Summary of Research on the Theories

Experiential Learning
Experiential learning involves a, direct encounter with the phenomena being studied rather
than merely thinking about the encounter, or only considering the possibility of doing
something about it. (Borzak 1981: 9 quoted in Brookfield 1983). Kolb advocates 'trial and
error' (extending to reflection, conceptualization and experimentation) through our own direct
personal experience, and asserts this ('trial and error' approach) as an important mechanism
for successful learning.
Transformative Learning
Mezirow (1997) posits that transformative learning involves transforming frames of
reference through critical reflection of assumptions, validating contesting beliefs through
discourse, taking action on one's reflective insight, and critically assessing it.
Cranton (2003) indicated that Mezirow described this transformation of perspective as going
through ten ordered phases:
Experiencing a disorienting dilemma
Undergoing self-examination
Conducting a critical assessment of internalized assumptions and feeling a sense of
alienation from traditional social expectations
Relating discontent to the similar experiences of others---recognizing that the problem is
shared
Exploring options for new ways of acting

 Building competence and self-confidence in new roles

Planning a course of action
Acquiring the knowledge and skills for implementing a new course of action
Trying out new roles and assessing them
Reintegrating into society with the other perspective

Self Directed Learning

Knowles (1975) stated that, self-directed learning describes a process in which individuals
take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs,
formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing
and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes. Self
directed learning fosters transformational learning and social action. Brookfield (1994) noted
that, the most complete form of self directed learning occurs when process and reflection are
married in the adults pursuit of meaning.

Common Features of the Theories

The three theories presented above all aim to describe learning from a constructivist view
point which states that learning is an active contextualized process of constructing knowledge
based on personal experiences and hypothesis of the environment. For theorists operating
under these schools of thoughts, learners should be autonomous individuals who are actively
involved in and take responsibility for their own learning. The theories emphasize the role of
the teacher as a facilitator of learning rather than owner of knowledge and therefore this

should be reflected in the physical and psychosocial environment which should aim to make
learning student centered. Additionally, the theories emphasize the need for learning to be
made authentic where learners are exposed to real life experiences. They also encourage
collaborative learning, where students would be granted the opportunities to learn vicariously.
These theories are cyclical in nature and view learning as a process which focuses on the
various stages that one experiences and the growth or learning which takes place during this
time. They see the need for persons to possess skills such as problem solving and critical
thinking if they are to be successful learners and as a result it can be inferred that reflection is
a necessary component for learning to take place as implied by these theories.
Key Principles which support reflective learning
Metacognition: this refers to higher order thinking which involves active control over
the cognitive processes engaged in learning and include activities such as planning
how to approach a given learning task, monitoring comprehension, and evaluating
progress Livingstone (1997).

Transfer of knowledge: Students extend what they have learned in one context to a
new context. (Donovan et al.,1999)

Analogical reasoning: Students compare and contrast what is known and familiar in
order to find meanings and solutions applicable to the particular context. (Donovan et
al.,1999)

Critical thinking: this includes the analysis and evaluation of an experience, thoughts
and feelings in order to derive a conclusion from which learning can stem.

Problem solving: this skill would be necessary to be able to cope with new
experiences as well as to plan to improve future experiences.

Community building: the learning theories emphasize the need for learners to work
collaboratively to share experiences as well as learn from each other.

The aforementioned information clearly indicates that reflection plays a vital role in each of
these theories. The various reflective processes described among theorists can be explicitly
seen or implied in each of these theories of learning. Let us first examine Gibbs (1988) model
of reflective practice in the diagram below and compare it to Kolbs model of experiential
learning as well as a diagram depicting relationships in Merizows (1997) theory of
transformative learning.

Gibbs (1988)

Kolb (1984) (Experiential Learning)

Self Directed learning (Medical

The different
stages inModel
the four
models
Transformative
Learning
(Mink
et alare quite similar to each other. All models focus on an
Education Vol 34, 299-36. 2000)
2009)
experience as well as describing feelings and thoughts as does Gibbs Model of Reflective
Practice. Furthermore, they all explore an experience like most reflective practice models do.
During reflection according to Gibbs model, the individual is required to interpret and make
sense of the experience. The other three models also emphasize critical analysis and
evaluation of the experience to determine what was bad, what went well, what works, why
did it work or not work ,what can be done differently or the learners or reflectors strengths
and weaknesses. All models also emphasize the need to learn from the experience, and
include an action plan as referred to by Gibbs (1988) or active experimentation by Kolb
(1984) or a suggestion to transfer what was learned to a new experience as stated by Mink
(2009). In retrospect, although the stages and wording in these models may be slightly
different, there is evidence that reflection or reflective practice is a significant part of and is
being fostered by the experiential, transformative and self directed learning theories.

Bibliography
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