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] c b* r qUI YO n wLJ bF dI fOzd W UD u
l wdH uU wLJ bF

W U u q u
Subshells WOd WHK WOdH W UD Uu s d b vK fOz

= w l U wd
bFK uJ n fOz wL b q
wL
y
y b wd u qJ n WLO V
s q U Lz l WLO vI YO 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ..., n-1 wQ UL Wu WO rO l wdH wLJ
Ue wdH u* W U lHd wdH u* qJ W U l wdH wLJ bF b n WLO
fOzd u* fH sL{ l WLO

U
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UN U V WOdH

q
l = 0 1 2 WO_ rOI cQ l S n=3 U0
2 > 1 > 0 u UNU UD bUB VOd uJ

U 5u UL U ed wd wL b qJ ed

...

wdH wLJ bF

...

ed

qL c uM u eO( u pKH _ s d b vK bu wdH u* u

w bu wdH u*  lOL qUL tO WOdJ Wu* WU edL tO dJ rO bu
U I kM UL jI wdH U& w UNCF s nK UN UdJ UNF UNL UN U
u u _ fOzd u*U n WLO u fOzd uLK WOdH Uu* b b c
5u uO n = 2 wU fOzd u* U 1s vL b pK tO jI l = 0 b U Od
u* 2p vL  WuL tO l = 1 wU 2s b pK tO l = 0 _ 5Od
tO l=1 wU 3s vL b pK tO l=0 _ WOd Uu W u YU fOzd
ld fOzd u* S c 3d vL  WuL tO l=2 YU 3p vL  WuL
WOdH Uu* b e fOzd wLJ bF U l 4s 4p 4d 4f _ UuL u
n WLOI U U U Lz uJO fOzd u* w
wQ UL V n = 5 fOzd u* w R
WOdH WOLJ b_ lOL V
WOdH Uu* c b U WOdH Uu* lOL u V
ml wOUMGL wLJ bF ?
UN U bI w U  WuL UM S dH l UMU bu wdH u* w t XLK
n = 2 wU fOzd u* wH UNU& w UNCF s nK UN UdJ UNF UNL
nK 2p vL r( qJA W UD fH UN  WuL u l = 1 wdH u* k
v dOA t U wOUMG wL b pK qJ qF p vK UM UNU& w UNCF s _ c
tU&
(2l + 1) U ml WOOUMG* WOLJ b_ s 5F bI l 5F wd u qJ
-l , (-l +1) , ... , 0 , ... (l -1) , l rOI lOL ml cQ l s WMOF WLOI t w WdF* bUI

b U JK u l = 0 s wdH u* UL 5Od 5u u n = 2 wU fOzd u*U

rO UN  W u (l = 1) p wdH u* 0 w jI b WLO ml cQ 2s ? t ed jI
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U
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q
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3d u WuL* e
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n: 1< 2 < 3 < 4 < 5 ......

VOd V l U wdH W UD u nKO bu fOzd u* w U

l: 0 < 1< 2 < 3 ......

5 cJ s < p < d < f VOd cQ bu fOzd u* w wdH u* W U

ml WLOI UdQ l n s q WLO U pKH W U qJA
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w 3d > 3p > 3s VOd V UN U w WOdH Uu* nK n = 3 fOzd u* w

U cN WO 4f > 4d > 4p > 4s VOd V UC WOdH Uu* nK n = 4 u*
s vK 3d wdH u* W U `B 3 4 5Ozd 5u* w U UI VWOdH Uu* w
b dNE c qJ ubUJ w U( u UL 4s wdH u* W U
WOdH Uu* 5
c w WOdH Uu* W U VOd UM qb c Ud V n = 4 n = 3 5Ozd 5uLK

3d

4s
3p
3s

2p

W UD

2s

1s

ubUJ w W UD Uu qJA

WF_ WOzd W UD Uu w WOOUMG* WOdH WOzd WOLJ b_ rO b' hK
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(n=4 c ml l n rJ b rO

n

ml

1
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
4

0
0
1
0
1
2
0
1
2
3

0
0
-1 , 0 , +1
0
-1 , 0 , +1
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b

wdH uL e wdH uL  b

1s
2s
2p
3s
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4s
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1
1
3
1
3
5
1
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5
7

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  YO qJA w 2s 1s UJKH tUA

W UD r( w UHK ULNMJ WOU{ d ULNM
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px

py

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ms weGL wLJ bF

nO u R n l ml w WdF WOL b UN  w bu UdJ XLK

WFO WOu WFO t dJ U Lz dc R c s WU pKH q dJ d
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U
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2
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2
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UL
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uM
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jI  WU UI fJ WU UI U& w u u dJ e qO9 qJA

 U
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q
ms
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2
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q
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2
2

c qJ wdJ lu

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dF
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 2px pKH S bUI c vK UM n l ml ms WF_
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UdJ fUF V t ms wLJ bF WLO w UdJ nK V tS c
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wU bU l 2px pKH w UdJ W u UF nO R

b 5dJ s d u pKH sJ1  bu c w UNFOL _ vK U( oDM

wdH u* S c l WLO dI _ s b u wd u q S U IU XLK UL c
 W u c np wdH u* 5dJ s d_ l b U JK u c ns
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U
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WK

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WOzd UuL c s
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YO u qJ l n rO uL s p bu c w WOdH Uu* W U WUI sJ1

uJ l n uL WLO w 5u U WU w d l n uL U ULK d u* W U uJ
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wQ U Ud V c  w UdJ WF bM
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1s <2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s < ......

uL p  S tF sO wd u q tu c UdJ s b d Ud

cJ tOK c uL v qIM

sOUL w UMO UL ULNO U V UU UU UM WU U Ud

 U
WO dUMF s qJ wdJ lu V
1

H , 2He , 5B , 10Ne , 17Cl , 30Zn

q
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dBMF

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He

dBMF

t wdJ lu UdJ WL u

dBMF

Ne

dBMF

Cl

dBMF

Zn

dBMF

B: [He]2s22p1 UC tU sJ1 B: 1s22s22p1

t wdJ lu UdJ dA u

Ne: 1s22s22p6

t wdJ lu U dJ dA WF u

Cl: [Ne]3s23p5 Cl:1s22s22p63s23p5

t wdJ lu U dJ 5 u

Zn: [Ar]4s23d 10 Zn: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d 10

U
Cr c wdJ lu V

24

q
L
Cr: [Ar]4s23d 4 u Cr w l u* wdJ lu uJ WIU buIU
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buI s
X UN UdJ WL 3d  q wKFH lu w - b t k pKF
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42Mo vK U C oDM U/ jI Cr c

 U
29Cu c wdJ lu V

q
L
lu v dOA U sJ Cu: [Ar] 4s23d 9:u cK l u* lu S buIU
be U2 WOU WU( w U K2 ` 3d pK v p eF Cu: [Ar] 4s13d 10 u wF u
U s WU q vK UC oDM U/ jI Cu c U U fO cA c c WOU s
47Ag q ns1(n-1)d 10 `B ns2(n-1)d 9

U K2 (n-1) d `BO (n-1) d v ns2 s b dJ qI sJ1 5IU 5U* vK UM

vK2 nB
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bu bU
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U
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q
7

N: 1s22s22p3 u wdJ lu

2p uN dO_ wdH u* wU u dO_ fOzd u* S wdJ lu WE s
qJA s dNE UL UL UMN 2p dO_ wdH u* UdJ lu WOHO U

2s

1s

2s

2px

2py

2pz

2px

2py

2pz

1s
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UdJ S WOU WU( w U jI 5JK w W 2p UdJ l L

] v_ WU( wH
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> w 5* rd vL
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 dHM* UdJ b WdF q s bu

V r 5B 9F 10Ne c s qJ wJKH qOL r R

dO_ fOzd u* UdJ b
q w dHM* UdJ b
WOOUMG U WOOUMG UH t c c s

RUJ UdJ c bF

WUF* c w UdJ uL U C U c c bFU uM w Uud b vL

_ WuL w uu* UdJ vL d_ dUMF s eO1 t U b d BM qJ
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np ns UdJ uLL U U c RUJ UdJ

uLL U U UNUJ UdJ b uJ ns (n-1)d ? wdJ UNFu wNM w c

LJ (n-1)d U U qLJ dO (n-1)d uJ WDd (n-1)d ns UdJ

uJO
jI ns UdJ bF UU RUJ UdJ b
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tK U dUMF W b b' W UM

U
wQ U2 qJ RUJ UdJ b V
7

N 10Ne 12Mg 14Si 19K 22Ti 24Cr 29Cu 30Zn 32Ge 53I

q
RUJ UdJ WL UN

RUJ UdJ WOUL UN

10

N: [He] 2s22p3

Ne: [He] 2s22p6

RUJ UdJ UN

12

Si: [Ne] 3s23p2

RUJ UdJ WF UN

14

K: [Ar] 4s1

b RUJ dJ UN

Ti: [Ar] 4s23d2

22

RUJ UdJ W UN

24

Cr: [Ar] 4s13d5

Cu: [Ar] 4s13d10

b RUJ dJ UN

29

RUJ UdJ UN

30

.RUJ UdJ WF UN

19

RUJ UdJ WF UN

RUJ UdJ WF UN

Mg: [Ne] 3s2

32

Zn: [Ar] 4s23d10

Ge: [Ar] 4s23d104p2

I: [Kr] 5s24d105p5

53

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wQ UL q w WOB WU d
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uU

uu

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dH

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r(

ml

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l n

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B

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dO_ uL dJ eM W W UD w dBMF sQ W U XLK

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bI S
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uu [

u [

uu

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.[Ar] 4s13d 10

.[Ar] 4s23d 9

.[Ar] 4s23d 34p1

.[Ar] 4s13d 44p1

24Cr 12Mg 2He 20Ca c s qJ wJKH qOL wdJ lu s

w WOOUMG U c S
.Ca

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w 7N dBMF w dO_ dJ ms ml l n WF_ WOLJ b_

1 + 21 2

2
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2

vK 013 r?? OIU ml l n W?? OLJ b?? _ p?? KHK `?? OB e?? d

u VOd
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3py

2py

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1s < 2s < 4s < 3d

1s < 2s < 3d < 4s

2s < 3p < 4p < 4s

2s < 3p < 4p < 3d

u U U d 5B tO uJ c wdJ lu

1s22s23p1

1s22s02p3

1s22s12p2

1s22s22p1

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n = 3 fOzd uL pb

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wdH U UdJ s

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sObON w YU
Ca 18Ar 29Cu 33As 24Cr 38Sr WO c s q w

20

RUJ uL wJKH qOL wdJ lu V

RUJ UdJ b V

dHML UdJ b V

: 2He pb

c w dHML UdJ b U dIL UNU w cK wdJ lu V

V 2p uL v 1s uL s UNO b dJ ld c ZOON r

dHML UdJ b U WONL UNU w cK bb wdJ lu

WONL c w
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wdH uLK

uuH Wu u V _ bL v fU bL s sObON dJ qI

u bu WFML W UD edON bu d duUM bu oKDML

UbI Wu uD uuH tUB WO _ bL s sObON dJ qI

WbL bu k dJ tO qB c bb bL r U duU

sObON w u [ U t U c bL r U

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b?????u

UNUH dUMF W??

