American Institute for Avalanche Research & Education

Level II Avalanche Course

Bonding and failure of bonds

Avalanche formation and release from the
perspective of bonding and failure of bonds.

American Institute for Avalanche Research & Education

Level II Avalanche Course
Learning Outcomes
Know how avalanche form and release.
Understand common layering scenarios for slab
avalanche formation.
For an avalanche to occur, bonds have to break.
Snow is a plastic, almost viscous material, and it is
possible for failure to occur in the snowpack without
an avalanche occurring.
Failure is part of the process by which the snow
adjusts to changes in load and stress.

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release
Failure
Existing bonds are breaking
more slowly than there are
new bonds forming.
Problems w/mechanics and
materials

Fracture
More existing bonds are
breaking than there are new
bonds forming

Failure and fracture are two

distinct processes.
Failure can occur without
fracture.
Both processes involve the
breaking of bonds.
Failure is when there are
existing bonds are breaking
more slowly than there are
new bonds forming; the
snowpack adjusts as it
heals itself.

Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release

Failure without fracture is applying pressure to a metal bar:

the bar bends but does not break. This is ductile behavior!
If we bend the bar far enough, a crack forms and
propagates through the material and eventually fracture
occurs as the bar breaks along the crack.
The terms failure and fracture are generally used
interchangeably by avalanche professionals.
Poor use of standard terminology.

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release

Slab avalanches require:

Initiation of failure
Fracture

For a slab avalanches,

failure has to be initiated,
fracture has to occur, and
the fracture has to
propagate through the
snowpack.
In the mountain snowpack,
there is always a certain
amount of failure occurring.
Metamorphism causes the
size, shape, and bonds
between grains to
constantly change and
adjust.

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release

Slab avalanches require:

Initiation of failure
Fracture

In the mountain snowpack,

there is always a certain
amount of failure occurring.
Gravity, pressure from
overlying snow, and incline
cause grains to creep, that
is, slowly move from one
location to another as they
try to pack together more
closely.
Creep = change of rate
versus depth of spx!

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release

Slab avalanches require:

Initiation of failure
Fracture

In some cases, an entire

section of the snowpack
glides down the slope.
Glide is a slow motion
avalanche including the
formation of a glide crack
which is really a fracture
line.
In terms of an avalanche
starting, failure is initiated by
a catastrophic failure that
results in snow sliding down
the mountainside.

Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release

If failure reaches a critical point, fracture will result.

In some cases, super-weak zones form where
fracture is occurring but does not propagate far
and/or wide enough to cause an avalanche.
When a super-weak zone becomes large enough, a
more generalized failure occurs resulting in an
avalanche.

Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release

If failure reaches a critical point, fracture will result.

Fractures propagate by spreading along a layer of
snow as bonds between grains break.
Fractures also tend to propagate from weak point to
weak point in the slab.
Weak points:
1) shallow areas in the snowpack, 2) thin spots in the
slab, and/or 3) places where the integrity of the slab
is disturbed (e.g. rocks or trees protruding into or
through the pack).

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release

Bonding is a double edged

sword.
Without bonding, the snow
would always be in a state of
high instability, it would never
strengthen and we would never
be able to ski slopes of more
than a critical angle.
Every time it snowed, the snow
would naturally slide off in a
loose avalanche or we would
always trigger loose avalanches
on all slopes above the critical
angle (the angle of repose).

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release

Bonding is a double edged

sword.
With bonding steeplopes are
relatively stable because the
snow gains strength and
stays in place on increased
inclines.
The potential for slab
avalanches exists; the slab
is cohesive enough to stick
to steeper slopes and at the
same time cohesive enough
to carry propagation

Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release

Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release

Stress

Strength

Strength: the bonds that are holding everything together

Stress: F/A applied to the bonds that reduce in bond strength
The bonds in the snowpack are always in a state of balance
between strength and stress.
The process of assessing this balance is called snow stability,
although it would probably be more accurate to call it snow
instability

Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release

Strength
Stress

Unstable

Stress
Strength
Stable
The snow is always unstable: if enough stress is applied,
failure and fracture will occur.
The question is: What it will take to tip the scale and cause an
avalanche?

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release
The significant difference between snow and other materials is
that most materials (e.g., steel) are fabricated to specific
standards, at temperatures far from their melting point, and
are highly uniform.
The maximum loads are well known, and known safety
margins can be calculated and built in.

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release
Snow is a material that is not fully understood:

Snow is always within a few degrees of its melting point

It is highly variable over time and space
Snow is difficult to test in the lab or in a natural setting
Natural snow is not created with inherent safety margins.

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release
Slabs
1) Harder to predict
2) Weak layers hidden below
surface
3) Failure propagates

Determining snow
stability is largely
focused on slab
avalanches.
We concentrate
primarily on slabs
because they are
more difficult to
predict.

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release
Slabs
1) Harder to predict
2) Weak layers hidden below
surface
3) Failure propagates

Loose snow avalanches

involve surface snow.
This might include a
significant depth, even the
entire snowpack, but the
bonding problem is visible
on the surface.
It is relatively easy to
assess when loose snow
avalanches (especially
large, destructive ones) are
likely to occur.

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release
Slab failure/fracture mechanisms
are not well understood.
Slab failure/fracture:
1) There be cohesion between grains;
enough that the snow will act as a unit.
2) A strong layer must overlie a weak
layer.

Slabs, hide the problem

below the surface.
Loose snow avalanches
are almost always
triggered at the start
point, whereas slabs can
be triggered remotely.
In loose snow
avalanches, fracture
propagates in an obvious
fashion: from the start
point, down the slope.

3) A trigger must initiate failure.

4) Stress must overcome strength.

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release
Slab failure/fracture mechanisms
are not well understood.
Slab failure/fracture:
1) There be cohesion between grains;
enough that the snow will act as a unit.

Slab failures
propagate up, down,
and across slopes
sometimes over
significant terrain
features and across
surprising distances.

2) A strong layer must overlie a weak

layer.
3) A trigger must initiate failure.
4) Stress must overcome strength.

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release
Slab failure/fracture
requirements:
Cohesion
Strong layer over weak layer.
Trigger initiates failure.
Stress overcomes strength.

How cohesive the snow

must be to fail as a slab
varies considerably and
depends on a
combination of factors,
such as
Characteristics of the
failure layer
Terrain, and

Characteristics of the
layer(s) that make up
the slab.

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release
Slab failure/fracture
requirements:
Cohesion
Strong layer over weak
layer.
Trigger initiates failure.
Stress overcomes
strength.

Soft slabs can be

very soft: skis
penetrate easily.
Hard slabs can be
very hard: boots do
not penetrate.
Soft slabs tend not to
carry propagation very
far while hard ones
may propagate over
great distances.

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release
Slab failure/fracture
requirements:
Cohesion
Strong layer over weak
layer.
Trigger initiates failure.
Stress overcomes
strength.

How pronounced the

strong over weak
layering depends on the
characteristics of:
Failure layer
Terrain
Characteristics of the
layer(s) that make up the
slab.
Measuring a difference
of two hand hardness
grades or more is
critical.

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release
Natural Triggers

Artificial Triggers

Trigger point

The mechanism that

initiates failure (the
process of failure and
fracture) is referred to
as a trigger.
The point where
failure is initiated is
called the trigger
point.

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release
Natural Triggers

Artificial Triggers

Trigger point

Trigger points can be vague

and large.
For example, new snow loads
a slope over its entire surface
and the exact point where
failure is initiated is not clear.
Or are small and welldefined
For example a skier initiates
failure at a rock sticking out of
the snow surface.

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release
Triggers can be natural or artificial.
Natural triggers: related to changes in weather or the
snowpack, such as, new snow, wind transported snow,
temperature, etc.
Artificial triggers: related to human activities,: such as
skiing, operating machinery, applying explosives, etc.

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release

Triggers:
Natural
Artificial.

It is important to understand
the difference between a
start zone.
Start: where avalanche are
likely to start (we see the
fracture line here) and
Trigger points: where the
failure that causes an
avalanche to start is
initiated.

Trigger points may or may

not be in start zones.

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release

Slow Loading:
Snowpack adjusts well.

Rapid Loading:
Snowpack adjusts
poorly
.

