CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORSIn the petroleum industry, gas is com- pressed for transportation to consuming markets and for refining processes. This program is about the construction and operation of compressors. Unit 3 of Compressors teaches the oper- ating principles of centrifugal and axial compressors and the construction and operation of centrifugal compressors.INSTRUCTIONS This is a programed learning course. Programed learning gives information in a series of steps called frames. Each frame gives some information and asks you to make use of it. Here is how it works. First, cover the response column at the right with a mask. Read this frame and use the information it gives to fill in the blank, A micrometer is an instrument designed to measure in thousandths of an inch, A micrometer is a good tool for measuring very differences in size. Move the mask down to uncover the word at the right of the frame. If you have filled the blank with that word or a word that means the same, you are ready to go ahead to the next frame. The drawing of a micrometer provides information that will help you fill in the next blanks. OBJECT TO BE MEASURED. ANVIL AYE THIMBLE SPINDLE To RATCHET CAP FRAME Seven major parts are shown in the drawing, but only the ____and the___contact the object to be measured. small anvil, spindleThe next frame calls for a choice. Circle or underline the ap- propriate word. Of the two parts that contact the object, only the (anvil/ spindle) moves. A program is a series of frames that work like the ones you have just done. Read the frame. Use the information to fill in the blanks or make a choice. Move the mask down and check the response column. Go on to the next frame. Remember to cover the response column with a mask before you begin each page. Notice that the left-hand pages from here on are printed upside down, The program is designed so that you will go through all the right-hand pages first, and then turn the book upside down and go through the other pages. spindleCENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS Section One POTENTIAL AND KINETIC ENERGY Exhibits for this program are placed in the center of the book so that they may be removed easily for reference. Please remove them now so that you will have them available when needed. 10, 1. 12. To do work, some form of energy is needed. An electric motor needs —_____ energy. Under certain conditions, matter can do work. A wound-up clock spring ( can do work / cannot do work ). ‘A moving hammer, due to its motion, ( can / cannot ) do work, Both the moving hammer and the wound-up spring possess some kind of ________ that enables them to do work The hammer is moving and the spring is not. The energy of a moving hammer and the energy of a wound-up spring is ( the same /a different ) kind of energy, ‘A moving hammer and flowing water possess kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is the energy that a body possesses due to its ( motion | molecular arrangement ). ‘A.wound spring and still water behind a dam have potential energy. Potential energy is the energy that a body possesses due to its position or _______ arrangement. When a spring is wound, _____is done on Because of the work that was done on it, the wound-up spring possesses potential Suppose a ball of iron is lifted 20 feet off the ground. Work was done in lifting the iron ball. The ball, due to its position, possesses _____ energy. The ball is allowed to drop. As the ball drops, it acquires energy, due to its motion. When the ball hits the ground, it does electric can do work can energy a different motion molecular work energy potential kinetic work13. Something possessing kinetic energy can do when it is slowed down or stopped. 14. Work is done in lifting the ball. Due to the work done on it, the ball acquires ______ energy. 15. The potential energy of the ball is turned into energy as the ball drops. 16. The kinetic energy in turn can be converted into as the ball is stopped. 17. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be converted from one_______ to another. 18. Potential energy can be converted into —___ energy or work. 19. Kinetic energy can be converted into ————___ energy. 20. As work is done on an object, some kind of is added to it. PRESSURE AND VELOCITY—TWO FORMS OF GAS ENERGY 21. When an amount of gas is compressed into a smaller volume, the pressure of the gas ( increases / stays the sams). 22, To compress the gas, some ________ has to be done to it. 23. Compressed gas in a static state exerts its energy in the all directions. form of pressuré When a gas is tlowing, some of its energy in the form of pressure is converted to energy in the form of motion in (a single direction / all directions ). work potential kinetic work form, or type kinetic potential energy increases work a single direction24, 25, ‘A compressed gas possesses potential energy due to the it exerts, A flowing gas possesses kinetic energy due to its . in one direction. 26. Gas ina static state has all of its energy in the form of only. 27. Velocity is the speed of flow. The higher the speed of flow, the higher the 28. If the gas is allowed to flow, some of its pressure is converted into —______. 29, The total energy of a flowing gas is a function of its velocity, plus its 30. If no work is done and no energy is lost, the total energy of a gas during flow ( changes / remains constant ). 31. When the total energy stays the same, and energy in the form of velocity increases, energy in the form of pressure must ( increase / decrease ). 32. If the flowing gas is slowed down so that its velocity is decreased, then its pressure must 33. Anything possessing potential energy must have had some done on it at some previous time. 34, A gas with pressure has had _________ done on it. 35. By doing work on something, one ( can / cannot ) increase its total energy. 36. A compressor does work on a gas and thus adds or in- creases the total____of the gas. LAWS OF MOTION 37. When a car accelerates quickly from rest, the driver is thrown (forward / backward ). 38. When the brakes are applied as the car is moving, the driver is thrown ( forward / backward ) 39. If the wheels of a moving car are turned, but there is no traction, as on ice, the car tends to ( turn / continue in a straight line ). 40. A body at rest tends to remain at ________. 41. A body in motion tends to continue in —_____. pressure ‘motion, or flow pressure velocity velocity pressure remains constant decrease energy backward forward continue in a straight line rest ‘motion42. When a body is in motion and there is no outside force acting on it, it tends to continue in a ( straight line / curved line ). straight line 43. When a driver turns his car, the car ( opposes / does not oppose ) the change of direction. ‘opposes 44, A body at rest remains at rest unless it is acted upon by some outside —_____. force 45. Ifa gas in a pipe is not flowing, the gas tends to ( remain static / flow ). remain static DYNAMIC COMPRESSORS 48. A dynamic compressor adds energy to gas in the same manner that an electric fan does. The rotating blades of the fan force air to—___. move, or flow 47. Air that at rest tends to remain at —____. rest 48. As the fan blades start turning, they push on the air. The stationary ai the push of the blades. resists49. 50. 51. 82. 53. 54. 56. 87. As the air resists the blades, the molecules of the air are brought ( closer together / further apart ). When the air molecules are compressed, the volume of the air ( decreases | increases ) As the volume of the air decreases, its pressure The blades of the fan overcome the resistance of the air and thrust the air forward. The faster the blades turn, the ( faster / slower ) the air is pushed. The fan, by doing work on the air, actually increases the and velocity of the air. When velocity and pressure are added to a gas, its total energy A dynamic compressor increases total gas energy by adding —_____ and _______ to the gas. The total energy of a gas leaving a compressor is ( less than / greater than ) the total energy of the gas entering the compressor. The energy that a gas gains in a compressor is due to the —___done on it. Centrifugal Compressors 58. 88. Any body set in motion tends to continue in motion. If there is no gravity pull, nor any obstacle to deflect it, any body in motion travels in a ( straight / curved ) line. ‘Suppose a ball attached to a string is set in motion. Assume that there is no gravity and that the string has no effect on the ball. BALL STRING The ball moves in a ( circle / straight line ) closer together decreases increases faster pressure increases pressure, velocity greater than work straight straight line60. Suppose the string is fastened to a fixed pivot point and then the ball is set in motion aad FIXED PIVOT POINT At first, the ball moves ( in the direction of motion / toward the pivot in the direction of motion 61. When the string becomes taut, it deflects the ball. Because of the deflection, the ball actually travels in a (an) —_______. arc, or circle62. Assuming it has enough energy, the ball continues to move in aseries of arcs. At each instant of its travel, the physical tendency of the ball is to travel ina_________line. straight 63. But instead, the ball travels in a circle because it is held or deflected by the —__. string 64, The string actually applies centripetal ( pulling-in- toward-the-center ) force, causing the path of the ball to___ change, or curve 65. If the string breaks, the ball flies out in a ( larger circle / straight line ) straight line 66. Any object traveling in a circle is kept in that path of travel by ( centripetal / centrifugal ) force centripetal 67. If the centripetal force is eliminated, the object then moves in a—____ line. straight 68. The force pulling an object in a circular path toward the center is ______ force. centripetal 69. The centrifugal tendency of the object is its tendency to pull away from the ______ of rotation, or to pull center against the centripetal force. 70. The centrifugal tendency acts in ( the same direction as / the direction opposite to ) the centripetal force. the direction opposite to71. 72. 73. 74, The centrifugal tendency is actually not a force but is the result of the tendency of the object to move in a ————__ line white being pulled toward a center straight of rotation by ___ force. centripetal A ball bearing is placed close to the center of a disc that has blades. BALL BEARING BLADES As the disc begins to move, one of the blades forces the ball bearing to __. move The ball bearing tends to travel in a ( straight / curved ) straight path. The drawing shows the actual path of the ball bearing as the disc rotates. Centripetal ( pulling-in-toward-the-center ) force ( is / is not ) acting on the bearing. isnot Because of the lack of centripetal force, the bearing is forced ( toward / away from ) the center of the disc. away from76. As the disc rotates, the ball bearing ( is / is not ) in 7. 79. at. contact with the vane. This disc is rotating, For each rotation, point (A / 8 ) has the largest distance to cover. When the disc is rotating, point ( A / 8 ) moves faster. Anything that is being carried along by the rotation of the disc has a greater velocity when it is near ( the center / the outer rim ) of the disc. If anything being carried along by the rotation of the disc also travels outward from the center to the outer rim, it gains This is a compressor impeller. PLATES An impeller is made of two plates separated by the outer rim velocity blades82. 85. 87. 88. 89. ‘Suppose the impeller begins to rotate. As the impeller rotates, the blades force the air in the impeller to Air molecules tend to travel in a line. Because there is no centripetal force, the rotation forces the air molecules outward from the _____ of the impeller. As the air molecules move outward, they gain The air also tends to oppose the push of the blades, so the pressure of the air is The impeller adds both ______and to the air. The tendency of air or gas to move outward from the center of a rotating impeller is the centrifugal tendency. A compressor that uses centrifugal tendency to impart pressure and velocity to a gas is a compressor. The part of the centrifugal compressor that moves the gas is the impeller. As the impeller rotates, it moves the gas toward the rim of the impeller. 10 move straight center, or eye velocity, or speed increased Pressure, velocity centrifugal outer91. 92. 93. 94. 95. As the gas moves toward the outer rim of the impeller, its velocity . This increase in velocity away from the eye creates a low- pressure area at the ( eye / outer rim ). This low-pressure area at the eye causes a suction which (allows / does not allow ) more gas to enter. The impeller does work on the gas. The work is converted into the _____ that the gas gains. ‘The energy that the gas gains is in the form of both OR ge When the gas is at the tips of the impeller blades, it is at (maximum / minimum } velocity. As the gas leaves the impeller, it is thrust into a passage- way called the diffuser. When the gas enters the diffuser, the impeller (is / is not ) acting directly on the gas. " increases allows energy pressure, velocity maximum. isnot97. The radius of the diffuser is ( larger / smaller ) than the larger radius of the impeller. 98. Due to the larger radius, the flow path of the gas through the diffuser is in a ( larger / smaller ) spiral. larger 99. Since the flow path is longer and there is no direct action by the impeller blades, the velocity of the gas (increases / decreases ). decreases 100. As the velocity of the gas decreases, its —_____ pressure increases. 101. The diffuser converts the velocity of the gas to increased pa ae pressure 102. Gas passes from the diffuser into the volute. DIFFUSE! In the volute, the conversion from velocity to pressure (continues / does not continue ). continues 103. A centrifugal compressor, by doing work on a gas, imparts both and _______ to the gas. pressure, velocity 104, Then, the velocity of the gas is converted into pressure (within / outside of ) the compressor. within 12105, 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. m1 112. 113. Look at the compressor below. DIFFUSERS > te IMPELLERS Ithas ___ separate impellers. Each impeller and diffuser make a stage. This is a “stage centrifugal compressor. As the gas leaves the first impeller it gains some and The increased velocity is partially converted into pressure in the As the gas leaves the diffuser, it enters the return passage, which guides it into the —________ of the next impeller. When the gas enters the eye of the second impeller, it has (greater pressure than / the same pressure as ) when it entered the eye of the first impeller. Each impeller adds to the total of the gas. Greater increased pressure can be obtained from a (single-stage / multi-stage ) centrifugal compressor. Although velocity is added to gas by the impeller, the velocity is converted into within the diffuser. 13 four four velocity, pressure diffuser eye greater pressure than energy multi-stage pressure114. When the gas leaves the compressor, its pressure is (higher / lower ) than when it entered. 115. The work done by a compressor is the total added to a gas by a compressor. 116. A gas leaving a compressor contains added energy, usually in the form of increased ( pressure / velocity ) and temperature. ‘Axial Compressors 117. Motion along the axis of a shaft is called axial motion. CENTRIFUGAL AXIAL Axial motion is ( circular / straight-line ) motion. 118. A compressor that moves gas parallel to the axis of its shaft is an_______ compressor. 119. An axial compressor has stator and rotor blades. ROTOR BLADES SHAFT The rotor blades are attached to the rotate with it. and 14 higher energy pressure straight- axial shaft120. The stator blades are attached to the 121. Look at this drawing. STATOR BLADES DAAUA CASING The arrangement of blades is such that there is a set of stator blades between each two sets of. blades. 122. The rotor blades act in the same manner as the blades of afan. As they rotate, they force the gas to 123. The rotor blades impart both pressure and to the gas. 124. The rotor blades force the gas into the _ blades. 125. As the gas is thrust into the stator blades, the openings between the blades act as diffusers, thus decreasing the of the gas. 126. With the decrease in velocity, the pressure of the gas 127. The stator blades also guide the gas into the next set of _______blades. 128. Thus, the gas entering the second set of rotor blades has a slightly ( higher / lower ) pressure. 129. Each set of stator and rotor blades ____________ the gas pressure. 130. The axial compressor achieves pressure increase by using many sets of ______and____blades. 15 casing rotor move, or flow velocity stator velocity increases rotor higher increases stator, rotor131. The blades in this compressor are not the same size. DISCHARGE The blades get gradually smaller toward the end of the compressor. 192. As the gas flows through an axial compressor, it is forced to occupy successively ( more / less } volume. 133. As an amount of gas is forced to occupy less volume, its pressure 134, The parts of the axial compressor that do work on the gas are the 1. ___ blades. 195. Partial conversion from velocity to pressure is achieved by the __-.__ blades. 188. Further pressure increase is caused by forcing the gas into a smaller 187. The flow of gas through an axial compressor is in a (somewhat straight / spiral ) line of flow. REVIEW and 138. Two forms of gas energy are 138. Energy cannot be created or destroyed but it can be from one form to another. 140. By doing work on a gas, a compressor can add to the ga 141. The total energy of a flowing gas is a function of its — __, —______ and temperature. 16 discharge increases rotor stator space, or volume somewhat straight pressure velocity changed, or converted energy pressure, velocity142. When the velocity of a gas decreases, its pressure 143. When a flowing gas is slowed down, the velocity loss is converted into 144, During flow, the total energy of a gas, less energy loss due to friction or heat ( changes / remains constant ) 145. Centrifugal and axial compressors are ( dynamic / po: displacement ) compressors. 146. In dynamic compressors, added velocity is changed into within the compressor. 147. The function of both diffusers and volutes is to convert gas ____into. 148. The stator blades of an axial compressor act as ( diffusers / impellers ). 149. The total energy gain of a gas leaving a compressor is due to the ______done by the compressor. RATIO OF COMPRESSION 150. A compressor is a machine that by doing work on a gas increases gas. 151. A gas normally enters a compressor at one pressure and leaves it at a ( higher / lower ) pressure. 152. The difference between the suction pressure and the discharge pressure represents the —_________ done on the gas by the compressor less losses due to heat and friction. 153. The ratio of compression, R, is the relationship between the absolute discharge pressure and the absolute suction pressure, P2/P:, where P2 is absolute pressure. 154. P sis absolute ______ pressure. 155. R is how many times the suction pressure goes into the pressure, 156. In determining R, ( absolute / gage ) pressure is used. 157. Gages are usually calibrated to read zero pressure at atmospheric conditions. They ( do/ do not ) record the pressure of the atmosphere. 7 increases pressure remains constant dynamic pressure velocity; pressure diffusers work pressure higher work discharge suction discharge absolute do notCENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS, EXHIBIT BOOK This center section contains the exhibits. It may be pulled out of the book for easy reference without up- setting the frame sequence,EXHIBIT 1 Allovdv9 Galva 100% POINT 104% RATED RPM & 2 es 3 g 8 BOUVHOSIO LV GV3H GaLVY 40 % 80 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 % OF RATED CAPACITYEXHIBIT 2 STARTUP PROCEDURE — TURBINE DRIVEN COMPRESSOR Pressure In System © open suction valve © open discharge valve (discharge check valve closed) © open bypass or vent start and bring up to speed (operating path passes through points 1, 2, and 3) * close bypass or vent * place bypass or vent on automatic control No Pressure In System © open suction and discharge valves « place bypass or vent (if used) on automatic control « start and bring up to speed (operating path passes through points 1, 2, and 3) STARTUP PROCEDURE — MOTOR DRIVEN COMPRESSOR Pressure In System * throttle suction valve # open discharge valve (discharge check valve is closed, bypass or vent is normally open) ‘start and bring up to speed (operating path passes through points 1, 2, and 3) * open suction valve slowly place bypass or vent (if used) on automatic control No Pressure In System ¢ throttle suction valve open discharge valve open bypass or vent « start unit (operating path passes through points 1,2, and 3) ‘slowly open suction valve ‘put bypass or vent on automatic control HEAD (ay 80% SPEED ‘CAPACITY NORMAL CAPACITY mit NORMAL CAPACITY mit158. Absolute pressure is total pressure. To convert from gage pressure { PSIG ), to absolute pressure (PSIA ), the pressure of the __-___ must be added. 159. Atmospheric pressure at sea level is about 14.7 PSI. When a gage reads 20 PSIG at sea level, the absolute pressure is ___ PIA. 160. A compressor takes in gas at atmospheric pressure, 14.7 PSIA, and discharges it at 58.8 PSIG. Suotion pressure ig _____PSIA. 161. The absolute discharge pressure is 58.8 + PSIA, 162. The R for this compressor is 73.5 163. A compressor takes in gas at 20 PSIA and discharges it at 60 PSIA. The Ris 164. Since compression always increases gas pressure, the discharge pressure during compression is always (higher lower ) than the suction pressure. 165. Since discharge pressure is always higher than suction pressure during compression, R is always ( smaller / greater ) than 1 166. R is an abbreviation for _______ of compression 167. A compressor with an R of 2 takes in gas at 20 PSIA. The discharge pressure is ( 20/2/20 2 ) PSIA. 168. Ris an indicator of the amount of _______ that the compressor adds to the gas. 169. The greater the R, the greater the _______ increase in the gas. CAPACITY OF COMPRESSORS 170. The capacity of a compressor is the volume of gas it moves in a given period of time. Cubic feet per minute (CFM) indicates the ( capacity / volume } of a compressor. 18 atmosphere 34,7 147 14.7 73.5 147 higher greater ratio 20x2 pressure pressure capacity471. The flow rate of a gas in CFM depends on the velocity of the gas and the diameter of the pipe or flow path. At the same velocity, the rate in CFM is higher if the gas is flowing through a ( larger / smaller ) diameter passage. 172. With the same size passage, the flow rate is higher when the gas flows at a higher —_. 173. When the velocity of a gas flowing through a com- pressor increases, then the capacity of the compressor 174, If the gas velocity at discharge is greater, then the pres- sure at discharge is —_. 175. Since a compressor compresses the gas that it handles, the volume of gas entering the compressor is ( greater than / less than ) the volume leaving the compressor. 176. The capacity of a compressor is the volume of gas that it moves in a given period of time. The actual CFM that a compressor moves represents the volume of gas ( before/after ) compression. 177. The actual CFM, must be measured at the ( suction / discharge ) end. REVIEW 178. stands for the |__~__ of compression. 179. R indicates the amount of _________ increase that occurs to the gas due to the compressor. 180. In determining R, ( gage / absolute ) pressure is used. 181. The capacity of a compressor is the —______ of gas that a compressor moves in a given period of time. 182, The actual CFM represents the volume of the gas moved in a given period of time ( before / after ) compression. 183. The capacity limit of a compressor represents the (maximum / minimum ) rate of flow of gas through it. 184. When a dynamic compressor nears its capacity limit, its efficiency ( increases / falls off ) 185. For maximum efficiency, a dynamic compressor should be operated ( at / at less than ) its capacity limit. : 19 larger velocity increases less, or decreased greater than before suction ratio pressure absolute amount, or volume before maximum. falls off at less thanFOOT-POUNDS AND HORSEPOWER 186. A unit for measuring work is the foot-pound. One foot-pound is the amount of work needed to raise a weight of one _________ a distance of one 187. When a weight of one pound is raised a distance of 100 feet, —_\- foot-pounds of work is done. 188, Horsepower is a unit for measuring power. One horsepower is equal to 550 foot-pounds per second. Horsepower is a unit that measures the ( amount of work done / rate at which work is done ). 189. A machine rated at one horsepower, if allowed to operate for one minute is capable of doing 60 x. = 00 -pounds of work. 190. To raise @ weight of one pound a distance of 33,000 feet, foo -pounds of work are required. 191. To raise a weight of one pound a distance of 33,000 feet in ‘one minute, one. ____ is needed. 192. A foot-pound represents ( amount / rate ) of work HEAD OF COMPRESSION 193. To compress any amount of gas, a compressor must do a certain amount of ——__— on the gas. 194. The amount of work that is done by the compressor can be expressed in = 20 pound foot 100 rate at which work is done 550 33,000 33,000 horsepower amount work foot-pounds195. The work of compression can be thought of as straight lifting of a given weight of gas. For every pound of gas that the compressor lifts a dis- tance of one foot, one _-__ of work is done. foot-pound. 196. This centrifugal compressor is lifting a gas, GAS LEVEL HEAD IN FEET The height to which the gas is lifted is called be head and is measured in feet 197. To lift the gas, the compressor ( increases / decreases } increases the velocity of the gas. 198. Ina compressor, the velocity of a gas is increased by an cre impeller 199, When the speed of the impeller is increased, the velocity of the gas —_.. increases 200. Because of its velocity, the gas will be lifted a certain number of —____ feet 201. The height to which the gas is lifted depends on the of the gas. velocity 202. When the velocity of the gas increases, the head devel- oped by the compressor 1. ' increases 203. The head that the compressor develops represents the the height to which a column of gas is ___ lifted, or raised 21204. When the unit of weight is in pounds, for each foot of distance this liquid is raised, one ————_____- of work is done. 205. When compression is thought of as straight lifting of a column of gas, the head in feet represents the output of the compressor in foot-__ per _____ of gas handled. 206. For each pound of gas that the compressor raises to the top of the head column, a corresponding amount of of work is needed. 207. If the head increases, the number of foot-pounds of work per pound of gas must —_______. RPM AND HORSEPOWER 208. RPM is an abbreviation for______ per minute. 209. The impeller of a centrifugal compressor has to to move the gas. 210. As the RPM of the impeller increases, the velocity of the pe 211. The work done by the impeller is reflected in the imparted to the gas. 212. The faster the RPM of the impeller, the ( more / less ) work is done on the gas. 213. For any given RPM, a set amount of work in units of __-______ is done per unit weight of gas. 214. For any given RPM, the head developed by the compressor is fairly (constant / variable ) 215. The density of various gases, or the weight per given volume differs, ‘A gas with a higher density weighs ( more / less ) for the same volume as a less dense gas. 216. However, for any given RPM of the compressor, the work done per pound of gas handled is ( the same / different ). 217. When a compressor at a given RPM is handling a heavier gas, the work it does per pound of gas handled is ( the same as / different from ) the work done on a pound of a lighter gas. 22 pound pounds; pound foot-pounds increase revolutions rotate, or revolve increases velocity more foot-pounds constant more the same the same as,218. Head represents the amount of foot-pounds of work done per unit weight. For the same RPM when a compressor is handling a heavier gas, the head it develops ( remains the same / changes ) 219. A compressor at a given RPM handles two different kinds of gas. The gas that requires the larger volume per given weight is ( denser / less dense ). 220. The amount of work done per each unit of weight is ( the same different) for both gases. 221. The gas that has the most units of weight per given volume is vn 222. The gas that results in the highest discharge pressure for the same head developed is ( the denser gas / the less dense gas } 223. Ata given RPM, the actual CFM of gas that the compressor moves is constant, but with a denser gas there will be { more / fewer) pounds of gas moved. 224. Ata given RPM, as more weight of gas is handled in a given time, the work done per pound ( remains the same / increases ). 225. Although the work per pound is the same, the number of pounds of gas worked on. in a given time ( increases / stays unchanged ) with a denser gas. 226. With an increase of weight handled for a given time, the rate of work ( increases / decreases ). 227. With an increase in the rate of work there is an increase in_________ required to compress the gas. 228. At any given RPM, when a compressor handles a heavier gas, the horsepower required —___ REVIEW 229. Work can be measured in units of —___-__ 280. The rate of work done is usually expressed in units of 231, When the work of compression is thought of as straight lifting of a weight of gas, then head represents the output of a compressor in. — per pound of gas handled. 23 remains the same less dense the same denser the denser gas more remains the same increases increases horsepower increases foot-pounds horsepower foot-pounds232, 233. 236. 237. 238. 239. 240. As the head developed increases, the amount of work done on each unit of weight of gas handled At any given RPM, the work done by the compressor on each pound of gas handled is ( nearly constant / variable ) The density of a gas does not affect the —___ developed, but does affect the needed. When a denser gas is handled, the discharge pressure for the same RPM When RPM increases, there is ( more | less) work done per unit weight. With an increase of RPM, there is ( an increase | no change ) in the head developed. ‘As the RPM increases, the capacity of the compressor increases and the amount of weight of gas handled per given time With an increase in RPM, the horsepower Maximum head at any given RPM represents the ( maxi- mum | minimum ) amount of work that a compressor can do on each ______ of gas handled. R, RPM AND BHP. 241. 242. 243. 244. 245. 246. The ratio of compression, R, is the absolute ——__ pressure divided by the absolute —— pressure. Ris an indicator of the amount of ____________ that the compressor adds to the gas. ‘Ata set RPM, a dynamic compressor adds a certain head to the gas. The total head added depends on the design of the compressor, the amount of flow, and the operating As RPM increases, the total head of the compressor ‘Ata fixed RPM and CFM, the dynamic compressor attains approximately the same feet of head, regardless of the ‘weight of the gas handled, The head developed by a dynamic compressor ( depends / does not depend ) on the density of the gas being handled Feet of head ( can / cannot ) be converted into PSI equivalent. 24 increases nearly constant head horsepower Increases more an increase increases increases maximum pound, or weight discharge suction pressure RPM, or speed increases does not depend can247. PSI (can / cannot ) be converted into feet of head. 248. Two compressors handling two different kinds of gas develop the same head. The compressor generating the highest discharge pressure is handling the ( denser / less dense ) gas. 249. The density of a gas does not affect the head developed, but does affect the ________ pressure. 250. The compressor with the higher R is handling the —luice gas. 251. The Ror pressure increase at the compressor ( depends / does not depend } on gas density. 252. As the density of a gas increases, the R of the compressor 253. Changes in the density of the gas do not change the (head / R ), but they do change the (head / R ). 254. As suction pressure increases, the compressor causes a higher discharge _._____ for the same head and R. 255. As temperature increases at suction, the gas is lighter and the same head causes a ( higher / lower) R 258. BHP or brake horsepower, is the horsepower that is required by the shaft of the compressor. As a gas becomes heavier the BHP required 257. Because of wide variations in gas density, the BHP re- quired by a dynamic compressor tends to ( change / re- main constant ) while the compressor is in operation. SURGING 258. Suppose a compressor is connected to a large system having a high capacity or needing large amounts of air. Because there is a demand for air, when the compressor is started there is (little / great ) resistance to the discharge of the air. 259. With little resistance at the discharge end of the com- pressor, the compressor capacity at first is ( high / low ). 260. As more air is delivered and the system fills, the capacity need of the system ( is reduced / stays the same ) 261. If the system dées not use the air as quickly as the compressor delivers it, the pressure in the system 25 can denser discharge denser depends increases head; R pressure lower increases change little high is reduced increases262. 263. 264. 265. 266. 267, 268. 269. 270. art 272. 273. 274. 275. 276. With an increase in pressure in the system, the resistance to the discharge of the compressor An increase in resistance to discharge causes the capacity of the compressor to As pressure in the system increases, the compressor has to do ( more / less ) work per pound of air. The maximum head of a dynamic compressor represents the maximum amount of —________it can do on the gas to maintain flow. If the system continues to use less air than is delivered to it, the system's pressure keeps increasing and the head required to maintain flow keeps When the head needed to maintain flow increases above the maximum head of the compressor, flow —— When the flow stops, the pressure within the compressor becomes less than the pressure in the system, and the air may flow from the into the —__. After some air flows back into the compressor or is used by the system, the pressure of the system As the pressure of the system drops below the maximum head of the compressor, the compressor again delivers gas into the ‘As the compressor begins to deliver gas again, it operates at a lower and lower capacity and higher and higher If the system still uses less air than is delivered to it, the compressor reaches its maximum head and the flow stoppage (occurs / does not occur ) again. ‘The rapid flow of gas back and forth in the compressor is called surging. Surging occurs when the compressor is operated below minimum —— The rapid reversals of surging set up severe vibrations in the compressor and piping which can cause to the compressor. ‘A compressor goes into surging because the flow of gas ( drops below / rises above ) the minimum stable level. Most dynamic compressors are equipped with protective devices that guard the compressor against —____. 26 increases decrease more work increasing stops system; compressor decreases system head, or pressure occurs capacity damage drops below surgingOPERATING CHARACTERISTICS Now refer to Exhibit 1. 277. 278. 279. 280, 281 282. ® 284. 286, 286. 287, 288. The left-hand edge of the graph shows percent of rated A point higher on the graph indicates a ( higher / lower ) head. The bottom edge of the graph shows percent of rated A point further to the right on the graph indicates ( higher / lower ) capacity. The graph shows that as head increases, capacity The compressor is discharging into a system that requires 100 percent of its rated head. According to the graph, the compressor is operating at ___________ percent capacity. ‘Suppose the discharge system does not use as much gas as the compressor delivers. The pressure at the discharge end of the compressor (increases / decreases ). The graph shows that as the required head (or pressure) ‘expressed in feet of gas increases, compressor capacity Suppose the head at discharge necessary to maintain flow reaches 102 percent of normal rated head. The head/capacity curve shows that at 102 percent head, capacity is reduced to percent of normal capacity. If pressure in the discharge system increases so that the compressor must produce 104 percent of normal rated head to maintain flow, capacity decreases to. percent of normal rated capacity. Locate the surge line on the head/capacity curve. ‘As shown on the graph, the operating point of the com- pressor at 104 per cent rated head is ( closer to / further from ) the surge line than the operating point at 102 per- cent rated head. As the head necessary to maintain flow increases, the operating point of the compressor ( approaches / recedes from ) the surge line. ar head higher capacity higher decreases 100 increases decreases 70 closer to approaches289. According to the graph, this compressor begins surging at__/.__percent rated head. 290. Capacity at surge is ——______ capacity _ percent rated Interpretation of Curves 291. Performance curves show the limits of the compressor, which are the surge point on the ( right / left ) and the normal capacity limit on the of the graph. 292. Compression is controlled by making permissible changes in pressure, flow and temperature, to keep the compressor from ‘ 293. The point where surge can occur is defined by the end of the curve. 294. Increasing the speed of a compressor will ( increase / decrease ) the generated head. 295. Increasing the speed will also increase the required for compression 296. On a constant-speed compressor with a fixed suction pressure, an increase in discharge pressure always causes (a decrease / an increase ) in capacity and ( an increase / a decrease ) in R. 297. The reduction in capacity causes a_______in the BHP required, 298. If less volume of gas is required, the compressor should be operated at a ( higher / lower ) speed. EPRECTS OF EXTERNAL SYSTEMS ON A COMPRESSOR 299. Some processes require a given weight of gas or air for any given time of operation. For example, a cat cracker requires enough air by weight to maintain the effectiveness of the catalyst. When a compressor is delivering into such a system, the main control objective is ( volume / weight ) flow. 300. For any given time, the requirement of such systems (constant / variable ). 301. Therefore, a compressor in such a system must deliver a _) ____-weight flow for any given operative time. 28 105 50 left right surging left increase BHP a decrease an increase decrease lower weight constant constant302, 303. 304, 306. 307. 308. 309, 310. att. 312. 313, In other systems, as with the production of light ends in a fractionating tower or yard air, gas must be delivered or taken out as the need arises. With such systems, the flow of gas is ( constant / variable ). With a compressor working in such systems, the objective is to move a ______ quantity of gas only at the rate it is produced or is —__. Maintaining a flow equal to make means moving gas as fast as it is ( produced / used }; and maintaining a flow equal to demand means moving gas as fast as it is ( produced / used ) There can be three basic contro! objectives with com- pressors: aconstant __/__ flow of gas; variable flow equal to ___; or variable tlow equal to Depending on the discharge systems, the change in dis- charge pressure may be large or small depending on the volume delivered to it. If the change is very small, it may be regarded as a (constant / variable ) -pressure system. If the change in discharge pressure is large, then it must be regarded as a___-pressure system. Drivers used with compressors either are constant-speed or ___-speed drivers. Steam turbines are variable-speed drivers. Electric motors, on the other hand, are normally -speed drivers. Most steam turbines have governors that control their Neither the basic control objectives nor the system char- acteristics change the method of control. With steam-turbine-driven compressors, a process signal is used to activate the governor to raise or the speed ‘As the speed of the compressor is increased, the mass or weight flow throug! As the speed. is lowered, the mass flow is also 29 variable variable needed produced used weight make demand constant variable variable constant speed, or RPM lower increases lowered314. Whenever mass flow increases, the horsepower required wolf 315. When mass flow is decreased by a decrease in speed, the actual CFM is always ( reduced / increased ) 316. When the actual CFM through a compressor is reduced, the compressor moves ( closer to / further away from ) surge. 317. Constant-speed machines are usually equipped with either variable guide vanes or a suction throttle. When the guide vanes are closed, they ( reduce / increase ) mass flow. 318. When the suction valve is throttled, the suction pressure is ( reduced / increased ). 319. With a reduction in suction pressure, the density of the gas is _______ and the total gas flow in pounds is 320. If the suction is throttled and the discharge pressure is not reduced, the actual CFM through the compressor usually (increases / decreases ). 321. Reducing mass flow by throttling may either reduce or oS the actual CFM, 322. A flow meter is a control element that can be used for constant-weight flow. When the control objective is constant-weight flow, the flow meter is placed at the (discharge / suction ) end of the compressor. 323. A pressure controller is a control element for meeting the objective of flow equal to make or demand. For flow equal to demand, the pressure controller is placed at the ____ end of the compressor. 324. For flow equal to make, the pressure controller is placed atthe end of the compressor. Review 325. There are three basic control objectives, constant- flow, and variable flow equal to , or variable flow equal to 326. The two basic system characteristics are —_____ discharge pressure and ________ discharge pres- sure systems. 327. Turbine drivers normally have governors to control their closer to reduce reduced decreased reduced decreases increase discharge discharge suction weight make, demand constant variable speed, or RPM328. A flow meter is used to control constant- ( volume/ weight ) flow. 329. A pressure controller is used to meet the delivery of (variable / constant ) flow of gas as needed. 330. Dynamic compressors operating into fixed pressure systems are usually instrumented to protect against 7 PERFORMANCE FEATURES 331. Dynamic compressors do not perform in the same way that positive displacement compressors do. A positive displacement compressor first traps a volume of gas and then the gas into a smaller volume. 332. The alternate trapping and displacement of gas is the operating principle of the ( positive displacement / dynamic ) compressor. 333. Gas is not trapped, but tlows continuously through the ‘compressor. 384, Because of simple construction, the dynamic compressor usually requires ( more | less ) maintenance. 336. Dynamic compressors tend to take more horsepower for compression than positive displacement compressors and thus they have a ( higher / lower } efficiency. 336. The dynamic compressor is an economic choice where the lower first costs and lower maintenance costs offset the effects of their reduced 337. The dynamic compressor is normally more economic when the volume of gas handled is ( large / small). 398. In general, axial compressors are used for relatively low heads and relatively high 339, For large capacities and high heads, ( an axial | a centrifugal ) compressor is used. 340. The head through a positive displacement compressor tends to vary. The head of a dynamic compressor at any operating point tends to remain ( constant / variable ). 341. For compressing large volumes of gas through rel constant heads and Rs, a is used. ively ‘compressor 31 weight variable surge displaces, or forces positive displacement dynamic lower efficiency large capacities centrifugal constant dynamicCENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS Section 2 CONSTRUCTION OF COMPRESSORS 1. There are two casing designs for centrifugal compressors. HORIZONTALLY SPLIT CASING > The horizontally split casing is in two halves that are together to form a tight enclosure. bolted 2. When the top half of the horizontally split casing is removed, all the internal components ( are easily acces- sible / must be removed from the case }. are easily accessible 32This is a vertically split casing. Some vertically split casings have only one removable side, the other side being part of the casing. VERTICALLY SPLIT CASING it is sealed by two _____which are bolted to the ends of the casing. To reach all the working components in the vertically split casing, the cover has to be pulled and the internal com- ponents must be _____ from the case. For easier accessibility of the internal working components of a compressor, the ———_ casing is preferred. When the compressor is operating, the pressure inside the ‘compressor is ( higher / lower ) than the outside pressure. The casing must be so constructed as to {gas from escaping through it. In the vertically split casing, joints through which gas can escape are only at the of the casing. In the horizontally split casing, the joint through which gas can escape is of a ( larger / smaller } area than in the vertically split casing. 33 covers removed, or pulled horizontally split higher prevent end larger10. 11. 12, 13, 14. ‘Compare the gas flow in these two cases. VERTICALLY SPLIT The high pressure is in contact with the joint more in the (horizontally / vertically ) split compressor. The casing that requires the most sealing area is the split casing. Some gases, such as hydrogen, under high pressure are extremely hard to contain, Under high pressure, hydrogen is better contained in a (vertically / horizontally ) split casing. When a compressor is used for moderate to high pressure service, to minimize the chances of leaks, @ split casing is used. The casing that allows the easiest accessibility to the internal components of a centrifugal compressor is the (vertically / horizontally ) split casing. 34 horizontally horizontally vertically vertically horizontally15. The casing that minimizes the possibility of leaks is the split casing. vertically CONSTRUCTION DETAILS ~ Impellers 16. The part of the centrifugal compressor that adds velocity to the gas is the —___. impeller 17. There are three basic impeller designs. Used for high heads and small to large flow in single stage compressors only Used for large flow, usually in single stage compressors, or as the first stage in multi- stage compressors SEMI-ENCLOSED Used mainly in multi-stage compressors ENCLOSED The flow of gas is least controlled in the —____ ‘open impeller. 18. Multistage compressors usually have ————____ enclosed impellers. 19. In the enclosed impeller, the gas is drawn into the and flows out of the edge or rim. eye 3520. Flow of gas is most controlled in the ( open / semi- enclosed / enclosed ) impeller. enclosed 21. The impeller is shrunk onto, and rotates with, the shaft. The impeller is prevented from turning on the shaft by a key 22. An unbalanced or loose impeller ( vibrates / does not vibrate ). vibrates 23. To prevent vibration, the impeller must be shrunk onto the shaft, and well —_____. balanced Diaphragms 24. A multi-stage centrifugal compressor contains diaphragms. DIFFUSERS RETURN PASSAGES DIAPHRAGM IMPELLERS The diaphragms are located between the —__. impellers 3625. Look at this drawing. DIAPHRAGMS RETURN PASSAGE DIFFUSER: | IMPELLER’ Adjacent walls of the diaphragms form a passage called the —__. diffuser 26. After the gas travels through the diffuser, it enters the return passage which guides it into the next —_______. impeller 27. The diaphragms are usually made of cast iron or other hard metal such as steel and ( rotate / do not rotate ) with do not rotate the shaft. 3728. Some diaphragms are liquid cooled. The drawing shows a cut-away view of a liquid-cooled diaphragm. 4, DISCHARGE DIAPHRAGM WATER This diaphragm has an intake and ___ tube. discharge 29. The inside of the diaphragm has a passageway through which water, for example, can —___. flow, or circulate 30. If the water circulating through the diaphragm is cool enough, the temperature of the diaphragm can be reduced 31. When the gas leaves the impeller and travels through the diffuser and return passage, it is in contact with the outside walls of the diaphragm32. The diaphragms serve as cooling systems for the gas within the . Guide Vanes 33. Guide vanes may be either permanent or replaceable. Usually, they are ahead of each impeller eye. IMPELLER GUIDE VANES These vanes are designed to guide the flow of gas efficiently into the eye of the —_. 34. The guide vanes in multi-stage centrifugal compressors are placed at the end of the return passage of the 39 compressor impeller diaphragm35. The gas that leaves an impeller passes thr diffuser passage and in the return passage is guided by ——_____ —_______ into the next impeller. guide vanes 36. Inlet guide vanes can be adjustable. ADJUSTABLE INLET GUIDE VANES. ADJUSTABLE INLET GUIDE VANES IMPELLER EYE With adjustable vanes, the angle of gas flow into the eye of the impeller can be changed, or controlled 37. The angle of flow into the eye of the impeller affects the characteristic performance curve of the impeller. ‘Compressor capacity can be controlled by adjusting the guide vanes 38. On some compressors, the guide vanes are designed to automatically adjust compressor capacity to keep the compressor within its operating capacity, or range 4039. Name these three basic impeller designs. 40. a 42, 43. 44, 45, For high heads in a single-stage compressor, an type impeller is used. In a multi-stage compressor, the first impeller can be either an enclosed or @ ————____-____ type. ‘A multi-stage centrifugal compressor has an for each stage. Each impeller discharges into a diffuser passage formed by proper positioning of adjacent —___. Much of the velocity is converted into pressure in the To direct the flow path of gas into each impeller's eye, —_———. can be used, a ‘open semi-enclosed enclosed open semi-enclosed impeller diaphragms diffuser guide vanes48. Guide vanes can be of the stationary or____ type. 47. Capacity and angle of flow can be best controlled with type vanes. Shaft Seals 48. The rotor shaft passes through the diaphragms. The diaphragms and the shaft ( are / are not ) attached to each other. 49. As the gas flows from suction to discharge, its pressure (increases / stays the same ). 50. Gas can flow from the higher pressure region to the lower Pressure region through the space between the shaft and the 51. Seals are used between the shaft and the diaphragm to prevent 52. The most common type of compressor seal is the /abyrinth seal The labyrinth seal is a set of metal rings or teeth that encircle the a adjustable adjustable are not increases diaphragm leakage shaft53, The teeth do not ______ the shaft. contact, or touch 54, The rings or teeth are made of soft metal so that the shaft will not be —______— in case of accidental contact. damaged 55. The rings or teeth are also sharp so that any friction generated by contact would be ( small / great ). small 56. The spaces between the teeth form a labyrinthine passage. As the gas enters the space between the teeth, it slows down and changes direction. The resulting turbulence (resists / does not resist ) the flow of gas. resists 57. This type of seal ( prevents / does not prevent ) all leakage. does not prevent 58. This drawing shows gas at very high velocity. If the gas velocity is high, some of the gas does not change direction in the seal, but skips between the teeth and the shaft in a_____ line straight 4359. 61 62. 67. 69. When gas velocity is high, such skipping ( increases / decreases ) leakage. In a single or straight labyrinth seal, the gas ( can / cannot ) flow in a straight path. When the gas velocity through a straight labyrinth seal is high, it becomes { more / less ) effective in stopping leakage Look at the shaft of this labyrinth seal. INTERLOCKING LABYRINTH The shaft has teeth that interlock with the Gas ( can / cannot ) flow through the seal in a straight line. If the gas is flowing at a high velocity, its path of flow (is /is not } changed, Whenever a gas is forced to change direction, it ( en- counters / does not encounter ) resistance to flow. The ( interlocking / straight ) labyrinth seal is more efficient. Labyrinth seals ( prevent / do not prevent ) all leakage. Labyrinth seals are used in areas where it is acceptable to allow —___ Labyrinth seals are widely used as interstage seals be- cause the pressure difference between stages is normally enough for a labyrinth seal to be effective. increases can seal cannot is encounters interlocking do not prevent leakage low, or small70. Properly used, seals not only reduce leakage between shaft and diaphragm, but between shaft and casing as well. OUTSIDE AIR PRESSURE Gas from the compressor can leak through the seal if the compressor's gas pressure is greater than that of the outside or ambient atmosphere, or air, or gas 71. If the process gas of the compressor is hazardous or toxic, the gas cannot be allowed to leak into the atmosphere 72. When using a labyrinth seal with dangerous gas, it must be ported. euipenon st ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE, PRESSURE 9 pot \ LABYRINTH \ SEAL The port is placed on the seal between the process gas and the atmosphere 4573. If the pressure in the port area is lower than the atmo- spheric pressure, the process gas will leak to ( the port / the atmosphere ) the port 74, From the port, the gas can then be piped to some location sate 75. This seal has been ported so that inert gas can be forced into the labyrinth of the seal INERT GAS If the pressure of the inert gas is higher than the com- pressor’s internal pressure, compressor gas ( can / cannot ) leak to the atmosphere, cannot 76. Because this type of seal does not prevent all leakage, some of the inert gas leaks to the atmosphere, so the labyrinth seal should be used only where leakage is ° allowed, or safe 467. 