CHAPTER NINE

Immanuel Kant (1724-18040):

Man and Duty

“Two things fill the mind with ever new and increasing
admiration and awe, the oftener and the more steadily we think
of them: the starry heavens above, and the moral law within.”
-Kant, Critique of Pure Reasons

In this passage from his writings, Kant contemplated on two aspects

of natural law: the physical law reflected in the beauty of the starry skies, the
moral law within man, exemplified and manifested in the moral beauty of an
upright and virtuous life. Unlike physical beauty, moral beauty is unseen by the
senses, but is of highest rank in the hierarchy of human values; for in moral
excellence, as in good moral character, lies the true worth of man.

The Dignity of Man

Kant’s philosophy of man centers and resolves around the dignity of
the human person. Due to man’s gift of reason and free will, man is the master of
his actions, and the architect of his own life and destiny. Man is the END to which
all other created things are ordered to serve as means(Genesis I: 26-30).
 Kant provide a rational , philosophical basis for the dignity of man.
Man, according to Kant is the only creature who governs and directs himself and
his actions, who sets up ends for himself and his purpose and freely orders
means for the attainment of his aims.

Men propose, pursue, and promote different ends and aims, in the
exercise of their free choice, and, likewise, provide different ways and means for
the attainment of such ends, but in no way and by no means should a person be
used or exploited against his will as a means to further the selfish ends of any
other person or group of person.

Thus, prostitution, slavery, bribery or any form of human exploitation

– and in fact every act that debases, degrades or reduces man to the level of the
beast or material objects are morally wrong.

Take the case of the bribing of a judge by an accused to get

exonerated of criminal charges. The briber in this case has used the judge as a
means, and the judge has allowed himself to be used as means – in flagrant
violation of the rule that all persons, including oneself should be treated as ENDS
and not as means. This rule is plain dictated of reason and justice: respect others
as you would respect yourself: and the golden rule: do unto others as you would
others do unto you (Confucius). You should not use another person as a tool, or
instrument or device to accomplish your own private ends – in wanton disregard
of his dignity and destiny as a person.

Comment on Equality of Persons

All men should be treated as ends, and not as means is bolstered by
the fundamental postulate of equality. All men are persons gifted with the same
basic rights and therefore should treat each other as co-equals. While legitimate
society acknowledges and respects differences among individuals, and allows
lawful discriminations based thereon, the overiding principle governing the
actions and activities of men in the society is that of justice – of equality based on
the mutuality of rights and duties. As persons, all men are equal before God –
they, having been created with the same fundamental rights. On the same basis
of equality, human relations should not be impersonal; but on the contrary,
should be inter-personal.

Kant’s Theory of Knowledge

In the contemplation of Kant, knowledge to be valid, useful, and true,

must be universal and necessary—such as that knowledge gained from the study
of mathematics and the sciences. Kant tells us that the laws governing human
conduct are absolutely universal and necessary.

Like Aristotle, Kant upheld and proclaimed the supreme role of

reason in man, particularly in the fields of morals. We have designated the term
rationalism (from ratio, Latin for reason) to signify supremacy of reason in
connection with Aristotle’s philosophy.

In contrast with the Aristotelian-Thomistic and the Christian view

that moral law comes from above (God), imposed and made known to man by
human reason (conscience), Kant assumed that it is reason itself that makes the
law and it is the same reason that obeys the law at the same time. This theory he
called the Autonomy of Reason.

How did Kant come to this theory? According to Kant’s theory of

knowledge, man cannot know reality as it is, but only as it appears; man can only
know phenomena but not metaphenomena or the noumena. Man cannot know
the thing-in-itself. Man cannot know reality or truth as it is in very nature.

Kant foresaw the possible pernicious effects of his own theory when
applied to the realm of human conduct. Thus, to save morality from the possible
disastrous consequences of his self-created agnosticism, Kant postulated the
existence in man of practical reason (or will) distinct from man’s pure speculative
reason. Kant conceived his theory of the already aforementioned autonomy of
reason.

According to the theory of autonomy of reason, man can know with absolute
certainty, by the light of practical reason, with the laws of morality which are
universal and absolutely binding on all men of all times and places. Man’s
practical reason does not only know the moral law, it makes the law and at the
same time commands that the law should be obeyed unconditionally.

Kant called the unconditional command of reason the categorical

imperative. Reason commands absolutely and we must obey absolutely without
questioning.

Hypothetical imperative which commands not unconditionally but

only conditionally. According to Kant, this would destroy the absolutely binding
nature of morality and would make morality merely relative or subjective.
According to him, this is shared by Christian ethics which makes morality as a
means and never as an end in itself. Further, according to Kant, we must do good
because we must. IT IS OUR DUTY TO DO GOOD. An action is good only if done
and motivated by the pure sense of duty or out of pure reverence for the law. If
done from any other motive, the act may only be legal but not moral.

“There is nothing truly good,” Kant says, but the good will. The term
good will, in the Kantian sense, signifies the free will of man ever motivated and
inspired by DUTY.

A good will, which acts solely from the pure sense of duty, out of
pure reverence for the law, no matter what the consequences or circumstances
may be, is good in itself. It is like a jewel that shines by itself and preserves its
intrinsic worth no matter on what position or setting it may be placed. It is GOOD
WILL OR SENSE OF DUTY that turns thoughts and actions to Gold.

The Kingdom of Ends

Kant envisioned an ideal kingdom where all men are free, equal,
prosperous and happy with the universal application and exemplification of the
principles he advocated for all humanity; which principle we reformulate
hereunder as follows:

1. That every person, including yourself, as an end in himself and not as

means to advantage of anyone else.
2. Always act in such wise as to will your action to become a universal law.

3. Act as a rational and free being from the pure sense of duty.