New Horizons of PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Mohit Bhattacharyaieee Co we ee id Contents Preface ‘ vei 1. Public Administration: Nature, Scope & Evolution oe A Science of Administration 2 Politics-Administration Dichotomy, 3 Public Administration and Management or Business Administration 3 Comparative Public Administration 3 Defining the Discipline 4 ‘The Public Interest 5 Evolution of Public Administration Z New Public Administration 10 Values u Social Equity u Change i ~ Minnowbrook-II (1988) 12 ‘An Overview 14 Minnowbrook III Conference (2008) 14 Conference Theme 15 ‘The Minnowbrook III Phase One (September 3-5): 15 ‘The Minnowbrook III Phase “Two(September 5-7) 16 Looking Back to Look Forward 17 Concluding Observations 18 Public Choice Approach 18, Critical Theory and Public Organisations 19 ‘The Public Service Approach 20 Summing up 21 Organisational Effectiveness ..........24 Efficiency in Government 25 Meaning of Efficiency 27 Public-Private Dichotomy .. .29 Privatisation movement 30 methods of Privatisation 31 How Different is Public Sector? 31 A Balanced View 2 4. Approaches, Principles and Theories 34 Administrative Theories Organisation Theories Nature and Typologies of Organisation ‘Typologies by Goal or Functions ‘Typologies on the Basis of Compliance ‘Typologies on the Basis of the Consumer ‘Two Approaches Criticism Classical Theory of Management Universality of Management Principles Parkinson's Law Fayol’s Followers Mary Parker Follett Criticism Bureaucratic Theory . Marx on Bureaucracy Roberto Michels ‘The Weberian Model ‘The Origins of Bureaucracy Theory of Domination Bureaucratic Structure Characteristics of Bureaucracy Three Aspects of Weber’ Theory Critique of Weber ‘The Gender Issue in Bureaucracy Traditional Theory Human Relations Approach Neo-Human Relationists Chester Barnard ‘Systems Approach ‘What is a System? Relevance of Organisation Theory Situational Theories Technology How Important is Technology? 44 36 36 38 38 39 39 41 4 4B 44 44 45 46 49 50 53 53 53 54 55 57 58 50 6 . 64 64 64 65 66 68 69 69 Ww m1 2Environment and Organisation Ax “Two Studies 72 Overvicw 75 The Closed and Open Models (CM and OM) 76 Goals, Policies and Implementation 79 Meaning 7” Effectiveness 81 Goal-Seiting in Government 82 Policy-making in Government 82 Need for Policy Analysis 83 Political Science and Public Administration 84 Models df Public Policy at 1. Institutionalism 85, 2. Group'Theory 85 3. Elite Theory 85 4, Rational Model 85 5. Incrementalism. 37 6. Game Theory 88 7. Systems Theory 88 ‘typologies of Public Policy 89 A Different Approach 0 Summing Up ww Implementation 1 Suceess/Failure 1 Recent Advances in’Policy Studies) 92 Strategic Policy 93 Volicy Transter’ 93 Post-Positivist Policy suudy 94 Planning, Organisation and Structural Concepts. Nature of Planning The Planning Process Planning-Programming-Budgeting 97 Organisational Structure, 98 Structure 8 Departmentation in Government 99 ‘Two Aspects of Structure 101 Hierarchy 102 ‘Authority 103 10. i. Other Concepts 103 Line and Staff 105 different Kinds of Staff Agencies 106 Centralisation and Decentralisation 107 Delegation 107 Decentralisaion 108 Matrix Organisation 41 Administrative Processes: Decision Making... Decision Making: [Approaches to Decision-Making Mixed Scanning The Garbage Can Model Nature of Decisions Programmed and Non-programmed Decisions 116 Simon's Behaviour Alternative Model 117 Organisational Context of Detistons’ 118 13 113 113 15 16) 116 Communication, Control, Motivation Leadership. 20 Nature and Meaning, Perceptual Process Formal and {nformal Communication Control in Organisations Nature and Meaning Control Devices Other, Agencies of Control Behavioural Lmplications of Control ‘Theory X Theory Y, ‘Maslow’s: Need Elierarchy Concept Control and Motivation Herzberg’s Motivation 1) Control Seructure Leadership in Organisations Coordination Interorganisational Relations ‘Three Different, Perspectives Interdepartmental Relauons), Semi-independent Agencies 14.141 143 Competition and Conflict ‘Theoretical Support 12. Politics and Administration ...........145 Politicians and Administrators 145 evel Bureaucracy, 147 ntative Bureaucracy, 148 Neutrality versus Commitment 1ay Areas and Modes of Interaction Politics of Planning ‘Top Management Level 13< Public Administration and the Publi Interaction Typology 162 Development Administration 163 Concepuualtssues 163 Research Findings 164 Government Response 168 Limits of Publicness 168 Instiuttional Devices 169 The Ombudsman, 170 The Procurator!9 m7 ‘The Administrative Courts 171 The Indian Response fr Indian Scenario principles involved 14. Administrative Reform ........-.. Meaning of Reform Conditions of Reform 7 Types of Reform 179 Reform Process 180 Implementation 182 Evaluation 184 Administrative Reforms in Practice 184 World Bank's Reforms Experiences 185 Cautionary Remarks 186 Summing up 187 15. Comparative Public Administration... Basic Interest and Evolution 188 Features of CPA 189 Methodologies and Models 189 16. 17. “Two Models 190 Problems of Application 191 Current Status wt Future Prospect 192 Development Administration... 193. ‘The Riggsian Model 194 Later Modifications 196 Bureaucratie Culture 197 Specificity of Development Administration 198 Evaluation 201 Earlier Emphasis 20 Perceptual Dilemma 202 New Orientation 203 Micro-Level Planning. 204 Constitutional Amendment 208 Public Personnel Administration....207 Objectives of Personitel’ Mihagenient | 207 Personnel Functions or Processes 208 The Civil Service 208 Significance of Personnel Management 209 Development and New Personnel ‘System 20 Changing Scenario au Types of Bureaucracy 212 Advantages of Bureaucratic System 213, Disadvantages of Burexiicratic System’ 213 Position Classification 213 Reeruitment 25 Merit System. 216 Spoils Systemt 216 Process of Recruitment 27 Location of the Reeriiting Authority 217 Recruitment from within and Recruitment from without 217 Qualifications of the Employees 218 General Qualifications 218 Special Qualifications 219 Methods of Determining Qualifications 219 Determination of Qualifications 2 ‘Training 24\ | i | 18, ‘Types of Training ‘Training in the Third World Career Development Significance of Effective Career Development Hindrances to Career Development Performance Appraisal Promotion Essentials of Promotion System Principles of Promotion Principle of Seniority The Principle of Merit Methods of Testing Merit ‘A, Promotional Examination B. Efficiency Ratings or Service Records C. Personal Judgement of the Head Concluding Observation Financial Administration Current Trend Meaning of Financial Administration ‘The Concept of Budget Evolution of Budgetary Thought: Economic and Social Implications of Budget Budgetary Processes, Budget types Accounts and Audit Accounts Standards of Public Accounting Accounting in India Separation of Accounts and Audit Audit Pre-Audit and Post-Audit Functions of an Auditor ‘Comptroller and Auditor-General of India Functions Audit of Expenditure ‘Audit against Rules and Orders ‘Audit against Propriety Zero-Buse Budgeting (ZBB) 222 224 25 225 225 228 228 228 228 228, 229 19. The New Public Managemen Evolutionary Sketch Traditional Public Administration 246 Post-Weber/Post-Wilson conception of Public Administration 247 Changes in Advanced Countries 250) The CAPAM Conference 252 Components of NPM 252 An Overview 254 NPM and Traditional Public Administration 20, Good “Governance” The Context Civil Society 24, Governmental Accountability ... Accountable to Whom ? 262 ‘Two connotations: 263 ‘Types of Accountability 264 ‘Tools of Accountability 266 Accountability and Paradigms of Public Administration 267 Accountability under ‘good governance’ 22. Social Accountability ‘Social Accountability’ Defined 273 “Two Kinds of Accountability 274 Building Blocks 274 Information: 275 Voice: 275 Negotiation: 275 New Generation of Social Accountability 276 Relation with Traditional Mechanisms 277 Cross-Cultural Evidences 278 ‘What is Social Audig(SD)? 279 What does SD ig 279 How could it be%f use to Total Community?» 280, Effectiveness 281Appropriate institutional level 281 Concluding Observations 281 23. Administrative Ethics .. 283 Internal Checks vs. External Accountability 284 Societal Culture and Ethies 285 24, Globalisation and Public Administration. Managing Globalisation 286 Perspective of Public Administration 287 The Globalisation Discourse 288 Value Questions 289 Operating Issues 291 Capacity-building 201 25. Postmodernism and Public Administration... Modernity Postmodernism Cognitive Relativism 293 Postmodernist Public Administration 294 Concluding Observations 295 26. Civil Society and Governance. Background ‘Two Modes of Social Development 296 ‘Contemporary Background 297 Definitional Problem 297 Civil Societies in Developing Societies 299 Roles and Activities 299 Givil Society and Governance 300 Civil Society in the Context of Globalisation! 301 Challenges Facing Civil Society 302 Civil Society and the “Democracy Deficit” 304 Concluding Observations 305 27. Right to Information... e Background: Democracy and RTI 306 »»Need-for the Right to Information . 307 UN and Donor Agencies 307 ‘World Bank Policy 308 28, Participation and Governance UNDP Policy! 308 CHRI Workshop 309 The Role of NGOs 3 Implementation Processes of RTI 3 Comparative Experiences 33 Information Law in India 315 The Right to Information Act, 2005° 316 Information Commissions Public Information Officers Procedure Concluding Observations ance Participative Gover Background of ‘Development’ Critique of Participation and Participation Ladder 321 Development as Enlargement of People’s Choice 322 ‘Meaning of Participation 323 Conventional Meaning 323 (Operational Meaning 323 Stakeholders 324 Forms of Participation 324 Advantages of Participation 325 Preconditions of Participation 326 Barriers to Participation 326 Caste Barriers 326 Class Barriers 326 Gender Inequality 327 Lack of Motivation 327 Lack of Capacity 327 Political Constraints 327 Participatory Development 328 Participation in Use 328 Repositioning Participation 329 Overview 329 29. E-Government E-government vs. E-governance 330 Defining E-Government 331 Background 331 The Moral Framework 33230. 3. Constraints and Facilitators 332 Broad Objectives 333 Administrative Reform 334 E-government as a New Paradigm 334 ‘Techniques of Administrative Improvement.. Background Work and Method Study ‘What is Work Study? Benefits of Work Study. Components of Work Study 336 Merhoil Study 336 Benefits 336 Procedure 336 ‘Time Study 337 Benefits 337 Inpats and Outputs 337 Defining Gantt Chart 337 CPM & PERT 338 Network Theory: Impact on Public Administration. 341 O"Toole’s Description 341 Administrative Reality 342 ‘The Concept 342 Contemporary Governance 343 Need for Change 343 “Governance’ and “Network” 344 Background of Networking 344 Reality of Governance 344 Hierarchy versus Network (NW) 345 Three Levels of Networks 346 Practical Problems eae ae Generations of Network Theorists 348 Concluding Observations 348 . Feminism and Public Administration .. 350 ‘Waves’ of Feminism 350 Impact on Public Administration 351 Stivers’ Main Thesis 351 Stivers’ ‘Bureau Men, Settlement ‘Women’s 350 33. Literature on Feminism 354 Equity Feminism 355 “Other Voice’ Feminism. 355 Leadership Discourse 356 Core Thinking on “Equity” 357 Post-modemnist Thinking 337 Masculine Imagery, 358 PA Theory and Feminism: A Summing Up 359 Research Findings 300 Representative Bureaucracy 340 Concluding Observations 361 Disaster Management 363 Developing Countries 363 Defining Disaster Management (DM) 303 DM:A Special Type of Public ‘Administration 363 “Types of Disasters 364 Need for Sustainable Development 365 A. Mitigation 365 B. Preparedness 365 C. Response 366 1. Humanitarian Action 366 2, Proper Response 366 D. Recovery 366 Early Warning System 367 Disaster Risk Reduction 368 Integrated Eaosystem Approach 368 Livelihood Pinning 369 Development and Disaster 370 International Response 370 ‘The Hyogo Conference4 a7 ‘A. National institutional and legislative frameworks 372 B, Resources 372 C. Community participation 372 Disaster Insurance, .; 372 Role of Microinsurance 374 34. Administrative’ Corruption: Concept, Causes and Cure ... 377 ‘Why Contemporary Interest? 377Definitional Issues Public choice theory and corruption Many Forms10 Four Divergent Views Diverse Approaches Political and Administrative Corruption State Capture ‘Corruption: Causal Variables Klitgzard Formula Multi-causal Phenomenon 1. Political Factors 2. Historical Factors 3. Social and Cultural Factors 4. Beonomic Factors Remedies and Strategies Three Strategies UN Document (2003)34 Corruption and Governance World Bank’s latest Policy Document Corruption and Development Strategies Anti-Corruption Agencies “Types of Agencies Singapore Case: Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau (CPIB) Hong Kong Case: Independent Commission against Corruption (ICAC) Code of Conduct Concluding Observations |. Public Administration in ‘Transition ‘The UN Perspective Rethinking Public Administration Scholarly Responses Traditional Public Administration ‘Six Old Chestnuts’ Four Emerging Models Donald Ker! on Changing Public Administration Frederickson's Observations Concluding Observations IndexCharter 1 FE Public Administration: Nature, Scope & Evolution oncrete understanding of public ( administration is easy. We board. a tain or a bus run by a government agency, Patients are admitted to government-run hospitals. The police constables maintain law and order. So, there are innumerable activities that the government undertakes. Welfare state means more government functions. In the third world, government is involved in many sectors of social life: economic, cultural, social, segulatory, productive and many others. This has been necessary because of the management need for socio-economic leadership from the govertiment, Unlike the developed West, the Third Worlds development has basically been government-led. Public administration as visible public-serving activity is before everyone's gare. Public administration isa system of organisation and action oriented with performance of these activities. It éan best be looked at as an instrument that is used for the realisation of the goils of government. Just as societies have their political systems and economic systems, they also have their public administrative systems. [AS an aspect of government activity, public adntitiseration has been coexisting with every political system as the action part of government for the fulfilment of the objectives set by the political decision makers. Functioning of the machineries of government has attracted the attention of scholars and observers since the ‘time of recorded history. Kautilya’s Arthasastra, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana contain. many insightful observations about the organisation and working of government, In the history of western political thought, Aristotle's Politics and Machiavelli's The Prince are important contributions to both political and administrative issues and ideas. As a field of systematic study, public administration cannot, however, claim a long history. In the eighteenth century, the German scholars in Western Europe felt interested in this branch of academic inquiry. Two great systems of public administration had developed in the West: the Anglo-American and the French. ‘The first, as Leonard White has pointed out, has been “based on a deep-seated preference for self-government in local communities, wide citizen participation, dispersion of authority, well-established responsibility of the administrative system to the legislative body and the responsibilty of officials to the ordinary civil courts at the instance of the private citizen”. In contrast, the French system which was formulated by Napoleon has been “based on the concentration of executive power, on the dominance of national over local authorities, on the proféssionalization of the public service and its psychological separation from the body of citizens and on the responsibility of officials to a separate set of administrative courts,” Despite such sharp contrasts, the two systems have come much closer over the years with2 New Horizons of Public Administration democratic and industrial changes in the West in recent times. With the growing importance of government in the wake of expanding public functions, public adininistration became highly complex and more and more specialised The need for better niamagement of public affairs through scientific studies and analysis of government working and for training of public employees was voiced by practitioners aiid academies slike: Te is in the United Stares of America that the eed was mote keenly felt, although the Germans Started adniinistranve analysis sitch earlier in practical rerms. An essay by Woodrow Wilson published in 1887 is considered to be the symbolic harbinger of 4 fairly autonomous inquiry. To qitore Wilson's memorable comment! "There shoul be a science of adininistration which shall seek to straighter: the paths of government, to make its business less business Jive, tor strengthen and putifiy its organisation vd! to’ crown its duttes with dutifulnes:"" Woodrow Wilson's contribution to public ministration ean be seen from four interlinked indicators: i) Advocacy of a ‘science of administra on"; ii) Emphasis en the special nature of ad- ministation distinguishing adminiétes- tion froth polities; iii) Apparent predilection’ for privare oF busities administration: iv) "Prompt initiitive for Comparative study of administration Wilson’s 1887 article on “The Science of Administration’, which is, regarded as the foundation essay for the field, yas written, at a time (in the Jace nineteenth century) when the topic of public administration was established as a profession and an academic study. The crying -ed was fo eliminate corruption. improve efficiency and streamline service delivery system in pursuit of public interest. In the 1880s reformers reacted sharply against abuses at all levels: the city, state and national governments. One of the voices of reform was Woodrow ‘Wikon, A lawyer trained at the’ University of Virginia, he went on to study political economy at Johns Hopkins University. His interest was simply designing governments and policies Wikon accordingly, shifted bis focus front Grea, Britain to Germany, particularly Prussia; to learnt from the German ethos—one of the leading centres of public administrative development. A-SCIENCE OF ADMINISTRATION Wilson's advocacy that “there should be a sci of administration” has to be seen in the hist cal context, Writing against the background of widespread corruption, ‘science’ meant to Wilson a systematic and disciplined body of knowledge which he thought would be the latest fruit of the science of politics. Also he was critical of the fact that the American administrative practice was devoid of any, scientific method, By con- trast, he thought administrative science was well developed in Europe in the hands of the French and German academics. European governments, in his view, were independent of popular assent, “There were more “governments” in those coun- tries and a natural desire to discover newer prin— ciples of administration.An important reason for the slow growth of the science of administration in America was, in Wilon’s view, the reigning concept of popular sovereignty—"the mulsi- tudinots yoice called public opinion”, More important than the arid debate on constitutional principles was the need for the systematic analy- sis of administration leading to the development of a ‘science of administration’. Hence, Wilson wrote!“ is Setting hander to rin a constitution thin to Write one” In his view, the teal chal- lefige Was not ‘simply how authority would be ope anc is bi anvolPublic Adiiinistration: Nature, Stope & Evolution 3 defined but how it was to be actually used’ on regular basis by those administrators who must operate the ongoing functions of government and implement new policies. Pourrics-ADMINISTRATION DicHOTOMY When Wilson said that administration was “removed from the hurry and strife of politics,” the stress was to curve out an untarnished field esgential for proper and efficient minagement of government’ business. His objective was clear but his statement was possibly naive: His basic argument was that administrators could concentrate on operating the government rather that on substituting their judgément for that of elected representatives. ft was this idea that came to be called the politics-administration dichotomy. He sought to make a distinction between ‘political activity’ and ‘administrative activity’ in public organisations, Adntinistration, in his view, lies outside the sphere of politics and administrative issues are not political questions. ‘Although Wilson is regarded as the originator Of the idea of politics-administration dichotomy, ie will be wnifair to present only an one-sided view. As other scholars have pointed out, Wilson was ‘well aware of the fact that public administration Was essentially political in narure. He wrote later in 1891: “Administration cannot be divorced from its connections with the other branches of Public Law without being distorted and robbed of its truc significance. Its foundations are those deep and permanent principles of Politics.” Punic Apminisrration AND MANAGEMENT ‘on Business ADMINISTRATION Wilson wanted to make government business “less un-busineslike’. As he wrote, “Administration is business and like business it does not tnvolve itself in questions of politics.” Analysts have pointed our tht the “basic premise of ‘Wilson's argument was that the affairs of public administration were synonymous with those of private administration. The central concerns of business administration viz., ccortomy, efficiency and effectiveness, should also be the concerns of ‘public administration. ‘Again, there are others who are quick to observe that what Wilson wanted was that *gdininistrators could study mechanisms or administration not only in ase by other governments but also by those employed in private industry ‘Wilson knew it very well that government was different. As Wilson himself wrote, “Business like the administrations of government may and should be—but it is not business. It 1s organic life” While professionalization was advocated in the management of government, Wilson was well aware of the wider agenda of public administration, Comparative Punic ADMINISTRATION ‘Wilion may be’ regarded as the founder of comparative public administration, He became a student of German so that he could stady the practices of the then leading (Prussian) government in the development of public administration techniques. Despite his advocacy ‘of comparative method, Wilson was cleat in his rind that administration stands on different bases in deméeratic and other states. He recognized that lessons learned from other countries would have to be “filtered ‘through the culeural Jens of the person seeking to lear those lessons and borrow: techniques. One need not accept Prussian government and life styles to learn ffom their public management experience" To conclude, Wilso was a ‘scholar- administracor who was deeply engrossed hoth in the theory and practice of goverument. His,4 New Horizons of Public Administration writings were conditioned by the tone and temper of his times. Peter Self observes, his basic postulate was that “it was possible to, achieve a sel-sufficient ‘science’ of administrative means, 30 constructed as to, leave administrators perfectly amenable to political leadership (of any type) while remaining. free of political considerations in the conduct of their work. Wilson's theories may have been naive, but they provided an ideological basis tor measures which most people approved: namely. the curbing-of political patronage, the advancement of professional skills and a tighter framework of internal administrative co-ordination.” Denne THe Disernve Public administrauon as a specialised academic field deals essentially with the machinery and procedures of government as these are used in the effective performance of government activities Administration has been defined as a co- operative human effort toward achieving some common goals. Thus defined, administration can be found in, various institutional settings such a a business firm, hospital, a university, government department and so on, Asan aspect of this. generic concept, public administration 1s that species of administration which operates within a specific political setting. It a means by which the policy decisions made by the political decision makers are carried out." Public administration is decision making, planning the work to be done, formulating objectives and goals, workang with the legislature and citizen ‘organisations to gain public support and funds for government programmes, establishing and revising organisation, directing and. supervising eanployees, providing leadership, communicating and receiving communications, determining work methods and procedures, appraising performance, exercising controls and other functions performed by government executives and supervisors. It 1s the action part of government, the means by which the purposes and goals of government are realised," Dwight ‘Waldo, the veteran public administration analyst cautioned us against the dangers of ‘defining’ public administration, As Waldo said, “The immediate effect of all one sentence or one paragraph definitions of public administration 1s ‘mental paralysis rather than enlightenment aud stimulation.” All definitions seck to narrow down and limit the meaning of objects and in, this effort, clarity and wnderstanding suffer. Being an action and execunive field of government, public admunistration has never had a settled boundary. ‘The activities of government have expanded and contracted on, contextual circumstances. ‘An academic subject seeking to develop a body of knowledge on public administration has to reckon with the shifting boundaries of government in society. “The basic concerns of public administration asa field of study would therefore include (a) structures of public organisations dealing mainly with the way executive organisations are formed, readjusted and reformed, (b) administrative processes denoting the dynamic aspects of organisation such as communication, control and decision-making, (c) bureaucratic behaviour with ‘emphasis on the interpersonal and inter-group relationships in organisational settings and (d) organisation-environment interactions covering the influential and meaningful relationships that are found to exist between public administration and its surrounding forces and factors in the environment. The study of structures, processes and behaviour has been greatly facilitated by the emerging sub-diseipline of organisation theory. Its impact on public administration as an academic field has been considerable in recent times, Efforts haye been made to relate public administration to its environment ‘in much ee eae ee Ts testhe someway, that: the science of ecology as concerned with the mutual relations between ‘organisms and their environment,” The ‘public’ aspect in public administration lends special character to 1t. The. adjective ean ‘be looked at formally, wo mean ‘government’. So, public administration, is, government ‘sduunistration, the focus being specifically, on ‘Public bureaucracy. This isthe meaning commonly ‘gsed.in discussing public administration, A wider ng of ‘public’ admmnistration has sought to ‘expand its ambit by including any admnistration ‘that has considerable impact on the public. From this aspect,a private electricity. undertaking like the Calcutta Electric Supply Corporation can be considered a fit subyect of discussion under public administration. It 1s, however, in the first sense that public adnunistratuion is usually dered. There has been a view point that government’ as a phenomenon is so diverse mgltifaceted that no single discipline can jopolise ts study. Topics like political science, logy, economics, business administration others have been discussing several aspects government and its administration from the vis of each discipline. The discipline of lic Administration, has to. acknowledge this ity. of approaches and yet build up its ways of dealing with the phenomenon administration, As Resenbloom has opined %, "Public administration does involve activity, is concerned, with politics and. policy making, i tends to be concentrated in the executive inch of government, it does differ from ivate administration and it is concerned with ementing law" Necessarily, the discipline of lic Admimstration has to have a wide scope. ;ondingly, its definition has to reflect its bus character. To quote Rosenbloom again, Public Administration is the use of managerial, and political theories and processes to fulfil islative, executive and judicial governmental Public Administration: Nature, Scope & Evolution 5 mandates for the provision of regulatory and service functions for the society as. a whole or for some segments of it” One inay go a step further and add that economic, sociological and behavioural science theories are all relevant to the study of public administration, ‘Tue Pusuic Interest Discussions of public administration have generally been concerned with efficiency and economy. The underlying idea has been to see that administration becomes tesult-oriented and productive by spending least resources. Alongside this efficient approach, there has been a growing concern about what may broadly be called ‘morality’ or “ethics” in public administtation Government has a universalistic character, It has to serve the ‘common good without makinig any sort of distinction between man and nian Efficiency in government has thus a moral tone. Ivis against this background that a broad theory of public interest has emerged to provide a general framework for the functioning of public administration. ‘The-concern for public interest can be traced toa variety of reasons. Indeed, the members of the bureaucracy constitute a power elite. They are likely to take decisions in self-interest o under pressure from powerful interest groups. In either case, public interest may be in jeopardy. Another argument’has been that the bureaucracy is a mindless machine that turns out decasions me~ chanically. The tule-bound administration may look very neat and tidy, but it may not be able to serve the wider cause of public interest. Still another argument can be derived from Herbert Simon's discussion on administrative decision making According to Simon, adininistrative decisions are often based on grounds other than those of efficiency and economy, Social and6 New Horizons of Public Administration psychological factors greatly influence the way decisions are taken by the decision-makers. The importance of sense of public interest as a wider ethical commitment in public administration assumes significance in this context. As it has bee very aptly commented upon: “The most frequently hidden agenda in the deliberations of public servants is che effect of substantive or procedural decisions upon the personal lives and fortunes of those deliberating, and yet the very call to serve a larger public often evokes a degree of selflessness and nobility on the part of public servants beyond the capacity of cynics to recognise or to believe. Man's feet may wallow in the bog of self-interest, but his eyes and ears are strangely attuned to calls from the mountaintop. As moral philosophy bas insistently claimed, there is a fundamental moral distinction beqween the propositions:'T want this becauise 1 serves. my interest’ and % want this because.itis right." Philosophies of public interest fall broadly into four classes. The very intuitionist philosophy secks to justify existing practices by pointing out that in condlicting situations, the administrator chooses an alternative by intuition. In other words, what the administrator actually does is an intuitionist solution which seems to him the right course ofaction under given circumstances: ‘This philosophy does not provide any guideline for action, nox does it spell outan explicit theory of public mterest. Perfetionism, the second philosophical school, views public interest from the standpoint of promotion of excellence in all spheres of social activities, Public resources, according: to this school of thought, should be spent in such a way that the best members of the society benefit most from the expenditure. Thus conceived, perfectionism is an elitist philosophy and obviously anti-egalitarian; as such, itis 1 compatible with democratic theory. Utilitarianism, a8 propounded by Jeret Bentham and John Stuart Mill, has been ¢ most influential school of thought in ¢ determination of public interest. According utilitarian philosophy, the public interest is ser when a public policy makes everyone sligh better off even though it makes a few individe slightly worse off. Under the utilitarian calcu public interest is judged by the augnientation the net balance of social satisfaction, ‘The fourth major ethical framework | public admifistration can be derived fr the Theory of Justice as propounded by | philosopher, John Rawls, in his monumer work on the subject." Rawls’s principles essentially ‘an elaboration of the Anglo-Sa concept of fairness and these come close what is called in economics ‘Pareto optimal Rawls suggests two basic principles of justice test public interest. One of these is that "e person is to have an equal right to the m extensive basic liberty compatible with a sim berty for others” The other principle postu that “social and economic inequalities are to arranged so that they are both (a) reason: expected to be to everyone's advantage and attached to positions and offices open to all’ case of conflict between these two princi the second principle is expected to pre and give way to the first, Rational decisi making in public administration has to have ethical framework. The principles of John Ri provide an operating logic for the determina of public interest by the decision-makers. “The intuitionist philosophy justifies starus and is of very litee help in actual administr situations. The perfectionist philosophy fav excellence at the expense of social equalit ig patently anti-democratic: Utiitarian calc has the merit of emphasising total social gPublic Administration: Nature, Scope & Evolution 7 but it also accepts the position that few may be worse off, Compared to all these philosophical positions, the formulation of Rawls seems much more balanced and, as rightly observed by Nicholas Henry, it represents a workable way for determining the public interest by public administrators."! EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION The study of public administration, as Peter Self points out, ‘developed as an offshoot of political science, or public law and until recently administration as an academic subject was the ‘very plain step-sister of these older disciplines:"* Tt has not always been easy to get access to government departments; hence, the world of administration has rarely been an open one. Also, the technicalities of administration have not been particularly interesting to the scholars, With the expansion of government activities and with more and more concern for both efficiency and accountability, discussions slowly started on better performance of the public sector, The movement for governmental reform sathered momentum especially in the United States of America, where intellectual efforts were systematically expanded for the steady development of an exclusive body of knowledge on the structure and functioning. of public administration. The evolution of public administration as a specialised field of study falls into a number of critical stages, The first stage can be called the era of politics-administration dichotomy. Politics-administration dichotomy is often traced 10. the Wilsonian, call for a science of administration, which, as Waldo has pointed out, goes back to much earlier European adnvinistrative traditions. Ir has been questioned: to what extent Wilson desired. separation between the two. Functionally, administration was separated from politics. Administration, it was argued, is concerned with implementation of policy decisions taken politically. Frank Goodnow sought to conceptually distinguish the two finctions.'* According to him, Politics has to do with policies or expressions of the state will”and “Administration has to do with the execution of these policies.” Apart from: this analysic distinction, the institutional locations of these two functions were differentiated. The location of politics was identified as the legislature and the higher echelons of government where major policy-decisions would be made and the larget questions of allocation of values decided upon. By contrast, the location of administration was identified as the executive arm of government, the bureaucracy, “The processes of administration, it was argued, have a certain regularity and concreteness about them and these are amenable to scientific investigations which are likely to lead toa science of administration. The second stage of evolution is marked by the tendency to reinforce the idea of polities administration dichotomy and to evolve avaluc~ free ‘science of management’. The ‘public’ aspect of public administration was virtually dropped at this stage and the focus, was almost wholly on efficiency. This stage can be called the stage of orthodoxy, 3s efforts were underway to delineate firmly, the boundaries of a new discipline, of ‘management’, Public administration merged into the new science. The questions of ‘value’ were no longer bothering the new: science of administration, Politics as practised by the politicians was considered irrelevant. Scientific ‘management to efficiently handle the ‘business’ of administration became the slogan. Principles of management. were worked out as ready- made aids to practitioners, The adnunistrative practitioners and the business schools joined8 New Horizons of Public Administration hands to emphasise the mechanistic aspect of management untrammelled by the whims of politicians and the frailties of human beings. The merger of public administration and general management has not been a totally fruitless friendship. Certain aspects of administration sach a¢ the structures and processes of publi¢ organisations were put to more Figorous analysis but the excesses of scientific management triguered 4° series of reactions against the mechanistic concept of adminiseration which the new movement sought to establish. Studies on private firms revealed new data about che actual working of organisations. The findings might have their origins in private management, bout these were general enough to embrace all organisations both private and public, ‘The most notable contribution, in this connection, cathe from the fons Hawthorne experiments inthe late 1920s executed by a group of scholars at the Hawthorne Plant of the Westetn Electric Company." The experiments, focussed upon work groups, shook the foundation of the scientific manageiient school by demonstrating the powe#fil influence oF social and’ psychological factors on the work siquation."The mechanistic notion of organisition was exploded by showing that nunipulation of monetary reward\ and the physical aspects of the work situation had very limited impact on the worker and productivity. ‘The Hawthorne experiments pioneered a moveinent which came to be known as the Human Relations approach to management, marking the thin! stage of evolution oF adeministrative thought, Its impact was felt meich more ‘widely ‘on public administration in the post-war period, This approach to otganisational analysis drew attention fo the formation and effect of work groups in the organisation, the force of informal ‘organisation in the formal set up, the phenomena of leadership and conflicts and cooperation among groups in the organisational sett short, the human relations approach br out the limitations of the machine cor of Organisation in ‘scientific manages thought. By drawing attention to the | and psychological factors of work situati underscored the vital importance of the “hi side of the enterprise” The fourth stage was heralded by significant publications in the 1940s—He Simon's Adminitrative Behaviour and R Dahl's essay entitled "The Science of P Administration: Three Problems''* Simon's isa critique of the older public administr More importantly, it sets forth the rig requitements of scientific analysis in p administration. About some of the cla “principles”, Simon's conclusion was that were unscientifically derived and Were more than proverbs". He rejected the pal administration dichotomy; at the sume tin brought in the perspective of logical posit in the study of policy-making and the relat means and ends. Drawirig on the perspective methodology of behaviourism’ in psych« and social psychology, Administrative. Beh pleaded for the raising of scientific rigo public administration. The substantive focu on “decision-making” and as Simon ins “If any ‘theory"'is involved, it is that deci making is the heart of administration and the vocabulary of administrative theory be derived from the logic and psycholog fnuman choice”. Simon's approach provided an altern definition of public administration and wid the scope of the subject ‘by relating | psychology, sociology, economics ani pol science: In thé development ofthe ‘discip he identified two mutually supportive strear thought: One was engaged in the develops of a pure science of administration whichPublic Administration: Nature, Scope & Evolution 9 for 2 good grounding in social psychology: Another stream was dealing with a broad range of values and! working out prescriptions for public poliey: The second approach was, in Simon's view, analytically is very far-ranging. It would imply swallowing up of the whole of political science and absorption of economics and sociology as well, Public administration, he feared, would Jose its identity in the second approach, But he favoured the coexistence of both the streams of thonghe for the growth and development of the discipline. As he noted, “there does not appear any reason why these two developments in the field of public adminstration should not go side by side, for they in no way conflict or contradict. Bur the workers in this field must keep clearly in mind in which area, at any given time, they propose fo work”."" Dahl's essay identified three important problems in the evolution of science on public administration: {) ‘The first problem arises from the frequent impossibility: of excluding normative considerations from the problems of public administration: Scientific means to achieve efficiency must be found on some clarification of ends. The second problem arises from the ‘inescapable fact that a science of public administration must be a. study of certain aspects of human behaviour! Dahl criticised the ‘machine’ concept of organisation and argued that the study of administration must embrace the whole psychological man, The third. problem relates. to the conception of the principles of administration, Referring, to, the, study of public administration. in the United States, he commented on. the narrow and parochial nature of the mvellectual pursuits, There was a tendency, as he pointed out, to emunciate universal principles based on a few examples drawy from limited national and historical settings. TW quote Dahl, “The study of public administration inevitably must become a much more broadly based discipline, resting not ona narrowly defined knowledge of techniques and processes, but rather extending to the varying historical, sociological, economi and other conditioning factors This last point has been taken up as a challenge and considerable efforts have been expended so far in the study of public administration in the developing countries in a bid to “establishing propositions about administrative behaviour which transcend national boundaries!"” The next, stage. of the evalution of public adyninistration coincides with a general concern in the social sciences for public policy analysis. Earlier Simon had mentioned the public policy perspective in administrative analysis, With the abandonment of politics-administration dichotomy, the public policy approach became ihtellectually easier. Evidences from the practical world of administration have also been revealing the close nexus between politics and administration. As government seeks to formulate and implement more and more welfare programmes, concern for policy, studies in public administration starts gathering momentum. At this stage, the study of public administration has been gaining in social ‘relevance’ no doubt; but the boundaries of the academic field are not as clearly distinguishable now as it used to be in the olden days of politics-administration10 New Horizons of Public Administration dichotomy: Mosher’s comment is particularly relevant in this context: Public administration cannot demark any subcontinent as its exclusive province unless it consists of such mundane matters as classifying. budget expenditures, drawing organisational charts and mapping procedures. In fact, it would appear that any definition of this field would be either so encompassing as to call forth the wrath oF ridicule of others, or so limiting 5 to stultify its own disciples. Perhaps, it is best that tenor be defined. Itis more an area of interest than a discipline, more a focus than 2 separate science... It is necessarily cross-disciplinary. The overlapping. and vague boundaries should be viewed as a resource, even though they are irritating to some with orderly minds.”*" New Pustic ADMINISTRATION: The evolutionary perspective must include an account of the New Public Administration movement which marked a turning point in the growth of the discipline. ‘The disciplinary orthodoxy of public administration has certainly boosted up the ego of public administration experts. But the discipline’s alienation from political science hias catised concern to scholars in both political science and public’ administration. Tt has been argued that unless the two disciplines mix freely without losing their identities, understaniding of government would be lopsided and inadequate. The basic purpose and cohesion of public administration would be heightened ‘by closer association with political science. One forceful ‘view has been’ that ‘the study of administration is just’ another expression for the study of politics’ In the late 19608, some of the best of the younger generation of American’ scholars pioneered 3 new inovement in Ametican public administration which came. to be known ; the ‘new. public administration’. The your academics, although nurtured and schooled : the era of positive government, were actual sensitive to the failings of American democrac “The scholars gathered ar Minnowbrook und the patronage of Dwight Waldo and challenge the ‘givens’ of orthodox public adiministratic and: pluralist political science. It was a tin of turbulence when the young schola vociferously demanded restoration of valu and public purpose in government. Affected t the turbulence of the war in Vietnam and d urban riots, the younger generation express their concern about all institutions, especial government. Two volumes” were produced | herald a new brand of public administratic oriented toward political theory. As Walla Sayre has summed up the sentiment, “publ administration is ultimately a problem in politic theory” The new counterculture has demanded ¢ primacy of politics is administration. There h been an ideological convicuon that in the US “the bureaucratic instruments. of power utilize by the political establishments and studi with academic detachment by the intellectu establishments are among the most oppressi institutions of American society.” The literature on-new public administratic lays emphasis .on four major themes: Relevan Values, Equity and Change. “The theme of releuae is more a reintexpretat than an original quest, Public administratic has traditionally been interested in efficien and economy. The new public administratic movement discovered was thar the disciplis hhad little to say about contemporary probler and issues. Management-oriented public administratic curriculum was fownd, irrelevant’ agd a demand was to deal explicitly with the politicPublic Administrator and administrative implications of administrative action, Another aspect of the ‘relevance’ issue celates to the character of the knowledge itself: The question that was asked was: public administration knowledge for what? Is it the purpose of public administration to facilitate use of administrative Knowledge for the perpetuation of political power? Some of the important questions raised at Minnowbrook were: (a) What standards of decision do we use to select which questions ought to be studied and how to study them ? (b) Who defines our questions and priorities for us ? (c) To what extent are we aware of the social and moral implications of knowledge in Public Administration 7 (A) Whatare the uses of Public Administration asa social and political science ? (€) Does Public Administration presently yield knowledge useful to certain institutions in society (usually the dominant ones) and not to others? These are obviously very disturbing questions, challenging the status quo in public administration, The new movement demanded radical curriculum change to facilitate meaningful studies oriented toward the realities ‘of public life. Values ‘The new public administration explicitly announced its basic normative concern in aduninistrative analysis. It openly rejected the ‘value-neutral position taken by behavioural political science and. management-oriented public administration, Value-neutrality. in public administration is an impossibility and the Aiscipline should explicitly’ espouse the cause ‘of the disadvantage@l sections in society, The 1: Nature, Scope & Evolution u champions of the new movement advocate opennessabour the values being served through administrative action, This, they thought, woul help unmask the “neutrality” position of actual administration and facilitate evaluation af impact of administrative action and outcomes. As one spokesman of the new movement comments; “The new public administrator “is less ‘generic’ and more ‘public’ than his forbear, less ‘descriptive’ and more ‘prescriptive’, less ‘institution-oriented’ and more ‘client-impact oriented’, ess‘neutral’ and ‘more normative’ and it is hoped, no less scientifis Social Equity The protagonists of new public administration do not hesitate to demonstrate their open partisanship. In their view, the distributive functions and impact of governmental institutions should be public administration's basic concern One manifestation of this philosophy seems almost neo-Benthamite: “The purpose of public organisation is the reduction of economic, social and’ psychic suk fering and the enhancement of life opportunities for those inside and outside the organisation.” Frederickson has gone a step further and adopted a bold social-equity attitude: “A Public Administracion which fils to work for changes which tries to redress the deprivation of minorities will likely be eventually used to repress those minorities’ This is an aggressive action-oriented stance inviting public administration analysis to work for the removal of the wrongs of society and openly taking side with the socially deprived groups. ‘The new Public Administration movement thus challenged public administration to make it more proactive to major social issues: Change To serve the cause of social equity is to actively work for social charige, This is the motto) of12 New Horizons of Publi¢ Adniinistration new public administration. The attack is on the status quo and against the powerful interests entrenched in permanent institutions. The new public administration is unwilling ‘to allow enslavement to permanent institutions’ that steadily grow into self-perperuating power centres of dominant interests, The Minnowbrook participants éxplored ways of institutionalizing change and remedying the bureaucratic tendencies of big organisations, This movement that started at Minnowbrook has been criticised as anti-theoretic,anti-positivist and anti-management (in the manipulative sense). ts positive value lies in bringing public administration closer to political science. In fact, the movement has been successfil in integrating. public administration with the basic concerns of political theory. The client oriented, normative and socially conscious public administration, as advocated by the new movement, is of direct relevance for the ‘third world’ countries as well, where public administration is in dire need of de-bureaucratization and basic, qualitative wansformation. The essential message of ‘new public administration’ has norbeen missed by mainstream scholars of public administration. There is,in this movement, a streak of idealism, a concern for ‘quantity of life and ‘a desire to ameliorate the lot of the more deprived members of society’. As it has been rightly observed: “We need urgentiy tw inject a good deal of the New Public Administration Thinking. into the policy-making’ process and we need to do this not only as a reminder of the new kinds of questions society is increasingly asking of governments but also asa corrective to those other relatively new and. currently dominant influences which see in quantitative analysis and mechanistic techniques the solution to most of man’s ills” Dwight Waldo characterised NPA as follows: “Its adherents were centrally involve change in the American Society for Pi Administration designed to give it a 1 forward stance... it is unlikely to trans radically public administration short run Jong tun there is « possibility: and in any now is and will continue to be a yeasty add to the entire complex of theories, techni and aspirations:"™ (p.xav) And Frederickson’s comment on newne NPA is as follows:""To affix the label ‘net anything is risky business, The risk is dou when newness is attributed t idea, thou concepts, paradigms, theories... the newness the way the fabric 1s woven, not necessari the threads that are used and the newness arguments as to the proper use of the fabr however threadbare” Mrxnownook-II (1088) During Minnowbrook-I in September 1968 mood of the discipline of public administra was such that at sought to identify values ethics as the critical issue of the 1970s, By contrast, in 1988 the social environr of Minnowbrook-II was markedly different that of its predecessor: The context of pu adininistrative reality in post= Reaganite Am changed in favour of less directly perforn government and governance, more privatisa and contracting out, more voluntarism social capacity building and more third p government: The values of public purpose c to be steadily replaced by the emerging va of private interest, Minnowbrook-I was designed to com and contrast the changing epochs of pu administration.” The first Minnowbr conference was attended by scholars 1 of whom had’ political science backgro However, in contrast, the second conferPublic Administration: Nature, Scope & Evolution 13 included many individuals who had been trained i policy analysis and policy studies, economics, planting, urban studies and law:The composition of the members attending the Conference (1988) influenced the tone and temper of the discussions at Minnowbrook -II. If the 1968 eGnferetice had been fadical and confrontational, the 1988 conference was, by contrast, mote PHCtical and respectful to the ‘seniors’ in the profession. In ternis of thematic coverage, many of the topics of che first conference found place in the second conférence also: More particularly, themes like ethics, social equity, human relations, setoficiling public administration and democracy and general concern for the academic field fesnired at Minnowbrook-Il, ensuring thereby cotitinuity in intellectual interest. At the same me inclusion of some of the themes that were of SO prominent in 1968 such as leadership, sonstitutional and legal perspective, technology policy and economic perspectives. gave the ‘steond gathering an identity of its own, Looking. Back. it seems that Minnowbrook-I represented ‘well-intentioned but overambitious optimism. As aginst this, Minnowbrook-ll exuded PSeMAtism and confirmed the inevitability of ernment as.a.tool for strengrhening society. “Ta the changed perspective, public administration = aalled upon. to. renew its capacity to cope ith the problems of the emerging firure. This id involve two linkages: between theory ‘snd practice on one side and between public Sdininistrators and other government ~ related “efhcials, on the other, _ Acomparison between the two Minuowbrooks gs out both continuity in thinking and an emness to break new grounds, As one of the has pointed out, the following five pF themes of Minnowbrook-IF” were related the legacy of Minnowbrook -I; “1. Concerns for social equity’ that predominated at the first conference and was acknowledged as important in 1988 also. 2. Democratic values and the centrality of public administration strongly reaffirmed in 1988 with special focus on ethics, accountability and administrative leadership. 3. Continuity of the earlier (Minnowbrook 1). debate between normative and behavioural, perspectives with, special emphasis on epistemological. questions regarding. how people learn about the field. 4.Acceptance of the heterogeneous nature of work, force in response to social. diversity including the emerging gender dimension and the need for free interchange between ‘generalists’ and “specialists 5. Changing outlook on ‘government’ in Minnowbrook-II as government was no longer seen as the train on which people wanted to ride, Privatisation was taken for granted in many enterprises and public servants appeared more as conservators than change agents. Minnowbrook-I, thus, sought to establish its identity by focusing on the current and future vision of the field of public administration. The distinctive character of the second. conference is evident from its emphasis, on the following thrust areas: 1. The second conference set its visions onto the near future, without trying to be ridical. There was a tacit acceptance of the fact that the environment of public administration is exceedingly complex and the problems are of huge Proportions. Hence, a meaningful long- term vision is neither reasonable nor feasible.14 New Horizons of Public Administeation The scholarsin the discipline, while aware of their indebtedness to other disciplines, exhibited a strong sense. of intellectual parochialism. The general mood was not tollose disciplinary identity. Rather there ‘was keenness to rebuild the discipline de novo. Even if'privatisation’ was accepted tacit~ lycthere was a strong adversarial attitude towards business. The Minnowbrook-II world-view was expressed in terms of a curious tension between capitalism and democracy that resulted in “an unusual form of @ truncated capitalist economy operating within s truncated’ democ- Tacy”. Against this backdrop, public ad- ministration has to rely on the best that business offers as well as the best that the non-profit public sector offers. |. Public personnel practiges came in for closer scrutiny and the discussions underlined the need for innovative personnel practices in order to move away from public managers’ current inability to hire employees on a timely basis, promote the best employees and reinforce high productivity. . As regards technology policy, the participants had been generally unwilling to deal with the technological issues “Technology was faulted more than vaunted” and there was general reluctance to idolise technology as a necessary too! for improving public policy The specifics of what government should. do were avoided. “Even in the midst of discussions on the inevitability of administrators exerting control over policy agendas, the politics - administration dichotomy appears 10 be alive and well”. An OVERVIEW The optimism engendered by the vi of a new public administration capabl solving important societal problems dissipated. Minnowbrook-I_ was caught mood of ‘constrained hopefulness’. The conference (1968) offered a challenge to pi administration to become proactive \ regard to burning social issues. By contrast second conference in 1988 held in the mid governmental cutback and ‘privatisation’ pé “retreated from an action perspective to cer examinations of democracy, ethics, responsil philosophy and even economics’. The oute« of Minnowbrook-Il were therefore 1 pragmatic and less radical. Minnowsrook Il CoNrERENCE (2008) Following the Minnowbrook tradition, the Conference — Minnowbrook [Il — was during September 3-7, 2008 at the Syra University’s Minnowbrook Conference Ci in the Adirondack Mountains29, The gath was coordinated by’ Rosénrary O'L Distinguished Professor at Syracuse Unive Professor O'Leary circulated in advance an alerting prospective scholars and researc who would like to attend the Third Confer about the ‘themes’ to be discussed at Gonference. The purposes of Minnowbroo as the circular read, are: @ To Exchange Knowledge of cur and emerging public service chall * and solutions in a variety of ser and cultures, Sessions will focus on international public sector, collabor governance and the training of the generation of public servants. ©. To Develop.a Network of scholars to port fuuture collaboration and the exchPublic Adniinistrarion: Nate, Scope & Evolution 15 of ideas corfeerning improvements in pub lic service. To Disseminate the BEST PAPERS PRESENTED at the Conference as 4 specially edited ‘reader’ for courses in schools of public policy and management around the world. ‘This notice gives an idea about the new directions of thinking charted out for the ‘Third Conference. Iz seems the overall idea informing the Conference: had been to focus ‘on the comparative aspects of administrative studies centred on the challenges of public sector management in a variety of settings and cultures. Also, with a view to improving, ‘practice’ in a changed and ‘globalised’ context, the issue of “training of the next generation of public servants’ attracted the attention of the organisers, Attaching considerable importance to the central theme of Improvements in public service’, the Conference floated the idea of ‘developing a network of scholars’ to support future collaborations and exchange of ideas. Conrrrince THEME Ayainst the background of the ascendancy of *neo-liberal’ ideology, advocating ‘downsizing’ of government and opening up more space for the ‘market’ and non-government agencies, the Conference theme was very thoughtfully chosen. It was focused on "The Future of Public Administration, Public Management and Public Service’, The Gonfererice was organised in two phases. A ‘pre-confrence workshop’ was organised for the benefit of emerging scholars nominated by senior scholars in the field. The 56 invited attendees were more diverse chan previous Minnowbrook conferences in terms of race, gender and nationality, involving for the most part assistant professors but including several tenured associate professors. ‘The Minnowbrook TIP Phase One (September 3-5): Phase One was devoted 10 the susumaries of concerns and future directions representing a dozen focal areas presented to senior scholars and attendees at the opening session of Phase Two. The themes for discussion were wide- ringing including academic-practitioner rela tions; democratic performance management; finanicial management; globalisation/compara- tive perspectives; information technology and ‘management; law, polities and public administra tion management; leadership; methods/interdis- ciplinary; networks; performance measurement; public administration values. and theory; social equity and justice and transparency and ac countability. ‘ The group, interested as it was in globalised perspectives, encouraged a renaissance of ‘comparative studies as the world has become increasingly interdependent, The essence of the comparative approach has been context-sensitive with emphases on institutional and cultural contexts which, in the opinion of the attendees, should be incorporated into more rigorous research. The group that discussed research methods proposed a statement of commitment document, informally referred to as a pledge of a manifesto, asking new scholars to serve as “change agents’ regarding the use and teaching of research methods and the responsiveness of the peer-review process. One element of this was ‘more attention to the method of action research. to increase engagement with the issues and practice of public administration; another was a commitment to methodological pluralism. Another group interested in ‘public administration values and theory’ offered a reformulation of public administration, defining public administration as: “a socially-embedded process of collective relationships, dialogue and action to promote human flourishing for all?” Questions ansing from the reformulation= = = = = 16 ‘New Horizons of Public Admnistrasion included how public administration might recognize competing values and how to gneourage a critical consciousness regarding public administration, The Minnowbrook I Phase Tivo (September 5-7) Phase two was. held at Lake Placid, New York, Ic vas a more traditional academic couference to which scholars throughout the world were invited to subinit proposals. About 300 proposals were submitted of which 80 were accepted, io hundred twenty seholars and practitioners trom 13 countries. participated. Following: the opening session presentations from Phase One participants, the emerging scholars and senior scholars met in roundtable format to discuss the specific ideas presented. In most subsequent sessions, participants limited paper presentations callow for enhanced discussion of the material in referenceto the ideas presented and developed in the opening roundtables, Mitinowbrook TIT dwele'at length on the issue of ‘public administration in dark times focusing on some questions for the future of the field, Major highlights of the discussion are as under: The Conference took serious note of the contemporary international scenario aid the ‘overall impression was that ‘humanity is living in dark times—war, terrorism, climate change, economic calamity’ and the list could go on. So, the question that was being posed was; Does public administration have the governance capacity fo address effectively the seemingly insurmountable problems that characterize dark times? The short and imprecise answer is no, but not for reasons typically argued by scholars and pundits. We agree that sustainable resources for public agencies and programs are diminishing ‘on a daily basis, that public coffers are strained andl in some cases, completely drained, that public sector labour markets are largely k and in distress and that fungible suppl political support for policies and. progra declining at break-neck pace across all le government and throughout the: world are setious problems. Ac theit root, howev an even more disturbing: problem, namel in its pursuit of the right answers ton administrative questions (an importar exclusive task), public administration has to consider what it means to govern vit ‘ames and therefore, to claim its role an sh societal affairs, ‘The concern thus was “how ean p administration grapple with the con and intractable realities of ‘dark times’ Attempt was made to look back at the se contributions of scholars suck as Arendt, S anid Isaac and to see how far it would be fe to build on their contributions. So. ther a serious intellectual heart searching goi among the attendee scholars, examining expariding the seminal ideas of great predec about “governance in dark times.” It was argued that public administration failed to address grave social issues becaus (1) The field does not adequately reco itself as a de facto arbiter of political co and consequently as a discipline responsibl shaping societal affairs; (2) The field suffers from a bureauc pathology that reduces its abilities to de first. Therefore, the suggestion was to t reinvigorate the democratic ethos w might help public administration improy governance capacities amidst such trou! Grcumstances and realities. Finally, returnis the Minnowbrook Ill conference and loc to the work of its Phase One groups, som questions were posed in respect of the fistu public administration, It was decided that goal was not to bemoan, the field but rathPublic Administrations Nate, Scope & Evolution v7 spark debate and identify potential opportunities for public administration to better address issues ‘ofigovernance in dark times. ‘The overall intellectual reaction had, been shar public administration, both as a field of aca demic study and as a.professional practice, was gotaddressing adequately and timely the vital questions about governance an ‘dark times’ Looxwe Back To Look Forwarp Looking back, Minnowbrook I was organised in 1968, by Dwight Waldo, who assembled a group ‘of “young” public administration scholars to evaluate the state of the field. The participants found the field inadequate in its” set of concepts and ideas to explain the modern world of administration” and formulated the ideas of “New Public Administration”, [twas an action- ‘oriented: perspective that embraced normative inquiry and advocated for social. equity and ‘otizen participation among other issues. Minnowbrook I.held n 1988 with a cohort ‘of the 1960s scholars and a cohort of new scholars, was designed to compare and contrast the changing epochs of public administration. This conservative mission “retreated from ant ‘action perspective to cerebral examinations of... “the classics” and produced discussions that were ‘more practical and less radical than those at the first Minnowbrook. The differences between Minnowbrooks ‘and II may have had. lot to do with the state of society in the 1960s (which were characterized by political upheaval and radical social change), as compared to the 1980s (which were relatively | sable). Thus, the differing perspectives and ‘nissions of the first two conferences reflect the sespective tone and temper of the times. ‘One might think that Minnowbrook III, held an 2008, would have had more in. common with Minnowbrook I than with Minnowbrook I. Beqyeen Minnowbrooks Il and If, there were extaordinary changes in the world: @. The fall of the Berlin Wall The end of the Cold wa ‘The uniting of European Union under a single monetary system: The emergence of China, as a superpower; Iran and North Korea joining the nuclear age; Terrorist attacks on US soil; US military actions. in, Iraq and Afghanistan; ‘The emergence of chmate change as a planetary threat; ‘The need to find sustainable clean energy sources; The destruction of New Orleans by fbusricane Katrina; ‘The emergence and supersonic speed of new technologies; * The corporate credit crisis and global financial crisis, to name but a few. The optimists might argue that public administration was reasserting its role and leading the way in addressing these and other problems, it nevertheless seemed that the tume was right for participant scholars to discuss these issues, debate possible solutions and propose new dinectuons for the field. The organisers of the conference seem to, have agreed; the mission for Minnowbrook TIL was to “critique the current state of public administration, public management and public service today and examine the future of the field.” ‘To achieve this mission, as earlier pointed out, Minnowbrook Il was organised in two parts For the "Phase One” workshop. new scholars wrote brief critiques of the field in advance and then, at the conference site, self-organised into small groups around topics of interest and reported back to everyone during whole-18 New Horizons of Public:Administration group sessions, "Phase "Two" followed a more traditional conférence format, During Phase ‘One, the expectation was that there! would’ be rich discussions about public administration in dark times, although in fact there was lite acknowledgement of these issines. Th reflecting on that phase, it seems chat the galaxy of new scholars largely avoided the opportunity to address big questions of the field, 1 favour of ongoing, traditional research agendhs. Although a number of new scholar-eritighes had been quite provocative; few, however, mised issues relating to the ‘dark times’. This omission continued into the small discussion groups that assembled around issues such as the acxdemic/ practitioner divide, networks, information technology, public administration theory, methodology, comparative administration, globalisation, performance nteasarement, transparency and accountability, leadership, law, social equity and. financial’ management, Although, there was nothing inherently wrong with these and other topics discussed; they were surely important and worthy of consideration. Yet, at the end of the day there was a feeling that the scholars could do niuch more and raise more significant questions about ‘public administration in dark times’. However, absent in the reports from the small groups and’in the other whole-group deliberations was noteworthy discussion about the urgent issues that the field and humanity face-To be fiir, some heavy-handed critiques emerged in periphera! discussions but they never made it onto the floor for consideration by the whole group of participants. CONCLUDING OnsnRvaTions Lack or studied avoidance of more lively debate was possibly the resule Gf the new scholars’ ‘need (rathier selfish though) to expand personal research agendas with like minded individ a safe and supportive setting-As one comme has observed: ‘Perhaps it was a function fact that tenure clocks are/were ticking fo of us, leaving lite time for engagement “big questions,” and barely enough time out a series of articles’. Perhaps it was rela the fact that the participants were, for the part, new to each other and did not ha time to build the bonds of trust needed fo potentially divisive discussions. Perhaps th is a signal that the loss of deliberative spac seeped into the realin of the Academy. Wh the reason, one cannot but bemoan th that there Was a missed opportunity to a the problems of public administration is times and to find new approaches and collectively search out future growth traje of the discipline. ‘Ina word, therefore, Minnowbrook III like a good yathering without being able a rich intellectual harvest at a time wh discipline of public administration badly 1 a new direction and a way out of the m: “identity crisis’ Pusuic Crorce Approach: Another landmark in the evolution « discipline is the emergence of the " choice’ approach to public administratio public choice school has been develope number of eminent scholars in a variety 0 Essentially, a critique of the bureaucratic of administration, the public choice ap deals with the possibility of institu pluralism in the provision of public and services. Plurality of governmen public agencies is supported on the gro consumers’ preferences. Vincent Ostror of the protagonists of the public choice has set a concept of democratic adminis alongside the’ conventional idea of bareaPublic Administnition: Nardre, Scope & Evolution 19 doanistration. In brief, Ostrom’s argument is follows: “Perfection in the hierarchical ordering of a sofestionilly trained public service accountable 5 3 singlé centre of power will reduce the spability of a larger adniinistrative system to spond t0' diverse preferences arnonig citizetis ‘many different public goods and services and Spe With diverse eivironinental conditions.” “A variety of different organisational Srangements can be used to provide different slic goods and services. Such organisations an be coordinated through Various multi- epanisational arraigenients. The public choice’ school, thus, locates sblic administradon Within the domain of elitics atid an appropriate theory of political pexisition.” Esssentially ic questions the hegemony f bureaucracy thar seeks to promote self eandizement and unnecessitily inflate prethinent. Bureaucracy has tints to be pruned = down-sizing government and passing on say of the functions of government to the sivate séctor.Market'forces, when allowed free sf nay furiction better than government. i public chdice school of ecoviomists Balleniged the Conventional beliefs about be public spiritedness of politicians and preaucrats. Two underlying assumptions haye been: }) individuals act rationally with adequite sforriation and ordered preferences; and (b) sdividuals are utility maximisers. They seek sore satisfaction for the same off outlay. The sential question raised’ by public choice Syocates is: how far polities and adininistration an be treated as an exchange reladionship as in cofiontic dealings. While the theory has drawn snely.atténnion to'the failings of autonomous ereaucticy, it is too sweeping 4 statement that Kes vilues and public spiritedness completely out of administration. Replacement of public aditiinistration by market exchange is too sinnplistié An idea to be taken seriously, Crimicat Taebry AND Pusiic ORGANISALIONS ‘The'scientific study of public administration has ‘often strayed away from the normiative concerns of democratic government. As earlier explained, the public choice’ approach has been an attempt to construct a theory of public organisations in tune with consumers” interest and individual preferences. Mono centric, hierarchical bureaucratic administration has been found co be iticompatible with some of the basic norms of 3 hiinianist and liberal democracy ‘The development of “critical cheory* as a philosophical and practical discipline has greatly influenced social Sciences in general and public administration if particular reiterating the need for the humunization of public organisations that exert so! mulch influence’ on social life and the work phice. ‘The ‘Critical’ perspective has been aborted by an array of eminent scholars.” Following closely the Work OF Jaigen Habermas, the best known exponent of the critical theory.we can identify Salient a8pécts of the ¢riti¢al approach that have spécial relevance to the stuidy of public orgaitisitions Like Webér, Haberinas refers to the prepon- derance of technical efficiency in a modern state through the operation of public bureaticracy. As the society gets increasingly bureaucratised, social power and discretion tend to be concen- trated inthe’ hands of bureaucratic state appa- ratus, The trend toward over-bureaicratizarion| ceatises concer about the’social role of the bu- reauctacy which in be inquired into from che critical perspective. “The expanding role of the public bureatieracya) New Horizons of Public Administration is not matched by, its, popular acceptance. Paradoxically enough there is increasing criticism, of the bureaticricy as a self-aggrandising force alienated from the public who can rarely repose trust in it, Public interest and bureaucratic interests seein at many places at loggerheads, which was also the contention of the public choice school. Despite a great variety of management struc~ tures and styles, the common assumption has been that management is basically technical in nature whose primary motive 1s to produce pre- dictable results by manipularing human beings and materials. Positivistic assumptions pervade mainstream public administration. Administra~ tive ‘science’ is credited with the power to pro~ vide instrumental statements which can be prot itably used by practiying managers to. regulate the behaviour of the subordinates and to control environmental uncertainties, The search for ef ficiency lias led ro the depersonalisation. and rigidity of the administrative processes, Organi- sational inmates, espectally those at the operative level, are looked at as data to be manipulated at will or directed as and when necessary by the superiors, Within the organisation, the human beings are thus separated from one another and. are treated as impersonal objects. The mainstream, literature in public administration has thas been obsessed with the ideas of control and regulation, order and efficiency and predictability and rationality. Intra-organisationally, such an approach to. orgamsation, has Jed to alienation from work and fellow workers, As regards. organisation client relasonship, the alienation takes the forms of organisational distrust and oceasional hostility o the working of bureaucracy, A critical theory of public organisation would be interested in improving the quality of organisational life. It would inquire about the conditions of power and dependence in an organisation and try to reveal the in contradictions in hierarchical relations! embedded in a bureaucracy. The critical approach would concents the distorted patterns of communicatio characterise present-day organisations b terms of internal and external relationsh organisations structure interpersonal relati in hierarchical terms, the structural arrang stands in the way of free How of communi among human beings within che organisa equal members of a comunon enterprise holds good for organisation-client relat whereby the organisation tends to lo the client as a burden and the client is tends to view the organisation as unhelp such 4 situation, the organisational. desig ‘operation run counter to the basic purpe a democratic public service, ‘The critical approach would suggest a ent style of management altogether, direct so,much towards control as helping indi to discover and pursue their own develoy tal needs. The basic thrust of critical the public organisation is towards reaffirnuati commitment to the democratization of all of social relationships. This could he by lo and removing the disabilities that have bl the Surfacing of true needs of individuals cial and political spheres. ‘Tu Punic Suavice Aprroacn Public administration as a discipline has experiencing currently, an unusual. uncer about approaches to the stugly of administ Historically, there have been, shifting st from Taylorism to systems theory via beh: and other process theories such as tho decision-making, leadership, coordinatio’ communication and so on, and so forth unigueness of current turmoil lies in 1 ‘fundamental’ questions about the role ¢Public Administration: Natwre, Scope & Evolution 4 itself under the bewildering. pressures fom within and without the state (e-g., sation). he two discipline—shaking approaches, in context, are (a) reinventing government ich of Osbourne and Gaebler and (b) public management approach, of the neo~ school of thought. The-first approach sought to reorient governmental studies the point of view of core competetice of t which has been termed as"steering’ ie than ‘rowing’. By contrast, the second ich, has been focused on the “downsising’ Jgovernment (from the poine of view of scope) onvenhanced management competence information technology, introducing performance appriisil and allowing the "to function in its designated sphere ie neo-liberal philosophy, as the critics ‘out, has functioned to the detriment of ‘public interest’, affecting particularly ithe vand the marginalized other consequence of "downsizing" has be the céntral position of government core regulator of society. have been, many reactions to the eral’ approach to government; snore intly, it has been suggested thaw the liberal view, by apotheosizing ‘market’ failed to appreciate the critical tole of institutions—the goyeriment—in ‘the ance and development of society. In their aking publication entitled, ‘The New, Service: Serving, Not Steering’ (MiE. 5 2002) Denhardt and Denharde have ly put the central role of government as ".'Government’, as they forcefally argue, be run like a business, it should be run moctacy’. Public interest and democratic dip are the hall marks of government.As of service and community would be public employees would be having better self-estimation and sense of dignity and self-respect. They would in fact, be reconnected with the citizens.As the public servants would be Inviting citizens to pafticipate in the governance Process, their will emerge a new culture. of co-governance with the administrators and citizens. working together for the common good, of the society. This new atggude and new involyement—co-governance—is. what Denharde. anid. Deoharete call ‘the New Public Service’: As it has|been observed, Administrators are realizing that they have much to gain.by ‘listening’ to the public rather than ‘telling’ and by ‘serving’ rather than ‘steering’. At the invitation of public servants, even their urging, ordinary citizens are_once again becoming engaged in the governance: process, Citizens and public officials are. working, together to define and. to. address common problems in a cooperative and mutually beneficial way”. ‘What Denhorde aid. Demhard, describe: is more.an. expectation—a: normative. stand— inorder to. sensitize us. ito: the democracy- diminishing: trend inherent in, the :neo-liberal philosophy with its accent-on ‘market and de~ emphasis on government’. eis dimely warning andsan’ appropriate:cautionary note against the-trendy.‘down-sizing’ movement. in’ public administration. SUMMING UP. ‘To sum up, public administration as a discipline is still in the process of establishing its identity. The evolutionary praigess'is| indicative of the shifting boundaries of the discipline, in response to, constantly, emerging so¢ial nevds As administrative practices are,called. upon: to respond to new problems and challenges surfacing. in the wake of social change, the: discipline has coftesporidingly ‘to shed its formalistie: and insular “efficiency” orientation of the olifer genre. It seems.the norms of democracy are2 (New Horizons of Public Administration secking entry into public organisations and the concern for distributive justice is assuming critical significance as a! major administrative agenda item ‘Ac thie sire time, since the eighties there has been a noticeable change in public administration discourse, upholding a new ‘public management? doctrine (being discussed separately) favouring more and more market-orientation, 38 distinguished from ‘state’ or government orientation. Another new development is the stead rise of what has been called third-party administration. The conventional view has been that all government programmes are carried out by the government’ own employees, This is true to a great extent no doubt: Bat in reality much of government's work is farmed out to other semi-goverminent, private and non-government organisations. Local government, for instance, does many agency functions on behalf of the central government. Sithilarly, many development programmes are ‘often’ handed’ over to non- government Organisations. Many government activities such as road building, housing etc.are contracted out to private agencies. The current trend! is towards leaner and thinner goveraiment and as many activities’as possible, it is being argued, should be handed over to private parties including NGOs, This trend will an course of time involve new modes of control, financing and monitoring of “third party administration” by the government. REFERENCES |. Woodrow Wilyon, "The Study of Administration”, in Dwight Waldo (ed.) Ideas and Tsues iw Public Administation, McGraw-Hill, 1953. 2. Artinar S. Link, The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, vol. 7 (4890-92), Princeton Univesity, Press, 1968, 3, Quoted in Philip J. Cooper atl, Pubic dmnistation for the Tiventy-First Century, Harecourt Brae Co., 1998, p.11. 4. Phillip J Cooper et al, op eit, 374 5. Peter Self, Ailministhative Theories and Politic Chand & Co. Ltd., New Delhi, 1984, p20. 6, John J. Corson and Joseph P. Harris, Pu ‘Administation in, Modern Society, MeGraw-F 1963, p. 12. 7, Ferrel Heady, Public Administration, A Compan Penpective, Prentice-Hall, 1966, p,24 8. Herbert Simon, Adminstative Behaviows, The | Press, New York, 1947, 9; Stephen K-Bailey “Ethics and the Public Serv in, Public Administration, Goncepts and. Cass Richard J. Stillman Il (ed.), Houghton Mi Company, 1976, An importaay book in, context is Morality and Adminisraion iw Demo Government by Paul H. Appleby, Louisiana S University Press, 1952. 10: John Rawls, A Theory of usice, Harvard Unive Press, 1971, LL. Nicholas Henry, Public Administration and, P Afjirs, Prentice-Hall, 1975, pp. 43-4 12, Peter Self, Adminstssive Theories and Politi, Ges Allen. & Unwin Ltd. London, 1972 p. 12 13. Frank J: Goodaow, Policy and Administra ‘Macmillan, New York, 1900. 14, Fritz J. Roethlisberger and William J..Dick Management and the Worker;An Account of a Res Progwam Conduced by. the Westers Elec. Com ‘Hauthome works, Chicage, Harvard University P 1939. 15, R.H.Dahl“The Seieicé of Piblic Administra ‘Three Problems", Public Administration Revi (1947. 16, Simon, op. cit. p. 44. 17, Simon, ibid, p. av 48, Simon, “A Comment on “The Science of P ‘Admisustration”, Public Administration Revi (Winter 1947), p 202. 19. Ferrel Heady, op. cit, p3 20. FC, Mosher,"Research in Public Administra Public Administration Review 16 (Suxumce 195 21, The two. volumes are: Frank, Macioi (ed), T 4 New Public Administration, Chandler, | Dwight Waldo (ed.) Public Administration time of Turhulene, Chandler, 1971. (The se volume is strictly nor a new publ aduinist document.) 22:-Frederickson, "Toward a New. Pu ‘Adaunisteaion” in Maris (ed), 0p. ct4 Public Administration: Nature, Scope & Evolution 3 Marini op. cit.,p.32 Whid.,p. 311 Quoted in Flix A. Nigro, Lloyd d. Nigeo, pp.4-5, Modern Public Administration, Harper & Row Publications, New York, 1980. Quoted in TH. George Frederickson, New Public Administration, the University of Alsbama Press, 1980. Minnowbrook-II has been covered in some details an Public Administration Review, March = April 1989, Maty Ellen Guy."Minnowbiook -tl: Conclusion”, PAR. Mareli- Apel 1989, 29, For detailed discussion see Rosemary O'Leary, David M.Van Slyke and Soonhee Kin (eds.), The Fuiare of Public Administiacion Around the World, Georgetown University Press, 2011 30. Robert E. Cleary, “Dialogue, Negotiation and the Advancement of Democracy: Reflections on ‘Minnowbrook -II", PAR, March-April 1989. 431, See in this. connection, Vincent Ostrom, The Intelletnal Crisis in American Public Administration, University of Alabama Press, 1974, pp. 111-113. 32. Major works on the critical perspective are included in Andrew Arato and Eike Gebhardt (ds) The Essential Frankf Sdool Reader, Urizen Books, 1978.' AA Craver 2 SF Organisational Effectiveness raditionally, there has been the one- dimensional definition of organisational effectiveness: if an organisation has ‘successfully’ achieved its objective, it is considered effective”, Effectiveness is thus a matter of comparing results with intentions. ‘This goal attainment theory has been challenged by organisational researchers on the ‘ground that (a) organisations have multiple goals: some are official (openly announced) goals and others are operative goals (more realistic short- term goals); in real practice organisations, move in many directions and it is a simplistié notion to talk about one, overriding goal: (@) The organisational goals are often in conflicting relationship; one department, say health, would like to. go for an aggressive immunisation programme, but its move may by blocked by the finance department by withdrawing fund. (b) There is a weak relationship between organisational goal and individual behaviour. In real life, de taken by inembers of the organisation without preset goals, In times of crisis or“emergency, stresses and strains, the managers are compelled to take short-term decisions to cope with the problems at hand. Rarely there is much ‘opportunity for rational long-term, goal difected behaviour. Multiple Criteria: Organisations and cheir subunits are no doubt. purposeful: are expected to attain goals. But ‘n organisational effectiveness must encom than goal attainment’ and organisational have identified ‘a wide variety of effe criteria in which the goal achievement: is one of several dimensions’. Palumbo and Moody have short following effectiveness criteria out 0 number of indicators of organisational stability: () Outcomes: The first is the t performance measurement crit terms of outcomes or goal at For instance, in the case of a health centre, an important « would be: how many patients w ed at the centre? There are, 0 conceptual problems here in measurement of ‘treatment’ ( ‘treating’ or ‘curing’ would be able criterion). Adaptation: In terms of open theory, achievement of results to the organisation's coping abi the environment. It is organi survival and continuity that w the ultimate criterion of effec Flexibility and adaptability, n adherence to goals, would hallmark of effectiveness. Thus cc organisational effectiveness is th of an organisation, in either reabsolute terms, to exploit its environ- ment in the acquisition of scarce and valued resources”? System health: The open systems theory suggests that organisations have to strike a balance between production goals and maintenance goals. A local police organisation may make an all-out effort to prevent crime by deploying a larger number of police men on patrol daty stipported by a fleet of vehicles. It ‘would however be a short-term gain, 4s the good result (crime' prevention/ detection) need to be sustained on the basis of a longer-term policy. What is important is to make sure that the equipments used (vehicles) are maintained regularly and kept in good shape for longer term ise (not merely ‘one-shot achievement). Also, the basic _ human, resource (the policemen) should _ be trained and retrained and motivated 10 do the job on regular basis as against _ one-time campaign basis, which is very common in police organisations. Thus, maintenance of infrastructure and human resources development are ‘of crucial significance for maintaining ‘organisational health. Only then can one be sure of organisational effectiveness on sustained basis. Up: Organisational effectiveness a complex, multi-dimensioned problem. been very well summarised: fing to view organisational effectiveness dimension is much like trying to a cube without depth preparation — is distortion”. effectiveness, one should take the fact that effectiveness criteria do not ‘stance; nor do they remain the same in of an organisation's life Organisational Effectiveness 25 It has been observed that an entrepreneurial leadership pushes the organisation cowards productivity; by contrast, the general trend in bureaucratic organisation has been towards stability. Even within a bureaucratic organisation, in normal times, effectiveness criteria may favour stability and predictability: but in emergencies (c.g. flood or drought relief) the same organisation would prefer more flexibility and adaptability in search of effectiveness. EFFICIENCY IN GOVERNMENT The original call for efficiency in government operations can be traced to the old Wilsonian dictum that it was necessary “to straighten the paths of government, to make its business less un-businesslike...”. In. public administration ‘efficiency’ has always been. the prime consideration, as government has been considered proverbially sick and inefficient. Government is big business. The range and scale of government activities have been increasing with more and more involvement of government in the regulation of supply of commodities and services for the benefit of the people. This is particularly true of the post-colonial developing countries where governments have a crucial role to play in bringing about radical socio-economic changes. Expansion of government activities must, be matched by efficient management of the public sector. Experience shows, however, that government is not as efficient as it should be, Allegations are often heard that money is not well spent on government projects; of, when funds are spent, the results are not commensurate with investments. There are frequent complaints of administrative red tape, delays and corruptions. Gavernment may be inefficient, but it has got to be efficient in public interest. It is in this context that efficiency in government assumes critical significance. Peter26 New Horizous of Public Administration Drucker, the well-known management scientist, writes that the service (government) institution 1s ina fundamentally different ‘business’ from business. “It is different in its purpose. It has different values, It needs different objectives and it makes a different contribution to society. ‘Performance and results’ are quite different ao a service institution fom what they are in 2 business, ‘Managing for performance’ is the fone area in which the service insutution differs significantly from business”.* Logically, one has (© consider efficiency in government in a different perspective, It need not be equated with what goes on in. private management. The differences between public and business administration can be looked at from the mput and the output side of the account,as suggested by Peter Self: Public administration is very much exposed to ‘politics’. Demands very often come from the political system and the admimstranye system has to respond to thers. “Business firms”, to quote Peter Self, “are not directly integrated with the political system in the way that all administrative agencies {including even most public corporations) necessatily ate: Administrative agencies inhabit 2 political instead of « market envitonment and the political system articulares demands and monitors results in quite different ways from the market system’™ Public administration has greater similarity With business administration, when considered from the output side of the account. The technical nature of the activities undertaken by an organisation has a decisive impact on the structure of the organisation. Many a time, the outputs of public administration and those of business administration are found to be much the same. In this connection the six-fold chssification of administrative outputs by Peter (a) Public utilities such as electricity, ete (b) Social services such as education ete (©) Scientific and technical services research and development in sci technology, agriculture etc, (@), Military and paramilitary services defence, police etc. (6). Basic powers of regulation and assist as regulation of competition, re relating to safety and health of i workers etc Overall planning of the econo environment and social welfare. Services included in the first three iter lise have built-in technical requirements t to be adhered to by all organisations, itr of their location in the public or privat OF course, if an electricity undertaki the private sector, it is likely to be mu: insulated fiom public’ pressures and in than would be the case if it were in th sector. Its scale of operation and linkag ‘other organisations also would be muc limited. Services, when provided thro public sector, would have to reckon wit costs which private management may | into account, The pollution problem of plant, for instance, will figure more prot in a public sector electricity undercakin ‘The last three items in the list of admit ‘outputs have very few genuine par: business organisation, they are uni government. Clearly, more ‘urgent services, mon and Semi-monopolistic services and fi which are inherently public in natu as defence and law and order main aré confined t© government. The s government activities has never beenBistory; it expands or shrinks with political egime variations. MéANING of Enviciincy ing back to our initial search for a meaning ‘of the term ‘efficiency’ in government, it.can be suggested that efficiency needs to be rehted to she objective of an organisation. Government actvitics are very wide ranging. Some of these ead to the production of concrete, measurable Sourpurs such as water supply, roads, inrigation and 4 on, Others are maintenarice and regulatory jons. Law and order maintenance, licensing, public health regulations are a few examples of such functions. There are a few others “thar entail balancing of diverse policy goals. Desmond Keeling in his book, Management in Government, suggested a three-fold classification of the tasks of government. In the first category, the administrative tasks call for quasi-judicial atctudes and methods. The diplomatic tasks, a second category, involve reconciliation among 4 number of diverse goals. The third category embracing the management tasks requires the most efficient use of resources. Keeling’s classification suggests different efficiency tests for different tasks In business administration, efficiency is sually measured in terms of resource use. It 45a matter of inpuc-ousput relationship, the implication being the least cost approach. to organisational performance. Efficiency is thus considered in terms of ‘profit’ earning, The profit test may be applicable to some of the production or commercial units in the public sector. But to assess performance in the public sector merely by the profit indicator would be taking a narrow view of the role of this sector. More than efficiency, ‘effectiveness’ assumes critical significance in the appraisal of -government performance. Effectiveness refers to Organisational Effectiveness a7 successful achievement of specific policy goals. Gost reduction should, of course, be kept in mind, But, resource use should not be taken as constraint on performance, In times of crisis such as severe drought or devastating flood, government cannot sit down and calculate the costs‘of operations to reduce expenditure. Immediate relief rather than minimum cost weighs heavily in government, mind in such circumstances. Peter Self’s observation in. this context is very relevant, As-he says “Business management is guided by specific but socially narrow tests of resource efficiency, which can be confined to the firm in question. The equivalent tests for government must refer ultimately to the welfare of the whole society, as politically articulated”," Three kinds of efficiency seem important in public administration. Firstly, administrative dr management efficiency is a8 relevant to business administration as to government administration Good organisations, appropriate methods and procedures and the use of management techniques such as work study. network technique etc. are equally useful in public administration, as it secks to promote efficiency. Secondly, policy efficiency has peculiar significatice for government organisation. This kind of efficiency refers to the making of right policy decisions and the choice of appropriate programmes to achieve the defined objectives. For instance, government may spend huge sums of money on a new mail line but the cost will be in fructuous if the new line does not help to achieve the planned objectives such as regional developient through free flow of commodities, services and people. Many a time, government projects yield results after a fairly long period. Still, in making public investment decisions the achievement of larger policy objectives has to be kept in mind. This is how policy efficiency can be ensused in government,28 New Horizons of Public Administration A third kind of efficiency can be related to the satisfaction of the public. This can be called service efficiency.” Government efficiency, specially where progranimes are directed toward specific target groups, has to be measured in terms of accessibility to citizens and their overall satisfaction derived from the enjoyment of designated services and facilities, Development programmes meant for the small farmers (SFDA) and for other weaker sections of the community stich as the margitial farmers and rural attisans should keep the sevice efficiency in mind, Clientele development and satisfaction would determine the efficiency of these development programmes. REFERENCES 1. Dennis Palumbo and Steven Maynar Contemporary Pullic Adminisration, Longn York and London, 1991. Chapter 3c detailed, analytical discussion on origa ‘effectiveness 2 As noted in Palumbo and Moody, op. cit 3. As noted in Palumbo and Mooily, op cit 4. Peter F Drucker, "Managing the Publi Institution”, in Stilman, op. cit. 5. Op.cita p. 262. 6, Op. cit p. 208, 7. A.W. Johnson, “Efficiency in Governm Business”, in Piblic Administration in edited by A.M. Williains and W. D. K. Ke Methuen, 1968.needs’ to be emphasised, in continuation POF the discussion in the previous chapter, that government has to function within constitutional rules and regulations. is 2 certain legalism’ inherent in jent operations. Business administration ‘Bot as hamstrung as public administration able rules and regulations that are ed to control the working of the public ‘in public interest. distinction between the public and “Private sector is greatly influenced by the al philosophy of each nation. In the for instance, the private sector plays a ‘important role in the American economy society. The public sector is in many ways ent on the private sector for the supply goods and services, Hence, the tendency in country is towards blurring of lines rather a distinct bifurcation of responsibilities. In by contrast, the public sector had earlier Been the dominant sector in a situation of mixed Sconomy. The steady diminution of the public Sctorin India, fit continues as a matter of new public policy, is expected to draw in course of me a sharper distinction between the public and private management. In a nutshell, it may be suggested that sonsiderations of general welfare should be ge common concern of public and business administration. Private management can ignore the larger public interest only at its peril. At the other end, public administration can hardly Cuarrer 3 = Public-Private Dichotomy ignore the needs of efficient management, Continued maladministration may ultimately lead to the shrinkage ofits areas of concern.‘The current advocacy of ‘privatisation’ is indicative of this trend, ‘The distinction between business and public administration has broadly been summed up as follows: 1 The ‘major purpose of public administration is to serve the public: hence general welfare and, in specific ceases, cliental satisfaction are the ends that public administration must serve, Business administration, by contrast, is basically ortented toward earning profit for the business proprietors. Inability to carn profits will soon drive a private enterprise out of business. 2. Public administration has to operate strictly according to laws, rules and regulations. Adherence to law brings in a degree of rigidity in operation in the public sector. There is always the fear of audit or other aberrations from regulations that act as a constraint on performance, Contrastingly, business administration is relatively free from, similar constraints of law and regulations, There are of course general laws regulating business, but individual business firms have considerable flexibility to adapt their operations to changing situations. This is possible because of their relative freedomNew Horizons of Public Administration from specific laws and rules that abound in public administration. The actions of public administration agencies are much more exposed to the public gaze. An achievement rarely gets publicity, bur a little fault hits the newspaper headline, Organisations like the police have to be on their toes to make sure that their operations do not incur the public wrath. This wide publicity is not to be found in business administration, nor is it so very closely watched by the public and the publicity media. In public administration, any show of discrimination, or partiality will evoke public censure or legislative commiotion. Hence, the administrators are to be very consistent and impartial in their dealings with the public. In business administration, discrimination is freely practised. In the choice of products and in fixing prices, business administration overtly practises discrimination which is almost a part of business cultute. . Public administration, especially at high- er reach of government, is exceedingly complex. There are many pullsand pres- sures, many minds have to meet and discuss, consultations go eit in several rounds of meetings. Activities in one department have ramifications that spread over several other departments. By contrast, business administration is, generally speaking, much more well-knit and single-minded itt operation. There is much less Complexity in’ organisation and operations. The pulls and pressures are certaitily much less, as compared to public sector operations. . Te is political direction thar gives public administration its special character. Politics is at the core of pub ministration and at higher echel civil servants must have the t mature understanding to work « with politicians, This speciality 0 administration marks it out cleat busines administration. “The distinction between public admin and business or private administration n however, be blown out of proportions. T several aspects of public management generic; that is, they are similar in, bod administration and private managemen are many grey areas where the line of se between the two is not so marked, For’ a public oxganisation like a milk. dai state transport undertaking has to fin business or commercial lines. It has, t to emulate some of the methods and 5 of business management. At the oth private business is increasingly being st to government regulation in public inte kind of ‘mixed’ economy that prevails, under strong government direction is pr an endorsement of public-private coe and cooperation, PrrvartsaTion Movement Ac this stage,a note on the recent “pri movement will be in order. ‘Privatisau ‘emerged in the lexicon of managemet eighties, came to be defined narrow! make private, especially to change fror to private control or ownership’. Ie come to’acquire a broader meaning syn a new way of looking at society's ne redefining the role of government in them, It means relying more on society institutions and less on government to's needs of the people.“The Privatisation moverient has been sparred by atleast four nsjor forces: i, Pragmatic: The goal being better government and a more cost-effective one; . Ideological: The goal being to ideologically reduce the role of government in societal needs fulfilment vis-a-vis private institutions; iii, Commercial: The goal being to get more business by having more of government spending redirected towards commercial interests; Populist: The goal being to achieve a better society by giving people greater power to satisfy their common needs. Privatisation has been conceived as a strategic ch to improve governmental productivity thereby to give people more for their ‘moncy. Attempts to improve governmental ‘performance have taken many forms such as ‘budgeting reform, introduction of management sechniques and even large-scale reforms through seforms committees and commissions. In terms ‘of consequences, however, such reform efforts generally been unsuccessful. The latest move “privatise” is not to belittle the importance of ment’ but (0 iniprove the productivity public organisitions, Cost-conscious public Jals and other productivity-oriented groups now favouring privatisation as an important ‘tool for better public management and as the key to more cost-effective government’ Meruops oF Priyarisation Following are the categorisition ‘of E.S: Savas', shferene methods of privatisation ¢an be broadly ciasified as: a) Divestment: 6) Delegation and ©) “Displacement Publice Private’ Dichotomy 31 Divestment stands for shedding an enterprise oF asset. This involves 4 posiave step by government whereby an enterprise or asset is either sold or given away as an ongoing business, or an enterprise may be closed down and the assets sold away. Delegation requires a continuing, active role for goverriment. In this method government delegates to the private sector part of or all of the activity of producing goods and services, but retains responsibility for overseeing the result. Delegation caii be carried out by contract, franchise, grant, voucher, or mandate, Local government, for instance, often contracts for services such as solid waste collection, ‘The third method—Displacement—is somewhat passive process that leads to a government's entity being displaced more or less gradually by the private sector as ttarkets develop to satisfy needs. Displacement may occur by default (government not being able to provide services stich as transport), by withdrawal (deliberately government vacates an area and allows private Sector to take it up) and by deregulation—a method enabling the private ‘sector to challenge # government monopoly and even disphce it akogether. The discussions here point cowards a new way of looking’ at privatisation, which is government- strengthening and not quite anti-public sector: How Drrrerent 1s Pustic Sector? Puiblic-private distinction, as Dwight Waldo has rematked, is no longer a sharp one; at leas inthe United States and there 1s 2 movement ‘towards a ting and mixing of the two! * Afi extreme view taken by Barry Bozeman is that‘all organisations are public because publie authority affects some of the behaviour or process of all organisations. All-organisations, int his view, share ‘public’ and ‘private’ features.?OO i 32 New Horizons of Public Administration It is understandable that as government gets ‘more and more involved in business and as business-like approaches are, increasingly taken in governmental operations, chere 1s bound to be the blurring of lines between the public and private sectors. On the other side, there are scholars who point ‘out the special nature of public administration. Nore, in this connection, Wallace Sayre’s comment: ‘Business and public, organisations are alike only in all unimportant respects". The crucial distinction has been identified as public administration's basis in rule of law. Public oxganisations. do, public’ business, in. terms.of law. They administer law, ‘Every, element, of their being - their, structure, staffing, budget and purpose ~ is the product of legal authorsty. Every action, taken by a, public administrator ultimately must be traceable to a legal grant of authority”, Also. public, organisations: have distinctive processesand they work in different environment. Public, scratiny, balancing of political. interests and accountability, through a variety of agencies and processes such as the legislature, the judiciary, the media,and the. public mark. out, public) administration as a distinctly different enterprise and very importantly itis the challenge of public service, that. distinguishes, public. from, private administration, er A BALANCED Vinw “ Public admainistration. as practical. goverumental activities for societal, management is carried on at different levels—centre, state and local —within the broad governing philosophy. as delineated in the constitution. Thus, the Indian. Constitution provides the philosophical frame~ work and major conditions (e.g.. fundamental rights of citizens, directive principles. ete.) that public administration in India at-any level. has to reckon with, The Constitution create ‘opportunities and constraints for adminis For instance, there are opportunities ote: reservation of public appoinmnienits, The of the Compuller and Auditor Genera after the accounts and audit of govert at all levels. The legislatures both’ at the and in the stares pass the budget and hr executive accountable. Under the Consti the judiciary listens to cases against gover agencies lodged by aggrieved citizens. Th basic principles of government and some major control mechanisms are laid down Constitution: This is something unigile to management. Secondly, the public agencies and p business face thé ‘market’ very different private firms’ face the market more dire the firms are unable to produce produ services at egmpetitive prices, their clients to alternative sources-and this affects the income'badly.- Bublic agencies, by contrast, do nt competitive markets for their product services. The prices of government ‘good usually fixed through budget exercises, Th taxation, resourcesage raised by government charges are also arfiposed n certain occa bur the general trend is chat government ag ‘operate as legal monopolies, sometimes se are provided to everyone at a fixed cost instance, the charge for ‘Speed Post! is the for everybody, In public interest, government has to pre certain goods andyservices which w otherwise noc be provided by private’ f ‘These. goods and services are called ‘public g or collective goods, Highways, education, supply, public welfare are some exampl ‘public goods’. Society asa whole derives be from these; henge; the cost of these good: services is borpe by the society as a wholePublic-Private Dichotomy 33 For this kind of fiscal management, the mar- Set is less constraining in the public than in the private sector. Thirdly, public administration enjoys a position Sperior to private management because of its Erect link with the state’s sovereign power. “The Ssons of public administrators have the forces ‘aw and the coercive power of government and them’. Private firms can approach the for any wrong doing, but their actions snot binding in the same sense and cannot be exced through legitimate coercive power, 3¢ case of a. government agency. ‘As Rosenbloom has emphasised the inctivencss; “Public admunistration is concerned with ation of the public: interest. It is ined by constitutions and relatively ined by market forces and it-is a public trust exercised on behalf of ol and reguiation. Environmental manage- pollution control, natural resources con- a, child Jabour prohibition, regulation ation. network. and. broadcasting —all and many more activities are increasing en of public management, Private man- thas no such parallel macro-social man~ Hence, there is considerable truth in tement that public administration is not 2 kind of technology but a special form. of moral endeavour. In a moral and basic sense, public administration has to serve ‘a higher pur- pose’. What is clearly discernible is that the nature of public service management is changing fast. The change is from a system characterised by biireauicratic hierarchies to one with a much more diversified pattern. There is now much more focus on quality of services, there is more ‘emphasis now on the role of market’ and there is is now on multi-agency partnerships. Goverment is: now being called upon to play ‘more and more“erabling’role than the traditional ‘doing’ role. At the same time, old management themes and styles persist. Obviously, the ‘new" and the ‘old’ sometimes coexist and sometimes conflict with each other. REFERENCES, 1. ESS Savas,"A Taxorioiiy Gt Privatization Strategies", Policy Studies Review, 1990. 2. Dwight Waldo, The Enternrise of Public Adiinistation: A Summary View Chander and Sharp, 1980. 3. Barry Bozeman, All Organisations are Publie Bridging Public and Private Organisation Ticoies, Jowey-Bass, 1987. 4. Wallace. Sayre, “The Unhappy Bureaucrats: Views Ironic, Helpful, Indignant™, Public Admiuistration Review, 18 Summer, 1958. 5, Jamies W.Fesler and Donald F Ket, The Politics of the ‘Administrative Process, Chatham House Publications, Ine., New Jersey, 1991 Rosenbloom, Public Adininistiton, op citCarrer 4 . ee Approaches, Principles and Theories. pproaches are standpoints that fix A the vision and outlook. In. public ministration, thiee major approaches or standpoints deserve mention: (a) Institutional Approach: It lays emphasis on structures, organisation, constitutional framework and laws and procedures, Classical analysts belong to this category. (b) Managerial Approach: This has for its focus operational issues and problems __ the internal goings on in the organisation. Processes and. producing. results. are’ its major concerns. (©) Political Approach: It concentrates on power and interests in organisational lifes influences coming from outside and piblic interest issues that dominate puib- lic organisation. The role of the state and the changing functions of the public sector fall in this way of thinking. All these approaches are relevant for public administration analysis. Both theory and practice need to coalesce to help understand the functioning of governments and to work out administrative policies and practices in the interest of efficient management and clientele satisfaction. Bureaucratic structure, processes and behaviour have been the central concerns of the subject. Ic differs from political scienge, as it demarcates a narrow area of intellectual inquiry focussed basically on the executive otganisation ‘and® operations of the government. Public intetest being at the core of governmental functioning, it also’ differs from the management sciences. The subject does, of course, borrow heavily from the latter: As regards its nexus with political science, itis now widely acknowledged that public administration as governmental orgaiisation and activities is embedded in polities and is shaped and influenced by it: There is even an exereme view suggesting that public administration is polities and the elassical view of politics-administration dichotomy is unrealistic and untenable. ApMINIsTRATIVE THEORIES ‘What passes for'theory’in public administration notins needs to be accepted cautiously. The word theory’ is offen very loosely used. In social sciehice discussions the question of ‘Value’ as preferred ‘state of things appeats again and again. It is possible to talk of value theory if the sense that there can be generalisations about individual and/or collective expressions of preferences grown out of life-experiences. An administrator might be holding a view that the universities should be headed by officers from the All-India Services. Implied in his viewpoint is a preference for the administrator as the appropriate power- wielder. Discussions on administration abound in suggestions and recommendations that take the form of ‘should be’. To a careful observer, these are value judgements or statements ofApproaches, Principles and Theories 35 Preferenices which are not’ always explicitly expresed Scientific inquiry must evolve causal theories that would help analyse concrete situations and would have predictive use. As David Easton puts it: “The accumulation of data through acceptable techniques does not alone give us adequate knowledge. Knowledge becomes critical and reliable as it increases in gerierality and internally consistent organisation, when, in short, it is cast im the form of systematic generalised statements applicable to large numbers of particular at Causal theory, in this sense of generalisation and statement of probabilistic relationship berween facts, needs to be worked out in public administration. Bur at the present state of the subject, such theories are more talked about than really existing, As a subject of study, public administration has been everybody's field. The practising administrators and academics of all sorts have something to say on one or the other aspects of administration, In fact a coherent, concentrated and organised body. of knowledge ‘on the phenomenon of public administration 4s still evolving. The state of ‘theory’, under such circumstances, cannot be expected to be satisfactory, As Martiry Landau comments rather sarcastically, administrative theory is “marked by a plethora of competing schools, a polyglot of languages and aecortingly, a confusion of logic. ‘There is neither a common research tradition nor the necessary ‘consensus for a common field of inquiry. Each of the Competing schools questions the others, adveniturism is rampant and commonly 3¢cepted standatds of control do not exist”? Peter Self similarly points out that various kinds of ‘theories’ Have grown up around public Sdministration “that are derived from many or no academic disciplines”.” It is this discomforting situation’ that prompted Herbert Simion to look for a fairly definite locas of public administration, which can then be subjected to tigorous scientific analysis. Admittedly, theory-building in public administration is not an easy task, as there are various kinds of public organisations, administrative structures and processes Generalised statemerits have also to be tested in different cultural situations before they could be accepted as universal. ‘Traditionally, administrative theorising has been the work of practitioners and reformers, particularly in the United States of America Practitioners like Frederick Taylor in America did anchor their ideas in administrative real- ity, But at the same time, they had their own ideas about “good organisation’ which they had imperceptibly tried to promote. Administra tive theories have, therefore, tobe understood againist the socio-economic background of the theorists and the historical time period of their ‘existencé. Ideas that often pass for' theories’ are most likely to contain implied biases grown our Of the Sociowhiitorical situation of a writer: Despite such limitations, which are common to social scietices in general, attempts at theorising in public admitiistration have been going on for a long time. Case study method has been very popular, especially in the US.A. to portray micro situations, which could be developed inductively into general propositions about administration. Theté is now 4 large compilation known a8 organisation theory dealing ‘mainly with forinal organisations. Governmental activities are undertaken within a specific organisational nittrix. The growth and evolution of public organisations, their structures and operational processes and the behaviour of the members of those organisations are interesting subjects’ of study THeory-building can be posible if more andett | 36 New Horizons. of Public Administration more empirical studies are made of the various kinds of public organisations, The evolving discipline of organisation theory is in. many ways helpful in understanding the orgapisation and working of public organisations. It needs to be pointed out, however, that most writings on organisation theory are based on the study of business administration, The special. features of government organisations are often ignored or not properly understood by organisation theorists, Since its empirical base is primarily in business administration, organisation theory has to be carefully adapted to the study of public administration, Nevertheless, it has emerged in recent times as.a powerful tool of analysis. of public administration as well. ‘The most important paradigm in public ad- ministration has been the Weberian concept of bureaucracy, Generations of scholars on gov~ ernment organisations have relied heavily on the staictural aiid’ behavioural implications of Weber's theowsical formulation. The Weberian fornwlation, as we will discuss later, has re- inained a general concepeual frapfework for the understanding of the nature of bureaucracy. Organisational complexities, of contemporary public organisations in terms of structures, proc- esses and behaviour cannot, however, all be fully comprehended by neference to Weberian theory alone. ‘Theonetical concerns in public administration have thus to be pursued in 9 somewhat eclectic fashion. Organisation theory can, be helpful, provided its, application takes care of the special features. of public administaion and is related to government organisation. Weberian formulation continues to be the dominant paradigm. in the study. of administration. Since public administration is peculiarly. embedded in politics, administrative analyses have necessarily to draw mostly on political science, With intense intermingling of politics and administration, theories in political science become fairly freely interchangeable with those in_ public administration. ‘Principles’ are_practical recipes growing out of the world of work and practice. ‘They donot have the ngour and durability of theories’. Scientific management which we ‘owe mainly to Taylor laid down some of such ‘principles’ or action prescriptions. OxGantsaTion THEORTES 4 The theories of publié administration, a6 the previous discussion points out, are drawn ow from a variety of sources, The term ‘administration’ refers to an activity or function. ‘Organisation, by contrast, stands for the object Within which administration resides and tikes place: Concepmually, organisation has’ wider connotation than aditinistration, Hence instead of talking about administrative theories, we prefer the phrase organisation theaties,The basic character of the theories of organisation and an understinding of the nature and typologies of ofganisation should therefore’ engage our attention first. NATURE AND TYPOLOGIES OF ORGANISATION Organisation theory has been described as the study. of structure and functioning, of ‘organisations and. the behayiour of groups and individuals within them. Drawing primarily ‘on the disciplines of sociology, and. psychology, as_also on economics and, to a lesser extent, on production. engineering, a new science of ‘organisation has been emerging. We need to distinguish here complex formal, organisations. from. what 1s called. social ‘organisations. Formal organisations have been defined as those whith have been established for the explicit purpose of achieving certain goals, They possess rules designed to anticipate and shape behaviour in the direction of thesespeals. Further they have formal status structure ith clearly marked lines of communication and ty. Where social life is carried on without 4 framework of explicit goals.or rules which a formal status structure, it is usually Shought more appropriate to use the term social unisation”, The smidy of formal organisation has, been Prompted by many considerations. As human Bie. is, affected. more and more by. numerous scale, complex organisations, it has been felt iy to study them scientifically. To. quote 4A eminent organisation theorist, “No matter what you have to. do, with an organisation— et YOU are going to study. it, work, in it, for it, subvert it, or use it in the interest another organisation—you must have some of the nature of the beast with which you dealing”,* There is,also the practical, need understand organisations ro produce. better seul, How is xt that one organisation, produces ‘more than, another? How does an organisation ice at the lowest cost, relative to other or- anisations? These and similar other questions ‘great practical value can be answered only by and scientific study of organisations. Organisation theory, therefore, has value both pursuit of knowledge about organisations 3s a practical aid to actual organisational solving. The scope of our field can be delineated with Ice to the three characteristics common all organisations: structure, processes and our, Organisations have been studied from a of perspectives. The situation, has. been by. Mason Haire, a leading. writer, to proverbial story of the blind men describing elephant: each believing he is describing a rent animal, It is possible, despite considerable variability, distil a certain amount of common viewpoints Approaches; Priniples and Theories 37 expressed about organisations.,The fact remains, however, thar study: of organisations is not the exclusive province of any.single discipline. Bach disciplinary orientation tends to. focus on a particular aspect or set of features of organisations. Economists, for instance, tend to deal with how organisations allocate resources and how decistons-are' made ander conditions of Uncertainty. Industrial engineers focus on the technological underpinning of organisational activities. Sociologists have been mainly concerned with the structure of organisations andthe ways in’ which organisations try to cope with their external social environments. Psychologists have been interested im the behaviour of individuals and groups within organisations. Again, stich issues as power and authority in orgatisitional settings have attracted the attention of political scientists, In essence, therefore, the analysis of organisations is a fertile. meeting ground for a number of disciplines and:has the distinct character of an interdisciplinary field. Turning to definition, the-term. ‘organisation’ is not easy to define, In fact, March and Simon in their widely referred book; Organitarions choose not to define this word but instead state'“it is easier and probably more useful, to give examples of formal organisations than to define the term’ From a representative sample of some of the widely cited definitions, a summary of fanda- mental characteristics of organisations can be abstracted! ‘Organisations consist of individuals and groups; their existence is geared to achieve cer- fain goals and objectives and they operate by means, of differentiated functions and intended rational, coordination, Organisations can thus be understood in the context of their objectives, human context and operational modes.38 Now Horizons of Public Administration Since formal organisations are highly ‘com- plex entities, clasificatory schemes should rep- resent this complexity. The essence of the ty- pological effort really lies in the determination of the critical variables for differentiating the phenomena under investigation, We can now review some of the efforts: made to classify organisations and consider some possible future directions for taxonomic efforts. ‘Typotoctes By GoaL-or FUNCTIONS ‘Talcott Parsons’ has a scheme of classification based on the type of function or goal served by the organisation. Here the concern is with the linkages between. organisations. and. the wider society. The four types, of organisations distinguished, on this basis are: (i) Proittetion organisation: “his type of prganisation makes things which are consumed by the-society. () Polina organisation: It is oriented toward political goals. It generates and allocates power within the society. (iii) Iutegrative organisation: It seeks tor settle conflicts, difect’ motivations toward the: fulfilmene of institutionalised expectations and ensures that the parts of society work together. (iv) Porter maintenance organisation: Ieattempss to provide’ societal. continuity through educational, culeutal and expressive activities.~ The same approach has been firther elaborated by Katz anid Kahn."Their typologies are: (@) production ‘of economie organisation; (b) managerial oF political ofganisation (concerned with adjudication, coordination and control of resources, people and subsystem); (c) aduptive ‘organisation (that creates knowledge and develop and test theories) e.g. universities, research organisations etc.; (d) maintenance organisation ee (which is devoted to the socialization of people for their roles in (other organisations and the larger society); e.g. church, school, health and welfare mstitutions, Katz and Kahn’ also tefer to organisational characteristics as they highlight these! major functions. They select four basic characteristics thar seem important for organisational opers- tions. Fist! the differentiation ean be on the bass of the ‘through-put’ There ate organisations that transform objects and others that transform people. ‘SecondThere can be differentiation between expressive and instrumental orientations on the pa of organisation members. Expressive orientations are characteristic of organisations in which mem bers participate for some intrinsic satisfactior gained from participation. An instatittiental oF entation is one in which participation is for purpose of receiving somie material reward. ‘Third: Another basis of differentiation i the ojyanisation’s structure itself Organisatior vary according’ to the’ degree to which thei boundaries até open’ and permeable; the de; to which the structure’ is differentiated, bo Horizontally and vertically, into sub-units a hierarchical levels and the nature of allocatio system within the organisation. Fourth: The final, basis of differentiation is manner in which organisations artempr to wu the energy oF resources at their disposal. The ranges from those organisations that seek maintain equilibrium, in terms of not expandit Of contraéting the amount of input or outp to those’ that seek to- maximise the utiliza of input $0 that more fesources are kept int organisation than spent. ‘TyPoLoctes ON ‘THE Basts OF COMPLIANCE Etzioni” uses compliance as the major source:Approaches, Principles and Theories 39 ntiation between organisations. Compliance the manner in which lower participants in an n respond to the authority system Bidongeskasion’ iris expressed through the of the lower participant's involvement the organisation. When cocrcion is the basis authority, compliance is alicnared; when ion is the basis of authority, compliance es a calcularive (utibitartan) turn; when authority is normative (expressed through persuasion), mpliance is moral. Most organisations would as fall into congruent types where three types authority would combine with three cypes ‘compliance. other formulation by Blau and Scott* is based the principle of cui bono ot who benefits. main consideration is who is the direct msumer of the output of the organisation, ot o the prime beneficiary is? Four basic types derived on this basis. The first is the mutual-benefit association, in ich the members themselves are the prime ciaries of the organisation's actions. ‘The second type is the business concern where ‘owners are the prime beneficiaries. ‘The third type is the service organisation where slients served are the prime beneficiaries, Finally, there is the commonweal organisation which the public at large receives the major caefits. These raxonomic efforts are useful no doubt, these do not differentiate clearly between isations in terms of the variables that are important: These are mainly deductive the sense that some ‘characteristics have en considered important and then a system been sought to be developed around the variables, There have been some attempts to construct empirically derived taxonomy of organisations. Following: such’ efforts, it it now thought that empirical demonstrovion of rélationships between organisational characteristics might serve the major basis for organisational classification especially in government. ‘Two Approacues Studies on’organisation have been an ongoing process and’ the body of knowledge now available as organisation theory is the product of constantly evolving discussions’ on the phenomenon of organisation: The theories in this field are naturally very diverse, as various writers have written for different purposes and differing, from disciplinary bases. Keeping in mind our interest in public administration, a convenient way of looking: at the large body of literature ‘on organisations would be to concentrate on the broader and more general theories or ‘principles’ that help us to understand the design or structural problems as these are related to efficient performance of organisational tasks. Writings: on organisation can broadly be issified into two basic categories: One grip stands out as 2 distinct cluster because of its substantive interest in finding outand advocating, “ome'best way” of structuring organisation. This stream of thought has been called the "universil design theory’. The second group, by contrast. is much less orthodox and more flexible, as it concedes a degree of structural fluidity and adjustment in response to such factors as technology and environmental changes. ‘This second group has been labelled ‘situational design theory’. The two contrasting streanss of thoughe are also known as. ‘closed system’ and ‘open system’ approaches to organisational analysis. ¥ Unider ‘universal design theory, influential40, New Horizons of Public Administration thoughts that have relevance to. public administration can be identified as: (2) Scientific management school; (b) Classical theory of management, or administrative management theory; (©) Bureaucratic theory. Scientific Management: In the later part of the nineteenth century and early part of the present, the Scientific Management Movement was initiated. by’ Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915) who began his career as.an apprentice in a small machinery-making shop in Philadelphia, Later he rose to the position of a machinist foreman and in that capacity he became interested in improving methods of work and efficiency in organisation. With his pragmatic concern for efficiency, he placed emphasis on planning, standardising and improving human effort at the level of the worker. He was keemto find out scientifically ‘the one ‘best way’ of doing each task and thus to increase productivity in the organisation, Increased. productivity, according to hua, would benefit employer and employee alike and in this process bring about a ‘mental revolution’ “By. maximising the productive cfficiency of each worker, scientific management would also maximise the earnings of workers and employers. Hence, all conflict between capital and labour would. be resolved-by: the findings of science”.” The focus of scientific management was rather narrow, as it essentially concentrated on the work done at the lowest level in the organisations. The purpose was to analyse the relationships between the physical nature of work and the physiological nature of workers to determine job definitions. Objective analysis of facts and data collected at the work place would provide the basis of determining the one best way to organise work. Also, it-was the management's responsibility alone to find out this one best way: To. quote Ta “Ie is only through enforced standardization of methods, enforced adoption of the best implements and working conditions and enforced cooperation that this faster work can be assumed and the duty of enforcing the adoption of standards and of enforcing this’ cooperation tests with the management alone.”!" The essenice of scientific management was stated by Taylor thu: First: Develop a science for each element of a man's work which replaces the old rule-of- thumb method. Second: Scientifically select and then train, teach and develop the workman, whereas in the past he chose his own work and trained himself as best he could. ‘Third: Heartily cooperate with the men so as to:insure all of the work being done in accordance with scientific principles, Fourth: There is althost an equal division of the work andthe responsibility between the management and the workmen. The management takes over all work for which they are better fitted than che werkmen, while in the past; almost all of the work and the greater part of the responsibility were thrown upon the men, ‘Taylor and his associates such as Henry Gantt and Frank and Lillian Gilbreth wrote books and articles spreading the principles of scientific management far and wide. These writings had profound impact on industrial structures and practices in the U.S.A. and Europe. Gantt became well known for the invention of the Gantt chart on which process of work could be plotted continuously against time. Gilbreth’s system became known as ‘speed work’ as it involved reduction in the amount of work through the elimination of unnecessary motions. Taylor initiated. improved’ methods of work,Approaches, Principles and Theories 41 bur Gilbreth’s work to find our the bese way of doing each job was much more far-reaching and Ibid the foundation of modern motion-study techniques. The other contribution of Gilbreth was the "low proces¢ chart’. An operation is broken down into steps that may be performed by ‘several workers. This helps to discover ‘whether some of the steps in the operation ean be eliminated or shortened ‘The main features of scientific management ane as follows: 1. The separation of Planning and Execution was one of the basic tenets of ‘Taylorism. 2, Concept of Functional Feremanship was evolved: to tinderline the need for so dividing the’ work of management that cach man at the supervisory level would have as few fisnctions as possible, 3. Motion and time study: The best way to do a work and the standard time for completion of the task. Motion study is to determine a preferable work method with consideration to raw materials, tools and equipnients, hand and’ body , ‘motion ete. Time Swudy is the fixing of appropriate time to complete a task after the preferred way is determined, 4. The Taylor system introduced a differential piecework plan of payment to encourage workmen to put forth their best efforts ‘Crmicism Taylor's scientific management was soon opposed both by managers and workers, Managers did not like the substitution of the scientific methods for their own judgement and "discretion, Workers were opposed to time study procedures and standardisation of all aspects of their performance, as they did not like to be treated as machines. Greatest resistance came from the labour leaders who found in Taylorism a threat to their role and to the growth of trade union movement. It was Taylor's conviction that effective cooperation between employer and employees would flow from better manage- ment through the application of the scientific principles. Unions would then be unnecessary. ‘Taylor and his followers had viewed organisation mechanistically. They were essentially practitioners who were interested in improving workers’ performance at the level of the shop floor. The neglect of the human side of the organisation has been one of the major criticisms of Taylorism. Nevertheless, the ideas of scientific management greatly influenced administrative thought and management practices in subsequent years. The conceptual framework adopted later by the administrative management theorists was derived basically from Taylor’ ideas. Clear delineation of authority and responsibility, the use of standards in control, separation of planning from operation, the functional organisation, incentive system for workers, the principle of management by exception and task specialisation—these were Taylor's ideas that greatly influenced management thought in later periods. CLASSICAL THEORY OF MANAGEMENT Scientific management also in the classical! mould as developed by Taylor and his followers was narrowly conceived as it focussed on efficiency at the operative level. During the first half of this century, a broader approach to organisation was initiated by a group of writers whose interest ~ was chiefly in formal organisation structure and the basic management process. March and Si- mon have characterised this body of knowledge as ‘administrative management theory’ and itsa2 New’ Horizons of Public Administration proponents were called ‘departmentalists', This is also known as the traditional or classical theory of management. The combination of the defini- tion of the field as proposed by Wilson and the Scientific Management and Departmentalists prescriptions for organisational management and structure (relying heavily on hierarchy as a pri- mary mechanism for control and coordination) constituted the core of the classical approach to public administration. Weber is also related to the classical approach, but his analysis covered much wider ground Henri Fayol, a French engineer who was chief executive of a large coal and steel company from 1888 to 1918, was one of the earliest writers on the general theory of management. He believed that there was a single ‘administrative science’ whose principles were applicable not only to business but also to government, religious and other organisations, In 1916, he published a paper entitled ‘General and Industrial Management’ which was later brought out in a book form. Even now, this is considered one of the classics of management thought, Knowledge of administration rather than technical knowledge, according to Fayol, is what is needed at higher levels of an organisation, He defined the primary function of administration 3s 1. To plan 2, ‘To organise both men and materials 3. To command or to tell the subordinates what to do 4; To coordinate 5. To contral. For the guidance of practising administrators, Fayol laid down a number of principles, as he said: “The soundness and good working onder of the body corporate depend on a certain number of conditions termed indiscriminately principle, laws and rules, For preference I shall adopt the term principles while dissociating it from any suggestion of rigidity, for there is nothing rigid or absolute in management affairs, it is all a question of proportion, Seldom do we have to apply the same principle twice in identical conditions; allowance must be made for diferent changing conditions." Fayol’s Principles of Management, Fayol evolved fourteen principles of management which may be briefly stated as follows: 1, Division of work. The object ofdivision of work is to derive the benefits from the principle of specialisation which can be applied uot only in technical work but in all other work as well, Unlike Taylor, Fayol pointed out that the division of work has its obvious limits, 2. Authority and responsibility, Au- thority and responsbility are correlated terms, Responsibility is the essential counterpart of authority and they go hand in hand together. An ideal manager is expected to have official authority arising from official position as well as his inherent personal authority. Such personal authority is ‘compounded of intelligence, experience, moral worth, ability to lead, past service, etc’, 3. Discipline. ‘Discipline is in essence obedience, application, energy behaviour and outward marks of respect’ shown by employees. ‘Discipline is what the leaders make it’ through the observance of agreements, because agreements spell out the formalities of discipline. Three requisites of discipline are (a) good supervisors at all levels, (b) clear and fair agreements and (¢) judicious application of penalties or sanctions, 4. Unity of command. This principle requires that an employee should receiveApproaches, Principles and: Theories B from one superior only. Dual ‘wrecks havoc in all concerns, authority is sindermined, disci- 4s in jeopardy, order disturbed and threatened’. of direction. Fayol discussed ix principle of unity of direction in ifferent way from that of unity of ind. While unity of direction is ‘ered. with the functioning of the corporate, unity of command is ly: concerned wath the functioning ‘personnel at different levels. For the lishment of a group of activities the same objectives, there should fone head and one plan. ‘A body ‘with two heads is in the society as in the animal sphere a monster and has ulty in surviving” Subordination of individual interest general interest. Common inter- ‘

Anda mungkin juga menyukai

• The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  

  Dari Everand

  The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  Sarah M. Broom

  Penilaian: 4 dari 5 bintang

  4/5 (98)
• Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  

  Dari Everand

  Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  Margot Lee Shetterly

  Penilaian: 4 dari 5 bintang

  4/5 (895)
• The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  

  Dari Everand

  The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  Mark Manson

  Penilaian: 4 dari 5 bintang

  4/5 (5794)
• • Majalah
  • Podcast
  • Partitur
• The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  

  Dari Everand

  The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  Meik Wiking

  Penilaian: 3.5 dari 5 bintang

  3.5/5 (399)
• Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  

  Dari Everand

  Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  Gilbert King

  Penilaian: 4.5 dari 5 bintang

  4.5/5 (266)
• Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  

  Dari Everand

  Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  Phil Knight

  Penilaian: 4.5 dari 5 bintang

  4.5/5 (537)
• Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  

  Dari Everand

  Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  Ashlee Vance

  Penilaian: 4.5 dari 5 bintang

  4.5/5 (474)
• Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  

  Dari Everand

  Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  Chris Voss

  Penilaian: 4.5 dari 5 bintang

  4.5/5 (838)
• Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  

  Dari Everand

  Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  Angela Duckworth

  Penilaian: 4 dari 5 bintang

  4/5 (588)
• A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  

  Dari Everand

  A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  Dave Eggers

  Penilaian: 3.5 dari 5 bintang

  3.5/5 (231)
• Principles: Life and Work

  

  Dari Everand

  Principles: Life and Work

  Ray Dalio

  Penilaian: 4 dari 5 bintang

  4/5 (599)
• The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  

  Dari Everand

  The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  Siddhartha Mukherjee

  Penilaian: 4.5 dari 5 bintang

  4.5/5 (271)
• Yes Please

  

  Dari Everand

  Yes Please

  Amy Poehler

  Penilaian: 4 dari 5 bintang

  4/5 (1891)
• The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  

  Dari Everand

  The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  Thomas L. Friedman

  Penilaian: 3.5 dari 5 bintang

  3.5/5 (2259)
• On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  

  Dari Everand

  On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  Naomi Klein

  Penilaian: 4 dari 5 bintang

  4/5 (73)
• The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  

  Dari Everand

  The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  Ben Horowitz

  Penilaian: 4.5 dari 5 bintang

  4.5/5 (344)
• Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  

  Dari Everand

  Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  Jay Sekulow

  Penilaian: 3.5 dari 5 bintang

  3.5/5 (137)
• Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  

  Dari Everand

  Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  Doris Kearns Goodwin

  Penilaian: 4.5 dari 5 bintang

  4.5/5 (234)
• Fear: Trump in the White House

  

  Dari Everand

  Fear: Trump in the White House

  Bob Woodward

  Penilaian: 3.5 dari 5 bintang

  3.5/5 (738)
• John Adams

  

  Dari Everand

  John Adams

  David McCullough

  Penilaian: 4.5 dari 5 bintang

  4.5/5 (2409)
• The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  

  Dari Everand

  The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  George Packer

  Penilaian: 4 dari 5 bintang

  4/5 (45)
• The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

  

  Dari Everand

  The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

  Brené Brown

  Penilaian: 4 dari 5 bintang

  4/5 (1090)
• Steve Jobs

  

  Dari Everand

  Steve Jobs

  Walter Isaacson

  Penilaian: 4.5 dari 5 bintang

  4.5/5 (806)
• Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  

  Dari Everand

  Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  Frank McCourt

  Penilaian: 4.5 dari 5 bintang

  4.5/5 (440)
• Bad Feminist: Essays

  

  Dari Everand

  Bad Feminist: Essays

  Roxane Gay

  Penilaian: 4 dari 5 bintang

  4/5 (1015)
• The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  

  Dari Everand

  The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  Jeannette Walls

  Penilaian: 4.5 dari 5 bintang

  4.5/5 (1712)
• The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  

  Dari Everand

  The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  M.L. Stedman

  Penilaian: 4.5 dari 5 bintang

  4.5/5 (789)
• The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  

  Dari Everand

  The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  Viet Thanh Nguyen

  Penilaian: 4.5 dari 5 bintang

  4.5/5 (121)
• The Outsider: A Novel

  

  Dari Everand

  The Outsider: A Novel

  Stephen King

  Penilaian: 4 dari 5 bintang

  4/5 (1839)
• Brooklyn: A Novel

  

  Dari Everand

  Brooklyn: A Novel

  Colm Tóibín

  Penilaian: 3.5 dari 5 bintang

  3.5/5 (1937)
• A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  

  Dari Everand

  A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  Fredrik Backman

  Penilaian: 4.5 dari 5 bintang

  4.5/5 (4609)
• The Woman in Cabin 10

  

  Dari Everand

  The Woman in Cabin 10

  Ruth Ware

  Penilaian: 3.5 dari 5 bintang

  3.5/5 (2322)
• Wolf Hall: A Novel

  

  Dari Everand

  Wolf Hall: A Novel

  Hilary Mantel

  Penilaian: 4 dari 5 bintang

  4/5 (3811)
• Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  

  Dari Everand

  Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  Jennifer Egan

  Penilaian: 3.5 dari 5 bintang

  3.5/5 (792)
• The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  

  Dari Everand

  The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  Stephen Chbosky

  Penilaian: 4.5 dari 5 bintang

  4.5/5 (2102)
• Little Women

  

  Dari Everand

  Little Women

  Louisa May Alcott

  Penilaian: 4 dari 5 bintang

  4/5 (104)
• The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  

  Dari Everand

  The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  Garth Stein

  Penilaian: 4 dari 5 bintang

  4/5 (4200)
• Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  

  Dari Everand

  Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  Jesmyn Ward

  Penilaian: 4 dari 5 bintang

  4/5 (1103)
• Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  

  Dari Everand

  Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  Carmen Maria Machado

  Penilaian: 4 dari 5 bintang

  4/5 (821)
• A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  

  Dari Everand

  A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  Betty Smith

  Penilaian: 4.5 dari 5 bintang

  4.5/5 (1929)
• The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  

  Dari Everand

  The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  John le Carré

  Penilaian: 3.5 dari 5 bintang

  3.5/5 (104)
• Overload by Joyce Meyer, Chapter 1

  

  Dokumen29 halaman

  Overload by Joyce Meyer, Chapter 1

  HBG Nashville

  100% (6)
• CHAPTER 1 Frankestein

  

  Dokumen15 halaman

  CHAPTER 1 Frankestein

  GloriaAlejandraAhumadaEspinoza

  0% (1)
• WRITING

  

  Dokumen6 halaman

  WRITING

  jessa alamban

  100% (1)
• Promopress Fashion Jewellery 2018 PDF

  

  Dokumen12 halaman

  Promopress Fashion Jewellery 2018 PDF

  evach

  Belum ada peringkat
• Textbooks Audio Engineering PDF

  

  Dokumen2 halaman

  Textbooks Audio Engineering PDF

  xty115

  Belum ada peringkat
• Conversations English

  

  Dokumen3 halaman

  Conversations English

  Natalia D.

  Belum ada peringkat
• The Flesh Made Word

  

  Dokumen190 halaman

  The Flesh Made Word

  Dimitri Ahumada

  Belum ada peringkat
• The Roaring Twenties Project 2

  

  Dokumen5 halaman

  The Roaring Twenties Project 2

  Carmen Robles

  Belum ada peringkat
• The Scientific Letters and Papers of James Clerk Maxwell-Volume One

  

  Dokumen4 halaman

  The Scientific Letters and Papers of James Clerk Maxwell-Volume One

  trynext

  Belum ada peringkat
• Lotr LCG Cards and Faqs 7.21b

  

  Dokumen82 halaman

  Lotr LCG Cards and Faqs 7.21b

  Anonymous DVw7IOKE

  Belum ada peringkat
• 1001 Books You Must Read Before You Die

  

  Dokumen112 halaman

  1001 Books You Must Read Before You Die

  Iulia Dumitrescu

  100% (1)
• What Is Your Destiny?

  

  Dokumen21 halaman

  What Is Your Destiny?

  United Church of God

  100% (2)
• The Encyclopedia of Volcanoes (Second Edition), by Haraldur Sigurdsson, Bruce Hought

  

  Dokumen2 halaman

  The Encyclopedia of Volcanoes (Second Edition), by Haraldur Sigurdsson, Bruce Hought

  LincoYan

  Belum ada peringkat
• Devotion: An Epic Story of Heroism, Friendship, and Sacrifice

  

  Dokumen5 halaman

  Devotion: An Epic Story of Heroism, Friendship, and Sacrifice

  wamu885

  0% (1)
• Collier's Magazine Man Will Conquer Space

  

  Dokumen52 halaman

  Collier's Magazine Man Will Conquer Space

  Artur Coelho

  100% (8)
• PG Textbook of Pediatrics Infections and Systemic Disorders by Piyush Gupta 2016 03 31 B01JXPRSWA PDF

  

  Dokumen2 halaman

  PG Textbook of Pediatrics Infections and Systemic Disorders by Piyush Gupta 2016 03 31 B01JXPRSWA PDF

  Gaurav Thakur

  0% (1)
• Austen AP Open Question Essay 2

  

  Dokumen4 halaman

  Austen AP Open Question Essay 2

  MystiqueRain

  Belum ada peringkat
• BLOOD TIES (Nigel Hinton)

  

  Dokumen2 halaman

  BLOOD TIES (Nigel Hinton)

  Yorny Chill

  Belum ada peringkat
• Bedside Blessings

  

  Dokumen11 halaman

  Bedside Blessings

  ThomasNelson

  0% (3)
• O Mito Do Carisma

  

  Dokumen1 halaman

  O Mito Do Carisma

  Diogo Neves da Costa

  Belum ada peringkat
• Theories of Political Economy

  

  Dokumen253 halaman

  Theories of Political Economy

  nicolas trujillo

  Belum ada peringkat
• Day and Night Sky (WWW - Irlanguage.com)

  

  Dokumen10 halaman

  Day and Night Sky (WWW - Irlanguage.com)

  amin

  Belum ada peringkat
• The Translation of Collocations

  

  Dokumen2 halaman

  The Translation of Collocations

  Yanina Leiva

  Belum ada peringkat
• Saptharishi Ramayana

  

  Dokumen7 halaman

  Saptharishi Ramayana

  Mahesh Krishnamoorthy

  100% (1)
• The Lost Books of The Bible

  

  Dokumen5 halaman

  The Lost Books of The Bible

  Artículos Lacrymosa

  Belum ada peringkat
• Autobiografia - Autobiography and Postmemory

  

  Dokumen10 halaman

  Autobiografia - Autobiography and Postmemory

  nueva_madre

  Belum ada peringkat
• NLP - Essential Skills - Money Magnet Workbook

  

  Dokumen11 halaman

  NLP - Essential Skills - Money Magnet Workbook

  Marco Baratta

  67% (3)
• Secondary Control Room: Stat Cards

  

  Dokumen24 halaman

  Secondary Control Room: Stat Cards

  Christopher Allen

  100% (2)
• Little Red Hen Primer

  

  Dokumen11 halaman

  Little Red Hen Primer

  TheTeachersDesk.info

  100% (2)
• Using Italian Vocabulary

  

  Dokumen489 halaman

  Using Italian Vocabulary

  apriticielo

  100% (5)