Jordan Johnson

Mrs. Sintich
Advanced Placement Biology
October 12, 2015
Macromolecule Project
Summary of Carbohydrates:
2 Types of Reactions:
Condensation Reaction, also known as Dehydration Synthesis, is when monomers are joined
and as a result lose a water molecule. (This process requires both energy and enzymes.)
Hydrolysis Reaction when a water molecule is used to break up a polymer.
Types of Carbohydrates:
A monosaccharide is a single sugar and the monomer of carbohydrates. (An example would be
glucose.)
Disaccharides are double sugars and are composed of two monosaccharides joined through
dehydration reaction. (An example would be sucrose.)
Polysaccharides are polymers composed of many sugar building blocks (also know as,
monosaccharides. (An example would be starch.)
Functions:
A carbohydrate can be used as energy in cell respiration, short-term energy storage (e.g.
Glycogen), and can be used as structural materials for the cell (e.g. Glycoproteins).
Elements:
The elements that make up carbohydrates are 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and 6
oxygen atoms.
Functional Groups:
The functional groups that make up a carbohydrate are the hydroxyl groups and carbonyl
groups.
- The sugars from the carbonyl group are Aldose, which forms on the end of a molecule, and
Ketose, which form in the center of the molecule.
Linkages:
Dehydration synthesis forms glycosidic linkages which form covalent bonds.
4 Types of Polysaccharides:
The two types of polysaccharides that function as energy storage is starch in plants and
glycogen in animals.
- Starches are stored as granules within plastids and can be in an unbranched (Amylose) or a
branched (Amylopectin) form. All glucose subunits are in the alpha configuration.
- Glycogen is branched in order for energy to be available quickly.
- Both starches and glycogen are broken down through hydrolysis.
The two types of polysaccharides that have a structural function are cellulose in plants and
chitin in arthropods and fungi.
- Cellulose is used in plant cell walls, which makes them indigestible.
- All glucose monomers are in the beta configuration.
- Chitin makes up the cell walls in mushrooms and exoskeletons.

Alpha and Beta Configurations:

Alpha configurations are a helix shape.
Beta configurations are a pleated sheet.
Examples:
Starch
Glycogen
Glucose
Cellulose (like in celery)
Chitin (like in mushrooms)
Picture of Carbohydrates:

Summary of Lipids:
Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic:
Hydrophobic substances repel water.
Hydrophilic substances are attracted to water.
Elements:
Carbons are composed of Hydrogens, Carbons, and Oxygens, but mostly hydrocarbons.
Types of Lipids:
The monomer of a lipid is a fatty acid which is composed of a long chain of Hydrogen and
Carbon atoms (hydrocarbons) with a carboxyl group.
Triacylglycerol is made of 3 fatty acids and a glycerol which are joined through dehydration
synthesis.
Functions:
Fats or lipids are used a long term energy storage, cushion organs, insulates the body, and
cellular structure.
Linkages:
An ester linkage is a link between fatty acids through dehydration synthesis, which forms a
bond when an H2O molecule is released.
Fat Types:
Saturated Fats are single bonds between carbon atoms and are solid at room temp (e.g. lard,
butter).

 Unsaturated Fats are double bonds between carbon atoms and are liquid at room temperature
(e.g. olive oil, cod oil).
Phospholipids:
Phospholipids are 2 fatty acids and a glycerol. The 2 fatty acids are hydrophobic tails one
being a saturated tail and an unsaturated tail and are attached to a hydrophilic head.
The phospholipids assemble into double layers to form the boundary of the cell and protect the
cell from the external environment.
Steroids:
Lipids are composed of a carbon skeleton of four fused rings, but they vary based on the
functional groups attached to the rings.
One type of steroid is cholesterol which keeps animal cell membranes fluid and flexible.
In addition, cholesterol is a precursor to sex hormones such as estrogen and testosterone.
Picture of Lipids:

