Performance as the Avant-Garde:

The Bridge between Traditional Theatre and Visual Arts

Yuki Yamamoto

THEATRE 119
Professor Shannon Steen
December 15, 2015

Yuki Yamamoto 1
The definition of performance is very ambiguous and arbitrary, and so is that of art.
Many scholars use the terms performance and performance art interchangeably when they
discuss their performance studies and theories, and few of them have ever attempted to
differentiate them from each other. The distinction between the realms of traditional theatre and
visual arts is easy to figure out. Yet when avant-garde theatre evolves from traditional theatre
and performance art deviate from visual arts, each domain is no longer so obvious. In fact, avantgarde theatre and performance art share a lot of characteristics. Although it is difficult to
generalize all the individual performance artists in the late sixties and seventies, there is the
mainstream among them. This paper is to analyze similarities and differences between avantgarde theatre, also known as environmental theatre, and individual performance artists who were
prominent in the late sixties and seventies, in terms of the existence of characters, the bodys
materiality and its embodiment of the concept, the choice of performing sites, and the inclusion
of text and speech, in order to identify overlaps and the overall range. From a broader
perspective, however, avant-garde theatre and performance art both emphasize the audiences
participation as well as the physical presence of the body, and thus operate within the same
context as performance. Acknowledging the wide range of performance activities, in the second
half of the essay, we explore the different performance studies established by scholars who come
from either theater or visual art backgrounds, drawing a conclusion in this everlasting discussion,
which is performance as a whole as avant-garde.
Considering theatre in its historical context, we must say avant-garde theatre still
involves acting, which concerns several different relationships between the actor and the
character, whereas in performance art, artists always represent themselves without any hint of
characters. Prior to the establishment of avant-garde theatre, traditional theatre like that of

Yuki Yamamoto 2
Aristotle gave the actor the distinct character completely separate from his persona to play, and
the spectators were to observe another world taking place on the stage. There was an absolute
illusion accompanied by the fourth wall. Around the nineteenth century, psychological theatre
gained popularity, where the spectators projected their own experiences and emotions onto the
figures of the actors.1 As psychological theatre eventually withdrew, autonomous theatre,
sometimes called poor theatre, gradually emerged in the early twentieth century. Philip
Auslander explains that [t]he goal of psychological theatre is to make the actors body disappear
into the characters; the goal of autonomous theatre is, in [Jerzy] Grotowskis words, to make the
body vanish and burn in a flash of pure psychic apprehension,2 referring this development as
an evolution instead of a simple rejection.3 In autonomous theatre, [Stanislavski] treats
actor and character as autonomous entities, each with its own soul. Because it is impossible for
the actor either to divest herself of her own soul or to penetrate fully into anothers, she can only
hope to find emotions of her own that are analogous to the characters.4 This was the moment
when people began questioning the actors identity as a character on the stage or as a human
being in his everyday life. On the other hand, there was another speculation about this
relationship, which dealt with the power dynamics between the actor and the character: Brecht
privileges the actor over the character her own persona must carry greater authority than the
role.5 During the twentieth century, all these different theories about the actor-character
relationship intertwined each other, which resulted in the formation of avant-garde theatre.
Avant-garde theatre develops the ideas of Grotowski, Stanislavski, and Brecht a step
further and attempts to blur the boundary between the actor and the character, instead of
separating one from another; therefore, it has more complex actor-character relationship. The
Performance Groups Dionysus in 69 (1968) directed by Richard Schechner had, on several

Yuki Yamamoto 3
occasions, the scene where Dionysus played by William Finley and Finley himself were
constantly switched around, as well as Pentheus and Will Shepherd, who played the role of
Pentheus; for instance, when Dionysus and Pentheus got into an argument, Pentheus told
Dionysus to surrender his glasses, yet Dionysus said to Pentheus, Take them. They dont belong
to Finley. Im just wearing them for Dionysus. Here Finley immediately switched his identity
from Dionysus to Finley himself. For another example, in the Wooster Group, which emerged
from the Performance Group, [its] personae occupy an ambiguous territory, neither nonmatrixed preforming nor characterizationThe characters arose from the activity: the task and
the specific performers engaged in it,6 which is described as the absence of transformation.7
As such, the character is always present in avant-garde theatre no matter how much the character
occupies the actor and vice versa because the root of avant-garde theatre lies in traditional
theatre. In other words, the negotiation of the identity between the actor and character is the key
element in avant-garde theatre.
While the actor-character relationship and its identity are largely debated in avant-garde
theatre, performance artists always present themselves and claim their own identity by usually
working alone. No character is involved in performance art, and thus the performance artist is
never an actor. Yoko Ono, for example, performed Cut Piece (1964-66), which is considered a
commentary on identity,8 where she asked audience to cut her cloth to test how far and
aggressive people could become. The piece is described, [T]he invitation triggered the
voyeuristic desire among the audience even though most of them felt restrained from
participating.9 Onos underlying idea of this performance piece is to examine how Americans in
the late sixties would perceive the Japanese female artist. So in this case, her ethnic and gender
identity are the primary components of this piece. In the meantime, Joseph Beuys was the first

Yuki Yamamoto 4
artist to emerge in postwar Germany and achieved international celebrity based on the
exploration of his German identity.10 Beuys one of the most idiosyncratic pieces called Coyote:
I Like America and America Likes Me (1974) concerned the confrontation of Beuys identity as
European with a coyote as an American indigenous symbol.11 This piece would not have existed
if it had not been for Beuys because of his German nationality. Most of the time, performance
artists cannot be replaced by somebody else because their identity itself plays an important part
in their performance art pieces.
Furthermore, Marvin Carlson makes an additional point: In recent performance art the
personal agency of the performer is often of central concern. The performance artist may work as
an individual who combines several traditional theatre positionsactor, director, designer,
playwright.12 That is, the agency of the performance art is the artist himself, for many of the
performance artists perform solo. As Carlson mentions, Closely related to this dynamic of selfpresentation is the normally very close relationship between the self of the performance artist
and the self being presented,13 in performance art, there is always a definite singularity, as
opposed to avant-garde theatre, in which the director usually attains the credit of the whole
production and the actor remains just a part of the collective. The performance activities
produced by the collective figures, including the character versus the activities performed by an
individual performance artist is one major distinction between avant-garde theatre and
performance art in the late sixties and seventies.
The reason why the use of the body is so crucial to the performance artists is not only
because their own identity is an essential element in their pieces, but also because they regard
their body as a material. Since performance art derives from visual arts, their body is a means of
their artistic expression, extended from the conventional fine art materials, such as the canvas

Yuki Yamamoto 5
and the painting brush. This concept allows us to consider calling them artists, rather than
performers or actors. Allan Kaprow, coming from a visual arts background and leading
happenings, describes, [E]nvironments were spatial representations of a multileveled attitude to
painting, and a means to act out dramas of tin-soldiers, stories and musical structures that I
once had tried to embody in paint alone.14 Kaprow found the limitation in paint and decided to
utilize his own body for the purpose of breaking the norm of the conventional fine arts.
Therefore, Kaprow traces their historical evolution not back through these performance avantgardes but through modern painting.15 On that account, the performance artists in happenings,
to say the least, are conscious that their performance is a part of art making, denying the
influence of the theatre.
Vito Acconci also demonstrated this idea very straightforwardly; in Rubbing Piece
(1976), Acconci rubbed a spot on his arm until he produced a sore there,16 and in his other
piece called Waterways (1971), he filled his mouth with saliva, and then spilled it out into his
hands.17 Auslander points out, Both pieces are, in Blaus terms, examples of the body doing
time: both direct attention to the bodys existence in time.18 When we rub our skin so hard, it
makes a sore. When we keep opening our mouth, the mouth becomes full of saliva. These are our
bodys natural reactions, or reflexes. According to Kaprow, the principle of happenings is to
realize that [p]laying with everyday life often is just paying attention to what is conventionally
hidden.19 One of the major aims of the performance artists using their body is to attract attention
to our everyday life. Later on, Chris Burden advanced the idea of the bodys materiality towards
physical exertion and concentration beyond the bonds of normal endurance.20 In his 5 Day
Locker Piece (1971), he installed himself inside the tiny college locker for five days only with
the supply of water through the tube. This piece proves that Burden was pushing the limits of the

Yuki Yamamoto 6
bodys capability. The idea of using the body as a material and experimenting its potential results
from the visual arts traditions and is nearly exclusive to the performance art, for we hardly see
this kind of relationship with the body in avant-garde theatre.
Accordingly, performance artists are using their body with purpose of art making in order
to embody the particular concept in their mind. The embodiment of the concept beyond the
visual appearance is also an increasing tendency in the two-dimensional art-making world as.
However, in performance art, [T]he notion of conceptual art was formulated as an art of
which the material is concepts For conceptual art implied the experience of time, space and
material rather than their representation in the form of objects, and the body became the most
direct medium of expression.21 In addition to the understatement of the bodys materiality for
conceptual art, Maria Abramovic took the use of the body into the next level in Rhythm 5 (1974).
In this piece, she unintentionally lost her consciousness due to the oxygen deprivation,
surrounded by the burning star-shape construction and was almost burned to death.22 She later
reflected it back, making a comment that After this performance, I ask[ed] myself how to use
my body in and out of consciousness without interrupting the performance.23 This lifethreatening performance questions our notion that consciousness resides in our body. In her later
performance pieces, she attempted to make the body operate on the unconscious level, instead of
the conscious level, on which many contemporary performance artists and avant-garde theatre
were doing around the same time. Taking Abramovics pieces into account, we could say that the
use of the body in performance art is more flexible than in avant-garde theatre, where the
discussion about the body still takes place within the conscious level.
One very significant similarity between avant-garde theatre and performance art is that
they both heavily interact with the audience through the body. There seems to be three different

Yuki Yamamoto 7
types of the audience involvement: First, performers and audience are both actively engaging
with each other. Second, performers are objectified but the audience actively executes the
performance piece. And for the last, performers are actively performing while the audience is
unaware that they are a part of it. Assuming there is such a variety, we see only the first type in
avant-garde theatre, whereas we identify all these three types in performance art. In avant-garde
theatre, performers are the ones who carry out the entire production and guide the participating
audience towards the designated ending. The audience participation is either explicitly or
implicitly encouraged but, either way, the audience is willing to follow whatever the performers
are doing. In Dionysus in 69, for example, Pentheus randomly picked a female audience and
started making out with her. She looked hesitant at first, yet she soon accepted him without
showing any rejection. In another scene, the orgy suddenly happened in the middle, and as time
went by, the audience began jumping into it. The audiences participation is sometimes little
forceful, yet the audience comes to see the theatre production with the agreement in advance.
Likewise, some performance art pieces require the active engagement of both the artist and the
audience. For instance, VALIE EXPORT, in her piece called Touch-and-Taste Cinema (19681971), wandered on the public street with a box attached in front of her naked breasts and asked
the strangers to touch them. Overall, however, the first type is more evident in avant-garde
theatre than performance art inasmuch as avant-garde theatre inherits the convention of
traditional theatre, in which the actor has to lead the whole production, except the fact the
audience is highly expected to participate in avant-garde theatre..
When it comes to the second type, especially in performance art, the nature of the
performance is entirely up to the audience and the body of the performance artist serves as a
mere object, which ties back to the idea of the body as a material. Prior to Rhythm 5, Marina

Yuki Yamamoto 8
Abramovich in Rhythm 0 (1974) visualized this kind of audiences involvement. In the beginning
of this piece, Abramovich provided a short instruction saying, There are 72 objects on the table
that one can use on me as desired. I am the object. During this period I take full responsibility.24
And during the certain duration of time, she kept standing still, no matter what happened to her.
Among these seventy-two objects was a loaded gun, so in this piece, even her life counted on the
audience. Not as intense as Abramovichs piece, but we can see the same quality in Yoko Onos
Cut Piece as well. In both pieces, the audience has the strong authority over the nature of the
performance. Interestingly enough, however, Richard Schechner, referring to avant-garde
theatre, also describes, The audience is an impromptu groupthey are difficult to mobilize and,
once mobilized, even more difficult to control.25 He goes on and mentions about good and
bad audience, concluding that [t]he best audience is one in which harmonic evocations are
present up to, but not beyond, the point where the performers become distracted.26 In avantgarde theatre, it is true that the audience has the power to influence the nature of the production
to some extent; nevertheless, the performers possess much more control over the production. If
the performers were still and silent during the entire production in avant-garde theatre, how on
earth would the specters deal with the performers? Therefore, we can conclude that this type of
audiences participation is unique to performance art, where the performance artist provides only
the idea and their body as an object, because the performers in avant-garde theatre has to be
mobilized so as to carry out the production.
Lastly, it is a kind of performance art executed privately that makes it possible for the
performers to be actively engaged yet the audience to be completely passive. Unlike the first
type, the audiences participation is automatic, regardless of their intention, so that the audience
is unaware that they are even a part of the performance art. Vito Acconci, in his Following Piece

Yuki Yamamoto 9
(1969), followed random strangers in the street and stopped doing so once they entered the
building.27 People who were being followed did not know and would not know that they were
being followed because nobody knew it except Acconci. Acconci made several other pieces that
are equally private, such as Seedbed (1971). In this notorious piece, Acconci dealt with powerfield between himself and others.28 He says, The fact is, I'm masturbating in public, but this
fact can't be seen, can't be verified; it has to be taken by the viewer on faith.29 In this piece the
audience was aware, to a certain extent, that they were a part of the performance art as they
entered the gallery space. Nevertheless, they were not entirely sure what was going on
underneath the ramp. Here Acconci questions the authority and power dynamics between
performers and the audience, where the audience has no power to control the performance. This
reminds us of the other power dynamics in avant-garde theatre mentioned as the first type;
however, in the third type, the audience has no other choice but to be a part of the piece, in
contrast with the first type, where the audience has a will to come see the theatre production,
knowing what to expect.
Regardless of different types of audiences participation through the body, when the
bodily representation becomes so expressive and important, it raises the question of where
performance should take place. Before avant-garde theatre emerged, modernist theatre, such as
epic theater and poor theater, were striving to break the fourth wall, blurring the segregation
between the stage and the audience area, taking a psychological approach. Avant-garde theatre
adopts this attitude, making more dramatic changes by physically breaking the fourth wall and
converting a non-theatrical space into their performing site. The Performance Group used a
warehouse to perform Dionysus in 69, and the Living Theatre held their productions mainly on
the street or in prisons. Schechner introduces two difference spaces used for avant-garde theatre

Yuki Yamamoto 10
in Public Domain: In the first case, one creates an environment by transforming a space; in the
second case, one negotiates with an environment.30 In the second case, he treats a space as a
found object. Additionally, he mentions the possibility of these two different spaces being
combined, depending on the audience.31 In other words, the production of avant-garde theatre
could be performed anywhere, while most of the performance art pieces, including those of
Abramovic, Ono, Beuys and Burden, took place in the galleries in New York City. They were,
however, not necessarily tied to the institutionalized places, either. They could have performed
these pieces anywhere. In fact, Acconcis Rubbing Pieces happened in the public restaurant32 and
his Following Pieces and VALIE EXPORTs Touch-and-Taste Cinema happened on the street.
That is, the theatre production and performance art are no longer confined in the institutionalized
spaces because the body is the only prop they use. The portability of the body allows both avantgarde theatre and performance art to resist commodification and deregulate the limitation of
performing space.
Although the physical presence of the body is the only component of both avant-garde
theatre production and performance art, we still ought to consider the importance of text and
speech in the theatre. Whether text and speech are scripted or improvised, its presence in avantgarde theatre is inevitable, for avant-garde theatre still involves acting. But it is not necessarily
the case in performance art. Auslander asserts that a part of the object of social discourse is to
discipline the body, to make it manageable, modern performance theory as a social discourse has
managed the body by robbing it of its materiality, subjecting it to the discipline of text, whether
the dramatic text or the text of archetypal psychic impulse.33 Some may disagree with him
because avant-garde theatre still seems to hold the bodys materiality. Yet it is true that text also
becomes an important material as we see there is an unavoidable actor-character relationship in

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avant-garde theatre. To the contrary, performance art can exist without any form of text or
speech, as long as they have the body as an artistic tool to embody the concept. RoseLee
Goldberg, an art historian, introduces an interesting concept of body poetry in which body
speaks itself.34 She uses an example of Acconcis Following Piece, explaining Acconci used his
body to provide an alternative ground to the page ground he had used as a poet.35 In
performance art, the body movement conveyed the meanings or the concepts without orally
expressing them. Thus, in regards of text and speech as oral expressions, there is a difference
between avant-garde theatre and performance art, but text in a broad sense exists in both.
Even though there are many slight differences between avant-garde theatre and
performance art, in terms of the body representation, the similarities seem to overpower these
differences; the bodys physical presence and the audiences participation are the obvious
resemblances. In this sense, the term performance encapsulates both avant-garde theatre and
performance art because the motivations behind the developments, respectively from traditional
theatre and visual arts, are to test the boundary between our everyday life and performing
activities. Auslanders statement that the performing body is always both a vehicle for
representation and, simply, itself36 can be applied to both avant-garde theatre and performance
art, and thus this seems to be the basic principle of performance as a whole. That is to say,
performance bridges the gap between traditional theatre and visual arts, facilitating each
other. Regarding the relationship between theatre and art, Michael Fried says, Art degenerates
as it approaches the condition of theatre and Josette Feral makes an additional point that [if]
theatre cannot escape from representationand if we also agree that theatre cannot escape
narrativelythen it would seem obvious that theatre and art are incompatible.37 It is interesting
to examine this relationship because even though some scholars like Fried argue that theatre and

Yuki Yamamoto 12
art are incompatible, performance exist combining both elements. We should not see that theatre
and visual arts as parallel movements because they definitely intertwine with each other; rather
we should regard performance as the outcome of this intertwinement. Carlson points out,
This orientation certainly was widespread in the performance work of the early 1970s,
especially due to the influence of Kaprow and the happenings and the visual art
background of most of the leading practitioners. The influence of the theatre was not,
however, so easily denied. The very presence of an audience watching an action,
however, neutral or non-matrixed, and presented in whatever unconventional space,
inevitably called up associations with theatre.38
Therefore, when discussing performance studies and theories, we can effectively tackle those by
taking the scholars theatre or visual arts backgrounds into account.
Richard Schechner, who pioneered the field and coined the very term Performance
Studies, came from the theatre background, and he also directed the productions of the
Performance Group in the late sixties and seventies, including Dionysus in 69. In his
performance theory, he introduces the term restored behavior, referring it as
the main characteristic of performanceBecause the behavior is separate from those who
are behaving, the behavior can be stored, transmitted, manipulated, transformed. The
performers get in touch with, recover, remember, or even invent these strips of behavior
and then rebehave according to these strips, either by being absorbed into them (playing
the role, going into trance) or by existing side by side with themRestored behavior is
out there, distant from me.39
At first glance, the restored behavior may be interpreted as, in a smaller spectrum, the
character in avant-garde theatre and the concept in performance art because they both use the
body to recover, remember, and rebehave each behavior. However, Schechner continues,
Restored behaviors of all kindsare transitional. Elements that are not me become me
without losing their not me-ness. This is the peculiar but necessary double negativity that
characterizes symbolic actions. While performing, a performer experiences his own self not
directly but through the medium of experiencing the others.40 This idea closely relates to the

Yuki Yamamoto 13
idea of the actor-character relationship in the beginning of this essay, and we rarely see that in
performance art. Therefore, it is reasonable to think that Schechners performance theory is
heavily theatre-oriented.
In its historical context of theatre, Carlson argues, [T]heatre scholars and historians
naturally tend to place happenings and later performance art in the tradition of the theatrical
avant-garde, looking back, as we have just been doing, to futurism, dada, and surrealism. It is
important to remember, however, that these last three movements were really movements in
other arts.41 Given that, Carlson seems to support the argument that the establishment of
performance attributes to the visual arts. Moreover, some art historians, including Goldberg, also
claim that [t]he interest of the futurists in movement and change drew them away from the static
work of art and provided an important impetus for the general shift in modern artistic interest
from product to process, turning even painters and sculptors into performance artists.42This is
the reason why Goldbergs Performance art begins the chapter with futurism, and this very idea
of art as the process, not the product comes from Allan Kaprow, who organized happenings.
Kaprow came from a visual art background, and he was very intrigued by Jackson Pollocks
action painting. More specifically, his own route to happenings (a term he coined) was through
action collagenot the making of pictures but the creation of a pictorial event.43 As well as
expanding the boundary of art making, Kaprow was also interested in the blurring of life and art.
In The Legacy of Jackson Pollock, he insists,
Not satisfied with the suggestion through paint of our other senses, we shall utilize the
specific substances of sight, sound, movements, people, odors, touch. Objects of every
sort are materials for the new art: paint, chairs, food, electric and neon lights, smoke,
water, old socks, a dog, movies, a thousand other things that will be discovered by the
present generation of artistsall will become materials for this new concrete art.44

Yuki Yamamoto 14
So this allows us to consider, from the visual art aspect, that happenings is the precedent of
performance because the idea of integrating our everyday life into something people used to
regard as illusionistic must have been a very new concept around this time.
But, again, Carlson critiques Goldbergs point of view, saying, [T]hese characteristics
[of performance Goldberg lists] are so heavily weighted toward an avant-garde orientation that
they are very likely to distort a readers idea not only of what has been included in modern
performance art, but also how that art is related to performance history.45 In fact, Goldberg does
not mention any avant-garde theatre as a part of the performance movement in the late sixties
and seventies in her book. More importantly, however, we ought to focus more on the
significance and implication of performance, instead of debating, theatre or visual arts, which
influenced more on forming performance. Here Carlson explains hat Schechner develops
restored behavior into a broader aspect:
The recognition that our lives are structured according to repeated and socially sanctioned
modes of behavior raises the possibility that all human activity could potentially be
considered as performance, or at least all activity carried out with a consciousness of
itself. The difference between doing and performing, according to this way of thinking,
would seem to lie not in the frame of theatre versus real life but in an
attitudeSchechner calls a difference in degree, not in kind, though it seems important to
note that for the operations of restoration to function, there must even in everyday life be
at least some consciousness of performing a social role.46
As a result, performance, the effort to push the boundary of our everyday life, makes the way we
think how we live today so much more complicated.
While examining the differences and similarities between avant-garde theatre and
performance art very closely, we notice that they both marked the dramatic shifts from
traditional theatre and conventional visual arts for the purpose of breaking the boundary between
art and life, by means of their bodys physical presence and the audiences participation;
therefore, we can generalize both movements as performance as a whole. This leads us to think

