Persian language

Farsi redirects here. For the village in Iran, see Farsi, grance').
Iran.

1 Classication

Persian (/prn/ or /prn/), also known by its

endonym Farsi (English: /frsi/; Persian: frsi
[fsi]), is the predominant modern descendant of Old
Persian, a southwestern Iranian language within the IndoIranian branch of the Indo-European languages. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan (ocially known as
Dari since 1958 for political reasons),[8] and Tajikistan
(ocially known as Tajiki since the Soviet era for political reasons),[9] and some other regions which historically came under Persian inuence. The Persian language is classied as a continuation of Middle Persian,
the ocial religious and literary language of Sassanid
Persia, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language
of the Achaemenid Persian Empire.[10][11][12] Persian is
a pluricentric language and its grammar is similar to
that of many contemporary European languages.[13] Persian is so-called due to its origin from the capital of
the Achaemenid empire, Persis (Fars or Pars), hence the
name Persian (Farsi or Parsi). A Persian-speaking person
may be referred to as Persophone.[14]

Persian belongs to the Western branch of the Iranian

family of Indo-European languages, which also includes
Kurdish, Gilaki, Mazandarani, Talyshi, and Baluchi. The
language is in the Southwestern Iranian group, along with
the Larestani, Kumzari, and Luri languages.[21]

2 Etymology
2.1 Persian language name in Persian
In Persian, the language is known by several names:
Farsi ( frsi),[22] or Parsi ( )has been the
name for Persian used by all native speakers until the
20th century. Since the latter decades of the 20th
century, for political reasons, in English, Farsi has
become the name of the Persian language as it is
spoken in Iran.

There are approximately 110 million Persian speakers

worldwide, with the language holding ocial status in
Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. For centuries, Persian
has also been a prestigious cultural language in other regions of Western Asia, Central Asia, and South Asia by
the various empires based in the regions.[15]

Dari ( dar )[23] was a synonym for frsi in Persian, but again for political reasons, since the latter decades of the 20th century, has become the
name for the Persian language as it is spoken in
Afghanistan, where it is one of the two ocial languages; it is sometimes called Afghan Persian in
English.[24]

Persian has had a considerable (mainly lexical) inuence

on neighboring languages, particularly the Turkic languages in Central Asia, Caucasus, and Anatolia, neighboring Iranian languages, as well as Armenian, Georgian,
and Indo-Aryan languages, especially Urdu. It also exerted some inuence on Arabic, particularly Bahrani Arabic,[16] while borrowing much vocabulary from it after
the Muslim conquest of Persia.[10][13][17][18][19][20]

Tajiki ( / tojik )[25] is a dialect of Persian spoken in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan and is
sometimes termed Tajiki Persian.[26]

2.2 English name

With a long history of literature in the form of Middle

Persian before Islam, Persian was the rst language in
Muslim civilization to break through Arabics monopoly
on writing, and the writing of poetry in Persian was established as a court tradition in many eastern courts.[15]
Some of the famous works of Persian literature are the
Shahnameh ('Book of Kings) of Ferdowsi, works of
Rumi, Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, Divan ('miscellany')
of Haz and the two miscellanea of prose and verse by
Sa'di of Shiraz, the Golestn (lit., 'ower garden') and
the Bstn (also meaning garden;" lit., 'a place of fra-

Persian, the historically more widely used name of the

language in English, is an anglicized form derived from
Latin *Persianus < Latin Persia < Greek Perss
Persia,[27] a Hellenized form of Old Persian Parsa.[28]
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term Persian as a language name is rst attested in English in
the mid-16th century.[29] Native Iranian Persian speakers call it Frsi.[30] Farsi is the Arabicized form of Prsi,
subsequent to Muslim conquest of Persia, due to a lack
of the phoneme /p/ in Standard Arabic (i.e., the /p/ was
1

replaced with an /f/).[31][32][33] The origin of the name

Farsi and the place of origin of the language which is
Fars Province is the Arabicized form of Prs.[31][32][33]
In English, this language has historically been known as
Persian, though Farsi has also gained some currency.
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term
Farsi was rst used in English in 1926, while Parsi dates
to 1790.[30] Farsi is encountered in some linguistic literature as a name for the language, used both by Iranian
and by foreign authors.[34]

HISTORY

that is New Persian is a direct descendant of Middle and

Old Persian.[42]
The known history of the Persian language can be divided
into the following three distinct periods:

3.1 Old Persian

Main articles: Old Persian and Persian verbs
As a written language, Old Persian is attested in royal

In South Asia the word Farsi refers to the language

while "Parsi" describes the people of Persian origin, particularly Zoroastrians.
The Academy of Persian Language and Literature has declared that the name Persian is more appropriate, as
it has the longer tradition in western languages and better expresses the role of the language as a mark of cultural and national continuity.[35] Some Persian language
scholars such as Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopdia
Iranica, and University of Arizona professor Kamran Talattof, have also rejected the usage of Farsi in their
articles.[36][37]
The international language-encoding standard ISO 639-1
uses the code fa, as its coding system is mostly based on
the local names. The more detailed standard ISO 639-3
uses the name Persian (code fas) for the dialect continuum spoken across Iran and Afghanistan. This consists of the individual languages Dari (Afghan Persian)
and Iranian Persian.[38]

Old Persian

Achaemenid inscriptions. It is an Iranian language and as

such, like its modern-day variant, a branch of the IndoEuropean language family. The oldest known text written
in Old Persian is from the Behistun Inscriptions.[43] Examples of Old Persian have been found in what is now
[44]
Currently, VOA, BBC, DW, and RFE/RL use Persian present-day Iran, Turkey, Bahrain, Iraq, and Egypt.
Service for their broadcasts in the language. RFE/RL Old Persian is one of the oldest Indo-European languages
[45]
also includes a Tajik service, and an Afghan (Dari) ser- which is attested in original texts.
vice. This is also the case for the American Association Xenophon, a Greek general serving in some of the Persian
of Teachers of Persian, The Centre for Promotion of Per- expeditions, describes many aspects of Armenian village
sian Language and Literature, and many of the leading life and hospitality in around 401 BC, which is at a time
scholars of Persian language.[39]
when Old Persian was the only form of Persian used. He

History

Persian is an Iranian language belonging to the IndoIranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages.
In general, Iranian languages are known from three periods, usually referred to as Old, Middle, and New (Modern) periods. These correspond to three eras in Iranian
history; Old era being the period from sometime before
Achaemenids, the Achaemenid era and sometime after
Achaemenids (that is to 400300 BC), Middle era being
the next period most ocially Sassanid era and sometime
in post-Sassanid era, and the New era being the period afterwards down to present day.[40]

relates that the Armenian people spoke a language that

to his ear sounded like this language, the language of the
Persians.[46]

