CLICKER QUESTIONS
Question A3.03a
Description: Developing intuition about circular motion and gravitation.
Question
2.
3.
4.
5.
Between 3 and 30
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Impossible to determine
Commentary
Purpose: To develop your intuition about circular motion and gravitation.
Discussion: Relative to the Sun, the Earth travels in a circular orbit whose radius is about 93 million miles (150 million km)
and whose period is about 365 days. Therefore, the Earth travels at a constant speed of about 2(150106 km)/(365 days),
which is just under 30 000 m/s, or about 60 000 mph.
Key Points:
For an object moving with constant speed, the speed is equal to the distance traveled in some time period divided by the
duration of that time period.
Page 7.1
Chapter 7
For uniform circular motion, speed can be found from circumference divided by period of rotation.
Question A3.03b
Description: Developing intuition about circular motion and gravitation.
Question
Estimate the acceleration of the Earth relative to the Sun in m/s2.
1. Less than 0.003
2. Between 0.003 and 0.03
3. Between 0.03 and 0.3
4. Between 0.3 and 3
5. Between 3 and 30
6. Between 30 and 300
7. Between 300 and 3 000
8. Between 3 000 and 30 000
9. More than 30 000
10. Impossible to determine
Commentary
Purpose: To develop your intuition about circular motion and gravitation.
Page 7.2
Chapter 7
Discussion: The Earth is traveling at a speed of about 30 000 (60 000 mph) relative to the Sun, as discussed in the previous
question.
The Earth is also moving in a circle, so its velocity vector is constantly changing direction. Thus, it is experiencing an
acceleration. For an object traveling in a circle at constant speed (uniform circular motion), the acceleration vector points
towards the center of the circle and has a magnitude of 2/R. Since the radius of the Earths orbit is 150 000 000 km, its
acceleration is toward the Sun has a magnitude of 0.006 m/s 2. This is a very, very small acceleration (1y1 600 of the
acceleration of an object dropped at the Earths surface, relative to the Earth).
Because the gravitational force exerted by the Sun is the only force on the Earth, this value is also the gravitational field
strength g of the Sun, i.e., 0.006 N/kg. (The Moon exerts a negligible force on the Earth.)
Key points:
The acceleration of the Earth relative to the Sun is also the gravitational field strength of the Sun at the Earth, only about
0.006 N/kg.
Question A3.04a
Description: Working with circular motion, and developing intuition about kinematic quantities in an astronomical context.
Question
An object is at rest on the equator. Estimate its speed relative to the center of the Earth in m/s.
Page 7.3
Chapter 7
1. Less than 0.001
2. Between 0.001 and 0.01
3. Between 0.01 and 0.1
4. Between 0.1 and 1
5. Between 1 and 10
6. Between 10 and 100
7. Between 100 and 1 000
8. Between 1 000 and 10 000
9. More than 10 000
10. Impossible to determine
Commentary
Purpose: To explore your current perceptions of circular motion, and set up the subsequent question.
Discussion: A point on the equator is about 4 000 miles, or about 6 400 km, from the center of the Earth. Due to the rotation
of the Earth once every 24 hours, this point is moving and thus has a nonzero speed. The point travels one circumference of
the Earth in 24 hours, so the speed is constant and equal to the distance traveled divided by the time taken: 2 (6 400 km)y(24
h) = 465 m/s, or about 1 000 mph; answer (7).
Note that as we move toward the poles, the speed becomes smaller, because the circumference of the circle traveled every
day is smaller. At the poles, this speed is zero.
Answering this question requires you to estimate the radius of the earth. This is a valuable benchmark number to know.
However, even if you dont know it, you should be able to estimate it with sufficient accuracy to answer the question
correctly: any estimate between 1 375 and 13 750 km will produce the correct answer. By comparing to known geographical
distancesfor example, that the width of the lower 48 U.S. states is about 3 000 miles or 4 800 kmyou can figure that it
should be somewhere between 5 000 and 10 000 km.
Key Points:
The speed of a point on the equator of the Earth is quite large, about 1 000 mph.
The speed of a point on the surface of the Earth becomes smaller away from the equator, because the circle traveled in
one day becomes smaller.
If you dont know a number such as the Earths radius, you can often estimate it by comparing it to similar distances you
do know.
Your body cannot feel that you are moving at a high speed; you can only feel accelerations, not speeds.
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Chapter 7
For Instructors Only
This is the first of two questions using this situation. The goals of this set are to help students distinguish velocity and
acceleration better, if they have not done so yet, and to help students see that many experiments and demonstrations are still
valid in spite of the acceleration of the classroom relative to the center of the Earth.
Students might be surprised to learn just how fast a point on the equator is moving due to the Earths rotation, since they
dont feel any motion.
One possible source of confusion is that students must realize a point on the Earth returns to almost the same position every
24 hours; this can be difficult for some to visualize. (Note that this is not absolutely true, since we are orbiting the Sun. There
is a 1y365 correction: because we are orbiting the Sun, we rotate 366 times every 365 days. This is irrelevant for an estimate,
but instructors should be aware of the fact nonetheless.)
An interesting and, for this problem, useful fact to know is that the meter is defined such that a (particular) quarter circle on
the Earth has a length of 10 000 km. Thus, the circumference of the Earth at the equator is about 40 000 km.
Question A3.04b
Description: Working with circular motion, and developing intuition about kinematic quantities in an astronomical context.
Question
An object is at rest on the equator. Estimate its acceleration relative to the center of the Earth in m/s 2.
1. Less than 0.001
2. Between 0.001 and 0.01
3. Between 0.01 and 0.1
4. Between 0.1 and 1
5. Between 1 and 10
6. Between 10 and 100
7. Between 100 and 1 000
8. Between 1 000 and 10 000
9. More than 10 000
10. Impossible to determine
Commentary
Purpose: To consider the validity of Newtons laws in a reference frame fixed to the Earths surface.
Page 7.5
Chapter 7
Discussion: An object at rest on the equator is moving at about 465 m/s (about 1 000 mph) relative to the center of the
Earth, as discussed in the previous question.
The object is also moving at constant speed in a circle having a radius of 6 400 km, so its acceleration is toward the center of
the Earth and has a magnitude of 2/R = 0.033 m/s2. This is a very small acceleration. (An object starting from rest and
accelerating with this value would take about 3 minutes to reach a normal walking speed of 3 mph.)
Even though objects at rest on the surface of the Earth are moving very quickly, we do not perceive any motion at all,
because the acceleration is so small. This means that many experiments and demonstrations performed on the surface of the
Earth are valid and do not violate Newtons laws. In other words, the surface of the Earth may be considered an inertial
(Newtonian) frame of reference for all but the most sensitive experiments. This is good, since Newtons laws were
discovered in this frame!
Note that as we move toward the poles, the acceleration becomes smaller, and the direction is no longer toward the center of
the Earth, but toward the axis about which the Earth rotates. (Think about the circle being traveled and where its center is
located.)
Key Points:
The acceleration of an object moving in a circle with constant speed is equal to 2/R
We get no sense of motion from high speed, only from high acceleration.
Although a point on the Earths surface is not a Newtonian (nonaccelerating) reference frame, it is close enough to one
that many experiments and demonstrations used to confirm Newtons laws are still valid.
A frame with large velocity does not invalidate Newtons laws; a frame with large acceleration does.
Page 7.6
Chapter 7
accelerating. Some of these students will still not have a firm grasp on the difference between velocity and acceleration, and
when they discover just how quickly we are moving (either relative to the center of the Earth or relative to the Sun), they
might have trouble accepting the whole Newtonian model. Thus, they might need to be reminded that Newtons laws are
perfectly valid in a moving but inertial reference frame (e.g., a train) and that constant-velocity motion cannot be detected. It
is acceleration that invalidates a moving frame, and the accelerations involved in a laboratory frame are very small.
Students might not appreciate the importance or value of the phrase relative to the center of the Earth. The question is
ambiguous without defining the frame of reference; the acceleration of the object is zero from a laboratory frame fixed to
the Earths surface.
If students do not know that the acceleration is 2/R or that the radius of the Earth is about 6 400 km, they should be
encouraged to guess. They can still benefit from the question and subsequent discussion.
Students who choose a large value may be confusing velocity and acceleration, or assuming that a large velocity is likely to
indicate a large acceleration.
Students who select the smallest answer may do so because they believe the acceleration is zero; this should be drawn out
during discussion.
Question A3.05a
Description: Working with circular motion, and developing intuition about kinematic quantities in an astronomical context.
Question
Estimate the speed of the Moon relative to the center of the Earth in m/s.
1. Less than 0.003
2. Between 0.003 and 0.03
3. Between 0.03 and 0.3
4. Between 0.3 and 3
5. Between 3 and 30
6. Between 30 and 300
7. Between 300 and 3 000
8. Between 3 000 and 30 000
9. More than 30 000
10. Impossible to determine
Commentary
Page 7.7
Chapter 7
Purpose: To challenge your perceptions about circular motion, speed, velocity, and acceleration.
Discussion: Relative to the Earth, the Moon travels in a circular orbit whose radius is about 250 000 mi (400 000 km) and
whose period is about 28 days. Therefore, the Moon travels at a constant speed of about 2 (400 000 km)y(28 days), which is
about 1 000 m/s or about 2 000 mph: answer (7).
If you dont know the radius of the Moons orbit, you can estimate it. The Moons radius is roughly one quarter of the
Earths, or about 1 600 km (actually, its 1 738 km). If the Moon were only ten Earth radii from the Earth, it would look very
large indeed when overhead! Something closer to 100 Earth radii is more reasonable. (The actual value is about 60.) If it were
much farther than that, it would appear much smaller to the eye than it does; you can sketch a diagram and do some simple
geometry to see that.
Key Points:
The Moons orbital distance from the Earth is approximately 60 times the radius of the Earth.
The Moon travels at high speed in its orbit around the Earth.
Question A3.05b
Page 7.8
Chapter 7
Description: Working with circular motion, and developing intuition about kinematic quantities in an astronomical context.
Question
Estimate the acceleration of the Moon relative to the center of the Earth in m/s 2.
1. Less than 0.003
2. Between 0.003 and 0.03
3. Between 0.03 and 0.3
4. Between 0.3 and 3
5. Between 3 and 30
6. Between 30 and 300
7. Between 300 and 3 000
8. Between 3 000 and 30 000
9. More than 30 000
10. Impossible to determine
Commentary
Purpose: To challenge your perceptions about circular motion, speed, velocity, and acceleration.
Discussion: The Moon is traveling at a speed of about 1 000 m/s (2 000 mph) relative to the Earth, as discussed in the
previous question.
The Moon is also moving at constant speed in a circle having a radius of 400 000 km, so its acceleration is toward the Earth
and has a magnitude of 2/R = 0.0027 m/s2. This is a very, very small acceleration.
Key points:
For an object moving in a circle with uniform speed, its acceleration is 2/R towards the center of the circle.
The Moon is an example of something that has a speed much larger than we are accustomed to (2 000 mph) but an
acceleration that is much smaller than we are accustomed to (about 0.003 m/s2).
Large speeds do not always indicate large accelerations. If the radius of the circular path is very large, the acceleration
can be small even for large speed.
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Chapter 7
Students often think that a large speed is associated with a large acceleration; this is a familiar situation challenging that
intuition.
Students might guess, and that is okay, since the question aims to develop students physical intuition and sense of physical
quantities. Many will guess a large value because they think that the acceleration is large when the speed is large. They do
not always have an accurate sense of the effect of large circles.
Determining the answer in incorrect units, such as km/h, km/s, or mph, is a common error.
Technically, the radius of the circular orbit is very slightly smaller than the EarthMoon distance, because the center of mass
of the system is not at the center of the Earth. It is about 5 000 km from the Earths center (or about 1 500 km below the
surface of the Earth). We are ignoring this effect. Further, students are asked to find the acceleration relative to the center of
the Earth, which means this effect is not relevant.
Question B1.07a
Description: Develop understanding of normal force in an extended context.
Question
A small ball is released from rest at position A and rolls down a vertical circular track under the influence of gravity.
When the ball reaches position B, which of the indicated directions most nearly corresponds to the direction of the normal
force on the ball?
Enter (9) if the direction cannot be determined.
Commentary
Purpose: To develop your understanding of the normal force by considering it for a moving object on a curved,
nonhorizontal surface.
Page 7.10
Chapter 7
Discussion: The normal force is one component of the contact force exerted by one surface on another when the two surfaces
are pushed together. The component perpendicular to the surface is called the normal force, and the component parallel to the
surface is called the friction force.
In this case, since the surface is curved, we need to imagine a line tangent to the curve at point B. The directions
perpendicular to this tangent line are (1) and (5), so the normal force must point in one of these directions. Since the normal
force always pushes, the direction must be (1). In other words, the normal force always points away from the surface and
toward the object acted upon.
Key Points:
The normal force is the component of the contact force between two surfaces that is perpendicular to the surfaces,
pushing outward.
The normal force always points perpendicularly out from the surface.
For a curved surface, the normal force is perpendicular to a hypothetical plane tangent to the surface.
If a ball were on a flat horizontal surface, what would be the direction of the normal force?
What would be the direction of the normal force if the ball were rolling across a flat horizontal surface?
What would be the direction of the normal force exerted on a block at rest on an incline?
What would be the direction of the normal force on a ball rolling down an incline?
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Chapter 7
Question B1.07b
Description: Developing understanding of net force and acceleration in curvilinear motion.
Question
A small ball is released from rest at position A and rolls down a vertical circular track under the influence of gravity.
When the ball reaches position B, which of the indicated directions most nearly corresponds to the direction of the balls
acceleration?
Enter (9) if the direction cannot be determined.
Commentary
Purpose: Develop your understanding of the vector nature of acceleration in curvilinear motion.
Discussion: When an object is traveling along a curve, it is useful to look at components of vectors parallel or tangent to the
surface at a particular point, and also at the components perpendicular to the surface. Acceleration is one vector that can be
analyzed more easily this way.
In this case, since the ball is moving in a circle, we know the direction of motion is changing, which means there is
necessarily a component of acceleration perpendicular to the surface. The direction of this component is (1).
The ball is also speeding up, which means there is a component of acceleration along the direction of motion, (3).
The acceleration is the vector sum of these components. Even though we do not know how large these two components are, it
is likely that the direction of the acceleration will be closest to direction (2).
Page 7.12
Chapter 7
Key Points:
Acceleration is a vector that describes the rate of change of the velocity vectors magnitude and its direction.
It is often useful to divide the acceleration into components that are parallel (tangential) and perpendicular to the objects
direction of motion.
A nonzero tangential component of acceleration indicates that the object is changing speed.
A nonzero perpendicular component of acceleration indicates that the object is changing direction.
Question B1.07c
Description: Developing understanding of net force and acceleration in curvilinear motion.
Question
A small ball is released from rest at position A and rolls down a vertical circular track under the influence of gravity as
depicted below.
Page 7.13
Chapter 7
When the ball reaches position B, which of the indicated directions most nearly corresponds to the direction of the net force
on the ball?
Enter (9) if the direction cannot be determined.
Commentary
Purpose: Develop your understanding of the vector nature of force in curvilinear motion, and stress the relationship between
force and acceleration.
Discussion: There are three forces on the ball: (1) gravitation, down, due to the Earth; (2) normal force, up and to the right
(direction 1), due to the surface; and (3) static friction, up and to the left (direction 7), also due to the surface. It is likely that
the normal force is larger than the static friction force, but it is hard to predict how these will compare to gravitation. Thus, it
would seem as though it is impossible to determine the direction of the net force.
However, there is another way to look at this situation. According to Newtons second law, the direction of the net force must
be the same as the direction of the acceleration. In the previous question, we found that the balls acceleration vector points
approximately in direction (2). Thus, the net force must also point that way.
Key Points:
The net force on an object and the object's acceleration vector always have the same direction.
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Chapter 7
They will choose (4) if they think the net force is the gravitational force.
They will choose (5) if they think the net force is the centrifugal force.
Question A3.06a
Description: Developing the concept of tangential acceleration for linear motion.
Question
A mass of 5 kg is released from rest on a smooth incline making an angle of 37 to the horizontal. The tangential component
of acceleration is closest to:
1.
10 m/s2
2.
8 m/s2
3.
6 m/s2
4.
4 m/s2
5.
2 m/s2
6.
0 m/s2
7.
8.
9.
10.
Commentary
Purpose: To hone the concept of the tangential component of acceleration by applying it to a familiar situation with linear
motion.
Discussion: Sometimes, it is easier to learn the meaning of new term using a familiar situation. In this case, since there is no
friction, it is relatively easy to determine the acceleration of the block as it slides down the incline. What is not so easy is to
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Chapter 7
apply the definition of tangential component.
The tangential component of acceleration is the rate at which the speed is changing. It is the component of acceleration along
the direction of motion, even if that motion is in a straight line. In this case, the object is speeding up, so the tangential
component of acceleration is positive.
For = 37, the acceleration is 6 m/s2 down the incline, so the tangential component of acceleration is also 6 m/s 2: answer
(3).
Even though the block is sliding down the incline, the tangential component is not negative, because this would mean the
block is slowing down. In a rotated coordinate frame in which the x-axis lies along the incline with the positive direction
uphill, the x-component of the acceleration would be 6 m/s2, but this is different from the tangential component.
Key Points:
The tangential component of acceleration is the component in the direction of the objects velocity vector. The object
does not have to be moving along a curved path.
The sign of the tangential component of acceleration does not depend on the coordinate system you have chosen for the
problem.
Question A3.06b
Description: Developing the concept of radial acceleration for linear motion.
Question
Page 7.16
Chapter 7
A mass of 5 kg is released from rest on a smooth incline making an angle of 37 to the horizontal. The radial component of
acceleration is closest to:
1.
10 m/s2
2.
8 m/s2
3.
6 m/s2
4.
4 m/s2
5.
2 m/s2
6.
0 m/s2
7.
8.
9.
10.
Commentary
Purpose: To hone the concept of the radial component of acceleration by applying it to a familiar situation with linear
motion.
Discussion: When an object is moving along a curved path, the radial direction is toward the center of the circle that best
approximates the curve at the objects current location. This direction is always perpendicular to the direction of motion.
When an object is moving along a straight line, the radial direction is still perpendicular to the direction of motion, and the
best circle has an infinite radius.
The component of the acceleration perpendicular to the incline is zero, so the radial component of acceleration is also zero:
answer (6).
For straight-line motion, there is an ambiguity here: the radial direction is perpendicular, but in which way? The center of the
circle of infinite radius can be in any direction perpendicular to the line of motion: directly away from the plane, directly
into the plane, directly out of the page, directly into the page, or somewhere in between. Fortunately, since this ambiguity
only exists for straight-line motion, and the radial component of acceleration is always zero for straight-line motion, it
doesnt matter.
Page 7.17
Chapter 7
Key Points:
The radial component of acceleration is the component of an objects acceleration vector along a direction perpendicular
to the direction of the objects motion, pointing towards the center of the imaginary circle that best fits the curved
trajectory of the object at its current location.
For straight-line motion, the radial component of the acceleration is always zero.
Question A3.07
Description: Honing the concept of tangential acceleration.
Question
A ball is rolled up an incline so that it goes part-way up and then rolls back down. Which of the graphs below could represent
its tangential component of acceleration vs. time, from the instant it is released until it returns to its starting point?
1.
Page 7.18
Chapter 7
2.
3.
4.
5.
Graphs 1 and 2
6.
Graphs 3 and 4
7.
8.
Commentary
Purpose: To hone the concept of tangential acceleration through graphical representation.
Discussion: When learning about acceleration and its vector nature, you may have difficulty understanding why the
acceleration of the ball in this situation is constant. Intuitively, it may seem that the acceleration should be negative when the
object is slowing down and positive when it is speeding up. However, as weve covered previously (c.f. Question A2.04a),
the acceleration of the ball in this situation is constant, pointing down the plane during the balls entire motion. The
component of acceleration along the plane will be always positive or always negative, depending on the coordinate system
Page 7.19
Chapter 7
defined.
There is, however, a quantity that does describe the rate of change of the speed of an object: the tangential component of
acceleration. When the object is slowing down, the tangential component of acceleration is negative, and when the object is
speeding up, the tangential component of acceleration is positive. Therefore, graph (2) is a valid answer to this question.
(It is called the tangential component because when an object is moving along a curved path, it is the component of the
acceleration vector along a direction tangential to the curve, in the direction the object is moving. You will see this quantity
used most often when discussing circular motion, but it can be applied to straight-line motion as well.)
The tangential component does not depend on the coordinate frame chosen. Rather, it is defined relative to the direction of
motionthe direction of the velocity. Graph (1) is not a valid answer for any choice of coordinate system, since it means the
object is speeding up and then slowing down.
Key Points:
The tangential component of acceleration is the component of the acceleration vector along an objects direction of
motion, where the direction the object is moving is taken to be positive.
The tangential component of acceleration is the rate of change of an objects speed (not velocity). When the tangential
component of acceleration is positive, the object is speeding up; when negative, it is slowing down.
The value of an objects tangential component of acceleration does not depend on the coordinate system chosen for the
problem.
Page 7.20
Chapter 7
convince them that components can be positive or negative depending on coordinate system, and now we introduce a strange
kind of component where its not!
It may or may not be helpful to describe this component in terms of a coordinate system that is attached to the object and
travels and turns along with it. (Formally, such a system is called the Frenet-Serret frame, and consists of a tangential unit
vector in the direction of the derivative of the particles position, a normal unit vector orthogonal to that and in the direction
of the second derivative of the position, and a binormal unit vector orthogonal to the other two and forming a right-handed
coordinate system.) Making this connection can be enriching, but it opens up a large can of worms, and should probably not
be attempted unless you are willing to spend a good deal of time discussing inertial vs. noninertial reference frames and
similar issues.
Question F1.01
Description: Reasoning with universal gravitation and linking it to experience.
Question
An iceberg weighing 1 000 tons is floating in the North Atlantic. Consider the gravitational forces on the iceberg due to the
Earth, the Moon, and the Sun. Put these gravitational forces in order of increasing magnitude.
You do not need to do any calculations. Use reasoning, or simply guess.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Commentary
Purpose: To develop your ability to reason with universal gravitation.
Discussion: The gravitational force on an object due to some source is equal to the mass of that object times the gravitational
field strength due to the source. The gravitational field strength of a source depends on the mass of the source and how far
away it is, as describe by Newtons law of universal gravitation. However, you can solve this problem purely through
deduction, without any calculation at all.
In this situation, the weight and circumstances of the iceberg are irrelevant; the ordering of the gravitational forces depends
Page 7.21
Chapter 7
only on the value of the gravitational field strength due to each of the three celestial objects.
If the water were removed, the iceberg would fall towards the Earth, not towards the Moon or Sun. Thus, the Earth must be
exerting the strongest gravitational force. In fact, almost every time we solve a physics problem that takes place on the
surface of the Earth, we consider the force of gravity due to the Earth but neglect the gravitational forces of the Moon and
Sun because they are negligibly small.
Which of the other objectsthe Moon or the Sunexerts the next largest force? The Earth orbits the Sun, not the Moon. If
the Moon were removed, the Earths behavior would not change significantly; it would still orbit the Sun once a year.
However, if the Sun were removed, the Earths behavior would change dramatically; it would respond slightly as the Moon
orbited it, but would no longer travel in its large circle about the Sun. Thus, the effect of the Suns gravitational field on the
Earth (and objects on it) is clearly larger than the effect of the Moons gravitational field.
It might be tempting to think that the Moon exerts a larger force than the Sun because it is so much closer, but remember that
it also has far less mass. You might also argue that the Moon has a larger influence than the Sun because the Moons gravity
causes significant tides on the Earth, while the Suns causes only a small perturbation to those tides. However, tides are
caused by the gradient of a gravitational field, not by the strength of that field. The Moons gravitational field is weaker, but
it is changing more rapidly with distance.
Key Points:
To figure out which force on a system is stronger, determine which has the larger effect (unless another force balances it
and cancels out its effect).
The strength of the gravitational force on an object depends on both the mass of the source and the distance to that
source.
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Chapter 7
The gravitational field strength at some location is g = GM/d2, where G is the Universal gravitational constant, M is the mass
of the agent exerting the gravitational force, and d is the separation of the agent and the object. (That is, the force is Fg = mg
GMm/d2.) Since G is the same for all 3 forces, we can compare M/d2 to find out which is largest and which is smallest.
For the Earth M = 6 1024 kg and d = 6 400 km is the radius of the Earth. For the Moon, M = 7.4 1022 kg and d = 400 000
km is the orbital radius of the Moon about the Earth. For the Sun, M = 2 1030 kg and d = 150 000 000 km is the orbital
radius of the Earth about the Sun.
The results are tabulated below.
Mass, M
Separation, d
Ratio, M/d2
Agent
(1021 kg)
(103 km)
(1012 kg/km2)
Earth
6 000
6.4
150 000
Moon
74
400
0.5
2 109
150 000
90
Sun
Thus, as reasoned above, the Earth exerts the strongest force, the Sun is next, and the Moon is smallest. Further, the Sun
exerts a force almost 200 times as strong as that of the Moon.
We can also compute g due to each celestial body. Due to the Earth, it is about 10 N/kg. Due to the Sun, it is equal to the
acceleration of the Earth relative to the Sun, or about 6 mN/kg (i.e., 0.006 N/kg). Due to the Moon, it is equal to about 30
N/kg (3 10-5 N/kg), which can be deduced from its acceleration relative to the Earth multiplied by the ratio of the two
masses (1:81). Of course, we can also use g = GM/d2, but it is noteworthy to discover than we do not need G to determine
these values of g.
Question F1.02a
Description: Applying energy ideas to universal gravitation.
Question
Two identical objects are released from rest from heights R and 2R above the surface of the Earth. After traveling a distance
Ry2, which object has the larger speed?
Page 7.23
Chapter 7
1.
Object A
2.
Object B
3.
Commentary
Purpose: To extend work and energy ideas to a situation requiring universal gravitation, and to sensitize you to the danger of
applying remembered results to new situations without resorting to general principles.
Discussion: In a uniform gravitational field (local gravity approximation), two objects that fall the same distance from rest
will have the same final speed, regardless of any difference in their starting heights. In this problem, however, the distances
are comparable to the size of the Earth, so the gravitational field is far from uniform. (The questions wording does not
explicitly state this, but the diagram implies it.)
You can try to argue for an answer based on Newtons law of universal gravitation (noting that the gravitational force is
weaker for objects farther away), Newtons second law, and kinematics, but this tends to be confusing. Object B is farther
away, so it experiences a weaker force; however, it falls for a longer time to cover the same distance, so it has more time to
accelerate due to that force. Determining anything definitive about the final speed requires careful calculation.
As usual when talking about distances and speeds but not times, energy ideas are easiest to use. In this case, you must
recognize that total mechanical energy is conserved since all acting forces are conservative; therefore, whichever object loses
the most gravitational potential energy as it falls a distance of Ry2 will gain the most kinetic energy and thus have the
greatest final speed.
The trick is that for universal gravitation, an objects gravitational potential energy is zero at infinity and increasingly
negative as the object gets closer to the Earth. Furthermore, the potential energy goes as one over the distance (from the
center of the Earth), so that a given change in distance causes a greater change in potential energy closer to the source
compared to far away. (This is clearer if you sketch a plot of 1/r.) Given this, object a will lose more potential energy falling
a distance R/2 than will object B; both have a potential energy that starts negative and gets more negative, but a has the larger
change. Thus, a will gain more kinetic energy and have the larger final speed, so (a) is the best answer.
Key Points:
Know what assumptions (like local gravity) are involved in any physics principles, laws, rules, derived results, etc.,
Page 7.24
Chapter 7
that you learn, and be on the lookout for situations that violate those assumptions.
Be careful about using derived results like objects that fall the same distance from rest end up with the same speed,
regardless of how high they start as if they were general truths. Trust general principles like the workenergy theorem,
not specific rules that may depend on the details of a situation.
Energy ideas are usually more useful than forces and kinematics when reasoning about forces, distances, and speeds (but
not times).
It is traditional to choose r = 0 as the reference point at which the gravitational potential is zero. With this convention,
potential energy is always negative for universal gravitation.
Question F1.02b
Description: Applying energy ideas to universal gravitation.
Question
Page 7.25
Chapter 7
Two identical objects are released from rest from heights R and 2R above the surface of the Earth. After traveling a distance
R/2, which object has the larger energy?
1.
Object A
2.
Object B
3.
Commentary
Purpose: To encounter and resolve the confusion that commonly surrounds negative potential energies in universal
gravitation.
Discussion: Because no dissipative forces act in this problem, total mechanical energy is conserved. Therefore, whichever
object begins with the larger total energy will have the larger total energy at the end. (Note that the problem asks for the
larger energy, not for the larger kinetic energy.)
Since both objects are initially at rest and thus have no kinetic energy, the one with the larger gravitational potential energy
has the larger total energy. Note that gravitational potential energy is always negative, and gets more negative as an object
gets closer to the Earth. Thus, object B has the greater (less negative) potential energy, and the answer must be (2).
Key Points:
A number can be greater than another number even if it is closer to zero: if both are negative, the less negative number
is the larger one.
When a question refers to energy, be careful not to interpret that as the wrong kind of energy (kinetic, potential, or
total mechanical).
When a system conserves mechanical energy, you can solve for it at the easiest point in time (e.g., the initial condition)
even when the problem asks about it at a different time (e.g., the final condition).
Page 7.26
Chapter 7
This question builds upon Question F1.02a, and is intended to follow it. Question F1.02a should be presented and discussed
to satisfaction before this one is presented.
Question F2.01a
Description: Integrating mechanics ideas in the context of elliptical orbits: energy.
Question
A planet has the orbit shown below. Use the 8 labeled points to answer all questions.
Where is the planet when the total energy of the system is largest?
1.
1 only
2.
2 and 8 only
3.
3 and 7 only
4.
4 and 6 only
5.
5 only
6.
1 and 5 only
7.
2, 4, 6, and 8
8.
9.
10.
Impossible to determine
Page 7.27
Chapter 7
Commentary
Purpose: To understand orbits, and to integrate various ideas in mechanics.
Discussion: Taking the system to be the sun and the planet, the total energy consists of gravitational potential energy and
kinetic energy. Since no external forces act on this system, the total energy is constant, so the total energy is the same at all
the labeled points.
Key Points:
For an isolated system of one object orbiting another, total mechanical energy is conserved.
Gravitational potential energy is a property of the interaction between two masses, and does not belong to either object
by itself but only to the two-body system.
2.
Where is the planet when the gravitational potential energy of the system is least? When it is greatest?
Question F2.01b
Description: Integrating mechanics ideas in the context of elliptical orbits: energy.
Page 7.28
Chapter 7
Question
A planet has the orbit shown below. Use the 8 labeled points to answer all questions.
1 only
2.
2 and 8 only
3.
3 and 7 only
4.
4 and 6 only
5.
5 only
6.
1 and 5 only
7.
2, 4, 6, and 8
8.
9.
10.
Impossible to determine
Commentary
Purpose: To understand orbits, and to integrate various ideas in mechanics.
Discussion: Total energy is conserved in the system of a sun with an orbiting planet, which means there is a never-ending
transfer of energy from kinetic to potential and back again.
For an elliptical orbit as shown, the distance between the planet and the sun is constantly changing. To predict where the
speed is smallest, we need to find where the kinetic energy is smallest. This occurs when the gravitational potential energy is
Page 7.29
Chapter 7
greatest, which occurs when the planet is farthest from the sun, at point 5.
Do not be distracted by the fact that the gravitational potential energy is negative. A small negative value is greater than a
large negative value. Just imagine an object far from the sun. The potential energy of the system is zero. As the object falls
toward the sun, the potential energy decreases and the kinetic energy increases. The only way to decrease from zero is to
become negative. Thus, the gravitational potential energy is greatest when it is least negative.
Key Points:
The total mechanical energy of a system comprised of one object orbiting another is constant.
Gravitational potential energy is negative, and decreases (becomes more negative) as the object gets closer to the source
of attraction.
Question F2.01c
Description: Integrating mechanics ideas in the context of elliptical orbits: velocity components.
Question
Page 7.30
Chapter 7
A planet has the orbit shown below. Use the 8 labeled points to answer all questions.
1 only
2.
2 and 8 only
3.
3 and 7 only
4.
4 and 6 only
5.
5 only
6.
1 and 5 only
7.
2, 4, 6, and 8
8.
9.
10.
Impossible to determine
Commentary
Purpose: To understand orbits, and to integrate various ideas in mechanics.
Discussion: The speed of the planet is smallest at point 5 and largest at point 1. Since the direction of motion is entirely in
the y direction at point 1, this must also be the point at which the y-component of velocity is largest.
It does not matter whether the motion of the planet is clockwise or counterclockwise. Since largest refers to magnitude, the
y-component of velocity can be positive or negative.
Key Points:
Page 7.31
Chapter 7
The speed of a planet in elliptical orbit is largest when the object is at its perihelion (closest point to the sun).
At the perihelion, a planets velocity is perpendicular to the vector from the sun to the planet.
Question F2.01d
Description: Integrating mechanics ideas in the context of elliptical orbits: forces, kinematics, and velocity components.
Question
A planet has the orbit shown below. Use the 8 labeled points to answer all questions.
Page 7.32
Chapter 7
1.
1 only
2.
2 or 8
3.
both 2 and 8
4.
3 or 7
5.
both 3 and 7
6.
both 1 and 5
7.
8.
9.
Impossible to determine
Commentary
Purpose: To understand orbits, and to integrate various ideas in mechanics.
Discussion: It is tempting to think that the x-component of velocity must be largest where the y-component is zero and
choose points 3 and/or 7, but this is not correct.
Lets start at point 1, where the speed of the planet is largest, and assume that it travels counterclockwise around its elliptical
orbit. Lets also focus on the x-direction only.
At point 1, x = 0. The gravitational force acts to the left, so the force has a negative x-component, and the planet must have
an acceleration in the negative x direction. Thus, x is getting larger and negative. Between points 1 and 2, the sun exerts a
force down and to the left, so ax is still negative, and x must be getting still larger and more negative. At point 2, the sun
pulls straight down, and ax = 0.
After point 2, the sun pulls down and to the right, which means ax is positive and x is getting smaller and less negative. This
process continues past points 3 and 4, until x = 0 again at point 5. Therefore, between points 1 and 5, x is largest at point 2.
At point 5, the sun is pulling to the right, so now x is getting larger and positive. After point 5, the sun pulls up and to the
right, so x is getting larger and more positive. At point 8, the sun pulls straight up.
Between points 8 and 1, the sun pulls up and to the left, so x is getting smaller, until it is zero at point 1. Therefore, between
points 5 and 1, x is largest at point 8.
By symmetry, we know that x is equally large at points 2 and 8, so that is where x is largest during the orbit of the planet.
If the motion is clockwise, the same reasoning applies.
Key Points:
Page 7.33
Chapter 7
You can reason about one component of an objects velocity by ignoring the other and considering the net force and
acceleration on it in that direction only.
The x-component of an objects velocity will get larger (more positive or more negative) if the x-component of the net
force has the same sign, and will get smaller if it has the opposite sign.
Additional Questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
QUICK QUIZZES
1.
(c). For a rotation of more than 180, the angular displacement must be larger than = 3.14 rad. The angular
displacements in the three choices are (a) 6 rad 3 rad = 3 rad, (b) 1 rad (1) rad = 2 rad, (c) 5 rad 1 rad = 4 rad.
2.
(b). Because all angular displacements occurred in the same time interval, the displacement with the lowest value
will be associated with the lowest average angular speed.
Page 7.34
Chapter 7
3.
(b). From
2 02 2 0
2
2
2
2
it is seen that the case with the smallest angular displacement involves the highest angular acceleration.
4.
(b). All points in a rotating rigid body have the same angular speed.
5.
(a). Andrea and Chuck have the same angular speed, but Andrea moves in a circle with twice the radius of the circle
followed by Chuck. Thus, from vt r , it is seen that Andreas tangential speed is twice Chucks.
6.
1. (e). Since the tangential speed is constant, the tangential acceleration is zero.
2. (a). The centripetal acceleration, ac vt2 r , is inversely proportional to the radius when the tangential speed is
constant.
3. (b). The angular speed, vt r , is inversely proportional to the radius when the tangential speed is constant.
7.
(c). Both the velocity and acceleration are changing in direction, so neither of these vector quantities is constant.
8.
(b) and (c). According to Newtons law of universal gravitation, the force between the ball and the Earth depends on
the product of their masses, so both forces, that of the ball on the Earth, and that of the Earth on the ball, are equal in
magnitude. This follows also, of course, from Newtons third law. The ball has large motion compared to the Earth
because according to Newtons second law, the force gives a much greater acceleration to the small mass of the ball.
9.
10.
(e). From F = G Mm/r2, the gravitational force is inversely proportional to the square of the radius of the orbit.
(d). The semi-major axis of the asteroids orbit is 4 times the size of Earths orbit. Thus, Keplers third law (T2/r3 =
constant) indicates that its orbital period is 8 times that of Earth.
Earth moves 2 radians around the Sun in 1 year. The average angular speed is then
av
2 rad
1y
1.99 10 rad s
1 y 3.156 107 s
Page 7.35
Chapter 7
f i
12.00 rad s 4.00 rad s
av t
t
4.00 s 32.0 rad
2
2
The wheel has a radius of 0.500 m and made 320 revolutions. The distance traveled is
2 rad
s r 0.500 m 320 rev
1.00 103 m 1.00 km
1 rev
so choice (c) is the correct answer.
4.
At the top of the circular path, both the tension in the string and the gravitational force act downward, toward the
center of the circle, and together supply the needed centripetal force. Thus, Fc = T + mg = mr 2 or
2
T m r 2 g 0.400 kg 0.500 m 8.00 rad s 9.80 m s 2 8.88 N
The required centripetal force is Fc = mac = m2/r = mr 2. When are both constant, the centripetal force is directly
proportional to the radius of the circular path. Thus, as the rider moves toward the center of the merry-go-round, the
centripetal force decreases and the correct choice is (c).
6.
Any object moving in a circular path undergoes a constant change in the direction of its velocity. This change in the
direction of velocity is an acceleration, always directed toward the center of the path, called the centripetal
acceleration, ac = 2/r = r2. The tangential speed of the object is t = r, where is the angular velocity. If is
not constant, the object will have both an angular acceleration, av = /t, and a tangential acceleration, at = r.
The only untrue statement among the listed choices is (b). Even when is constant, the object still has centripetal
acceleration.
7.
According to Newtons law of universal gravitation, the gravitational force one body exerts on the other decreases
as the distance separating the two bodies increases. When on Earths surface, the astronauts distance from the
center of the Earth is Earths radius r0 = RE. If h is the altitude at which the station orbits above the surface, her
distance from Earths center when on the station is r = RE + h > r0. Thus, she experiences a smaller force while on
the space station and (c) is the correct choice.
8.
The mass of a spherical body of radius R and density is M = V = (4R3/3). The escape velocity from the
surface of this body may then be written in either of the following equivalent forms:
Page 7.36
Chapter 7
vesc
2GM
R
and
vesc
2G 4 R3
8GR 2
R 3
3
We see that the escape velocity depends on the three properties (mass, density, and radius) of the planet. Also, the
weight of an object on the surface of the planet is Fg = mg = GMm/R2, giving
g GM R 2
G 4 R 3 4
GR
R 2 3 3
The acceleration of gravity at the planet surface then depends on the same properties as does the escape velocity.
Changing the value of g would necessarily change the escape velocity. Of the listed quantities, the only one that
does not affect the escape velocity is choice (e), the mass of the object on the planets surface.
9.
The satellite experiences a gravitational force, always directed toward the center of its orbit, and supplying the
centripetal force required to hold it in its orbit. This force gives the satellite a centripetal acceleration, even if it is
moving with constant angular speed. At each point on the circular orbit, the gravitational force is directed along a
radius line of the path, and is perpendicular to the motion of the satellite, so this force does no work on the satellite.
Therefore, the only true statement among the listed choices is (d).
10.
In a circular orbit, the gravity force is always directed along a radius line of the circle, and hence, perpendicular to
the objects velocity which is tangential to the circle. In an elliptical orbit, the gravity force is always directed
toward the center of the Earth, located at one of the foci of the orbit. This means that it is perpendicular to the
velocity, which is always tangential to the orbit, only at the two points where the object crosses the major axis of
the ellipse. These are the points where the object is nearest to and farthest from Earth. Since the gravity force is a
conservative force, the total energy (kinetic plus gravitational potential energy) of the object is constant as it moves
around the orbit. This means that it has maximum kinetic energy (and hence, greatest speed) when its potential
energy is lowest (i.e., when it is closest to Earth. The only true statements among the listed choices are (a) and (b).
11.
The weight of an object of mass m at the surface of a spherical body of mass M and radius R is Fg = mg = GMm/R2.
Thus, the acceleration of gravity at the surface is g = GM/R2.
For Earth,
gE
GM E
RE2
Page 7.37
Chapter 7
gp
GM p
R
2
p
G 2M E
2 RE
1 GM E 1
g E 0.5 g E
2 RE2 2
The total gravitational potential energy of this set of 4 particles is the sum of the gravitational energies of each
distinct pair of particles in the set of four. There are six distinct pairs in a set of four particles, which are: 1 & 2, 1
& 3, 1 & 4, 2 & 3, 2 & 4, and 3 & 4. Therefore, the correct answer to this question is (b).
13.
We assume that the elliptical orbit is so elongated that Sun, at one foci, is almost at one end of the major axis. If the
period, T, is expressed in years and the semi-major axis, a, in astronomical units (AU), Keplers third law states
that T2 = a3. Thus, for Halleys comet, with a period of T = 76 y, the semi-major axis of its orbit is
762
18 AU
The length of the major axis, and the approximate maximum distance from the Sun, is 2a = 36 AU, making the
correct answer for this question choice (e).
If we assume they are separated by about 10 m and their masses are estimated to be 70 kg and 40 kg, then, using
the law of universal gravitation, we estimate a gravitational force on the order of 10 -9 N.
4.
To a good first approximation, your bathroom scale reading is unaffected because you, Earth, and the scale are all
in free fall in the Suns gravitational field, in orbit around the Sun. To a precise second approximation, you weight
slightly less at noon and at midnight than you do at sunrise or sunset. The Suns gravitational field is a little weaker
at the center of the Earth than at the surface sub-solar point, and a little weaker still on the far side of the planet.
When the Sun is high in your sky, its gravity pulls up on you a little more strongly than on the Earth as a whole. At
midnight the Sun pulls down on you a little less strongly than it does on the Earth below you. So you can have
another doughnut with lunch, and your bedsprings will still last a little longer.
6.
Consider one end of a string connected to a spring scale and the other end connected to an object, of true weight w.
The tension T in the string will be measured by the scale and construed as the apparent weight. We have w T =
mac. This gives, T = w mac. Thus, the apparent weight is less than the actual weight by the term mac. At the poles
the centripetal acceleration is zero. Thus, T = w. However, at the equator the term containing the centripetal
acceleration is nonzero, and the apparent weight is less than the true weight.
8.
If the acceleration is constant in magnitude and perpendicular to the velocity, the object is moving in a circular path
at constant speed. If the acceleration is parallel to the velocity, the object is either speeding up, and a in same
Page 7.38
Chapter 7
direction, or slowing down, and a in opposite directions.
10.
Keplers second law says that equal areas are swept out in equal times by a line drawn from the Sun to the planet.
For this to be so, the planet must move fastest when it is closest to the Sun. This, surprisingly, occurs during the
winter.
12.
Yes. A weak, but nonzero, nonconservative force due to air resistance, opposes the motion of the satellite and
causes its speed to decrease with time.
PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
7.1
(a)
(b)
7.2
2 rad 1 day
5
7.27 10 rad s
t 1 day 8.64 104 s
Because of its rotation about its axis, Earth bulges at the equator.
rad
s r 4.1 m 30
2.1 m
180
For 30 radians,
2 rad
2
s r 4.1 m 30 rev
7.7 10 m
1
rev
7.3
(a)
s 60 000 mi 5280 ft
8
3.2 10 rad
r
1.0 ft 1 mi
Page 7.39
Chapter 7
7.4
1 rev
(b)
(a)
(b)
Yes. When an object starts from rest, its angular speed is related to the angular acceleration and time by the
1.00 rev s 0
rev 2 rad
3.33 102 2
0.209 rad s 2
t
30.0 s
s 1 rev
equation = (t). Thus, the angular speed is directly proportional to both the angular acceleration and the
time interval. It the time interval is held constant, doubling the angular acceleration will double the angular
speed attained during the interval.
7.5
(a)
(b)
7.6
2.51 10
821 rad s
3.20 s
1 rev 60.0 s
rad
i 3 600
377 rad s
min 1 rev 60.0 s
2 rad
50.0 rev
314 rad
1 rev
Thus,
w i2 0 377 rad s
226 rad s 2
2
2 314 rad
2
7.7
(a)
3.5 rad
2
2 0.70 rad s 2
2
Page 7.40
Chapter 7
From the equation given above for , observe that when the angular acceleration is constant, the
(b)
displacement is proportional to the difference in the squares of the final and initial angular speeds. Thus, the
angular displacement would increase by a factor of 4 if both of these speeds were doubled.
7.8
(a)
The maximum height h depends on the drops vertical speed at the instant it leaves the tire and becomes a
projectile. The vertical speed at this instant is the same as the tangential speed, t = r, of points on the tire.
Since the second drop rose to a lesser height, the tangential speed decreased during the intervening rotation
of the tire.
(b)
From v 2 v02 2a y y , with 0 = t ay = g, and = 0 when y = h, the relation between the tangential
speed of the tire and the maximum height h is found to be
0 vt2 2 g h
or
vt 2 gh
Thus, the angular speed of the tire when the first drop left was
vt 1
2 gh1
r
and when the second drop left, the angular speed was
vt 2
r
2 gh2
r
22 12
2gh2 r 2 2gh1 r 2
g
2
h h1
2
2
r 2
or
7.9
9.80
m s2
0.381 m 2 rad
2
0.510 m 0.540 m
0.322 rad s 2
Main Rotor:
v r 3.80 m 450
179 m s
min 1 rev 60 s
Page 7.41
Chapter 7
m vsound
v = 179
= 0.522 vsound
s 343 m s
Tail Rotor:
rev 2 rad 1 min
v r 0.510 m 4 138
221 m s
min 1 rev 60 s
m vsound
v = 221
= 0.644 vsound
s 343 m s
7.10
We will break the motion into two stages: (1) an acceleration period and (2) a deceleration period.
The angular displacement during the acceleration period is
2
2
1 av t
2
2
1 rev
50 rev .
The total displacement is 1 2 126 188 rad
2 rad
7.11
(a)
The linear distance the car travels in coming to rest is given by v2f v02 2a x as
v2f v02
2a
0 29.0 m s
2 1.75 m s2
240 m
Since the car does not skid, the linear displacement of the car and the angular displacement of the tires are
related by x = r (). Thus, the angular displacement of the tires is
Page 7.42
Chapter 7
(b)
x
240 m
1 rev
728 rad
116 rev
2 rad
r
0.330 m
When the car has traveled 120 m (one half of the total distance), the linear speed of the car is
v02 2a x
29.0
7.12
v
20.5 m s
62.1 rad s
r
0.330 m
2.30 s
(a)
(b)
Since the disk has a diameter of 45.0 cm, its radius is r = (00.450 m)/2 = 0.225 m.
5.75 rad s .
Thus,
vt r 0.225 m 5.75 rad s 1.29 m s
and
f 0
2f 02
2
5.75
rad s 0
2
2 2.50 rad s2
360
6.61 rad
379
2 rad
and the final angular position of the radius line through point P is
7.13
i
t , we find the initial angular speed to be
From av t
2
i
t
2 rad
2 37.0 rev
1 rev
98.0 rad s 57.0 rad s
3.00 s
Page 7.43
Chapter 7
The angular acceleration is then
7.14
(a)
i
t
0 1.00 10 2
(b)
7.15
0
0 10.5 rad s
5.25 s
2.00 rad s2
0
0 10.5 rad s
av t
t
5.25 s 27.6 rad
2
2
The centripetal acceleration is ac vt2 r r 2 where r radius of the circular path followed by the object in
question. The angular speed of the rotating Earth is
(a)
rad
1 day
7.27 10 5 rad s
4
day 8.64 10 s
(b)
(c)
3.37 10 2 m s 2
ac 0 .
The centripetal acceleration of an object is directed toward the center of the circular path the object is following.
Thus, the forces involved in producing this acceleration are all forces acting on the object which have a component
along the radius line of the circular path. These forces are the gravitational force and the normal force.
7.16
1609 m
4.0 103 m . Thus, from ac = r 2, the required angular
The radius of the cylinder is r 2.5 mi
1 mi
velocity is
Page 7.44
Chapter 7
7.17
ac
9.80 m s2
4.9 10 2 rad s
4.0 103 m
f 78
(a)
8.17 rad s
at r r
0.127 m
0.35 m s2
3.0 s
t
(b)
(c)
8.17 rad
At t = 1.0 s i t 0
3.0 s
Thus, at r 0.35 m s2
s
1.0 s 2.7 rad s
ac2 at2 1.0 m s2 , and the angle this acceleration makes with the
direction of a c is
at
0.35
tan 1
0.94
a
c
tan 1
7.18
20
Page 7.45
Chapter 7
persons back will supply the necessary centripetal
acceleration, or
Figure P7.18
n mac mr 2
7.19
20 g
20 9.8 m s2
4.7
29 ft 1 m 3.281 ft
rad 1 rev 60 s
45 rev min
s 2 rad 1 min
Fc n Fg mg mg 2mg
Also, Fc m v2top r so we solve for the needed speed at the top of the loop as
2
m vtop
2 mg
or
2
vtop
2rg
Ignoring any friction and using conservation of energy from when the coaster starts from rest ( i = 0) at height h
until it reaches the top of the loop gives
1
1
2 m g 2r
m vi2 m gh
m vtop
2
2
or
0 gh
1
2rg g 2r
2
(a)
The natural tendency of the coin is to move in a straight line (tangent to the circular path of radius 15.0 cm),
Page 7.46
Chapter 7
and hence, go farther from the center of the turntable. To prevent this, the force of static friction must act
toward the center of the turntable and supply the needed centripetal force. When the necessary centripetal
force exceeds the maximum value of the static friction force, ( fs )max s n s mg , the coin begins to
slip.
(b)
When the turntable has angular speed, the required centripetal force is Fc = mr 2. Thus, if the coin is not to
slip, it is necessary that mr 2 s mg, or
s g
r
0.350 9.80
m s2
0.150 m
4.78 rad s
With a constant angular acceleration of = 0.730 rad/s2, the time required to reach the critical angular speed
is
7.21
(a)
0
4.78 rad s 0
6.55 s
0.730 rad s2
v2
55.0 kg 4.00 m s
T m t
0.800 m
r
(b)
(a)
2.04 times
(b)
T
1.10 103 N
mg
55.0 kg 9.80 m s2
7.22
r ac
400 m 0.500
m s2
200 m s 14.1 m s
At this time,
Page 7.47
Chapter 7
vt vi
at
200 m s 0
28.3 s
0.500 m s2
200 m s 0
v vi
s vt av t t
t
28.3 s 200 m
2
2
(c)
7.23
Friction between the tires and the roadway is capable of giving the truck a maximum centripetal acceleration of
ac,max
vt2,max
32.0
m s
150 m
6.83 m s2
If the radius of the curve changes to 75.0 m, the maximum safe speed will be
vt ,max
7.24
Since Fc m
m s2
22.6 m s
vt2
m r 2 , the needed angular velocity is
r
Fc
=
mr
75.0 m 6.83
r ac,max
4.0 10 11 N
1 rev
= 9.4 102 rad s
= 1.5 102 rev s
2 rad
7.25
(c)
(a)
(b)
We know the centripetal acceleration is produced by the force of friction. Therefore, the needed static friction force
is fs = 900 N. Also, the normal force is n = mg = 490 N. Thus, the minimum coefficient of friction required is
fs max
n
900 N
= 1.84
490 N
So large a coefficient of friction is unreasonable, and she will not be able to stay on the merry-go-round.
Page 7.48
Chapter 7
7.26
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fc
mvt2
n
r
If, n
1
mgE then
2
(d)
1
60.0 kg 9.80 m s2 294 N
2
nr
vt
(e)
60.0 kg
7.00 m s
vt
7.00 m s
0.700 rad s
r
10.0 m
(g)
294 N 10.0 m
Since 1 = r , we have
(f)
2
8.98 s
0.700 rad s
Upon standing, the astronauts head is moving slower than his feet because his head is closer to the axis of rotation.
When standing, the radius of the circular path followed by the head is rhead = 10.0 m 1.80 m = 8.20 m, and the
tangential speed of the head is
vt head
7.27
(a)
Page 7.49
Chapter 7
7.28
(b)
The tension in the string must produce the centripetal acceleration of the puck. Hence, Fc = T = 9.8 N.
(c)
v2
From Fc mpuck t , we find vt
r
(a)
Fy T m2 g 0
(b)
or
r Fc
mpuck
1.0 m 9.8 N
0.25 kg
6.3 m s .
T m2 g
The puck moves in a circular path of radius R and must have an acceleration directed toward the center equal
to ac vt2 R . The only force acting on the puck and directed toward the center is the tension in the string.
Newtons second law requires
Ftoward m1ac
giving T m1
center
(c)
m1
(d)
vt2
R
vt2
m2 g
R
or
vt
m2 gR
m1
Substitution of the numeric data from problem 7.27 into the results for (a) and (c) shown above will yield the
answers given for that problem.
7.29
(a)
The force of static friction acting toward the roads center of curvature must supply the briefcases required
centripetal acceleration. The condition that it be able to meet this need is that
Fc m vt2 r
fs max
speed becomes large enough that s vt2 rg the briefcase will begin to slide.
(b)
As discussed above, the briefcase starts to slide when s vt2 rg . If this occurs at the speed, t = 15.0 m/s,
the coefficient of static friction must be
Page 7.50
Chapter 7
15.0 m s 2
62.0 m 9.80 m s2
7.30
(a)
0.370
The external forces acting on the water are the gravitational force and the contact force exerted on the water
by the pail.
(b)
The contact force exerted by the pail is the most important in causing the water to move in a circle. If the
gravitational force acted alone, the water would follow the parabolic path of a projectile.
(c)
When the pail is inverted at the top of the circular path, it cannot hold the water up to prevent it from falling
out. If the water is not to spill, the pail must be moving fast enough that the required centripetal force is at
least as large as the gravitational force. That is, we must have
(d)
v2
mg
r
or
rg
1.00 m 9.80
m s2
3.13 m s
If the pail were to suddenly disappear when is it at the top of the circle and moving at 3.13 m/s, he water
would follow the parabolic are of a projectile launched with initial velocity components of
v0 x 3.13 m s , v0 y 0
7.31
(a)
ac
(b)
r 2
At the bottom of the circular path, the normal force exerted by the seat must support the weight and also
produce the centripetal acceleration. Thus,
n m g ac 40.0 kg 9.80 1.58 m s2 455 N upward
(c)
At the top of the path, the weight must offset the normal force of the seat plus supply the needed centripetal
acceleration. Therefore, mg = n+ mac, or
n m g ac 40.0 kg 9.80 1.58 m s2 329 N upward
(d)
At a point halfway up, the seat exerts an upward vertical component equal to the childs weight (392 N) and
a component toward the center having magnitude Fc mac 40.0 kg 1.58 m s2 63.2 N . The total
force exerted by the seat is
Page 7.51
Chapter 7
FR
392 N 2 63.2 N 2
392 N
80.8 above the horizontal
63.2 N
tan 1
7.32
(a)
At A, the track supports the weight and supplies the centripetal acceleration. Thus,
20.0 m s
vt2
n mg m
500 kg 9.80 m s
r
10 m
(b)
25 kN
At B, the weight must offset the normal force exerted by the track and produce the needed centripetal
acceleration, or mg n m vt2 r . If the car is on the verge of leaving the track, then n = 0 and
m g m vt2 r . Hence,
vt
7.33
rg
15 m 9.80
m s2
12 m s
At the half-way point the spaceship is 1.92 108 from both bodies. The force exerted on the ship by the Earth is
directed toward the Earth and has magnitude
FE
GmE ms
r2
6.67 10 11 N m 2 kg2
325 N
The force exerted on the ship by the Moon is directed toward the Moon and has a magnitude of
FM
GmM ms
r2
6.67 10 11 N m 2 kg 2
Page 7.52
4.00 N
Chapter 7
(a)
PEg
GM E m
r
24
N m 2 5.98 10 kg 100 kg
6.67 10 11
4.76 10 9 J
kg2
8.38 106 m
(b)
7.35
GM E m
11 N m
6.67
10
568 N a
2
r2
kg2
8.38 106 m
The forces exerted on the 2.0-kg mass by the other bodies are Fx
and Fy shown in the diagram at the right. The magnitudes of
these forces are
Fx
6.67 1011
2.0 kg 4.0 kg
N m 2 kg2
4.0 m 2
3.3 10 11 N
and
Fy
6.67 1011
N m 2 kg2
2.0 m
2.0 kg 3.0 kg
1.0 10 10 N
(a)
Msun
Msun
3Msun
M
3
V
VEarth
4 RE 3
4 RE3
3 1.991 1030 kg
4 6.38
106
1.83 109 kg m3
Page 7.53
Chapter 7
(b)
Fg mg GMm r 2 , so the acceleration of gravity on the surface of the white dwarf would be
(c)
3.26 106 m s2
2
RE2
6.38 106 m
The general expression for the gravitational potential energy of an object of mass m at distance r from the
center of a spherical mass M is PE GMm r . Thus, the potential energy of a 1.00-kg mass on the surface
of the white dwarf would be
PE
7.37
(a)
GMsun 1.00 kg
RE
6.67 10 11 N m 2 kg2 1.991 1030 kg 1.00 kg
6.38
106
2.08 1013 J
At the midpoint between the two masses, the forces exerted by the 200-kg and 500-kg masses are oppositely
directed, so from F
GMm
and r1 r2 r , we have
r2
GMm1
GMm2
GM
2 m1 m2
2
2
r1
r2
r
or
6.67 1011
N m 2 kg2
0.200 m 2
(b)
At a point between the two masses and distance d from the 500-kg mass, the net force will be zero when
G 50.0 kg 200 kg
0.400 m d
G 50.0 kg 500 kg
d2
or
d 0.245 m
Note that the above equation yields a second solution d = 1.09 m. At that point, the two gravitational forces do have
equal magnitudes, but are in the same direction and cannot add to zero.
7.38
The equilibrium position lies between the Earth and the Sun on the line connecting their centers. At this point, the
Page 7.54
Chapter 7
gravitational forces exerted on the object by the Earth and Sun have equal magnitudes and opposite directions. Let
this point be located distance r from the center of the Earth. Then, its distance from the Sun is
G mS m
G mE m
2
r
1.496 1011 m r
where mE and mS are the masses of the Earth and Sun respectively. This reduces to
1.496 1011 m r
r
mS
577
mE
or 1.496 1011 m = 578 r, which yields r = 2.59 108 m from center of the Earth .
7.39
(a)
When the rocket engine shuts off at an altitude of 250 km, we may consider the rocket to be beyond Earths
atmosphere. Then, its mechanical energy will remain constant from that instant until it comes to rest
momentarily at the maximum altitude. That is, KEf + PEf = KEi + PEi or
GME m
GME m
1
m vi2
rmax
2
ri
or
1
rmax
vi2
1
2GM E
ri
1
rmax
6.00 103
ms
2 6.67 10 11 N m2 kg2
5.98 1024 kg
1
1.06 10 7 m 1
6.63 106 m
or rmax = 9.46 106 m The maximum altitude above Earths surface is then
hmax rmax RE 9.46 106 m 6.38 106 m 3.08 106 m 3.08 103 km
(b)
If the rocket were fired from a launch site on the equator, it would have a significant eastward component of
velocity because of the Earths rotation about its axis. Hence, compared to being fired from the South Pole,
the rockets initial speed would be greater, and the rocket would travel farther from Earth.
Page 7.55
Chapter 7
7.40
2 m 5.00 kg m
G m1 m2
1
1
8 N 6.67 10 11 N m
1.00
10
2
r2
kg2
0.200 m
5.00 kg m1
m12
1.00 10 8 N 0.200 m 2
6.67 10 11 N m 2 kg 2
6.00 kg 2
(a)
vt2
G mE m
m
r
r2
This reduces to
G mE
vt2
which gives
N m2
r 6.67 10 11
kg2
5.98 1024 kg
5 000
m s
1.595 10 7 m
2 1.595 107 m
circumference of orbit
2.00 10 4 s 5.57 h
orbital speed
5 000 m s
Page 7.56
Chapter 7
7.42
For an object in orbit about Earth, Keplers third law gives the relation between the orbital period T and the average
radius of the orbit (semi-major axis) as
4 2
T2
GM E
3
r
rmin rmax
6 670 km 385 000 km
the period (time for a round trip from Earth to the Moon) would be
1.96 108 m 3
6.67 1011 N m2 kg2 5.98 1024 kg
r3
T 2
2
GM E
8.63 105 s
The time for a one way trip from Earth to the Moon is then
t
7.43
1
8.63 10 5 s
1 day
T
8.64 10 4 s 4.99 d
2
2
v2
GMm
r vt2
m t
M
,
or
r2
G
r
vt
2 4.22 108 m
2 r
1.73 10 4 m s
T
1.77 days 86 400 s day
Thus,
7.44
(a)
ms
6.67 10 11 N m2 kg2
1.90 1027 kg
The satellite moves in an orbit of radius r = 2RE and the gravitational force supplies the required centripetal
Page 7.57
Chapter 7
vt
(b)
(c)
2 5.98 10 24 kg
11 N m
6.67
10
5.59 103 m s
G mE
2 RE
2 2 6.38 106 m
2 r
1.43 10 4 s 3.98 h
vt
5.59 103 m s
24
N m2 5.98 10 kg 600 kg
F 6.67 10 11
1.47 103 N
2
kg2
6
2 6.38 10 m
7.45
(a)
v2
G mE m
m t
r2
r
or
vt
2 5.98 1024 kg
11 N m
6.67
10
7.79 103 m s
G mE
2 6.58 106 m
2 r
(b)
(c)
Assuming the satellite is launched from a point on the equator of the Earth, its initial speed is the
Page 7.58
Chapter 7
rotational speed of the launch point, or
vi
2 6.38 106 m
2 RE
464 m s
1 day
86 400 s
The workkinetic energy theorem gives the energy input required to place the satellite in orbit as
Wnc KE PEg
KE PE , or
g i
vt2 vi2
1
GME m 1
GM E m
1
1
2
Wnc mvt2
m
v
m
GME
2
r 2
RE
2
r
RE
Substitution of appropriate numeric values into this result gives the minimum energy input as
A synchronous satellite will have an orbital period equal to Jupiters rotation period, so the satellite can have the
red spot in sight at all times. Thus, the desired orbital period is
3 600 s
T 9.84 h
3.54 10 4 s
1 h
Keplers third law gives the period of a satellite in orbit around Jupiter as
T2
4 2
r3
GMJupiter
GM Jupiter T 2
r
4 2
13
4 2
13
1.59 108 m
7.47
The gravitational force on mass located at distance r from the center of the Earth is Fg mg GME m r 2 . Thus,
the acceleration of gravity at this location is g GM E r 2 . If g = 9.00 m/s2 at the location of the satellite, the
Page 7.59
Chapter 7
radius of its orbit must be
GM E
6.67 1011
N m 2 kg2
5.98 1024 kg
9.00 m s2
6.66 106 m
From Keplers third law for Earth satellites, T 2 4 2 r 3 G M E S , the period is found to be
r3
2
GM E
T 2
6.66 106 m 3
6.67 1011 N m2 kg2 5.98 1024 kg
5.41 103 s
or
1h
T 5.41 103 s
1.50 h 90.0 min
3 600 s
7.48
The gravitational force on a small parcel of material at the stars equator supplies the centripetal
acceleration, or
vt2
G Ms m
2
m
R m Rs
Rs2
s
Hence,
7.49
(a)
G M s Rs3
6.67 1011
vt
98.0
0.447 m s
mi h
1 mi h
rad 1 rev
59.0
9.40 rev s
0.742 m
s 2 rad
2 i2
9.40 rev s 0 44.2 rev s2
2
2 1 rev
2
(b)
Page 7.60
Chapter 7
0.447 m s
98.0 mi h
2
1 mi h
vt
ac
r
0.742 m
2.59 103 m s2
rev 2 rad
2
at r 0.742 m 44.2 2
206 m s
s 1 rev
(c)
In the radial direction at the release point, the hand supports the weight of the ball and also supplies the cen
tripetal acceleration. Thus, Fr mg mar m g ar , or
In the tangential direction, the hand supplies only the tangential acceleration, so
7.50
(a)
vt
1.30 m s
56.5 rad s
ri
2.30 10 2 m
(b)
vt
1.30 m s
22.4 rad s
rf
5.80 10 2 m
(c)
av
f i
t
2f i2
22.4 56.5
rad s
4 473 s
22.4
7.62 10 3 rad s2
(d)
(e)
The track moves past the lens at a constant speed of t = 1.30 m/s for 4 473 seconds. Therefore, the length of
2 7.62 10 3 rad s2
Page 7.61
1.77 10 5 rad
Chapter 7
the spiral track is
s vt t 1.30 m s 4 473 s 5.81 103 m 5.81 km
7.51
(b)
ac
(c)
We imagine that the weight of the ball is supported by a frictionless platform. Then, the rope tension need
vt2
2
r 2 0.800 m rad s 7.90 m s 2
r
only produce the centripetal acceleration. The force required to produce the needed centripetal acceleration is
F m vt2 r . Thus, if the maximum force the rope can exert is 100 N, the maximum tangential speed of
the ball is
vt max
7.52
(a)
r Fmax
0.800 m 100 N
5.00 kg
4.00 m s
Fy n cos n sin mg 0
or
mg
cos sin
[1]
2
R), or
Also, Fx n sin n cos m (vmin
vmin
nR
sin cos
m
[2]
Page 7.62
Chapter 7
Substituting equation [1] into [2] gives
vmin
sin cos
Rg
cos sin
tan
Rg
1 tan
If the car is about to slip up the incline, f = n is directed down the slope (opposite to what is shown in the
sketch). Then, Fy n cos n sin mg 0 , or
mg
cos sin
[3]
2
R
Also, Fx n sin n cos m vmax
or
vmax
nR
sin cos
m
[4]
vmax
(b)
sin cos
Rg
cos sin
tan
Rg
1 tan
If R = 100 m, = 10, and = 0.10, the lower and upper limits of safe speeds are
vmin
100 m 9.8
tan 10 0.10
m s2
8.6 m s
1 0.10 tan 10
vmax
100 m 9.8
tan 10 0.10
m s2
17 m s
1 0.10 tan 10
and
7.53
Page 7.63
Chapter 7
(a)
v2
G ME m
m t
,
r2
r
which gives
(b)
vt
G ME
r
vt
2 5.98 10 24 kg
11 N m
6.67
10
(a)
7.76 10 3 m s
7.54
2 6.62 106 m
2 r
At the lowest point on the path, the net upward force (i.e., the force directed toward the center of the path and
supplying the centripetal acceleration) is Fup T mg m vt2 r , so the tension in the cable is
3.00 m s
vt2
2
T mg
0.400 kg 9.80 m s
8.42 N
r
0.800 m
(b)
1
0 mg L 1 cos max mvi2 0 , or
2
max cos 1 1
cos max 1
vi2
2gL
vi2
3.00 m s 2
1 1
cos
2gL
2 9.80 m s2 0.800 m
Page 7.64
64.8
Chapter 7
(c)
At the highest point on the path, the bob is at rest and the net radial force is
v2
Fr T mg cos max m t 0
r
Therefore,
7.55
(a)
When the car is at the top of the arc, the normal force is upward and the weight downward. The net force
directed downward, toward the center of the circular path and hence supplying the centripetal acceleration, is
Fdown mg n m vt2 r .
(b)
vt
7.56
rg
30.0 m 9.80
vt2
0 or the speed of the car must be
r
m s2
17.1 m s
The escape speed from the surface of a planet of radius R and mass M is given by
ve
2G M
R
M volume 4 R 3 3 4 R 3 3
ve
8 G
2 G 4 R3
R
R
3
3
constant R
Page 7.65
Chapter 7
7.57
The speed the person has due to the rotation of the Earth is t = r where r is the distance from the rotation axis
and is the angular velocity of rotation.
The persons apparent weight, (Fg)apparent , equals the magnitude of the upward normal force exerted on him by the
scales. The true weight, (Fg)true = mg, is directed downward. The net downward force produces the needed
centripetal acceleration, or
Fdown n Fg
true
Fg
apparent
Fg
Fg
true
v2
m t m r 2
r
m RE 2
Fg
(a)
At the equator, r RE , so
(b)
g apparent
Fg
true
g true
apparent
apparent
g apparent
7.58
Fg
true
Choosing y = 0 and PEg = 0 at the level of point B, applying the workenergy theorem to the blocks motion gives
Wnc
1
2
mv2 mgy
v2 v02
(a)
1
2
mv02 mg (2 R) , or
2 Wnc
2 g 2 R y
m
[1]
At point A, y = R and Wnc = 0 (no nonconservative force has done work on the block yet). Thus,
v2A v02 2 gR . The normal force exerted on the block by the track must supply the centripetal
acceleration at point A, so
v2
v2
nA m A m 0 2 g
R
R
4.0 m s 2
0.50 kg
2 9.8 m s2 15 N
1.5 m
Page 7.66
Chapter 7
At point B, y = 0 and Wnc is still zero. Thus, v2B v02 4 gR . Here, the normal force must supply the
centripetal acceleration and support the weight of the block. Therefore,
v2
v2
nB m B mg m 0 5 g
R
R
4.0 m s 2
0.50 kg
5 9.8 m s2 30 N
1.5 m
(b)
When the block reaches point C, y = 2R and Wnc fk L k mg L . At this point, the normal force is
to be zero, so the weight alone must supply the centripetal acceleration. Thus, m vc2 R mg , or the
required speed at point C is vc2 R g . Substituting this into equation [1] yields R g v02 2 k gL 0 , or
2 gL
2 9.8 m s2 0.40 m
2
7.59
0.17
Define the following symbols: Mm = mass of moon, Me = mass of the Earth, Rm = radius of moon, Re = radius of
the Earth, and r = radius of the Moons orbit around the Earth.
We interpret lunar escape speed to be the escape speed from the surface of a stationary moon alone in the
universe. Then,
2 G Mm
Rm
vlaunch 2 vescape 2
2
vlaunch
or
8 G Mm
Rm
1
2
m vimpact
PEg
2
vimpact
2
vlaunch
1
2
m vlaunch
PEg , or
i
2
2
PEg
m
PE
i
g f
PE
g i
G Mm m
G Me m
Rm
r
and
PE
g f
Page 7.67
G Me m
G Mm m
Re
r
Chapter 7
2
Using these potential energies and the expression for vlaunch
from above, the equation for the impact speed reduces
to
vimpact
3 Mm
M
Me M m
2G
e
Re
r
Rm
With numeric values of G 6.67 10 11 N m 2 kg2 , M m 7.36 10 22 kgs , and Rm 1.74 106 m ,
Re 6.38 106 m , r 3.84 108 ms we find
7.60
(a)
When the passenger is at the top, the radial forces producing the centripetal acceleration
are the upward force of the seat and the downward force of gravity. The downward force
must exceed the upward force to yield a net force toward the center of the circular path.
(b)
At the lowest point on the path, the radial forces contributing to the centripetal acceleration
are again the upward force of the seat and the downward force of gravity. However, the
upward force must now exceed the downward force to yield a net force directed toward
the center of the circular path.
(c)
The seat must exert the greatest force on the passenger at the lowest point on
the circular path.
(d)
v2
Fg n
r
or
n Fg m
4.00 m s 2 546 N
v2
v2
2
mg
70.0
kg
9.80
m
s
r
r
8.00 m
Page 7.68
Chapter 7
n Fg m
7.61
(a)
4.00 m s 2 826 N
v2
v2
2
mg
70.0
kg
9.80
m
s
r
r
8.00 m
In order to launch yourself into orbit by running, your running speed must be such that the gravitational force
acting on you exactly equals the force needed to produce the centripetal acceleration. That is,
GMm r 2 m vt2 r , where M is the mass of the asteroid and r is its radius. Since
M density volume [(4 3) r 3 ] , this requirement becomes
m vt2
4
m
G r 3 2
3
r
r
or
3vt2
.
4 G
3 8.50 m s
4 6.673 10 11 N m 2 kg 2 1.10 10 3 kg m 3
1.53 10 4 m
or r 15.3 km .
(b)
4
4
M r 3 1.10 103 kg m 3
1.53 10 4 m
3
(c)
7.62
1.53 10 4 m
2 r
1.13 10 4 s
vt
8.50 m s
(a)
Page 7.69
1.66 1016 kg
Chapter 7
(b)
The velocity vector at A is shorter than that at B. The gravitational force acting on the spacecraft is a conser
vative force, so the total mechanical energy of the craft is constant. The gravitational potential energy at A is
larger than at B. Hence, the kinetic energy (and therefore the velocity) at A must be less than at B.
(c)
The acceleration vector at A is shorter than that at B. From Newtons second law, the acceleration of the
spacecraft is directly proportional to the force acting on it. Since the gravitational force at A is weaker than
that at B, the acceleration at A must be less than the acceleration at B.
7.63
1
m vt2 m g h 0 0 , or vt2 2 g h
2
The net force directed toward the center of the circular
path, and providing the centripetal acceleration, is
v2
Fr m g cos n m t
R
Solving for the normal force, after making the substitutions vt2 2 g h and cos
gives
Rh
h
1
R
R
h
3h
2 g h
n m g 1 m
m g 1
R
R
7.64
3h
0
R
or
R
3
The centripetal acceleration of a particle at distance r from the axis is ac vt2 r r 2 If we are to have ac =
100g, then it is necessary that
r 2 100 g
or
100 g
r
The required rotation rate increases as r decreases. In order to maintain the required acceleration for all particles in
the casting, we use the minimum value of r and find
Page 7.70
Chapter 7
7.65
100 g
rmin
100 9.80 m s2
2.10
10 2
216
The sketch at the right shows the car as it passes the highest point
on the bump. Taking upward as positive, we have
v2
Fy may n mg m
r
or
v2
n mg
r
(a)
8.94 m s 2
m
n 1 800 kg 9.80 2
s
20.4 m
(b)
When the car is on the verge of losing contact with the road, n = 0. This gives g = 2/r and the speed must be
v
7.66
1.06 10 4 N 10.6 kN
rg
20.4 m 9.80
m s2
14.1 m s
When the rope makes angle with the vertical, the net
force directed toward the center of the circular path is
v2
T m g cos m t , or
r
v2
T m g cos t
r
1
2
m vt2 m g r r cos 0 m g r , or
vt2 2 g r cos . The expression for the tension in the rope at angle then reduces to T 3 m g cos .
(a)
Page 7.71
Chapter 7
(b)
T 3 70 kg 9.8 m s2
(c)
(a)
1.3 kN
7.67
2 .5 m
2 .5 m
2.1 kN
rT 2.28 1011 m
1.52 AU
1.496 1011 m
rD rT
1.00 AU 1.52 AU
1.26 AU
2
2
Keplers third law, T2 = a3, then gives the time for a full trip around this path as
a3
1.26 AU 3
1.41 yr
1
1.41 yr
T
0.71 yr
2
2
Page 7.72
Chapter 7
(b)
This trip cannot be taken at just any time. The departure must be timed so that the spacecraft arrives at the
aphelion when the target planet is located there.
7.68
(a)
Fc
n Fg
Fg g v2
mv2
v2
Fg
Fg 1
R
R
gR
or
2.00 102 m s
n 712 N 1
1.62 103 N
(b)
At the top of the loop, the centripetal force is Fc mv2 R n Fg , so the apparent weight is
Fg g v2
mv2
Fg
Fg Fg
R
R
2
2.00 102 m s
712 N
9.80 m s2 3.20 103
(c)
v2
gR 1
m s2
1 196 N
With the right speed, the needed centripetal force at the top of the loop can be made exactly equal to the
gravitational force. At this speed, the normal force exerted on the pilot by the seat (his apparent weight) will
be zero, and the pilot will have the sensation of weightlessness.
(d)
When n = 0 at the top of the loop, Fc mv2 R mg Fg , and the speed will be
mg
m R
Rg
Page 7.73
m s2
177 m s
Chapter 7
7.69
(a)
At the instant the mud leaves the tire and becomes a projectile, its velocity components are
0 t R
(b)
2R
g
The angular displacement of the wheel (turning at constant angular speed ) in time t is = t. If the
displacement is 1 rev 2 rad at t 2 R g , then
2 R
2 rad
g
7.70
(a)
or
g
R
and
g
R
At each point on the vertical circular path, two forces are acting on the ball:
(1) The downward gravitational force with constant magnitude Fg mg
(2) The tension force in the string, always directed toward the center of the path
(b)
The sketch at the right shows the forces acting on the ball
when it is at the bottom of the circular path and when it is
at the highest point on the path. Note that the gravitational
force has the same magnitude and direction at each point
on the circular path. The tension force varies in magnitude
at different points and is always directed toward the center
of the path.
(c)
v2
mv2
mv2
Fg
mg m
g
r
r
r
2
5.20 m s
0.275 kg
9.80 m s2 6.05 N
0.850 m
Page 7.74
Chapter 7
(d)
At the bottom of the circle, Fc mv2 r T Fg T mg , and solving for the speed gives
v2
r
T
T mg r
g
and
r
g
m
If the string is at the breaking point at the bottom of the circle, then T = 22.5 N, and the speed of the object at
this point must be
7.71
22.5 N
9.80 m s2 7.82 m s
0.850 m 0.275 kg
cos 1
2.00 m 2 1.50 m 2
1.32 m
Figure (b) gives a free-body diagram of the object with the +y-axis vertical and the +x-axis directed toward the
center of the circular path.
(a)
Since the object has zero vertical acceleration, Newtons second law gives
Fy T1 cos T2 cos mg 0
T1 T2
or
mg
cos
[1]
In the horizontal direction, the object has the centripetal acceleration ac v2 r directed in the +x-direction
(toward the center of the circular path). Thus,
Fx T1 sin T2 sin
mv2
r
or
T1 T2
Page 7.75
m v2
r sin
[2]
Chapter 7
g
v2
2T1 m
r sin
cos
so the tension in the upper string is
T1
(b)
4.00 kg 9.80
6.00 m s2
m s2
109 N
cos 41.4
1.32 m sin 41.4
To compute the tension T2 in the lower string, subtract equation [1] above from equation [2] to obtain
v2
g
2T2 m
cos
r sin
Thus,
4.00 kg 6.00 m s2
1.32 m sin 41.4
2
2
T2
7.72
9.80 m s2
56.4 N
cos 41.4
The maximum lift force is FL max C v2 , where C 0.018 N s2 m 2 and is the flying speed. For the bat to
stay aloft, the vertical component of the lift force must equal the weight, or FL cos mg where is the banking
angle. The horizontal component of this force supplies the centripetal acceleration needed to make a turn, or
FL sin m (v2 r ) where r is the radius of the turn.
(a)
To stay aloft while flying at minimum speed, the bat must have 0 (to give cos cos max 1 ) and
also use the maximum lift force possible at that speed. That is, we need
mg ,
2
Cvmin
1 mg
or
vmin
(b)
mg
0.031 kg 9.8
0.018 N
s2
m s2
m2
4.1 m s
To maintain horizontal flight while banking at the maximum possible angle, we must have
Page 7.76
Chapter 7
cos max
(c)
0.031 kg 9.8 m s2
mg
0.17
2
C v2
0.018 N s2 m2 10 m s
or
max 80
The horizontal component of the lift force supplies the centripetal acceleration in a turn,
FL sin mv2 r .Thus, the minimum radius turn possible is given by
rmin
mv2
m v2
m
where we have recognized that sin has its maximum value at the largest allowable value of . For a flying
speed of = 10 m/s, the maximum allowable bank angle is max = 80as found in part (b). The minimum
radius turn possible at this flying speed is then
rmin
(d)
0.018
0.031 kg
N s2 m2 sin 80.0
1.7 m
No. Flying slower actually increases the minimum radius of the achievable turns.
As found in part (c), rmin m C sin max . To see how this depends on the flying speed, recall that the
vertical component of the lift force must equal the weight or FL cos mg . At the maximum allowable
bank angle, cos will be a minimum. This occurs when FL FL max C v2 . Thus, cos max mg C v2
and
sin max
1 cos2 max
mg
1
C v2
m
mg
C 1
C v2
Decreasing the flying speed v will decrease the denominator of this expression, yielding a larger value for the
minimum radius of achievable turns.
Page 7.77
Chapter 7
7.73
v2
mac m t mr 2
r
Thus,
[1]
and
mg fs sin
cos
[2]
sin2
fs cos mg tan fs
mac
cos
or
fs
(a)
mac mg tan
cos sin2 cos
[3]
Page 7.78
Chapter 7
(b)
fs
cos 20.0
20.0
cos 20.0
sin 2
113 N
107 N
1.06
0.185
rad s 8.15 N
2
fs
sin 2 20.0
cos 20.0
cos 20.0
115 N
108 N
1.06
30.0 kg 9.80
7.74
fs max
273 N
fs
108 N
0.396
n
273 N
v2
vt2
T sin m t m
r
L sin
or
T sin 2
m vt2
L
[1]
Also, the vertical component of the tension must support the weight of the ball, or
T cos m g
[2]
Page 7.79
Chapter 7
(a)
v2
sin 2
t
cos
Lg
or
Lg
cos
vt sin
[3]
(b)
1.5 m 9.8
m s2
cos 30
2.1 m s
v2
1 cos2
t
cos
Lg
v2
cos2 t cos 1 0
L g
or
v2
cos t
2 L g
vt2
2 L g 1
If L = 1.5 m and t = 4.0 m/s, this yields solutions: cos 1.7 (which is impossible),
and cos = +1.7 (which is possible).
Thus, = cos-1 (0.59) = 54 .
(c)
From equation [2], when T = 9.8 N and the cord is about to break, the angle is
m g
0.50 kg 9.8 m s2
60
9.8 N
cos1
cos1
T
Then equation [3] gives
vt sin
Lg
sin 60
cos
1.5 m 9.8
m s2
cos 60
Page 7.80
4.7 m s
Chapter 7
7.75
The normal force exerted on the person by the cylindrical wall must provide the centripetal
acceleration, so n = m (r 2).
If the minimum acceptable coefficient of friction is present, the person is on the verge of slipping and the maximum
static friction force equals the persons weight, or fs max s min n mg.
Thus,
s min
7.76
mg
g
9.80 m s2
0.131
n
r 2
3.00 m 5.00 rad s 2
If the block will just make it through the top of the loop, the force required to produce the centripetal acceleration at
point C must equal the blocks weight, or . m (vc2 R ) m g
This gives vc
fk AB cos180
1
1
mvc2 mg 2 R 0 0 0 kd 2
2
2
The friction force is fk = uk (mg), and for minimum initial compression of the spring, vc2 Rg
as found above. Thus, the workenergy equation reduces to
dmin
dmin
2 k mg AB mRg 2 mg 2 R
k
0.50 kg 9.8
mg 2 k AB 5 R
Page 7.81