4 Section One — Chemical Concepts Hello, good evening and welcome to Chemistry. This section covers all of Chemistry's essential gor details — about ajoms, their innards, and whal they get up to with euch other when no one’s looking. Str 1 Atom — “s Nothin The structure of atoms is quite simple. Just learn and enjoy, my friend. vee The Nucleus 1) I's in the middle of the atom. It contains protons and neutrong, (It's the number of protons in an atom that decides what element it is.) 2) The nucleus has an overall positive charge, because protons are positively charged and neutron have no charge. k Seer . 8) Almost the whole imass of the atom ie 7 é concentrated in the nucleus. But size-wise H's tiny - : compared to the atom as a whole, The Electrons 1) They move around the nucleus in energy levele called shells. (Each shell is only allowed a pertain number of electrons.) 2) They have a negative charge (olectrons and protons have equal but opposite charges). 8) Theyte finy compared fo the nucleus (they have virtually no masa), but ac they move around they cover a lot of space. (The size of their orbits determines how big the atom is.) Number of Protons Equals Number of Electrons 1) Neutral atoms have no charge overall. 2) This ie because the number of protons alwaye equale the number of electrons in a neutral atom, and the charge on the electrons is the game size ae the charge on the protons, but opposite, 8) The number of neutrons isn't fixed but is usually about the same as the number of protons. ' ‘Know Your Particles PARTICLE [RELATIVE MAGG | RELATIVE CHAROE 4 1) Protons are heavy and positively charged. frole : a 2) Neutrons are heavy and neutral (no charge). | Netron J ° 8) Eleotrons are tiny and negatively charged. 4000 a Each Element has an Atomic Number and a Mass Number 1) The atomic number eays how many protons there are in 2m jyags uMpER atom, and H'e unique fo that element. ‘otal nunber oF => 16 2) The atomic number also tells you the number of glaotrons. _protons.and neutrons. 8) The ace number is the total number of protons and ATOMICNUMBER, >8 ‘neutrons in the atom. So if you want fo find the number of — (orFROTON NUMBER) autrong in an atom, VV WML LL 27/72 Number of protons, which is equal to Just subtract the Ona periodic tabie you! Hired the number of electrons. atomic number from = “eoatieatomlomaes! Nerent — the mass number. 7 Mano Number ERKLVN WSS Basic atom facts — they don’t take up much space... Atoms are tiny. And the atom’s nucleus is REALLY tiny. An atom might meacure 0.1 nanomettes aoross — that's 0.000 000 000 1 metres, or a hundred-millionth of a centimetre. Wow. That's little. Section One — Chemical ConceptsSolids, Liguids and Gases You can explain quite a bit of the stuff in Chemistry, if you oan get your head round this lot. States o ‘ter — Depel es Between Particl All stuff is made of particles (molecules or atoms) that are constantly moving, and the foroes | | between those partioles oan be weak or strong, depending on whether it's a solid, liquid or a gas. i] QQ 1) There are strong forces of attraction between particles, which holds them in fixed j pasitions in a very regular lattice arrangement, | ‘Solids fs 2) The particles don't move ftom their positions, so all golide keep a definite shape and volume, and don't flow tke liquids. 8) The particles vibrate about their positions — the hotter the solid beoomes, the ore they vibrate (causing solide to expand elightly when heated). A. If you heat the solid (give the particles more enveiu), a eventually the solid will melt and become lui 1) There is gome force of attraction betwoen the partioles. They're five to move past eaoh other, but they do tend to stick together. 2) Liquids don't keep a dofinite shape and will low fo Ail the bottom of a container. 8) The particles are constantly moving with random motion. ‘The hotter the liquid gets, the faster they move. This causes liquids 4o expand lightly when heated. Hf you now heal the liquid, eventually it will boil and become jas. 1) Thore'e next to no forge of attraction between the particles — they're free to move. ‘They travel in straight lines and only interact when they collide. Gases 2) Gases don't keep a definite shape or yolume and will alwaye fill any container. see ‘When particles bounce off the walls of a container they exert a pressure on ‘he walls, 8) Tho particles move gonstantly with random motion. The hotter the gas gets, the faster they move. Gases either expand when heated, or thelr pressure inoreases. o Some Liguids are More Volatile Than Others feonporsing 1) When a liquid is heated, the heat energy is transferred to ©, 9 the pattioles, which makes them move faster. 9 9o00 a 2) Some particles move faster than others. Liquide») 8 Ssco oy fete} 8) Fast-moving particles at the surface will overcome the foroes of attraction from the other partioles and escape. This is evaporation. 4) How easily a liquid evaporates is called its volatility. Evaporation ie why you can emoll stuff, even solide and liquids. A few partioles have enough energy to evaporate and the smoll receptors in your nose detect them — and hey presto — you smell the ‘substance. Perfumes, air fresheners, elo. are usually volatile liquids so they evaporate enough for you to smell them. Eau de swe sock ily not vel Take anothor emelly chemical — potrol. The molecules in petrol are held together (otherwise it wouldn't be a liquid), but they must be constantly escaping (evaporating) in order for you fo smell it. That's why you shouldn't have naked flames at a petrol station... the vapour from the pumps could explode. | | | | | Section One — Chernical ConceptsElements, Compounds and Mixtures There are only about 100 ot ¢o different kinds of atome, which doesn’t sound too bad. But they oan join together in loads of different combinations, which makes life more complicated. Elements Consist of O: e_of Atom Only Quite a lot of everyday substances are glemente: 5 Nitrogen is the most common | ~ =, element in the ait (about 78%). = se A ey SAlome in gaese offen go round in pire. A molecule with {wo atome in it fe called a diatomic moleoule. = are tightly packed. j= GSB ‘ompoun Chemically Bon +9 ’A gompound is a cubstanoe that is made of fvo or more on oben eemecneeiee different elements which are chemically joined (bonded) together. 77 © + GO => OOO 00, 1) For example, carbon dioxide Is a compound formed from a chemical reaction, One carbon atom teacts with two oxygen atoms to form a moleoule of oarbon dioxide, with the formula CO,. 2) Ite very difficult to separate the two original elements out again. 8) The properties of a compound are offen totally different from the 5 properties of the original elements. 2. Ha) A 4) For example, if'a mbcture of iron and sulfur is heated, the iron and @t+ —-» (@@)roo 7% sulfur atoms react to form the compound iron sulfide (Fe8). ‘Mixluro Compound Iron sulfide is not much like iron (e.g. if’s not attracted to a magnet), nor is it much lke sulfur (e.g. it's not yellow in colour). Mixtu e Easily Separated — Not Like Compounds 1) Unlike in a compound, there's no chemioal bond between the different parte of a mixture. ‘ho parts can be coparated out by physical methods such as distillation (see page 17). 2) lr ie a mixture of gases, mainly nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and argon. The gases can all be separated out fairly easily. 8) The proportion of a mixture are just a mixture of the properties of the separate parts. 4) A mixture of iron powder and ce Picstpe-actamanssSaos sulfur powder wil show the a Kain BHP properties of both iron and sulfur. [sie fi a \ p Leulfur | Crees] a Ht will contain grey magnetic bits of 2° 4, Q Mee iron and bright yellow bite of sulfur. ee % ah adele eid 5) Crude oil ic a mixture of different length * eae sia hydrocarbon molecules — see page 17. learning this ll ont) Our lems... Mixtures and compounds. To most people they sound like basically the same thing, Not fo GCSE examiners, I'm afraid. Hf you understand the difference between the mixture of iron powder and sulfur powder, and the compound iron sulfide, it'll make all this stuff easier to remember, Section One — Chemical ConceptsThe Periodic Table in the 1800s chemists were keen fo try and find patterns in the elements they knew about, And the more elements thet were identified, the glearer those pattems became... Dmitri Mendeleey Arranged the Elements in Groups 1) In 1869, a Russian scientist called Dmitri Mendeleev arranged the 50 or so known elements in order of 4... |w y ‘Mandeleave. Table ofthe Element atomic mass 10 meke a Table of Elemente. Ui Be BONOF 2) Mendeleev's table placed elements with similar chemical | Ne Me APS cl in the same vertical groups — but he found | K Ue" MV. cr Mn Fe Com Cuzn* * As Se Br that he had fo leave gaps in his table to make this work, | Rb St ¥_2Nb Mo" RuRh Pd Ag Gd in Oo 6b Te | 8) The gape in Mendoloov's table of elomante wore really LSE Bet * MW * Onl Pr AVNET PoE clever because they predicted the properties of undiscovered elements. 