IA

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

VIIIA
2

IIA

1.008

Li

6.941

IIIA
5

Be

11

13

12

Na

22.989

19

Mg

Al

24.305

26.981

20

Ca

39.098

40.08

37

38

Rb

Sr

85.467

87.62

55

56

Cs

Ba

132.905

137.33

87

Fr

IIIB

IVB

21

22

Sc

44.959

39

88.905

57

La

138.905

88

89

226.021

227.027

Ra

233

10.811

9.012

Ac

Ti

47.88

40

Zr

91.22

72

Hf

178.49

104

Rf
261

VB
23

50.941

41

Nb

92.906

73

Ta

180.947

105

Db
262

VIB

VIIB VIIIB VIIIB VIIIB

24

25

Cr

51.996

42

Mo

183.85

106

Sg
263

Fe

55.845

43

44

Tc

95.94

74

26

Mn

54.938

Ru

98

101.07

75

76

Re

Os

186.207

190.23

107

108

Bh

Hs

264

265

27

Co

58.933

45

Rh

102.905

28

Ni

58.693

46

Pd

106.42

IB
29

Ge

72.61

118.710

80

81

82

109

110

111

271

32

Au

Hg

200.59

Tl

204.383

Sn

Pb

207.2

Actinides

58

59

140.116

140.907

90

91

92

232.038

231.035

238.028

Ce

Th

Pr

Pa

60

Nd

144.24

VIIA

16

32.066

34

33

Se

As

78.96

74.921

52

51

Te

Sb

127.6

121.76

83

84

Bi

Po

208.980

209

18.998

17

Cl

35.452

35

Br

79.904

53

126.904

85

He

4.002

10

Ne

20.179

18

Ar

39.948

36

Kr

83.80

54

Xe

131.29

86

At

Rn

210

222

112

Uuu

Uub

272

276.8

Lanthanides

VIA
15.999

15

50

196.966

14.006

30.973

114.818

In

Si

49

Cd

VA

28.085

112.411

79

Ds

Ga

69.723

14

48

Ag

195.078

268

31

12.01

107.868

78

Mt

Zn

65.39

47

192.217

Pt

30

Cu

63.546

77

Ir

IIB

IVA

p
61

Pm
145

93

Np
273

62

Sm

150.36

94

Pu
244

63

Eu

151.954

95

Am
243

64

65

Gd

Tb

157.25

158.925

96

97

Cm

Bk

247

247

66

Dy

162.50

98

Cf
251

67

Ho

164.930

99

Es
252

68

Er

167.26

100

Fm
257

69

Tm

168.934

101

Md
258

70

Yb

173.04

102

No
259

71

Lu

174.967

103

Lr
262

dUMF UH w Wb _ qBH

UNOd WU v uBF d vK ULKF l U2 UHB s b w WOzUOLOJ d UMF iF tUA
be vK UM UNOd - v WHK U X9 WUG c oOI UNLN vK b bU qJA
d UMF UNO tUA w UHB UL Yb( b b' w U( u UL d UMFK Wc b_
s dBMF UH dF nO d UMF Wb wMF U b b' w UHB c b nO
U uJ bu c p bF UNOK VO UdO WK_ c b b' w tFu
vK tK U
Yb b b w d UMF VOd U dF

t RUJ UdJ b WdF s b b w dBMF lu b

b b w tFu s dBMFK wdJ lu VJ

U uL U OI WOUdNJ WOdJ WH_ sQ WU c r s q w dOOG dF

tUA vK dBMF sQ WU dOQ dF

b b w tFu s dBMF UH iF ZM

UdO l bu WuLL d UM hzUB sO pc eK eKH UH sO UI

UuLL s

b b b uUI
vL bL w vL uH w Yb( b b' w WOzUOLOJ d UMF X
uUI tMO UL W uB UdOG dOG Wc Ub vK d UMF c UH bLF UuL
qJA dJ UNUH S Wc Ub be V dUMF VOd bM t vK hM c b
 Uc uK
d UM UH Ubu 10Ne dBMF UN uOOK dBM s b WOU b d UM
UH d UMF jA 3Li uOOK dBM bF
l
ULMO 5LO u UMN& ULK U Ob nK b c
U 10Ne dBM b$ U*
tUA tUH b$ WU b w 11Na uuB dBM v qIM 5 U U9
uOOK uuB 5 tUA V UL 10Ne UH nU 3Li dBM UH
fH w ULNF{ - bI c RUJ UdJ b w 11Na 3Li dBM U u u'
b w U b b' w bu WuL* d UM uI sJ1 U qJA IA WuL*
WuL r vK dF UMMJ1 WOzUeOH WOzUOLOJ hzUB) w tUA tM ZM U2 RUJ UdJ
w U* w UL wdJ tFu s dBMF

 U
ULNM qJ WuL* b r 5 r 20Ca 12Mg s qJ wdJ lu V

q
Mg: 1s22s22p63s2

12

Ca: 1s22s22p63s23p64s2

20

c RUJ UdJ b fH qL sdBMF wdJ lu s ZM

WFd b s Ca WU b s Mg WOU WuL* l ULJ
uL dA WOUL w Wd dBM s d rC Yb( b b' dO c s b
qJA w 5 u UL uH WF
IA

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

VIIIA
2

IIA

1.008

Li

6.941

11

IIIA
5

Be

9.012

10.811

13

12

Na

Al

Mg

22.989

24.305

19

20

Ca

39.098

40.08

37

38

Rb

Sr

85.467

87.62

55

56

Cs

Ba

132.905

137.33

87

Fr

IVB

21

22

Sc

44.959

39

88.905

57

La

138.905

88

89

226.021

227.027

Ra

233

IIIB

Ac

Ti

47.88

40

Zr

91.22

72

Hf

178.49

104

Rf
261

VB
23

50.941

41

Nb

92.906

73

Ta

180.947

105

Db
262

VIB

VIIB VIIIB VIIIB VIIIB

24

25

Cr

51.996

42

Mo

183.85

106

Sg
263

Fe

55.845

43

44

Tc

95.94

74

26

Mn

54.938

Ru

98

101.07

75

76

Re

Os

186.207

190.23

107

108

Bh

Hs

264

265

27

Co

58.933

45

Rh

102.905

28

Ni

58.693

46

Pd

106.42

IB

IIB

29

30

Cu

Zn

63.546

80

81

82

109

110

111

271

Ge

72.61

118.710

196.966

Ds

32

Au

Hg

200.59

Tl

204.383

Sn

Pb

207.2

Actinides

58

59

140.116

140.907

90

91

92

232.038

231.035

238.028

Ce

Th

Pr

Pa

60

Nd

144.24

VIIA

16

34

Se

As

17

Cl

35.452

35

Br

78.96

74.921

52

51

Sb

121.76

83

53

Te

126.904

Po

85

209

He

4.002

10

Ne

20.179

18

Ar

39.948

36

Kr

79.904

127.6

84

Bi

208.980

18.998

32.066

33

83.80

54

Xe

131.29

86

At

Rn

210

222

112

Uuu

Uub

272

276.8

Lanthanides

VIA
15.999

15

50

79

14.006

30.973

114.818

In

Si

49

Cd

VA

28.085

112.411

195.078

268

14

48

Ag

78

Mt

Ga

69.723

12.01

107.868

192.217

Pt

31

47

77

Ir

65.39

26.981

IVA

p
61

Pm
145

93

Np
273

62

Sm

150.36

94

Pu
244

63

Eu

151.954

95

Am
243

64

65

Gd

Tb

157.25

158.925

96

97

Cm

Bk

247

247

66

Dy

162.50

98

Cf
251

67

Ho

164.930

99

Es
252

68

Er

167.26

100

Fm
257

69

Tm

70

Yb

168.934

101

Md

173.04

102

258

No

71

Lu

174.967

103

Lr

259

262

Yb( b b' qJA

WO UuL* vK qLA Yb( b b' qJA s 5

wdJ UNFu wNM w IIA IA sOuLL d UM qLA (s-block) s UuL

b r sO n YO (ns)?
lu w?? NM (IIIA - VIIIA) w?? U?? uL X?? d?? UM qL?? A (p-block) p U?? uL

(np) ? Ud UMF wdJ

U?? uL w?? UL qL?? A W?? OUI d?? UMF vL??  (d-block) d U?? uL

(n-1)d ? Ud UMF wdJ lu wNM bL dA w Wu{u IB VIIIB

wNM uL d?? A WF qL?? A WOKb WOUI d UMF vL??  (f-block) f UuL

(n-2) f ? Ud UM rEF* wdJ lu

W?? KL* W?? Ozd U?? uL* d?? UMF vL??  U??  (p) (s) U?? uL d?? UM qJ?? A
d?? UMFU (d) U?? uL d?? UM v?? K o?? KD U?? LMO (Representative - Main Group - Elements)
W?? OKb W?? OUI d?? UMF vL??  (f) U?? uL d?? UM U??  (Transition Elements) W?? OUI
(Inner Transition Elements)
WdF pc wdJ tFu s b b' w dBMF lu WdF sJL* s t 5 cJ
5O 5U* sF9 b b' w tFu s dBMFK wdJ lu

