PRODUCION LOGGING INTERPRETATION COURSE By Muhammad FarooqProduction Logging 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 PRODUCTION LOGGING Production logging involves the investigation of the highly complex phenomenon of multiphase fluid flow with a fairly limited set of measurements, As far as the sensors are concerned, very little has changed over the years, The main sensors are:~ * Spinner flowmeter: for an estimate of mixture flow rate, * Density or dielectric constant of the fluid mixture composition — from which the relative proportions of each phase may be estimated. * Temperature: mainly for qualitative interpretation, but is sometimes very useful and can confirm or deny conclusions drawn from other measurements, + Pressure: not directly useful as a log profile, but needed for reference, the calculation of fluid properties and transient well-testing. * Calliper, CCL and Gamma Ray: not directly relevant to multiphase analysis, ‘but needed for depth control or casing ID. The gamma ray curve can help identify reservoir zones and scaling problems, Single phase interpretation can usually be handled adequately with just a flowmeter For multiphase flow, only the flowmeter and the density and/or the dielectric measurements are used. Recent developments in horizontal well logging, where the evaluation of multiphase flow can prove extremely difficult, have necessitated in some novel new approaches and adaptations of existing logging measurements. L1.1 Progress ‘Some changes have been made over the years: Advances in telemetry systems mean that logging tool sensors can be interrogated simultaneously, as opposed to sequentially, Sensors can be mounted in any order on the toolstring, and may include, for instance, two types for flowmeter. The advent of high performance computers means that data may be stored in digital form for on the spot re-processing, playback and interpretation, The development of reliable memory modules means that data recorded by the Sensors is stored downhole, and does not need to be transmitted to surface via electric line. This means that production logging surveys can be undertaken on slick line, thus avoiding the cost and disruption associated with electric line logging. On the production logging sensor side of things, advances have been: Better spinner design, better beatings etc, High resolution pressure gauges, Better fluid dielectric measurements Advances in horizontal well applications.Production Logging But, basically, the measurements made today are the same as those made in the 1960's, 1.1.2 Multiphase Fluid Flow Multiphase fluid behaviour is complex. It has been extensively studied and modelled with varying degrees of success for many years. The objective of this modelling was for vertical lift performance for production engineering purposes in producing or injecting wells. A number of effective computer models are available for this type of work. Production logging can be considered to be a specialised offshoot of this — it is the same physical problem that we are looking at, but for a different reason and at a different scale, These models can be applied to the production logging principle, but — PL. sensor measurements are often not good enough to input to these sophisticated models because they don’t measure the right things (or enough things and they don’t measure them well enough. So, for PL interpretation, a more simplistic approach, combined with a not inconsiderable degree of “engineering judgement" is often preferred, It is essential to have a good understanding not only of how the PL sensors can behave in different situations, but also how the reservoir might behave. It is, afterall, the reservoir (and the completion) that are behind what you ate seeing, and your interpretation has 0 be plausible in terms of reservoir behaviour, 1.1.3 Why Use Production Logging Surveys PL surveys are used for routine reservoir monitoring and problem diagnosis, Routine Reservoir Monitoring + layer productivity or injectivity ~ production allocation per well well testing for k, S. p®, boundaries, etc, ~ multi-layer well testing (= PL + well test) - _ selective Inflow Performance any anomalies (e.g. crossflow under shut in conditions). Problem Diagnosis, = onset of water cut ~ increase of existing water cut / GOR ~ loss of productivity Reservoir or completion problem? Cause or remedy?[ | Production Logging 1.2 LAYERED RESERVOIRS A layered reservoir can be considered to be a reservoir that is comprised of Permeable, porous layers or zones that (hopefully) contain hydrocarbons separated by layers of non-permeable, non-porous layers - see Fig 1.1 below Fig 1.1: Simplistic Representation of a Layered Reservoir Im a layered reservoir, each layer has its own physical properties, These all have an effect on the relative production (or injection) of each layer or zone. Production logging is important because it allows us to calculate the contribution from each layer or zone and thus assess the individual performance of the reservoir layers. The example below aims to illustrate this, 1.2.1 Selective Inflow Performance Calculation The Selective Inflow Performance (SIP) of a layered reservoir is calculated by Plotting pressures vs, flow rate at reservoir conditions. For the most accurate results, at least three rates, plus shut in data should be recorded. In the example in the following pages, a three layered reservoir has been produced at three rates, plus a shut in period - see Figs 1.2 ~ 1.5. Flow rates were calculated for each zone and plotted against a datum pressure (in this case it is the pressure at the top of Layer 1) and a SIP plot produced.[ Production Logging | High Flow Rate) Dee FADE Layer 3 produces 2500 rbia —p| ‘6000 Layer 2 produces 3000 rod Fig 1.2: High Flow Rate The total flow rate of 5500 rb/d is the sum of the flow rates from layers 1, 2 and 3, Layer flow rates depend on: = layer permeability, + layer skin factor ~ layer pressure Motive Flow Reto (raid) e000 Seer ee ee 3000 ae Se eee af (osia) Fig 1.3: Medium Flow RateProduction Logging Low Flow Rate boi) ano a _L 3000 Fig 1.4: Low Flow Rate Layer flow rates may additionally depend on perforation efficiency, which in turn depends on: ~ holes (did the charges all fire?) - tunnel quality = clean up = depth errors - local permeability variations in the layer ‘Shut In Flow Rate ebb) a ee ee eee ee pouip sy cite il Fig 1.5: Well Shut InProduction Logging Total 3.33 rbidipaia Layer! 1.52 rbidpsia Layer2 1.82 rbidipsia Layer3 0.00 rbidipsia Slope of fine isthe productivity indox Put 1000 Flow Rate (bbl — ae 1000 000 3000 00 5000 000 Fig 1.6; Selective Inflow Performance Plot 1.3. PRODUCTION LOGGING ~ MULTIPHASE ANALYSIS Multiphase analysis ~the allocation of gas, oil and water flow from each layer. Flow Rate (bela) Fig 1.7: Multiphase AnalysisProduction Logging 1.4 PRODUCTION LOGGING - WATER ENTRY. ‘Water entry is clearly defined, but is this formation or injection water? Flow Rate (bi) Fig 1.8: Water Entry Wellbore Fig 1.9: Water Coning Across Bedding Planes eprited by persion ofthe Polen Engines nrnatna fiom Ceska Schule 1956Production Logging Fig 1.10: Onset of Water Production Woibore Water enone along Fig 1.11: Water Production through Casing Leak and Channel Leak ‘eprint by permission ofthe Petsleun Engine Inertial rom Cesok and Soule 1956[ Production Logging 1.8 PRODUCTION LOGGING ~ GAS PRODUCTION Wottbore Fig 1.12: Gas Produced with Oil from Associated Gas Cap and Solution in the Oil Reprinted by permission ofthe Petroleum Engineer Intentional rom Cesak and Schulte 1936 Witte Fig 1.13: Coning of Free Gas into a Well Across Bedding Planes Reprinted by permission ofthe Peoleun Engineer Inertioral rom Cesal and Schule 1986Production Logging 2.0 Fluid Flow Rate Measurement 2.1 Introduetion The measurement of fluid flow rates is now the most major requirement in any production logging survey. For the Reservoir Engineer, an accurate quantative determination of the rate of fluid moving into or out of reservoir zones is clearly necessary for reservoir modelling, production planning, and good reservoir management. In addition, it can help well test analysis and the checking of perforation efficiency. It is helpful in discovering crossflow and possible downhole leaks and other problems. Most flow rate measurements are made with spinner type tools, the main exceptions being vortex type tools and radioactive tracer injector tools (not normally’ used anymore). These methods attempt to obtain a quantative measurement related to the ‘otal flow rate existing in the wellbore (open hole, casing or tubing) at the level of the sensor, More qualitative methods, such ad the use of the temperature profile ot a fluid ‘idemification tool are very useful in ensuring good analysis of flow, especially in a multiphase environment. ‘Temperature profiles and radioactive tracer methods can also indicate the presence of behind pipe flow, 2.2. Spinner Flowmeters The basie principle of spinner flow rate measurement is that the rate of rotation of the spinner is proportional to the velocity of the fluid moving over it Rotational frequency, ¢ | Fluid velociy, VF | vt Fig 2.1: Moving Fluid Producing Rotation of Spinner In an idea world the flow meter will not take any energy from the flow stream, and all Parts of the blade move exactly parallel to the fluid flow at that point. It must,| | Production Logging therefore, have perfectly frictionless bearings and a perfect motion sensing element that absorbs no power from the spinner. In reality, of course, the tools are not perfect, but are instead designed to have bearings, sensing devices and flow surfaces as near to ideal as possible, and yet remaii rugged and reliable. Spinner revolutions are aoupt either by magnetic fields (Hall Effect) or by light sensors, Whichever the detection method the tool should provide up to 10 pulses per revolution, and show the direction of revolution, ‘The relationship between the frequency of the spinner rotation and the fluid velocity can be expressed by Ve. tan = const “(uy )!” Qnt apo de (aa t Where: | @ the angular pitch of the blade at radius r t the radius of the blade at the element considered Sr the incremental radius of the element ‘Tr the frictional torque restraining the spinner shaft pr the fluid density Je the fluid viscosity L the length of the face of blade element Ve the velocity of the fluid relative to and along the spinner axis It can be seen from the equation that as Vr becomes large f tends to a constant times the fluid velocity minus a small (and slowly increasing) shift due to fluid viscosity and density. const * Ve-+ shift Figure 2.2 compares an ideal ({tictionless, dragless) response with a real spinner response. ‘The effects of different fluids on two different types of spinner are shown in Fig 2.3. Note that a certain minimum fluid velocity is needed before the spinner will start to urn. The response line is usually simply extrapolated back to the x-axis to obtain the hypothetical THRESHOLD VELOCITY, Vq (the real one cannot be measured because of the low frequencies involved).Production Logging | nesses Mocharical Loesoe (beats ees Spinner Rotation, eps 6| 2 “| Continuous Flow Meter E f of (small diameter) i BS I bad | %, ie Fulbore Continuous Flowmeter Spinner 4080 120 160 200 240 280 Fluid Velocity, fininute Fig 2.3: Spinner Flowmeter Calibration LinesProduction Logging For practical measurement purposes we may approximate the spinner response as: £ = (fluid velocity — threshold shift) * spinner response slope We may either calibrate the tool during the logging survey (ie. obtain the response slope and threshold by means of up and down passes at varying logging speeds) or Use a calibration chart provided for the tool Spinner flowmeter tools are of two types: 221, Continuous Flowmeter Tools These tools measure the spinner frequency continuously with depth while the toolstring is moved relative to the well bore. These tools are normally centralised and must be calibrated downhole while surveying to determine the spinner response slope and threshold shift. This method is deseribed later in this chapter. a) b) Slimhole Continuous Flowmeter tools have a fixed outside