2 HYDROSTATICS The density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit volume. That is, a substance of mass m and volume V has a density pgiven by m ery Specific gravity The specific gravity (SG) of a substance is defined as the weight of a certain volume of substance devided by the weight of the same volume of water. This equal the ratio between the density of substance and the density of water. It is a dimensionless quantity that has no units. Since the density of water is 1gm/m? =10° Kg/m? then the specific gravity will be equal numerically to its density measured in gm/m*, or 10° times its density when given in Kg/m*. Pressure Pressure (P) is defined as “the normal force per unit area” in a gas or 2 liquid., For a solid the normal force per unit area is called stress The units of pressure + (W/nr?) which is called Pascal (Pa), © Dyne Jen? (N/m? = 10 dyne /em?) + Atmospheric Pressure (atm.) _—_(1atm = 1.013x10° pa). +The height of a column of mercury (Hg) in mmHlgor emHg. The height of a column of mercury is the most common method of indicating pressure in medicine, For example, a peak (systolic) blood pressure reading of 120 mmbg indicates that the blood pressure equals the pressure at the base of a mercury column of this height.The pressure Punder a column of liquid can be expressed in terms of the liquid’s height (A) and density (p) P= F/A =my/A = (hAp) g/: poh Where g is the acceleration due to gravity JEP, is the atm. Pressure, the total or absolute pressure is, P=P, + pgh For two liquids of densitiesp, and p ». heights hy and h, producing the same pressure Pishi= p2ghz Prlu= parks What height of water is needed to produce the same pressure as 1 cm of Hg. Given that the density of mercury is 13.6 g/cm? Solution Since pygh,=poghy therefore py hy= Poh» 13.6 g/em' x 1 =1xh2 h, = 13.6 cm Since the density of mercury is 13.6 g/cm’, a column of water has to be 13.6 times higher than a given column of mercury in order to produce the same pressure. Sometimes it is more convenient to indicate pressure differences in the human body in terms of the height of a column of water. Gauge Pressure The pressure measured relative to the atmospheric pressure is called gauge pressure. ‘The sum of the gauge pressure and atmospheric pressure is called absolute pressure, P= Prt Poaige For example, if the pressure in a bicycle tire is 300 cm Hg, the absolute pressure is 300+76 = 376 cm Hg. The 300 cm Hg is the gauge pressure. The gauge pressure Punder a column of liquid is P= pg and the total or absolute pressure is given by P=P,+pghExample 2 What is the gauge pressure and the absolute pressure at a depth of 20 m in sea water ( =1003 kg/m) Solution The gauge pressure P Prauge =1003 x 9.8 x 20 PEP, + Poauge 013 x10° +2 .0 x10° 01 x10° * 3 atm Ih 0 x10" Pa = 0 atm, Negative pressures Pressures lower than the atmospheric are called negative pressures. There are a number of places in the body where the pressures are lower than atmospheric, or negative. For example, 1- When we breathe in (inspire) the pressure in the lungs must be lower than atmospheric pressure. The lung pressure during inspiration is a few centimeters of water neg 2- When a person drinks through a straw, the pressure in his mouth must be negative by an amount equal to the height of his mouth above the level of the liquid he is drinki3 HYDRODYNAMIC: he id flow A fluid is a type of matter that has no fixed shape. Gases and liquids are fluids. A fluid can flow. The types of fluid flow When a fluid is motion, its flow can be one of two types a) Steady or laminar flow: The flow is said to be steady or laminar if each particle of the fluid follows a smooth path, so that the paths of different particles never cross each other, and the velocity of the fluid at each point remains constant in time. Pig 181 b) Nonsteady or turbulent flow Above a critical speed, fluid flow becomes nonsteady or turbulent flow. Turbulent flow is flow characterized by small whielpool-like regions (vortices), Asan example of turbulent flow, the flow of water in a stream becomes turbulent in regions where rocks and other obstructions are encountered forming “white water” rapids an irregul 2-Internal friction and viscosity The term viscosity is used in fluid flow to ch internal friction in the fluid. The internal friction force (also called iscous force) is the resistance to two adjacent layers of the fluid to move relative to each other. cterize the degree ofFlu The properties of an ideal fluid are given by the following four assumptions : a) Nonviscous fluid. Ina nonviscous fluid, internal friction is neglected. An object moving i viscous fluid experiences no viscous force b) Steady flow. Ina steady flow the velocity of fluid at each point remains constant with time. c) Incompressible fluid. The density of an incompressible fluid remains constant with time. 