U
WO WO{d ud d UMF s q pb
X ,

15

49

R ,

37

Z ,

25

b b' w t tuL tFu b r UNM qJ wdJ lu V

WKL* d UMF v wLM UN WOUI d UMF v wLM d UMF

q
WU b VA WuL v wLM 15X: [Ne]3s2 3p3
WU) b IIIA WuL* v wLM 49R: [Kr]5s2 4d10 5p1
WU) b IA WuL* v wLM
WFd b VIIB WuL* v wLM

25

37

Z: [Kr]5s1

G: [Ar]4s23d5

WKL* d UMF UuL s 15X

WKL* d UMF UuL s 49R
WKL* d UMF UuL s 37 Z
WOUI d UMF UuL s 25G

 U
WO d UMF s qJ wdJ lu WdF* qJA w 5* b b' b
Cl , Ge , V , Cr , C , Te

q
u wdJ lu S dBM qJ WuL* b WdF s
Cl:
Ge:
V:
Cr:
C:
Te:

[Ne] 3s 3p
[Ar] 4s 3d
[Ar] 4s 3d
[Ar] 4s 3d
[He] 2s 2p
[Kr] 5s 4d
2

10

10

4p2

5p4

(IA) W?? u?? K? ?I? ? e?? ?K? ? H? ?  W??u??L???? q?? ? ? W?? ? U?? ? U?? ?L? ? U?? u?? L? ?? ?* i?? F? ? c?? ? ? b?? ? 
(IIA) W??O? d???  W??u??K? I?  e??K? H?  ...KNaLi d?? U??M?F? q??L?A? w???  (alkaline metals)

U??M? O? u??U??N?  W??u??L? ?  Ca Mg) d?? U??M??F?? q??L? A? w???? (alkaline earth metals)
(VIIIA) W??K?O??M? U?? ?G? ?  (I Br Cl F) d UMF q??L? A? w???  Halogens (VIIA)

( Ne He) d UMF qLA w (Noble gases)

WK= L L
dUMF UH iF dOG

WLN* UHB iF j s b sJ1 uN UOLOJ rK w WLN* U$ s b b' bF

L WLEM WIdD UNLN d UMFK

tFu WdF s WOzUOLOJ WOzUeOH dBMF UH lu sJ1
WOdJ WH_ sQ WU c r UN RM sJ1 w UHB dN s b b' w

c r
UdJ YO UdD nB s UNL s dOF sJ1 tS dJ qJA c qO9 bM
U bI c oO qJA tUO sJ1 c dD nB S WU{ qJ vK uM u d c
sJ1 Wb s uM tUO sJ1 c Covalent atomic radius UA dD nB vL U ULKF
u nB U O
UA 5Dd 5KUL 5 wu 5 WU* nB tQ UA dD nB ndF
OK dG UA dD nB l U 5 u UL 5KUL 5 5 WO
UA WDd
dD nB s
ULKF b uI wKL UO t c

WDd u
UA dD nB

UI bMF WuL* pK w qH v vK s UMKI bu WuL* d UMF c r dOG

vK UNU uJ bb WOz Uu WU{ WO U Ob n WLO e bu WuL* w qH v
c r w U v R U2 uM s WOU) UdJ bU q uM l UNUdJ U&
qJA k bu WuL* w vK v UMKI U qI c r uI sJ1 pc

b

WuL*

b b' w WKL* d UMFK c dD dOG qO9 qJA

 U
UNL V U bUB WO d UMF V b b' w UNFu vK UL
Br ,

35

53

I , 9F ,

Cl

17

q
`OB VOd S c WFU WuL* w UNFOL Ub$ d UMF c lu v dEMU
u c r(
I > Br > Cl > F

b$ WOU b?? d UM v dEMU U C bu b?? w UNFu V c?? r dOG pc

v p?? uF p?? V UL F uKH v?? Li uOOK s qIM 5 U Ob qI c?? r
WUFH WuM WMA vK b?? bLF c UdJ uM c b vK bLF c?? r
U dJ UN dFA w WOKFH uM WM UN vK UNHdF sJ1 w (Effective Nuclear Charge)
c pK w
WOKb UdJ UOI WO Uud b uM WM s q WUFH WMA d c V
WMOF WUF V wMF* dJ s WMA pK V
UdJ _ U C uM WM WLO e pc bu b w U MO1 t 5 c bF be
uM c e wUU U C e uMK WUFH WMA S pc dO UNCF V% bu u*
sU oU qJA 5 bu b w 5LO U&U U c r qI RUJ UdJ
WHK* b s q w 5LO v UI 5 c r

 U
c r V WO d UMF V b b' v udU
P , N , K , Mg

q
wMF c Mg r s d Na r Na r s d K r
ULN_ P r s d Mg r S pc Mg r s d K r
r U P r s d Mg r 5LO v dO_ b w
r WuL* fH w N qH lI P _ N r s d wN P
V U bUB WIU d UMF VOd uJ o U vK UMN r s d P
wQ UL c r
N < P < Mg < K

sQ WU
WUD s v_ b( vK oK b WUFH uM WM l U d VUM uI uMU dJ jd
dF dBMF pc v_ sQ WUD dI* WeF* WUG UNU w dO_ c dJ qBH W
uOUu WU w UL uu uKO
bu UNM
K(g) + 419KJ/mol K

+ e (g)
(g)

b b' d UM iF v_ sQ WU rO qJA 5

IA

VIIIA
IIA

IIIA

IVA

VA

VIA

VIIA

VIIIB
IIIB

IVB

VB

VIB

VIIB

IB

IIB
35

Br

1140

80

Hg
1007

b b' d UM iF v_ sQ UU rO qJA

 qJA vK qB b b' d UMF c bF v_ sQ WU 5 WF qO9 bM

1

uu uKO v_ sQ WU

b

c bF

b b' d UMF c bF v_ sQ WU 5 WF qJA

w qH v vK s U& bM U qI v_ sQ WU U qJA qJA s 5

p dOH sJ1 nOJ bu b w 5LO v UO s U&U e ULMO bu WuL*
U u qI wUU c r( w U bu WuL* w qH v vK s U& VUB
WU U U sQ WU qI wUU dJ e WU qI dBMF u dO_ u* dJ 5
r( UBI pc WUFH uM WM U t bu b w 5LO v UO s UIU sQ
uM v dO_ u* dJ U& u U v RU2
WU s q 8O 5 _ sQ WUD u c* Wb s c k qJA s sJ
c V UL 5dOMK WUFH uM WM s d 5  WUFH uM WM s rdU 7N sQ
b d sQ WU dOG w cA
vKL* wdH u* vK hM w pKH U bUI vL U l{ - cA c dOH
u s dJ e wCI 7N 5dOM sQ S tOK dO s U U d
uJ vKL* nB
O 5 _ 5Q U d WU v U wUU (p2) U U q `BO (p3) TK2 nB wd

wUU (p3) U U d WU v u u v R (p4) U U q wd u s dJ e wCIO

5dOM sQ WU s q 5 _ sQ WUD

 sQ WU YO qJA w tE d c UM
sQ WU rO w u c* cA
q u?? c* W?? K_ v?? K d?? BI
S P w Al Mg w qB

e wCI Be sQ v p eF B sQ WU s d Be
s d WU v U c wKL* 2s wdH u* s dJ
2s s WU vK_ 2p s dH dJ e

U OzUdN WUF* dBMF s WU vK_ dO_ dJ eM oKF v_ sQ WU Ud
dJ eM W WUD bF
YO rF u' bu c s YU U dJ e sJ1 qN
WUD wN YU sQ WU U U sQ WU WUG UNU w Wu* WuA* c s dO_
UM dO l dJ e U MJ2 uJ b cJ WuA* c s dO_ dJ eM W
b' s p 5 UL WHK bu dBMFK YU wU _ sQ UU S tOK

uu uKO dUMF iF WF_ sQ UU rO

b

ld sQ WU YU sQ WU wU sQ WU _ sQ WU wdJ lu dBMF

[He] 2s
[He] 2s
[He] 2s 2p
2

Li

Be
1

WU w t_ p dBMF fHM _ sQ WU s d bu dBMFK wU sQ WU k
sQ WU w UNM d WU VKD U2 WMA Vu u s WMA VU dJ eM uI wU sQ
tA WU v wdJ tO d w q b dJ tM eMO c u_ U WUF _
L dO qJA lHd u_ pc wU sQ WU S qOM UG
_ U bUI

U
UNc _ sQ WU WLO V U bUB WO d UMF V b b' v dEMU
F , Na , Mg
Na < Mg < F

q

_ sQ WU l WUI uK qJA 3Li c wU sQ WU UH d R

jI  WOdJ WH_
wU{ dJ WUF dI WeF WU U WOKLF WUB* WUD UNQ WOdJ WH_ dF
]
uKJ w UL uu uKO bu WUG WU( w VU u suJ WUG WU( w
Cl(g) + e-(g) Cl-(g) + 349 KJ/mol

