Tectonics of Indonesia

Region
(1)

Introduction to Plate Tectonics

Theory

TEKTONIK LEMPENG
(PLATE TECTONICS)
BAGIAN DALAM BUMI
Bagian dalam bumi dapat dibagi menjadi 4 lapis, yaitu inti dalam (inner core),
inti luar (outer core), mantel, dan kerak bumi (crust).
Inti dalam bersifat padat karena tekanannya yang sangat besar; inti luar bersifat
cair karena suhunya yang tinggi, dan mantel diatas 1000 0C bersifat padat tapi dpt berubah
bentuk secara perlahan seperti plastik (bersifat plastis).

Dalam teori tektonik

lempeng, yang paling
berperan adalah kerak
bumi (crust), yang bersifat elastis namun rapuh atau mudah patah
(britle)

MANTEL BAGIAN ATAS (UPPER MANTLE)

Tektonik lempeng terutama berhubungan dengan mantel atas, yaitu:

1. Litosfer yang bersifat mudah patah (brittle).
2. Astenosfer yang bersifat plastis.
Untuk gejala yang cepat (seperti gelombang seismik) semua bagian
mantel bersifat padat dan elastik.

KERAK BUMI (CRUST)

Kerak bumi merupakan bagian terluar dari mantel yang bersifat padat
(elastik dan mudah patah).
Antara kerak bumi dan litosfer (mantel bagian atas yang paling padat)
dibatasi oleh diskontinuitas Mohorovisic, yang lebih dikenal sebagai Moho,
dimana kecepatan gelombang P meloncat dari sekitar 6 menjadi 8 km/s.
Kerak bumi ada 2 jenis, yaitu kerak benua (continental crust) dan kerak
samodera (oceanic crust).

GRANIT

C
BASALT

KERAK
BENUA

M : Diskontinuitas Mohoroviic (Moho)

15
km
18
km

C : Diskontinuitas Conrad
AIR LAUT

5 km

BASALT

5 km

O
M

KERAK SAMODERA

Ketebalan kerak benua rata-rata = 35 km, berkisar antara ~25 km di

continental margin dan dapat mencapai 80 km di mountain range
(Himalaya).
Kerak benua terdiri dari kerak bagian atas (granitik) dan kerak bagian
bawah (basaltik).

Plate Tectonics: Overview

Relatively
~1960

new

theory

introduced

The outer rigid layer of the earth

(thelithosphere) exist as separated and
distinct "plates" that ride on fluid-like
astenosphere across the earth's surface
relative to each other

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Plate Boundary: where the plates

meet

160mm/a
1040mm/a

Source: USGS
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Plate Boundary

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Associated with geological events such as

Earthquakes,and creation of topographic features
volcanic activity,mountain-building, andoceanic
trench

Plate Tectonics: History of the theory

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The moving continents notion

1596, Abraham Ortelius , Dutch
mapmaker,
noticed
the
fit
of
continents in Atlantic Ocean: the
Americas were torn away from
Europe and Africa... by earthquakes
and floods.
1800s Eduard Suess, a geologist,
proposed
that
the
southern
continents
were
joined9/26/14 Gondwanaland.

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Continental Drift

Picture courtesy of 20th Century Fox Film Co.

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Continental Drift Hypothesis

Alfred
Wegener
(1880-1930),
a
German meteorologist, in 1912-1929
proposed that:
Jigsaw like fit of the continents
Thecontinentswereoncetogetherinasup

ercontinentcalledPangea (all earth).

Pangeaseparated~200 millions years a go
(Mesozoic),
thecontinentssomehowdriftedup
totheirpresentpositions.
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APUNGAN BENUA (CONT DRIFT)

Illustration of

Continental drift

Evidence

Rock formations
when Pangea breaks apart large structures

(mountain ranges) would be separated

there would be similar rocks in the other
side of the Atlantic Ocean
Rocks in Appalachian Mountains, Greenland and
Europe (200 million years old)

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Evidence

Fossils
Similar fossils of plants and animals that

lived on land would have been found on

separated continents (Africa and South
America)
Animals could not have swam across great
distance
Age of the fossils confirmed the break up
period
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Evidence

Climate
By studying sedimentary rocks, he
found evidence of climatic changes
Coal beds found in Antartica, means it was

once warm and rainy

Glacial evidence in equatorial latitudes
(India, Australia, Africa and South America)
indicate thick ice caps

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Critics to Wegeners hypothesis

Scientific community believed ocean

and continents were a permanent
feature of Earth
Flaws of Wegeners Hypothesis
Cause of the movement?
How continents were

moving

through

stationary ocean floor?

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His proposal was not

well received. Wegener
froze to death in
Greenland
Icecap
expedition
whilst
seeking evidence to
defend his theory in
1930.
AWI Campus, Bremerhaven
Picture courtesy of AWI

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Rejuvenation of Continental Drift

Hypothesis (1)

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In 1929, Arthur Holmes elaborated on one of

Wegener's hypotheses; the idea that the mantle
undergoes thermal convection.
As a substance is heated, its density decreases and
rises to the surface until it is cooled and sinks again.
This repeated heating and cooling results in a current
which may be enough to cause continents to move.
Arthur Holmes suggested that this thermal convection
was like a conveyor belt and that the upwelling
pressure could break apart a continent and then force
the broken continent in opposite directions carried by
the convection currents.
This idea received very little attention at the time.
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Rejuvenation of Continental Drift

Hypothesis (2)

PostWorldWarII, 1940s 1950s

New studies of the ocean floor as a
result of WWII technology
SONAR : sound waves used to map ocean

floor
Magnetometer: detect small changes of
magnetic field recorded in rocks

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Ocean floor

The ocean floor is not as flat as we thought

Underwater mountains in the central Atlantic (Mid
Atlantic Ridge)

Source:
www.platetectonics.com

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1950s, theGlobal Mid-Ocean Ridge

New ocean floor was being created
and still is created without increasing
in size of earth.

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Age of Rocks

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Age of Rocks

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Ocean crust is younger than

continental crust
Near ocean ridges crust is new
In deep sea trenches crust is old
Ocean sediments are much thinner
that on continents and increase with
distance from ridges

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Rock Magnetism

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Airborne magnetic survey, 1950s

Ocean floors show Global Zebra-like
pattern
Ocean floors basalt magnetite
magnetic material
A record ofEarth's magnetic field.
Discovery of magnetic stripping
reverse and normal polarity, which lie as
mirror images across the ocean ridges
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Sea floor spreading

Sea floor spreading

(Hess and Dietz,
1960s), expand in one
place, shrink in
another place
MOR, weak zone
where magma from
deep earth erupt along
the crest, forming
oceanic crust
Picture credit: wikipedia

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Evidence

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Stripes are symmetrical around the crests of the

mid-ocean ridges; at or near crest are very young,
and they become progressively older away from
the ridge crest;
The youngest rocks at the ridge crest always have
present-day (normal) polarity;
Stripes of rock parallel to the ridge crest alternate
in magnetic polarity (normal-reversed-normal,
etc.), suggesting that they were formed during
different epochs documenting the (already known
from independent studies) normal and reversal
episodes of the Earth's magnetic field.
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Additional evidence of seafloor

spreading

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Came from an unexpected source:

petroleum exploration.
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge between South
America and Africa, drilling core samples at
specific locations.
the ages of the samples provide the
clinching evidence that proved the seafloor
spreading hypothesis.

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Continental Drift + Sea Floor

Spreading
=
Plate Tectonics Theory

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Plate Tectonics Theory

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Types of Plate Boundaries

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Divergent boundaries (spreading

centers) are the place where plates
move apart.
Convergent boundaries form where
plates move together
Transform fault boundaries are
margins where plates grind past each
other without the production or
destruction of the litosphere.
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Actions at Plate Boundaries

Divergent Boundaries
Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor spreading
Oceanic Ridges are continues elevated zone of
all major ocean basins. The rift s at crest of
ridges represent divergent plate boundaries
Rift Valleys are deep faulted structures along
the axes of divergent plates, can be on sea floor
or on land.
Seafloor spreading produces new oceanic
litosphere
Continental Rifts

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Actions at Plate Boundaries

Convergent Boundaries
Subduction zones, when oceanic plates is

forced down into mantle of the second plate

Oceanic- Continental
Continental volcanic arcs
Andes, Cascades, the Sierra Nevadas

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Actions at Plate Boundaries

Convergent Boundaries
Oceanic-Oceanic
Two oceanic slabs, one descends beneath the
other
Volcanoes on ocean floor
Volcanic Island Arcs
Aleutian, Mariana, tonga island

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Actions at Plate Boundaries

Continental-Continental
Subducting plates contain continental

material, two continents collide

Mountain ranges; Himalayas

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Actions at Plate Boundaries

Transform Fault Boundaries

Plates grind each other without destroying

litosphere
Transform fault
Most join 2 segments of MOR
San Andreas

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Quiz.

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Plate boundaries in Indonesia.

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Evidence for Plate Tectonics

Earthquake patterns
A close link between deep-focus
earthquakes and ocean trenches
The absence of deep-focus earthquakes
along the oceanic ridge system.

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Evidence for Plate Tectonics

Hot Spots
A concentration of heat in mantle capable of

producing magma, which emerges to

Earths surface (Hawaiian Islands)
Hot spots evidence supports that plates
move over the Earths surface

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Definition and refining of the theory

In 1965,Tuzo Wilsonwho had been a promotor of the sea

floor spreading hypothesis and continental drift from the
very beginning[49]added the concept oftransform faults to the model, completing the
classes of fault types necessary to make the mobility of the plates on the globe work out.[50]

A symposium on continental drift was held at the Royal Society of London in 1965 which must be
regarded as the official start of the acceptance of plate tectonics by the scientific community, and
which abstracts are issued asBlacket, Bullard & Runcorn (1965). In this symposium,Edward Bullard
and co-workers showed with a computer calculation how the continents along both sides of the
Atlantic would best fit to close the ocean, which became known as the famous "Bullard's Fit".

In 1966 Wilson published the paper that referred to previous plate tectonic reconstructions,
introducing the concept of what is now known as the "Wilson Cycle".[51]

In 1967, at theAmerican Geophysical Union 's meeting,W. Jason Morgan proposed that the Earth's
surface consists of 12 rigid plates that move relative to each other.[52]

Two months later,Xavier Le Pichonpublished a complete model based on 6 major plates with their
relative motions, which marked the final acceptance by the scientific community of plate tectonics.
[53]

In the same year,McKenzieand Parker independently presented a model similar to Morgan's using
translations and rotations on a sphere to define the plate motions.[54]

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Plate Boundary

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PlateBoundaryTypes

DivergentPlatespullapart/diverge.
ConvergentPlatescollide/converge
TransformPlatesslidepasteachoth
er

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DivergentBoundaries
Platespullapartatcontinentalrifts(East
AfricanRiftSystemExample) and
mid
oceanridges;newlithospherecreated;vo
lcanismandearthquakes.Oceansarecrea
tedasplates
divergeandseawaterfillsinthegap.
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Tugas 1

Busur Sunda Barat

Jenis batas lempeng
Jenis lempeng

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San Andreas, lempeng apa yang

terlibat

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