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Chapter 7

Rotational Motion and


the Law of Gravity

CLICKER QUESTIONS
Question A3.03a
Description: Developing intuition about circular motion and gravitation.
Question

Estimate the speed of the Earth relative to the Sun in m/s.


1.

Less than 0.003

2.

Between 0.003 and 0.03

3.

Between 0.03 and 0.3

4.

Between 0.3 and 3

5.

Between 3 and 30

6.

Between 30 and 300

7.

Between 300 and 3 000

8.

Between 3 000 and 30 000

9.

More than 30 000

10.

Impossible to determine

Commentary
Purpose: To develop your intuition about circular motion and gravitation.
Discussion: Relative to the Sun, the Earth travels in a circular orbit whose radius is about 93 million miles (150 million km)
and whose period is about 365 days. Therefore, the Earth travels at a constant speed of about 2(150106 km)/(365 days),
which is just under 30 000 m/s, or about 60 000 mph.
Key Points:

For an object moving with constant speed, the speed is equal to the distance traveled in some time period divided by the
duration of that time period.

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Chapter 7

For uniform circular motion, speed can be found from circumference divided by period of rotation.

For Instructors Only


This is the first of two questions asking students to work out numerical values for the speed and acceleration of the Earth
relative to the Sun. The context is to find the strength of the gravitational field of the Sun at the Earth.
If desired, only the second of these questions is needed.
If students dont know the relevant astronomical measurements, they should be encouraged to estimate them.
One possible point to discuss (after answers are collected and displayed) is the significance of the phrase relative to the Sun
in the question.
(Technically, the period of the orbit of the Earth about the Sun is closer to 365.25 days. We are ignoring this effect.)

Question A3.03b
Description: Developing intuition about circular motion and gravitation.
Question
Estimate the acceleration of the Earth relative to the Sun in m/s2.
1. Less than 0.003
2. Between 0.003 and 0.03
3. Between 0.03 and 0.3
4. Between 0.3 and 3
5. Between 3 and 30
6. Between 30 and 300
7. Between 300 and 3 000
8. Between 3 000 and 30 000
9. More than 30 000
10. Impossible to determine
Commentary
Purpose: To develop your intuition about circular motion and gravitation.

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Chapter 7
Discussion: The Earth is traveling at a speed of about 30 000 (60 000 mph) relative to the Sun, as discussed in the previous
question.
The Earth is also moving in a circle, so its velocity vector is constantly changing direction. Thus, it is experiencing an
acceleration. For an object traveling in a circle at constant speed (uniform circular motion), the acceleration vector points
towards the center of the circle and has a magnitude of 2/R. Since the radius of the Earths orbit is 150 000 000 km, its
acceleration is toward the Sun has a magnitude of 0.006 m/s 2. This is a very, very small acceleration (1y1 600 of the
acceleration of an object dropped at the Earths surface, relative to the Earth).
Because the gravitational force exerted by the Sun is the only force on the Earth, this value is also the gravitational field
strength g of the Sun, i.e., 0.006 N/kg. (The Moon exerts a negligible force on the Earth.)
Key points:

The acceleration of the Earth relative to the Sun is quite small.

The acceleration of the Earth relative to the Sun is also the gravitational field strength of the Sun at the Earth, only about
0.006 N/kg.

For Instructors Only


This is the second of two questions asking students to use astronomical data to compute a motion quantity. This particular
quantity, by Newtons second law, is also the strength of the local gravitational field of the Sun at the Earth.
Students choosing one of the larger answers may be guessing, based on the magnitude of the previous questions answer (the
speed of the Earth).
Another likely source of error is units confusion: answering in km/h or km/s or mph, for example.
This question pair also presents another opportunity to discuss the fact that we feel accelerations, not velocities. The fact
that we cannot sense the Earths motion implies that the Earths acceleration, but not necessarily its velocity, must be small.

Question A3.04a
Description: Working with circular motion, and developing intuition about kinematic quantities in an astronomical context.
Question
An object is at rest on the equator. Estimate its speed relative to the center of the Earth in m/s.