diameter, small enough to pass through restrictions in the well bore, They range from | "yg in, for 2% in tubing and up to 2% in for larger tubing sizes. The larger the spinner diameter compared to the hole diameter the more sensitive and accurate the response. Smaller tool sizes do exist for special applications, Fig 2.4 shows a Sondex type flowmeter (10 pulse/rev) with a lightweight plastic spinner. Fig 2.5 shows schematically a Sondex (2 pulse/rev) inline continuous flowmeter, and Fig 2.6 shows a Sondex type inline continuous flow meter. The latter two may be connected anywhere in the toolstring, but must be centralised, Fullbore Flowmeter tools have large spring loaded blades which open out to measure flow in casing or large diameter liner, The blades fold back when the tool enters smalller tubing and the spinner stops recording, Fig 2.7 shows a Sondex type fullbore spinner (10 pulse/rev). These s are run at the bottom of the toolstring, Fig 2.8 shows a spinner profile in a producing well 2.2.2. Stationary Measurement Tools ‘These tools provide a measurement while they are stationary in the wellbore. Flow is focussed into the body of the tool by means of a sealing clement (packer or umbrella) which also acts as an anchor, a) Inflatable packer tools inflate and seal the annulus between the tool and the borehole wall ~ all flow converges through a metering section in the middle ofProduction Logging b) the tool. The packer flowmeter (Fig 2.9) and the Inflatable Combination Tool (Fig 2.10) are two forms of this type of flowmeter. There ate clear design constraints on the internal cross section available for flow through these tools if the outside diameter is to remain small enough to pass through tubing, The maximum flow rates which these tools can handle are only between 800 — 1500 bbW/d depending on tool size. This obviously severely limits their use! Other problems associated with this tool are ruptures in the inflatable bag and pump failure, Petal basket or umbrella flowmeters have a metal umbrella which opens around the tool to force the fluid to converge into the central metering section, Most logging companies have acquired or built such tools. Operating range is from a few tens to a few thousand barrels per day. Fig 2.11 shows a Schlumberger adaptation of this principle. 2.2.3. Review of Flowmeter types nti ‘Stationary Continuous profiling, In-situ calibration (takes time, but arguably more valid than a chart as it takes actual tool characteristics into account), Medium to high flow rates. Poor Sensitivity to low flow rates, especially in ‘multiphase flow. Interpretation becomes difficult in multiphase flow, especially in inclined Pipe. Spinner’ response becomes unpredictable in worst situations. Point measurements. Lab-derived response chart Low to medium flow rates (pressure differential across sealing element includes leaks and eventually moves the tool). Converging effect tends to homogenise fluid mixture in relatively narrow tool body better interpretation prospects (at low rates) in multiphase flow.pu 30 wots pod Jouurdg sopoUUWo[ ‘uyjuy snonupuon xopuos Jo onewHoYDS :$°7 By Pr x9p00s yo vrs 4 poneud oy, ForpumMo|4 snonuAUOD addy xapUOS :°Z ky Production LoggingPalxopuns Jo wowssmuod fq poo Prxpuos Jo word fg pond Aaaumo|y sog]Iny dA], Xpuog :1°7 By souurds }euMo} 4 aur] snonuRUOD xepuos :9°7 By a 7 r = 2 2 3 & & 4 = 7PRIN MOLs Jaye AIQUIEYUT 26°7 Bly Te Buronposg ® Ul apyo1g UoHONposg 2¢°7 Sly 09 4 In 2.9 09) ae Phe & 5 dung —]@ e 3 Beg soyoeg 3 & Buds seyoeg 28 JeuUd vonios seus — of pa ‘Bpuned so1uasoe)3. " ly mo ——| wt]onBUIBYDS JOO], JOUSAIC aqeEUNT LZ Bey vonoag Jomog pue dung Joo] wopeuiquioD arqemyuy :917 Sty seus ; os Aaa pins : beg soypee 3 i eqn seyeg 2 Suny aiqereyut : = seyonig JWR JeIEM, Buseg >| / JOIOW MOI seuurdg Z_ 709 uonesjunwUeD,Production Logging 2.3. Continuous Spinner Flowmeter — Calibr: Determination ‘The two objectives of a continuous flow rate survey are: ion and Flow Rate 1, Establish the response of the spinner so that the frequency can be converted to Aluid speed. 2. Obtain a flow profile and a flow rate. We have seen that the basic frequeney response for a spinne| £=C [va-Va) where: f = the spinner frequeney ‘Va = the spinner threshold velocity Vai = the velocity of the fluid over the spinner © =a constant that depends on the spinner piteh an ‘This is represented in Fig 2.2 along with an ideal response ( It is not usually feasible (outside a laboratory) to calibrate precisely known fluid speeds. We can, however, move thi speeds and achieve the same result ‘The term Vg is the velocity of the wellbore fluid RELATIVI stationary, the Vq = Ve, the actual fluid velocity. If the tool is Va= Vit Vo see fig 2.12 below is approximated as: fluid properties. ‘n= 0). 'a spinner against several tool at precisely known to the tool. If the tool is moving at speed Vj, then Too! Stationary Fig 2.12: Fluid Movement across a SpinperProduction Logging V; is conventionally considered as p. positive flowing upwards ive logging down wards, V; is considered (Ver Ve Va) If'we draw a graph of spinner frequeney, f, against tool velocity, V,, we obtain: a) > f { Slope G ‘Slope Ver vs ve Fig 2.13: Spinner Response with a) tool stationary and 6) tool moving 2.3.1 Response Slope, C Ideally, spinner frequencies should be recorded at a large number of different tool speeds, to obtain a statistically good response line. In practice, 4 - 6 readings must usually be considered adequate because of time constraints, Threshold Velocity Vin Finding the value of Vi, can be made either: ~ _ by establishing the response line in static fluid (V;= 0) here we have: f= C . (V.~ Vis) and we can get a value of Vj from the intercept of the static fluid response line on the x-axis, where f= 0 (Fig 2.14a) ~ by moving the tool in the same direction as, and fastet that, the fluid flow, and measuring the NEGATIVE frequency response. This is the lower line on Fig, 2.14b and it provides an additional, negative, intercept. The difference between the positive and negative intercepts can be assumed to be 2Vs, Calibration passes made dur w the shut in phase of the |logging survey are an excellent way to calibrate a spi ner!Production Logging th Fig 2.14a: Spinner Response in Static Fluid fA 2 Wer Fig 2.14b: Calibration Against and With Flow th ig 2.14c: Estimating (Apparent) Fluid VelocityProduction Logging 2.3.2 Fluid Velocity Determination Having obtained a value for Vs, we can now calculate the fluid velocity from the response line, The most convenient graphical approach is to draw the line back to intercept the x-axis (f= 0) as shown in Fig 2.14c. If the intercept is at Voy (a negative value): O=C. (Vig + Ve Van) Sor Vr=-Vie + Vin Vr is represented graphically on Fig 2.14¢ as the intercept velocity Vi plus the threshold velocity Vis, The Profile of the Fluid Velocity across the Wellbore The fluid speeds calculated above are APPARENT fluid speeds. A centre line spinner will record a velocity that is HIGHER than the average aetoss the wellbore because of a velocity profile that exists across the wellbore in a moving fluid. The velocity profiles in laminar (low speed) and turbulent (high speed) flow conditions are shown in fig 2.15 (for a vertical well). ‘The average fluid velocity needed to determine the flow rate has to be obtained from the apparent velocity (seen by a spinner at the centre of the wellbore) multiplied by a velocity profile correction factor (VPCR), see Fig 2.16. The correction factor is generally of the order 0.8 to 0.85. It depends principally on ‘the Reynolds Number (Nps) and can be read from the chart presented in Fig 2.17. Nre may also be calculated from the formula: Neo = 129 pVDijt Where: p= the fluid density in g/cc the fluid viscosity in ep the fluid velogity in fin the pipe ID in inches.Production Logging T Laminar flow has a parabolic velocity Turbulent flow causes the parabola to profile: have a fat top:- Voie * Vin! Vave = f(Nrs} Via Laminar Flow: New 2000 Turbulent Flow: Nee > 2000 Fig 2.15: Laminar and Turbulent Flow Profiles 2 10 1m 100 Reynok's Number, NRe Fig 2.16: Velocity Profile Correction FactorProduction Logging REYNGLOS NUMBER VS FLOW AM FOR 1,0 gm/ee FLUIDL TURBULENT, E10 ra 7 A EERSTTION |e T t T FLOW RATE IN BBI/ety Fig 2.17: Reynolds Number vs. Flow Rate 23.3 The Effect of Spinner Size The true centre line fluid velocity could only be measured by an infinitesimally small spinner. A real spinner will tend to average out part of the velocity profile across the wellbore, so that the apparent velocity, Vijay») obtained from the spinner calibration reads less than Vingx.Produ n Logging, The Nikuradse Velocity Distribution Factor (NVDF) chart presented in Fig 2.18 corrects Viapp) for the effect of the finite diameter d of the spinner in a wellbore of inside diameter D, Vanax = Vitapp) / NVDF Note that NVDF approaches 1/as the spinner diameter gets smaller: the bigger the spinner, the more significant the correction, Iis to the centreline velocity, Vaux, that the velocity profile correction factor (VPCF) should be applied to obtain the true average fluid velocity, Vi Ve= Vatapp) X WPCF ( NVDF Nikuradse Velocity Distribution 10 09 Yop oz Vinax or a NVDF os o1 02) 03 04 05 08 oF 08 09 10 | @-a)/D 10 <—_——___—— /p ————___+ 0 Fig 2.18: Nikuradse Velocity Distribution Chart 2.3.4 Conversion to Flow Rate Flow Rate = Average Fluid Velocity x 1000 / Casing Factor ‘The casing factor can be determined from the Average Fluid Velocity vs. C: ing Size Charts presented in Fig 2.19a, band ¢ (obtained from the Schlumberger Production Logging Chart Book). Alternatively: Flow Rate = Average Fluid Velocity x 1.399 x D®| :izeeseeeslenseealeesal aon Pee sane empl aes @ aay | SSeS aRaR Raa ae aee3 # psenaae a smaauraaasalegceelaaaal 5 | eee Sar sae ra aaa age saa azaeae oeeaaalgameazamamalmamaalacen = a [PA aussi BANS AA RR aS eaaeee easeMlaneRl ana 8 2 Biase: 7 Pees panaauee)zavazos-isneRaRRaa RRA ARRAS tetelsege @| | Z H | aszjatifsaaeag anavs paaen ahetine acai aamnnaemmeasalsaeegseslenadl | | = g 2) ,| {#822 saan novans paaaglanasnaes sanaaas Sssagsseastiese|2| |g 2 E Baas acaaaaaeapeaamelaasas ss saassg|seueyasaasliaey a] |S | 8 UP ised tees peomepammaisbanaimstnaals| | 2 2 | |e. (Gl [eves saad mance seacloemasoeslooca [Sasass[ERARaRaaRES vesseaams a) | 2 E . e neal = PE age s2saeo boagejsoosaeqe peer aa bsaeeseitnansaslesnss}isnaasass 3| | 2 3/4 eee et abi || gilli iss sd ec essed aac ec cece sees eee * HE SeatSE aay Ra | Sera ae eee) | S | aGBSS SSR RRSRI SAS HieggnaH Pp agaRes SSSR) 3B fe Sasi eaaea ananassae a eee eee a 4 4 if 8 | aha| Production Logging AVIRAGE FLUID vaLoenY vs TuaING size ea) ‘pr Nensunet? rusNe ei a ise | wa | a | Fig2.19b: Tubing Size vs. Average Fluid Velocity AVERAGE [FLUID VELOCITY VS TUBING Sizt EXTERNAL UPSET TUBING anne se | ost] mr em | me |e ae wax CARTEL a ‘en | aa foo] im) oo ata) a | wa | a = waar | is [ozo | ee] aun [ea] wa [a | a 33 | | PEA PAE ed gi Bi [MS] a BR [Hea ai | aah || eT | a] a I aa] = |e) ox) wae] onl ca ome = che | us [aoe] we CS | jane fe Fig2.19¢: Tubing Size vs. Average Fluid Velocity 2.4 Multiple Pass Method We define CALIBRATION ZONES as intervals of constant fluid velocity, such as between sets of perforations, below the bottom set of perforations (sump) and in the full flow section above the uppermost set of perforations. OBJECTIVE: establish an in-situ response line for cach calibration zone by making logging passes at a number of different speeds. Take a depth and a set of averaged spinner frequencies for each pass. Plot f vs. Vj. Obtain enough points to establish a reliable response line on the graph, by making at least three passes at suitable speeds in cach direction. REDUCED METHOD: make on or tow full profiles to obtain at least one spinner reading for cach zone. Make a suite of short response calibration passes in the full| Production Logging flow section and/or the static] sump. Assume response slope and threshold thus obtained are valid for all zones. ‘The flow rates are then calculated from the single spinner frequeney reading in each zone. FULL METHOD: make a complete spinner profile across all zones at each tool speed. In this way the response can be ¢alibrated over the whole producing/injecting period. 2.5 Spinner Calibration and Flow Rate Deter nation Example Taking calibration readings at ach of several tool speeds against and with the flow provides good accuracy when drawing the response lines, This is the multipass method and can be seen in Fig 2 20, which is an example of a spinner survey actoss multiple sets of perforations in & producing well. Down and up passes were made at 30, 60 and 90 fi/min, A, B and C denote zones in the well bore where the spinner frequency is constant, implying that there is no flow info, or out of the wellbore. The values of stable spinner cies and their associated line speed, V,, are presented in table 2.1. Our objective is to obiain the spinner response line in each zone and estimate the fluid speed and flowing rates, [aon ‘Spinnor Rotation pal ‘Wminy A 3 I c Down | a0 25 160 22 Down | 60 0.5 180 43 Down | 90 15 200 68 Up | -30 3.5 418 20 Up 0 15 10.0 43 Up 90 95 80 4 Table 2.1; Spinner Frequency, f and Tool Speed, Vy, For this example the following parameters are applicable: er Size, D: Tin|OD, 29 Ibs/ft, 6.182 in ID Spinner Diameter, d: 3.50 in, Fluid Density, p: 0.95 g/ee Fluid Viscosity, u: 0.3 ep Assume that there is zero flow in Zone C, Zone | Views Naw NVDF VPOF, Vi a (min) (fein) ova a 385 0.9706 083) 083 344 18400 8 210 0.5306 0.93 0.82 185 9900 c 0 na. nia. nla 0 0Production Logging crear rps. momen, ep PY ea cttrt re nA aeee ee Fig 2.20: Spiriner Profile in a Producing Well al aan aR a aProduction Logging From the figures in table 2.1 above we may now produce the calibration plot — see Fig 221. Fig 2.21: Spinner Calibration Plot The fluid in Zone C is static; the spinner response in this zone is typical of a static fluid. 2.6 Two Pass Method Establish a response slope by making a number of short passes across a selected calibration zone (e.g. the full flow region) at different cable speeds, Make on FULL spinner profile logging down, and one logging up, ath the same speed. Shift the curves so as to overlay a zone of known or assumed zero flow. BI-DIRECTIONAL SPINNER (Fig 2.22): measure the change in average spinner frequency ARPS between the zero flow zone and the next one. Calculate the apparent fluid velocity change A Vijay) = ARPS(ave) Slope ‘Then convert to downhole flow rate in the usual way. NB: If you consider that the up and down profiles have different response slope, then measure ARPS (up) and ARPS (down) relative to the bottom zone and calculate:Production Logging A Veep) = ARPS(up) + ARPS(down) STope (up) + Slope (down) Proceed in this manner up through the producing interval, calculating the flow rate increase from spinner increase fe This approach cancels out spinn It is valid provided the respon viscosity/density shifts are equal UNI-DIRECTIONAL SPINNEI frequencies (Fig 2.23 left), the pleasing). This time, meas terest and calculate: ARPS) Vetooe) = Slope (up) + SI Note in Fig 2.23 that as long a passes symmetrically, they will n Flow is indicated by a SEPARA indication of small crossflow rates in the shut-in condition, small spinner shifts, rom one zone to the next, + threshold and velocity/density shifts (see Fig 2.22). ise slope does not change with dept, and provided ‘on up and down passes. (Fig 2.23): since this spinner records only positive ules are slightly different (and the overlay optically ire ARPS between the up and down passes at the zone lope Down the change of bottom fluid viscosity affects both -main overlain TION of the curves. This is a convenient quick-look since it tends to amplify vy Stimgr RPS Up and down passes in producing well Spinner RPS. essay oases ne «0 pn Up pass shifed to overiay ‘down pass in state ld 2.22: Principle of the Two Pass Overlay Method with a Bi-directional SpinnerProduction Logging Spinner RPS Spinner RPS ‘ora nes Stooge Fig 2.23: Principle of the Two 27 ‘There are uncertainties in speed. Since operation: ‘measurements, the respor response is not perfectly I Where data is poor, a fair to obtain reasonable resull Wherever possible, a sepat fluid movement, includin; both slope and threshold ’ass Overlay Method with a Uni-directional Spinner General Comments on Spinner Flow Meters the basic measurement of spinner frequency and tool I constraints limit the number of calibration se lines will not be perfect. In addition, the spinner inear anyway. ‘amount of subjective judgement must be brought in rate response line should be derived for each zone of any static fluid zone. In view of the dependence of n fluid properties, applying the response calibration of one zone to any others may be at best a “reasonable approximation”, Flowmeters are not alw: response slopes for posit threshold velocities may al course of a survey (increas Spinners are mechanical di ‘s symmetrical in design, which means that the ths and negative frequencies may be different. The Iso not be equal in both directions, vices and their performance may degrade over the 0g friction, clogging).Production Logging Sa. There may not be an at calibration with the well] be observed in oil, gas an -cessible static fluid zone with the well flowing. A shut-in is an alternative, but different thresholds may id water columns. Sb. If the static fluid is unre sump) the threshold vel the spinner in such a flui resentative of the producing fluids (e.g. dense mud city will not be valid. There is also a risk of clogging il as it usually contains everything nasty that has sunk to the bottom of the well Reversing the spinner n moving fluid, as it requir The iscussion so far ass ner response becom wells. 9. Qr is the DOWNHOLE SURFACE conditions bj Qsc= Qr/ B Formation volume fictor 2.8 Spinner Flowmeters in ‘The equation describing spinner transfer of momentum form the We n between a dense and a light fluid A lighter Muid will induc means a shallower respon ‘The spinner will have a hi Since oil and water densities ar ay require an unacceptably high tool speed in fast 8 the tool to overtake the fluid. umes SINGLE PHASE fluid in a VERTICAL well. jes more complex in multiphase flow and inclined Beware of jetting and vortex effects. flow rate. If single phase, it can be converted to dividing by the formation volume factor (B): are covered later in the course, fas Wells rotation contains two terms that depend on the luid, These are pr and Vp. ight, therefore, expect to observe the following differences in spinner response lower frequency rotation for a given velocity. This ¢ calibration slope in gas, gher threshold in lighter fluid not strongly affected by pressure and temperature (within a reasonable range), the spinner response will not change much over the logged interval, nor between se gas is present. Gas density is much more sensiti will vary if conditions change importantly, if runs are made at bottom hole pressures and temper irate runs at different flowing pressures, provided no /e to pressure and temperature, so spinner response Significantly over the logged interval, and, more different choke settings / shut-in, with contrasting tures,cE Production Logging Also, where gas suddenly appears in a liquid flow stream (free-gas entry or the pressure falls below the bubble point), expect a significant effect on spinner response. By calibrating the spinner in all (or many) zones, and during all runs at different flowing condition, the multiple pass method ensures that response changes are accounted for. As we shall see in the multiphase section, the sensitivity of gas density to pressure and femperature must be taken carefully into account when calculating phase hold-ups in each zone, 2.9 — The Venturi Permanent Downhole Flowmeter This recently introduced extension of the permanent downhole pressure gauge concept measures pressure and flow rate in liquid production, The flow rate measurement is based on the fact that a reduction in flow diameter causes a reduction in flowing pressure as potential energy (pressure) is transformed into kinetic energy (velocity), The basic measurement uses two pressure gauges some distance apart (e.g. in SPMs). There is a reduction in pipe diameter between gauge 1 and gauge 2 so that gauge 2 ids a lower pressure. The pressure drop Ap between gauges 1 and 2 is related to the id flow rate Q. by: Qe [ap=Ti cos 6 P Where: p= the fluid density Lin = the distance betweeh the gauges © = the well deviation from vertical This system does not work in horizontal wells. 2.10 The Vortex Flowmeter The Schlumberger Vortex flow njeter is shown in Fig 2.24, It has no moving parts and is designed to measure flow rate by detecting pressure oscillations induced by an obstacle (part of the tool) placed in the fluid flow, Fluid impinging on the obstacle sels up vortices which create ions. Vortex flow meters have an accurate, repeatable, linear response over a wide range of fluid velocities and are itable for high flow rate mono-phasic conditions. Downhole calibration is required. ‘The absence of moving parts removes the risk of mechanical problems, but there is still a small threshold shift in the response.Production Logging Pressure Sensor Pressure Measurement Lines. Pressure Measurement Ports Vortex Generating Obstacles Flow Profiling Wedge Fig 2.24: Schlumberger Vortex Flow MeterProduction Logging 3.0 FLD IDERIFICKIS 3.1 INRDUTHO The second major input to the flow equation relates to the relative proportions of the fluids present in the flow stream. This measurement may be omitted completely if there is only one flui phase present in the well bore, ‘There are three techniques in common use for fluid identification, These are: Pressure gradient which js converted to fluid mixture DENSITY, Radioactive fluid mixtun Fluid mixture DIELECT! DENSITY, and IC constant. ‘These measurements are used to calculate PHASE HOLD-UP, the instantaneous Fraction of the wellbore fluids taken up by that phase at the point of measurement. Do not confuse hold-up with cut. The hold-up can be calculated from a two phase mixture density, provided that the individual densities of the two ph wi + Y2p2 Pris ses are known, by the following equation: -G.1) It is usual to talk about the “heayy” phase hold-up Yu, the fraction (I~ Yu) being the light phase hold-up, so: Proix = Yup + (1 — Yu) ph pu and py, might be taken from P! during the logging operation as 3.2 COMERS te The insistence on instantancou: light phase, Y., travels FASTE! The slippage of the light pha: considerably higher than the fra Yu). Figure 3.1 aims to present t Derivation of production rates fir soo(3.2) (3.3) T Data at wellbore conditions, or measured directly ng as an area of pure fluid can be identified. Fraction when referring to hold-up is because the then the heavy phase, Yy, owing to its buoyancy. je means that its actual throughput, QL, may be tional hold-up would suggest, i.e. Q, > Qr x (I — lis graphically. 1m total rate, Qr, is discussed later,| Production Logging Instantaneous fractions inthis Snapshot (dotted line) are Heavy phase: Yi Light phase: (1-4) Fig 3.1: x Hold-up in the Wellbore 33° FID DEST DETERMIN WRAL PRESSRE GRAIEW Basie principle: | DE= 0.4335 p cosa +e | G4) DZ | | Where: DP the pressure gradient in psift DZ p= the fluid density in gic ‘= the tool inclination fm vertical =the frictional and kinetic effects Static water at 1 g/ec has a rossi gradient of 0.4335 psi/ft. | 3.3.1 Points to de density variations can be followed (about 2 f is a commonly used sensor spacing). Tool inclination must be incorporated into the equation, Normally well deviation data is entered into the calculation. More moder tools contain an inbuilt inclinometer. Frictional losses caused by fluid movement relative to the logging tool and to the tubing or casing wall must be allowed for. |. To be of any use, DP/DZ : be measured over a small interval so that local 2Production Logging alee DE = 0.4335 psi DZ DP = 0.3754 psi Son DZ sto pe | | | | | rf Fig 3.2: The Effect of Tool Inclination or Well Deviation On Apparent Pressure Gradient Measurement 34 PRESSRE GRRIER MESREMERS 3.4.1 Spot Pressure Readings The pressure gauge is stopped at specified depths, and the wellbore pressure is measured. The gradient between the stations gives the AVERAGE FLUID DENSITY of the interval, This method is; ‘+ Not suited to measure localised density variations as a large number of stations would be required. * Useful to identify fluid contacts in the wellbore (e.g. oil/water)where a couple of stations in cach phase is enough to establish the two gradients, * Often used to establish a pressure profile in a flowing well over the entire length of tubing/easing to verify vertical lift program predictions, * Useful to recalibrate other density sensors in cases of uncertainty, preferably in a static fluid column to eliminate friction effects.Production Logging Prossure Stations \ DP = 0.455 psi Dz \, B= 1.050 ge Fluid Density Log Average density a Calibration Shift= + 0,08 glee 1.020 glee p Fig 3.4: Using Spot Pressure Readings to Identify an Oil-Water ContactProduction Logging | 3.5 DIFFEREWUPRESSRE MESREMENS 3.5.1 Alowstype Gradiomanometer Schlumberger GMs ~ see Fig 3.5. Obsolescent tool measures Ap over a 2 ft interval between two kerosene filled bellows. The relative displacement between the two sensing bellows moves a slider in fan inductance transducer. Temperature and pressure effects on the bellows are automatically compensated for by a third expansion bellows, The tool is calibrated on surface (usually in air and water) in the vertical and inclined positions. The tool has an absolute accuracy of 0.03 g/ee and a resolution of 0.005 glee. The readings are subject to deviation, frictional and kinetic effects. Deviation is corrected for by the equation p = pisg/cose. Corrections for friction are explained in Figs 3.8 to 3.10 and Table 3. Calibration shifts were commonly encountered owing to the presence of air left in the filling oil during overhaul, mechanical deformation of the bellows, or entry of gas during logging. In the absence of an independent pressure gradient measurement for recalibration, the reading was commonly re-adjusted downhole in a single phase fluid (eg, the water in the sump). 3.5.2. Differential Pressure Sensor Schlumberger PTS ~ see Fig 3.6 A silicone diaphragm incorporating a wire strain gauge measures Ap over a 21 inch spacing. The two sides of the diaphragm communicate with the wellbore via tubes filled with silicone oil. The tool also contains a strain gauge pressure sensor and temperature sensor. The tool is calibrated on surface in the same way as the bellows type gradiomanometer, The tool has an absolute accuracy of 0.04 gice and a resolution of 0.004 g/ec. It needs correcting for pressure and temperature effects on the silicone filling oil and for deviation - see Fig 3.7, and also requires correction for tool and tubing/easing. friction effects in high flow — see Table 3.1Production Logging ‘Transducer Upper Sensing Bellows Slotted Housing oating Connection Tube Lower Sensing Bellows Fig 3.5: Schlumberger Type Gradiomanometer Too!Production Logging sche OH pso 0} ms Wy] Y 0 Ilo 0" | 0 P2-Ps= Pa ph Pa peogh | P=P2—Py+pso é H| 0 s Po Fig 3.6: Schlumberger Type PTS Tool 2 4 Ee Prrs~ P(t = 098) | tas 10 cox os os 8 Pras os PTS Density, Pers [alt Siticone Oit Density yg (e/em} oa 02 on o Deviation [°] Fig 3.7; Schlumberger Type PTS Too! Deviation Correction ChartProduction Logging | ] | 3.5.3 Correction for Tool and Casing Wall Friction The measured pressure gradient must be corrected for frictional pressure drop (VISCOUS DRAG) caused by the movement of fluid past the tool (TOOL FRICTION) and along the casing (WALL FRICTION). These additional pressure gradients usually cause the measured fluid density to be too high in a producing well and too low in an injecting well The chart depicted in Fig 3.8 can be used for gradiomanometer and PTS type density tools. It assumes that the tool is STATIONARY. Tool movement will introduce a small error in the tool friction component since this depends on the RELATIVE tool- fluid velocity (it will be zero if the tool is moving UP at the same speed as the fluid). Total friction effect will therefore be increased if the tool is moving downwards against fluid flow and the chart correction factor will be underestimated. Tool movement effects can be eliminated by taking the AVERAGE reading of up and down passes at the same speed, Example We have a well with 7 in, 23 Ib/ft liner and two flow rate, 10,000 b/d and 20,000 bid. What are the density correction factors? From the chart in Fig 3.8:- Q= 10,000 b/d PO™ Pres Q= 20,000 bid PC = Pmeas/1.03 These corrections can be quite large (1 — 10%) at high rates or in small pipe diameters, This chart makes certain assumptions about pipe and tool roughness but it gives a reasonable first estimate, 3.5.4. Anore Rigorous Correction for Friction Wall Fi on Correction to Pnas is given to good approximation in casing by: Ap 1_ x (0.081 fur veld (g/cc) 0.4335 Where: P= Peas (B/ee) d= pipe inside diameter fluid velocity ({N/sec) fv = Moody friction factor| Production Logging | fu can be read from the chart presented in Fig 3.9. This requires two input parameters: © the relative roughness e/d, obtained from the chart given in Fig 3.10 (use the line for “well tubing” with ¢ = 0.0006 unless you know otherwise) © Reynolds number Nr. (7.742 E403) pVid/e Where p, Vrand d ate defined on the previous page and m is the fluid viscosity in eP (use an “average” value for mixtures). Example Q= 10000 bbtid in & in, 29 Ib/A Nee = 2.1 B+05 gL “7 = 0.0001 From Fig 3.9, fir = 0.016 From the equation on the previous page, Ap = 0.003 gic, to be SUBTRACTED from the measured density ina PRODUCING well, since the upward fluid movement has increased the pressure gradient measured by the tool Tool Frietion A similar equation can be used to calculate the tool friction component, using the RELATIVE fluid velocity (V;—v,) where v, is the tool velocity, Ap= _1_ x (0.081 fp (ve-v) x _a (elec) 0.4335 d+dt Where d; is the tool diameter, This correction should be SUBTRACTED from measured p in a PRODUCING well, provided that the fluid is moving faster than the tool, ‘The equation is a simplification, Fora stationary tool it is roughly: , 4 FRICTI Tea] * WALL FRICTIONProduction Logging GRADIOMANOMETER FRICTION-EFFECT CHART 5 Fig 3.8: Gradiomanometer Friction Effect ChartProduction Logging Yq ss00ybres emoyey 2 2 § Shs 2y e x 10°, ab & € go 4 40120) uous Fig 3.9: Moody Friction Factor ChartProduction Logging © cer coco Fooooe + coos F occ 20001 coo 000) 200003) ‘anno 200001 aceo009 000) f ED base rw 5 wa watt Freecom, is, 0" Fig 3.10: Relative Roughness Chart ‘AP _ 0.081 fp Ve ALJ piction D q Ve Naw be AP IdL dp Bid is paift | —gieo 400 0.037 2088 0.0489 "0.0000 | “0.00000 | 2000062 |~4177 | “0.0365 [0.0000 [0.00000 500 {0.188 | “toaat| 0.0307 [0.0001 0.00002, ‘1000 | 0.312 |"20883 0.0968 | 0.0002 | 0.00005. 1800 | ~0.467| 31324 | “0.0235 0.0005 | 0.00011, ‘2000 | “0.628 {41766 | ~0.0221 | o.0008 | 0.00078 ‘5000 |"1.558|"toaata_[0.0184 | 0.0041 | 0.00094 ‘10000 {3.116 | 208828 [0.0163 | 0.0145 | 0.00836 48000 _|4.673 | "313241_[ 0.0183 _| 0.0306 | 0.00706 ‘20000 | 6.231 [147655 o.0147 | 0.0523 | 0.01207 Table 3.1: Correction factors for Various Flow Rates[ Production Logging 3.5.5 InSitu Estimate of Frictional Effects The uncertainties involved in calculating friction effects can become significant at high rates (¢.g, > 20000 bbWd in 7 in casing ~ see Table 3.1). Remember that the hoki. up calculation involves the term (pw — po) so the frictional term should be regarded as a percentage of this (typically 0.3 g/cc) rather than of the actual densities, Tool Friction In principle we should be able to plot the log readings at different tool speeds ~ vs, — (fluid speed — tool speed)’ and obtain a straight line graph, (Vr-w) <0 (Ve-vo? ig 3.11: Log Density Readings vs. (fluid speed — tool speed)? ‘The intercept at (Ve— v,)’ = 0 corresponds to the tool moving at the same speed as the fluid, i. zero tool friction effect. It ramains only to correct for the casing friction, This method depends on high quality pressure readings and is limited by the relatively narrow range of tool speeds that can be used, Casing Friction Stationary readings of fluid density at different choke settings would make it possible to plot pig — vs. — V2 ‘The intercept VF = 0 corresponds to the true fluid density (no casing or tool frition). This approach would be feasible if a multi-rate production test were planned. It assumes the fluid mix is more or less the same at each choke setting.| Production Logging Response dimalisation A sitnpler approach to the whole problem is to calculate the expected raw log reading above the top perforations by working back from the surface production data. This is Compared to the actual log reading and the difference is assumed to be the total friction effect at that fluid velocity. This can then be scaled in terns if V for the other Zones (assuming the tool was stationary). There are many sources of error that can lead to a difference between actual and synthetic log reading, and it is risky to assume that this is solely due to friction, 3.6 FDISPKEMEN SESR Sondex ~ see Fig 3.12 A float element is displaced by an amount which varies with the density of the surrounding well bore fluid. This is in fact another form of differential pressure sensor, and as such is subject to DEVIATION and casing and tool FRICTIONAL effects. ‘TD: ant eho Ta edo ‘eb teeta mk = Fig 3.12: Sondex Fluid Density Tool Re-wimedypemision of Sonex LitProduction Logging 3.7 NER FLD DESITY® Atlas FDL, Schlumberger NED, Sondex DENR Fluid density tools use low energy gamma rays that are Compton scattered by the well bore fluid. There are tow basic types of nuclear density tool available, the focused or collimated and the non-focused, 3.7.1 Focused Radioactive Fluid Density Tool A focused radioactive fluid density tool is depicted in Fig 3.13 below, Gamma rays are emitted from one end of a sampling channel and are detected atthe other end by a scintillation detector and a photomultiplier. Well fluid flowing through the sampling Channel attenuates the received count rate in an inverse logarithmic response curve that is a function of average fluid density. ‘* The tool is calibrated in oil, water and air on surface. * The tool readings are not influenced by deviation and frictional effects (provided it is well centralised), * Statistical variations limit the effective resolution unless very slow or stationary readings are made * The presence of a radioactive source in the well is potentially hazardous, * Tools with an intemal sampling channel read a LOCALISED sample of wellbore fluid ~ this has serious implications in multiphase applications * Sand production and dissolved salts in produced water may affect tool readings, ———— a >roe eS Hoo > Gamma Rey Source Sampling channel Counter Fig 3.13: Focussed Radioactive Fluid Density Tool Schematic 3.7.2 Diifocussed Radioactive Fluid Density Tool The non-focused radioactive density tool (Fig 3.14) also uses a gamma ray emitter. This time, however, the gamma rays are emitted in the region around the tool, and the measurement is dependant on the scattering of gamma rays back to the counter, Arguably this tool gives a density reading that is more representative of the well boreProduction Logging | fluids, but if the tool is not fully centralised in the well bore then the measurement may include part of the casing. Fig 3.14: Non-focussed Radioactive Fluid Density Tool Schematic 100,000 — I 80,000 G 60,000 NM UNTS PER MPNLTE fi 000 he 20,000 7 ° 05 10 13 FLUID DENSITY, awe Fig 3.15: Radioactive Fluid Density Response CurveProduction Logging 3.8 CROITRE NER OP METER Atlas WHI, Schlumberger HUM, Sondex CWH A sample of wellbore fluid passes, via ports, into a measuring section. The measuring seetion is @ concentric cylinder capacitance cell, which forms part of a circuit Producing a signal frequency dependant on the well bore fluid diaeletrc (6). The dielectric constant of water (¢ ~ 80 at 20°C) is well separated from those of hydrocarbons (¢) ~ 4 and ¢,~ 1 at 20°C). Thus, very approximately, Siog = Yew + (I-Yw)Ghyis +(B.5) since oil and gas are barely distinguishable. Fig 3.16 shows a frequency response in crude oil and an oil-water mixture — note the dependence on temperature and salinity. Fig 3.17 shows a typical flow loop calibration over the range 0 -100% water hold-up at surface conditions, Note the irregular