4) Since then now elements have been found which fit into the gaps in Mendoleov's table. Over the last hundred years or 60 the fable hes been rofined fo produce the periodic table we know (end oe) today... e Periodic Tal Flemenis with Similar. erties Together 1) The periodio table is laid out (in order of atomic number nowadays) 60 that elements with similar properties form columns. 2) These vertical columns are called groups and Roman numerals are often used for them. 8) If you know the properties of one element, you oan predict properties of other elements in that group. 4) For example the Group | elements are Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs and Fr. They're all metals and they react the same way. E.g. they all reat with water to form an alkaline solution and hydrogen gas. 5) You can also make predictions about reaotivity, E.g. in Group I, the elements react more vigorousl ‘as you go down the group. And in Group Vil, reaotivity decreases as you go down the group. 6) There are 100ish elements, which all materials are made of. If it wasn't for ‘the periodic table organising everything, you'd have a heck of a job remembering all those properties. A He cot on [pe ont on on cow tose i oye a fe fio. reaotive transition other Atomio number ie,| —-metale metals motala tetas — geese from non-metels Ioana fet) “RE Elementary my dear Mendeleev... One Important thing to understand on thie page is that a gclentific theory (such as “elements can be grouped in a table according to their properties") can be used to make predictions (such as “there are gaps in the table so there must be some undiscovered elements to fill those gaps"). Got that... good. Section One — Chemical ConceptsBalancing Equations All chemical reactions oan be chown using an equation, Unfortunately, getting equations right takes a bit of praotioe. So make eure you get a bit of practice — don't just ekate over them. Atoms Aren't Lost or Made in Chemical Reactions 1) During chemical reactions, things don't appear out of nowhere and things don't just disappe 2) You still have the same atoms at the end of a chemioal reaotion ae you had at the start. They're just arranged in different ways. 8) Balanced symbol equations show the atoms at the start (the reactant atoms) and the atome at the end (the produot atoms) and how they're arranged. For example: Word equation: magnesium + oxygen -> magnesium oxide Balanced symbol equation: 2Mg + 0, > 2M\g0 22e@ @® @vov8 4) Because atoms aren't gained or lost, the mass of the reactants equals the mass of the products. So, if you react & ¢ of magnesium with 4 ¢ of oxygen, you'd end up with 10 ¢ of magnesium oxide. Balancing the Equation — Match Them Up One by One 1) There must always be the game number of atoms of each element on both sides — they can't just disappear. 2) You balance the equation by putting numbers in front of the formulas where needed. Take thie equation for reacting eulfurio avid (H,80,) with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to got sodium culfato (Na,80,) and water (H,O): 4,80, + NaOH > Na,80, +H,0 The formulas are all correct but the numbers of some atome don't match up on both sides. E.g. there are & H's on the left, but only 2 on the right. You can chango formulae lke H,0 fo H,0. ‘You can only put numbers in front of them: Method: Balance Just ONE Type of Atom at a Time ‘The more you praotise, the quicker you get, but all you do is thi 1) Find an element that doeen't balance and penoll in a number to try and eort I out. 2) See where Ht gets you. IH may create another imbalance — if go, juct pencil in another number and see where that gets you. 8) Carry on chasing unbalanced elements and il gort iteelf out pretty quickly, 1. chow you. In the equation above you soon notice we're short of H atome on the RHS (Right-Hand Side). 1) The only thing you can do about that is make it 2H,0 instead of just H,0: 4,80, + NaOH > Na,S0, + 2H,0 2) But that now causes foo many H atoms and O atoms on the RHS, so fo balanoe that up you could ‘ry putting 2NaOH on the LHS (Left-Hand Side): H,80, ++ 2Na0H — Na,S0, + 2H,0 8) And suddenly there it ist Everything balances. And you'll notice the Na just sorted itself out. ations eigh i | REMEMBER WHAT THOSE NUMBERS MEAN: A number in front of a formula applies to the entire | formula. 80, 3Na,80, means three lots of Na,80,. The little numbers in the middle or at the end of a formula only apply to the atom immediately before. So the 4 in Na,8O, just means 4 O's, not 4 9's. Section One — Chemical Concepts3 Properties of Metals ‘Metals are all siilar but sighily different. They have some basio properties In common, but each has ite ‘own specific. of properties, which meane you use different ones for different purposes. Metals are on the Left and Middle of the Periodic Table Most of the elements are metals — so they cover most of | TH the periodio table. In faot, only the elements on the far right are non-metal. +H ‘The eo-callad fransition metals ara found in the centre block = of the periodic table. Many of the metals in everyday use are transition metals — euch as fitanium, iron and nickel. Cr Cl Transition Metals Metals are Strong and Bendy, and They’re Great Condu ‘All metals have some fairly similar basic properties. 1) Metals are strong (hard to break), but they can be bent or hammered into different shapes. 2) They're grest at conducting heat. 4 ee anne oraaaae uses — partly because theyrerot craaly 8) They conduot electricity well. Metale (and especially transition metals) have loads Se reactlvelke, say, potassium (which would of everyday uses because of these properties... catch fref- got rained on}. + Their otrength and ‘bondabilty' makes them pana’ for making into things like bridges and oar bodies. “Metals are ideal if you want fo make something that heal ee needs 10 travel through, like a saucepan base. ‘And their conduotivity makes them great for making things like electrical wires, e t's. cture of Metals That Gives The: ties 1) All metals have the same basic properties. These are due to the special fupe of bonding in metals. See 2) Metale const of a giant structure of atome held together with metalio bonde. 8) These special bonds allow the outer electron(s) ag 20000 Grmieml of each atom to move freely. 10.9.0) 4) Thia oroates a “aoa! of froo cleotrone throughout the metal, Sees eee whi e what gives Ho fo many ofthe propertin of matale. GIG Oa a) 2 5) This includes their conduotion of heat and electricity. @0008 A Metal’s Exact Properties Decide How It’s Best Used 1) The properties above are typical properties of metals. Not all metals are the same though — and it's thelr exact properties that determine how they're used. 2) If you wanted to make an aeroplane, you'd probably use metal ae it's strong and can be bent info shape, but you'd also need it 40 be light — so aluminium would be a good choice. 8) And if you were making replacement hips, you'd pick a metal that won't corrode when it eomes into contaot with water — it'd also have to be light, and not too bendy. Titanium has all of these Properties eo it’e used for stuff like this. Metal fatigue? — yeah, I’ve had enough of this page too... So, all metals conduct electricity and heat and oan be bent info shape. But lots of them have special | proportion too. You have to decide what Properties you need and use a metal with those properties. Section Two — Products from RocksSection Three — Products from Crude Oif Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil ‘Crude oil is formed from the buried remains of plants and animals — it's a fossil fuel. Over millions of iyears, with high temperature and pressure, the remains tum fo grude oll, which can be drilled up. de Oil Cai it into S 1) Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons — molecules which are made of just carbon and hydrogen. 2) Fractional dist illation splits crude oil into fractions (groups of compounds with carbon chains of similar length). 9) Heated crude oil is piped in at the bottom of a fractionating column. ‘The various fractions are constantly tapped off at the different levels where they condense. iy 4 Boiled gas; heating; used in FRAGTION pottery and glace manufacture LPG (liquefied (whore a dlesn-buring fuel is needed). petroleum gos) ol Fuel for oar, elo. St Fuel fr sere, otos | Petrol sod in the chemical industry ae = 4 "foedstook’(cterting material) sapithe a] FF fo make: plalie, dyes, druge, explosives, paints ‘ferosene {paratfin) AG Jet engines; domectio heating: peint solvent. ‘Dice : 7 tie > Fuel for diesel engines in > cars, trucks, trains, boats... ‘il peer ee ee ea Na BB: Domeatio central heating: fuel for big ships. pep [Road surfacing and Blumen aophalt for roots. Hotter Fractional distillation is an example of a physical process — there are no cheminal reaotions. Pro, ies of Hydro Molecules Depend on Their Size ‘The big hydrocarbon moleoules are the first to condense, because they have higher boiling points. As the molecules get smaller, they condense higher up the fractionating column, The smaller the molecule... 1) ...the lower the bolling point — the substance stays as a gas at lower temperatures. 2) ...the more flammable it Is — It cote fire more easily. 