78. 79. 80. 81 82. This drawing shows a restrictive-ring shaft seal. GARTER SPRING ‘STEEL BAND ‘The rings are made out of low friction material such as carbon The rings can be in one piece, reinforced by a steel —— == band If the rings are segmented, they are usually held together with @ garter spring Look at this restrictive-ring shaft seal Me GARTER SPRING CARBON RING The rings are held in position around the shaft by sta- tionary ring cups The rings cups ( contact / do not contact ) the shaft. do not contact The leakage over the ring is prevented by the vertical contact between the ring and the ring cup a783. In this type of seal, the rings actually do not contact the shaft, so that some leakage ( will / will not ) occur. will ‘84. The restrictive-ring seal can be ported for scavenging or inert gas —____. sealing 85. The ring seal is also used in conjunction type seals to further reduce leakage. labyrinth Contact Shaft Seals 86. When a moving part touches a stationary seal part, the seal is called a contact seal. In a contact seal, leakage is prevented by the between two parts. contact 87. Rubbing produces friction, and friction generates heat. Most types of contact seals must be lubricated to reduce friction and to carry ___________ away from the metal heat 88. For pressures up to about 1000 PSI, the mechanical- contact shaft seal is effective. : PRESSURE BREAKDOWN SLEEVE CONTAMINATED lL OUT The seal has a rotating and a__ seat. stationary 4889. 90. 91. 92. 95. 96. 97. The seats are separated by a carbon —____. ring The sealing is accomplished by vertical contact between the carbon ring and the —_____ and ____ stationary, rotating seat. This type of seal ( requires / does not require ) lubrication. requires To lubricate the seal faces, oil at about 40 PSI higher pres- sure than the gas pressure in the seal zone is fed through a_______ drilled in the seal housing hole, or passage Besides reducing friction and carrying away heat, the oil itself helps to the shaft against leakage. seal A labyrinth seal is usually present between the gas pas- sage and the contact seal. To prevent the oil from mixing with the gas in the com- pressor, a gas flow must exist down the labyrinth toward the ( seal / process stream ). seal The oil that is used in the seal ( does / does not ) come does in contact with the gas The oil will absorb some gas, or become contaminated. It should, therefore, be allowed to ______ into escape, or drain a trap where it can be salvaged. At the atmosphere end of the seal a ————___ pressure breakdown sleeve is used. For sealing pressures of up to 10,000 PSI, a liquid-film shaft seal is used. INNER SLEEVE OUTER SLEEVE CONTAMINATED OIL OUT ‘OIL OUT This type of seal has inner and outer —__. sleeves 4999, 100, 101 102, 103, 104, 108, 106, 107. 108. 109, The sleeves ( touch / do not touch ) each other. They ( touch / do not touch ) the shaft. The shaft itself is also surrounded by a. As the shaft rotates, the shaft sleeve it, If gas leaks from the compressor, it leaks between the shaft sleeve and the ( shaft / seals ). High-pressure oil is forced in between the sleeves. As the shaft sleeve rotates, it is surrounded by a film fiesta — esa Therefore, the shaft sleeve and the inner and outer sleeves of the seal ( touch / do not touch ) each other. For the oil to seal the shaft sleeve against leakage, the pressure of the oil must be slightly ( higher / lower ) than the pressure of the gas. The pressure in the compressor may vary, so the seal oil pressure must also _____ accordingly. A head tank is used with the seal for controlling the pressure of the oil. LEVEL CONTROLLER The top of the head tank is vented to the ( pressure / atmosphere ) side of the seal.’ As this pressure changes, the pressure above the oil (changes / stays the same ). 50 do not touch do not touch sleeve rotates seals oil do not touch higher vary pressure changes110. 1 112, 113. 114, 115. Because the oil in the tank has its own head, it will have Town ee pressure A head of 15 to 21 feet of oil will exert from 5 to 7 PSI pressure. The pressure of the oil in the seal will be the gas pressure, plus the pressure of the oil produced by its 116. 117. head No matter how much the pressure in the compressor changes, the pressure of the oil will always be ( more / less ) by the amount of head. more In a liquid-film shaft seal, there ( is direct contact direct contact ) between stationary and moving parts. is no direct contact Consequently, there is very little friction and almost no of the inner sleeve. wear As the oil circulates, several gallons per day leak into the pressure side of the compressor. Here, a slinger ring ______ the oil. removes shaft seals provide a perfect seal against The seals do require a continuous supply of clean at high pressure. oil They also require a system for circulating the oll and for maintaining oil pressure 51118. Seal oil must be perfectly clean. Care must be taken to see that no ______ enters. the seal oil reservoir. 119. Seal oil lines must also be kept_____ of foreign particles. 120. The oil that leaks into the machine ( must be / need not be ) removed. 121. The oil is conducted through lines to traps. A trap must be provided for each 122, The oil that goes into the traps is always contaminated with the gas in the —___ 128. Excessive oil flow to the traps indicates that the seal (is /is not ) defective, 124: A labyrinth seal is usually present between the gas passage and the seal. Unless there is a gas flow down the labyrinth toward the seal, some oil ( will / will not ) enter the process stream. 125. This labyrinth seal may be ported part way along its length A butfer gas applied to the port can the pressure in the seal zone. 126. This buffer gas can also be effective in keeping the process gas out of ______with the oil. 127. Both mechanical-contact and under pressure. uid-film seals use 128. If the excess oil leaks to the atmosphere, the pressure (can / cannot ) be maintained. 129. There must be some kind of restriction to the amount of oil leaking to the atmosphere. 130. This restriction is usually a sleeve around the shaft called the breakdown or outer bushing sleeve. oil that flows down this sleeve ( carries / does not calyy ) heat away from the seal. 131. This oil flow varies within the seal according to suction 192. Some gases, such as oxygen, are dangerous when mixed with oil. When using shaft seals with oxygen, liquids other than must be used. 52 dirt free, or clean must be seal seal will increase contact oil cannot reduce, or control carries pressure oil134, 135. 136. 197. 138. 139. 9s Compressor parts are built with very close clearances. The impellers and shaft must be free to rotate, but they must not _______ any other way. move Damage and leakage could result from erratic motion of the impellers or of the —__. shatt An unsupported shaft can move any of three ways. ROTATION AXIAL MOTION (TURNING) (THRUST) emis RADIAL MOTION (Byes Movement along the axis of the shaft is axial motion, or thrust The shaft can also rotate off-center. This is ( axial / radial ) motion radial There are forces in the compressor that tend to cause axial or radial motion. For example, gas pushing against the sides of the impellers tends to cause end-to-end or —____ motion. axial, or thrust ‘An unbalanced impeller can cause up-and-down vibration or (axial / radial ) motion. radial Bearings are used to support the shaft with a minimum of friction. Bearings permit the shaft to ___________ freely, but rotate they prevent axial or radial motion. 53140. This is a journal bearing A journal bearing is used to restrict ( axial / radial ) motion. radial 141. Axial motion ( is / is not ) possible with a journal bearing. is 142. This is a thrust bearing. STATIONARY J THRUST SURFACE THRUST COLLAR SHAFT The shaft is free to rotate and to move radially, but is not free to move (axially / radially ) axially 54143, 144, 145. 146. 147. 148. 149, The thrust bearing prevents ___ motion. axial The journal bearing prevents _________ motion. radial The rubbing surface of both journal and thrust bearings is a low friction metal ( babbitt ) and is lubricated by a film of ——___. oil The oil is supplied to the bearing under pressure through grooves on the bearing surface. The pressure of the oil insures an adequate flow to prevent overheating This is a tilting-pad journal bearing. TILTING PADS The oil becomes trapped in wedges between the shaft and the —___ pads The oil helps to prevent ___ between the shaft friction, or contact and the pads. Look again at this thrust bearing. on STATIONARY § THRUST SURFACE THRUST SHOES: THRUST COLLAR SHAFT The thrust rotates with the shaft. collar 55150. Axial motion is prevented by the thrust —___. shoes 151. The bearing is lubricated by low-pressure oil In normal operation, the thrust collar and the thrust shoe are separated by a thin film of —___ oil 152. To reduce friction and remove heat, all bearings require oil, or lubricant 153. In a centrifugal compressor, shaft seals are normally set between the high-pressure gas and any bearing. If the compressed gas can be mixed with oil, only one —— is required outboard of the drive-end seal bearing. 154: When the gas must be protected from the oil, or the lubricant from the gas, a shaft seal must be placed between the process _____and each radial bearing gas 155. If the shaft seals are labyrinth seals, there should be a vented space between the outside end of the seal and the bearing 156. Compare the pressure on both sides of this rotor assembly. SUCTION ROTOR DISCHARGE PRESSURE ASSEMBLY PRESSURE SUCTION DISCHARGE The pressure on the suction side of the rotor is ( the same as / different from ) the pressure on the discharge side. different from 5A187. 158. 159. 160. The pressure on the rotor is higher on the ( suction / discharge ) side. discharge This imbalance of pressure causes an axial force or thrust, that pushes the rotor toward the —____ end. suction On small or low pressure compressors, axial motion of the rotor shaft toward the suction end can be prevented by a thrust —___. bearing When the axial thrust is too great for a thrust bearing, a balancing drum is used to equalize thrust. BALANCE GAGE SUCTION LINE DISCHARGE BALANCING DRUM DISCHARGE PRESSURE IMPELLER LABYRINTH SEAL The balancing drum is attached to the shaft at the end of the compressor, discharge ST161 162. 163. 164, 165. One end of the drum is vented to the suction end of the compressor. The end of the drum that is vented is nearest the ( im- peller/ end of the shaft ). The pressure on the vented end is the same as the pressure. The non-vented side of the drum is exposed to the gas at pressure, The discharge gas pushes on the balancing drum, exerting a force in the direction of the end of the compressor. Compare these forces. BALANCE ‘Gage LINE DISCHARGE BALANCING DRUM DISCHARGE PRESSURE DISCHARGE SUCTION PRESSURE PRESSURE SUCTION PRESSURE, BALANCING ‘DRUM LABYRINTH SEAL Impeller thrust causes axial force in the direction of the ‘end of the compressor. 58 end of the shaft suction discharge discharge suction166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171, 172. The pressure difference at the balancing drum causes axial force in the direction of the end of the compressor. The two forces balance each other because they are exerted in___direetions. As a result, the shaft ( does / does not ) have much axial force in either direction. Axial forces across the compressor can be balanced by a balancing To prevent leakage around the circumference of the drum, a___ seal is used. The balance line must be kept from plugging, because the thrust bearing may —_____ from overload, Because the balancing drum is vented, both discharge and end seals operate at ( suction / discharge ) pressure. 175. 176. In the lubrication system, oil is supplied under pressure to the If oil pressure is lost, the bearings ( are / are not ) lubricated. The lubrication system keeps a supply of clean flowing to the bearings. The drawing represents a typical oil-circulation system. COOLERS FILTERS BEARING BEARING COMPRESSOR —{ OIL RESERVOIR AUXILIARY OIL PUMP Oil is stored in a large oil 59 discharge opposite does not drum labyrinth fail suction bearings are not oil reservoir177. 178. 179, 180, 181. 182, 183, 184. 185. 186, 187. 188. 189, Oil is forced to flow from the reservoir to the bearings by means of a main oil Oil becomes too thin it it gets too hot. Oil cannot maintain a protective __ between metal parts if it becomes too thin. The oil must be cool in order to coo! the bearings. The oil first passes through an oi! —__. Oil that is too cold, however, may get too viscous (thick). Viscous oil may not flow around bearings well enough to them properly. After passing through the cooler, the oil passes through an oil _____to be cleaned of impurities. If the oil system fails to deliver oil to the bearings, severe damage from heat and friction may result. The bearings may Thus, a flow of _______ must always be maintained while the compressor is in operation. If a filter or cooler becomes blocked, or if the oil pump breaks down, the oil flow is interrupted and the compressor may have to be shut down. An auxiliary filter, cooler, and pump are normally provided to maintain the flow of ___________ in an emergency. Since the system must stop if the pumping equipment fails, most compressors are served by ( one / two ) oil pumps. The main oil pump is used during normal operations and the auxiliary pump is used in case of The main oil pump may be shaft-driven. At startup, since the shatt is not rotating, the main oil pump (does | does not ) operate. The auxiliary pump is run by a separate driver, so that it operates independently of the compressor. At startup, the auxiliary pump lubricates the bearings until the compressor is up to operating ‘At shutdown, the main pump is again put out of operation as the shaft slows down. The —________ pump again keeps oil circulating through the bearings. 60 pump film cooler lubricate filter fail, or seize oil oil two emergencies does not speed auxiliary190, 191. 192, 193, There are also two oil filters and two oil in the circulation system. Most compressors are stopped by an automatic trip when the lubricating oil pressure becomes too Some units are equipped with oll-pressure alarms. When the lubricating oil pressure begins to fall, an alarm the operator. There may also be an alarm to warn the operator when the temperature becomes too high. Alarms warn the operator when the oi! becomes too low or the oil — high becomes too Review 194. 195, 196. 197, The bearings of the compressor need a constant supply of clean —___ If the filter becomes clogged, an automatic tripping device is activated. This device is operated by ( pressure / temperature ). When oil is hot, it loses some of its lubricating character- istics. To prevent this, the oil is __________ before it is supplied to the unit. To prevent tripping, the filter and the cooler must be filled with oil and the pressure ( must / need not ) be at the recommended level. Cooling 198. 199, 200. Compression heats a gas. As gas is compressed, its temperature ( increases / decreases ). The greater the R, the greater the increase in temperature. Since multi-staging increases R, it also tends to increase the final of the gas. For safe operation of the compressor, it is necessary in many cases to ____ the compressed gas. 61 coolers low warns, or alerts pressure temperature oil pressure cooled must increases temperature cool201. The gas can be cooled in the compressor. DISCHARGE DIAPHRAGM LH ee INTAKE Here cooling water is circulated through the. 202, When diaphragm cooling is used, the gas is cooled between each : 62 diaphragms stage, or impeller203. Consider this intercooler system. INTERCOOLERS. COOLING FLUID OUT COOLING > FLUID IN COMPRESSOR The gas is cooled ( inside of / outside of ) the compressor. outside of 204. Once the gas is cooled, it is _________ to the returned compressor. 205. In this situation, the gas is cooled after it leaves the compressor. AFTERCOOLER aftercooler The gas flows through the the flow line. Drivers 206. Compressor speed may be as low as 3000 RPM or as high as 50,000 RPM. The normal operating range is 3000 to 12,000 RPM. Centrifugal compressors operate over a fairly ( wide / narrow ) range of speeds. wide 63207. 208. 209. 210. ait. For a centrifugal compressor, 3000 RPM is considered (high speed / low speed ); and 10,000 RPM is considered speed. Turbines are high-speed drivers. A high-speed centrifugal compressor may be —____ directly to the shaft of a steam or a combustion gas turbine. An electric motor's maximum speed is 3600 RPM. An electric motor may be direct-coupled to the shaft of a (high- / low- ) speed centrifugal compressor. This electric motor is being used to drive a high-speed compressor. COMPRESSOR To achieve the high speed needed, stepup have to be used. Centrifugal compressors are sometimes powered by natural gas or diesel engines. Since engines are low-speed drivers, gears must be used with engine drivers. Safety Devices 212. — Overioa: 213. An electric motor must be protected against overload, 9 causes overheating which could the motor. A thermostat is a control device that responds to changes in temperature. A thermostat may be set in the motor windings to detect ELECTRIC MOTOR low speed high coupled, or connected low- gears stepup damage, or burn out ‘overload, or overheating214. 215. 216. 217. When the motor exceeds a certain sate operating temper- ature, a solenoid switch, tripped by the thermostat, shuts off the current and the motor When an electric motor is overloaded, it draws excessive current that overheats the windings. A circuit breaker that responds to changes in can be used to protect the motor. A turbine requires a governor to keep it running at a constant speed. The governor controls the supply of fuel to a combustion gas turbine or the supply of —________ to a steam turbine. This is one type of system to regulate the speed of the compressor. THROTTLE VALVE The servo-motor is mechanically connected to the valve. 65 stops current, steam throttle218. 219. 220. 221. 222. 223. 224, 225. 226. 227. In order to maintain a constant turbine speed under varying load conditions, the servo-motor is designed so that when the turbine begins to slow down, the throttle es If the turbine begins to speed up the throttle is Some turbines have an electric generator connected to the shaft. Changes in the output voltage of the generator are directly related to changes in turbine These changes in voltage are used to control a pilot which in turn controls the —__________ opening. Suppose the compressor suddenly becomes unloaded. Turbine speed increases ( quickly / slowly ). In this situation, the governor may respond too slowly to prevent ______ to the compressor or driver. Due to impurities in steam, governors may become Because governors may respond too slowly or become fouled, an additional safety device (is/ is not ) desirable. An overspeed trip is always located in the turbine shaft. ~ SPRING TURBINE SHAFT The weight is held in the shaft by the tension of the At safe operating speeds the weight remains in the opened closed speed throttle quickly damage fouled spring shaft228. If the turbine overspeeds, the centrifugal tendency of the weight exceeds the spring tension When the turbine overspeeds, the weight ( remains in / comes out of ) the shatt. 229. The weight strikes a trip arm, VALVE When the trip arm is moved, the spring closes the which shuts off the steam supply. 230. Other automatic shutdown controls respond to changes in oil pressure, cooling water temperature, seal oil pres- sure, or other critical systems. ‘These devices shut off the driver if some —____ situation arises. 231. In systems where immediate action is not necessary, sometimes automatic alarms are set off. The alarms warn the operator of a—__ 282. If an operator does not correct the condition, an automatic valve ___ the driver. Vents and Bypasses 233. Surge begins when the flow of gas is reduced below surge level. Momentarily, gas flows back into the compressor. Surge occurs when discharge pressure is too (high | ow ). 67 comes out of valve dangerous problem, or change stops, or shuts down high234. 235. 236. 237. 238. 239. 240. Many centrifugal compressors are equipped with vents or bypasses to protect them against surging. In this compressor, gas can be released through a in the discharge line. Since gas is released from the discharge line, tlow (increases / decreases ). ‘An increase in flow prevents the compressor from Avent discharges gas directly into the atmosphere. Vents are used when the gas being compressed ( is / is not ) hazardous or valuable. When a compressor nears its surge point, the rate of flow becomes ( faster / slower ) Automatic vent valves are set to be opened by ( high / low ) flow rates. If the gas is hazardous or valuable, a bypass is used. PROCESS VALVE In the bypass system, the gas ( is / is not ) released to the atmosphere. vent increases surging is not slower low is not241 242. 243. 244, ‘The bypass moves the gas from the discharge back to the During compression, the temperature of a gas increases. If the bypass gas were taken directly from the discharge, the suction temperature would In order to prevent an increase in the suction temperature, the bypass gas is taken from a point ( before / after ) the aftercooler. The bypass, like the vent, may be automatically controlled to open because of ( low / high ) flow rate. OPERATION OF COMPRESSORS Operation in Series and in Pai 245. Two multi-staged compressors are connected in series. ss LI e / | When connected in series, the discharge of one compres sor feeds into the ____________ of the next. suction increase after low suction246. 247. 248. 249. 250. 251 252. The gas entering the second compressor is at ( a higher pressure than / the same pressure as ) the gas entering the first compressor. Compressors are connected in series to increase the (capacity / head ), Compressors may also be connected in parallel. When in parallel, both compressors discharge into ( the same line / different lines } Operation in parallel increases the ( capacity / head ). When connected in parallel, if the discharge pressure of ‘one compressor drops below that of the other, it ( surges / maintains flow ). The discharge pressure of both compressors ( must be the same / can be different ). All centrifugal compressors in parallel are protected against backflow. Gu eee CHECK VALVES At each discharge line a is installed, 70 ahigher pressure than head the same line capacity surges must be the same check valve253. A check valve allows flow in ( one / both ) direction(s). 254. If a difference in pressure exists between the compres- sors, the check valve prevents 255. Although a check valve prevents backflow, the compressor can still surge if the flow is —_____. 256. To prevent surging, a bypass or vent has to be installed between ( the discharge and the check valve / the check valve and the system ). 257. Parallel operation is used for increasing —___. while series operation is used for increasing 258. Compressors operating in parallel require the use of —— to prevent backflow. Startup and Shutdown: Prestart 259. Liquids in the system could seriously damage a cent compressor when it is started up gal Before starting a centrifugal compressor all should be drained or purged from the system. 260. Before starting a centrifugal compressor the lubrication and seal oil reservoirs should be checked. The compressor must have a continuous supply of clean ——_ before it is started. 261. In order to provide oil for starting purposes, centrifugal compressors are usually provided with a prelube system. The prelube pump should be started ( before / after ) startup. 262. As lubrication oil pressure builds, check the pressure drop across the filter. Oil flows more easily when it ( is cool / reaches operating temperature . 263. The pressure drop across the filter should ( increase / decrease ) as temperature increases. 264. Lubricating- and seal-oil systems should be operating at least 10 to 20 minutes before the —_______ is started. 265. To allow the oil to warm-up to operating conditions, the cooling system is started ( before / after ) the lube system. "1 one backflow low, or reduced the discharge and the check valve capacity pressure, or head check valves liquids lubricant, or oil before reaches operating temperature decrease compressor aiter266. 267. 268. 269. ‘Some centrifugal compressors have water cooled dia- phragms, or gas coolers in the base of the compressor. When cooling systems are built in the compressor, see that the coolant is Make sure that compressor safety and control devices are . To make sure that the rotor rolls freely, it should be by hand, if possible. All prestart checks and procedures, according to company operating practice, should be closely — Startup and Shutdown: Startup 270. art 272. 273. 274, 275. 276. 277. 278. 279, 280. On startup, the driver must supply power both to meet the gas load of the compressor and to accelerate itself and the —_ The power to accelerate the compressor depends upon how fast the driver is In order to prevent burnout, electric motors must be brought to full speed ( quickly / slowly ) The heavier the gas load in the compressor, the ( faster / slower ) the driver will reach full speed. With electric drivers, the gas load in the compressor at startup should be ( increased | reduced ). Throttling the suction valve of the compressor will (increase / reduce ) the gas load. On startup with electric drivers, the suction valve of the compressor is _______ and the bypass is opened. After the machine reaches its speed, the suction valve can be slowly ____ and the bypass put on automatic. If the compressor is in a constant discharge pressure system, the check valve allows the starting procedure to (change / remain unchanged ). At startup with electric motors, the motors must have a (large / small ) power margin over the gas load. With other types of drivers, the starting time is not critical. The power margin of these drivers over the gas load needs to be ( small / very large ). 72 circulating set, or operating rotated, or turned followed compressor accelerated quickly slower reduced reduce throttled opened remain unchanged large smallFor frames 281 through 301, look at Exhibit 2 which shows startup procedures and operating paths for compressors operat jing into a no-pressure system as well as an already established discharge pressure. 281 282. 283. 285. 286. 287. 288. . 289. 290. 291. 292. When a compressor must be put on the line against an existing pressure, it is necessary to prevent gas from flowing back into the Compressors in parallel or compressors flowing into a fixed discharge pressure system have a check valve in the discharge line to prevent During startup of the compressor, this check valve is held by pressure in the discharge line. Because a turbine delivers high starting torque, the compressor ( can / cannot ) be started under some load when turbine driven. Both the suction and the discharge valves are at startup. The discharge check vaive is held _________ by system pressure, To prevent needless surge during startup, the vent or bypass is The turbine is started and the compressor is brought up to operating The point on the raph where operating speed is reached is point ‘As soon as the compressor is at operating anes the vent or bypass should be slowly When the vent or bypass is closed, the compressor builds up sufficient ______ to open the check valve The compressor is now at point 3 or a stable operating point, and the vent or bypass can be put on control Now look at the lower graph on the exhibit. 293. 294, 295. The check valve is held closed by system This graph is for a ___-driven compressor. The suction vaive is normally ______and the dis- charge valve is ____ during startup. 73 compressor backflow closed can open closed opened speed closed pressure automatic motor throttled open pressure296. 297. 298. 299. 301 The vent or bypass is normally When the operating speed is attained, the suction valve is slowly opened and the vent or bypass is put on With the suction valve open, the compressor rapidly builds discharge pressure until it opens the —__ and forces the gas into the discharge line. Many centrifugal compressors have one or more critical speeds at which vibration is excessive and frequently dangerous. To avoid vibration damage, the compressor must pass through these critical speeds as ( rapidly / slowly } as possible. Since proper startup procedure is important to centrifugal ‘compressor operation, the procedures provided for a par- ticular compressor installation should be closely, In order to bring the compressor safely into operation, the ‘operator needs to know (only the general principle / the particular operation } Startup and Shutdown: Normal Shutdown 302, 303. The main factor affecting shutdown procedure is whether or not the compressor is operating into a fixed pressure system. If there is no fixed pressure, as the driver is slowed down, flow is reduced at a lower and lower pressure until it finally Look at the shutdown curve below. HEAD (R) The operating point of the compressor falls from point to point 1. 14 ‘open automatic check valve rapidly followed the particular operation stops305. 307. 309. 310. ant. 312. 313. 314, 315. 316. 317. 318. When a centrifugal compressor is operating with no ex- ternal pressure at the discharge, and the driver is shut down, there ( is /is no) danger of surging. When a compressor is operating into a fixed pressure system, as soon as compressor discharge pressure drops below line pressure, a check valve With the check valve closed, gas ( can / cannot ) flow backward into the compressor. The capa¢ is immediately reduced to At the same time the compressor is slowing during this speed reduction, the gas trapped at discharge repeatedly brings the compressor into To avoid surging, compressors operating against a fixed discharge pressure should be shut down with the vent or bypass ( open / closed ). The open vent drops the discharge pressure to atmo- sphere, or the bypass opens the discharge to suction and equalizes the pressures, Both devices prevent On most compressors, automatic bypass controls are regulated by discharge rate, rather than by discharge pressure. With a rate contro! device, when the check valve closes, the bypass automatically — When the automatic controls are regulated by discharge pressure, they ( automatically protect/ do not automatically protect ) against surging at shutdown. When a pressure control regulator is used, the bypass or vent should be operated ( manually / automatically ) at shutdown After the compressor has stopped, the suction and dis- charge valves should be To allow the compressor to cool evenly, the auxiliary lube and seal oil pumps should be allowed to until the compressor is cooled. If the compressor is water cooled, cooling water should be circulated until the compressor is When toxic gas is used in the compressor’s system, the system must be purged. The steam eductors are lett in the system ui after ) shutdown. il ( before / If liquids seals are used, the fluid is left circulating and sealing until after the system is 7 is no closes cannot zero surge open surging ‘opens do not automatically protec! manually closed run cooled after purged