response and loss of sensitivity above 40% water hold-up (water is the continuous phase here with oil in bubble form — the inverse of the situation occurs below about 30%), * A tentative conversion of the frequency signal to a hold-up value is made cither via response curves (Westem Atlas) or via algorithms based on theoretical models (Schlumberger). ‘* Capacitance tools are very effective QUALITATIVELY to distinguish water from hydrocarbons and to identify mixtures of the two. Quantative estimates of phase fractions should be given a wide margin of error; the actual log is often scaled in units of frequency, or not at all ~ see Fig 3.18, * The capacitance tool is generally calibrated downhole in known environments. Additionally itis calibrated on surface in air and water (and sometimes oil), * The measurement is often useful when combined with a fluid density tool, again see Fig 3.18,| Production Logging FREQUENCY (units) FLUID DIELECTRIC HOT EMULSION DATA (CRUDE O1L SAMPLE NEN 0% WATER 20% WATER, (00% BRINE) 6 0D SSCSSCOSSCSSCO TEMPERATURE (°F) 3.16: Fluid Capacitance Response in Crude Oil at Various Temperatures PERCENT INSTRUMENT RESPONSE FLUID CAPACITANCE 50 CALIBRATION CHART 40 + — 65 INCH TEST SECTION o “10 20 304060 PERCENT WATER HOLDUP Fig 3.17: Fluid Capacitance Response as a Function of Water Hold-up[ Production Logging oR Er 2S ele S| ht (+¥be) rs phos ‘anaky (np ‘on +2000 poua Watdr= tabo bb Fig 3.17: Fluid Capacitance Response and Fluid Density Measurements in a 2 Phase EnvironmentProduction Logging 39 G&aBRTO Sondex Gas Hold-up Tools The gas hold-up tool operates on the prineiple that gamma rays emitted from the tool are back scattered into the detector by the surrounding well fluids. The tool measures the gas void fraction in the well bore because many more gamma rays are scattered back by liquid that by gas. Low energy Gamma rays emitted, by the small 3 mCi"Co source, pass through the s pressure housing and undergo a combination of Compton Scattering and Photoelectric Absorption by the fluids in the well. The short detector-source spacing means that the dominant signal is due to gemma rays that have been back scattered directly from the fluids into the tool's scintillation detector. Increased salinity or density would naturally tend to inerease count rates due to Compton Scattering, but a unique combination of geometry and gamma ray energies ensure that this effect is counteracted by increased Photoelectrie Absorption. The signal is impervious to fluids outside the casing as gamma rays are largely attenuated by the steel wall on the combined outgoing and return journey. The tool is calibrated before the job using a 4.67° calibration fixture and may be checked immediately before RIH using a portable tool verifier. 3.10 ENIPE The following example shows simulated data obtained from a vertical well. Both capacitance and fluid density curves are plotted for shut in and flowing conditions ‘The well fluid properties and associated information is: Oil density 0.828 g/ee Water density 1.01 glee Hydro water 1000 Hz Hydro hydrocarbon 3000 Hz Zonal Contribution: Zone ur (baVay Water (6bIG Sand A 5000 0 ‘Sand 8 2000 Too. At point A: Yw = Pog ~ Po - 01 Pw Po AtpointB: Yw=Pig-Po - 0.91-0.828 = 0.45 Pw= Po 1.01 0.828| | Production Logging ee eH HH LE vosal | | Fluids in the wellbore may be identified by cither their density of their capacitance Giclectric), Density tools can be either pressure differential of radioactive types. Differential type tools require much in the way of correction and cannot be used in high angle or horizontal applications. Radioactive density tools can suffer from statistical error and may be affected by foreign objects in the well bore such as sand, Capacitance tools are useful up to about 40% water hold-up (some claim up to 48%) After this, response becomes distinctly non-linear. Used together, these tools provide a useful method of determining phase hold-up.| Production Logging 4.0 TEMPERATURE, 4.1 INTRODUCTION Temperature logging is the oldest form of production logging. There are records dating back to the 1930°s describing the use of maximum reading thermometers for recording temperatures at various depths. The thermometer would be lowered into the well to a certain depth, retrieved, and the reading noted. It would then be lowered again into the well bore to, say, 10 ft deeper than the previous run, retrieved and the new reading noted. This process was repeated until the survey was complete, and as you can imagine, proved a long process, Today continuously recording platinum resistance temperature probes are available, These tools give a continuous high precision reading of wellbore temperature, and typically have an accuracy of + 0.5°C and a resolution of 0.0035°C. The usual sensor Consists of a platinum wire whose resistance varies with temperature in a linear way. A Wheatstone bridge circuit is commonly used to measure the resistance. Surface Processing may assume a linear response between calibrated points, or a more rigorous algorithm may be applied. Temperature measurement has the useful characteristic of responding to wellbore and behind casing phenomena. The measurement is a superposition of heat exchanges between fluids mixing in the wellbore and heat exchanges between the wellbore and the formation, The temperature log, therefore, contains a lot of information. QUANTATIVE interpretation is usually a difficult and uncertain procedure because of the large number of factors involved (thermal properties of fluids, casings, cement, rock, etc.) and requires computer simulation work except in simpler situations QUALITATIVELY, temperature logs can prove very useful. They may be used to Validate or invalidate deductions based on other sensors in situations where interpretation is not clear cut. It may additionally aid the identification of anomalies attributable to occurrences behind the casing or liner (e.g. channelling in cement), 4.2 GEOTHERMAL TEMPERATURE PROFILE The molten iron core at the centre of the earth is hotter than the surface of the earth, A temperature gradient, therefore, exists between the two; this is called the GEOTHERMAL temperature gradient. This gradient varies significantly from area to area and the slope of the gradient, in tum depends on the rock thermal conductivity, Fourier’s law may be used to define the relationship between rock thermal conductivity and geothermal gradient u=, 20 be (AL) Where: u= heat fluxProduction Logging DI = geothermal gradient DZ 2.= thermal conductivity Knowledge of the geothermal profile of a well bore is useful as deviations from this profile will occur depending on whether the well is producing or injecting — see Fig 4.1. Temperature Fig 4.1: Temperature Behaviour under Producing and Injecting Circumstances 4.3 TEMPERATURE BEHAVIOUR IN PRODUCING WELLS Flowing temperature profiles often give good clues as to the nature of the wellbore fluid. The PVT fluid properties, such as viscosity, specific heat capacity and gravity all play a part in determining the nature of the temperature profile. 4.3.1 Oil and Water Entries Oil or water entries are typically characterised by an increase in temperature away from the geothermal. This is due either to hotter fluid entering the wellbore and/or heating due to friction effects. Fig 4.2 shows a single entry point. Two flowing curves are presented. The first ignores friction heating, and the second takes it into account, In both instances the well bore temperature initially increases away from geothermal and continues to move away from it.Production Logging When friction effects are taken into aecount, a seen at the base of the entry point. This data is simulated, in real life the friction heating is somewhat smeared. nificant heating anomaly may be OT, aI TET Ie =WAice T ! i 1 1 \<— Godihonpa! temperature |¢——— Fiowlog temperature Fig 4. ingle Liquid (Oil) Entry PointProduction Logging | Fig 4.2 shows oil entries at three separate zones, The wellbore temperature initially moves away from the geothermal at the lowermost zone (Sand 3) and continues to move away from it. When the second zone is reached (Sand 2) the well bore temperature cools; this occurs because the oil produced from Sand 2 is cooler than that produced from S: ‘and 3. The process repeats itself at Sand 1 OF fae TET = Ta aa > s000 evs | > 5000 pov cc ‘ison nesting Fig 4.3: Multiple Liquid (Oil) Entry PointProduction Logging 4.3.2 Romero-Juarez Interpretation Method Flow rates may be estimated from the deviation of the temperature curve, Ty, from the geothermal, The Romero-Juarez interpretation method uses a Z factor calculated from the relationship between the flowing temperature, the geothermal temperature and the flowing temperature derivative to estimate a flow profile. Zis given by:- Twr=Ts DiwbZ 42) Thus for Points A and B shown on Fig 44, we may construct the following table: Depih_—[ —iwibz [tS ta Fa Slaton it eget | — cage it % a 3500] ~o.0033 tf 333 100) 3 574 —o.0080 oe 0 15 Table 4.1: Romero-Juarez Interpretation Results Topo ‘omero-Juarez Interpretation MethodProduction Logging 4.3.3. Gas Entries Fig 4.5 shows a typical single point gas entry. Gas expands as it enters the well bore which often results in a cooling anomaly because of the Joule-Thompson effect. The temperature change of the gas can be determined from its Joule-Thompson coefficient, which is defined as:~ «(a a Kur is usually positive at low to moderate pressures, resulting in a cool anomaly where gas enters the wellbore. At higher pressures, Kyr inverts to become negative and the gas is heated as it enters the well bore (in this case there is no cool anomaly). Geothermal | s cong Fig 4.5: Single Point Gas Entry| Production Logging 44 TEMPERATURE BEHAVIOUR IN INJECTING WELLS 4.4.1 The Cased Hole (Perforated) Case Temperature behaviour in injection wells is different to that in producing wells. Fluid is injected into the formation from the surface. The fluid retains most of its surface temperature and produces @ profile similar to that shown in Fig 4.6, E Fluid inetd from surface is at suriace temperature and rtaina this tomporature unt reached tha npction zone Geotnerma ——t} Inted uid temperature retums rail to ‘geothermal below lowest zone Fig 4,6: Water Injection into a Single Zone The injection temperature profile is largely independent of zonal injection. Once the well is shut in following a period of injection, then the injection temperature will return to geothermal. This behaviour, called warm-back, can give valuable insight intoProduction Logging reservoir properties, such as porosity and permeabi section, 'y and is discussed in the next 4.4.2 The Open Hole Case The injecting temperature profile along a section of open hole is largely independent of flow rate (see Fig 4.6), and a similar result to the eased hole scenario is obtained. The return of the temperature to geothermal following shut in, however, is related directly to the reservoir rock permeability and porosity, Fig 4.7 below shows how the injection temperature “warms-back” to geothermal over time once the well is shut in. The slower the warm-back, the more deeply the injection fluid has penetrated, and consequently the more porous and permeable the zone. ‘TS Temparsture Weary [7285 onl 70.0 128.0 ay a 42.0 24.0) ‘Geothermat soo 2400 3200 4000 aeco 5600 5200 7200 e000 Inia shut in profte Fig 4.7: Injection Fluid Warm-back over TimeProduction Logging 4.5 TEMPERATURE BEHAVIOUR IN SHUT IN WELLS Temperature curves are valuable in producing and snjecting wells. ‘They are equally valuable in wells that are shut in. Along with warm-back analysis the temperature curve can be used to determine cross-flow. Cross-flow is a phenomenon that may oceur in layered reservoirs where one layer is at a higher pressure that another (Possibly because it is supported by injection). This cross-flow may be in either direction and oceurs as a result of the higher pressure zone charging the lower pressure zone under shut in conditions. Fig 4.8 below shows examples of cross-flow up and cross-flow down, Crossftow down from Sand 2 to Sand 4 Entry Point Exit PintProduction Logging 4.6 ANOMALOUS TEMPERATURE RESPONSES ‘Temperature responses can sometimes be anomalous. These anomalies can be used to perform diagnostics on the well. Two cases that are very popular are flow behind casing and leak detection, 4.6.1 Flow Behind Casing (Channelling) The detection of flow behind casing is important. There are a number of ways in which this phenomenon manifests itself, but it is usually caused by a bad or. deteriorated cement operation. Misinterpretation of flow behind casing can lead to erroneous zonal contribution calculations ~ see Fig 4.19 below. Spinner! cue; E4— Expected tomperatue| 1 cue ‘Shannalin cement Plug Fig 4.9: Flow Behind Casing ExampleLeake 4.6.2 Leak Detection Production Logging increase in surface annulus pressure and the production of hydrocarbons through the the packer is leaking, Casing and tubing leaks often prove to be quite a problem, Symptoms are usually an annulus — this occurs when there is a leak between the tubing and the annulus or when Multi-arm callipers may be used to look for the leak, but if there is a flow path then the leak may be detected by a temperature survey — sve Fig 4.10. “¢— coating anomaly causes Y"byleak patn Temp n using a Temperature SurveyProduetion Logging 4.7 DISTRIBUTED TEMPERATURE SENSING (DTS) AND INTERPRETATION 4.7.1 Introduction As we have seen from the previous sections of this chapter, the temperature curve can provide some useful information on reservoir behaviour (particularly in the open-hole environment). Changes in reservoir behaviour, such as water breakthrough or the onset of free gas production can often change the temperature profile of a reservoir over time. The ability to monitor this change with a permanent in-hole sensing device enables the reservoir to be managed more effectively than with periodic production logging operations. 