8) ...the loss viscous it is — it's lese ‘gloopy' and flows more easily. A) ...the more volatile it is — it evaporates more readily. The vapours of the more volatile hydrooarbone are very flammable and pose a cerlous fire risk, 0 don't smoke at the petrol station. (In fact, don't emoke at al, i's stupid.) i engine was named after its inventor — Rudol Crude oil is useful stuff, there's no doubt about it. But using it is not without its problems (see page 19 _ for more about fuels). For example, oil is shipped around the planet, which can lead fo slicks if there's an accident. Alco, burning oil ie thought to cause climate change, acid rain and global dimming. And oil | Is going to start punning out one day, which will lead to big difficulties. Section Three — Products trom Crude Oil20 Alkanes and Alkenes Crude oil contains both alkanes and alkenes (although mostly alkanes). They have different properties, ‘and it's all down to their structure. Alkanes Have All C-C Single Bonds 1) Alkanes are made up of chains of carbon atoms joined by ‘single covalent bonds, and eurrounded by hydrogen atoms. <> * couSient bende‘ her atoms shave’ 2) Different alkanes have chaine of different length. Teectnns Cathon atom ike to make banda Tho firot four alkanes aro methane (natural gao), ethane, +, propane and butane. 1) Methane: CH, 2) Ethane: C,H, 3) Propane: C,H, HL (oaturat Ha HH H-C-H— &°) H-G-C- H-C-¢-C4 u HE Han 8) All_alkanes have the formu 4) Thoyte called saturated hydrocarbons because they have no epare bonde left RS (i.e. no double bonds that can open up and have things join onto them — see below). oronlnw wgler 5) You oan tell the difference between an alkane and an alkene by adding the substance to bromine water. An alkane won't deoolourise the bromine water. =): This is because it has no spare bonds, o it can't react with the bromine. 6) Alkanes won't form polymers — again, no spare bonds. 7) They burn oleanly, producing garbon dioxide and water, 1) Alkenes have chains of carbon atoms with one or more > Adaullebond means that atoms are sharing ~ double covalent bonds. ~ pops of electrons. Aube bor counes = 2) Thoy'te called unsaturated hydrooarbone because Cm iedeeM rene double bonds can open up and let things join on. — 8) This is why they will decolourise bromine water. They form bonds with the bromine... rafine 4) Alkenes are more reactive — due to the double bond all poised and ready to just * Ee ved pop open. They can form polymers by opening up their double bonds to ‘hold hande' tn a long chain. (See page 22 for more info on polymers.) 5) The first three alkenes are ethene, propene and butene. for 1) Ethene: CH, 2) Propene: C,H, 3) Butene: C,H, ‘i H H H, H H desc iH H i H 6) AlLalkenes containing one double bond have the formula: [OC] “acid: 7) They tend to bum with @ smoky flame, producing soot (carbon). PT ANN | Alkane anybody who doesn’t learn this lot properly. Don't get alkgnes confused with alkanes — thet one letter makes all the difference. Alkenes have @ | O=C bond, elkanes don't. ‘The first part of their names is the seme though. "Meth:" means “one oarbon atom’, “eth-" means "wo C atoms", "prop-* means "three © atoms", "but-* means “four © atoms’, eto. Section Three — Products from Crude Oif2i ‘After the distillation of erude oil (gee page 17), you've still got both short and long hydrocarbons, just not all mixed together. But there's more demand for some products, like patrol, than for others, lke bitumen, Cracking Means Splitting Up Long-Chain Hydrocarbons.. 1) Long-chain hydrocarbons form thick, gloopy liquids like Jar which aren't all that useful, so... 2) ... a lot of the longer moleoules produced from fractional distillation are furned info smaller ones by a process called cracking. G) Gomo of the products of cracking are useful ae fuels, 2.9. petrol for care and kerosene (which is also known as paraffin) for Jot fuel. 4) Cracking also produces chort alkenes like othene, which aro needed for making plastics (see p22). Ethene for plastios by Passing Vapour Over a Hot Catalyst 1) Cracking is a thermal decomposition reaction — breaking moleoules down by heating them. 2) The first step is to heat the long-chain hydrocarbon to vaporige it (tutn it into a gas). 8) Then the vapour is passed over a powdered catalyst at a temperature of about 400 °C ~ 700 °C. 4) Aluminium oxide ig the oatalyst used. 5) The long-chain molecules split apart or "crack" on the surface of the specks of catalyst. Vaporised >; = _ es Mae Oct —> rosene 6) Most of the products of oracking are alkanes and alkenes (see page 20), Long-chain hydrocarbon molecule fssS> Shorter ALKANE molecule Wun Eee eee HHHHHHH E.g. Kerosene (ten © atome) ae Octane (eight C atoms) ethene (Too much of this in crude oil) (useful for petrol) (for plastics) W's up to chemists 4o make eure we have the chemicals we need — and to do their best to make the most efficient use of substances from the Earth. Here, ‘efficient’ means pot wasting raw materials, and also not making more waste than is nenessary. It's a tough job, but someone's got to do it. Section Three — Products trom Crude Oit22 Making Polymers Plastiog are made up of lote of molecules joined together. They're like long chains. Plastics are Long-Chain Molecules Called Polymers 1) Plastics are formed when lots of emall molecules called monomere join together to give a polymer. 2) They're ususlly carbon based (and the monomers are very offen alkenes — see p20). ition Pol we Mad f sure 1) The monomers that make up addition polymere have a double covalent bond (i.0. they're unsaturated). 2) Under high pressure and with » catslyet (see p76), many unsaturated small moleoules open up those double bonds and "join hands" (polymerise) to form long saturated ohaing called polymers. Ethene becoming polyethene or "polythene", is the easiest example: You'll need 4o be able to Hrced “oso! _ pr HHHHHH HH draw the formula of an Wy WO gece ddd t addition polyiner, given the rocec "Seaec! and Catalyot 8 formula of ifs monomer Liguenehe : Dead easy — the carbons ae te Pe Just all join together ina n(¢=¢) aS (6-4), tow with no double bonds Many sgl ethene Paletene between them, The'n Just means there can be any number of monomers (and polymer unite). The name of the Propene can form HOH Hy plastic comes from ee o( Senet ) => fe a-| fhe type of balyprapane: 0 Sony monomer It's made from — you just Propane Popropane A molecule called slyene Hw WHY On Ogh area of itz Will polymariae into o( we ) => tH) ee g : A O!n polystyrene ‘tyrone Polsiyrne Forces B. n Molecules Determine the Properties i ‘Strong covalent bonds hold the atome fogether in long chaing. But it's the bonds between the different molecule chains that determine the properties of the plastio. ez Long. chaing held together by wonk foroos Plastics with gironger bonde between the || are free fo alide over each other. This polymer chains have higher melting points || moans the plastic can be stretched easly, and can‘ be stretched, as the crosslings and will have a low melting point. hold the chains firmly together. jon — it’s all about stris ther... Which monomer a polymer ie made from affects the properties of the plastic, as do the exact conditions the plastic is made under (e.g. pressure, temperature). And the properties of the plastio affect what the plastic can be used for (more about the uses of plastics on p28, by the way). Section Three — Products trom Crude Oi23 Uses of Polymers Plastics are fantastically useful. You can make novelty football penoil sharpeners and all corte. Polymers’ Propertie: ie at They’re Used Fo. Different polymers have differen! physical properties — eome are etronger, come are etretchier, come are more easily moulded, and co on, ‘These different physical properties make them suited for cliffeson! uses. viel polymore such ae high density polyothene are used to make plastic milk bottles. ‘ble polymers euch as low density polyethene are used a ind squeezy bottles. Low density pulyethene has a 8 0 i¥'s no good for anything that'll get very hol. , and It oan be made either rigid or sirolehy. i and piping. The stretchy kind is used to make sy tn oa fused in pakasing fo profeotbreakeble things, and is used Ho make isposable coffee cups (the trapped air in the foam makes ita briliant thermal inculator).. in| polymere euch as melamine resin and polypropene are used to make plusti ften Used to Make 1) Nylon is a si sate je polymer offen used to make clothes. Fabrics made from nylon aren't waterproof on their own, but they oan be coated with polyurethane to make tough, waterproof outdoor olothing. 2) One big problem is that the polyurethane coating doesn't let water vapour pass through it. So if you get a bit hot (or do a bit of exercise), sweat condenses on the inside. This makes skin and clothes get wet and uncomfortable — the material isn’t breathable, 8) Breathable fabrice have all the ueeful properties of nylon/polyurethane ones, but they also let sweat ut. If you sweat in a breathable material, water vapour can escape — so no condensation. 1), Breathable fabrics are made by combining @ thin film of a plastic with a layer of another fabrio, such as polyester or nylon. 2) The plastic fil has tiny holes which lot wator vapour pass through — eo it's breathable. But i's waterproof, cinoe the holes aren't big enough to =p let big water droplets through and the plastic repels liquid water. 