UL WJ uJb u u uKO H 5 _ WU w UL uIH WUD c uJ b

dJ U& u s q vK WOdJ WH_ U bLF uu uOK H uOOMG* WU w
WOdJ WH_ uJ WOU d H WLO XU ULK d_ UdJ l dUM u uM l UC*
b' sF9 WCHM WOdJ WH_ XU Wu WOU q H WLO XU vK

uu uKO H WKLL dUMFK WOdJ WH_ WLO

VIIA

VIA

VA

IVA

IIIA

IIA

b
IA
H

b

Be

Li

dH

Cl

Si

Al

Mg

Na

Br

Se

As

Ge

Ga

Ca

Te

Sb

Sn

In

Sr

Rb

YO n wLJ bF WUFH WMA s q vK sQ WU w U( u UL WOdJ WH_ bLF

s UI S tOK WUFH WMA Ue e n wLJ bF Ue qJA WOdJ WH_ qI
v UO s UI S pc WOdJ WH_ w hUM v R bu WuL* w qH v vK
WOdJ WH_ w U v R bu b w 5LO
dOG t WOdJ WH_ YO 5dOM WU w UL buI c s cA U UM pc
TK2 nB wd u w qb tKF& c cN dJ WU{ _ p
dUM s be c
F r _ Cl c UNM q F c WOdJ WH_ WLO S pc WOdJ WH_ s qKI
_

Cl s q F c WOdJ WH_ uJ "UM F u_ w UdJ dUM v R U2 b dOG

WOU b d UMF WUI WU b d UM lOL vK p oDM WFu* Wb fJ c

F O N Se S WOdJ UNH V WO V b' vK UL R

WOUdNJ
bUu WDd w W
UA* UdJ c vK e w U bI UNQ WOUdNJ dF
]
c w WD w W UA* d UMF c WOM bI nB Zb d UMFK WOUdNJ s dOF WO U U XOD d UMF wU WOUdNJ w r vK uKH wD b UA UdJ
e bu WuL* w qH v vK s UIU qI WOUdNJ S U qJA uKH v
r w p V qJA w k UL bu b w 5LO v UO s UIU
UNL q ULK UNOUdN be YO U IU 5* c
WOUdNJ b w WKOM d UMF uN b V U R

IA

IIA

IIIA

IVA

VA

VIA

VIIA

VIIIB
IIIB

IVB

VB

VIB

VIIB

IB

IIB
35

Br
2.8

80

Hg
1.9

d UMF iF WOUdNJ WOM rOI qJA

WeK WeKH UHB

eK U WeK WeK d UM v WOzUeOH UNBzUB vK UM b b' d UM nM] B
UNOKU eKH UFLK v WU{ d( wzUdNJ qO u u UNM UHB eKH nB
vK Ue qJ vK U bu eK U suJ V `zUH suJ dDK
eKH U U UF w UdNJK WK u dO V dDK WKU dO c s dO UFL& qJ
O u UN Q eOL eK eKH 5 WDu hzUB UNK
qF U2 wzUdNJ UOK U HOF{
iF dF uOUd' uJKO `zd WUM q WbI* UOuuMJ w b WLN UIOD UN
w UAM dS r eK eKH hzUB

eK eKH sO WUIL

UA
_ uL

fLA uOOMG uu Xd ud

qLF uD
wC od UM U U k dBM q s dOG WFD jA
U OzUdN dBM q qO u b h WDO WOzUdN V
fLA W d b vK q d UMF c s dBM q s dOG WOL d
pUE q d s W&UM d U*U WKK*
WbU UbOU UdNJK qO u bO wC od UN w d UMF vL U 
dOQ WOCL UbOU UdNJK qO u W wC od UN fO w d UMF vL U 
eK eK v WIU d UMF nM 

v vK s bu WuL* w UMN& ULKJ b b' w W WH WeKH UHB cQ

WeKH UHB XK bu b w 5LO v UO s UMN& ULK pc WeKH UHB qH
UL 5bON v WU{ b b' s vMLO We vK w uB WeK d UMF b$ UMS c
j) vK (AtPoTeSbAsGeSiB) w eKH U lI qJA w U IU `{u u
eKH u s wN b b' d UM wU U eK eKH 5 q UH b*

U
nM
b b' w tFu vK UM eK t eK eK tu YO s WO d UMF s
Si P Cl B Cu Na

q
Na Cu eK
P Cl eK
Si B eK U

WOu_ U dL suJ eK eKH sO UH

qO9 WCHM* sQ WU d UMFU WOdJ WH_ sQ WU w b b' d UM nK
VJ qOL WOUF WOdJ WH_ d UMF U Vu u suJ WO WuN UdJ bIH
WFHd WOdJ tH eK l WCHM tMQ WU eK qUI S VU u suJ WuN UdJ
suJ uKJ l uuB qUH w U( u UL wu V d p s ZM U% qUH ULNMO b
WOu U d suJ eK l qUHK qO9 eKH Q uI sJ1 tOK uuB buK
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)

b bI0 Wu UM VJ UNO dO_ u* UdJ bIH U U U WKL* d UMF eK

L We qu bF
u b U dJ UNUH w uOUu bIH
uIH* UdJ
eK UVu wzUM u v u 5dJ bIH uOUJ U Vu U u v
qOM dBMF lu v wdJ_ UNFu qBO  bF U UdJ s b VJ U U UG
b R qu bF

tU d w uOML_ WM w U R

IA 5uL* d UMF WKL* d UMF Uu_ WFu* WMAU RMK b b' b sJ1
qOM dBMF lu v qB RUJ UdJ lOL d IIIA WuL* s uOM*_ v WU{ IIA
eK qIMO W uD) b s UNdF sJ1 eK s lu* VU u_ WM S U qJA
L WKOM d UMF lu v qB v U MO1 tFu s
WU WuL* w uu* 5 _ dBM U
b' 5 WOu_ U d* w tM uJ wUU WKOM d UMF lu v qBO U MO1 5uD v
WKL* d UMF iF Uu vK WK

WKLL dUMF iF Uu vK WK

IA
+
Li
+
Na
+
K
+
Rb
+
Cs

IIA
2+
Be
2+
Mg
2+
Ca
2+
Sr
2+
Ba

IIIA
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C C

ULO jd seM e' wb qJAK wKJO qO9 qJA

u l bUF b dJ vK u bF jd w udJ tb r c p pK U

tuL U vK qBM WD U uJ VM' U M U p pK l qb tS wb qJA
qJA u X% u UdJ s edL dO WU WU{ qJA WIK( w u s j
qJA w `{uu UL wb
H

H
C

H
C

T UJ

C H

H C
C
H

C H

H C

C
H

wb qJA u X% u UdJ s WOdJ WU suJ WIK( u l bUF* p qb qJA

seM UIA WOL

w UEM UNM rJ Ud WuCF Ud* WOL  d b UM

e bF seM WIK vL q u WOU_ UudbON WuLL UF r

qOMO WuL UNM sObO

ph

C6H5
1

CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3

UuO qOMO 1

qJA c w s q qL YO wuJO wGO bS WOIK WGOBU U seM s dF

U UL W UJ U_ c lOL sObO ud wb

wuJO mO

WOIK( WGOB

seM r o WOb WuLL r vK b lDI b seM UIA WOL

NO2

seMdO

Br

Cl

seM u

seMud

seMuK

WbL WuLL r vK b WFzU WU UL UN seM UIA iF

COOH

OH

NH2

seM wud
peM iL

seM wbO
uMO

CH3

seM uMO
sOKO

seM qOO
suu

UA WuLL r q wzUM WLK VJO seM WIK UKUL UuL XKB

bOF U UO Vd U u lUILU (1, 2, 3, 4) U _U U UNF u v

wQ UL qUI U
Br

Br

Br

Br

seMud wzUM 41
seMud wzUMU

Br

seMud wzUM31
seMud wzUMUO

Br
2
3

seMud wzUM21
seMud wzUMu

  suu uMOH eK U rU ULNM jd UHK UuL b

seMU r wNM WeOK UNzUL_ b_ VOd V lUU sOuLL wL UMS

UU b_ VOd V rO d Wu Ud l lUILU U _U U l uL UO l
wQ UL d_ WuLLK d _
I
5

NO2

3
3

4
5

Br
seMu 4 ud 1

seMuudU

Cl

seMdO 3 uK1
seMdOuKUO

U) r s oA tQ Vd* vLO U U U L eK wDF 5uL* b XU U

wQ UL U) r wDF w WuL* s rO d b vK
CH3
1
6
5

OH
NO2

2
3

Br

suudO2
suudOu

uMO ud4
uMO udU

UuLL U uL cQ vK rO d uJO sOuL s d seM WIK XKB

rO d Wu uJ WN s d w rO d uL U WU w uL q UdH

b?? WuLL dJ UNFOL UuLL iF XU b_ VOd V
UNzUL_ b_ VOd V UuLL wL dO wU w wzUM lDIL b
p `{u WO WK_ U _U UNF u UO l WeOK
Br

Br
NO2

1
6

NO2

seMdO wzUM 4 2 ud 1

Br

1
2
3
4

Br

seMud w4 2 1

Cl
Cl

Br

4
5

2
1

NO2

NO2

2
3

NO2

seMdO 1 uK 4 ud 2

seMdO wzUM 4 2 uK 1

NO2

NO2

Br

seMdO 2 uK 1 ud 4

NO2

Cl

Br
1

Cl

Br

NO2
2

seMdO 5 uK 3 ud 1

3

1
6

1
2

Cl

Cl

Br

1
6

seMdO 2 uK 4 ud 1

seMdO 2 uK 3 ud 1

b WU) WuL* Q Vd* r oA uu U U U L wDF w UuL* XU U

q _ U _ uL wDF c U& Ud l r l u* c

Br

NH2

OH

2
3

Br

6
5

Cl

1
2
4

Br

CH3

O2N

6
5

NO2

2
3

Br

uMO uK 5 ud 3

5KO ud w642

suudO wzUM62

U
WO UdLK WOzUM WGOB V
5KO qOO 2
5KO qOO u

uMO dO wzUM 42

suu ud 4
suuudU

Ud qOMO 1 ? 5KO uK2ud4

q
NH2
6
5

1
4

2
3

OH
CH3

6
5

1
4

2
3

CH3

NO2

6
5

2
3

Br

NO2

NH2
1

CH2 CH2 CH3

6
5

1
4

Cl
2
3

Br

seM dOC
wQ UL WOU_ Ud* WOUHO_ Ud* s seM dOC% sJ1
WOUHO_ UdL s seM dOC

U s seM dOC% w b UNM U b dD WOUHO_ Ud* s seM dC

UG d bM p seM s b e suJ 5KO_ U s Ue W b YO5KO_
VUM UH vK u% Wb WMU VOU w
3H-C C-H