4.7.2 Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS) Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS) is a technique used to measure the temperature distribution along a length of optical fibre. The “sensor” is the optical fibre itself, and temperature measurements along the well are performed either by Raman or Brillouin backscattering techniques ~ Fig 4.11 shows a typical installation, 1I_. ‘Spestomater ia ‘Spectral Processing Processing Fig 4.11: Typical DTS InstallationProduction Logging Raman backscatter is an intensity based measurement of the energy state of the optical fibre, where the temperature measurement is obtained from the Stokes/Anti- Stokes ratio. 4.7.3 474 Measurement Methodology A fibre is installed into the well and a short laser pulse is sent into it. Light from the laser collides with the molecules along the length of the fibre, causing them to emit low energy bursts at a different frequency that travel back up the fibre. This backscattered light is continuously analysed by the instrumentation unit to determine the temperature at the points where the backscatter originated. Two-way travel time and the velocity of the light in the fibre is used to determine the position of the temperature measurement. Backscattered light from multiple passes ere integrated to yield a high accuracy and resolution temperature log of the well DTS Interpretation As with any other temperature analysis the deviation away from the geothermal temperature of the wellbore temperature is fundamental. It is therefore necessary to have a good knowledge of the geothermal temperature gradient. 47.5 Factors Affecting the Wellbore Temperature Profile DTS interpretation requires that all factors that may affect the wellbore temperature profile are considered. Generally, these are:- Formation thermal properties Well trajectory Completion characteristics Fluid flow rate Fluid type Pressure drawdown Fluid propertiesProduction Logging 4.6.7 Detecting Fluid Inflow with DTS. Production profiles can be estimated from DTS data as long as the temperature contrasts are greater than the resolution of the DTS system. Inflow determination with DTS varies in difficulty, but generally:- Less | # Steam front breakthrough ‘+ Large TVD difference in producing zones © Large pressure drawdown * Oil production below bubble point * High rate of injected water or gas thief zone + High rate gas or water coning * Formation water breakthrough Moro Dieu Horizontal wells — oil and water productionProduction Logging 5.0 PRESSURE 5.1 INTRODUCTION Wellbore pressure measurements have several applicatic ‘+ Transient and extended drawdown testing (pressure vs. time at a fixed depth — “well testing”) used to identify reservoir behaviour, and estimate certain parameters such as permeability thickness, skin factor, and distance to boundaries. * A spot bottom hole flowing pressure reading is needed to determine the productivity index from the surface rate. * A spot bottom hole shut in pressure reading may give a good approximation of average reservoir pressure, but well test techniques may be required to refine this. * Spot pressure readings may be made at selected depths to estimate wellbore fluid densities and locate fluid contacts under shut in conditions. * Wellbore pressures and temperatures are needed during a PL survey for the estimation of fluid PVT properties at different depths: 5.2 PRESSURE GAUGE TYPES 5.2.1 Strain Gauge An electrical resistance wire is mounted on a metal cylinder which distorts under pressure causing the wire’s resistance to change. Measure and reference windings on the cylinder are housing in a nitrogen chamber at | atmos pressure. The resistance of the active (measure) winding changes relative to the reference, and is measured by a Wheatstone bridge circuit. Other types of strain gauge use a diffused metal or semiconductor film on a silicone substrate for reduced mechanical hysteresis. The Schlumberger Sapphire pressure gauge has a thin film resistive circuit deposited on the surface of a sapphire crystal, with a thin film temperature senor on the crystal to correct the pressure response, Automatic correction is applied via the acquisition software for temperature effects and response errors. The tool should be recalibrat« regularly in a temperature- controlled oven. Absolute accuracy: < 10 psi (0— 10,000 psi gauge) Resolution 0.2 psi (0 — 10,000 psi gauge) Strain gauges are cheap to run; they have a quick response to pressure and temperature changes and a short stabilisation time. They do suffer from poor| Production Logging resolution and mechanical hysteresis may be si term drift is usually poorer than quartz type gauges. int, and their stability to long 5.2.2 Quartz Crystal Gauges Quartz crystal gauges consist of one ore two quartz, crystals (natural cut or synthetic) driven digitally by a quartz clock. The measure crystal is in communication with the wellbore pressure via an oil-filled buffer tube. Its resonance frequency varies in the range 10 to 802 kHz over the pressure range 200 ~ 16,000 psi. Significantly, it also varies with temperature. Single crystal gauges convert this frequency to pressure. Dual crystal gauges have an additional reference crystal which is isolated from external pressure and is therefore only affected by temperature. The difference between the measure and reference crystal frequencies is converted to pressure. This reduces the sensitivity of the reading to temperature, but does not eliminate it ‘Temperature correction is essential for both types. Temperature is measured by a sensor close to or actually on the measure crystal. Correction is applied by the acquisition system via a multi-coefficient algorithm. ‘The correction depends both on the level of pressure reading as well as temperature, In dual crystal tools, temperature coupling from the wellbore to each erystal is not exactly the same, and the tool response is always wrong for some time after a temperature change, even though the nominal correction has been applied. There may be a stabilisation time of several minutes during which the two crystals assume the same temperature so that the calibration correction becomes correct. In addition, pressure changes themselves introduce adiabatic temperature changes in the quartz of both tool types. Single crystal tools also require stabilisation, while the crystal takes up a uniform temperature, Tool design is continually being improved to combat this problem. Latest techniques involve mathematical modelling to remove stabilisation lag, and the use of x-y modes in the same crystal (one mode to measure the pressure, and the other to measure the temperature). Resolution < 0.008 psi (0 — 16,000 psi gauge) Accuracy $0,015 psi (0 16,000 psi gauge) Quartz. pressure gauges are expensive to run and maintain. Their drift characteristics are good, but the crystal will age and the buffer tube may become contaminated. ‘These gauges are limited by temperature (350 F) and sometimes do not give accurate reading when the tool is moving.Production Logging 5.2.3 Quartz / Capacitance Gauges The sensor in these gauge types is a capacitance cell with one plate exposed to wellbore pressure via a buffer tube. Distortion of the plate caused change in cell capacitance, resulting in a frequency change in the resonance circuit. The plates may be metal or quartz, and temperature corrections are made using a simultaneous femperature measurement. The maximum operating temperature is about 350 F, Resolul Accuracy: 0.01 psi is possible ‘Typically + 2.5 10 4.0 psi 5.2.4 Mechanical Gauges Otherwise known as Amerada gauges, these are a well established bourdon tube gauges. They are simply constructed, rugged and have a high temperature rating (up to 700 F). They are not used generally for PL operations.IE Production Logging 6.0 FLUID PROPERTIES 6.1 INTRODUCTION No production log analysis would be possible without knowledge of the Pressure, Volume and Temperature (PVT) relationship of the reservoir fluids. It is these relationships that define how a reservoir fluid behaves. Principally, three fluids may ist in a reservoir; gas, oil and water, and cach behave in a different way. It is important to understand that reservoir fluid properties change as the fluid moves between the reservoir rock and surface, Fig 6.1 below shows the relationship between surface and downhole fluid behaviour. PEE Eee Pere eee eee SURFACE g é Q g ae § 3 3 3 Hi a RESERVOIR Fig 6.1; The Relationships between Surface and Reservoir Volumes - Dissolved Gas System Production logs are measured at reservoir conditions. Rates are calculated under reservoir conditions and are then converted to surface or stock tank conditions. Stock tank conditions refer to an imaginary “stock tank” where the internal pressure is 14.72 psia and the internal temperature is 60 degP.| Production Logging 6.2 FLUID PROPERTIES OF OIL 6.2.1 Introduction Oil properties calculations must include the gas in solution and the bubble point pressure. Formation Oil Volume Factor (B,) is the volume in barrels occupied in the reservoir at the prevailing reservoir pressure and temperature, by one stock tank barrel of oil plus its dissolved gas. The units are: rb (oil + dissolved gas) / stb oil. Fig 6.2 below shows some typical PVT data for undersaturated oil 12 _— Aqui Ba (rb/stb) Pe. 10 ae 7000 2000 3000 Prossure (psig) Fig 6.2: Typical PVT Data for Undersaturated Oil at Constant Temperature 6.2.1 The Solution Gas-Oil Ratio (R,) The solution gas-oil ratio (R,) is the ratio of the gas dissolved in the oil at reservoir conditions, This gas comes out of solution at stock tank conditions, For oil gravities less than or equal to 30 API: R= esa o" na) 6.1) For oil gravities greater than 30 APL rr ”) weee(6.2)Production Logging 6.2.2 Oil Formation Volume Factor, By ‘The oil formation volume factor is dependant on Re. For oils above bubble point pressure: B= Bay (e™™) Where: C= (1433 + 5Re+ 17.27 — 1180p, + 12.61AP) Pao) Buy = Bo at Pp P, = bubble point pressure For oils below bubble point pressure: APL less than 30: B, = 1 + 0.0004677(R,) + 0.000175 1(D) — 1.8106(1 0* (RD) API greater than 30: Bo = 1 +0.0004677(R,) + 0.00001 1(D) ~ 1.8106(10°)(R.