4) Invotational flow. The irrotational flow has no angular momentum about any point. If a small wheel is placed in irrotational fluid it will not rotate about its center of mass. e The path taken by a fluid particle in a steady flow is called a streamline. The velocity of the fluid particles is tangent to the streamlines. In steady flow, no two streamlines can cross each other, for if they did, the flow would not be steady. ee ‘Stream lines,b) The tube of flow A set of streamlines forms what is called a tube of flow. The fluid particles cannot flow into or out of the sides of a tube of flow, since if they did, the streamlines would be crossing each other. b) Equation of continuity To derive the equation of continuity for a fluid moving With streamline flow through a pipe of varying cross-sectional area, we consider an ideal ‘luid flowing through a pipe as that shown in fig, 13.2. In a small time At we have the followings: 1) the fluid at the lower end (end |) moves a distance Av ;= v Af. If Ay is the cross-sectional area in this region , then the mass of fluid erossing the area A, in the time At is Am: Alan pAinAt (1) 2) the fluid at the upper end (end 2) moves a distance Avy= vA. IFA is the cross-sectional area in this region . then the mass of fluid crossing the area A, in the time At is Am;= pA,Am= pAyvAt (2) The mass entering the pipe at the lower end (end 1) must equal the mass Jeaving the tube at the upper end (end2) in the time At. From equations (13.1) and (13.2) we have PA, riAt = pAzrAt from this we get, Apr = Avr 3) Equation (13.3) is the continuity equation, It says that: The product of the cross-sectional area (A) and the fluid speed (v) at all poinis along the pipe is a constant for incompressible fluid.‘The volume flow rate The volume flow rate of a fluid is the volume of fluid crossing the cross-sectional area per unit time. It equals the quantity Av. From equation (13.3) we see that the volume of fluid entering the pipe at one end in a given time interval equals the volume leaving the pipe at the other end in this time. ‘Asa fluid moves through a pipe of varying cross-sectional area and elevation (height from earth's surface), the following quantities change (L) the pressure (P) of the fluid (2) the velocity (v) of the fluid particles and its kinetic energy (KE) (3) The potential energy (PE) Bernoulli derived an expression that relates the pressure (P) to fluid velocity (v) and height (1t) by applying the principle of conservation of energy to an ideal fluid flow. This relation is known as Bernoulli's equation. Consider the flow of an ideal fluid through a nonuniform pipe, as illustrated in fig 13.2 Ina time 4f we have the followings (a) The force on the lower end (end 1) of the pipe is PAZ, where PT is the pressure in the end1, The work done by this force is given by Wi=F Av, = PyA,Ac, = P/AV Where AV is the volume of section Lat the end 1 (b) The work done on the fluid at the upper end (end 2) in the time ArisP.AV ‘Thus the net work done on the fluid is W=(P;- PAV (4) art of this work goes into changing the kinetic energy of the fluid, and part goes into changing the gravitational potential energy. If Am is the mass passing through the pipe in the time Af, then (1) The change in its kinetic energy is: AK= (Am) vy = (Am) v7 (13.4) (2) The change in the potential energy is: AU =Amgh - Angh, (5) From 3,4 and 5, we get, (P)- P:)AV =% (Am) v3? = ¥% (Am) vP + Agi ~Amghy Dividing through by AV and using p =Am/AV we get, P,- P) = pvy - %2 pv’ + pehrpgh, Rearranging terms we get, Py. poe + ply = Prt! pre + pels This is Bernoulli's equation as applied to an ideal fluid flow. Itis often written as: P.% pv tpgh ronstant (7)Bernoulli's equation says that the sum of the pressure, (P), the kinetic energy per unit volume (% pv"), and the potential energy per unit volume (pg h) has the same value at all points along a streamline Special cases of Bernoulli’s equation |, in this case Bernoulli's equation When the fluid is at rest, becomes: Pi- P2 =p (ho- hi) (8) (b) A horizontal constricted pipe (The Venturi meter) For the horizontal tube with conical constriction shown in fig. | is called Venturi meter), hy = aand Bernoulli’ s equation applied to points Land 2 gives 3 (which. Pi, epvr=P:+%pv? (13.8) From the equation of continuity, we see that Ay v7 = A2¥ oF, V1 (AoA? Substituting this expression into equation (13.8) gives: Pre ep (Mal A =h tye TD) frie rna vena tte = 1, PE=EZ oo, Ve tay - Ag) Ya then’ Since» 2, = Pa) P(A, — Az)(2) we assume that the tank is large in cross-sectional area (42>>A,) then the fluid will be approximately at rest at the top, point 2 (i.e. v2 = 0) (3) applying Bernoulli's equation to points 1 and 2 (see the fig. below) and noting that the length of the tank is yo, we get ) Dat 2 pvr + PRYI= Po PRY? 1 per = pa(y2-Y=pgh vy = ¥2p8( YoY) This equation is Torricelli’s law