3.2 Middle Persian

Main article: Middle Persian

The complex conjugation and declension of Old Persian

yielded to the structure of Middle Persian in which the
dual number disappeared, leaving only singular and plural, as did gender. Middle Persian developed the ezfe
construction, expressed through , to indicate some of the
relations between words that have been lost with the simAccording to available documents, the Persian language plication of the earlier grammatical system.
is the only Iranian language[10][41] for which close philo- Although the middle period of the Iranian languages
logical relationships between all of its three stages are formally begins with the fall of the Achaemenid Empire,
established and so that Old, Middle, and New Persian the transition from Old to Middle Persian had probably
represent[10][42] one and the same language of Persian, already begun before the 4th century. However, Middle

3.3

New Persian

Persian is not actually attested until 600 years later when

it appears in Sassanid era (224651) inscriptions, so any
form of the language before this date cannot be described
with any degree of certainty. Moreover, as a literary language, Middle Persian is not attested until much later, to
the 6th or 7th century. And from the 8th century onward,
Middle Persian gradually began yielding to New Persian,
with the middle-period form only continuing in the texts
of Zoroastrian tradition.
The native name of Middle Persian was Parsig or Parsik, after the name of the ethnic group of the southwest,
that is, of Pars", Old Persian Parsa, New Persian Fars.
This is the origin of the name Farsi as it is today used to
signify New Persian. Following the collapse of the Sassanid state, Parsik came to be applied exclusively to (either Middle or New) Persian that was written in Arabic
script. From about the 9th century onwards, as Middle
Persian was on the threshold of becoming New Persian,
the older form of the language came to be erroneously
called Pahlavi, which was actually but one of the writing systems used to render both Middle Persian as well as
various other Middle Iranian languages. That writing system had previously been adopted by the Sassanids (who
were Persians, i.e. from the southwest) from the preceding Arsacids (who were Parthians, i.e. from the northeast). While Rouzbeh (Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaa, 8th century) still distinguished between Pahlavi (i.e. Parthian)
and Persian (in Arabic text: al-Farisiah) (i.e. Middle Per- Ferdowsi's Shahnameh
sian), this distinction is not evident in Arab commentaries
written after that date.
Gernot Windfuhr considers new Persian as an evolution of the Old Persian language and the Middle Persian
language[47] but also states that none of the known Middle Persian dialects is the direct predecessor of the [New]
Persian [48][49] Professor. Ludwig Paul states: The language of the Shahnameh should be seen as one instance of
continuous historical development from Middle to New
Persian.[50]

3.3

New Persian

The history of New Persian itself spans more than 1,000

1,200 years. The development of the language in its last
period is often divided into three stages dubbed early,
classical, and contemporary. Native speakers of the language can in fact understand early texts in Persian with
minimal adjustment, because the morphology and, to a
lesser extent, the lexicon of the language have remained
relatively stable for the greater part of a millennium.[51]

foundations for a renaissance in the realm of letters. New

Persian was born in Bactria through the adaptation of the
spoken form of Sassanian Middle Persian court language
called Dari. The cradle of the Persian literary renaissance
lay in the east of Greater Iran, in the Greater Khorasan
and Transoxiana regions close to the river Amu Darya.[53]
The mastery of the newer speech having now been
transformed from Middle into New Persian was already
complete during three princely dynasties of Iranian origin Tahirid (820872), Saarid (860903) and Samanid
(874999), and could develop only in range and power of
expression.[53]
Abbas of Merv is mentioned as being the earliest minstrel to chant verse in the newer Persian tongue and after
him the poems of Hanzala Badghisi were among the most
famous between the Persian-speakers of the time.[54]

The rst poems of the Persian language, a language historically called Dari, have emerged in Afghanistan.[55]
The rst signicant Persian poet was Rudaki. He ourished in the 10th century, when the Smnids were at the
height of their power. His reputation as a court poet and
3.3.1 Early New Persian
as an accomplished musician and singer has survived, alNew Persian developed from the 8th century on as an in- though little of his poetry has been preserved. Among
is versied fables collected in Kalilah va
dependent literary language.[52] Upon the decline of the his lost works
[15]
Dimnah.
Caliphate at Baghdad in the 9th century began the reestablishment of Persian national life and Persians laid the The language spread geographically from the 11th cen-

tury on and was the medium through which among others, Central Asian Turks became familiar with Islam and
urban culture. New Persian was widely used as a transregional lingua franca, a task for which it was particularly suitable due to its relatively simple morphological
structure and this situation persisted until at least 19th
century.[52] In the late Middle Ages, new Islamic literary
languages were created on the Persian model: Ottoman,
Chaghatay and Urdu, which are regarded as structural
daughter languages of Persian.[52]
3.3.2

HISTORY

Persia, Persian began to adopt many words from Arabic

and as time went by, a few words were even taken from
Turko-Mongol languages under the Mongol Empire and
Turco-Persian society.
3.3.3 Use in Asia Minor

Classical Persian

See also: List of Persian poets and authors

The Islamic conquest of Persia marks the beginning of

Persian on an Ottoman miniature.

Kalilah va Dimna, an inuential work in Persian literature.

Despite of Asia Minor (or Anatolia) having been ruled

at various times prior to the Middle Ages by various
Persian-speaking dynasties originating in Iran, the language lost its traditional foothold there with the demise of
the Sassanian Empire. Centuries later however, the practise and usage of Persian in the region would be strongly
revived. A branch of the Seljuks, the Sultanate of Rum,
took Persian language, art and letters to Anatolia.[57] They
adopted Persian language as the ocial language of the
empire.[58] The Ottomans, which can roughly be seen
as their eventual successors, took this tradition over. Persian was the ocial court language of the empire, and for
some time, the ocial language of the empire.[59] The educated and noble class of the Ottoman Empire all spoke
Persian, such as sultan Selim I, despite being Safavid
Irans archrival and a staunch opposer of Shia Islam.[60] It
was a major literary language in the empire.[61] Some of
the noted earlier Persian works during the Ottoman rule
are Idris Bidlisi's Hasht Bihisht, which begun in 1502 and
covered the reign of the rst eight Ottoman rulers, and
the Salim-Namah, a glorication of Selim I.[60] After a
period of several centuries, Ottoman Turkish (which was
highly Persianised itself) had developed towards a fully
accepted language of literature, which was even able to
satisfy the demands of a scientic presentation.[62] However, the number of Persian and Arabic loanwords contained in those works increased at times up to 88%.[62]

the new history of Persian language and literature. This

period produced world class Persian language poets and
the language served, for a long span of time, as the lingua
franca of major parts of the Islamic world and South Asia.
It was also the ocial and cultural language of many Islamic dynasties, including Samanids, Buyids, Tahirids,
Ziyarids, the Mughal Empire, Timurids, Ghaznavid,
Seljuq, Khwarezmids, Sultanate of Rum, Shirvanshah,
Safavid, Afsharids, Zand, Qajar, Ottomans and also many
Mughal successor states such as the Nizams etc. For example, Persian was the only oriental language known and
used by Marco Polo at the Court of Kublai Khan and in
his journeys through China.[56] The heavy inuence of
Persian on other languages can still be witnessed across 3.3.4 Use in South Asia
the Islamic world, especially, and it is still appreciated as
a literary and prestigious language among the educated Main article: Persian language in South Asia
elite, especially in elds of music (for example Qawwali) See also: Persian and Urdu
and art (Persian literature). After the Arab invasion of The Persian language inuenced the formation of many