\(D) Where: D=(T-60) (4 Ps 6.2.3 Oil Density (6.3) (6.4) ---(6.6) (6.1) The downhole density of oil can be calculated (as tong as the bubble point pressure is known) by:- For oils above the bubble point pressure:- 49578.2 (0.07625R.p,) + (APr+i313) —. | + 0.000233 (P,) - (0.22 + T- 1,374) 0.07652R.p, +5615 (-18.15-O.17API+ (140141575pe)) po= 62.4 (6.8)| Production Logging | For oils above the bubble point pressure: Po= pasfe-™) Where: ic (1433 + SR, + 17.27 — 1180p, + 12.61 API) 6.11) PLO) ci Pos = Po at bubble point pressure. 6.24 Specific Gravity and API Gravity The specific gravity of crude oils is defined, at stock tank pressure and temperature- as: density of crude at 60°F s+20(6.12) density of water at 60°F In the oil industry, however, it has long been the practice to use the API gravity, which is given by: apr= 4413 _131,5 (6.13) % 6.3 FLUID PROPERTIES OF GAS 6.3.1 The Compressibility of Gas Several fundamental gas laws are used to derive the formulae and charts used in production log interpretation. These are: Boyle’s Law: The volume of a perfect gas is inversely proportional to the pressure for constant temperature. This expressed by the equation: PV =P’ V’ at constant temperature (6.14) Charles’ Law: The volume of a perfect gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature for a constant pressure. This law is expressed by the equation: V T= V'T’ at constant pressure (6.15) Avogadro’s law: For the same conditions of pressure and temperature, equal volumes of all perfect gases contain the same number of molecules (6,024x10" atoms or molecules per gm-mole or 2.73x1026 molecules per Ib.mole) Perfect Gas Law: By combining Boyle’s, Charles’ and Avogadro's law the perfect gas law is expressed as:| Production Logging PV =aRT esse (6.16) Where: P = absolute pressure of gas in atmospheres (metric) or psia (psig + 14.7) (API) V-= volume occupied by gas in ce (metric) or cu. ft. (API) number of gram-moles (metric) or Ib.-moles (API) {gas constant (82.05 for metric) (10.731 for API) ‘T= absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin (metric) or Rankin (API) degrees Kelvin degrees Rankin (K=273+C) (R= 460 +) The most common and useful version of this equation is: PuV: = BV T Th Where: P, and P2 are absolute pressures in states one and two. ‘Ty and T; are absolute temperatures in states one and two Vj and V2 are volumes in states one and two 6.3.2 The Deviation Factor of Natural Gas Most gases show considerable deviation from ideal behaviour at elevated temperatures and pressures, The compressibility factor of z is the ratio of the volume that a gas actually occupies at any given pressure and temperature to the volume it would occupy if it behaved ideally. (6.18) Wher 'V, = the actual volume of gas at temperature and pressure ‘Vj = the ideal volume of gas at temperature and pressure This equation is used to modify the ideal gas law. The law now takes this form PLY, (6.19) TZ ‘Where: Py and P2 are absolute pressures at states one and two ‘T, and > are absolute temperatures at states one and two ‘Vi and V2 are volumes at states one and two Z, and Zz are compressibility correction factors at states one and twoProduction Logging The generalized chart of Figure 6.3 can be used to approximate the compressibility factor (Z) of any gas after first reducing it to a corresponding state. Fluids are in a corresponding state, with respect to the critical state, the reference, when any two variable properties have the same ratio of reduced values. The critical state is defined as the highest value for temperature, pressure and volume that a gas can exist as a liquid. The reduced state is defined as the ratio of absolute values to critical values. T 5 Ve qT, For pure substances, the critical temperature and pressure is found from a table of physical properties, For mixtures of known composition the pseudo critical pressure (Pp.) and pseudo critical temperature (Tre) are calculated by taking the mole average of the individual constituent values. Pre = 5 yiPoi sesne(6.20) (6.21) the mole fraction of each component critical pressure of each component ‘Ta = critical temperature of each component, The pseudo critical pressure and temperature can be calculated based on the Gas Gravity (p.) ‘Toe = 171.5 +312.5(p,) Pre (6.22) = 699.8 48(p,) ss ve(6.23) Now that the pseudo critical pressure and temperature are known, the pseudo reduced pressure and temperature are calculated by: For mixtures of known composition the pseudo critical pressure and temperature is calculated by taking the mole average of the individual constituent values as was shown earlier.Remember fluids are in a corresponding state, with respect to the critical state, the reference, when any two variable properties have the same ratio of reduced values. Pseudo-Reduced Pressure, pyr 23 Pesudo-neduond os} Gas Compressibilty Factor, z Gas Compressibiity Factor, 2 2 10} epee eee ewe -er Wipe riamcr err ne emer ra Pseudo-Reduced Pressure, Ppr Fig 64 “ompressibility Factor for Natural Gasses 63.3 The Formation Volume Factor of Gas, By Gas formation volume factor (B,) is the ratio of the volume of gas at reservoir conditions to volume of the same ‘mass’ at standard conditions. This value is somewhat different than the oil formation volume factor (Bo), in that for oil, the ‘mass’ in the reservoir is different than the ‘mass’ at surface conditions, due to gas liberation,Production Logging Bg (bbi/mscf or m3/m3) can be determined from the equi follows: pressure at standard conditions temperature at standard conditions Z= gas deviation factor ‘T,P = temperature (in Rankin) and pressure at reservoir conditions Since Ty: = 60 degF and P,.= 14.7 psia, then: = 14.212)(1) B- svsee(6.27) B, = 0.028272) oe (6.28) Since downhole measurements for gas are made in barrels per day, a further conversion needs to be added: 5.04 ee (rbbVc/mmscfld) (6.29) ‘The downhole density of gas is calculated by: — 0.0432(P)(p,) Pan = oe (vec) 6.4 FLUID PROPERTIES OF WATER 6.4.1 The Water Formation Volume Factor, By Water is generally considered to be incompressible, thus having @ formation volume factor of 1.0. In reality this is not the case, and some gas will be dissolved in the water, The water formation volume factor is given by By =(.888(10°)(R,y)(10) (MACAO NTTLOY FOOT 3.055 = ICO Py ) (6.31) Where: Ruy = water solution gas ratio P= downhole pressureProduction Logging 64.2. The Density of Water Water properties are defined in terms of the amount of chlorides measured in parts per million (ppm). The water density is best obtained from a chart, but the formula is: 1922810-7KRPNH 1.798 TOT. 063)TOV(T)-1.8710 VT) 1-240 KP)-LACIO 1) +0.0087 162.4 Where: ssse(6.32) PPM = chlorides in ppm T= temperature in degF P= pressure in psi 65 THE ESTIMATION OF FLUID PROPERTIES AT RESERVOIR AND WELLBORE CONDITIONS 6.5.1 The Black Oil Approach ‘This is the simplest method of estimating key fluid properties. It treats the oil/gas system like a “black box”. No consideration is given to the internal composition. The hydrocarbon is treated simply as an “oil” component (if present), and a “gas” component as seen on surface. All that is needed for most applications is a minimum of production data: © Oil Gravity © Gas Gravity © Solution Gas/Oil Ratio Tf water is produced: © Water/Oil Ratio or Water Cut ® Solution Gas/Water Ratio © Water Salinity 6.5.2 Correlations Numerous correlations have been developed by researchers attempting to relate fluid properties to specified pressure and temperature. Amongst the most common correlations are Standing, Vasquez Beggs, Glasso and Lasater. Theses correlations are generally effective when applied to the types of crude and gas upon which their work ‘was based, but may ort may not be satisfactory in another part of the world. 6.5.3 Condensate There is only one useful correlation to help with retrograde condensate fluid conversions, published by Standing. This gives By., the condensate formation volumeProduction Logging factor (reservoir barrels of condensate flui check downhole rate estimates, ‘STB oil) and is useful in PL analysis to Most condensate systems are off-scale on the standard black-oil charts. PVT lab data ‘may be useful to estimate in-situ density, or it may be treated like a dry gas. 6.5.4 Sources of Basic Data ‘The basic production data upon which your PL analysis hinges on is often of poor quality and may even have been guessed! Test separator measurements are notoriously unreliable, or at best approximate (they may even represent the combined flow from several wells). Laboratory PVT analysis of the reservoir fluid may be available, and this is the best data to use, but the data may be years out of date, it may be from elsewhere in the field, and may be representative of a poor sample. 6.5.5 Other Methods Lab data may be used if extensive enough. Usually some extrapolation is needed beyond lab range (tedious). Ifa full compositional analysis is available, in-situ and surface properties can all be calculated using equations of state and correlations. Computerised PVT simulators are ideal for this kind of work. Good PI. analysis should be backed up with good quality PVT data. Check on the age and validity of any data supplied. A wrong GOR, for instance, will throw all estimates of in-situ properties off. Bear in mind that if you are analysing a layered reservoir, that the fluid properties from each layer may be different.Production Logging 6.6 SUMMARY 6.6.1 Under-saturated Reservoir — No Free Gas Solution Gas TE. 6.6.2 Saturated Reservoir ~ Free Gas Sauton Sas Gas oi + Gas:Production Logging 70 MULTIPHASE FLOW 7.1 INTRODUCTION In Section 2 the principles of flow rate measurement were discussed for a single flu In practice, however, most production logs are performed in wells where two or even three fluids are present. In this section the aspects of flow rate, fluid identification and fluid properties will be brought together to discuss the principles of multiphase flow. 72 FLOW PATTERNS 7.2.1 Basie Concepts As oil flows from the reservoir to the wellhead it is subjected to decreasing pressure and temperature. Depending on the PVT properties of the oil, the light components will evolve as gas at some point in the wellbore (or reservoir for that matter) where the pressure passes through the bubble point. From then on up, as the pressure decreases, more and more gas appears, and DIPHASIC flow patterns emerge — see Fig 7.1. The distribution and movement of the liquid and gas phases at any depth in the wellbore depend on their flow rates, relative proportions, physical properties and other factors such as pipe internal diameter and angle. Other multiphase situations occur when oil or gas produces through a column of standing water. Fig 7.2 is a schematic of (some of) the flow regimes that can occur in two phase systems such as oil and gas or oil and water. Annular mist Transition Slug tow Bulle tow ig 7.1; Development of Flow PatternsProduction Logging There are a number of published categories of flow pattern, not all are identified in the same way as Fig 7.2. Figs 7.3 and 7.4 show alternative flow patterns identified by different authors. Fig 7.4 is a study of inclined pipes and is particularly relevant to deviated wells, Liquid-Liquid Bubble Froth Emulsion nd Slug Liquid-Gas Bubble Fron And Siig Fig 7.2: Two Phase Flow Patterns Bubble Bote ana ‘Shug Fig 7.3: Flow Patterns in Vertical PipeProduction Logging ‘SEGREGATED DISTRIBUTED Ec ‘States Wavy Stated Mist a ra ‘Annular INTERMUTTENT Fig 7.4: Flow Patterns in Horizontal Pipe ‘The incentive (0 model multiphase fluid behaviour in pipes has been completion design rather than production logging driven, the objective being to predict reliably the pressure drop between bottom hole and surface required to produce a hydrocarbon system at a given rate through a specified well completion. Distances involved are ‘measured in thousands of fect instead of the hundreds of feet usually associated with production logging. This work, however, is entirely relevant and potentially highly usefull in multiphase production logging interpretation since production logging ‘measurements can be used as inputs to the correlations. The mathematical models are referred to as CORRELATIONS, ‘They must first identify the flow pattem prevalent in the given section of pipe, then calculate the Pressure gradient across the section (each flow pattern requires its own set of equations to model the fluid behaviour). ‘The production logging objective is to identify individual phase flow rates in the well bore. Pressure gradients can be measured on a very local scale by production logging tools ~ hence the logged data can in principle be matched to correlation predictions and phase rates estimated. This approach requires a computer, but simpler methods exist for manual interpretations and quick-looks,Production Logging 7.2.2 Flow Patterns in Vertical Pipe a. Bubble Flow. Light phase bubbles are distributed across the pipe with radial symmetry in the well is VERTCAL. The heavy phase is continuous. Light phase bubbles move up through the heavy phase at higher speed because of buoyaney and collisions, the difference in the velocities is called the SLIP VELOCITY, V,. In laboratory flow loops, the bubbles tend to be distributed fairly uniformly across the pipe. In real conditions, the interfacial tension effects may cause the bubbles to be concentrated toward the centreline. Bubble flow is well understood and is amiable to simple manual interpretati generally reckoned to exist at the bottom of most producing intervals. b, Slug Flow. If sufficient light phase is present and the phase velocities are high enough, some of the bubbles coalesce into larger slugs. The light phase still moves up faster. Phase movement becomes more chaotic with the heavy phase often flowing DOWN around the slugs into a turbulent region below. Slugs may be several feet long. ¢. Churn / Froth Flow. A chaotic mixture of large slugs of both phases moving in a churning motion. Slugs form and break up in a highly turbulent manner. 