For stress to overcome

strength, load on the
slab has to increase or
the strength of the bonds
holding the slab in place
has to decrease.
Natural or artificial loads
may be added slowly
and gradually or rapidly.
The bonds in the
snowpack adjust readily
to slow loading.

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release

Slow Loading:
Snowpack adjusts well.
Rapid Loading:
Snowpack adjusts poorly

In slow loading, failure occurs

but fracture may not: new
bonds are forming faster than
existing ones are breaking.
Under slow load, we see the
snowpack adapt to the new
stresses, some examples are
mushrooms on trees,
overhanging cornices, and
snow remaining stable on
steep inclines.

Precipitation rates of less than 3 There is no clearly defined

mm of water equivalent per
boundary between slow or
hour is slow loading.
fast loading.

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release

Slow Loading:
Snowpack adjusts well.
Rapid Loading:
Snowpack adjusts poorly

Precipitation rates of more than

3 mm of water equivalent per
hour to be fast loading.

Under rapid loading, the

snowpack adjusts less
readily and there are
existing bonds are more
prone to break at a
faster rate than new
ones are forming.
As a result, stress in the
snowpack increases at a
faster rate than strength
builds and it is more
likely that fracture will
occur.

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release

Slow Loading:
Snowpack adjusts well.
Rapid Loading:
Snowpack adjusts poorly

Under rapid loading, the

snowpack adjusts less readily.
There is no clearly defined
boundary between slow or
fast loading.
Triggers such as explosives
or a cornice fall are a fast
load.

Precipitation rates of more than

3 mm of water equivalent per
hour to be fast loading.

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release

Bonds change rapidly:

> 5 C in a three hour period
o

Sudden increase in radiation

Changes in bond strength

can also occur slowly or
rapidly.
These changes are related
to natural factors, largely
weather related.
Such as:
Metamorphism
Temperature fluctuations
Changes in solar radiation

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release

Bonds change rapidly:

> 5oC in a three hour period
Sudden increase in radiation

Gradual changes will

change bond strength
more slowly while more
pronounced changes
change bond strength
more rapidly.
Again, there is no
clearly defined
boundary between a
rapid or slow change

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release

Bonds change rapidly:

> 5oC in a three hour period
Sudden increase in radiation

Temperature change
of more than 5C in a
three hour period is a
rapid change.
The sun rising on a
steep south-facing
slope in spring would
have a rapid effect.

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release

Bonds change rapidly:

> 5oC in a three hour period
Sudden increase in radiation

Metamorphic effects such

as rounding or faceting
are much slower and take
longer to affect bond
strength.
Whether these kinds of
changes are having an
effect may be obvious
For example, snow
becomes wet or slushy,
but in many cases, the
effects on strength, even
of rapid changes, are
difficult to assess.

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release

Slab release:
Shear failure
Tensile failure
Compression failure

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release

Once stress
overcomes strength
and the fracture
leading to an
avalanche occurs,
there are at least two
and perhaps three
events that lead to
slab release.

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release
Shear failure occurs in the
layer which lies between the
bed surface and the slab
(the failure layer).
Tensile failure occurs at the
fracture line or crown and
the flanks.
Compression failure may
occur in the failure layer
and/or at the stauchwall.

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release

Shear failure
Tensile failure
Compression
failure

The jury is still out on which happens first, followed by others,

or is the sequence is always the same, or what is the role of
compression in failure, and does it occur sometimes or

always.

Bonding, Failure, and

Avalanche Release

We observe these failures

even when avalanches do
not occur.
The whumpf or collapse of
a slab when we ski onto it is
a sign of compressional
failure.
Cracks that occur in the
snow as we ski across it are
tensile failures.

When we ski across a slope

and the slab fails and moves
downhill but stops and does
not avalanche, shear failure
has occurred.

Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release

This is a simplified discussion of bonding and failure.

While avalanche formation and release is not fully understood,
it is worthwhile to have a good general grounding in basic
concepts.
If nothing else it is important to realize the complexity of the
problem before attempting to discuss stability analysis.
Our lack of understanding of some of these issues is humbling
and helps brings our efforts at decision making into clearer
perspective.