8) This material is great for outdoorsy types — they can hike ‘about in the rain without getting wet or soaked in sweat. ig tog wale veee Non-biodegradable Plastics Cause Disposal Problems 1) Most polymers aren't ‘biodegradable’ — they're not broken down by microorganisms, 60 they don't rot. This property is actually kind of useful until it's time to get rid of your plastic. 2) Is difficult to get rid of plastios — if you bury them in a landifil site, they'll sill be there years later. Landfll sites fil up quiokly, and they're a waste of land. And a waste of pla 8) When plastics are burnt, some of them release gases euch as acidic sulfur diovide and poisonous hydrogen chloride and hydrogen cyanide, So burning’s out, really, Plus it's a waste of plastio. ) The best thing is to reuse plastios as many times as possible and then reoyole them if you can. Sorting out lots of different plasties for recycling is diffioult and expensive, though. 5) Chemists are working on a variety of ideas to produce biodegradable polymers. 'S — great until n't need thei Ooo | Hf you're making a product, you need to plok your plastic carefully. It's no good trying 1o make a kettle out of @ plastic that melts at 50 °C — you'll end up with a messy kitchen, a burnt hand and no cuppa. You'd also have a bit of difficulty frying 40 wear olothes made of brittle, unbendy plastio. Section Three — Products from Crude Oi‘There are different kinds of alochol, but the one that's in beer, wine and so on is ethanol. Ethanol Can be Made by Fermentation 1) Fermentation is the process of using yeast to convert sugars into ethanol. Carbon dioxide is aleo produced. Which my Dad discovered when his homebrew exploded one year. ‘hi othe formal for ; The products are tana = glucose — a common sugar > oat ZY, rdcarbondosda = IEEE OL Gag. 26,H,0H + 200, dane |S 2) The yeast celle contain an enzyme called zymase. (Enzymes are naturally occurring catalysis.) 8) Fermentation happens fastest at a temperature of about 20 °C. At lower fmperatures, the reaotion is very slow. If it's too hot, the enzyme in the yeast is destroyed. A) It's important to prevent oxygen getting to the fermentation process. If oxygen is present, ‘a different reaction happens and you don't get ethenol. 5) When the concentration of alochol reaches about 10 40 20%, the fermentation reaotion stops, because the yeast gete killed off by tho aleohol. fruits or vegetables, e.g. barley ts used fo make bear and grapes are used for making wine. 7) The fermented mixture oan be dictillad to produce more concentrated aloohol. Brandy ie diatilled from wine, whiaky ie distilled from formented grain and vodka’s disfiled from fermented grain or potatoes. 8) The ethanol produced this way oan also be used as quite a cheap fuel in countries which don't have oil reserves for making petrol (see below), Ethene Can be React it Pre e Ethanol 1) Ethene (C,H,) will react with steam (H,0) c to make eihanol. 2) The reaction needs a temperature of 300 °C and a pressure of 70 atmospheres. 8) Phosphoric acid is used ac a catalyst. 4) At the moment this is a cheap process, because ethene's fairly cheap and not much of it is wasted. 5) The trouble is that ethene's produced from crude oil, which is a non-renewable resouree and which will start running out fairly soon. This means using ethene to make ethanol will become very expensive. Alcohol Can be Used as a Fuel 1) Ethanol can be used es fuel. It burns to give just CO, and water. 2) Cars oan be adapted fo run on a mixture of about 10% ethanol and 90% petrol — ‘gasohol'. Some countries (e.g. Brazil) make extensive use of gasohol. It's best used in areas where there's plenty of fertile land for growing the crops needed, and good orop-growing weather. 8) Using gacohol instead of pure petrol meane that less erude oil is being used. Another advantage is the rope needed for ethanol production absorb CO, from the atmosphere in photosynthesis while growing. This goes some way towards balancing out the release of CO, when the gasohol is bumt. 4) But distilling the ethanol after fermentation needs a lot of energy, 0 it's not a perfeot solution. “xcessive etl fopple.. People have been making aleohol for thousands of years. Ht could explain why there sre 90 many ancient ruine all over the place — maybe the Romans were slwaye foo drunk fo finish the job properly... ” Section Four — Food and Carbon Chemistry €) Different fypes of alcoholic drinks are made using eugare from different sources — usually from grains, |Here's your old friend from Section One, back again — because you need to know it really well. The Periodic Te is a Table of. m Elei peste evened i Pie 70blo seportes els mnie mele fet fom novels Hopofully you already know (from page 7) that: 1) the periodio table contains all of the 100 or go known glemente... 2) ..in order of ing atomic number... Se a oases which convenient alzo tell 9) ...and arranged info columns (groups) that share similar proportion. Pe re ve impor orclectrons, But that's really only half the story. Read on. See page 4 for more. Elements in a Group Have the Same Number of Outer Electrons 1) The elements in each group all have the came number of electrone in theit outer shell. Group 1 elements have one outer electron, Group VII elements have seven outer electrons, and 0 on. 2) That's why they have similar properties. And that's why they're arranged in this way. 8) When only 50 or so elements were known, the porlodic table was made by looking at the propertios of the elements and arranging them in groups — the came groups that they are in today. 4) This next idea is exiremely important to chemistry — so make sure you understand it: ‘The properties of the elements ere deoided entirely by how many electrons they have, So atomic number fe very significant, because it's equal to the number of electrons each atom has. But it's the number of electrons in the outer shell which fe the really important thing. Electron Shells ave What Chemistry is All About whizzed round the nucleus any old how and didn't oare about shells, there'd be no chemioal reactions. No nothing in faot — because nothing would happen. The atoms would just sit there, But amazingly, they do form shells (if they didn't, we wouldn't even be here to wonder about if), and ‘the eleotron arrangement of each atom determines the whole of ite chemigal behaviour. Phew. 1 mean electron arrangements explain practically the whole Universe. Pretty amazing. I've got a periodi = inne Ie Physicists can produce new elements in particle accelerators, but they're all radioactive. Most only last | a fraotion of a second before they decay. They haven't even got round fo giving most of them proper names yet, but then even “element 114" sounds pretty cool when you say it in Latin — ununquadium.. Section Six - Classitying Materials | ] The faot that electrons form shells around atoms is the basis for the whole of chemisiry. If they just |Electron Shells | said if on the last page, but as it’s got such a huge wow factor, ‘ll say if agair the fact that electrons coocupy "shells" around the nucleus fs what causes the whole of chemistry. And don’t you forget i. Electro _—Brd- eee Pees acy ya C STE Res gee tsi ese a a MeN perro mem Caic i I: & peli: 2. Qnd Shell: 8 Gr oe eee} 4) Aioms are much happier when they h 5 Seon enn ny 8rd shell still filling Follow the Rules to Work Out Electro ie ‘You need to know the electron configurations for the first 20 elements (things get a bit more complicated after thal). But they're not hard to work out. For a quick example, take nitrogen. Follow the steps... 1). The periodic table tells us nitrogen has seven protons... 60 it must have seven eleotrone. 2) Follow the ‘Electron Shell Rules above. The first choll oan only take 2 eleotrons and the ‘second shell oan take a maximum of 8 eleotrone. fae | 8) So the electron configuration for nitrogen must be 2, 5. 4) Now you try it for argon. @ iO The periodio table has a big gap hore © mot tells He tm cs ‘where the transition metals fi in. 5 una ni = Ti sin [Be tiem [|B owe [C im TN toon [OQ Ome [F tome [Ne te (OKCR KORTOR KOR RC] (o}) 0) 2A [humid 20. 28 : 2. 