5.

0Superstructure
(Raymond)
5.1Beamsandcolumns
5.1.1Beams
Abeamisastructuralelementthatiscapableofwithstandingloadprimarilyby
resistingbending.Thebendingforceinducedintothematerialofthebeamasa
resultoftheexternalloads,ownweight,spanandexternalreactionstothese
loadsiscalledabendingmoment.Beamsarecharacterizedbytheirprofile(shape
ofcrosssection),theirlength,andtheirmaterial.

Reinforcedconcrete(RC)

Aconcretebeamdesignedtoacttogetherwithlongitudinalandwebreinforcementinresistingappliedforces.
Castinplaceconcretebeamsarealmostalwaysformedandplacedalongwiththeslabtheysupport.Becausea
portionoftheslabactsasanintegralpartofthebeam,thedepthofthebeamismeasuredtothetopofthe
slab.

Types:Rectangular,Lshaped,invertedT

Advantages:
Highcompressivestrengthandresistancetofireandweather
Disadvantages:
Shrinkagecausescrackdevelopment.

Reinforcingbarsextendintoanddown
columnsupportforstructuralcontinuity
andtodeveloptherequiredembedmentlengthforanchorage.

Gradebeam
Totransmittheloadfromabearingwallintospacedfoundationssuch
pilecapsandcaissons.
Usedinfootingconstructionwhenfullfootingisnotnecessary.

5.1.2Types

Steel
Types:Sshape,Wshape,Cshape,structuraltubing

Wideflange(W)shapesarecommonlyusedbecausetheyareefficientforcarryingbothbendingandshearloads
intheplaneoftheweb.

Advantages:
Flexible,durable,stable,lightweight
Disadvantages:
Expensivelaborcost

Aframedconnectionisashearresisting
steelconnectionmadebyweldingorbolting
thewebofabeamtothesupportingcolumn
orgirderwithtwoangelsorasingletabplate.

Wood
Types:Naturaltimber,laminatedandengineered

Advantages:
Economicaloption,reduceenergycost,highlydurable,aesthetical
Disadvantages:
Tendencytosplit,heavy,susceptibletorotandattacksbytermites

Avarietyofmetalattachmentsare
manufacturedforwoodtowood,woodtometal
andwoodtomasonryconnections.Depending
onthemagnitudeoftheloadsbeingresistedortransferred,the
connectionsmaybenailedorbolted.

Composite
Compositebeamsareconstructedfrommorethanonematerialtoincreasestiffnessorstrength(ortoreduce
cost).
Steelandwoodarecoatedtoformbeamwithadequatestrength.
Steelandreinforcedconcretearemostcommonlyused.

Advantages:
Supportstrongverticalloads
Disadvantages:
Highlaborcost

5.1.3Installation
Simplebeam
Restonsupportonbothends,withtheendsfreetorotateandhavingnomoment
resistance.
Cantileverbeam

Projectingbeam
Projectingbeamorotherrigidstructuralmembersupportedatonlyonefixedend.
Usedinbalconiesandbaywindows.

Overhangingbeam
Simplebeamextendingbeyondonesupports.

Doubleoverhangingbeam
Simplebeamextendingbeyondbothitssupport.

Fixedendbeam
Bothendsrestrainedagainsttranslationandrotation.

Suspendedspanbeam
Simplebeamsupportedbytheoverhangsoftwoadjoiningwithpinnedconstruction
jointsatpointsofzeromoment.

Pouringconcretebeams
1.Fixedrodsofsteeltotensilemachinery.Arrangerodsin2layersofequalnumbers.
2.Buildformworkaroundsteelrods,ensuringrodsrunthroughthecentreofthebeam.
3.Pourconcreteintoformwork,ensuringallsteeliscovered.
4.Allowconcretetocureforafewdaysandremovetheformwork.

Concreteformworkforcolumnsandwallsmaybe
custombuiltforaspecificjob,butprefabricated,
reusablepanelsareusedwheneverpossible.Theframework
andbracingmustbeabletomaintainthepositionandshape
oftheformsuntiltheconcretesets.

5.1.4Connections
Refertothe
AmericanInstituteofSteelConstructions(AISCs)
ManualofSteelConstructionforsteel
sectionpropertiesanddimensions,allowableloadtablesforbeamsandcolumns,andrequirementsforbolted
andweldedconnections.Inadditiontostrengthanddegreeofrigidity,connectionsshouldbeevaluatedfor
economyoffabricationanderection,andforvisualappearanceifthestructureisexposedtoview.
Thestrengthofaconnectiondependsonthesizesofthemembersandtheconnectingtees,angles,orplates,
aswellastheconfigurationofboltsorweldsused.TheAISCdefinesthreetypesofsteelframingthat
governthesizesofmembersandthemethodsfortheirconnections:momentconnections,shearconnections,and
semirigidconnections.

Shearconnections
Simpleframeconnectionsmade
toresistonlyshear.

Semirigidconnections
Semirigidconnectionsassumebeam
andgirderconnectionspossessa
limitedbutknownmomentresistingcapacity.

Rigidconnections
Rigidframeswhereconnectionsare
abletoholdtheiroriginalangleunder
loadingbydevelopingaspecifiedresistingmoment.

5.1.5Columns
Columnsareverticalloadbearingmembersofthestructureframewhichtransmitsbeamloadsdownto
foundations.Columnscanbemadeofreinforcedconcreteorsteel.

TiedColumns
Individualrebartiesareusedtowrap
completelyaroundtheverticalbarsin
aconfinedcore.Lateralreinforcement
restrainstheverticalreinforcement
andstrengthensthecolumnagainstbuckling.

SpiralColumns
Singlereberwrappedaroundtheverticalbar
inaspiral.Theyarestrongerthantiedcolumns
butmorelaborintensive.

Wheneverpossible,varyrequiredsteelreinforcementratherthancolumnsizewhennecessary,
varyonlyonedimensionofacolumnatatime.

Pouringconcretecolumns
1.Sizeofcolumnstobemarked.
2.Placethereinforcementintheformwork.
3.Thenpourconcreteinformwork,ensureallrebariscovered.
4.Concreteislettodryandcure.Removetheformwork.

5.1.6Joints

Steelcolumn

Avarietyofproprietarypostbasesisavailable.
Postbasescanalsobefabricatedto
satisfyspecificdesignconditions.

Woodpost
Asteelbaseplateisnecessarytodistribute
thecolumnloadoveranareawideenough
thattheallowablestressesinthe
concretearenotexceeded.

Precastconcretecolumn
Columnbaseplatesecured
tocolumn.

Splicebarsweldedtosteelangles.

Steelbottomplatesecuredtocolumnsectionwith
anchorbolts.