacher,

Gero

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Meyer.

Schongaver,

lazzo
Pa-

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Three

Enthroned,

Eccksius.

Takshi.

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Christ

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Sepa-

Michelangelo.

Famese.

Sanchl

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Last

a., and

Gallo,

Vatican

theme.

Terbrugghen,

Sheepfrom the Goats from.

the

S.^N

297.

Temptation

235.

Apollinare Nuovo,

S.

93.

Gertrudianus.

Zapotec

344.

Zen

308, 307-308.
291, 291-292.
Saskia.

204.

31, 31-32.

urn.

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299.

Zola,

Emile.

ZuccARi,
Zurbaran,

13.

funerary

Buddhist

Four

434.

282-283,

Federigo.

13.

Francisco
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324.

de.

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