INTI\ODUCTION

TEACHERS of courses in commercial

artJmechanical drawing' and dra.ftins' will
find this book a practical guide to letteri~
and poster art. All such courses shoula
include a working knowledge of the basic
alphabets and the tools best suited to
their production.

STUDENTS who follow instructions given

herein and practice regularly and intelligently
can be assured of satisfactory progress, for
anyone who can write can learn to letter. No
unusual talent is required.
CRAFTSMEN can improve their tech-

niques and increase their incomes by using

this book for instruction and inspiration.
Merchandising' depends so much upon
showcards for quick turnover that we
seldom see displays without them.
Supplying this need means that experienced, versatile letterers are in.
demand everywhere.
for steady
employment, few occupations offer the
opportunities enjoyed by poster artists
who are able to do good lettering at a
commercial speed.

TOOLS for LETTERING

In making letters by hand,choose tlte style and size of pen that
will produce their elements with the fewest strokes. There is a
Speedball demgned .for e.ach ,of ~e different families of alphabets
-

Wlth five SlZes m each style.

_ _T_H_E ST Y LE 'A"
THE S TYLE

II

SPEEDBALL

pen was the first

a .

pen was next

ofit's kind,designed to produce SCJ,uare

de ve l oped
for single stroke

stro'Re.

ROUND 60THICS

poster letters smgle

THE STYL c "

pen was created to

THE STYLo

1lai:1e bY t he fle,cibl e
handcut reed pen .
It is used to make the
graceful Roman a.nd

to produce the bold

petL.Wlth its oval

iiuP.licate the strokes

marking tip is used

POSTER

Roman alphabets
elements.
with 'thickand thic~er

Italic alpha.bets with

'thick and thin' elements.

THE NEWEST SPEEDBALL pens are

trademarked "FLICKER. Thew ink reservoirs are

hinged flicking wen simultaneously so they can be

wiped clean. Tlte F8 6 is equippeli with ruling flaHges fOr

_:____ --==drafting work.----------....;;;--=

Keep your
clean! The best way to clean
!etten~ a- rir:~.vino- pens is to scrub them gently.....
with a wet tooth brush

6000 INKS ARE NECESSAR.Y

FOR GOOD LETTERING-.

MOST STANDARD BRANDS

OF WATERPROOF BLACK
DRAWING INK CAN BE USED.

c71rtists ..... .. .
who desire a .specially prepared ink that
has oroved e'fcepttonally .sa.cce.ss{ul
in thi.s type of draWinq and lettenng
pen con obtain opeed.ball iHJu from
their .stationer or art dealer. They
are made in all the Drilliaillt color.s

of the rainboW, plus black and white.

lllultr<>h'"" .Ub.l mcthod> ,,( mr.u<li<>n :lf'l""'ring in thilx-...>1< <.Up_vrigiu 1956 ~ H''""I'. G..~>~
..d, "fJ,Jr.,,l, .. ,~_...,_,.. JIII,_NN.~ ,..,.,._ ~,. ..Ma.l* ~ f $fwt1N8 ~b ~ 'i>nts. I!$, 7r~""-li~ &II~,._

.,~ 1141/.VI !~.-t

TIPS for LETTERERS

Letters should be drawn
freehand ifpossible. .Practice
regularly to secure freedom.
grace and individual beauty
Always use aT-square , or
ruler for guide lines.

ertical position of hand

in m - Roman letters lor

ooffi s!fles corD'

1Jstdes a set ofpen0 &ezy

letterer() kit .should tnclude
two or more red r5able SHOW
CA.RD BRUSHES

in 8i:I;~

10-12 and 14 to take care cf

the letter<5 that are too large

for the pen8.

satisfactori~ in,
pens when thinned to a free-flowing consistency with a little of this solution---water: 9 ounces, alcohol, 1 ounce, gum mucilag'e.l ounce. and a few drops of glycerine. Do not ptepa.re a. large quantity .because they work best when freshly mixed.
Keep well stirred.

SHOW CARD COLOR.S prepared. for brush use will work

CARDBOA~D comes in sheets

22 28, or 2844 inches. To avoid waste in cutting,
the usual sizes for posters are 1-Irinches, lll{

COATED

inches or 14 22.

me

Price tickets are smaller and vary in .s sQalle.

for tips on poster and price card layouts see page 96.
2

44'

18'

; 7 1f ll

II I 14 f --

22 2&

! 7 x l/

~ ~-~-~--

/of

22

'--------'----'

tltis is ltOJII lite 28<44 card cats.

lET!ER!NG

7he 71LreeCJJasic Groues

can be segregated mlo lhrce basic groups

narne!Y. ROman. Golh.Lc. and. 'Tcxl styles
From these three all alphabcls originate.
The simple elements from which. thry are

l2othk A6CDEFGH

composed a1e easy to learn amt not hard

to form wilh. a shoca.Ri brush or Speedball pen.
Elements cf Roman letter& are made with"Cor'D"pens

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I

2.

3-.--

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., .. f
B

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Jl':!f i"tlte kiter.f mtJLk Qf l a s ltod are called ..rtaJics~

/lomanltoiics-'cw'D~IS

Gothic ltlic.s - "A' .<B"pens

/Allf.5&C93 IAL7[CSJ5
...

AU ld.lert. COmpcoed d ufli!\rm w<tth ~;.ernrenlJ, C c

41.-. tAd s,""/11<1-1 Glo.nif~iat - . t ~-:1. . ~d'

,f e.d

\trolllh

'U..-:l ......,

the

!tAo.,..,..

GOthG$

4lS eJ,.c_

!Roman&..- ABCDEFGJ

Alllet.ters compoHCI. of thick and th"' clements are

c.>.l).,d Roman

Elements ci Gothic letter s-made with'A' oiB"pens

2

G0t IJIC abcdefgh

Roman abcdef~hi

Time and. e!Torl will b<. hinuniu:d by using lhe si-ze aM ;>l:yle
of pet\ or bru.slt "hch will IOrm llw. d,ff<-cnl ldkrs of aJ!)'
~ alpha.bel: without Sltbs<:qucnt remodeling .i the strol<es.

~~t Ar8~!0~3J:~J!l
\l.tt~ .ab,ebt f,ght] kl
Jlnc!u/ou all $~\u of Q)lb"l'uqlish ~~lulrdt iul.ltloist~r ~.xt,
!llacll irxl:,ISmnan "ltxl.l?rablt~ ' t , <lio~on t"ut :mb o\MT$.
In t he creation of new alphabets these Illustrations
will help to show how variations or modifications
of theSerif. c hanges the appearance ci a letter.

rt1i1nnnnr~ tr

roman PO:manegothic \X.l$

ROMAN R GOTHIC?;-'~~

"volution of f_etter Stvles

(_)

~VUr.IV~ ~Ar ~

~de.~AfiUm:n:a

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twPy

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Roman Lettering

...

%>uru, 'W~-~~~~~

C]{ound w t itin.9 unjoin~d and loops left off.ab

Round writing thus becomes Roma~

1Ji(f#.-.xt
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ab c def ghijklmnopqrstu
style 'A' pen.

abcdefghijklrnnopqrstuvwy
abcdefghi ---..jklmnopqrst:U:W
~tyle '1J'pon

scyle'1Ypen.

abcdefgb.ijltlm'!~~~'!;stuvw"y~~

abcde(gh!J.klmnopq~stu.v1

~ mcst clr4racterist ic.

4

letter sf.yles are

~ltose of 1:4 sins1(!,-s~o1tt varief!

ELEMENTARY GOTHIC PRACTICE EX.ERCISES

1l

III I I I I I I I I I I I I '
Rllk- wp 11d

bol~ -"idt liMt. for nth line

U5t allY !lmOO!h $UI'Iad

' I ' I I

~ or ar~rd.

~
- fll

Ill 111=11
LTET LTLEFTLT
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VAVAVAVAVA
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Hold tba pen linnlt bct,.'n. the 'wo 'n'

'"'J;tM

~ tbrnb

~ elo.sc ~ tht w'Qtltir;c i1p u the Mdtt wiU J~etmil

Dip 1hc pen <kcpiy mout:h m!O Wink 11> 6!11be- ftlet'Y(llf

ll.ll.

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w1pe od 1he tutpbt$ bf dn~w~t~~ pm unau ~t! of l)otde

WITH FB +OR FB 5

SPEEOBALL"7/ic:Aer,.PEN&

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STYLE 'B'

ROUND T I P

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'11ie ROMAN Alphabets

The Roman alphabet is both beautiful and usefUl

It lends itself to individual modifications and

type innovations which are usually created simply
by cha~ng the design of the serif (see page 3) or
by adding a few ornamental touches to the body of
the letter.
Por descripjiVe copy or/or Words of special t!1H-phasis, Italics caJI be emploged effectiJ!e/1/.
Italic letters are simplg slanted Vertical letters .

In learning the single stroke"Roman, analyzed on

pages 17-21 study the letters carefully before usin~
the pen. Note where strokes are started and ended,their
order of construction.and bow the pen is manipulated in
producing them. Make a page of each letter, using a No.
2 style C pen. Try to combine .a smooth arm move..ment with a flexible manipulation of the pen. Next,
make several pages of the full alphabets.
Letters
should be one inch high at first. ruling three guide lines
for each line of copy. Keep the serifs as unifornL as
possible and try to equalize the space between letters as
1

you work.

ANCIENT GREEK AlPHA

LATIN

A-A f\1\ A
LATER.}

AAH8 WY
E

IWfDOM LETTERS FROM

4'N. (E!IT. CODEX $1/IAITICUS

BY 0/.D RfED PENS

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RAII{)0/.1 UTTER$ FROM

6,. CENT. COOlX SEU.

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If YOU HAVE TOO MUCH 5/#CE AT END OF LINE. USE THESE PER
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Style 'C' Speedball Pen R~man

A rapid legible alphabet for Artists and Sho-card Writers

18

SINGLE-STROKE ROMAN

use the si.x.e of pen that will mahe the widest elements in one stroke
19

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Bold Roman Italics ,single slrokestyleD" Speedball pens

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ARCHITECTS & DRAF-TSMEN

Rapid, sin._9le stroke afj>habet.s w,ith B S or 8G S'peedha/1

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Roug+>ir> \hue letters with a '1>-1 Spe!batl - ~ -add the lintii>Ot ahd finish with o fine pen

61

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and untlri% srrku rrnllert~ us aahile

: :: ~(OUR IO~t-R'U<XWRJ:':~
t\e'il

ihat 111r rttrn6 14 him ..-

lUar Ofe!'tnlllshe.l for hls health,hi1Jtpinetfo>.,.au~ a

continll.l.tlon of 5ucceu in hi> cboun uaork ... .

"'il

:SO.'\?:D tb.lt acOJJ!l ofthm1\esolution

. M be pmented to him a'

Splendid uampl~s of n.1f'Ot11in And illuminatin by L. M. Kde:hnct. Particular

aUt.ntion is caned to the decoration , which iJ hannoniously finjshcd in coJon.

a tokm of oar dpprrrution.

RCSC)1ution. letter~ with Style "C'' f)C'n. Tht .cript is lettered witb a C6 PtO

usd in an oblique penholder. Illumination

c01nttV~tivcly

dipi61.

?5

=
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"-z
Ill

:E

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A
A.

76

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77

Single- Sttnke

Uso" ,;., 12 rttl .bl1 ho-eortl hrMJit with rtDotl ~'" eol<>r. _Dip into color tUUJ lhtn 1hP. h<1h
fangr 11UfnipMUJk,. will fJ'r()dN&# ''"'" ew llro411. ---Do nol o~"lo11J brws.h.
MosssAot11rJ

78

OOTl'CO ARA.ow

:.:>&wow

'TWII!t\.IWO OP 8AU$.W

r')

JTf
I

(Uitllto gtt s}wp ...,.;~1 lilt _ A lfiWOIIJ ,,. """""'"" a~,Ui.,d fllilh 1ht M<IUary
cclon ,.u4 "lilt.U tvrll'r ,,.J tcm#lhn#J "*'CH"W "'*~i/4(' di/J~ 10 m.i1 tlllm ~111 fntJy (,.,1M lwtuA.
0t1

79

"L A'-T.QUT ",:::~

~ ~

,cl

THE PRINT-ER'S WORD for the

ARRANGEMENT of 'copy

Copy containing' only a few words and perhaps an illustration, is not

hard to lay out: B-t suppose qour customer qiVes z;ou COPlf
lzk.e thzs ~ a pzcture, plus the words ....... .,
.._ UAUTtfol. G~~t>t.N

co.

su??LY
L~~iS\~t. Nl> ~E-rAtJ...
W"OLt.S~l.'. A 5fll M~IH 3134
M~~\<!'f sV~iT~lL1: seeos

''1o'R "'

fLO~Eft "'S Of -roo L.S

ALL ~~~II

SPACING
I. Different letters and dividing areas seldom occupy like spaces.
2. Words rt"ad better when the spaces between the letters a<e less than half the space occupied by
the letters themselves.
3. For convenience, letters may be divided into three classes: Regular, E-HlM-N and U;
Irregular, A-F-J-K-t-P-RTYW-X-Y and Z; Circular, B-C-D-G-0-(P)Q-(R).S& and?.
4. Ugly gaps between irregular shaped letters can be avoided by fitting thern closer together
according to their shape.
5. Circular and irregular shaped letters should cut into the spaces between them and the letter.
adjoining their .cucved or jrregular sides, the amount thus taken from the "dividing" aetas
helps compensate for the extra space created by the form of the letter.
6. Lettexs can also be 8<0uped as Narrow, B-E-P-1-J-LPSTY and ?; Nomzal, C.DGH-K-0

Q.a.u.v.x.z and&: and Wide, A-M-Nand W.

7. Compressing a wide letter to make it lit into a space that suits a narrow or a normal letter
causes it to appear blacker than the rest of the letters. Aod stretching a narrow Iotter into the
space of a wide One makes 11 appear lighter than the rest.
80

Simplified spacing guide for different letters-

This leuering chart illustrate.~ how different combinarions should be spaced. The full space as
it appears between two straight lerrers is shown by the stippled block marked "A." Block "B" illusrraces
the dividing area between two circular len<rs. Note how the lcners cut into it. Block "C" shows how
the area appears between a circular and a sruighr letter. Block "0" shows the a.rea berween an irregular
and a straight lener Block "E" shows the area berween an irregular and a circular letter. Note that
the exrra. space at the top and bonom of a circular letter approximately equals wha< the letter cuts our
of the dividing area - and the irregular lerrers offer a similar example that requires closet fining

Tht examples shown here illusrrare how che different combinations work out in use.

In the word

"5padns" lerrers of the same si1.e an<l shape are spaced both ways.
Note how legibility and unity
are desrroyed by the mechanical arrangement. Using a "yard-srick" to measure the width or distance
between different lerrets seldom produces pleasins results and is generally detrimental to legibility.

The yard-stick spacing of " Minatown" shows what happens when leners are all fined into like
areas wi th the some distance between them. Nore how sporty the different lerrers look, especially the
M. A and Wand how unrelated the irregular letters appear. By making !heM, N, A, 0 and W wider
~nd ficcing the arreuular leuers opci<;ally co compensate for their shape: an even cone is obuined over all.

f-

OPTICALLY FITTE\> \1'TEP$ '' NOT CRAMPED- GOOD UWT

,~ARO STICK SPACING,, LETTERS+ SPACES OF LIKE WIOTH -POOR UNIT 1

Jt--------ot-r-1-r------~-r:----::'1--t------+-l--:--~!*-----++------<t
'100 BI.M:K

D .... A.K

~008\.ACK

o,..-

OAR.K

TOO I!>IA(.K

OARK

81

- EFFeCTWE USE

. .,
/
I

82

''

'

TAPE/liNG LINES SU6GESTIN&

RAPID MOVEMeNT

~POWER

~~

GREAT fOil( SUGGESTED BY

liES/STANCE&. SLANTING BASE

DROOPING GIIACEFUL CURYES

S/KiGEST ABSENCEwRESISTANCE

STRAIGHT liNES MEWN(i AT SHAIIP

ANGLESALL CURVES ELIMINATED

::I~,J~~l~!~ ffiJlJllU.~
l=!::f:~:t-~
I~ I
ANY SUG(;fSTION

:==~=-=:-: OF ACTION

sPIIIAL LINES SUG(;ESTIN6

R.HYTHMIC MOTION

~~.~~
STAG(;ERED, JIIGGEDLY BROKEN,

TAPER() STRAIGHTIJNES"'~M>~JSI!t:TION

~Cilvr} su.- 9.~8olcl tRJvGlou~ Shrte

c~~ Chup ...,. JA(.-t cp~ (t"'aftSTRENGTHfmpluuis CLARITY Smart

ASimplified System
r

/'or

enlarging or
Reduciny Pictures

ENLARGEMENT
ORIGINAL (or reduction)
83

STRUCTURE
~(]]~ [p

__.
- -E!:r..:Jmi .1SW

Jfftr" lkt.-w
'

\:;,

--'1~/ ;>

t:l

'\

J ~~j
\L

UCIJ[J[J

tkecompletedjo_b. Rougly defi~tecopy

4- picture area [or i11ilial sludf ~balance
1Visualize

in moin letters in bold lYM tef111e facial

olJter detail. Y changed to a [ttting t;ype
2 t.Paint

EliY
I

COl OR.

l
COLOR

cow-.

TDUR!i

TDUR!i

!'Ill 111 slry c. face tcnes alter Itita! sta:fl,

~ fX!!CI1 OJHection

Oddshadcw mlues, hif;lt/K;hts.K(e{J tlfSide

letteri11q in suhjedion to JIIQ/11 klters

~>

~' o~~

SHELTERED

INLAND
SEAS

AT4LE OF

ROAR IN&
RAILS
back in the days

00

"'

before <llesels

s~ance
ORIGlngof
iJ<

!if'LS

GRECIAN

SALON

.... 8....-10
~

~ttr

,. fl ..: :

'lisit
the

DIAMOND fro~
r;))aut ~anJUn 1r59r1

... :to be

IIIRE

88

eo.

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....

89

II

I I

90

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__aka,
............
..........

IMPORTS

,.

"eaoo"

......... tao_....,

)t<?

lXPORTS

TUNA

Y
I

~
FISHERIES

......,&Sa~

91

Sketching Nature With the Speedball pefl.J

..

' ~

PenDm"ins

h,y eNrlts StOntr

versatile pen, the Speedball C6, ma.Res it possible to capture
fleeting Jmpress1ons as in the above Early morning in the snow
pen sketch. All that is reqUJred for a field trip JS the C- 6 pens, black.
dr.a\ving ink and sketch block. Increase your skilll:y draWing directly
\\'Jth the pen Without pre-sketching the subject in pencil.
92

.u +-.

RECREA
- -I i0N
-~- WI]

A S

./

-93

f\C\ION
IS E/\SY

HOliCE lHAT
THE HIP

CARRYINCT

'TIIf. BODY'S
WEIGHT IS
HIGHER

AND THE.
C:ORRlSPONOIN6

SHOULOEP.
IS LOWEll.

94

NOlKE .o.LSO lMAl

THl 5UPVOII.llt-.ICT
-.. "''~ fOOl IS 011\ECTLY
UNOEII. CEHlfll.
OF GRAVITY

95

slso
MODERNE

$115.

96

INDEX
Adl>'httOI U~1:1Utt

and ?c.uu

A<l=t""' M c><>do

"*

ll, 46. <7. 82-90

16,83

Ar.::h.:tu' (',oda.c
Atdl:ucc.. $. t1N

Basic ktttf G~p..

Border l)("iCI' ,
Brut!~ Alr!ubcts

Amma
&id O...rU!t, R - " .
f~r

l2 (color), 69

.n

On.fbmQ's S.:npt

32

Oecouh\'C ln1 t1.1ls

. <'1. <9 (color), 61, 71

.6-9

ElcmtntJry E"e:r~1teS
Elecncnu o.f B.uw: Alph.lbcts

10-SI (<CI<),

Pn~

66-a 717<

Eoluccaa:

c.n-<J ea..

(tAl~. (':.o:,'ft..knKd BolJ .

lut~. St)k C . . .
I uti~. Swuh
M('troprlu~n l>ottt.r

51

Pt:ntc:r,

40

Sh.1dow ... ,
Sbm S.:nrt .

59
30

Tn-Lnr
Uocu.l
.
Vcm.;:.ll M.,nu-"!ript
Vc.wc.l &ript. ,
ln:cu!A, dc.;(r~uvt

36
49 (colo<). 65
26
1S
l9
56

I!
lO
~

l9
ll

Callicnl'l>

lS

R..ound H.lnd
Sbtn SpN">.ih.all
$f"dbJll, Style 8 T1:l~.
s,.tdb.>ll. Syle o.
Vert1wl, Style A

')()

)~

30
H
l1.36

"ll

9l-9f

91

67
68

66.71
71
12

,,

66. 68

Old English

71

Otn3-menul
.
.
Sprxdb.U.S.,!., C&' D ......