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Chapter 7
1. Less than 0.001
2. Between 0.001 and 0.01
3. Between 0.01 and 0.1
4. Between 0.1 and 1
5. Between 1 and 10
6. Between 10 and 100
7. Between 100 and 1 000
8. Between 1 000 and 10 000
9. More than 10 000
10. Impossible to determine
Commentary
Purpose: To explore your current perceptions of circular motion, and set up the subsequent question.
Discussion: A point on the equator is about 4 000 miles, or about 6 400 km, from the center of the Earth. Due to the rotation
of the Earth once every 24 hours, this point is moving and thus has a nonzero speed. The point travels one circumference of
the Earth in 24 hours, so the speed is constant and equal to the distance traveled divided by the time taken: 2 (6 400 km)y(24
h) = 465 m/s, or about 1 000 mph; answer (7).
Note that as we move toward the poles, the speed becomes smaller, because the circumference of the circle traveled every
day is smaller. At the poles, this speed is zero.
Answering this question requires you to estimate the radius of the earth. This is a valuable benchmark number to know.
However, even if you dont know it, you should be able to estimate it with sufficient accuracy to answer the question
correctly: any estimate between 1 375 and 13 750 km will produce the correct answer. By comparing to known geographical
distancesfor example, that the width of the lower 48 U.S. states is about 3 000 miles or 4 800 kmyou can figure that it
should be somewhere between 5 000 and 10 000 km.
Key Points:

The speed of a point on the equator of the Earth is quite large, about 1 000 mph.

The speed of a point on the surface of the Earth becomes smaller away from the equator, because the circle traveled in
one day becomes smaller.

The Earths radius is approximately 4 000 miles or 6 400 km.

If you dont know a number such as the Earths radius, you can often estimate it by comparing it to similar distances you
do know.

Your body cannot feel that you are moving at a high speed; you can only feel accelerations, not speeds.

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Chapter 7
For Instructors Only
This is the first of two questions using this situation. The goals of this set are to help students distinguish velocity and
acceleration better, if they have not done so yet, and to help students see that many experiments and demonstrations are still
valid in spite of the acceleration of the classroom relative to the center of the Earth.
Students might be surprised to learn just how fast a point on the equator is moving due to the Earths rotation, since they
dont feel any motion.
One possible source of confusion is that students must realize a point on the Earth returns to almost the same position every
24 hours; this can be difficult for some to visualize. (Note that this is not absolutely true, since we are orbiting the Sun. There
is a 1y365 correction: because we are orbiting the Sun, we rotate 366 times every 365 days. This is irrelevant for an estimate,
but instructors should be aware of the fact nonetheless.)
An interesting and, for this problem, useful fact to know is that the meter is defined such that a (particular) quarter circle on
the Earth has a length of 10 000 km. Thus, the circumference of the Earth at the equator is about 40 000 km.

Question A3.04b
Description: Working with circular motion, and developing intuition about kinematic quantities in an astronomical context.
Question
An object is at rest on the equator. Estimate its acceleration relative to the center of the Earth in m/s 2.
1. Less than 0.001
2. Between 0.001 and 0.01
3. Between 0.01 and 0.1
4. Between 0.1 and 1
5. Between 1 and 10
6. Between 10 and 100
7. Between 100 and 1 000
8. Between 1 000 and 10 000
9. More than 10 000
10. Impossible to determine
Commentary
Purpose: To consider the validity of Newtons laws in a reference frame fixed to the Earths surface.

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Chapter 7
Discussion: An object at rest on the equator is moving at about 465 m/s (about 1 000 mph) relative to the center of the
Earth, as discussed in the previous question.
The object is also moving at constant speed in a circle having a radius of 6 400 km, so its acceleration is toward the center of
the Earth and has a magnitude of 2/R = 0.033 m/s2. This is a very small acceleration. (An object starting from rest and
accelerating with this value would take about 3 minutes to reach a normal walking speed of 3 mph.)
Even though objects at rest on the surface of the Earth are moving very quickly, we do not perceive any motion at all,
because the acceleration is so small. This means that many experiments and demonstrations performed on the surface of the
Earth are valid and do not violate Newtons laws. In other words, the surface of the Earth may be considered an inertial
(Newtonian) frame of reference for all but the most sensitive experiments. This is good, since Newtons laws were
discovered in this frame!
Note that as we move toward the poles, the acceleration becomes smaller, and the direction is no longer toward the center of
the Earth, but toward the axis about which the Earth rotates. (Think about the circle being traveled and where its center is
located.)
Key Points:

The acceleration of an object moving in a circle with constant speed is equal to 2/R

We get no sense of motion from high speed, only from high acceleration.

Although a point on the Earths surface is not a Newtonian (nonaccelerating) reference frame, it is close enough to one
that many experiments and demonstrations used to confirm Newtons laws are still valid.

A frame with large velocity does not invalidate Newtons laws; a frame with large acceleration does.

For Instructors Only


This is the second of two questions using this situation.
The main point of this question is not about the mechanics of circular motion (e.g., computing speeds and acceleration), but
about valid Newtonian frames of reference.
Students in introductory physics should be warned against imagining themselves as part of a system undergoing accelerated
motion. For instance, when discussing a car going around a curve in the road, many students will imagine being the driver or
a passenger. This raises many issues that students are not prepared to deal with properly, such as fictitious forces like the
centrifugal force. Thus, it is often best to simply remind students that Newtons laws are valid only in inertial frames, i.e.,
frames that are not accelerating, so they should always view the process from a proper frame.
Some students will naturally be curious about why we can validate Newtons laws within the classroom, since it is

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Chapter 7
accelerating. Some of these students will still not have a firm grasp on the difference between velocity and acceleration, and
when they discover just how quickly we are moving (either relative to the center of the Earth or relative to the Sun), they
might have trouble accepting the whole Newtonian model. Thus, they might need to be reminded that Newtons laws are
perfectly valid in a moving but inertial reference frame (e.g., a train) and that constant-velocity motion cannot be detected. It
is acceleration that invalidates a moving frame, and the accelerations involved in a laboratory frame are very small.
Students might not appreciate the importance or value of the phrase relative to the center of the Earth. The question is
ambiguous without defining the frame of reference; the acceleration of the object is zero from a laboratory frame fixed to
the Earths surface.
If students do not know that the acceleration is 2/R or that the radius of the Earth is about 6 400 km, they should be
encouraged to guess. They can still benefit from the question and subsequent discussion.
Students who choose a large value may be confusing velocity and acceleration, or assuming that a large velocity is likely to
indicate a large acceleration.
Students who select the smallest answer may do so because they believe the acceleration is zero; this should be drawn out
during discussion.

Question A3.05a
Description: Working with circular motion, and developing intuition about kinematic quantities in an astronomical context.
Question
Estimate the speed of the Moon relative to the center of the Earth in m/s.
1. Less than 0.003
2. Between 0.003 and 0.03
3. Between 0.03 and 0.3
4. Between 0.3 and 3
5. Between 3 and 30
6. Between 30 and 300
7. Between 300 and 3 000
8. Between 3 000 and 30 000
9. More than 30 000
10. Impossible to determine
Commentary

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Chapter 7
Purpose: To challenge your perceptions about circular motion, speed, velocity, and acceleration.
Discussion: Relative to the Earth, the Moon travels in a circular orbit whose radius is about 250 000 mi (400 000 km) and
whose period is about 28 days. Therefore, the Moon travels at a constant speed of about 2 (400 000 km)y(28 days), which is
about 1 000 m/s or about 2 000 mph: answer (7).
If you dont know the radius of the Moons orbit, you can estimate it. The Moons radius is roughly one quarter of the
Earths, or about 1 600 km (actually, its 1 738 km). If the Moon were only ten Earth radii from the Earth, it would look very
large indeed when overhead! Something closer to 100 Earth radii is more reasonable. (The actual value is about 60.) If it were
much farther than that, it would appear much smaller to the eye than it does; you can sketch a diagram and do some simple
geometry to see that.
Key Points:

The Moons orbital distance from the Earth is approximately 60 times the radius of the Earth.

The Moon travels at high speed in its orbit around the Earth.

For Instructors Only


This is the first of two questions asking students to work out numerical values for the speed and acceleration of the Moon
relative to the Earth.
Students might just guess, perhaps because they are not sure how to estimate the speed, or because they do not know the
relevant values for the radius or period of the Moons orbit around the Earth. This is not bad; it helps students to adjust their
physical intuition and sense of numbers, and opens up a discussion about ways to estimate physical quantities and place
bounds on guesses.
Students might use 30 days as the period of the Moons orbit, since that is the typical time between full moons. This is okay,
since we are interested only in an estimate, but it should be noted that 30 days is not strictly correct. Since the Earth does not
remain is the same place relative to the Sun, the Moon must travel a little farther than one complete period to reach a position
where it is full as seen from the Earth.
Students who choose answer (4) may have computed the correct value in km/s and failed to convert to m/s.
A valuable follow-up question is to ask how the answer would change if the question asked about the Moons speed relative
to the Sun. (It would be very much larger.)

Question A3.05b

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Chapter 7
Description: Working with circular motion, and developing intuition about kinematic quantities in an astronomical context.

