THE HYPODERMIC NEEDLE THEORY:

Developed in the 1920s and 30s as a direct response to the effectiveness of

propaganda and Orson Welles War of The Worlds broadcast, The Hypodermic
Needle Theory suggests that messages conveyed by the media are injected into
the minds of a passive audience 1-a body of viewers who do not question/do not
have the abilities to question what is being presented to them. It implies that the
audience is immediately and completely suspended in belief at what is being
said2.
The Hypodermic Needle promotes a number of assumptions inclusive of how the
public is unable to escape the control of the media, that messages are intricately
articulated to gain the desired responses and that we react uniformly to
stimuli3.
Harold Lasswell was the most prominent theorists to develop this model (based
on stimulus response model in learning theory), going as far as stating
propaganda is one of the most powerful instrumentalities in the modern world
capable of transforming millions of human beings into one amalgamated mass
of hate and will and hope. Alongside Lasswell, George Creed and E.D. Martin
were early theorists with a similar approach to the model as their peer. They
noted that the media provided thoughts and reasoning for the unthinking herd 4.
Whilst the notion that unadulterated quantities of the messages being conveyed
through media outlets were being injected into the bloodstream to provoke
instantaneous effects and a lack of individuality, seemed to fully explain the
mannerisms of the populate during the World Wars and the reactions to those
seemingly implicated in an Alien Invasion, a number refused to accept this as
fact.
Katz and Lazarsfeld instead formed the Two-Step Flow Model, which argued that
the public were not directly indoctrinated by the media, but by opinion leaders (a
person with a high status in a group, such a friend, relative or work colleague) 5.
Its stipulation states that the outlets initially reach the active media users who
collect, interpret and diffuse the information to those who have a lesser
presence in the media6. Ultimately, this says that the most influence is
distributed interpersonally, as opposed to through the TV, say.

1 http://lessonbucket.com/media-in-minutes/the-hypodermic-needle-theory/
2 http://mymediaproject.wikispaces.com/Hypodermic+Needle+Theory
3 http://www.communicationstudies.com/communication-theories/hypodermicneedle-theory
4 http://www.lotsofessays.com/viewpaper/1708629.html
5 http://sociologytwynham.com/2013/10/03/media-effects-on-audiences/
6 http://www.britannica.com/topic/two-step-flow-model-of-communication

Many do believe that there is evidence which seems to corroborate the theorem.
The 1993 abduction and murder of two year old Jamie Bulger is perhaps the most
notorious case to bring into question the psychological implications of exposing
children to violent content. The killers, John Venables and Robert Thompson (both
aged 10) had both viewed Childs Play 3 prior to committing their heinous act.
Furthermore, the way in which they enacted their crime bore resemblance to one
of the deaths within the movie 7. This bought into question censorship laws and
reinforced the belief that we-especially the vulnerable and impressionableabsorb information, deeming it suitable for them to do in reality.
Despite this, there are studies to suggest that The Hypodermic Needle theory is
based on assumption, and has become near obsolete 8. In what came to be
known as The Bobo Doll Experiment, children watched adults abusing life-sized,
humanoid toys, in laboratory conditions. When at play, the youths were seen to
mimic the behaviourisms of the grown-ups in their own play 9. This serves as an
indicator that what young people see adults doing, is what they will replicate. In
turn, this reinforces the Two-Step Flow models belief that do what we do is in
response to others and how they act/what they say to us.
USES AND GRATIFICATIONS THEORY:
The antithesis to The Hypodermic Needle Theory, Uses and Gratification
implies that the audience are not submissive to the media, but take an active
role in comprehending and implementing media forms into their own lives; it
asks what people do with it, as opposed to what it does to them 10.
This theory first came to prominence in the 1960s when commentators noted
that audiences were each individuals consuming media for different reasons,
and in different manners. Blumer and Katz expanded on this notion before
publishing their own variation in 1974. It noted that people may choose and
use a text for one, or more, of the following purposes 11:

DIVERSION: Entering a fictitious realm to escape from actuality and

the tribulations of everyday life.
PERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS: Using the media as a tool to develop
emotional, and otherwise, interactions.

7 http://www.slideshare.net/ecclestona/hypodermic-syringe-model1
8 https://niihumphrey.wordpress.com/2010/03/22/a-critique-of-the-hypodermicneedle-theory-and-the-media-effects/
9 http://www.termpaperwarehouse.com/essay-on/How-Credible-Is-TheHypodermic-Needle/322187
10 https://books.google.co.uk/books?
id=lWfYAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT116&lpg=PT116&dq#v=onepage&q&f=false
11 http://www.mediaknowall.com/as_alevel/alevkeyconcepts/alevelkeycon.php?
pageID=audience

PERSONAL IDENTITY: In how the viewer is able to see themselves in

a media text, associating with characters and learning behaviours and
values.
SURVEILLANCE: Consists of information that can prove useful to
living, i.e. weather updates, news reports, traffic etc.

Whilst this theory may seem more plausible to some, David Morley has
openly criticised it. Having acknowledged the fact that individual
interpretations to media do exist, he notes that we must not ignore
subcultural and socio-economic factors in dictating how a person experiences
the medium. Additionally, he notes that theorists often exaggerate how many
people make active choices as to how they use the format, i.e. it being forced
upon someone. He also observes that it is possible to interpret the phrase
uses and gratifications in such a way that it implies that the viewer is able
to attain any form of gratification as a derivative of how they perceive the
content 12. Further questions have been raised to its accuracy in how we as a
populate have very little control regarding the outputs of media companies 13;
are we really choosing what we actually want or choosing something that
appeals to us based on what we have been exposed to?
Contrastingly, some continue to feel that it continues to hold relevance within
a modern context. T.E Ruggiero argues that the prevalence of mass
communications mediums {such as} newspapers, radio and television, and
the Internet makes it more applicable than ever, before adding that future
variations of the theorem should be inclusive of interactivity,
demassification, hypertextuality, and asynchroneity 14. This is as equally valid
as Lulls suggestion that we do not all make/have the ability to make
conscious decisions as to how we use media, and how we comprehend it.
Essentially, Ruggiero is stating that we are existing in an age where any
number of formats can be used as a means of education, communication etc.,
alongside Blumer and Katz aforementioned purposes. In turn, the individual
can decide whether or not they wish to read The Independent in paper or on
their tablet, research for an assignment through books or a library, send an EMail or letter, and so on. For the first time, we have more variety than ever
when we consider the uses of a product, and what the viewer does with it, i.e.
they put a film on to provide background noise at a party, and end up
escaping from reality and recognising themselves and their peers in
characters in the movie.
reception theory:
The reception study concerns itself with developing an understanding of how
texts are seen by the observer, and how meaning is formed during this
period. Furthermore, it argues that contextual elements (circumstances of
exhibition, the spectator's preconceived notions concerning the film or
12 http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/usegrat.html
13 http://www.slideshare.net/zlorhenley/uses-and-gratifications-theory-6933502
14 http://matei.org/ithink/2010/07/29/what-can-uses-and-gratifications-theorytell-us-about-social-media/

television program's genre and production, and even broad social, historical,
and political issues) are more influential as to how someone interprets a
product as opposed to textual 15.
Similar to the Uses and Gratifications theory, this model implies that the
viewer of the media is not passive, but can instead make their own inferences
and deductions as a consequence of their cultural and personal beliefs,
upbringing and life experiences 16. For example, a person who has never seen
a movie consisting of extreme violence and explicit content and has an
abhorrence for content of this description may deem A Clockwork Orange and
being sick, twisted with no need for it to be produced. On the other hand,
someone who enjoys the genre, comprehends that it is only a film and sees it
as being a satire on the constantly evolving and developing concept of youth,
their use of language and relationship with those who are not themselves
could enjoy it immensely and praise it.
Stuart Halls research furthers the argument for the reception model. He
states that the producers of a product encode the media with messages,
values and meanings that coincide with the prevalent ideologies of the
society/culture that creates the target audience. As such when a film, say, is
decoded they can choose to ignore, or acknowledge, the aspects which
resonate with them. Furthermore, they accept the elements which most
accurately reflect their live/understanding of society, and discard those they
view as irrelevant. As such, an audience member-or entire viewing group-can
oppose the most dominant meanings being conveyed as it does not reflect
their experiences etc. 17
As one of the most underrated horror films of all time, Cannibal Holocaust
was shunned due to its excessive violence, grotesque subject matter and
snuff movie appearance. Could its negative reception and its subsequent ban
by the BBFC be resultant of the audience belief that cannibalism and torture
does not exist within the modern world? Were they so reluctant to accept that
cultures further afield than America and Britain have different practices to us,
and did not wish to acknowledge the possibility of this having a (minimal)
basis in reality? If so, this demonstrates the fact that not everyone cares for
subjects and genres that do not correspond with their own memories and
incidences,
and
instead
prefer
topics
that
have
familiar
plots/characters/location et al.
PASSIVE AND ACTIVE CONSUMPTION:
Active consumption consists of the viewer consciously taking note of the
issues being addressed within a media product and being able to discuss
them, and form their own opinions. This assumes that the audience will each
15 http://www.filmreference.com/encyclopedia/Independent-Film-RoadMovies/Reception-Theory.html
16 http://www.slideshare.net/dphillips4363/reception-theory-presentation
17http://www.academia.edu/1464818/Three_approaches_to_media_reception_an
d_audience_reception_studies

interpret the product in their own way, hence making them less susceptible
to believing a singular ideology or belief 18. For example, a viewer of News
Night or Question Time could listen to the perspectives of the speakers and
then decide for themselves whether or not they agree, and what their
personal stance is. Similarly, a player of Fallout 4 may not merely view this as
a game and accept what they are engaging with, but a warning against
nuclear warfare, resulting in them developing anti-nuclear beliefs.
Diametrically opposed to the above is passive consumption. The viewer
simply accepts what is being said and does not question its messages or
motives 18. This may be as it reiterates previous media they have seen and
appears to be correct or the simple fact that the viewer is not paying full
attention. In advertising, this is a beneficial tool in subliminally appealing to
the observer; McDonalds will not want the viewer to view see a commercial
for a Big Mac saver meal and actively note how unhealthy it is and choose to
not purchase the food, they will want it to seem desirable-taste and budget
wise. This, theoretically, should secure a sale before they are able to question
what they are eating and whether it is the best choice.
Essentially, the two can be differentiated through several traits that apply to
one form or the other 19:
PASSIVE
ACTIVE
EASILY MANIPULATED
ENGAGED
COMPLIANT
RESPONSIVE
FOLLOWERS
INVOLVED
CONTROLLED
IN CONTROL
Fundamentally, an active viewer is able to say no to that seemingly
excellent three-for-two deal in Tesco on smaller sized bags of rice and
acknowledge the fact that it is, in fact, better value for money to instead by
two larger bags. The passive viewer, on the other hand, will only see that
they need the product, enticed, perhaps, by an attractive advert and the use
of lexis.
Braithwaite Communications have observed that the more active the form of
media, i.e. reading a magazine, the higher the awareness of the reader as
that is their sole focus. In juxtaposition, when watching television, say, we are
more passive and hence receptive to believing what is being said as we are
often not applying our full attention to a program or broadcast 20. They add
that the interactivity of the internet can make us more aware of issues and
our feelings relating to a topic that we are spurred into action. For instance,
seeing a photograph on Facebook of the damage caused by David Camerons
airstrikes to Syria may cause them to share the image and engage in acts
that help encourage the end of this conflict. Essentially, by communicating
18 https://mediafort.wordpress.com/2013/07/01/passive-or-activeconsumption/comment-page-1/
19 http://www.slideshare.net/aarchersimmons/passive-and-active-audiencetheories-2014
20 http://www.gobraithwaite.com/blog/?p=774

with others through social media, and having the platform to share beliefs,
the audience can begin to feel as though they are making a difference and
that there are like minded individuals in the world beyond their locality.
The Hypodermic Needle theory opposes the active viewer, whilst Uses and
Gratifications stands against the passive one. The former states that we have
no control over what we think as a consequence of viewing a media item. As
such, this contradicts the notion that when we question concepts that we do
not approve of and forge our own beliefs as a response. For example, when
watching a politician talk on the television, the Hypodermic Theory suggests
that we will immediately believe what they are saying, as if it has been
injected into us. The latter, however, says we are active in our consumption
and are looking for certain factors (diversion, personal identity etc.) within
the products we are watching. This seemingly dismisses the notion of
propaganda, for instance, which preys on the disillusioned by giving answers
and utilising the idea of providing something better than the current
situation.