5 tomas | home é | memantine est | hans 9 | rose 1 ah Na setuw [Mg twion |] AL tion [$j Sic [Protons |S sur TEL tee AL tt G&D & DY | (EB fae | nmin LL nett on | mast nati rs Luce | matey | nna just K tein |Cq con “Anawer. To ealouate the eleotron configuration of agon, follow the rules, {'6 got 18 protons, 90 it must have 18 eleetrone. The firet shall must have 2 electrons, the eeoond shell muat have 8, and eo the third shell must have 8 06 well, It's as easy ao 2, 8.8. and e little duck and fat ladie: ‘You need to know enough about electron shells to draw out that whole diagram at the bottom of the Page without looking at if. Obviously, you don't have to learn each element separately, just learn the | pattern. Cover the page and, using a periodic table, find the atom with the electron configuration 2, Section Six — Classifying MaterialsIonic Bonding lonic Bonding — Transferring Electrons In ionic bonding, atoms lose or gain electrons to form charged particles (called ions) which are then sirongly attracted fo one another (because of the affraction of opposite charges, + and -). A Shell with Just One Electron is Well Keen to Get Rid... All the atoms over at the left-hand eide of the periodio table, e.g. codium, potassium, calcium ete. have just one or {wo electrons in thelr outer chell. And they're pretty keen to get chol of them, because then they! only have full challe loft, which ie how they like i leaves the afom ae an ion inetead, Now ions aren't the kind of things that sit around quielly watching the world go by. They tend fo leap at the first passing ion with an opposite charge and stiok 4o it like glue. A Nearly Full Shell is Well Keen to Get That Extra Electron. On the other ade of the periodio table, the elemente In Group VI and Group Vil, euoh as oxygen and chlorine, have outer shells which are nearly full. Theyre obviously prefly keen fo gain that exira one or {wo electrons to fll the shell up. When they do of course they become ions (you know, not the kind of things to sit eround) and before you know it, pop, they/ve latched onto the afom (Ion) that gave up the eleciton a moment earlier. The reaction of sodium and chlorine is a classio oaser The sodium afom gives.up ils outer ‘The chlotine atom picks up the spare electron and becomes a Cl- ion, electron and begomes an Na* ion. 80 given half a chence they do get rid, and that fant lonic Structures Don't il They D 1) Ionic bonds always produce giant ionic structures. 2) The ions form 2 closely packed regular lattice arrangement. 8) Thore are very strong chemical bonds between all the ions. 4) Acingle orystal of salt ie one glant ionic lattice, which Ie why alt orystale tend to be cuboid in shape. This is due to the very strong chemical bonds between all the ions in the giant structure. 2) They Dissolve Conduct Electricit When dissolved the ions separate and are all free fo move in ‘the solution, so obviously they!l carry electric current. Diesolved lithium ealte are used to make rechargeable batteries. 3) Electrici ten ‘When it melts, the fone are free fo move and thayll cary electric current. | Giant it lattices — all ovei chips... | Because they conduct electricity when they're dissolved in water, ionio compounds are used to make | some typos of battery. In the olden days, most batteries had actual liquid in, so they tended to leak all | | over the place. Now they've come up with a sort of paste that doesn't leak but still conducts. Clever. Section Six — Classifying Materials e88447 Ions and Formulas Gre IL and VI & Vil are il to Form fons 1) Remember, atoms that have lost or gained an electron (or electrons) are ions. 2) The elements that most readily form fons are those in Groups I, Hl, VI and VIL, 8) Group | and II elements are metals and they lose eleotrons to form +ve ions or cations. 4) Group Vi end Vil elements are non-metels. They gain electrons to form ~ve ions or anions. 5) Make eure you know these easy ones: = os 4 ee = @ )) Koy 6) When any of the above catlons react with the anions, they form ionic bonds. 7) Only elements at opposite sides of the periodic fable will Form fonio bonds, e.g. Na and Cl, where one of them becomes a gation (+ve) and one becomes an anion (-ve). Remember, the + and ~ charges, e.g. Na* for sodium, just tell you what type of ion 1 FORM in a chemical reaction. In sodium metal there are only neutral eodium atome, Na. The Na* ions will only appear if the sodium metal reacts with eomething like water or ohlorine. A useful way of representing ions ie to give the jon's nama, then ite electron configuration and the charge on the fon. For example, the electronic structure of the sodium ion Na can be represented by Na [2, 8]*. That's the electron configuration followed by the charge on the ion. Simple enough. Yo Chemical Formul You need to be able to write down the right chemical formulas for ionie compounds. ‘That means you have to learn the stuff in the table below, and know how to use it, ‘The main thing to remember is that in compounds the {otal charge must always add up to zero. Positive tons | Negative tons Lithium Li [Barium Ba’ | Zino zr?" | Chloride cr Sodium —Na"| Magnesium Mg”| Manganooo(Hl) Mn | Hydroxide OH” Potassium. K° | fron(lI). Fe’ | Aluminium Al’ | Oxide oO” Copper) Cu’ |tron( ill) Fa®* | Cerbonale co” Some motale (e.g. copper, iron and! manganese) can form difforent fone with different ohargos. The numbor in brackets after the name tells you the gize of the postive charge on the ion. If you ever sea them in ‘compounds weltten without a number, aceume ‘manganese! is manganese(I) and ‘copper’ ie copper(I). i {SAUL MMe maeyaeaneeesteone Tg) | LSIVUe NUN eee ee EE A zine ion has a +2 charge and a carbonate: An aluminium ion is Al?* and an oxide ion is 0%, ion hae a -2 charge, So the formula of zino To balance the fotal charge you need two carbonate must be: ZnCO,, ‘luminium fone to every three oxide lone. AlLO,, Any old ion, any old ion — any, any, any old ion... Learn which atoms will form 1°, F, 2° and 2° ione, and why. Then have a go at these: 1) What ions will each of these elements form? Write out their electron configurations: 2) potassium, b) aluminium, 0) beryllium, d) sulfur, e) fluorine. (use a periodic table) Ansuere on page 129, Section Six — Classitying Materials48 Group | — Alkali Metals Time to start getting to know a few of these periodic table groups a little better. First up, alkali metals. Gro! are Known as the Alkali Metals’ Group I metale include lithium, eodium and potassium... know those threo names really well. They could also ask you about rubidium and caesium. ‘As you go DOWN Group I, the alkali metals become more reactive — the outer eleotron is more easily lost, beoause i's further from \V the nucleus and more shielded from if by the inner shells. 1) The alkali metals all have ONE outer electron. This makes them very reactive and gives them all eimilar properties. 2) They all have the following physical properties: ‘+ Low melting point and boiling point (compared with other metals), + Low density — lithium, eodium and potassium float on water, * Very soft — they oan be cut with a knife, / 8) The alkali metals ahvays form ionic compounds. They are so keen to lose the outer electron there's no way they'd consider shating, 20 covalent bonding (see p50) is out of the question. idation is the Loss of Electrons 1) Group | metals are keen fo lose an eleotron fo form a 1* Jon with a ctable eleotronie structure, 2) The more reactive the metal the happier it ie #0 lose an eleotron, 8) Loss of electrons is called OXIDATION. lire sur or Reaction with Cold Water Produces Hydrogen Gas 1) When lithium, sodium or potassium are put in water, they react very vigorously. 2) They move around the curfaoe, fizzing furiouely. 8) They produce hydrogen. 4) The reactivity with water increases down the group — the reaction with potassium gets hot enough to ignite it. 5) Sodium and potassium melt in the heat of the reaction, The solution becomes alkali changes the oolour of the pH indicator) (see page 65) fo purple. Alicea pine wil nica ydrogen by producing th notorious seat poe) a5 the, gil »» which Alkali ou ‘n_with Characteristic Colours 1) Dip @ wire loop into some hydrochloric acid to clean It. 2) Put the loop into a powered sample of the compound fo be tested, than place the end in a blua Bunsen flame, 3) Alkali motel ione will give pretty ooloured flames — the golour of the flame tells you which alkali metal is present. ” Section Six ~ Classifying Materials | Red and orange and pink and green — or something like that... | Alkali metals are really reactive. They're so reactive, in fact, that they have to be stored in oll — | otherwise they react with the air. Learn the trends and character cs of alkali metals before corn on.Group Vil — Halogens Next you'll be meeting the halogens. Besides appearing on this page, these little blighters also crop up ‘on pages in thie seotion about bonding. They can form covalent bonds (see pages 60 and 62) as well ‘#8 ionio bonds (a8 pages 46 and 47), Group Vil Elements are Known as the ‘Halogens’ Group Vil is made up of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine. All Group VII elements have 7 electrons in their outer shell — 60 they've all got similar properties. | ‘Ae you go DOWN Group Vil, the halogens beoome less reactive — there's loss to pull the extra alectron in 4o fill the outer shell when it's further out and more shielded from the positive nucleus. Chlorine ie a failly roactive, peor, de ut yoon p09. Bromine ie a dense, poisonous, orange liquid. eae lodine is a dark grey crystalline solid. ~ 3 Reduction is the Gain of Electrons 1) Helogene are keen to gain an electron to form a F-jon with a Cl, + 26 20h stable eleotronio structure, ae , 2) The mote reactive the halogen, the happier it is to gain an Sea electron. 