Summary of Proteins:
Function:
Proteins are essential in chemical reactions, because they can be in the form of enzymes.
Proteins can also be used as structure (e.g. Keratin, Collagen), carriers, transport (e.g.
hemoglobin), signaling (e.g. hormones, insulin), receptors, contractile (e.g. Actin, Myosin),
and defense (e.g. Antibodies).
Enzymes:
Enzymes regulate metabolism by acting as catalysts, which help speed up chemical reactions.
Types of Proteins:
The monomer of a protein is a fatty acid which can be joined together by a peptide bond,
which is formed by a dehydration reaction.
Amino Acid Structure:

 The central carbon is a alpha carbon and attached to the alpha carbon is a carboxyl, amino
group, hydrogen atom, and a side chain (R group).
- The R group determines the unique characteristics of the amino acids.
- Amino acids are grouped according to their side chains.
Building Proteins:
Two or amino acids are joined by a covalent peptide bond, which occurs through dehydration
synthesis.
The protein grows from N-term to C-term, which will eventually form a repeated N-C-C
sequence backbone of a polypeptide chain.
Protein Structure and Function:
The function of the protein depends on the way it is folded, twisted, and coiled into a
specialized shape.
The four levels of the protein structure are primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
- The primary level is a linear structure based on to order of amino acids and peptide bonds.
Each type of protein has a unique primary structure of amino acids.
- The secondary level involves the folding and coiling of the amino acid chain, which can be
an alpha helix or a beta pleated sheet. (The folds are result of H-bonds between R-groups.)
- The tertiary structure is determined by interactions and bonding between R-groups. These
bonds can be due to hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions due to water, H-bonds,
Disulfide bridges (between two sulfides), ionic bonds, and Van dear Waals interactions.
- The quaternary level is composed of two or more polypeptide chains joined together
causing the overall protein structure.
Other Factors Affecting Protein Structure:
The factors that affect the tertiary structure are:
- pH
- Salt Concentration
- Temperature
If the environment isn't perfect the protein will denature (unravel, lose confirmation, become
dysfunctional).
Chaperonins:
Chaperonins are protein molecules that assist the proper folding of other proteins and aids the
folding process by providing shelter from cytoplasmic influences.
Picture of Proteins:

Summary of Nucleic Acids:

Function:
Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary information (e.g. DNA and RNA) as well as
providers storage molecules in living organisms.
Nucleotides:
Nucleotides are the monomers of Nucleic Acids and are composed of three parts.
- These three parts include a nitrogen containing base (C-N ring), pentose sugar (5C), and a
PO4 Group.
- Also, it's important to note that a nucleoside is composed of a base and a sugar.
Types of Nucleotide Bases:
The first type of nucleotide base are the pyrimidines, which include a single ring N-base,
Cytosine, Thymine, and Uracil.
The other type of nucleotide base are the purines, which include a double ring N-base,
Adenine, and Guanine.
DNA Bases:
The four types of DNA bases are Thymine and Adenine (which are always paired together) and
Cytosine and Guanine (which are always paired together).
In addition, bases are always located on the inside portion of the DNA molecule, which are
bonded to one another through hydrogen bonds.
Important Scientists:
In 1953, Watson and Crick unveiled the double helix shape of a DNA strand as well as
hydrogen bonds and van see Waals (sum of attraction or repulsive forces).
Building DNA:
DNA is a polymer of polynucleotides, which are formed using covalent bonds called
phosphodiester linkage.
Nucleotides are added in the 5' to 3' direction. (Nucleotides are added one at a time.)
DNA:
In general, DNA is a double stranded, anti-parallel arrangement, which consists of four bases.
DNA replication occurs when the cell is about to divide.
RNA:
RNA is single stranded and is made from DNA. After the RNA is copied from the DNA it is
then used to make proteins.
In addition, the RNA bases are Cytosine and Uracil (which are always paired together) and
Adenine and Guanine (which are always paired
together).
Picture of Nucleic Acids: