Biology Homework

Biology 2 Questions:
1. What is a nucleus? And in which cells is it found?
A nucleus contains the genetic material of the cell. The nucleus is a large roundish
organelle. It is bounded by a double membrane which has numerous pores. Inside the
nucleus are chromosomes and a dark region called a nucleolus which makes ribosomes.
2. What is a cell membrane? And in which cells is it found?
It is a membrane that is found on the surface of animal cells and just inside the cell wall
of other cells. Its made mainly of lipids and proteins. Cell membrane regulates the
movement of substances into and out of the cell.
3. What is a cytoplasm? And in which cells is it found?
Cytoplasm is a jelly-like fluid that fills a cell is called cytoplasm. It is made up of mostly
water and salt. Cytoplasm is present within the cell membrane of all cell types and
contains all organelles and cell parts.
4. What is a ribosome? And in which cells is it found?
Ribosome is a very small organelle that either floats free in the cytoplasm or is attached
to rER. Its made up of proteins and RNA. The ribosome is the site where proteins are
made.
5. What are mitochondria and in which cells are they found?
They have a double membrane- the inner one is folded to form structures called cristae.
Inside is the matrix, which contains enzymes involved in respiration. Mitochondrion is the
site of aerobic respiration where ATP is produced.
6. What is cell wall? And in which cells is it found?
Cell wall is a rigid structure that surrounds cell in plants, algae and fungi. In plants and
algae its made mainly of the cellulose whereas in fungi it is made up of chitin. Cell walls
support cells and prevent them from changing shape.
7. What is a chloroplast? And in which cells is it found?
Chloroplast is a small, flattened structure found in plants and algal cells. Its surrounded
by a double membrane. Chloroplast is the site where photosynthesis takes place.
8. What is a vacuole? And in which cells is it found?
Vacuole is a membrane- bound organelle found in the cytoplasm of plant cells. It helps to
maintain pressure inside the cell and keep the cell rigid. This stops plants from wilting.
9. What is flagellum? And in which cells is it found?
Flagellum is a hairlike structure that allows bacteria and sperm to move.
10. Where is the DNA in a bacteria cell found?

Bacteria do not have a nucleus. They do have two types of DNA

plasmid and chromosomal. The chromosomal DNA carries most of the genetic
information. Plasmid DNA forms small loops and carries extra information
11. What is yeast? And how does it respire?
Although yeast is a single-celled organism, they possess a cellular organization similar to
that of higher organisms, including humans. Specifically, their genetic content is
contained within a nucleus. This classifies them as eukaryotic organisms. Yeast can
undergo aerobic respiration or anaerobic respiration. In bread-making, the yeast starts
off respiring aerobically, producing water and also carbon dioxide to make the dough rise.
When the air runs out, the yeast begins to respire anaerobically.
12. Explain why fat cells are specialised?
Fat cell are specialised to store fat. This is important so that animals can survive when
they have to go periods without food. A fat cell is special as it can expand up to 1000
times its original size as it fills its centre with fat. A fat cell has very few mitochondria
leaving lots of space for fat storage.
13. Explain why cone cells are specialised?
Cone cells are shaped in a weird manner, in which there is an outer segment with
specialized photoreceptors, and a sort of neuronal stem that leads towards the base of
the eye. There is a nucleus and mitochondria in the cell but the cell also has a synapse
which normal cells do not have. These cells are used to specialise colours and see in
daylight.
14. Explain why plant root hair cells are specialised?
Plants absorb water from the soil by osmosis. Root hair cells are specialised for this by
having a large surface area to speed up osmosis. The absorbed water is transported
through the roots to the rest of the plant where it is used for different purposes.
15. Explain why sperm cells are specialised?
Sperm Cells are specialised in a number of ways. They have a tail which moves by
energy generated by many mitochondria and propels the cell. The head of
the cell contains a specialised lysosome called acrosome that releases enzymes so that
the sperm cell can penetrate the ovum coat of the egg.
16. What is diffusion?
Diffusion is the passive movement of particles down a concentration gradient from an
area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
17. Which cells are adapted to increase diffusion? How?
Leaves cells are thin in order to reduce the distance that gases have to diffuse through.
They are broad with a spongy layer inside to provide a large surface area.
18. How can the rate of diffusion be increased?
The rate of diffusion is increased when: the distance is decreased, the surface area
is increased, and the concentration difference (concentration gradient) is increased.

19. What is meant by the term tissues?

During the development of a multicellular organism, cells differentiate so that they can
carry out different functions. Differentiation is the process by which a cell becomes a
specialised type of cell. A tissue is a group of specialised cells that have a similar
structure and function.
20. Describe three types of tissue found in the human body?
There are three main types of tissues; muscular, glandular and epithelial tissues.
Muscular tissues contract, bringing about movement. Glandular tissues produce
substances such as enzymes and hormones. Epithelial tissues cover some parts of the
body.
21. What is meant by the term organs?
Organs are made of tissues. A particular organ may contain several different tissues. A
group of organs that carry out a particular function can group together to form an organ
system.
22. Give an example of an organ system in the human body and how tissues collaborate to
make it work?
The stomach is an organ that contains: Muscular, glandular and epithelial tissues. The
muscular tissue is used to churn the food and other contents of the stomach. The
glandular tissue is used to produce digestive juices including acid and enzymes.
Epithelial tissue is used to cover the inner and outer surfaces of the stomach. The
stomach is one of the organs that form the digestive system. The stomach contains
various tissues, and each tissue is made of a particular type of cell.
23. What are the three main types of tissues found in plants?
There are three main types of tissues found in plants: epidermal, Mesophyll and xylem
and phloem. Epidermal tissue covers the plant. Mesophyll tissue carries out
photosynthesis. Xylem and phloem tissues are used for the transportation of substances
around the plant.
24. What are the two main organs in plants?
One of the main organs in plants is the leaves. The leaves are the organs of
photosynthesis. They make all the food that the plant needs. Leaves contain chlorophyll,
which uses light energy to change carbon dioxide and water into glucose. They have tiny
little pores, which allow essential carbon dioxide in and waste gases out. Leaves are
important for nutrition and excretion.
The other main organs in plants are the root. The root is the organ which provides
anchorage for the plant so that it does not blow away or fall over. With its root hairs it
provides a big surface area to help take in water and minerals from the soil - these are
both essential for photosynthesis. The root is therefore important for nutrition.

25. Why is digestion important?

Digestion is important for breaking down food into nutrients, which the body uses for
energy, growth, and cell repair. Food and drink must be changed into smaller molecules
of nutrients before the blood absorbs them and carries them to cells throughout the
body.
26. Describe the process of digestion, beginning at the mouth and ending at the anus?
Food is digested in the mouth, stomach and small intestine. Digested food
is absorbed into the bloodstream in the small intestine. Excess water is absorbed back
into the body in the large intestine. Any undigested food passes out of the anus
as faeces.
27. What is meant by the term speciation?
Once two groups of one species are isolated different mutations occur in each group. If
the environments differ, different adaptations are favoured by natural selection. This
leads to different characteristics evolving in each group as time passes. Eventually the
groups become so different that if they come together again they are unable to
interbreed and are now separate species.
28. How do populations become isolated?
The cause of isolation can be gradual, like when mountains or deserts form, or continents
split apart. It can also be quick, such as organisms being blown to different places by a
storm or tsunami (tidal waves).
29. Why can they no longer interbreed?
Variations and mutations that occur in one group are not necessarily found in the other
group. The longer the groups are isolated, the more different they are. They eventually
become different species. Moreover, if there is a change in the environment of one group
it does not necessarily occur in the environment of the other. So they will evolve and
adapt differently.
30. What are fossils?
Fossils are the preserved remains of plants or animals. For such remains to be
considered fossils, scientists have decided they have to be over 10,000 years old. There
are two main types of fossils, body fossils and trace fossils. Body fossils are the
preserved remains of a plant or animal's body. Trace fossils are the remains of the
activity of an animal, such as preserved track ways, footprints, fossilized egg shells, and
nests.
31. State four ways in which they are formed?

32. Why is it difficult to find evidence of early life forms?

One difficulty in identifying the earliest evidence of life is that most of the rocks from this
period have been destroyed by erosion and plate tectonics.

33. What can we learn from fossils?

By studying the fossil record we can tell how long life has existed on Earth, and how
different plants and animals are related to each other.
34. How many species are estimated to have existed?
More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species that
ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth's
current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been
documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described.
35. What is extinction?
Extinction of a particular animal or plant species occurs when there are no more
individuals of that species alive anywhere in the world - the species has died out.
36. State three ways as to why it is caused?
Three ways that species can become extinct are through: rapid changes to the
environment (such as the climate), new diseases, new competitors.
37. Give two detailed suggestions as to why life forms in the past may have died out?
Some animals such as the dodo are extinct because of the indirect activity of humans.
These islands were uninhabited, and the dodo had no natural predators. Then Mauritius
were colonised by the Dutch in 1638. Dodos were hunted for food and easy to catch,
because they were not afraid of people. However, it was new competitors brought to the
islands, such as pigs, cats and rats, which ate the dodos' eggs and young that were
finally responsible for the extinction of the dodo.
Another reason why some life forms may have died out is through isolation. If the
pockets of habitat where that animal can live are too small, the populations in any one
place will be tiny. This makes them very fragile because they can easily be wiped out by
disease, predators, a natural disaster etc. Also, isolated population pockets become
inbred resulting in a far greater occurrence of stillbirth and deformed young that do not
survive.
38. Describe why each of these factors affects the distribution of organisms: temperature,
nutrients, light, water, oxygen, CO2.

39. What is a quadrat?

Quadrat is often used in sampling plants. It marks off an exact area so that the plants in
that area can be identified and counted.
40. What are line transects?
Line transects are used when you wish to illustrate a particular gradient or linear pattern
along which communities of plants and, or animals change. They provide a good way of
being able to clearly visualise the changes taking place along the line. Depending on how
detailed the line transect is, they can usually be accomplished fairly quickly.
41. What is photosynthesis?
Green plants absorb light energy using chlorophyll in their leaves. They use it to react
carbon dioxide with water to make a sugar called glucose. The glucose is used in
respiration, or converted into starch and stored. Oxygen is produced as a by-product.
This process is called photosynthesis.
42. What is the word equation for photosynthesis?
Carbon dioxide + water (+ light energy) glucose + oxygen
43. What is the symbol equation for photosynthesis?

6CO + 6H O ------> C H O + 6O
2

12

44. How is light energy absorbed and what is it used to combine?

Light is absorbed by the leafs chloroplasts. Some of the light energy is carried to the
chlorophyll to form high energy electrons. The light energy is used to split water
molecules. The breakup of water releases oxygen, electrons and protons.
45. How can we ensure photosynthesis has taken place? Give a step by step guide of the
experiment.

46. Why does the leaf being thin aid diffusion?

The leaves being thin aid diffusion because it is a shorter distance for carbon dioxide to
diffuse into the leaf cells.
47. Why does the upper surface being green aid photosynthesis?
The upper surface of the leaves contain chlorophyll which absorbs sunlight in order to
transfer energy into chemicals.
48. Why does the stomata help diffusion on the under surface of a leaf?
The stomata can open to allow diffusion of carbon dioxide into the leaf from the
atmosphere, and the diffusion of oxygen and water vapour out of the leaf.
49. Why does a large surface area help with photosynthesis?
A larger surface area means that there would be more chlorophyll present in the leaves.
This would mean more light energy could be absorbed and more carbon dioxide can
diffuse in meaning there is a higher rate of photosynthesis
50. What is the function of the leaf vein?
Veins provide support for the leaf and transport both water and minerals (via xylem) and
food energy (via phloem) through the leaf and on to the rest of the plant.
51. What does the plant use glucose for? State four main things.
Glucose can be used as a storage molecule in the form of starch. Glucose could also be
used to produce cellulose which strengthens the cell wall and it can also be used to
produce proteins such as chlorophyll and enzymes.
52.
53.
54. What is meant by hydroponics?
Hydroponics is the process of growing plants in sand, gravel, or liquids, with added
nutrients but without soil.

55. What are the advantages of an artificial environment?

Artificial grass is durable, so it can last particularly in areas of heavy usage, like
walkways. Installing artificial grass means you will have a durable surface. You

only need to carry out light maintenance once the grass is installed. This, of
course, generates you savings on time and up-keep costs, and is particularly
useful if maintenance isn't possible or practical. Because you won't need to mow
or water the grass, or even apply fertilisers or pesticides it is environmentally
friendly. Another advantage is that you don't need to water artificial grass; this is
ideal where water is scarce.
56. How could gardeners encourage plant growth in artificial conditions? State at least five
factors.
- Selective weed killers kill some plants but not others. This can be useful for
getting rid of dandelions in a lawn without killing the grass, or getting rid of
thistles in a field without killing the wheat plants. This also stops the weed for
competing for the same nutrients as the plants you want.
- Rooting powder makes stem cuttings quickly develop roots. Rooting powder
contains growth hormones.
-

The use of artificial light allows photosynthesis to continue beyond daylight hours.
Bright lights also provide a higher-than-normal light intensity.
- The use of additional carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere inside the
greenhouse also allows photosynthesis to continue at an increased rate.
57. What is meant by a limiting factor?
Three factors can limit the speed of photosynthesis: light intensity, carbon dioxide
concentration and temperature. Without enough light, a plant cannot photosynthesise
very quickly, even if there is plenty of water and carbon dioxide.
58. During the day is there a net gain of oxygen or carbon dioxide to the environment?
The rate of photosynthesis is higher than the rate of respiration; therefore there is a net
gain for the environment.
59. At night do plants photosynthesise? Why?
Plants dont photosynthesise during the night as there is no sunlight which means that
there is a limiting factor.
60. At dusk/dawn is the compensation point. What does this mean?
The compensation point is the amount of light intensity on the light curve where the rate
of photosynthesis exactly matches the rate of respiration.
61. Describe what you would see on a graph demonstrating light intensity.

62. Describe what you would see on a graph demonstrating temperature.

63. Describe what you would see on a graph demonstrating carbon dioxide levels.

64. How would you test whether CO2 is needed for photosynthesis?
We take a potted plant having long and narrow leaves and place it in a completely dark
place for; about three days to destarch its leaves.
2. Take a glass bottle having a wide mouth and put some potassium hydroxide solution
(KOH solution! in it. (This potassium hydroxide solution is to absorb the carbon dioxide
gas from the air present in the glass bottle so that no carbon dioxide is left in the air
inside the glass bottle).
3. Take a rubber cork which fits tightly into the mouth of the glass bottle and cut it into
two halves.
4. Put a destarched leaf of the potted plant (while it is still attached to the plant), inbetween the two halves of the cut cork and then fit the cork in the mouth of the glass
bottle. The; upper half of the leaf should remain outside the glass bottle and only the
lower half of the leaf should: be inside the glass bottle.
5. The potted plant (with its one destarched leaf half inside the glass bottle containing
potassium hydroxide solution) is kept in sunlight for 3 to 4 days. During this period, the
upper half of the leaf (which is outside the glass bottle) gets carbon dioxide from the air
but the lower half of the leaf (which is inside the glass bottle) does not get any carbon
dioxide. This is because all the carbon dioxide of the air present in the glass bottle has
been absorbed by potassium hydroxide solution. And no fresh air can come into the
closed glass bottle.
6. Pluck the leaf from the plant and take it out from the glass bottle. Remove the green
coloured chlorophyll from the leaf by boiling it in alcohol. In this way, we get a
decolourised leaf.
7. Wash the decolourised leaf with water to remove any chlorophyll which may be
sticking to it.
8. Pour iodine solution over the colourless leaf and observe the change in colour of the
leaf.
9. We will find that the lower half part of the leaf (which was inside the glass bottle
having no carbon dioxide around it), does not turn blue-black on adding iodine solution
showing that no starch is present in this lower half of the leaf. From this observation we
conclude that the photosynthesis to make starch in the leaf does not take place without
carbon dioxide.

10. The upper half part of the leaf (which was outside the glass bottle, having carbon
dioxide around it) turns blue-black on adding iodine solution showing that starch is
present in this upper half of the leaf. From this observation we conclude that
photosynthesis (to make starch) takes place in the presence of carbon dioxide. In other
words, carbon dioxide is necessary for the process of photosynthesis to take place.
65. How would you test whether oxygen is produced during photosynthesis?
If you want to show water as a factor of photosynthesis by doing a test like above, and
then you need to remove water from the chosen plant leaves. However, once you remove
all the water from a plant, itll dry off and die quickly. This means you cannot design a
test to experiment the necessity of water for photosynthesis. As the plants die without
water, we have to conclude that photosynthesis too stops without water which
means water is also an essential factor of photosynthesis.
66. How would you test whether chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis?
1. We take a potted plant like croton whose leaves are partly green and partly white. The
green part of the leaf has chlorophyll but the white part of the leaf does not have
chlorophyll.
2. Place this plant in a completely dark place for about three days to destarch its leaves.
3. Take out the potted plant from the dark place and keep it in bright sunshine for three
to four days.
4. Pluck the variegated leaf from the plant, boil it in water for a few minutes and then
remove its green colour 'chlorophyll' by boiling it in alcohol. The green parts of the leaf
get decolourised. So, we get decolourised leaf.
5. Wash the decolourised leaf with hot water to soften it and remove any chlorophyll
which may be sticking to it.
6. Pour iodine solution over the colourless leaf and observe the change in colour of the
leaf.
7. We will find that the outer part of leaf that was originally white (without chlorophyll)
does not turn blue-black on adding iodine solution showing that no starch is present in
this outer part of the leaf. From this observation we conclude that the photosynthesis to
make starch does not take place without chlorophyll.
8. The inner part of leaf which was originally green (contained chlorophyll) turns blueblack on adding iodine solution showing that starch is present in this inner part of the
leaf. From this observation we conclude that the photosynthesis to make starch takes
place in the presence of chlorophyll. In other words, chlorophyll is necessary for the
process of photosynthesis to take place.
67. How would you test whether light is needed for photosynthesis?
Take the potted plant and keep it in a dark place for 2-3 days so that the leaves get
destarched.

2. Cover a part of one of its leaves with the strip of black paper. Make sure that you
cover both the sides of the leaf.
3. Now place this plant in sunlight for 34 hours.
4. Pluck the selected covered leaf and remove the black paper covering it.
5. Place this leaf in the beaker containing water and boil it for about 10 minutes.
6. Take out the leaf and now boil it in alcohol, using the water bath, for 10 minutes. This
removes the chlorophyll.
7. Take out the leaf and wash it under running water.
8. Place this leaf in the Petri dish and put a few drops of iodine solution on it. Now
observe the change in colour.
68. What are proteins made up of?
Proteins are made up of smaller building blocks called amino acids, joined together in
chains. Some proteins are just a few amino acids long, while others are made up of
several thousands. These chains of amino acids fold up in complex ways, giving each
protein a unique 3D shape.
69. What do the different arrangement of amino acids form?
Primary structure is the sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain.
The polypeptide chain doesnt remain flat and straight. Hydrogen bonds form between
the amino acids in the chain. This makes it automatically coil into an alpha helix or fold
into a beta pleated sheet- this is a secondary structure.
The coiled or folded chain of amino acids is often coiled and folded further. More bonds
form between different parts of the polypeptide chain, including hydrogen and ionic
bonds. For proteins, the tertiary structure forms their final 3D structure
70. State three things proteins can be used for apart from being enzymes?
Proteins are used to form hormones, transport molecules such as haemoglobin and be
used as storage.
71. What is an enzyme?
A substance produced by a living organism which acts as a catalyst to bring about a
specific biochemical reaction.
72. How are enzymes produced?
Enzymes are a type of protein, and like other proteins, they are made by the translation
of the genetic code into a particular sequence of amino acids by ribosomes. After the
enzyme is created as a chain of amino acids, it folds into a particular shape and often
binds to other compounds, known as cofactors, before it becomes fully functional.
73. How would you identify an enzyme?
You can differentiate an enzyme from any normal cell by the fact that it has an active
site.
74. What are substrates?
Substrates are the substances acted on by an enzyme.
75. When substrates reach the enzyme protein what happens?

76. Why does food have to be broken down?

When we eat such things as bread, meat, and vegetables, they are not in a form that the
body can use as nourishment. Our food and drink must be changed into smaller
molecules of nutrients before they can be absorbed into the blood and carried to cells
throughout the body.
77. Why is digestion important?
Protein must be broken down into amino acids, starches into simple sugars, and fats into
fatty acids and glycerol. The water in our food and drink is also absorbed into the
bloodstream to provide the body with the fluid it needs.
78. What is meant by mechanical digestion?
Mechanical digestion involves physically breaking the food into smaller pieces.
Mechanical digestion begins in the mouth as the food is chewed.
79. What is meant by chemical digestion?
Chemical digestion involves breaking down the food into simpler nutrients that can be
used by the cells. Chemical digestion begins in the mouth when food mixes with saliva.
80. Where is amylase produced and what is it for?
The pancreas and salivary gland make amylase (alpha amylase) to hydrolyse dietary
starch into disaccharides and trisaccharides which are converted by other enzymes to
glucose to supply the body with energy.
81. Where is protease produced and what is it for?
Any enzyme that breaks down protein into its building blocks, amino acids, is called a
protease, which is a general term. Your pancreas makes trypsin and chymotrypsin,
enzymes that are released into your small intestine through the pancreatic duct. When
partially digested food moves from your stomach into your intestine, trypsin and
chymotrypsin complete protein digestion, producing simple amino acids that are
absorbed into your circulation.
82. Where is lipase produced and what is it for?
Lipase is an enzyme the body uses to break down fats in food so they can be absorbed in
the intestines. Lipase is produced in the pancreas, mouth, and stomach.
83. What is bile and why is it produced?
Bile is an alkaline substance produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder. It is
secreted into the small intestine, where it emulsifies fats. This is important, because it
provides a larger surface area in which the lipases can work.
84. What can change in pH do to an enzyme?
Changes in pH also alter an enzymes shape i.e. denaturing the active site. Different
enzymes work best at different pH values. The optimum pH for an enzyme depends on
where it normally works.
85. What is the ideal temperature for enzymes?
The optimum temperature for enzymes in the human body is around 37C.
86. What happens if temperature is too high?
As the temperature increases, so does the rate of reaction. But very high temperatures
denature enzymes. The enzyme activity gradually increases with temperature up to
around 37C, or body temperature. Then, as the temperature continues to rise, the rate
of reaction falls rapidly as heat energy denatures the enzyme.

87. Which enzymes are used in biological detergents and why?

Biological detergents and washing powders use lipases and proteases to break
down fat and protein molecules from food stains that have remained on clothing.
The fatty acids, glycerol and amino acids that are produced are removed in
the water during the washing process.
88. What is isomerise?
Isomerases are a general class of enzymes which convert a molecule from one isomer to
another.
89. Why do baby foods need to be pre-digested?
Babies don't have the proteases to digest baby food, so they are pre processed with
proteases to break the food down enough for a baby to absorb the nutrients
90. Why is yeast used in food production?
Through the process of fermentation, yeast converts sugars into carbon dioxide and
alcohol. These two by-products make yeast an extremely useful tool in food production.
Carbon dioxide is what gives alcoholic beverages such as beer and champagne their
characteristic bubbles and is also responsible for rising bread.

91. In industry enzymes are used to bring about reactions at normal pH and temperature
that would otherwise require expensive and demanding equipment. However, many
enzymes are denatured at high temperatures and are difficult to produce.
92. Why are resin beads used to solve this problem?
93. What is respiration?
A process in living organisms involving the production of energy, typically with the intake
of oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide.
94. Why is it needed?
Respiration is the only way of creating ATP (energy) and oxygen for our body.
95. What are mitochondria? What do they enable?
Mitochondrion is the site of aerobic respiration where ATP is produced.
96. What is the word equation for aerobic respiration?
Glucose + oxygen --- carbon dioxide + water (+energy)
97. What are the benefits of exercise on the heart?
Exercise lowers the chances of you getting diabetes, coronary heart disease, heart failure
and stroke.
98. What are the benefits of exercise on the lungs?
The primary function of the lungs is to deliver oxygen to and remove carbon dioxide from
the body. Regular exercise helps the pulmonary system work more efficiently and
enables the lungs to take in more oxygen. Even people who suffer from chronic lung
problems can benefit from regular physical activity. Exercise strengthens the limb
muscles and improves endurance, which reduces the breathlessness associated with
chronic lung conditions.
99. What are glycogen stores converted into during exercise?
The muscles store glucose as glycogen. This can then be converted back to glucose for
use during exercise.

100.

What is produced the faster aerobic respiration takes place?

During hard exercise, anaerobic respiration takes place as well as aerobic respiration. In
anaerobic respiration, the waste product, lactic acid, builds up in the muscles causing pain
and tiredness.

101.
Is aerobic respiration a long or short process?
Long.
102.
What is the difference between aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration?
Anaerobic respiration does not need oxygen for it to happen whereas aerobic respiration
requires oxygen. Anaerobic respiration releases much less energy per glucose molecule
than aerobic respiration does.
103.
What is meant by the term oxygen debt?
A temporary oxygen shortage in the body tissues arising from exercise.
104.
Why is less energy released?
Much less energy is released during anaerobic respiration than during aerobic respiration.
This is because the breakdown of glucose is incomplete. Anaerobic respiration produces
an oxygen debt.
105.
What is meant by the term genetics?
The genetic properties or features of an organism, characteristic
106.
What is meant by the term fertilisation?
The action or process of fertilizing an egg or a female animal or plant, involving the
fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote.
107.
What is the main structure in the nucleus of cells?
The main structures making up the nucleus are the nuclear envelope, a double
membrane that encloses the entire organelle.
108.
What are they found in?
109.
What is meant by diploid?
Diploid is a cell or organism that has paired chromosomes, one from each parent. In
humans, cells other than human sex cells, are diploid and have 23 pairs of
chromosomes.
110.
What is meant by haploid?
Haploid is the term used when a cell has half the usual number of chromosomes.
111.
What are genes?
A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes, which are made up of
DNA, act as instructions to make molecules called proteins.
112.
What is DNA?
Deoxyribonucleic acid is a molecule that carries most of the genetic instructions used in
the development, functioning and reproduction of all known living organisms and many
viruses.
113.
What are alleles?
An allele is a variant form of a gene. Some genes have a variety of different forms, which
are located at the same position, or genetic locus, on a chromosome. Humans are called
diploid organisms because they have two alleles at each genetic locus, with one allele
inherited from each parent.
114.
What is a genotype?
A genotype is an individual's collection of genes. The term also can refer to the two
alleles inherited for a particular gene. The genotype is expressed when the information
encoded in the genes' DNA is used to make protein and RNA molecules.
115.
What is a phenotype?
Phenotype is the physical appearance resulting from the inherited information.
116.
What is meant by the term homozygous?
When an individual has two of the same allele, whether dominant or recessive, they are
homozygous. Heterozygous means having one each of two different alleles.

117.
What is meant by the term heterozygous?
A diploid organism is heterozygous at a gene locus when its cells contain two different
alleles of a gene.
118.
If an allele is dominant what does it mean?
A dominant allele always shows, even if the individual only has one copy of the allele.
119.
When does a recessive allele show up?
A recessive allele only shows if the individual has two copies of the recessive allele.
120.
Who was George Mendel and what did he do?
Gregor Mendel is credited as the founder of the science of genetics. He identified many of
the rules of heredity. These rules determine how traits are passed through generations of
living things. Mendel saw that living things pass traits to the next generation by
something which remains unchanged in successive generations of an organism we now
call this something genes. Gregor also realized that traits could skip a generation
seemingly lost traits could appear again in another generation he called
these recessive traits. He identified recessive and dominant traits which pass from
parents to offspring. He also established, momentously, that traits pass from parents to
their offspring in a mathematically predictable way.
121.
What is meant by monohybrid inheritance?
Monohybrid inheritance is the inheritance of a single characteristic. The different forms
of the characteristic are usually controlled by different alleles of the same gene.
122.
Draw a table of inheritance using the alleles T for tall and t for short?

123.
Why must chromosomes make copies of themselves before division?
In order to ensure that when the cell divides, each daughter cell receives an identical
copy of the parent cell's genetic material.
124.
What is this called?
Mitosis
125.
How does this happen in terms of DNA?
Mitosis itself consists of five active steps, or phases: prophase, prometaphase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Before a cell can enter the active phases of
mitosis, however, it must go through a period known as interphase, during which it
grows and produces the various proteins necessary for division. Then, at a critical point
during interphase (called the S phase), the cell duplicates its chromosomes and ensures
its systems are ready for cell division. If all conditions are ideal, the cell is now ready to
move into the first phase of mitosis.
Prophase is the first phase of mitosis. During this phase, the chromosomes inside the
cell's nucleus condense and form tight structures. In fact, the chromosomes become so
dense that they appear as curvy, dark lines when viewed under a microscope. Because
each chromosome was duplicated during S phase, it now consists of two identical copies

called sister chromatids that are attached at a common center point called
the centromere.
Important changes also take place outside of the nucleus during prophase. In particular,
two structures called centrosomes move to opposite sides of the cell during this phase
and begin building the mitotic spindle. The mitotic spindle plays a critical role during the
later phases of mitosis as it orchestrates the movement of sister chromatids to opposite
poles of the cell.
Following prophase, metaphase begins. At the start of metaphase, the microtubules
arrange the chromosomes in a line along the equator of the cell, known as
the metaphase plate. The centrosomes, on opposite poles of the cell, then prepare to
separate the sister chromatids.
After metaphase is complete, the cell enters anaphase. During anaphase, the
microtubules attached to the kinetochores contract, which pulls the sister chromatids
apart and toward opposite poles of the cell. At this point, each chromatid is considered a
separate chromosome.
Finally, once anaphase is complete, the cell enters the last stage of the division process
telophase. During telophase, the newly separated chromosomes reach the mitotic
spindle and a nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes, thus creating
two separate nuclei inside the same cell. As Figure 4 illustrates, the cytoplasm then
divides to produce two identical cells.
126.

Where do freebases assemble?

127.
What is mitosis and how many cells does it produce?
Mitosis is a part of the cell cycle in which chromosomes in a cell nucleus are separated
into two identical sets of chromosomes, and each set ends up in its own nucleus. It
produces 2 cells each with 46 chromosomes.
128.
What is meiosis and where does it occur? How many cells does it produced?
Meiosis is the type of cell division by which gametes, are produced. Meiosis involves a
reduction in the amount of genetic material. It produces 4 daughter cells.
129. What is meant by the term differentiation?
Cellular differentiation is the process of a cell changing from one cell type to another.
Most commonly this is a less specialized type becoming a more specialized type, such as
during cell growth.
130.
Does this happen in adult cells in humans?
Differentiation continues in adulthood as adult stem cells divide and create fully
differentiated daughter cells during tissue repair and during normal cell turnover.
131.
Is cell division in plants restricted? Why?
Many plant cells keep the ability to differentiate as they are able to keep their totipotency
throughout their life.
132.
What are stem cells and where are they found?
A stem cell is a cell that is capable of developing into any type of cell. These stem cells
have been found in tissues such as the brain, bone marrow, blood and in the embryo.
133.
Do adults have stem cells? If so what are their properties?
Adult stem cells are undifferentiated cells found throughout the body that divide to
replenish dying cells and regenerate damaged tissues
134.
Pros:

Give four reasons for the use of stem cells in research and four reasons against.

 Adult stem cells can be reprogrammed and are less likely to be rejected when
used in transplants.
Embryonic stem cells can grow for at least a year in some cases, especially when
established protocols are used. These cells can also be used to generate more
cell types.
Induced pluripotent stem cells help avoid issues of histocompatibility in
transplants, and research on these cells will help reprogram diseased or
damaged tissues.
Cons:

Adult stem cells have limited ability to differentiate from others and are

extremely hard to grow for long period in culture. There is still no technology
available that would help generate these cells in large quantities.
Embryonic stem cells may not be accepted when used in transplants because

there is no process to generate them. They can even cause tumors when used
directly from undifferentiated culture prep.
Induced pluripotent stem cells usually have no certain method of maintenance

and reproducibility.
135.
What is cystic fibrosis?
Cystic fibrosis is an inherited disease caused by a faulty gene. This gene controls the
movement of salt and water in and out of your cells, so the lungs and digestive system
become clogged with mucus, making it hard to breathe and digest food.
136.
What is a polydactyl?
Polydactyly is an inherited condition in which a person has extra fingers or toes. It is
caused by a dominant allele of a gene. This means it can be passed on by just one
parent if they have the disorder.
137.
What is Huntingtons disease?
Huntington's disease is an inherited condition that damages certain nerve cells in the
brain.
138.
Why is it not possible to cure genetic diseases at the moment?
Genetic diseases, such as Cystic Fibrosis and Huntington's disease, are caused by small
differences in the DNA that we get from each of our parents. These differences affect
how we use a particular gene, and that leads to disease. So we can't really get rid of a
gene to cure a disease.
139.
What is possible?
Genetic testing can determine whether a person is carrying the alleles that cause genetic
disorders. But there are limits to the testing, and the subject raises a number of ethical
issues.
140.
What is meant by genetic fingerprinting?
DNA profiling (also called DNA fingerprinting, DNA testing, or DNA typing) is a forensic
technique used to identify individuals by characteristics of their DNA.

Biology 3 Questions:
1. Is blood a tissue?
Blood is considered a connective tissue for two basic reasons; embryologically, it has the
same origin as do the other connective tissue types and blood connects the body

systems together bringing the needed oxygen, nutrients, hormones and other signalling
molecules, and removing the wastes.
2. What is plasma? What does it contain?
Plasma is the largest component of blood, making up about 55% of its overall content.
It's mainly made of water and surrounds the blood cells, carrying them around the body.
Plasma helps maintain blood pressure and regulates body temperature. It contains a
complex mix of substances used by the body to perform important functions.
3. Describe the function of red blood cells.
Red blood cells contain haemoglobin is the protein inside red blood cells that carries
oxygen. Red blood cells also remove carbon dioxide from your body, transporting it to the
lungs for you to exhale.
4. Describe the function of phagocytes and lymphocytes.
Phagocytes are a type of cell within the body capable of engulfing and absorbing bacteria
and other small cells and particles. Lymphocytes are a form of small leucocyte (white
blood cell) with a single round nucleus, occurring especially in the lymphatic system.
5. Describe the function of platelets.
Platelets are little pieces of blood cells. Platelets heal wounds and prevent bleeding by
forming blood clots. Platelets are made in your bone marrow.
6. What is a pulse?
A pulse is the regular throbbing of the arteries, caused by the successive
contractions of the heart, especially as may be felt at an artery, as atthe wrist.
7. Why do animals need a transport system?
As the size of an organism increases, its surface area to volume ratio decreases. This
means it has relatively less surface area available for substances to diffuse through, so
the rate of diffusion may not be fast enough to meet its cells requirements.
Large multicellular organisms therefore cannot rely on diffusion alone to supply their cells
with substances such as food and oxygen and to remove waste products. Large
multicellular organisms require specialised transport systems.
8. What are the four main chambers of the heart?
There are the left atria, left ventricle, right atria and the right ventricle.
9. How does blood travel around the heart?
Oxygen you breathe in from the air passes through your lungs into your blood
through the many capillaries in the lungs. Oxygen-rich blood moves through your
pulmonary veins to the left side of your heart and out of the aorta to the rest of
your body.
10. Describe an artery and its function.
An artery is a vessel that carries blood away from the heart and toward other tissues and
organs. Arteries are part of the circulatory system, which delivers oxygen and nutrients
to every cell of the body.
11. Describe a vein and its function.
Veins are the blood vessels that carry deoxygenated blood from parts of our body back to
the heart.
12. What are capillaries?
Capillaries are the smallest of the body's blood vessels. They are only one cell thick, and
they are the sites of the transfer of oxygen and other nutrients from the bloodstream to
other tissues in the body; they also collect carbon dioxide waste materials and fluids for
return to the veins.
13. Why is a double circulatory system more efficient than a single system?

Double circulation systems deliver greater blood flow rate to tissues around the body
because the heart pumps the oxygenated blood returned to it from the lungs. This is
useful because when blood passes through the lungs its pressure is reduced.
14. What are cardiac cells?
Cardiac muscle cells are the muscle cells that make up the cardiac muscle.
15. What is a stent?
A stent is a small mesh tube that's used to treat narrow or weak arteries
16. What are the problems of blood transfusions?
Some infectious agents, such as HIV, can survive in blood and infect the person receiving
the blood transfusion.
17. What are the advantages and disadvantages of: saline, perfleurocarbons and artificial
haemoglobin?
Perfleurocarbons:
- PFCs are cheap and easy to manufacture in large quantities, can be stored at room
temperature for up to two years - as opposed to weeks, have no RF type and so can
be mixed safely with any blood group without the need to check first.
Clinically, patients must be maintained on high concentration oxygen supplementation
both before and after administration of PFC compounds. At a point the PFC portion
loses the ability to transfuse oxygen into tissue while still retaining some in solution.
Artificial haemoglobin:

Transfused blood is currently more cost effective, but there are reasons to believe this
may change. For example, the cost of blood substitutes may fall as manufacturing
becomes refined. Hemoglobin-based blood substitutes may increase the odds of
deaths and heart attacks.

18. What are the advantages of mechanical and biological heart valves?
Mechanical:
- The primary advantage of mechanical valves is that they will last a patients
lifetime. Mechanical valves are preferred for patients with life expectancies
beyond 10-15 years because they eliminate the mortality risk inherent in the
replacement of a worn out tissue valve.
Biological:
-

The primary advantage of tissue valves is their lower requirement for

anticoagulation therapy, which reduces the incidence of bleeding. For the majority
of tissue valve patients, taking an aspirin a day is sufficient anticoagulation
therapy. Many patients with tissue valves, however, do not enjoy this benefit due
to anticoagulation requirements for other heart or vascular conditions.
19. What are the advantages and disadvantages of artificial hearts?
In cases where a patient has severe heart disease/damage/failure, a heart transplant is
necessary. However, there is often a shortage of compatible heart donors available meaning that many people die while on the waiting list.
Artificial (man-made) hearts provide an alternative as they replicate the function of the
heart. But current designs have not proved to be very successful in the long term, and
are prone to blood clotting within them. Therefore, artificial hearts are only used as a
short-term measure to keep patients alive until a biological donor heart can be found.