8) Gain of electrons ie called REDUCTION. The Halogens React with Alkali Metals to Form Salts They react vigorously with alkali metale to form galte called ‘motel halides’. Creer oe Ce Chlorine ie ee cy Tee eee leas More Reactive ens Will Displace L Chlorine can displace bromine and iodine from a solution of bromide or jodie. Bromine will also displace iodine because of the trend in reactivity. > |, + 2kel _Solution of Chlorine + Potassium iodide —> Iodine + Potassium chloride “potasslum todide. Chee bran ree Ce) LEME Chlorine + Potassium bromide —> Bromine + Potassium chloride in solution Ha, —one electri The halogens are another group ftom the periodic fable, and just like the elkall metale (p48) you've got to leatn their trends and the equations on this page. Leam them, cover up the page, scribble, chi It Section Six — Classitying Materials50 Covalent Bonding — Covalent. — Sharing Electron. 1) Sometimes atoms prefer to make covalent bonds by chating electrons with other atoms. 2) This way both atoms feel that they have a full outer shell, and that makes them happy. 8) Each covalent bond provides one extra shared electron for each atom. You only have to ; 4) Each atom involved has to make enough covalent bonds 4o fill up its outer shell. raw the auter shell of electrons. 5) Lear these seven important examples: 1) Hydrogen, H, 2) chlorine, Cl, 3) Hydrogen Chloride, HC Hydrogen atome have chlorine atoms also need just one electron. They only one more electron... ‘only need one more 40 ee oe. complete the first shell. (@s@ This Is very similar to H, and Cl,. Again, both atoms only need one or H—H or Cl—cl more electron fo complete their ‘outer shells. «80 they often form single covalent bonds fo achieve this. 4) Ammonia, NH, 5) Methane, CH, : Carbon has four outer electrons, ®@ Nitrogen has five which is half full shell. xe outer or H zai electron: ao : ow j CRMOMEEC) H—C—H xe a ® Yo become a 4* or a 4 ion is hard work, so it forms four covalent bonds to make up its outer shell. +80 it needs 0 form three covalent bonds to make up the extra three electrons needed. 6) Water HO Oxygen atoms have six outer electrons. They sometimes form ionic bonds by faking two eleotrons 10 complete their outer shell, | However, they'll also cheerfully form covalent / onde and ghare two electrons instead. In water moleoules, the oxygen shares electrons ‘with the H atome and in oxygen gas Ht shares ‘with another oxygen atom. ling — it’s good to s! ‘Make sure you learn these seven really basio examples and why they work. Every'atom wante a full outer shell, and they can get that either by becoming an ion (p46-47) or by sharing electrons. Once you understand that, you should be able fo apply it fo any example they give you in tho exam, Section Six — Classifying Materials51 Substances formed from covalent bonds can either be simple molecules (see p52) or giant structures. This page is all about the giant struotures, with three examples fo learn. Giant Covalent Structures 1) These are similar to giant Ionic structures except that there are no charged Ions. 2) All the atoms are bonded to gach other by strong covalent bonds. 8) They have very high melting and botling points. 4) They don't conduct electricity — not even when molton (except for graphite that is — see below). 5) They're usually insoluble in water 6) Important examples are diamond and graphite, which ate both made only from carbon atoms. Make Sure You Know These Three Examples Diamond 1) Diamonds are sparkly, colourless and glear. Ideal for jewellery. 2) Each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds in a very rigid giant covalent structure, which makes diamond the hardest natural substance. This makes diamonds ideal as cutting tools. 8) All those strong covalent bonds give diamond a very high melting point. 4) It doesn't conduct electricity because it has no free electrons. Graphite 1) Graphite is black and opaque, but still kind of shiny. 2) Each carbon atom only forms three covalent bonds, creating shoots of carbon atoms which are free to slide over cach othor This makes grophite slippery, 80 it's useful as a lubricant. tL 1111 | 8) The layers are held together so loosely that they oan be rubbed U1 off onto paper fo leave a black mark — that's how pencils work. 4) Graphite's got o high melting point — the covalent bonds need loads of energy to break, 5) Only three out of each carbon’s four outer electrons are used in bonds, so there are lots of spare electrons. This means graphite conduots electricity — it's used for electrodes. See pl03. Silicon Dioxide (Silica) 1) Sometimes called silica, this is what sand is made of, 2) Each grain of cand is one giant etruoture of silicon and oxygen. 8) Silica can be melted down with sodium carbonate (Na,CO,) and limestone (aC0,) to make glass. Graphite and diamond are both made purely from carbon — there's no difference at all in the atome that | make them up. The difference in properties (and price) of the fwo substances ie all down to the way the tome are held together. Different structural forme of the came element like thie are celled allotropes. Section Six — Classifying Materials52 Simple Molecular Covalent Structures Atome that bond covelontly don't all form giants structures. Some form simple molecular substances. Simple Molecular Substances 1) The atome form very strong covalent bonds fo form small molecules of two or more atoms. 2) By contrast, the forces of attraction between these molecules are very woak. 8) The result of these feoble inter-molecular forces is that the melting and holling points are very lows because the moleoulee are easily parted from each other. 4) Most molecular substances are gases or liquids at room temperature, 5) Molecular eubstancee don't conduot electricity, simply because there are no ions. 6) You can usually tell a molecular substance just from Hs bhutalcate, which i ways kinda ‘mushy’ — i.e. liquid or gag ot an Very weak inter-moleoular fo Ihe Halogens are All Simple Molecular 1) The physical properties of the halogens change down the group. Parfioularly, molting point and boiling point both increase. 2) This is because of the strenpth of the inter-moleoular forces. 29 ¥ 639 cro i Propertiee - Physoal stale at | Melting room temperature | point GropVit'| Atomic Elements, | nuinbor Fluorine ° vellow ee ~220°¢ | -188-c Chlorine | 7 Bren ee “ore | aac Bromine | 85 | red-brown Figuid ae | 59% lodine 53 dank grey solid waco | taa-0 Colour Bolling point The pattern in properties in the table can be explained because: + the halogens get bigger as you go down the group, * the bigger the halogen molecule, the sironger the inter-molecular forces of attraction, * the stronger the forces, the more energy it takes to separate the moleoules, and so the higher ‘thoir molting poinis and bolling points. The little molecules of fluorine and chloring have the weekest atfraotion to each other, so it takes very lifle energy to break them apart. That makes them gases at room temperature. The bigger molecules of bromine have stronger attractions, so if's a liquid at room temperature. Jodine's molecules are larger stil, ifs inter-molecular forces are the strongest of the four, and if's a solid, re tha: So, simple molecules are held together by weedy, pathetic inter-molecular forces. But these forces ‘get gradually less weedy as the molecules get bigger. That's why the halogens got more solid down the group. It's also why the hyckooarbone {eee page 17) al less runny 68 they et bigger Section Six — Classifying Materials53 Group 0 — The Noble Gases ‘Tho noble gacee — stuffed full of every honourable virtue. They don't form covalent bonds or fonio bonds, making them — well, a bit dull really. Group 0. nts are All Inert, Colourless Gases 1) Group 0 elements are called the noble gases and include the elements helium, neon and argon {plus a few others). i Greup Grow a Si 2) The noble gases were only diccovered just over 100 years ago — it took so long to find them because they have properties that make them hard fo observe... Peer 8) All elements in Group O are colourless gaces at room temperature. melts 4) They are also more or less inert — this meane they don't react with much at all. They don’t bond with anything, not even with each other, and so they just / so | wander about as eingle atoms. The reason for this is that they have a full ‘outer ghell. Thie means they don't went fo give up or gain or share electrons. [ wl 5) Luckily the noble gases all have a dead handy property that lets you 2¢¢ them — they each give-out light if you pass an eleotrio ourent through them. Each noble ges gives out a particular oolour of light. The Noble Gases have Many Everyday Uses... Neon is used in electrical discharge tubes Neon lights are used in tacky shop signs — the kind you'd expect {o see if you visited Les Vegas, They don't use much ourront 60 they're cheap o run, and they give out a bright red light. Noble Gases are used in Lasers too There's the famous red helium-neon laser and the more powerful argon laser. “Gimanay ——-& iB Airships and Party Balloons | Helium is used Helium hae @ lower denelty than sir — eo it makes balloons float. And it's a lot safer to use than hydrogen (the famous airship cad tia Hindenburg was filed with hydrogen and caught fire). Argon is sd in Fil tar Light Bulbs) Ay HH provides an inert atmosphere which stops the very hot filament from burning away. | = The e to us chemists... Well, they don't react co there's a bit less to learn about the noble gaves. The main thing to make sure you've gragped le why they don't — because they're quite happy with their full outer shells, thank you. | Section Six — Classifying MaterialsSection Eight — Chemical Change 65 Acids and Bases You'll find acids and bases at home, in industry and in the lab — they're an important set of chemicals, Thi ind Universal Indicator pHO 1 2 3 4 &§ 6 7 8 9 10 Nl 2 1 ACIDS | ALKALIS ~~, —> ee ed Neue a antes ‘stomach solid lemon Juloe normal rain shina “up liquid -soep powder (drain cleaner) An_ Indicator is Just a Dye That Changes Colour The dye in the indicator changes colour depending on whether i's above or below a certain pH. Universal indigator is a very useful combination of dyes which gives the colours shown above. W's very useful for estimating the pH of a solution. The pi Scale Goes from 0 to 14 1) Avery strong acid has pH.0. A very strong alkali has pH14. 2) A neutral eubstance hae pH 7 (0.g. pure water). Acids ise Each 0: ‘An ACID is a substance with a pH of less than 7. Aoids form H* jons A BASE is a substance with a pH of greater than 7. ‘An ALKALI is a base that DISSOLVES IN WATER. Alkalio form OH" ions in water. The reaction between acids and bases is called neutralisation. Make sure you leatn i jases Neutré acid + base — salt + water Neutralisation can also be eeen in terms of H* and OH" jons like this, so learn this too: H* + OH" > HO ‘When an acid neutralises a base (or vioe versa), the praduots are neutral, i.e. they have a pH of 7. lern Industry U: Sulfuric Acid 1) Sulfuric actd is used in car batteries, where it's concentrated enough to cause severe bums. 2) It'e alo used in many manufacturing processes, such as making fertilisers and detergents. 8) You can also use it 40 clean and prepare metal curfaves, 0.8, beforo painting or welding. A metal surface is usually covered with a layer of ingoluble meial oxide. Sulfurio acid reacts with these, forming soluble metal salts which wash away, nice and easily. is’ give ba: mis: ‘There's no getting away from acids and bases in Chemistry, or even in real life, Taye everywhere — acids are found in loads of foods, like-vinegar and fruit, and as food flavourings and preservatives, while alkalis. (parole sodium yoni) are used to help make all sorts of things, from soaps fo ceramic ” Section Eight _ Chemical ‘Change66 Acids Reacting with Metals Acid + Metal —> Salt + Hydrogen That's written big ‘cos it's really worth remembering. Here's the typical experiment: 1 t \ Raat old { Be s — Fay _ Muted = pquer’- ‘80 yueoky ' query , a a i ver | y PP ‘gqueak Copper ie lees reactive than hydrogen so 1 doesn't react with dilute acids at all. MAGNESIUM = — ALUMINIUM ZING IRON COPPER 1) The more reactive the metal, the faster the reaction will go — very reactive metals (e.g, sodium) react explosivel 2) Copper does not react with dilute acids at all — because i's lace reactive than hydrogen. 8) The speed of the reaction is indicated by the rate at which the bubbles of hydrogen ate given off. 4) The hydrogen ie confirmed by the burning eplint feat giving the notorious ‘squeaky pop’. 5) The name of the galt produced depends on which metal is used, and which acid is used: Hydrochloric Acid Will Alwa Chloride Salts: QHCl]+ Mg —> MgCl, + H, (Magnesium chloride) GHC! + 2Al -> 2Alcl, + SH, (Aluminium chloride) QHCl + Zn > 2nCl, + H, {Zino chloride) Ifuric Acid Will Always Produce Sulfate yz 4,90, + Mg > MgSO, + H, (Magnesium sulfate) 3H,80, + 2Al — AL,(80,), + 3H, (Aluminium sulfate) H,80, + Zn -» ZnSO, + H, (Zino sulfate) Chloride and sulfate salts are generally solubleinwater (che main exceptions are lead chloride, lead sulfate and siver chiorde, which are insoluble) Nitric Acid Produces Nitrate Salts When NEUTRALISED, But... | Nittic acid reacts fine with alkalis, to produce nitrates, but it can play silly dovile with metals and produce nifrogen oxides instead, so welll ignore it here. Chemistry's a really messy subject eometimes, innit, Nitric acid, tut — there’s always one... Okay, so thie otuff ien't exactly a laugh a minute, but at least it's fairly straightforward learning. Metals that are locg reactive than hydrogen don't react with acid, and some metels like sodium and potagsium are too reactive to mix with acid — your beaker would explode. Section Ejght — Chemical ChangeNeutralisation Reactions : Metal Oxides and Metal Hydroxides are Bases 1) Some metal oxides and metal hydroxides dissolve in water. These soluble compounds are alkalis. 2) Even bases that won't dissolve in water will still react with acids. 8) 8o, all metal oxides and metal hydroxides react with avids 40 form a galt and water. Acid + Metal Oxide —> Salt + Water (These are neutralisation ‘Acid + Metal Hydroxide —> Galt + Water Jenni Copper chloride + Water cucl, + H,0 Hydrochloric acid + Copper oxide HCl cud Sulfuric acid Potassium hydroxide Potassium sulfate + Water Sodium nitrate Water NaNO, H,0 Nitio avid HNO, Acids and Carbonates Produce Carbon Dioxide These are very like the ones above — they just produce gatbon dioxide ae well, Not Bem olacLy Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide Hydrochloric acid + Sodium carbonate -> Sodium chloride + Water + Carbon dioxide 2HCI + Na,CO, > 2Natl +HO + CO, Sodium hydroxide NaOH i + > + > H,80, + 2KOH > Ko, + 2H,0 al Ha + > Hydrochloric acid + Calcium carbonate -> Calcium chloride + Water + Carbon dioxide Hcl + CaCO, > cat, + HO +. CO, Acids and Ammonia Produce Ammonium Salts And lastly... OT Feces uae) Wemeerse: utente Hydochloro oid + Ammonia > Armano clade NH, 3 NH,Cl > + Sulfuric acid = + Ammonia Ammonium eulfate | Th a ee 4,80, cet ai (NH,),80, nitrate ferfliser, much + — Ammonia Ammonium nitrate appreciated for its double ee NAL. dose of nitrogen (essential for healthy plant growth). Nitric acid HNO, _ Acid + Revision — Insomnia Cure... | Some of these reactions ate really useful, and come are just for fun (who sald Chemistry was dll). | Try doing different combinations of acids and alkalis, eoide end carbonates, acids and ammonia. | Balanog them, Cover the eae: ands seribble all the equations down, Wf you meke a rietoke, ny au “Section Ejoht ~ Chemical ChangeMaking Salts — Most chlorides, eulfates and nifrates are soluble in water (the main exceptions are lead chloride, lead sulfate and silver chloride). Most oxides, hydroxides and carbonates are insoluble in water. Making Soluble Saf insoluble Bases 1) You need to piok the right aoid, plus a metal carbonate or metal hydroxide, ae long as it's ingoluble. You can't use sodium, potassium ‘or ammonium carbonates or hydroxides, as they're soluble (20 you ‘can't tell whether the reaction hae finished — eee below). 2) You add the carbonate or hydroxide to the acid until all the acid is neutralised. (The excess carbonate or hydroxide will just sink 40 the bottom of the flack when all the aoid has reacted.) 8) Then filter out the excess carbonate, and evaporate off the water — and you should be left with a pure, dry salt. Lifer “hyroxite, E.g. you can use copper carbonate and nittie acid to make copper nitrate: Cie eamecu epee = lyn sei Eo} U ‘Ammonia itself ie a base, but i's SOLUBLE, as are all other ammonium bases. This means making soluble ammonium salts, such as ammonium nitrate, is a bit tricky. You can't just add an excess of base and filter ‘out what's left — you have to add exactly the right amount of base fo just neutralise the aoid. You need fo use an indioator to show when the reaction’ finished. ‘Then ropeat using exactly the eame volumes of base and acid go the salt isn’t contaminated with indicator. All thie is quite fiddly. But ammonium nitrate is a great fertiliser, 60 it's all worthwhile in the end (i you want nioe big ope to grow that ic). Making Insoluble Salts — Precipitation Reactions 1) If the salt you want fo make Is insoluble, you can use a precipitation reaction (see page 70). 2) You just need to pick the right noid and nitrate, then mix them together. E.g. if you want to make lead chloride {which is insoluble), mix hydrachioric acid and lead nitrate. Just mix an eoid 8) Once the salt has precipitated out (and ie lying at the and a nitrate — bottom of your flask), all you have to do is filter it from the simple ae that. solution, wash it and then dry it on filter paper. sc 4) Precipitation reactions can be used fo remove poisonous ions (¢.g. lead) from drinking water. Calcium and magnesium fons can also be removed from water this way — they make water "hard! which otope eoap latharing properly. Making Salts by Displacement | \estockavyaget2*ormoreondoplacemont 1) If you put a more reaotive metal like magnesium into a galt solution of a less reactive metal, like copper culfate, then the magnesium wil fake the place of the copper — and make magnesium sulfate. 2) The "kicked-out" (or displaced) metal then coals itself onto the more reactive matal, 8) Onoe the magnesium has been completely coated with copper, the reaction stops, go thie ien't a very practical way to make a salt. [i ui | It's hard fo find the precise neutral point using universal indicator. There's quite a wide range of greens } between blue and yellow. There are more acourate Indicators though — see page 86 for more on these, Section Eight — Chemical ChangeSection Nine — Reaction Rates and Energy Changes 1. Rates of Reaction Sorts of Different Rates 1) One of the slowest ts the rusting of iron (is not slow enough though — what about my litle MOB). 2) A moderate epeed reaction lo a motal (like magnesium) reaoting with aoid to produce a gentle stream of bubbles. 8) A reelly fast reaotion is an explosion, where ifs all over in a fraction of a second. The Rate of a Reaction Depends on Four Things: 1) Temperature 2) Concentration | — (or pressure for gases) 8) Catalyst 4) Size of particles | — (or surface area) Typic hs for Rate tion ‘The plot below shows how the speed of a partioular reaction varies under different contitions. The quickest reaction is shown by the fine that becomes flat in the least time. The line that flattene out firet must have the steepest slope compared fo all the others, making it possible fo spot the slowest and fastest reactions. 1) Graph 1 represents the original fairly slow Amou reaction. The graph is not too steep. of rou 2) Graphs 2 and & reprosent the reaotion taking eee place quicker but with the came initia ‘amounts. The elope of the graphs gete eteoper. 8) The increased rate could be due to End of Reaction caceleuend @ inuoh faster reaction @ factor, and more reactants 4) sold reaotant orushed up i 4) Graph 4 produces more product as well ac going factor, Thie can only happen if more reaotant() are added af the start, Graphs 1, 2 and 2 all eonverge at the same level, chowing that they all produce the ‘same amount of product, although they take different times fo get there. low to get a fe reaction » Indusitial reactions generally use a catalyet and are done at high temperature and pressure. Time is money, so the facter an Industtial reaction govs the better... but only up to a point. Chemioal plants are ie expensive fo rebuild if they get blown into lots and lots of teeny finy pieces. "Section Nine — Reaction Rates and Energy Changes74 Three Ways to Measure the Speed of a Reaction The speed of a reaotion can be observed gither by how quickly the reactants are used up or how quickly the produots are formed, 1's usually a lot easier to measure produots forming. ‘The rate of reaction can be caloulated using the following equation: ‘Amount of reactant used or amount of product formed Time There are different ways that the speed of a reaction can be measured. Learn these three: 1) Precipitation 1) This Ie when the produot of the reaction is a precipitate which olouds the solution. 2) Observe a marker through the solution and measure how long it fakes for if to dicappear. 8) The quicker the marker disappears, the quicker the reaction. 4) This only worke for reactions where the initial solution is rather see-through, 5) The result is very subjective — different people might not agree over the exact point when the matk ‘disappears’. 2) Change in Mass (Usually Gas Given Off) & @o Rate of Reaction = 1) Measuring the speed of a reaction that produces a gas can be carried out ‘on a mass balance. 2) As the gas is released the mass disappearing is measured on the balance. 8) The quickor the reading on the balance deope, the faster the reaction. A) Rate of reaction graphs are particularly easy fo plot using the recults from this method. 5) This is the most acourate of the three methods desorlbed on this page because the mass balance is very aocurate. But it has the disadvantage of releasing the gas straight into the room, 3) ume Given Off 1) This involves the use of a gas syringe to measure the volume of ‘dae given off, 2) The more gas given off during a given time interval, the faster the reaction. 8) A graph of gaa volume against time elapsed could be plotted to ‘Bive a rate of reaction graph. 4) Gas syringes usually give volumes accurate fo the nearest tnililtre, so they're quite accurate. You have to be quite careful though — if the reaotion is too vigorous, you can easily blow the plunger out of the end of the syringe. e ot atch ready *BANG!* — oh... Each method has its pros and cons. The mass balance method is ‘only acourate as long as the flask | isn't foo hot, otherwise you lose mass by evaporation as well as by the reaction, The first method | Isn't very accurate, but if you're not producing a gas you can't use either of the other two. Ah well. Section Nine ~ Reaction Rates and Energy Changes75 Collision Theory Reaction rates are explained perfectly by collision theory. H's really simple. {1 just says that the rate of a reaction simply depends on how often and how hav the reaoting particles collide with each other. The basie idea Is that partiolee have 4o collide in order 40 react, and they have to collide hard enough (with enough energy). “ES Ey More Collisions Increases the Rate of Reaction All four methods of inoreasing the rate of reaotions can be explained in terms of increasing the number of successful uullisions between the reacting particles: 1) ER TEMPER, in es collisions When the femperature is increased the particles all move quicker. Hf they're moving quicker, they're going 4o have more collisions, HER Ce 'TRAT for Pi IRE) it es collisic | a solution is made more concentrated it means there are more To Ss parficles of reactant knocking about betwoen the water molecules, | £ sanB \which makes collisions between the important particles more likely. | “ a | 5 © - In @ gas, increasing the pressure means the particles are more 599 4 o. squashed up together so there are going to be more collisiong. Q PZ one Spats | tp Genet ‘igh Presse) 3) LARGER CE ARFA incr collisions If one of the reactants ie a solid then breaking it up into smaller pleces will inoronee ife gurface area. This means ‘the particles around it in the solution will have more area fo work on, 80 there'll be more useful collisions. 4) CATALYSTS incr. the er of ‘SSFU: lisions A solid catalyst worke by giving the reacting partioles a surface to stick to. They increase the number of SUCCESSFUL collisions by lowering the activation energ (see next page). | Faster Collisions Increase th te of Reactioi Higher temperature also increases the energy of the collisions, because it makes all the particles move faster. | Faster collisions are ONLY caused by increasing the temperatur. Reactions only happen if the particles collide with enough energy. ae i At a higher temperature there will be more particles 5% Mo, i oolliding with enough energy to make the reaction happen. Hits ose : ‘This initial energy is known ae the gotivation energy, and it's jo Se o go q needed to break the initial bonds. Goo! Atoms | fon th — the lamppo: in One you've learnt everything off this page, the rates of reaction stuff chould start making a lot more gence fo you. The concep!'s fairly simple — the more often particles bump into each other, and the harder they hit when they do, the faster the reaction happens. Section Nine — Reaction Rates and Enerev Chances76 1) Catalysts Lower the Activation Energy 1) The activation energy ie the minimum amount Energy of energy needed for a reaotion to happen. ee 2) li's a bit like having to olimb up one side of a ‘acnainel bill before you can ski/snowboard/sledgo/fall see down the other si ) | Catalyst 8) Catalyste lower the activotion energy of Reece reaotions, making it easier for them 4o happen. 4) This means a lower temperature can be used, An ae tee Sele I Progross of Reaction 2) Solic rk Best When Have a Big Surface Are 1) Catalysts are usually used as a powder ot pellets or a fine gauze. 2) This gives them a very large surface area to enable the teaoting particles to mest up : and do the business. Catalyst Powder Catalyet Pellets 8) Transition metals are common catalysts in many industrial reactions, e.g. nickel can be used instead of aluminium oxide for cracking hydrocarbons (see p2!) and iron catalyees the Haber process (see p8!). 3) Catalysts Help Red ‘sin Industri actions 1) Catalysts are very important for commercial reasons — most industrial reaotions use them. 2) Catalysts inorease the rate of the reaotion, which saves a lot of moneu simply because the plant doesn't need to operate for as long to produce the same amount of stuff. 8) Alternatively, a catalyst will allow the reaction to work at a much lower temperature. That reduoee the energy used up in the reaction (the energy cost), which is good for sustainable development and oan eave a lot of money too. 4) There are disadvantages to using eatalyets, though. 5) They can be very expensive to buy, and often need to be removed from the product and cleaned. ‘They never get used up in the reaotion though, co once you've got them you can use them over and over again, 6) Different reactions use different catalysie, eo if you meke more than one product at your plant, you'll probably need to buy different catalysis for them. 7) Catalysts can be ‘poisoned’ by impuritiog, co they stop working, e.g, sulfur can poison the iron catalyst used In the Haber process. That means you have to keep your reaotion mixture very clean, Catalysts are like great jokes — they can be used over and over... | And they're not only used in indusity... every useful chemicsl reaction in the human body is catalysed 4 a biological catalyst (an enzyme). If the reactions in the body were just left fo their own devices, \ey'd fake so long to happen, we couldn't exist. Quite handy then, these catalysts. Section Nine — Reaction Rates and Energy Changes