5
high and speak a Dari-dialect.
3.3.5 Contemporary Persian

A variant of the Iranian standard ISIRI 9147 keyboard layout

for Persian.
Persian poem, Agra Fort, India, 18th century

Since the nineteenth century, Russian, French and

English and many other languages have contributed to
the technical vocabulary of Persian. The Iranian National
Academy of Persian Language and Literature is responsible for evaluating these new words in order to initiate
and advise their Persian equivalents. The language itself
has greatly developed during the centuries.

4 Varieties
There are three modern varieties of standard Persian:

Persian poem, Takht-e Shah Jahan, Agra Fort, India

modern languages in West Asia, Europe, Central Asia,

and South Asia. Following the Turko-Persian Ghaznavid
conquest of South Asia, Persian was rstly introduced in
the region by Turkic Central Asians.[63] The basis in general for the introduction of Persian language into the subcontinent was set, from its earliest days, by various Persianized Central Asian Turkic and Afghan dynasties.[57]
For ve centuries prior to the British colonization, Persian was widely used as a second language in the Indian
subcontinent, due to the admiration the Mughals (who
were of Turco-Mongol origin) had for the foreign language. It took prominence as the language of culture
and education in several Muslim courts on the subcontinent and became the sole ocial language under the
Mughal emperors. Beginning in 1843, though, English
and Hindustani gradually replaced Persian in importance
on the subcontinent.[64] Evidence of Persians historical
inuence there can be seen in the extent of its inuence
on certain languages of the Indian subcontinent. Words
borrowed from Persian are still quite commonly used in
certain Indo-Aryan languages, especially Urdu, also historically known as Hindustani. There is also a small population of Zoroastrian Iranis in India, who migrated around
16th-18th century to escape religious execution from the
Qajar Empire when execution of non-Muslims was on its

Western Persian (Persian, Iranian Persian, or Farsi)

is spoken in Iran, and by minorities in Iraq and the
Persian Gulf states.
Eastern Persian (Dari Persian, Afghan Persian, or
Dari) is spoken in Afghanistan.
Tajiki (Tajik Persian) is spoken in Tajikistan and
Uzbekistan. It is written in the Cyrillic script.
All these three varieties are based on the classic Persian
literature and its literary tradition. There are also several local dialects from Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan
which slightly dier from the standard Persian. Hazaragi
(in Central Afghanistan and Pakistan), Herati (in Western
Afghanistan), Darwazi (in Afghanistan and Tajikistan),
Tehrani (in Iran, the basis of standard Iranian Persian)
and Dehwari (in Pakistan) are examples of these dialects.
Persian-speaking peoples of Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan can understand one another with a relatively high
degree of mutual intelligibility.[65]
The following are some languages closely related to Persian, or in some cases are considered dialects:
Luri (or Lori), spoken mainly in the southwestern Iranian provinces of Lorestan, Kohgiluyeh and
Boyer-Ahmad Province, some western parts of Fars
Province and some parts of Khuzestan.

6 GRAMMAR
Tat, spoken in parts of Azerbaijan, Russia, etc.
It includes Judo-Tat & Christian-Tat.
It is
classied as a variety of Persian and a Persian
dialect.[66][67][68][69][70]

distinction has disappeared and /i/ merged with /i/, and

/u/ with /u/.[71] Therefore, contemporary Afghan Dari
dialects are the closest one can get to the vowel inventory
of Early New Persian.

Judo-Tat. Part of the Tat Persian continuum,

and spoken in Azerbaijan, Russia, as well as
notably by immigrant communities in Israel
and New York.

According to most studies on the subject (e.g. Samareh

1977, Pisowicz 1985, Naja 2001), the three vowels
which are traditionally considered long (/i/, /u/, //) are
currently distinguished from their short counterparts (/e/,
/o/, //) by position of articulation, rather than by length.
However, there are studies (e.g. Hayes 1979, Windfuhr
1979) which consider vowel length to be the active feature
of this system, i.e. //, /i/, and /u/ are phonologically long
or bimoraic whereas //, /e/, and /o/ are phonologically
short or monomoraic.

Lari (in southern Iran)

Phonology

Main article: Persian phonology

There are also some studies which consider quality and

quantity to be both active in the Iranian system (e.g.
Iranian Persian has six vowels and twenty-three conso- Toosarvandani 2004). This view oers a synthetic analysis which includes both quality and quantity, often sugnants.
gesting that modern Persian vowels are in a transition
state between the quantitative system of classical Persian
and a hypothetical future Persian which will eliminate all
5.1 Vowels
traces of quantity, and retain quality as the only active
feature.

The vowel phonemes of modern Tehran Persian

The length distinction is nevertheless strictly observed by

careful reciters of classic-style poetry, for all varieties (including the Tajik).

5.2 Consonants
(Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a voiced consonant. Allophones are in parentheses.)

6 Grammar

Historically, Persian has distinguished length: Early New Main article: Persian grammar
Persian possessed a series of ve long vowels (/i/, /u/,
//, /o/ and /e/) along with three short vowels //, /i/ and
/u/. At some point prior to the sixteenth century within
the general area that is today encompassed by modern 6.1 Morphology
Iran, /e/ and /i/ merged into /i/, and /o/ and /u/ merged
into /u/. Thus, the older contrasts such as shr lion
Suxes predominate Persian morphology, though
vs. shr milk, and rd river vs rd bow-string were
there is a small number of prexes.[72] Verbs can
lost. However, there are exceptions to this rule, and in
express tense and aspect, and they agree with
some words "" and "" are preserved or merged into the
the subject in person and number.[73] There is no
diphthongs [e] and [o] (which are descendants of the
grammatical gender in Persian, nor are pronouns
diphthongs [] and [] in Early New Persian), instead
marked for natural gender.
of merging into /i/ and /u/. Examples of this exception
can be found in words such as [ron] (bright).
However, in the eastern varieties, the archaic distinction
of /e/ and /i/ (respectively known as Y-ye majhl and
Y-ye ma'rf) is still preserved, as well as the distinction of /o/ and /u/ (known as Ww-e majhl and Ww-e
ma'rf). On the other hand, in standard Tajik, the length

6.2 Syntax
Normal declarative sentences are structured as "(S) (PP)
(O) V. This means sentences can comprise optional
subjects, prepositional phrases, and objects, followed by

7
a required verb. If the object is specic, then the ob- Turkish and Mongolian vocabulary in Persian is minor
ject is followed by the word r and precedes prepositional in comparison to that of Arabic and these words were
phrases: "(S) (O + r) (PP) V.[73]
mainly conned to military, pastoral terms and political
sector (titles, administration, etc.).[79] New military and
political titles were coined based partially on Middle Persian (e.g. arte for army, instead of the Uzbek qoshin;
7 Vocabulary
sarlakar; darybn; etc.) in the 20th century. Persian has likewise inuenced the vocabularies of other lanMain article: Persian vocabulary
guages, especially other Indo-European languages such
as Armenian,[80] Urdu, and (to a lesser extent) Hindi;
the latter two through conquests of Persianized Central
Asian and Afghan invaders;[81] Turkic languages such as
7.1 Native word formation
Ottoman Turkish, Chagatai, Tatar, Turkish,[82] Turkmen,
Azeri,[83] Uzbek, and Karachay-Balkar;[84] Caucasian
Persian makes extensive use of word building and comlanguages such as Georgian,[85] and to a lesser extent,
bining axes, stems, nouns and adjectives. Persian freAvar and Lezgin;[86] Afro-Asiatic languages like Assyrian
quently uses derivational agglutination to form new words
and Arabic;[87] and even Dravidian languages indirectly
from nouns, adjectives, and verbal stems. New words are
especially Telugu and Brahui; as well as Austronesian
extensively formed by compounding two existing words
languages such as Indonesian and Malay. Persian has
combining into a new one, as is common in German.
also had a signicant lexical inuence, via Turkish, on
Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, and Serbo-Croatian, particularly as spoken in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
7.2 Inuences
Use of occasional foreign synonyms instead of Persian
See also: List of English words of Persian origin, List words can be a common practice in everyday communiof French loanwords in Persian and Iranian languages cations as an alternative expression. In some instances
Comparison table of the Iranian languages
in addition to the Persian vocabulary, the equivalent synonyms from multiple foreign languages can be used. For
[18]
While having a lesser inuence on Arabic
and other example, in Iranian colloquial Persian (not in Afghanistan
languages of Mesopotamia and its core vocabulary being or Tajikistan), the phrase thank you may be expressed
of Middle Persian origin,[13] New Persian contains a con- using the French word merci (stressed however on the rst
siderable amount of Arabic lexical items,[10][17][19] which syllable), the hybrid Persian-Arabic phrase moteakker
were Persianized[20] and often took a dierent meaning am (moteakker being merciful in Arabic, commonly
and usage than the Arabic original. Persian loanwords pronounced motakker in Persian, and the verb am meanof Arabic origin especially include Islamic terms. The ing I am in Persian), or by the pure Persian phrase
Arabic vocabulary in other Iranian, Turkic and Indic lan- seps-gozr am.
guages are generally understood to have been copied from
New Persian, not from Arabic itself.[74]
John R. Perry, in his article Lexical Areas and Semantic
Fields of Arabic, estimates that about 24 percent of an
everyday vocabulary of 20,000 words in current Persian,
and more than 25 percent of the vocabulary of classical
and modern Persian literature, are of Arabic origin. The
text frequency of these loan words is generally lower and
varies by style and topic area. It may approach 25 percent of a text in literature.[75] Among the Arabic loan
words, relatively few (14 percent) are from the semantic domain of material culture, while a larger number are
from domains of intellectual and spiritual life.[76] Most of
the Arabic words used in Persian are either synonyms of
native terms or could be glossed in Persian.[77]
The inclusion of Mongolian and Turkic elements in the
Persian language should also be mentioned,[78] not only
because of the political role a succession of Turkic dynasties played in Iranian history, but also because of the
immense prestige Persian language and literature enjoyed
in the wider (non-Arab) Islamic world, which was often
ruled by sultans and emirs with a Turkic background. The

8 Orthography
The vast majority of modern Iranian Persian and Dari
text is written with the Arabic script. Tajik, which is
considered by some linguists to be a Persian dialect inuenced by Russian and the Turkic languages of Central
Asia,[88][89] is written with the Cyrillic script in Tajikistan
(see Tajik alphabet).

8.1 Persian alphabet

Main article: Persian alphabet
Modern Iranian Persian and Afghan Persian are written using a modied variant of the Arabic alphabet,
which uses dierent pronunciation and additional letters
not found in Arabic. Tajik Persian, as used in Tajikistan, is typically written in a modied version of the
Cyrillic alphabet. There also exist several romanization

8 ORTHOGRAPHY
kerem cream, and krom chrome are all spelled krm
( )in Persian. The reader must determine the word
from context. The Arabic system of vocalization marks
known as harakat is also used in Persian, although some
of the symbols have dierent pronunciations. For example, an Arabic damma is pronounced [~u], while in Iranian Persian it is pronounced [o]. This system is not used
in mainstream Persian literature; it is primarily used for
teaching and in some (but not all) dictionaries.
There are several letters generally only used in Arabic
loanwords. These letters are pronounced the same as similar Persian letters. For example, there are four functionally identical letters for /z/ () , three letters for /s/
() , two letters for /t/ () , two letters for /h/ () .
On the other hand, there are four letters that don't exist
in Arabic .
8.1.1 Additions

Example showing Nastalqs (Persian) proportion rules.[ 1 ]

The Persian alphabet adds four letters to the Arabic alphabet:

The e is pronounced with the same sound as the s in
measure and fusion, or the z in azure. For Arabic speakers, it is similar to the way Lebanese or Syrians
pronounce the Arabic letter jm (). For French speakers, it is the sound of the letter j or g when its followed
by an e or i.

Dehkhoda's personal handwriting; a typical cursive Persian

script.

The letters pe, e and gaf are similar to the English p, ch

and hard g.
8.1.2 Variations

The word Persian in Pahlavi scripts

systems for Persian. After the conversion of Persia to

Islam (see Islamic conquest of Iran), it took approximately 150 years before Persians adopted the Arabic
script in place of the older alphabet. Previously, two different scripts were used, Pahlavi, used for Middle Persian, and the Avestan alphabet (in Persian, Dndapirak or
Din Dabireliterally: religion script), used for religious
purposes, primarily for the Avestan language but sometimes for Middle Persian.

The Persian alphabet also modies some letters from the

Arabic alphabet. For example, alef with hamza below (
) changes to alef ( ;) words using various hamzas get
spelled with yet another kind of hamza (so that becomes )even though the latter is also correct in Arabic; and teh marbuta ( ) changes to heh ( ) or teh (
).
The letters dierent in shape are:

8.2 Latin alphabet

Main article: Romanization of Persian

The International Organization for Standardization has

published a standard for simplied transliteration of Persian into Latin, ISO 233-3, titled Information and documentation Transliteration of Arabic characters into
Part 3: Persian language Simplied
In modern Persian script, vowels that are referred to as Latin characters
[90]
but the transliteration scheme is not in
transliteration
short vowels (a, e, o) are usually not written; only the long
widespread
use.
vowels (', , ) are represented in the text, so words distinguished from each other only by short vowels are am- Another Latin alphabet, based on the Uniform Turkic albiguous in writing: kerm worm, karam generosity, phabet, was used in Tajikistan in the 1920s and 1930s.

9
The alphabet was phased out in favor of Cyrillic in the
late 1930s.[88]
Fingilish is Persian using ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is
most commonly used in chat, emails and SMS applications. The orthography is not standardized, and varies
among writers and even media (for example, typing 'aa'
for the [] phoneme is easier on computer keyboards than
on cellphone keyboards, resulting in smaller usage of the
combination on cellphones).

8.3

Tajik alphabet

Persian grammar
Persian name
Persian phonology
Persianate
Persian Romanization schemes
Southwestern Iranian dialects

11 References
[1] Samadi, Habibeh; Nick Perkins (2012). Martin Ball,
David Crystal, Paul Fletcher, ed. Assessing Grammar:
The Languages of Lars. Multilingual Matters. p. 169.
ISBN 978-1-84769-637-3.
[2] IRAQ. Retrieved 7 November 2014.
[3] H. Pilkington,"Islam in Post-Soviet Russia,Psychology
Press, Nov 27, 2002. p. 27: Among other indigenous
peoples of Iranian origin were the Tats, the Talishes and
the Kurds

Tajik advertisement for an academy.

Main article: Tajik alphabet

The Cyrillic alphabet was introduced for writing the Tajik
language under the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic in the
late 1930s, replacing the Latin alphabet that had been
used since the Bolshevik revolution and the Persian script
that had been used earlier. After 1939, materials published in Persian in the Persian script were banned from
the country.[88][91]

Examples

The following text is from Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

10

See also

The existential be and copula in Persian

Academy of Persian Language and Literature
Dari
Pahlavi
List of English words of Persian origin
List of French loanwords in Persian
Persian alphabet
Persian braille

[4] T. M. Mastiu gina, Lev Perepelkin, Vitali Via cheslavovich Naumkin, An Ethnic History of Russia: PreRevolutionary Times to the Present,Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996 . p. 80:""The Iranian Peoples (Ossetians,
Tajiks, Tats, Mountain Judaists)"
[5] Windfuhr, Gernot: The Iranian Languages, Routledge
2009, p. 418.
[6] Mikael Parkvall, Vrldens 100 strsta sprk 2007
(The Worlds 100 Largest Languages in 2007), in
Nationalencyklopedin
[7] Nordho, Sebastian; Hammarstrm, Harald; Forkel,
Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). Farsic Caucasian Tat. Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for
Evolutionary Anthropology.
[8] Asta Olesen, Islam and Politics in Afghanistan, Volume
3, Psychology Press, 1995. pg 205: There began a general promotion of the Pashto language at the expense of
Farsi previously dominant at the educational and administrative level and the term 'Dari' for the Afghan version of Persian came into common use, being ocially
adopted in 1958
[9] Mona Baker, Kirsten Malmkjr, Routledge Encyclopedia
of Translation Studies, pg 518: among them the realignment of Central Asian Persian, renamed Tajiki by the Soviet Union,
[10] Lazard, Gilbert 1975, The Rise of the New Persian Language in Frye, R. N., The Cambridge History of Iran,
Vol. 4, pp. 595632, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. The language known as New Persian, which
usually is called at this period (early Islamic times) by
the name of Dari or Farsi-Dari, can be classied linguistically as a continuation of Middle Persian, the ocial religious and literary language of Sassanian Iran, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the

10

11

Achaemenids. Unlike the other languages and dialects,

ancient and modern, of the Iranian group such as Avestan,
Parthian, Soghdian, Kurdish, Balochi, Pashto, etc., Old
Persian, Middle and New Persian represent one and the
same language at three states of its history. It had its origin
in Fars (the true Persian country from the historical point
of view) and is dierentiated by dialectical features, still
easily recognizable from the dialect prevailing in northwestern and eastern Iran.
[11] Ulrich Ammon, Norbert Dittmar, Klaus J. Mattheier, Peter Trudgill, Sociolinguistics Hsk 3/3 Series Volume 3 of
Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society, Walter de Gruyter, 2006.
2nd edition. pg 1912. Excerpt: Middle Persian, also
called Pahlavi is a direct continuation of old Persian, and
was used as the written ocial language of the country.
However, after the Moslem conquest and the collapse of
the Sassanids, the Pahlavi language was gradually replaced
by Dari, a variety of Middle Persian, with considerable
loan elements from Arabic and Parthian.
[12] Skjrv, Prods Oktor (2006). Encyclopedia Iranica,
Iran, vi. Iranian languages and scripts, new Persian, is
the descendant of Middle Persian and has been ocial language of Iranian states for centuries, whereas for
other non-Persian Iranian languages close genetic relationships are dicult to establish between their dierent
(Middle and Modern) stages. Modern Yanbi belongs
to the same dialect group as Sogdian, but is not a direct
descendant; Bactrian may be closely related to modern
Yida and Munji (Munjni); and Wakhi (Wi) belongs
with Khotanese.
[13] Richard Davis, Persian in Josef W. Meri, Jere L.
Bacharach, Medieval Islamic Civilization, Taylor &
Francis, 2006. pp. 602603. The grammar of New
Persian is similar to many contemporary European languages."Similarly, the core vocabulary of Persian continued to be derived from Pahlavi.
[14] Modernity and Modernism in Persophone Literary History, Humboldt-Universitt zu Berlin
[15] Encyclopdia Britannica: Persian literature, retrieved
September 2011.
[16] Dialect, Culture, and Society in Eastern Arabia: Glossary.
Clive Holes. 2001. Page XXX. ISBN 90-04-10763-0
[17] Lazard, Gilbert, Pahlavi, Prsi, dari: Les langues d'Iran
d'aps Ibn al-Muqaa in R.N. Frye, Iran and Islam. In
Memory of the late Vladimir Minorsky, Edinburgh University Press, 1971.
[18] Nushin Namazi (24 November 2008). Persian Loan
Words in Arabic. Retrieved 1 June 2009.
[19] Classe, Olive (2000). Encyclopedia of literary translation into English. Taylor & Francis. p. 1057. ISBN
1-884964-36-2. Since the Arab conquest of the country in 7th century AD, many loan words have entered the
language (which from this time has been written with a
slightly modied version of the Arabic script) and the literature has been heavily inuenced by the conventions of
Arabic literature.

REFERENCES

[20] Ann K. S. Lambton, Persian grammar, Cambridge University Press 1953. The Arabic words incorporated into
the Persian language have become Persianized.
[21] Windfuhr, Gernot (1987). Berard Comrie, ed. The
Worlds Major Languages. Oxford: Oxford University
Press. pp. 523546. ISBN 978-0-19-506511-4.
[22] Or zabn-e frsi
[23] Or \ frsi-ye dari
[24] See Dari Geographical distribution
[25] Or / zabon-i tojiki
[26] See Tajik language Geographical distribution
[27] . Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek
English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
[28] Harper, Douglas. Persia. Online Etymology Dictionary.
[29] Oxford English Dictionary online, s.v. Persian, draft revision June 2007.
[30] OED online, s.v. Prsi.
[31] Spooner, Brian (1994). Dari, Farsi, and Tojiki. In
Marashi, Mehdi. Persian Studies in North America: Studies in Honor of Mohammad Ali Jazayery. Leiden: Brill.
pp. 177178.
[32] Spooner, Brian (2012). Dari, Farsi, and Tojiki. In
Schiman, Harold. Language policy and language conict in Afghanistan and its neighbors: the changing politics
of language choice. Leiden: Brill. p. 94.
[33] Campbell, George L.; King, Gareth, eds. (2013).
Persian. Compendium of the Worlds Languages (3rd
ed.). Routledge. p. 1339.
[34] For example: A. Gharib, M. Bahar, B. Fooroozanfar, J.
Homaii, and R. Yasami. Farsi Grammar. Jahane Danesh,
2nd edition, 2001.
[35] Pronouncement of the Academy of Persian Language
and Literature. Heritage.chn.ir. 19 November 2005. Retrieved 13 July 2010.
[36] Persian or Farsi?". Iranian.com. 16 November 1997.
Retrieved 23 September 2010.
[37] Frsi: recently appeared language!"". PersianDirect.com. 15 February 2005. Retrieved 23 September
2010.
[38] Documentation for ISO 639 identier: fas. Sil.org. Retrieved 13 July 2010.
[39] Kamran Talattof Persian or Farsi? The debate continues. Iranian.com. 16 December 1997. Retrieved 13 July
2010.
[40] (Skjaervo 2006) vi(2). Documentation.
[41] cf. (Skjaervo 2006) vi(2). Documentation. Excerpt:
Modern Yanbi belongs to the same dialect group as Sogdian, but is not a direct descendant; Bac-trian may be
closely related to modern Yida and Munji (Munjni); and
Wakhi (Wi) belongs with Khotanese.

11

[42] cf. (Skjaervo 2006) vi(2). Documentation. Excerpt 1:

Only the ocial languages Old, Middle, and New Persian represent three stages of one and the same language,
whereas close genetic relationships are dicult to establish between other Middle and Modern Iranian languages.
Modern Yanbi belongs to the same dialect group as Sogdian, but is not a direct descendant; Bac-trian may be
closely related to modern Yida and Munji (Munjni); and
Wakhi (Wi) belongs with Khotanese. Excerpt 2: New
Persian, the descendant of Middle Persian and ocial language of Iranian states for centuries..
[43] (Schmitt 2008, pp. 801)
[44] Roland G. Kent, Old Persian, 1953
[45] (Skjrv 2006, vi(2). Documentation. Old Persian.)
[46] Xenophon. Anabasis. pp. IV.v.29.
[47] Comrie, Bernard (1990) The major languages of South
Asia, the Middle East and Africa, Taylor & Francis,p.
82. Excerpt: " The evolution of Persian as the culturally dominant language of major parts of the Near East,
from Anatolia and Iran, to Central Asia, to northwest India until recent centuries, began with the political domination of these areas by dynasties originating in southwestern province of Iran, Pars, later Arabicised to Fars:
rst the Achaemenids (599331 BC) whose ocial language was Old Persian; then the Sassanids (c. AD 225
651) whose ocial language was Middle Persian. Hence,
the entire country used to be called Perse by the ancient
Greeks, a practice continued to this day. The more general designation 'Iran(-shahr)" derives from Old Iranian
aryanam (Khshathra)'(the realm) of Aryans. The dominance of these two dynasties resulted in Old and MiddlePersian colonies throughout the empire, most importantly
for the course of the development of Persian, in the northeast i.e., what is now Khorasan, northern Afghanistan and
Central Asia, as documented by the Middle Persian texts
of the Manichean found in the oasis city of Turfan in Chinese Turkistan (Sinkiang). This led to certain degree of
regionalisation.
[48] Comrie, Bernard (1990) The major languages of South
Asia, the Middle East and Africa, Taylor & Francis,p. 82
[49] Barbara M. Horvath, Paul Vaughan, Community languages, 1991, 276 p.
[50] L. Paul (2005), The Language of the Shahnameh in historical and dialectical perspective pg 150:"The language
of the Shahnameh should be seen as one instance of continuous historical development from Middle to New Persian in Dieter Weber, D. N. MacKenzie, Languages of
Iran: past and present: Iranian studies in memoriam David
Neil MacKenzie, Volume 8 of Iranica Series, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.
[51] Jeremias, Eva M. (2004). Iran, iii. (f). New Persian. Encyclopaedia of Islam 12 (New Edition, Supplement ed.). p. 432. ISBN 90-04-13974-5.
[52] Johanson, Lars, and Christiane Bulut. 2006. TurkicIranian contact areas: historical and linguistic aspects.
Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.

[53] Jackson, A. V. Williams. 1920. Early Persian poetry,

from the beginnings down to the time of Firdausi. New
York: The Macmillan Company. pp.1719. (in Public
Domain)
[54] Jackson, A. V. Williams.pp.1719.
[55] Adamec, Ludwig W. (2011). Historical Dictionary of
Afghanistan (4th Revised ed.). Scarecrow. p. 105. ISBN
978-0-8108-7815-0.
[56] John Andrew Boyle, Some thoughts on the sources for the
Il-Khanid period of Persian history, in Iran: Journal of
the British Institute of Persian Studies, British Institute of
Persian Studies, vol. 12 (1974), p. 175.
[57] Sigfried J. de Laet. History of Humanity: From the
seventh to the sixteenth century UNESCO, 1994. ISBN
9231028138 p 734
[58] Ga bor A goston,Bruce Alan Masters. Encyclopedia of the
Ottoman Empire Infobase Publishing, 1 jan. 2009 ISBN
1438110251 p 322
[59] Doris Wastl-Walter. The Ashgate Research Companion
to Border Studies Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2011 ISBN
0754674061 p 409
[60] Bertold Spuler. Persian Historiography & Geography Pustaka Nasional Pte Ltd ISBN 9971774887 p 68
[61] Franklin D. Lewis. Rumi - Past and Present, East and
West: The Life, Teachings, and Poetry of Jal l al-Din Rumi
Oneworld Publications, 18 okt. 2014 ISBN 1780747373
[62] Bertold Spuler. Persian Historiography & Geography Pustaka Nasional Pte Ltd ISBN 9971774887 p 69
[63] South Asian Sus: Devotion, Deviation, and Destiny.
Retrieved 2 January 2015.
[64] Clawson, Patrick (2004). Eternal Iran. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 6. ISBN 1-4039-6276-6.
[65] Beeman, William. Persian, Dari and Tajik (PDF).
Brown University. Archived from the original on 30
March 2013. Retrieved 30 March 2013.
[66] Gernot Windfuhr, Persian Grammar: history and state of
its study, Walter de Gruyter, 1979. pg 4:""Tat- Persian
spoken in the East Caucasus""
[67] V. Minorsky, Tat in M. Th. Houtsma et al., eds., The
Encyclopdia of Islam: A Dictionary of the Geography,
Ethnography and Biography of the Muhammadan Peoples, 4 vols. and Suppl., Leiden: Late E.J. Brill and London: Luzac, 191338.
[68] V. Minorsky, Tat in M. Th. Houtsma et al., eds., The
Encyclopdia of Islam: A Dictionary of the Geography,
Ethnography and Biography of the Muhammadan Peoples, 4 vols. and Suppl., Leiden: Late E.J. Brill and London: Luzac, 191338. Excerpt: Like most Persian dialects, Tati is not very regular in its characteristic features

12

[69] C Kerslake, Journal of Islamic Studies (2010) 21 (1):

147151. excerpt:"It is a comparison of the verbal systems of three varieties of Persianstandard Persian, Tat,
and Tajikin terms of the 'innovations that the latter
two have developed for expressing ner dierentiations
of tense, aspect and modality...
[70] Borjian, Habib, Tabari Language Materials from Il'ya
Berezins Recherches sur les dialectes persans, Iran and
the Caucasus, Volume 10, Number 2, 2006 , pp. 243
258(16). Excerpt:"It embraces Gilani, Ta- lysh, Tabari,
Kurdish, Gabri, and the Tati Persian of the Caucasus, all
but the last belonging to the north-western group of Iranian language.
[71] Perry, J. R. (2005) A Tajik Persian Reference Grammar
(Boston : Brill) ISBN 90-04-14323-8
[72] Megerdoomian, Karine (2000). Persian computational
morphology: A unication-based approach (PDF). Memoranda in Computer and Cognitive Science: MCCS-00-320.
p. 1.
[73] Mahootian, Shahrzad (1997). Persian. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-02311-4.

12 FURTHER READING

on the other hand, to technical pastoral terms. The contrast with Arab inuence is striking. While cultural pressure of the Arabs on Iran had been intense, they in no
way infringed upon the entire Iranian territory, whereas
with the Turks, whose contributions to Iranian civilization were modest, vast regions of Iranian lands were assimilated, notwithstanding the fact that resistance by the
latter was ultimately victorious. Several reasons may be
oered.
[80] ARMENIA AND IRAN iv. Iranian inuences in Armenian Language. Retrieved 2 January 2015.
[81] South Asian Sus: Devotion, Deviation, and Destiny.
Retrieved 23 April 2015.
[82] Andreas Tietze, Persian loanwords in Anatolian Turkish,
Oriens, 20 (1967) pp- 125168. Archived September 11,
2007 at the Wayback Machine
[83] L. Johanson, Azerbaijan: Iranian Elements in Azeri
Turkish in Encyclopedia Iranica Iranica.com
[84] George L. Campbell and Gareth King (2013).
Compendium of the World Languages.
Routledge.
ISBN 978-1-1362-5846-6. Retrieved 23 May 2014.

[74] John R. Perry, Lexical Areas and Semantic Fields of

Arabic in va gnes Csat, Eva Agnes Csato, Bo Isaksson, Carina Jahani, Linguistic convergence and areal diffusion: case studies from Iranian, Semitic and Turkic,
Routledge, 2005. pg 97: It is generally understood that
the bulk of the Arabic vocabulary in the central, contiguous Iranian, Turkic and Indic languages was originally
borrowed into literary Persian between the ninth and thirteenth centuries

[85] GEORGIA v. LINGUISTIC CONTACTS WITH IRANIAN LANGUAGES. Retrieved 2 January 2015.

[75] John R. Perry, Lexical Areas and Semantic Fields of

Arabic in va gnes Csat, Eva Agnes Csato, Bo
Isaksson, Carina Jahani, Linguistic convergence and areal
diusion: case studies from Iranian, Semitic and Turkic,Routledge, 2005. p.97

[89] Lazard, Gilbert (1956). Charactres distinctifs de la

langue Tadjik. Bulletin de la Socit Linguistique de Paris
52: 117186.

[76] Perry 2005, p.99.

[91] Smallwars.quantico.usmc.mil

[86] DAGESTAN. Retrieved 2 January 2014.

[87] Pasad. Bashgah.net. Bashgah.net. Retrieved 13 July
2010.
[88] Perry, John R. (2005). A Tajik Persian Reference Grammar. Boston: Brill. ISBN 90-04-14323-8.

[90] ISO 233-3:1999. Iso.org. 14 May 2010. Retrieved 13

July 2010.

[77] Perry 2005, p. 99.

[78] e.g. The role of Azeri-Turkish in Iranian Persian, on
which see John Perry, The Historical Role of Turkish in
Relation to Persian of Iran, Iran & the Caucasus, Vol. 5
(2001), pp. 193200.
[79] Xavier Planhol, Land of Iran, Encyclopedia Iranica.
The Turks, on the other hand, posed a formidable threat:
their penetration into Iranian lands was considerable, to
such an extent that vast regions adapted their language.
This process was all the more remarkable since, in spite of
their almost uninterrupted political domination for nearly
1,500 years, the cultural inuence of these rough nomads
on Irans rened civilization remained extremely tenuous.
This is demonstrated by the mediocre linguistic contribution, for which exhaustive statistical studies have been
made (Doerfer). The number of Turkish or Mongol words
that entered Persian, though not negligible, remained limited to 2,135, i.e., 3 percent of the vocabulary at the most.
These new words are conned on the one hand to the military and political sector (titles, administration, etc.) and,

12 Further reading
Asatrian, Garnik (2010). Etymological Dictionary
of Persian. Leiden Indo-European Etymological
Dictionary Series, 12. Brill Academic Publishers.
ISBN 978-90-04-18341-4.
Bleeck, Arthur Henry (1857). A concise grammar
of the Persian language. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Bleeck, Arthur Henry (1857). A concise grammar
of the Persian language: containing dialogues, reading lessons, and a vocabulary: together with a new
plan for facilitating the study of languages. B. Quaritch. p. 206. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Bleeck, Arthur Henry (1857). A concise grammar
of the Persian language (Oxford University ed.). Retrieved 6 July 2011.

13
Dahln, Ashk (April 2014) [1st edition October 2010].
Modern persisk grammatik (2nd
ed.). Ferdosi International Publication. ISBN
9789197988674.
Delshad, Farshid (September 2007). Anthologia
Persica. Logos Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8325-1620-8.
Doctor, Sorabshaw Byramji (1880). The students
Persian and English dictionary, pronouncing, etymological, & explanatory. Irish Presbyterian Mission
Press. p. 558. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Doctor, Sorabshaw Byramji; Sad (1880). Second
book of Persian, to which are added the Pandnmah
of Shaikh Sadi and the Gulistn, chapter 1, together
with vocabulary and short notes (2 ed.). Irish Presbyterian Mission Press. p. 120. Retrieved 6 July
2011.
Doctor, Sorabshaw Byramji (1879). The Persian
primer, being an elementary treatise on grammar,
with exercises. Irish Presbyterian Mission Press. p.
94. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Doctor, Sorabshaw Byramji (1875). A new grammar of the Persian tongue for the use of schools and
colleges. Irish Presbyterian Mission Press. p. 84.
Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Forbes, Duncan (1844). A grammar of the Persian
language: To which is added, a selection of easy extracts for reading, together with a copious vocabulary
(2 ed.). Printed for the author, sold by Allen & co.
p. 158. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Forbes, Duncan (1844). A grammar of the Persian
language: To which is added, a selection of easy extracts for reading, together with a copious vocabulary
(2 ed.). Printed for the author, sold by Allen & co.
p. 114. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Forbes, Duncan (1876). A grammar of the Persian
language: to which is added, a selection of easy extracts for reading, together with a vocabulary, and
translations. W.H. Allen. p. 238. Retrieved 6 July
2011.
Forbes, Duncan (1869). A grammar of the Persian
language: to which is added, a selection of easy extracts for reading, together with a vocabulary, and
translations (4 ed.). W.H. Allen & co. p. 238. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Ibrhm, Muammad (1841). A grammar of the
Persian language. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Jones, Sir William (1783). A grammar of the Persian language (3 ed.). Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Jones, Sir William (1797). A grammar of the Persian language (4 ed.). Retrieved 6 July 2011.

Jones, Sir William (1801). A grammar of the Persian language (5 ed.). Murray and Highley, J.
Sewell. p. 194. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Jones, Sir William (1823). Samuel Lee, ed. A grammar of the Persian language (8 ed.). Printed by W.
Nicol, for Parbury, Allen, and co. p. 230. Retrieved
6 July 2011.
Jones, Sir William (1828). Samuel Lee, ed. A grammar of the Persian language (9 ed.). Printed by W.
Nicol, for Parbury, Allen, and Co. p. 283. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Lazard, Gilbert (January 2006). Grammaire du persan contemporain. Institut Franais de Recherche en
Iran. ISBN 978-2909961378.
Lumsden, Matthew (1810). A grammar of the Persian language; comprising a portion of the elements
of Arabic inexion etc. Watley. Retrieved 6 July
2011.
Mace, John (18 October 2002). Persian Grammar:
For Reference and Revision (illustrated ed.). RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 0700716955.
Moises, Edward (1792). The Persian interpreter:
in three parts: A grammar of the Persian language.
Persian extracts, in prose and verse. A vocabulary:
Persian and English. Printed by L. Hodgson. p.
143. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Palmer, Edward Henry (1883). Guy Le Strange, ed.
A concise dictionary, English-Persian; together with
a simplied grammar of the Persian language. Completed and ed. by G. Le Strange. Retrieved 6 July
2011.
Palmer, Edward Henry (1883). Guy Le Strange, ed.
A concise dictionary, English-Persian: together with
a simplied grammar of the Persian language. Trbner. p. 42. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Platts, John Thompson (1894). A grammar of the
Persian language ... Williams and Norgate. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Ranking, George Speirs Alexander (1907). A
primer of Persian: containing selections for reading
and composition with the elements of syntax. The
Claredon Press. p. 72. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Richardson, John (1810). Sir Charles Wilkins,
David Hopkins, ed. A vocabulary, Persian, Arabic, and English: abridged from the quarto edition of
Richardsons dictionary. Printed for F. and C. Rivingson. p. 643. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Rosen, Friedrich; Nir al-Dn Shh (Shah of Iran)
(1898). Modern Persian colloquial grammar: containing a short grammar, dialogues and extracts from
Nasir-Eddin shahs diaries, tales, etc., and a vocabulary. Luzac & C.. p. 400. Retrieved 6 July 2011.

14

13

Schmitt, Rdiger (1989). Compendium linguarum

Iranicarum. L. Reichert. ISBN 3882264136.
Sen, Ramdhun (1841). Madhub Chunder Sen, ed.
A dictionary in Persian and English, with pronunciation (ed. by M.C. Sen). (2 ed.). Retrieved 6 July
2011.
Sen, Ramdhun (1829). A dictionary in Persian and
English. Printed for the author at the Baptist Mission
Press. p. 226. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Sen, Ramdhun (1833). A dictionary in English and
Persian. Printed at the Baptist Mission Press. p.
276. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Sen, Ramdhun (1833). A dictionary in English and
Persian. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Skjrv, Prods Oktor (2006). Iran, vi. Iranian languages and scripts. Encyclopaedia Iranica 13.
Thackston, W. M. (1 May 1993). An Introduction
to Persian (3rd Rev ed.). Ibex Publishers. ISBN
0936347295.
Tucker, William Thornhill (1801). A pocket dictionary of English and Persian. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Tucker, William Thornhill (1850). A pocket dictionary of English and Persian. J. Madden. p. 145.
Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Tucker, William Thornhill (1850). A pocket dictionary of English and Persian. J. Madden. p. 145.
Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Windfuhr, Gernot L. (15 January 2009). Persian.
In Bernard Comrie (ed.). The Worlds Major Languages (2 ed.). Routledge. ISBN 0415353394.
Wollaston, (Sir) Arthur Naylor (1882). An EnglishPersian dictionary. W.H. Allen. Retrieved 6 July
2011.

13

External links

Academy of Persian Language and Literature ocial website (Persian)

Assembly for the Expansion of the Persian Language ocial website (Persian)
Persian language Resources (Persian)
Persian Language Resources, parstimes.com
Haim, Soleiman. New PersianEnglish dictionary.
Teheran: Librairie-imprimerie Beroukhim, 1934
1936. uchicago.edu

EXTERNAL LINKS

Steingass, Francis Joseph.

A Comprehensive
PersianEnglish dictionary. London: Routledge &
K. Paul, 1892. uchicago.edu
UCLA Language Materials Project:
ucla.edu

Persian,

How Persian Alphabet Transits into Grati, Persian

Grati

15

14
14.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Persian language Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language?oldid=693898077 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Lee Daniel

Crocker, Devotchka, Vicki Rosenzweig, Mav, Manning Bartlett, DanKeshet, RK, Eclecticology, Pgdudda, Wathiik, William Avery, Hannes
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