UH

5KO

C6 H 6
seM

WOU_ UdL s seMdOC

mL s UNOK uB( r w uuB eM s qOudJ WuL c WId UNM

seM vK qB uuB bObO l UNMO bM seM
C6H5COONa + NaOH

C6H6 + Na2CO3

seMK wU_ b UH
w wKO dJ wU_ UH w WOU_ WIKK WMU U uO UH d
w UH cN eOL* WL WIK( w 5bON s c WuL b sLC
UdJ oAF d qUH* sJLO WIK( vK WOdJ WUC V UdJU WOM seM WIK
b ULO WD WOIK( udJ b l uJ
udJ 5 () WD s
= wKO dJ
WMH K  Wd M u K J
c UH WK s UNb r w 5bON
WK J  _

Cl
+

Cl2

FeCl3

+ HCl

u K 

NO2
+ HNO3

H2SO4

+ H 2O

ed

Wd

SO3H
+ H2SO4

SO3,

+ H 2O

WMH K

CH2CH3
AlCl3

+ CH3CH2Cl

+ HCl

WK J 

WOU_ WIK( WFO uKD* qUH u V nK UH( u qUH d k* s

VKD V d 5bON s b b qUH c w rJ UJU

U
WO UF* qL
FeBr3

1)

+ Br2

2)

+ CH3Cl

AlCl3

Br
1)

+ Br2

FeBr3

q
+ HBr
CH3

2)

+ CH3Cl

AlCl3

+ HCl

WOHOu UuLL
WIA d WLN U UM WKd* c w dF WOU_ WOudbON Ud* X bF
s WIK WuH WKK vK 5bO UJ WuL U UudbON s
WOzUeOH u) w dR WuL vK UNzu vK wM zU v Ud* nOMB dcU db'
WOHOu WuL* vL uCF VdLK WOzUOLOJ

UMO_ d??? uMOH u???J? bOUN ??zU??F? c?? iF vK WK_ s??

UNUIA WOKOudJ uL( UuOJ bOb_

bO?UN
dO WFOD w uu WO UN l d 5uU vK u% WuC Ud w
nOEM q bF WOIOD Ub UNM bbFK b YO U& UD vK U d dOC% r UNM
UdO WdA( bO* U'

WuN p WdOC WuCF UOLOJ w U_ d q_ bOU qOJ_ bOU bF

bOUN d s buO bOd buKJ bF

Ud* s d UuL v UNKu%

u s rd vK ULF U wN buKH U WuCF dOC w U b Ud U uO

WFzUA buKH bb Ud* s iF

qOJ_ bOU
WUF WGOB tO 5bON bS 5uU b - lA udbO s U u
q qOJ WuL v ed R 5uU v ed X YO RX w t
CH3 CH CH3

CH3 CH2 CH2 I

CH3 CH2 Br

CH3 Cl

Cl

5-1 s WOKOJ_ UNuL u% w pK d{U( X u w U b qOJ_ bOU d

UN c cN b% w pK tUH dN S 5uUN vK qOJ_ bOU u V ud
WuCF Ud* s WKzUF cN WOHOu WuL* dF

qOJ_ bOU WOL nOMB

wU UUJ_ w udJ nM B
UOL w udJ

e' w b ud c qB w udJ w (1) WO_ udJ

e' w ud wc qB w udJ w (2) WuU udJ

e' w ud qB w udJ w (3) W?OU udJ

WKB* udJ V WIdD fHM nMB 5bO q S 5bON c WMU U

wQ UL UN
3 H

2 H

H H H

1 C

H C C C H
H

3C

qOO H

1 C

H H H

H C C C H
1 H

H C H
1 H

H H H

H C H

H
H

qOO C

2 C

v 5uUN UN qB w udJ uM U I U C nMB UNS qOJ_ bOU WU w

WOU qOJ bOU WuU qOJ bOU WO qOJ bOU qOO bOU
R

R C X

R C X

R C X

H C X

1 w qOJ bOU

qOO bOU
qOJ_ bOU u j

3 wU qOJ bOU

2 uU qOJ bOU

b' 5 YO WFzUA UL_ WId Uu_ WId UL qOJ_ bOU WOL UId UM
qOJ bOU iF Uu_ UL

Uu_ WIdD qOJ_ bOU WOL vK WK

Uu r
UOuK

WOzUM WGOB
CH3Cl

UOud

CH3Br

U uK

CH3CH2Cl

UduK1

CH3CH2CH2Cl

Ud u2

CH3CHCH3

I
CH3

2 1

CH3CCH3

Ud qOO2uK2

Cl

UMuK4ud2

Br
1

Cl
3

CH3CHCH2CHCH3
Cl Cl
1

UuO qOO3uK wzUM21

CH3
1

UuOud wzUM32

CH2CHCHCH3

CH3CHCHCH3
Br Br
Cl
1

UduK wzUM22

2 3

CH3CCH3
Cl
Br

UJuKJUud

 U
WO Ud* s qJ Uu_ r V
CH3 CH3

CH3

CH CH2 CH3

CH3

CH3 CH2 CH CH2 Br

Cl
CH3

Cl
1

CH3

CH2 CH3

CH3 CH

Cl

CH3

CH

CH

CH3

Br

q
UM qOO wzUM3 2uK2

UuO qOO2ud1

UuOuK wzUM2 2

UM qOO wzUM4 2ud3 ?

qOJ_ bOUN WOzUe?OH u 

w udJ b Ue qOJ_ bOU UOK W e UNu 5uUN b U bM

Uc* w c UNMJ WOb* UNOD V WKOK U* w UNOz WLOI WdH XU u WKK
seM d WuCF
qOJ bOU dOC
W ZMO 5bON bOU uK l uJ WKUF w qOJ_ bOU dOC% d dN s
WO WUF* w `{u u UL qOJ_ bOU s WOU
CH3CH CH3 + HBr

CH3CH CH3 + H2O

OH

Br

uUd 2

Udud2

qOJ_ bOUN WOzUOLOJ u 

UH UdN s WHK UH w qOJ_ bOU qb
bOU e iL eK l qOJ_ bOU WKUF bMF c( e
WO WUF* w 5 u UL qUI* UJ_ U qOJ_

w?? CCl 4 CHCl 3 U?? d*

W?? O U?? U?? N uN?? A U?? c
U{
1

CH3CHCH2CH3

Zn/HCl

CH3CH2CH2CH3

Br
UuOud2

UuO

5J_ ZM HX e c r wuJ uOUu bObO l qOJ_ bOU WKUF bM U

WO WUF* w UL dUM*
CH3CH CH3

KOH,
u

CH3CH=CH2

Br

WO UdL s q dOC pMJL nO R

UMud2 s UM

uUuO2 s UuO uK2

UuOud1 s 5uO1 ?

q_ bOU
ArX WUF UNGO WOU WIK dU WKB 5uU vK q_ bOU Ud u%
qOMO WuL WIA q WuL Ar YO
F

Cl

Br

seMuK

seMuK

seMud

seMu

qOJ_ bOUN WUI qUH WKOK q_ bOU

uJ
WuH WKK uJ b qOJ WuL R YO (R-OH) WUF WGOB UN Ud uJ
WO Ud* w 5 u UL WOIK
1

CH3

CH3

OH

CH3

OH

uUd2qOO2
CH2OH

uUO qOMO

uUJuKJU
1

CH2

CH2

CH2

CH

CH2

OH

Cl

OH

OH

OH

uU uK2

dOK Ud wbO w321

 uMO vL Vd* S WOU_ WIK(U dU qObON WuL XKB

k UL
U 5 u UL UM WF v qObON WuL0 WKB* udJ c U F uJ nMB U I
R

R C OH

R C OH

R C OH

H C OH

3 wU u

H
H

2 uU u

1 w u

qOO u
uJ u j

uJ WOL
w uM vK Uu_ UE UNM UM WHK dD uJ vL
lDIL W U{ l WOKObON WuLL vK u WKB WOud WKK u UO r

qUIL UJ_ r v ol
sJL r q cQ YO _ WKK w qObON WuL l u v U _U UA

_ WKKU WKBL d_ WOHOu UuLL l u v U _U UA

CH3CH2CH2-OH

CH3CH-CH2-Br

CH2CH2-OH

OH

uUd1

uUd2ud1

uU1qOMO 2

CH3

CH3-C-CH2OH
CH3

CH3

CH3 CH3

CH

CH3

OH

uUd1qOO wzUM22

uUuO2qOO wzUM32

 U
WO Ud* s qJ Uu_ r V
4

CH3

CH3

CH CH3

CH3

CH3 CH

CH3 OH

CH CH3

OH
1

Cl CH2 CH CH3

OH

q
uUuO2qOO wzUM3 3

uUuO2qOO3
uUd2uK1 ?

uJK WOzUeOH u 
ULK W
 WuL R qOJ_ WuL w ULK WU WuL vK uJ e qLA
WuLL uJK WOzUeOH u) w ULNM q dR -OH qObON WuL w
qJA dE wMObO jd suJ v e' WOD U v R qObON
H
O H
R