4d. Mist flow. Liquid-Gas System: At high relative gas rates the gas carries oil droplets in suspension. This may be encountered in an oil well near the surface where as hold-up and velocity are very large, or in a condensate well where liquid drop-out occurs in the well bore. ¢. Mist flow. Oil-Water System: Mist flow in this system is only likely to occur as a consequence of the gas evolved from the oil towards the top of the well, which transport oil and water droplets in suspension. £, Emulsion, This occurs in an oil-water system at low fluid velocities, if the water hold-up drops below about 30%. The oil phase becomes continuous, resulting in an emulsion of water droplets suspended in oil (this is the inverse of bubble flow). There is usually a high viscosity associated with this flow pattern, Various transitional flow pattems have been identified. Fig 7.5 is a FLOW MAP from work by Ros for a liquid gas system in vertical pipe, ‘The axes are functions of phase superficial velocities. This is the usual way to represent the onset of the different flow regimes in a two phase system,Production Logging T ResION mt g Dimensionless Liquid Velocity, iq [Plia/ax] * ie few / | 0" om 1 To Fe Dimensionless Gos Velocity, 7 [Ptia/ge] + Fig 7.5: Flow Map for a Gas-Liquid System 7.2.3 Flow Patterns in Inclined Pipes Drastic changes occur when the well is deviated more than a few degrees, particularly at low flow rates: + The phases segregate, the light phase tends to move up the high side of the pipe. The heavy phase hold-up now varies across the pipe diameter (“local hold-up”). * Bubble flow becomes less common and may change to slug or churn pattern along the high side with predominantly heavy phase on the low side * The heavy phase may flow down the low side of the pipe (ie. a counter current circulation is set up). This is sometimes called APPARENT DOWNFLOW. * Velocity and phase distribution across the pipe is no longer symmetrical, At high rates, inertial flow forces are more important than the gravitational forces that cause segregation, and the flow tends to be more homogenous. A few of the published correlations (c.g. Beggs and Brill) are valid in inclined pipes, 7.3 SLIP VELOCITY When two or more phases are present and the two differ in density and/or viscosity, one of them, usually the less dense phase, tends to flow at a higher in-situ averageProduction Logging velocity than the other. This gives rise to the existence of the slippage of one phase past the other Three factors may contribute to slip. These are: ‘+ The existence of a velocity profile across the pipe eross section + The existence of a concentration profile across the pipe cross section. + The local relative velocity changes between phases caused by gravitational effects For liquid/liquid flows, the slip velocity is derived ftom a chart for Water Hold-Up and the density difference of the two liquids. vy w Y Fig 7.6: Slip Velocity Model DENSITY OHFEHENCE, Ay~Fpin mee Fig 7.6: Overall View of Slippage Behaviour in Two Phase SystemsProduction Logging 40 7 | ————| ao 2 we —T_| = i. K E we = eam = §90 f a 98 gee 2a 5 + 4 3 3 _—t iS 4 oe ge ° A ied PRODUCED FRACTION HEAVY PHASE, assuming appropriate volumetric conversion. In particule in an oil-water system: WATER HOLD-UP = WATER CUT QwQu + Qo) 7.1)Production Logging Fluid density and capacitance tools measure the hold-up, not the cut, and so cannot be used directly to estimate phase rates from Qr. Fig 7.8 shows the variation of water hold-up with water cut at different flow rates, The relationship depends on the value of slip velocity between the two phases; this is hot constant but varies with hold-up and phase densities (Fig 7.6). Fig 7.7 is a chart lely used for manual interpretation of oil-water systems (gas liquid slip velocities are usually taken as 60 ft/min for practical purposes). This chart was constructed from theoretical and experimental data, and is presented in a convenient way for use with PL, measurements. om 7 —Lo on g 5 az] 3 s0 : & T tae] 5 Lass sgmsem? Py USN gmsem? he a iin 22 steam sae oo 20360500 Tada —z00S sons wade —FaDES TOTAL FLOW IN A 6-INCH HOLE, bbI/day Fig 7:8: Flow Rate vs Water Hold-up 74.1 Rate Calculations using Log Data Hold-up is measured by the density or capacitance tool. Using the density tool: Yy= Dake Pw Po and Yo=l-Yw Using the capacitance tool: = Siyd 6 seize eesees(7.4) and You1=Yw er)Production Logging Definitions: Vo = velocity of the oil phase (ft/min) Vw = velocity of the water phase ({Vmin) o— Vw = slip velocity of the oil phase (ft Qo= in-situ oil flow rate (bbl/d) = VoA(I ~ Yq) Qu = inesitu water flow rate (bbl/d) = VAY Qr-Qo+ Qu. A s sectional area of the pipe Derivations: Q 1-Yw) A Vo essees(7.8) Qw= Yw A Vw seee(7.7), Using these definitions it is straightforward to obtain: Qu = Yw (Qr=A Vs (1—Yw)) (7.8) Qo = Qr= Qu see (7.9) And Allowing for the presence of a 1 11/16 inch diameter tool in the pipe and for unit nversion: Qu = Yo Qr= 1.4 V, (D?=2.85)(1 -Y,)) (710) Where Dis the pipe ID in inches Qr and Yiy are obtained from the logs Vis obtained from charts. Fig 7.9 shows how the various terms vary across an interval producing 100 bblid of water at bottom and successively more oil towards the top. Note how V, decreases as the water hold-up Yy declines, Water phase velocity Vy picks up towards the top because the area available for the 100 bbV/d to flow is becoming smaller owing to the increased oil occupancy. ‘The log responses are shown on the right. 14.2 Points to Note 1, The V; chart is derived from bubble flow in vertical pipe. Its validity is limited, but itis an effective working chart that is widely used. 2. Slip velocity is highly dependant on surface tension between the two phases. In general, a larger interfacial tension causes smaller bubbles and a larger slippage velocity. The charts assume “representative” values of interfacial tension, and therefore cannot be valid in all eases.Production Logging 3. The slippage correction becomes relatively insignificant at very high rates and water hold-up approaches water cut. 4. Slip velocity is negligible in mist flow. 5. Asa general rule, if Yw is less than about 0.30, the flow regime is considered to be an emulsion (water droplets suspended in oil). Slip velocity is then zero, The properties of an emulsion can be significantly different from those of its constituent; in particular, the viscosity will be very high. 6. if the light phase is bubbling through a static sump of water, with no water production to surface, then even though Yw may be large, Qu should be zero, This will be one example where “analyst override” may be called for. 20__sranomanoueTeRemies 2.0 WATER HOLOUP, 15, ‘ METER 4 FBS FLOWMETER, rs ° S Per toamvee 2207 amvee [22 suppnce verociry, v4 Fig 7.9: Variations in Flow Parameters (left) and PL, Measurements (right) (The well produces 100 bbl/d at bottom (Zone A) and oil over the rest of the interval)| Production Logging 7.4.3. Two Phase Flow Example 1 Log Data: Qr= 500 bbl/d ~ from spinner Pruid = 0.85 g/cc — from density tool PVT Data: 70 glee 00 gee. From slip velocity chart (Fig 7.7) for a density difference of 0.30 glee V,= 15 fVmin 5(500 — 1.4 x 15 x (36 —2.85)(1 —0.5)) = 16 bbild And: Qo = 500-76 = 424 bblid Note, that although the water hold-up is 0.50, the downhole water cut is only 0.15. This is because the slip velocity of 15 fi’min is high compared to the actual phase velocities. Vo = QUA (1 ~ Yu) = 424/(36~2.85) 1.4 (1 —0.5)) = 18.3 min Vu ~ Qu AYw = 76/((36-2.85) 1.4 x 0.5) = 3.3 fVmin, 7.4.4 Two Phase Flow Example 2 ‘The same example, this time with Qr = 5000 bbl/d Yw=0.5 as in Example 1 ‘Vs = 15 fi/min, again as in Example | Now: Qu =0.5(5000 ~ 1.4 x 15 x (36—2.85)(1 -0.5)) Qu = 2336 bli And: Qy= 500-2326 = 2674 bblid Downhole water cut is now 0.47, almost the same as the hold-up. This is because V, is small compared to the phase velocities, Vo= QUA (1 = ¥y) = 2674((36 ~ 2.85) 1.4 (1 ~0.5)) = 115 fi/min Viv — QwAYy = 2336/((36-2.85) 1.4 x 0.5) = 100 fi/min.Production Logging 74.5 Two Phase Flow Example 3 — Light Phase Bubbling Through Static Water ‘The following sort of data is often encountered at the bottom of a well, above perforations that are almost dead, There is a water column extending up as far as the next set of producing perforations, but the fluid density shows a small oil fraction. Log Data; asia = 1.03 g/cc from density tool Qr= 200 bbI/d ~ from spinner PVT Data p= 0.75 g/ee Pw = 10S g/ee Hold-up: Y, = 103-075 = 993 1.05 - 0.75 From slip velocity chart (Fig 7.7) for a density difference of 0.30 g/ee V,=27.5 fi/min Now: Qu=0.93 (200- 1.4 x 27.5 x (36 —2.85)(1 ~ 0.93) Qu = 103 bblid The error bar on the flowmeter at such low flow rates is probably much higher than this, so the result is essentially meaningless, except to say that there may be some water flow. Likewise, the result Q, = (200 -103) = 97 bbI/d is indicative only. Since Yq Quisuess) then increase your Qo estimate and repeat steps 3 ~7 until you get acceptable agreement. 8: Once you have an acceptable result for Q., get Qy from equation 7.9Production Logging ‘Now move on to the next zone and repeat the procedure, ui estimate for Q,. the same Qy and a new 7.8.2 Three-phase Interpretation using Two Hold-up Measurements If you have good quality capacitance and density data, a full three-phase analysis is possible, The density tool responds to the densities of the 3 pheses mixed together according to their hold-ups: Prix = YupPw + YoPo + Yepe wee (713) We also know that: YutY¥o+¥_= 1.0 sesees(T14) There are three unknowns here and only tow equations, so solution is not possible. Help comes from the capacitance log, which provides us with an estimate of one of the unknowns. Since the dielectric properties of oil and gas are similar, to a first approximation the capacitance log gives us the water hold-up, Yy, regardless of the proportions of the oil and gas present, Putting the value for Y,, into equation 7.14, we get: Ye 1.0-Y,)~Yo eevee T140) Substituting this for Y, in equation 7.13: (7.15a) Prix = YwPw + YoPo + ((1.0— Yu) - Yo)Ps We know have only one unknown (¥,), and equation 7.15a can be solved. Prnix ~ Yw(Pw— Pg) ~ Pg Me carn (7-156) ‘Now you have Yq and Yo, so Y, can be estimated from equation 7.13. Ih Estimate water hold-up, Y, from the capacitance tool. 2: Read the density, ping, and correct if necessary 10 get Pini = Calculate oil hold-up from equation 7.15b (you will need to know coil, water and gas densities at in-situ conditions). 4: At this stage, you could ignore slip velocities and make the approximation that: