Male Reproductive System

Parts of the Male Reproductive System

Testes
Two oval shaped structures that create sperm. Each sperm cell
contains haploid (n) the chromosomes number
Scrotum
Sac that holds the testicles. Testicles are held outside the body to
maintain proper temperature for sperm production
Seminiferous Tubules
Long, coiled tubes that make up the testes
Epididymis
Oval shaped structure that lies on top of the testes. It STORES sperm.
Sperm become motile here
Vas Deferens (Sperm duct)
Hollow tube leading from the testes to the urethra. It carries sperm
from the testes to the penis
Cowpers (bulbourethral) Gland
A small gland that adds an alkali (basic) fluid to sperm to help
neutralize the acidity of the female
Seminal Vesicle
Glands that secrete a mucus-like fluid with the sperm. The fluid
contains fructose that provides energy for sperm
Prostate
Adds fluid to sperm. This fluid helps to neutralize the acidity of the
female reproductive tract
Urethra
Opening through which sperm and urine exit the male body

Male Reproductive Hormones

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

Hormone released by the anterior pituitary that causes
spermatogenesis to begin
Inhibin
Hormone released by the seminiferous tubules. Works on the
hypothalamus to slow the production of releasing factors that control
release of FSH
Inhibin/FSH Negative Feedback Loop
1- If the sperm count is high, Inhibin is released by seminiferous tubules
2- The hypothalamus then does NOT produce releasing factors
3- If there are NO releasing factors, then the pituitary DOES NOT release
FSH
4- If FSH is NOT released from the pituitary, spermatogenesis does not
begin and sperm production is slowed
5- Sperm count decreases
Sperm Count

Inhibin (Seminiferous Tubules)

Releasing Factors (Hypothalamus)

FSH (Pituitary)

Spermatogenesis

Sperm Count
* Opposite happens when sperm count is low *
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
Hormone released by the pituitary that causes the interstitial cells of
the testicles to produce the hormone testosterone
Testosterone
Major male hormone. Responsible for the development of secondary
sex characteristics in a male
Secondary sex characteristics of a male:
o Enlargement of penis and testicles
o Facial hair
o Lower voice
o Increase muscle mass
Female Reproductive System
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Parts of the Female Reproductive System

Ovary
Creates ova (eggs) for fertilization. Each egg contains haploid
chromosome (n)
Follicles
Groups of cells held in the ovaries. Each one of these cells contains an
ovum (egg) that will develop
Oviduct (Fallopian Tube)
Tubes that lead from the ovaries (not attached) to the uterus. Where
fertilization occurs. It conducts the eggs to the uterus
Fimbriae
Finger-like projections on the opening of the oviduct that helps sweep
eggs from the ovary into the oviduct
Uterus
Also called womb. Large muscular chamber where the embryo
attaches and the fetus develops
Endometrium
The lining of the uterus. It contains a rich blood supply to provide
nutrients for a developing embryo
Cervix
Small opening at the top of the vagina and the base of the uterus. It
supports the fetus and prevents foreign material from entering the
uterus
Vagina
Opening through which sperm enters on its way to fertilize an egg

Female Reproductive Hormones

Estrogen
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 Hormone released from a follicle (ovary) that causes the endometrium

to thicken and increase blood supply in preparation for pregnancy
Progesterone
Hormone created and released from the ovary (corpus luteum) that
maintains the uterus during pregnancy
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
Hormone released by pituitary (under control of hypothalamus) that
causes ovulation (release of egg from the follicle)
Follicle stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Hormone released from pituitary (under hypothalamus control) that
causes follicles within the ovary to release estrogen

Menstrual Cycle
Follicular Stage Days 1-14

During this stage a hormone called FSH from the pituitary causes a
follicle in the ovary to release the hormone estrogen

Estrogen causes the lining of the uterus to build up in blood supply and
to thicken in preparation for a pregnancy

Ovulation Day 14
- During this stage a hormone called LH is released from the pituitary
gland that causes the follicle to break open and release the egg
Luteal Stage Day 15-28
- During this stage the left over follicle (now called the corpus luteum)
releases progesterone which keeps the uterine lining prepared for
pregnancy
Menstruation Day 28- Day 1
- If no egg is fertilized, then estrogen and progesterone levels begin to
drop. This causes the uterine lining to be shed or sloughed off and
it passes out through the vagina along with blood. As this is happening
FSH is being released and this causes another follicle to mature. The
cycle begins to repeat itself

CORE LAB #5 The Menstrual Cycle

Female Hormone Therapy

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As females get older there is a reduction in the amount of estrogen and

progesterone they produce. This is called MENOPAUSE.
Menopause
The stopping of the menstrual cycle in women
Characterized by the following:
o Stopping of the menstrual cycle
o Temperature changes hot flashes
o Loss of bone density
Women often deal with the many side effects of menopause. Some women
opt for HORMONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY to alleviate menopause
symptoms
Hormone Replacement Therapy
Hormone replacement therapy is a treatment for women who have
entered menopause. It is done to counteract the declining amounts of
progesterone and estrogen in females
The hormones estrogen and progesterone are given to women in low
amounts (usually by pill or injection) to alleviate some of the symptoms of
menopause

Benefits of HRT

Risks of HRT

Reduces bone loss (osteoporosis)

risk of cancer

rate of macular degeneration

Headaches

Improved memory

Blood clots

chances of UTIs

Upset stomach

Birth Control Pill

The pill or oral contraceptive is a combination of synthetic portions
of estrogen and progesterone
The pill works because the estrogen and progesterone causes the
inhibition of FSH and LH. When this happens ovulation is inhibited. This
results in no egg being present to be fertilized
Sexually Transmitted Infections
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 These are diseases transmitted mainly through sexual contact

Causes: Most are caused by bacteria or viruses
o Bacterial STIs CURABLE!
o Viral STIs NOT CURABLE
HIV & AIDS
HIV Human Immuno Virus
AIDS Accquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
Causes
AIDS is caused by HIV
Symptoms
Encephalitis
Meningitis
Retinitis
Pneumonia
Tuberculosis
Tumours
GI infections
diarrhea
Action
HIV attacks and takes over the helper T-cells of a persons immune
system. As the level of helper T-cells decreases in the blood, the
person becomes susceptible to many infections
Full blown AIDS occurs when many T-cells are destroyed by the virus
and the body is not able to make enough replacement T-cells to fight
infections
Transmission
Sexual contact with an infected person
Sharing needles with infected person
Breast feeding
Cure?
NO CURE! Many drugs are used to help fight various infections

Chlamydia
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Cause
Bacterium called Chlamydia trachomatis
Symptoms
Pain when urinating
Discharge from penis
Vaginal discharge
Fever
*Some people have no symptoms at all! This is dangerous as damage
is occurring without symptoms
Transmission
Sexual contact with an infected person
Cure?
Anitbiotics!
Hepatitis B
Hepatitis occurs in 3 different forms A, B, C
Hepatitis B is considered to be a STI
Cause
Viral infection
Symptoms
Flu like symptoms
Jaundice
Liver failure
Liver disease
Transmission
Sexual contact with an infected person
Cure?
NO CURE. Although you can prevent with a vaccine!
*Hepatitis is able to cross the placenta and infect an unborn child
Genital Herpes
Cause
Caused by Herpes Simplex Virus II
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Symptoms
Tingling or itching in genital area
Blisters on genitals, buttocks, thighs or internal tissues
Painful sores occur when blisters break open
*Some people have NO symptoms!
Transmission
Sexual contact with an infected person
Cure?
NO CURE! Treatment with antiviral medications for symptoms
Note
If a newborn comes in contact with the herpes during birth, the
infection may cause blindness, neurological disorders or even death

Syphilis
Cause
Bacterium Treponema pallidum
Symptoms/Actions
The infection proceeds through 3 stages:
1. Stage 1
o Sores appear at infection site
2. Stage 2
o Rash appears on skin (usually soles of feet and palms of
hands)
o During this stage the infection can be passed to another
person
3. Stage 3
o Cardio vascular and nervous system becomes damaged
resulting in mental disorders and/or heart disease
Transmission
Sexual contact with an infected person
Cure?
Antibiotics!
Note
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 Syphilis can infect a developing embryo resulting in birth defects

and/or still birth

Gonorrhea
Cause
Bacterium called Neisseria gonorrheae
Symptoms
Pain when urinating
Discharge from penis (greenish-yellow)
Vaginal discharge
Transmission
Sexual contact with an infected person
Cure?
Antibiotics!
Note
If gonorrhea is left untreated in females the disease can cause the
oviducts to become blocked by scar tissue

*STI Chart

Infertility and Technological Solutions

Infertility

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Term describing couples not having the ability to have more children
than wished. Couples are considered to be infertile if they have been
unsuccessful for one year in becoming pregnant

Sterility
- Term used to describe couples unable to have any children
Females
1- Blocked Oviducts
The oviducts become blocked usually as the result of an STI not
allowing for fertilization of the egg. Pelvic Inflammatory Disease
(PID)
2- Failure to ovulate
Usually caused by hormonal imbalances (FSH/LH, estrogen, etc.)
3- Endometriosis
Painful condition where the endometrium grows outside the
uterus. Result is non implantation of fertilized egg
4- Damaged Egg
Damaged eggs are unable to produce a viable egg. They may be
caused by environmental factors, such as exposure to chemicals
Males
1- Obstruction in Vas Deferens or Epididymis
STIs, varicose veins, etc. may cause obstructions in the vas
deferens causing sperm to not be released from the male and
into the female. No fertilization results
2- Low Sperm Count
Caused by numerous factors including overheated testicles,
smoking, alcohol
3- Abnormal Sperm
Caused by STIs, overheated testicles, toxins

Technological Solutions to Infertility

1- Artificial Insemination (AI)
Sperm is placed in the vagina by a physician
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2- In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)

Fertilization of an egg occurs outside the body. The fertilized egg
is implanted in the uterus
3- In Vitro Maturation (IVM)
Follicles are removed from a woman and caused to mature.
Several oocytes are used for in vitro fertilization
4- Superovulation
Injections of drugs (fertility drugs) causes several follicles within
the ovaries to mature. Several eggs are released with hopes of
fertilization
5- Surrogate Motherhood
A fertilized egg is placed into the uterus of another woman or
sperm from a male is used to fertilize the egg of another female
6- Embryo Storage (Cryopreservation)
Fertilized eggs or embryos are preserved by freezing them. Can
be used at a later date, etc.

Birth Control Technologies

These are technologies aimed at controlling reproduction/birth. They are
classified on the basis of how they can control pregnancy
Barrier Methods

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Technologies aimed at keeping conception from happening (prevent the

sperm and egg from meeting)
They include:
Condoms
o Stops sperm from entering the female

Diaphragm
o Blocks the cervix

Spermicidal Jellies and Foams

o Contain chemicals that help kill sperm

IUD (Intrauterine Device)

o Blocks implantation in the uterus

Hormonal Methods
The use of hormones to stop conception
Birth Control Pill
o A pill containing progesterone and estrogen hormones that block
the release of an egg

Norplant
o Slow release hormones are implanted under the skin. They block
the release of the egg

Depo Provera
o Injections of hormones are given every few months. These
hormones block the release of eggs

Morning After Pill

o This is a pill taken after intercourse. If an egg is fertilized, it is
kept from implanting in the uterus (Plan B)

Surgical Methods
The use of surgery to help prevent conception
Tubal Ligation
o The oviducts (fallopian tubes) are cut and tied

Vasectomy
o The vas deferens in males are cut and tied

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Other
Abstinence
o Not having sex!

Rhythm Method
o Using timing and temperature to determine time when the
female is ovulating. Intercourse is avoided during this time

Embryonic Differentiation and Development

Fertilization
-

Process where the sperm meets the egg and genetic material
(chromosomes) is mixed
+ = 1 complete set!
1n +1n = 2n

Implantation
-

Process where an embryo becomes embedded within the uterine lining

Process of Fertilization
-

Sperm from the testis of a male pass through the vas deferens and out
through the urethra (picking up fluid as it moves along)
Then its deposited into the vagina of a female
Sperm then swim up through the cervix of a female and into the uterus
Sperm continue to swim up into the oviduct where an egg is supposed
to be waiting
An egg is released from the ovary (ovulation) and it passes to the
oviduct
While in the oviduct it unites with sperm to become fertilized

Conception
-

When a sperm meets an egg, the acrosome of the sperm releases a

powerful enzyme that digests a portion of the egg membrane
Sperms nucleus is deposited inside the egg and releases its
chromosomes which are united with the chromosomes of the egg
The pair then implants into the wall of the uterus

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How is it then that twins are made?

Twins are identified as babies that are born at approximately the same time
or at least during the same pregnancy. There are 2 types fraternal and
identical.
Fraternal Twins
-

These are twins created when 2 SEPARTE eggs are fertilized

Can be the same OR opposite sex
They are no more alike than any other set of siblings

Identical Twins
-

Created when one sperm fertilizes one egg

Blastocyst splits into 2 separate bodies early in development
Results in 2 embryo with EXACTLY the same DNA!
Twins MUST be the same sex because their DNA is identical

Embryonic Development
After fertilization, the zygote (fertilized egg), now called an embryo
undergoes a series of distinct stages as it continues to develop
Cleavage
-

This happens when cells divide in the embryo

The embryo stays the same size
The cells gets smaller and smaller
Cell divisions without cell grow occur

Morula
-

The mass of identical cells inside the embryo while it is undergoing

cleavage

Blastocyst (Blastula)
-

Embryo now is a hollow ball of identical cells (created by cell divisions

during cleavage)
Inner mass is the cells inside the blastocyst. These will develop into the
BABY!

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Trophoblast is the outer cells of the blastocyst that will eventually give
rise to the membranes that nourish and protect the baby PLACENTA!
Trophoblast secretes HcG. HcG is a hormone that prevents corpus
leuteum from disintegrating for 3 weeks allowing it to secrete
progesterone to maintain the endometrium

Gastrula
-

Embryo now exists as a ball of cells with distinct layers known as GERM
LAYERS
During this stage, the cells of the embryo begin to grow and rearrange
themselves into 3 layers. This process is GASTRULATION

Germ Layers
-

Ectoderm
o The outside layer that forms the skin and nervous system
Mesoderm
o The middle layer that forms the muscles, bones and many
organs
Endoderm
o The inner layer that forms the digestive and respiratory tract

Neural Development
-

In the gastrula, the mesoderm cells that come together to form a rod
call the NOTOCHORD
The nervous system develops from the ectoderm

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Summary of Embryonic Development

18

Embryonic Membranes

19

These are a series of membranes that surround, nourish and protect

the developing embryo known as PRIMARY MEMBRANES
These develop from the trophoblast

Yolk
-

Dense material that nourishes the embryo.

Chorion
-

This is the outer most layer of cells of the embryo

They become the placenta

Placenta
-

Structure that exchanges nutrient and wastes between the embryo and
Mom
Secretes estrogen and progesterone which prevents any follicles from
developing and maintains the endometrium

Allantois & Yolk Sac

-

Develops into the umbilical cord

Umbilical Cord
-

Structure that connects fetus to the placenta

Amnion
-

This membrane develops into the amniotic membrane

Amniotic Membrane
-

A thin membrane sac that surrounds the fetus

It contains amniotic fluid that serves to protect the fetus and absorb
shocks

Effects of Teratogens
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Teratogen
-

Any chemical or agent that causes a structural abnormality due to fetal

exposure during pregnancy
Examples smoking, alcohol, prescription meds

Smoking
-

Cigarette smoke constricts fetal blood vessels preventing it from

getting oxygen
Babies are usually:
o Underweight
o Can suffer from convulsions

Alcohol
-

Alcohol affects the fetus brain, central nervous system and physical
development
Babies will usually display the following symptoms:
o Mental delays
o Decrease height/weight and head size
o Malformed face
o Have aggression and/or personality changes

Prescription Drugs
-

Various prescription and over the counter drugs may have impacts on
the developing fetus
Thalidomide
o Prescription drug given to women in the 1950s to reduce
morning sickness
o The effects on the fetus are that babies were born with either
missing or deformed limbs

Other Teratogens
-

Things such as x-rays, PCBs, heavy metal are all teratogens that can
cause birth defects and/or abnormalities within a fetus

Childbirth
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When gestation (period of pregnancy) is reached, childbirth begins. Occurs in

three stages:
1- Dilation Stage
Pituitary releases oxytocin. Oxytocin causes uterine muscles to
contract
Beginning of LABOUR!
Cervix opens and dilates (gets larger)
Pelvic ligaments loosen
Amniotic membranes ruptures (water breaks) and amniotic fluid
is released
Lasts anywhere from 2-20 hours!
2- Expulsion Stage
Contractions by the uterus continue and intensify
This forces the baby out through the cervix and into the birth
canal (vagina)
The babys head rotates making it easier for the baby to be
delivered
Lasts from - 2 hours
3- Placental Stage
About 15 minutes after birth, the placenta and umbilical cord are
forced out through the vagina by contraction of the uterine
muscles
The placenta is now called the afterbirth

Hormones and Pregnancy

Progesterone
-

Hormone secreted by the corpus luteum that maintains the uterus

during pregnancy
Placenta also secretes progesterone to maintain the uterus

Estrogen
-

Works with progesterone to maintain the uterus during pregnancy

Oxytocin
-

Suckling causes milk to be released from milk glands

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Also causes uterine muscles to contract promoting a pre-pregnancy

condition

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin Hormone (HcG)

-

Hormone released by the developing embryo that maintains the corpus

luteum from the first 3 months of pregnancy. This helps to maintain
the endometrium
Pregnancy tests test from this hormone to confirm pregnancy

Prolactin
-

Hormone released by the pituitary gland that causes milk to be

produced in the mammary glands after pregnancy
Allows the baby to get milk

Monitoring Pregnancy/Fetal Development

Monitoring the fetus/mother as the baby develops is crucial to ensure both
the health of the baby and the mother

Ultrasound
-

Sound waves bounce off the baby

Allows us to see the baby and check for organs and any abnormalities

Fetoscopy
-

Allows for direct observation of the fetus using a special camera known
as an endoscope
Endoscope goes inside the uterus through a small cut
Camera is able to view the fetus and doctors can look for defects
If need be they can operate on the baby while still inside the uterus

Amniocentesis
-

Procedure performed around week 14

Needle is inserted and penetrates the uterus and a small amount of
amniotic fluid is removed
The amniotic fluid contains cells from the baby
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The cells are examined and tested for irregularities such as Down
Syndrome, etc.
If defects are found parents are counselled on their options to
terminate the pregnancy and/or continue it

Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)

-

Procedure performed around week 9 where fetal cells are removed

from the chorion layer
A karyotype (picture of the arrangement of chromosomes) is done to
see if any abnormalities exist. If so, the parents will receive counselling
options

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