Yuki Yamamoto 15
that being avant-garde was the motivation behind these shifts in the late sixties and seventies in a
sense that avant-garde comes from the French phrase of advance guard. The analyses of the
performance theories and criticism by Richard Schechner, Marvin Carlson, RoseLee Goldberg
and others seem to strength this idea. With that being said, we now encounter the new questions:
what would happen if performers keep pushing this boundary? Will the domain of performance
continue growing?
A few days ago, at Miamis Art Basel, a woman was stabbed with knife in the neck by a
strange woman, and she was sent off to hospital. What was so intriguing yet frightening about
this news was that the reporters said the bystanders who witnessed this incident thought it was a
part of performance art. Life itself becomes a part of art and we ourselves are becoming
actors/performers or the other way around in todays world. Nevertheless, this debate has been
around since performance was established in the sixties as we look at throughout this essay.
Addressing to the questions, we know for the fact that the movements of theatre and visual arts
have never been linear. There has been always back and forth because the avant-garde movement
always reacts against its previous movement, not necessarily against all the ever-existing
movements in the past. It was intentional to avoid talking about the distinction between
modernism and postmodernism in this paper. Yet, Auslander writes the distinction between a
modernist and a postmodernist artist is an epistemological, not a historical, difference,47 and we
see the same thing in the avant-garde movement. So it is still reasonable to regard performance
as a whole in the late sixties and seventies, despite the subtle differences between avant-garde
theatre and performance art, as the avant-garde, whereas there have been many other avant-garde
movements in both theatre and visual art realms in different times. What is coming next is
unpredictable, and that is why it is so fascinating to study performance in its historical contexts.

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Auslander, Philip. From acting to performance : essays in modernism and postmodernism. n.p.:
London ; New York : Routledge, 1997.
Bial, Henry. The performance studies reader. n.p.: London ; New York : Routledge, 2004.
Carlson, Marvin. Performance : a critical introduction. n.p.: London ; New York : Routledge,
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Fineberg, Jonathan David. Art since 1940 : strategies of being. n.p.: Upper Saddle River, N.J. :
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Goldberg, RoseLee, Performance art : from futurism to the present. n.p.: London ; New York :
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Worth: Harcourt Brace, 1995.
Schechner, Richard. Between theater & anthropology. n.p.: Philadelphia : University of
Pennsylvania Press, c1985.
Schechner, Richard, Six Axioms for Environmental Theatre. From Public Domain.
Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Company: 1969.
Ward, Frazer. No innocent bystanders : performance art and audience. n.p.: Hanover, N.H. :
Dartmouth College Press, c2012.
Youjin, Chung. "Yoko Ono's "Cut Piece" as a Participation Work." International Journal Of
The Arts In Society 5, no. 5 (April 2011): 303-313. Art Source,
http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=0bf046a9-5817-4c92-9c12f5e2987711a0%40sessionmgr4001&vid=5&hid=4208 (accessed December 10, 2015).

Endnotes

1
Eugene ONeill. Memoranda on Masks. From Modern Drama, edited by
W.B.Worthen. (Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace, 1995), 305-307.
2

Philip Auslander. From acting to performance : essays in modernism and

postmodernism. n.p.: (London ; New York : Routledge, 1997), 91.
3

Ibid.

Ibid., 30.

Ibid., 32.

Ibid., 40-41.

Ibid., 41.

Chung Youjin. "Yoko Ono's "Cut Piece" as a Participation Work." International

Journal Of The Arts In Society 5, no. 5 (April 2011): 304. Art Source,
http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=0bf046a9-5817-4c92-9c12f5e2987711a0%40sessionmgr4001&vid=5&hid=4208 (accessed December 10, 2015).
9

Ibid.

10

Jonathan David Fineberg. Art since 1940 : strategies of being. n.p.: (Upper Saddle
River, N.J. : Prentice Hall, 2000), 231.
11

RoseLee Goldberg. Performance art : from futurism to the present. n.p.: (London ;
New York : Thames & Hudson, 2011), 150-151.
12

Marvin Carlson. Performance : a critical introduction. n.p.: (London ; New York :

Routledge, 1996), 55.
13

Ibid.

14

RoseLee Goldberg. Performance art : from futurism to the present. n.p.: (London ;
New York : Thames & Hudson, 2011), 130.
15

Marvin Carlson. Performance : a critical introduction. n.p.: (London ; New York :

Routledge, 1996), 97.
16

Philip Auslander. From acting to performance : essays in modernism and

postmodernism. n.p.: (London ; New York : Routledge, 1997), 93.


17
Ibid.
18

Ibid.

19

Henry Bial. The performance studies reader. n.p.: (London ; New York : Routledge,
2004), 161.
20

RoseLee Goldberg. Performance art : from futurism to the present. n.p.: (London ;
New York : Thames & Hudson, 2011), 165.
21

Philip Auslander. From acting to performance : essays in modernism and

postmodernism. n.p.: (London ; New York : Routledge, 1997), 152.
22

Henry Bial. The performance studies reader. n.p.: (London ; New York : Routledge,
2004), 80-81.
23

Ibid., 81.

24

Frazer Ward. No innocent bystanders : performance art and audience. n.p.: (Hanover,
N.H. : Dartmouth College Press, c2012), 119.
25

Richard Schechner, Six Axioms for Environmental Theatre. From Public Domain.
(Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Company: 1969), 162.
26

Ibid.

27

Philip Auslander. From acting to performance : essays in modernism and

postmodernism. n.p.: (London ; New York : Routledge, 1997), 93.
28

RoseLee Goldberg. Performance art : from futurism to the present. n.p.: (London ;
New York : Thames & Hudson, 2011), 156.
29

Vito Acconci. "Some Notes on Illegality in Art." Art Journal, 1991., 70, JSTOR
Journals, http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=68748b5b-0f2b-4b91-a5d23a105437d989@sessionmgr4004&vid=3&hid=4208 (accessed December 10, 2015).
30

Richard Schechner, Six Axioms for Environmental Theatre. From Public Domain.
(Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Company: 1969), 168.
31

Ibid., 174.

32

Philip Auslander. From acting to performance : essays in modernism and

postmodernism. n.p.: (London ; New York : Routledge, 1997), 93.
33

Ibid., 91.


34

RoseLee Goldberg. Performance art : from futurism to the present. n.p.: (London ;
New York : Thames & Hudson, 2011), 156.
35

Ibid.

36

Philip Auslander. From acting to performance : essays in modernism and

postmodernism. n.p.: (London ; New York : Routledge, 1997), 90.
37

Ibid., 55.

38

Marvin Carlson. Performance : a critical introduction. n.p.: (London ; New York :

Routledge, 1996), 104.
39

Richard Schechner. Between theater & anthropology. n.p.: (Philadelphia : University

of Pennsylvania Press, c1985), 35-36.
40

Ibid., 111-112

41

Marvin Carlson. Performance : a critical introduction. n.p.: (London ; New York :

Routledge, 1996), 97.
42

RoseLee Goldberg. Performance art : from futurism to the present. n.p.: (London ;
New York : Thames & Hudson, 2011), 89.
43

Richard Schechner, Six Axioms for Environmental Theatre. From Public Domain.
(Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Company: 1969), 107.
44

Allan Kaprow. "The Legacy Of Jackson Pollock." Art In America, 1945-1970 (2014):
1. Essay and General Literature Index (H.W. Wilson), (accessed November 24, 2015).
45

Marvin Carlson. Performance : a critical introduction. n.p.: (London ; New York :

Routledge, 1996), 80.
46
47

Ibid., 4.

Philip Auslander. From acting to performance : essays in modernism and

postmodernism. n.p.: (London ; New York : Routledge, 1997), 93.