69

C,.! Alpb>bc1

NUlVl:ERA.LS

R..O~A.N
T

to, Bl

Ckrman
Got!u.;. St\'l.c A.

64

.,.

n. t6. 11

En~

10. 11

1. "'

Cudv..-:~tcn"

31
)8

4-

7l

Bl..ck

. ll
li.IO U,SI-90

M-IZiic. do:or:tb\'C

...

)5

24

TEXT ALPHABETS

. 41

21

IS. 19

\\'cnon' ~ 1"t Tat

Sen{, and Tht-lr Ust
Sr.a.:u"l Letuu
Suck f1guru
S)mbolf ,

?1

Bold Rom.ul, Sl)'lt D

17

)1),

Sw.uh

MANUSCRlPT ALPHABeTS

l7

Per~f:t

10, II

M.!RBokl Rj t!:U.n, Condctsl....t

&IJ itl'f!l.ln., St)loe: C .
~J R .rno~t\, St)l.t: D
~>~srlay . . .
Cod1ic .... , .
Slam Scnrt
SI>O<dO
Stmal. R..~n .
Sta. tl!, ROCIIoln
U)-out

VcrtJC,~ol. Style

..

Ad\'Crlifln~.

ITALJC ALPHAllT'S

Cllhl!UPhW:

))

1S

Arc.bnu &' l'>r.tfumen

63
69

<<. <~.

SCRII'T ALI'HABHS

Tt, Sc)'k A

_ .

Sltltk Sttc"l~t. M'm

soo&:tc Suoltor. Styk C.
Stunt
St.yl.e A

S8
57

s.,-,<J Heodlmc

16
22
2)
43
14
26.19. )I
27
l8

J7tb Ct:ntury Orru.mtt\W..

Su'lcl~ Srro\.c. E\ .&d

55
53
ll
ll

"

Alptubcts ....

Hu.too nd Utt:
l:.d"' II<>Ll

. 6-9
11

Po.

15
$6

C<~.F Nmchft

62

1\ounJ
Sn!{,

61

73.79

frrx

37

96

fotnul

S8

Nowlty

s,....rt..n

Cre:~.ti()C\ of

H
40

Elment..ry &:ercistl .
lt:~ha .
-.
l.u><
Mldnn C.p

I. 2
ll, fS47. 51 (cotur}.Sl-90

Ot\ri4.,.

Cbm;

1, 11-n

Cre.t!MII
O.um OupiJy.
Dt.~(hmc:n
. . .

Cut:

Bulkon

. s

Cond<t\tlt'J Pc.t.:t

91
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Bw.it-up

S<

..

.SO (colo<), 71. 7<

llrwl>

..8.9

lltuh

c.n.v~

41
)4

Tickeu.,
&-.~4

COTHIC ALPHABETS
Btianncr.. ... .. .
lllo<k .
. - .
B&c>.:.k, H..tr Poster .

l3

ROMAN AlPiiABETS

83

ft-olut'lf-11 ol Lcuu Style.

S.l"-t

Ptn Skttchtn1 .
P~. Tbnr L
J\.,ttU

ocr-.,.,..r!.ltcd

$8

Tnle, Sl)'tc 6 .
Oztu~T~en~l PcnnunJup.

f. 6-~. 7$-79
l8

Cmc:

~I

Butl!'t.
Cun.1v.&l
Dl.vtn.tty.

ll

c..tb.:r-.arJUc: l..<H('rt
.(:)r.&ft..e:acn,

NOVELTY ALI'IIABETS

It

IllillNV~ VII

10

II

I#

I;J

14

14

ld

YUIJXXXIXII XIIIXNXYN
XWXVIIIXIXXXXXV XXX XXXV XL. XLV LNLXLXX
I~XXV IXXXXCCCXXV ChOCCCLrniCD ll 0C lXX;
17

7~

,.

19

- --

()t>

IXU~CM.M

ft/0

-'

l;r!/

t.$

,Jtl

IS<I

9CMXXVrt

:lH

'k~

-l917

#-0

~3

JW

1C0

_.,

~;)(J

:xCMitVII

7#

#-0

.,

"-""

1947

(.HOWARD
Cll!l.i!n 1 Vu

HUNT PEN (0.

_..._ .. ..