H
O H

O
H

O
R

U* Ue uJ Ue 5 UNH uJ Ue 5 wMObON jd qJA

U* w tOz U v uJ UOK W w w UH v R wMObON jd

U C uJK WOzUeOH UHB w dR UNKJ UNL S qOJ_ WuL U WODI Uc*
WODI WHB dOQ S pc uJ UOK W lHd qOJ_ WuL w udJ b ULKJ
WODI Uc* U* w uJ WOz s qKI U2 udJ b Ue UC wMObON jd
b' k WODI dO Uc* w UNOz s be

jI  uJ iF WOzUeOH u 

UL w WOzc

Uu r

WOzUM WGOB

rr

UOKG W

uUO

CH3OH

uU

CH3CH2OH

uUd1

CH3CH2CH2OH

uUd2

OH
4

uUuO1

CH3CHCH2CH3

uUuO2

OH
2

CH3CH CH2OH

uUd1qOO2

CH3
3

CH3CH2CH2CH2OH

CH3CHCH3

CH3

CH3

uUd2qOO2

CH3

OH

dD b s UdJ??  dL bF

U??  UNb?? w WOzUOLOJ

uU dOC% w b e
d_ uJ

uJ dOC
UNM uJ dOC WHK WOzUOLO UH UM

V qUH c d UH iL uu UMOJ_ v UL UC UMOJ UL WU{

u UL H s d b qL w udJ l H qB YO uJOM uU bU
CH3
1
2
C CH2
3
CH3
5d1qOO2

H2O/H

CH3

CH3

WUFL w sO
1

CH3

OH
uUd2qOO2

UuOJ bOb_ e
O

R C H

R C R

bOb

uO

tKUF bF W U{ "U S NaBH4 LiAlH4 q e qU l Ud* c b WKUF bM

u uJ wzU* iL( uK0

O
LiAlH4

R C H

H3O

RCH2OH

NaBH4

bOb

w u

O
R C R

LiAlH4

H3O

R C OH

NaBH4

uO

H
uU u

O
CH3 C H
UU
bObUO

LiAlH4

H3O

uU

O
CH3 C CH3

CH3CH2OH

NaBH4

LiAlH4

H3O

NaBH4

uUd 2
uO

CH3CHCH3
OH
uUd2

WbNU wu vK WuU WO_ uJ v UuOJ bOb_ e sJ1 pc

WO UF* w UL H2 Ni WeH(
O
CH3CH2CH2 C H + H2

OH
Ni

CH3CH2CH2 C H
H
uUuO 1

UUuO
O

e??  H2/Ni
e??  NaBH4 LiAlH4 U?? LMO
C C

WuL

O
CH3CH2 C CH3 + H2

OH
Ni

CH3CH2 C CH3
H

uUuO2

uUuO2

  dOC pMJL nO R

WO s
5M1 s uUM2

UUuO 1 s uUuO1

uJ UH
w iL dB uJU (-OH) qObON WuL uu dE WdOuH UH uJ pK1
wCL( ju w bUI dB 5_U WKB WOCL 5bO uu dE bUI ju
qUH UNMJ1 uJ S pc 5D dO UdJ w vK u% w 5_ uu dE
w uM vK UbQ vK uL buI

buI uJ UH
UNK s
bOU U 5bON bOU l WuN uJ qUH sObON bOU l qUH

U* qOJ_
OH
5

Br
1

CH3CH2CH2CH CH3 + HBr(aq) CH3CH2CH2CH CH3 + H2O

uUM2

CH3

CH3

UMud2

CH3

CH3 + HCl(aq)CH3

CH3 + H2O

OH

Cl

uUd2qOO2

Ud qOO2uK2

5 c( WOKL d& U* e c od s 5J v uJ qu% r UL c

U `{u u UL b 5J s d ZM sJ1 puHuH pOdJ iL l uJ
1

CH3CHCH2CH3

H2SO4

CH3CH=CHCH3 + CH3CH2CH = CH2 + H2O

OH
uUuO2

5uO2
wOz "U

5uO1
wd "U

uL uJ UH U OU
eKH l UNKUF bM uJK WOCL( u) dNE YO WuKI eKH l uJ qUH
5bON U bUB eKH bOu uJO WuKI
2CH3CH2OH (aq) + 2Na(s)2CH3CH2O Na (aq) + H2(g)
_

uU

uuB bOu

UNK s b _ U U
sU (II) UM bO vK U d 5 w_ uJ bQ WO_ uJ b 
WO WUF* w UL bOb_ U uJ CuO(S)

O
3

CH3CH2CH2OH + CuO(s)

CH3CH2 C H + H2O + Cu(s)

uUd1

UUd

U wCL j?? w UdJb U?? MGMdO u?? K l tKUH0 w?? _ u?? J b?? Q
WO WUF* w UL wKOudJ iL(
3

CH3CH2CH2OH

KMnO4
H+

uUd1

CH3CH2-COOH
puUd iL

KMnO4 K2Cr2O7 uK l UNKUH0 U C WuU uJ bQ WuU uJ b 

WO WUF* w 5 u UL WU( c w uOJ uJ wCL j w

CH3CHCH3
OH
uUd2

K2Cr2O7
H+

CH3 C CH3
O
uUd 2

 U
WO UF* qL
1)

CH3CH CH3

H2SO4

OH
K2Cr2O7

2)

CH3CH2OH

3)

CH3CH CH2CH3

H+
KMnO4
H+

OH

q
1)

CH3CH CH3

H2SO4

CH3CH

CH2 + H2O

OH
K2Cr2O7

2)

CH3CH2OH

3)

CH3CH CH2CH3

CH3COOH

H+
KMnO4
H+

CH3C CH2CH3
O

OH

d_
U vL d_ WOL Ar-O-Ar R-O-Ar R-O-R WUF WOe' UNGO Ud d_
s qN d_ WOL w WIdD c dF YO d WLK ULNF 5_ c UKB* UuL*
Uu_ WId
H

CH3-C-O-C-CH3

CH3-O-CH3

CH3 CH3
d qOO wzUM

d qOde wzUM

O-CH3
d qOO qOMO

CH3
CH3-O-C-CH3
CH3
d qOO qOuOw

d qOO qOMO uN d q qOJ j U

 UL d_ UuM fH s 5IUD UuL* XU

q
b??  d?? q?? O w?? zUM
v R?? u?? N U?? b?? L
vK dOQ W?? O wu b?? I
YO ed* wBF U?? N'
tUA iH

CH3CH2-O-CH2CH3
d qO wzUM

q qUL dO d_ U 5HK UuL* XU U

CH3-O-CH2-CH3
d qOO qO

uMOH
qOMO WuL WIA qOMO WuL Ar YO Ar-OH WUF WOe' WGOB UN Ud uMOH
WIK(U dU WKB qObON WuL Q uJ s uMOH nK q UuL b
qObON WU w WOU_
OH

OH

OH

Cl

Br

uMO ud 4

uMO uK 2

uMO ud U

uMO uKu

uMO

UMO_
s UIA Ud* c bF
jI 5dOM 5bON udJ vK qLA Ud UMO_

d 5bO c q qOJ WuL b s X UOu_

ArNH2 , R3N , R2NH , RNH2

q WuL Ar qOJ WuL R YO

UuL* b?? F U I p W?? OU UMO W?? uU UMO W?? O UMO v??  U?? MO_ n?? MB
WO WK_ w `{u u UL 5dOM c WKB*
N-CH3
CH3

CH3-N-CH3

CH3NH2

H
2

WOU WuU WO v WO UMO_ nM R

N-CH3

CH3-N-CH3

NH2

CH3

WO_ UMO_ WOL

r q Q sO_ WuL l u b YO Uu_ UEM U I WO_ WOUHO_ UMO_ vL

UJ_ r WUN v sO WLK UC

1

CH3CHCH2CH3

W?? uL U?? W?? U w??

CH3-CH2-NH2

NH2

UMS U dH -NH2 5?? 

uMO r UNOK oKD

5 UuO2
UuOuMO2

5 U

WU WHB vL UNS WOU_ WIKU dU sOdOM jd UNO WOU_ UMO_ U

U U U L vDF tS sOKO qOOL U sOKO_ WDO WOU_ UMO_ s UIA UNQ

(Toluidine) sbuu u
NH2

NH2

NH2

CH3
CH3
5KO qOO 3
sbuu UO

5KO qOO 4
sbuu U

5KO

U
WO Ud* s qJ WOzUM WGOB V
5KOud w642

uMO uMO U uMO uMO 4

5 UJ3qOO5 ?

q
1

NH2

CH3

NH2
Br

CH3 CH2 CH CH2 CH CH3

Br

OH
Br

NH2

UuOJ bOb_
WuCF Ud* s WuL v UuOJ bOb_ wLM

qLF??  H C H b?? ObUuH

WE U UL dNDL qu s c?? M
WOuuO ULMK

YO Carbonyl Compounds qOudJ Ud vL WOMO_

qOudJ WuLdI C O qOudJ WuL vK u%
UuOJ bOb_ UOLO U

q WuL qOJ WuL H U R YO R C H WUF WGOB bOb_ cQ

W??UF WG?OB cQ UuOJ U
O
U w WOFOD u* s d?? OJ
5 s??  U?? uO b?? Ob s??
WHK* WLF_ UNJ u?? * c
`zd OUH W?? dI uK q
UMOUOH iF u UJ WdDF
UdO

dE q?? WuL qOJ WuL R YO R C R

w C u??d??J? O 5_ w?? 5?? WOKdNJ rO ???
YO WOD uJ WuL* c w WOzUM WDd S qOudJ WuL
_

WOze WM udJ ( ) WU WOze WM 5_ qL%

_

C O
+

w qJA w `{u u UL (+) Wu

qOud WuL

Wu* WMA oAF WuL uN W{d uJ WuL* c w udJ S pc

qOudJ WuL u V UNu rEF w UuOJ bOb_ 5 dO tUA UM WOKO uOKuO
WuL qB ULMO bOb_ w qOudJ WuL0 WKB 5bO u V UHK ULN
U Oz dOQ UuOJ bOb WOzUM WGOB w dH c dR qOJ WuL0 UuOJ w qOudJ
w uM vK
WuFB UuOJ bQ ULMO WuN WOKOudJ uL v bOb_ bQ
eOLL WOKO uOKuOM W U{ UH w WU UuOJ s U OzUOLO U UA d bOb_

WOKOudJ UdLK

UuOJ bOb_ WOL

bOb_ WOL

qUI* UJ_ v lDI* W U{S p Uu_ UE b sJ1 bOb_ WOL bM

O

CH3CH2CH2 C H

CH3CH2 C H

UUuO

UUd

O
CH3

C H

UU

O
H C H

bObUu UUO

 U
WO Ud* s qJ Uu_ r V
O
4

CH3 O

CH3CHCH2 C H

CH3CH

C H

NH2

q

UUuOuMO3

UUd qOO2

WO Ud* s qJ Uu_ r V R

O

CH3CH C H ?

CH3

CH3CH2CH2CH C H

Br

CH3CCH2CH2 C H

CH2CH3

CH3

UuOJ WOL
c dG_ r d UD l UJ_ v lDI* UC YO Uu_ UEM UuOJ WOL sJ1
q qOudJ WuL w udJ
O
3

CH3 C CH3
uO uUd 2

U
WO WuCF Ud* s qJ Uu_ r V
6

CH3 O

O
2

CH3CH2CH C CH2CH3

CH3CH2 C CH3

q
uUJ3qOO4

uUuO2

WO WuCF Ud* s qJ Uu_ r V R

O
CH3CH2 C CH2CH3 ?

CH3CH2CH2 C CHCH3 CH3CH C CH3

CH3

Br

UuOJ bOb WOzUeOH u 

wQ U0 Ud* cN WOzUeOH u) hOK sJ1
UNUe sO wMObO jd u bF dE WCHM UOK U UuOJ bOb

b k

jI  WOzUeOH UNBzUB iF UuOJ bOb_ iF

UL w WOzc

UOKG W

rr

UUO

UU

UUd

UUuO

Uu_ r

wzUM VOd
O
H

O
CH3 C H
O
CH3CH2 C H
O
CH3CH2CH2 C H
O
CH

UUO qOMO

uUd 2

uUuO 2

uUM 2

CH3 C CH2CH2CH3

uUM 3

uUJ uKJU

O
3

CH3 C CH3
O
1

CH3 C CH2CH3
O
1

O
2

CH3CH2 C CH2CH3
=O

U uu dE uJ UL w WuI Wb dOGB UuOJ bOb_ c??

UuOJ bOb_ U VcL sObO sO VdL sO sO wMObO

qJA dE UL w c WKuD WOudJ q
C = O ........ H O

C = O ........ H O
H

qOudJ WuL* WFU 5_ l U* Ue uJ Ue s q  5 wMObON jd qJA

UuOJ bOb_ dOC d

UF* U IU pF d
UL WuU WO_ uJ b od s UuOJ bOb_ dC %
p `{u WO
O
4

CH3CH2CH C H

CH3CH2CH2CH2OH + CuO(s)
uUuO1

UUuO

CH2OH + CuO(s)

CH

uUO qOMO

UUO qOMO

CH3CHCH2CH3

KMnO4
H

CH3 C CH2CH3

OH

O
uUuO2

uUuO2

OH

K2Cr2O7
H

uUJuKJU

=O
uUJuKJU

WO Ud* s q dOC% 5 WOzUOLO WUF V R

uU s UU

uUM3 s uUM3

UuOJ bOb_ UH
b U UH s WOKU U UA WuCF WOHOu UuL* d s qOudJ WuL bF

c w UMM Vd* w uu* d_ UuL* vK b U UNM UNH qOudJ WuL vK

nAJ w bOH* UH v W U{ WOKOudJ uL( uJ suJ W t U UH
wQ U UH c sUeOO9 UuOJ bOb_ s
UuOJ fJ vK WKUI* WOKOudJ uL( WuJ WuN bOb_ bQ b Q?

eOOLK c b_ WOKL b c WHOFC bR* quF qFH WuN bQ w
qOudJ WuL0 WDd 5bO u v V ld UuOJ bOb_ 5
WOuOJ qOudJ WuL w Uu b WbOb_
YO UuOJ b?? Ob_ 5 eOOLK dD q?? C s (Tollen's Reagent) e?? Mu n?? U bF

r nUJ c uK W U{ bM bU j w UOu_ l bIF* WCH Uu vK nUJ u

UL U u b vK d uJ
d WC qJ vK WCH Uu e bOb_ b WOKL

WO WUF* w `{u u
O
R

O
_

+
H + 2Ag(NH3)2 + 2OH R

O + 2Ag

WOC d V

I UM bO s dL V uJ YO ZMKN nU bU U C bOb_ bQ

nuJ cN b Q w UuOJ fJF
O
R

O
_

H + 2Cu + 5OH R
2+

O + Cu2O

dL V

pF d
UL WKUI* uJ v U UNKu UuOJ bOb_ e sJ1 e

CH2 v qOudJ WuL e??? sJL YO WKUI* UudbON v?? U IU

s MLOK e rU qUH c dF edL puKbON iL w sOU  rGK  b U
uK uK w nKK W {d qOudJ Vd U tO QK
Clemmensen Reduction
O
1

2 3

H H
4

CH3CCH2CH3
uUuO2

Zn(Hg) / HCl

CH3CCH2CH3
1

UuO

 U
 dOC% pMJ1 nO
WO Ud* s
UUJ s uUJ1

uUM3 s UM

q

Zn (Hg) / HCl

CH3CH2C CH2CH3

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3

O
uUM3

UM

O
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2C

LiAlH4,H+
H2/Ni

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2OH

UUJ

uUJ1

UFL pU `{ uUuO2 UUuO sO eOOL pMJL nO R

UNUIA WOKOudJ uL

s Oleic acid pOO_ iL WOuO UMUO w dO WOL UNUIA WOKOudJ uLK
u pO_ iL WDO WOKOudJ uL( s WOuO( WOUM ub ue UuJ r
q) w UFH
uJ*

C=C
CH3COOH

CH3(CH2)7

pO_ iL puU iL

(CH2)7COOH

kHK fO pOO_ iL

WOKOudJ uLK WOzUM WGOB

u?? L w?? W?? OMb u?? L(
W?? Oud q?? WOKO?? ud
WFA dO WFA uJ b WKu

qOudJ WuL vK UNzuU WOKOudJ uL( eOL

WUF UNGO w 5 u UL COOH

Ar C OH

R C OH

H C OH

wU wKOud iL

wUHO wKOud iL

pOuH iL puUO* iL
WOUHO_ uL( u j

UNUe 5 wMObON jd uu dE U O WFHd UOK U WOKOudJ uLK

w qJA w UL WOe UOzUM WO vK WOKOudJ uL( bu U dO
O ........ H O
RC

CR
O H ........ O

WOKOudJ uL WOL

U uO d UNCF tz vK iL( bB vK U UO b WFzU UL WOKOudJ uLK
L Uu_ UE w UNzUL s
iL FormicadL_ qLM WC s tL pOuH iL c
q) s pOK)
pO_

b w t U* UJ_ rU p lDI* U(U wKOudJ iLK Uu_ r oA

b' w 5 u UL udJ

Uu_ UEM WOKOudJ uL iF WOL

Uu_ r
puUd iL

wKOudJ iL
CH3CH2COOH
CH3CH2CH2COOH

puUuO iL

puUuO iL qOO 2

puUM iL qOO wzUM 3 2

CH3

CH3CH2CHCOOH
5

CH3 CH3

CH3CH2CH CHCOOH
OH

puUd iL wbO 2

puUuO iL qOO2uK4

CH3

ClCH2CH2CHCOOH
4

puUuO iL qOMO 4qOO 2

CH3 CH COOH

CH3

CH2CH2CHCOOH

udJ WKK vK U Lz r cU qOudJ WuL w udJ k* s

peM iL s UIAL vL ArCOOH WOU_ WOKOudJ uL( U

COOH
6
5

1
4

2
3

6
5

Br

COOH
1
2 NO2

COOH
6
5

NO2

peM iL ud4
peM iL udU

peM iL dO wzUM42

1
4

COOH

2
3

CH3

peM iL qOO3
peM iL qOO UO

peM iL

U
WO WOKOudJ uL( s qJ WOzUM WGOB V
puUd iL qOMO 3

peM iL uKU

COOH

q
3

CH2CH2COOH

Cl

WOKOudJ uLK WOzUeOH u 

jd qOudJ WuL WOD UL 5KU vK WOKOudJ uLK WOzUeOH u) bLF
wQ UL d WOU s WKK w udJ b WOU s wMObON
W lHd WOuL WKJ w UN WUL uJ UOK Wb WMU WFHd UNUOK W

b sFL WKK w udJ b Ue UOKG

WOuL WKJ w UN WKUIL uJ l WOKOudJ uL UOK U

UOKG W

dUML uJ

UOKG W

wKOudJ iL

uU CH3CH2OH

puUOL iL HCOOH

uUd1 CH3CH2CH2OH

puU iL CH3COOH

uUuO1 CH3(CH2)2CH2OH

puUd iL CH3CH2COOH

uUM1 CH3(CH2)3CH2OH

puUuO iL CH3(CH2)2COOH
jI  b' WE

ULK UNO UNOz qI d_ WODI UcL UL w dOGB WOKOudJ uL c

WKK w udJ b
WODI dO UcL w Uc WOU UL w Uc WO WOU_ WOKOudJ uL

udJ s U O dO b vK UNzu V

UJN seM s q w peM iL c U* R
WOKOudJ uL( iF WOzUeOH UHB s U CF b' 5

jI  WOKOudJ uL iF WOzUeOH Xu iF

UL w WOzc UOKG W
rr

Uu_ r

WOzUM WGOB

puUOL iL
puU iL
puUd iL
puUuO iL
puUM iL
puUJN iL

HCOOH
CH3COOH
CH3CH2COOH
CH3CH2CH2COOH
CH3CH2CH2CH2COOH
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2COOH

WOKOudJ uL dOC

UNM b dD WOKOudJ uL( dOC% sJ1
d
UL WKUI* WOKOudJ uL( v WO_ uJ b sJ1 WO_ uJ b 
wCL j w d WOLJ UdJb UMGMdO uK bU p U IU pF
RCH2 OH

K2Cr2O7
H

1 w u

CH3

CH3CH2CHCH2OH

uUJ1

RCOOH
wKOud iL

K2Cr2O7
H

uUuO1qOO2

CH3(CH2)4CH2OH

CH3
2

CH3CH2CHCOOH
puUuO iL qOO2

KMnO4
H

CH3(CH2)4COOH
puUJN iL

iL v u UOKG W s U d UGMdO uK0 seM qOJ bQ seM qOJ b 

b 5bO vK u seM WIK( U* udJ vK qUH r peM

WO WUF* w 5 u UL q_ vK
R
1

KMnO4

COOH

CH2 CH2CH3

KMnO4

COOH

peM iL

Ud qOMO 1

 dOC pMJL nO R

wQ UL
suu s peM iL

uUd1 s puUd iL
WOKOudJ uLK WOzUOLOJ u 

UNM WHK UH w WOKOudJ uL( qb

WOCL sObON UH
UH c WK s
Vu* u??_ v eKH b rO eK l wKOudJ iL( qUH eKH l qUH

5bON U v 5bON u e (Cation) uOUJ

CH3COOH(aq) + Na(s)CH3COO Na (aq) + 1/2H2(g)
_

uuB uU

2CH3COOH(aq) + Zn(s)(CH3COO )2 Zn
_

++
(aq)

+ H2(g)

U U K WuJ buI l WOKOudJ uL qUH buI l qUH

RCOOH + NaOH(aq)RCOO Na (aq) + H2O(l)

_

CH3COOH + NaOH(aq)CH3COO Na (aq) + H2O(l)

_

qO bON WuL b UH U OU
b d_ suJ uJ l WOKOudJ uL qUH uJ l qUH
WOKOudJ uL UIA
H

RCOOH + R`OH RCOOR`+ H2O

H

CH3COOH + CH3CH2OH CH3COOCH2CH3 + H2O

puU iL

uU

qO uU

UIA b bO_ suJ UOu_ l WOKOudJ uL qUH UOu_ l qUH

WOKOudJ uL
RCOOH + NH3

RCONH2 + H2O

wKOud iL

bO

CH3COOH + NH3

CH3CONH2 + H2O

puU iL

bOUU

e UH U U
WO_ uJ U U' d_ w LiAlH4 q We* quF l WOKOudJ uL( qUH
RCH2COOH

CH3CH2COOH
puUd iL

1) LiAlH4
U d
2) H3O+
1) LiAlH4
U d
2) H3O+

RCH2CH2OH + H2O

CH3CH2CH2OH + H2O
uUd1

U
WO UF* qL

1) CH3CH2COOH + NaOH(aq)
2) CH3CH2CH2COOH + NH3
3) CH3CH2CH2CH2COOH

1)LiAlH4
U d
2)H3O+

q
1)

CH3CH2COOH + NaOH(aq)

2)

CH3CH2CH2COOH + NH3

3)

CH3CH2CH2CH2COOH

1)LiAlH4
U d
2)H3O+

CH3CH2COO Na
O
CH3CH2CH2

(aq)

+ H2O

NH2 + H2O

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2OH + H2O

WOKOudJ uL UIA

WuL b WO UNOK uB( sJ1 WOKOudJ uLK UIA WF UM
wQ UL jI W UNM dc wKOudJ iL( w qObON WuL*
O

UNK s R

X w WUF WGOB cQ uL bOU

C Br

CH3CH2

qeM bOd

CH3

Cl

quUd buK

Cl

quU buK

UNK s R

NH2 WUF WGOB cQ bO_

O

C NH2

CH3CH2

bOeM

CH3

NH2

bOUUd

NH2

bOUU

UNK s R
O

OR` WUF WGOB cQ d_

C OCH2CH3

CH3CH2

qO eM

O
CH3

OCH3

qOO uUd

OCH2CH3

qO uU

U
wQ U2 qJ WOzUM mOB V
bOeM qOO2

qO uU

q
O
C
CH3

O
NH2

CH3 C

O CH2CH3

bu WK
wQ U2 qJ uBI* `{
qUL dO d

wU Vd

sOMD

WOHOu WuLL

wQ UL q w WOB WU d

w sOKO_ Vd qL w WOzUM WGOB

OH

CH3

COOH

NH2

u d jGC bU eHL seM Wb ZUM WOe WGOB

C6H12

C6H14

C6H10

C6H6

(3) wU qOuO u vK b w WOzUM WGOB ?

CH3
CH3

CH3

CH3CH2 CH2 CH2OH

CH3CHCH2OH

CH3CHCH2CH3

OH

CH3

OH

u uCF ZUM S WUML dE X sOM2 ROL bM

jI uUM3

jI uUM2

uUM3 uUM2 sOKUAL s jOK

uUd U

v WUML WeL quFU UuOJ e ?

WOU u

WO u

bOb

WuU u

WO UdL s qJ WOzUM WGOB V

UuO qOMO wzUM32

qO uUd

bOUUd

suuudUO

seM dOuKU

seM qO wzUMu

sOJ 2 ud 5

puUd iL wbO2

uUuO1qOMO 1

puUuO iL

UUJ ud2

uUM2

quUuO bOd

uMO uKu

WO UdL s qJ Uu_ r V

CH3

CH2CH2CH3

Br

Cl

NO2

NO2

Cl

NO2

NO2

Br

Br

(CH3)3C CH2C Cl-(CH3)2

(CH3)2CH-CH2I

BrCH2CH2CH2CH2Br

CH3CH2CF2CH3

 qL
WO UFL s
1)

Br2

2)

+ HNO3

3)

+ H2SO4

FeBr3

H2SO4

SO3 ,

4)

+ CH3

C
H

...................................................

...................................................

...................................................

Cl

CH3

?
Br

CH3

AlCl3

...................................................

5)

Zn / HCl

CH3CHCH2CH3

................................................

Cl
6)

.......................................

CH3CH2CH2OH + HI

W??U??F? W??O??e??? W??G?O?B? U??N? w???  q??O? J? _ b??O? d?? lOL W??O?zU??M?? m??O?B? V??? 

Uu_ UEM U I Vd q r d r (C4H9Br)

w UuOJ bOb_ lOL' Uu_ r d l WMJL* WOzUM mOB lOL V
C5H10O WUF WGOB UN
wQ UL >q dOC q s qUH d d l WOzUOLOJ UFL V
uUuO2 s uUuO2

uUd1 s UUd

UU s uU uUd1qOMO 1 s Ud qOMO 1

puU iL s qO uU

uU s pO iL

WO s q l UU qUH `{u w WOzUOLOJ UFL V

H2/Ni

LiAlH4 ,H+

bU j[Ag(NH3)2]+ eMu nU

wQ UL q l uUd2 qUH WOzUOLOJ UFLU `{

uuB eK

(HBr) pOdbON iL

wCL j w uOUu UdJ uK

WO UFL w WuNL UdL s qJ WOzUM WGOB V

1) CH3CHCH3

HBr

KOH

Br2/CCl4

u

OH
2) CH3CH2CH2OH

H2SO4 /

H2/Ni

WdI W??Od ld

UL dAMK qdJ UMUO w ULOJ d bL U
Ud uF pK* WFU UOLOJ v qb* U bL U( ULOK bL
Ud uF pK* WFU WF WOKLF WuCF UOLOJ 5 dJ U wU( bL s
Ud uF pK* WFU wHu qOK WOKOK UOLOJ `UB WHOK wK bL
lu dAMK UOC WOKOK UOLOJ d bL U
UL WOLKF U U WOKOK UOLOJ dUD rOd b
Ud 5d) WF WUF UOLOJ d fuF eeF b s bL
UL dAMK UOC WF WUF UOLOJ d bL U u rOd UL wKOK) e u
dUI wdF dJH WOU_ WuCF UOLOJ f Xb bL
UL w_ VJ ed WF WuCF UOLOJ euuu Ud

oA WOuO UMUO UOze' eMJ

UL dO* WuCF UOLOJ d nu sU

WdI WOM ld

1)

P. Atkins and L. Jones, Chemical Principles, 1st Edition, W. H. Freeman & Co. New York, 1999.

2)

J. A. Olmsted and G. M. Williams, Chemistry, 4th Edition, J. Wiley & Sons, New York, 2004.

3)

J. E. Brady, General Chemistry: Principles and Structure, 5th Edition, J. Wiley & Sons, New York, 1990.

4)

D. Ebbing and S. D. Gammon, General Chemistry, 7th Edition, Houghton Mifin, Boston, 2003.

5)

R. Petrucci, T. McCreary and S. Perry, General Chemistry, 4th Edition, Prentice Hall, London, 2005.

6)

D. A. McQuarrie and P. A. Rock, General Chemistry, 3rd Ed. Freeman, 1991.

7)

C. E. Housecroft, and A. G. Sharpe, Inorganic Chemistry, Prentice Hall, London, 2001.

8)

D. Ebbing, S. D. Gammon, and R. O. Ragsdale, Essentials of General Chemistry, 2nd Edition, Houghton
Mifin Co., Boston, 2003.

9)

S. Zumdahl, and S. A. Zumdahl, Chemistry, 6th Edition, Houghton Mifin, Co., Boston, 2003.

10) D. Ebbing and S. D. Gammon, General Chemistry, 8th Edition, Houghton Mifin Co., London 2005.
11) G. D. Christian, Analytical Chemistry, 6th Edition, J. Wiley & Sons, New York, 2003.
12) R. T. Morrison and R. N. Boyd, Organic Chemistry, 6th Edition, Benjamin Cummings, 1992.
13) C. E. Mortimer, Chemistry, 5th Ed., Wadsworth Publishing Co., Belmont, CA, 1983.14) J. E. Brady
and E. G. Humiston, General Chemistry, 2nd edition, J. Wiley & Sons, New York, 1980.
14) L. G. Wade, Jr., Organic Chemistry, 6th Edition, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2003.

bOH WO
dJ l u
1)
2)
3)

http://www.exploratorium.edu/learning_studio/cool/chemistry.html
http://www.qphs.org/chem.htm#ATOMICTHEORY
http://www.hazelwood.k12.mo.us/~grichert/sciweb/chem.html

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