Question
Estimate the acceleration of the Moon relative to the center of the Earth in m/s 2.
1. Less than 0.003
2. Between 0.003 and 0.03
3. Between 0.03 and 0.3
4. Between 0.3 and 3
5. Between 3 and 30
6. Between 30 and 300
7. Between 300 and 3 000
8. Between 3 000 and 30 000
9. More than 30 000
10. Impossible to determine
Commentary
Purpose: To challenge your perceptions about circular motion, speed, velocity, and acceleration.
Discussion: The Moon is traveling at a speed of about 1 000 m/s (2 000 mph) relative to the Earth, as discussed in the
previous question.
The Moon is also moving at constant speed in a circle having a radius of 400 000 km, so its acceleration is toward the Earth
and has a magnitude of 2/R = 0.0027 m/s2. This is a very, very small acceleration.
Key points:

For an object moving in a circle with uniform speed, its acceleration is 2/R towards the center of the circle.

The Moon is an example of something that has a speed much larger than we are accustomed to (2 000 mph) but an
acceleration that is much smaller than we are accustomed to (about 0.003 m/s2).

Large speeds do not always indicate large accelerations. If the radius of the circular path is very large, the acceleration
can be small even for large speed.

For Instructors Only


This is the second of two questions exploring students perceptions of speed and acceleration of objects in circular motion.

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Chapter 7
Students often think that a large speed is associated with a large acceleration; this is a familiar situation challenging that
intuition.
Students might guess, and that is okay, since the question aims to develop students physical intuition and sense of physical
quantities. Many will guess a large value because they think that the acceleration is large when the speed is large. They do
not always have an accurate sense of the effect of large circles.
Determining the answer in incorrect units, such as km/h, km/s, or mph, is a common error.
Technically, the radius of the circular orbit is very slightly smaller than the EarthMoon distance, because the center of mass
of the system is not at the center of the Earth. It is about 5 000 km from the Earths center (or about 1 500 km below the
surface of the Earth). We are ignoring this effect. Further, students are asked to find the acceleration relative to the center of
the Earth, which means this effect is not relevant.

Question B1.07a
Description: Develop understanding of normal force in an extended context.
Question
A small ball is released from rest at position A and rolls down a vertical circular track under the influence of gravity.

When the ball reaches position B, which of the indicated directions most nearly corresponds to the direction of the normal
force on the ball?
Enter (9) if the direction cannot be determined.
Commentary
Purpose: To develop your understanding of the normal force by considering it for a moving object on a curved,
nonhorizontal surface.

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Chapter 7
Discussion: The normal force is one component of the contact force exerted by one surface on another when the two surfaces
are pushed together. The component perpendicular to the surface is called the normal force, and the component parallel to the
surface is called the friction force.
In this case, since the surface is curved, we need to imagine a line tangent to the curve at point B. The directions
perpendicular to this tangent line are (1) and (5), so the normal force must point in one of these directions. Since the normal
force always pushes, the direction must be (1). In other words, the normal force always points away from the surface and
toward the object acted upon.
Key Points:

The normal force is the component of the contact force between two surfaces that is perpendicular to the surfaces,
pushing outward.

The normal force always points perpendicularly out from the surface.

For a curved surface, the normal force is perpendicular to a hypothetical plane tangent to the surface.

For Instructors Only


When the normal force is introduced to students, a flat horizontal surface is usually used to illustrate the concept. Flat
surfaces are also used in the majority of problems that students solve. This question extends the context so that students
consider the normal force exerted on an accelerated object moving on a curved, nonhorizontal surface.
Those who answer (8) may be thinking that the normal force always opposes the gravitational force, as when an object is
resting on a horizontal surface.
Students who answer (5) may be indicating the direction of the normal force exerted on the curved track by the ball.
The direction of the normal force is essentially a matter of definition. The track exerts a force on the ball. Dividing this force
into a component perpendicular to the surface (called the normal force) and a component tangential to the surface (called the
friction force) is a choice, made for convenience. There are no demonstrations one can do to show that the normal force
points in a particular direction.
Discussion Questions:

If a ball were on a flat horizontal surface, what would be the direction of the normal force?

What would be the direction of the normal force if the ball were rolling across a flat horizontal surface?

What would be the direction of the normal force exerted on a block at rest on an incline?

What would be the direction of the normal force on a ball rolling down an incline?

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Chapter 7

What direction(s) are perpendicular to the track at point B?

Question B1.07b
Description: Developing understanding of net force and acceleration in curvilinear motion.
Question
A small ball is released from rest at position A and rolls down a vertical circular track under the influence of gravity.

When the ball reaches position B, which of the indicated directions most nearly corresponds to the direction of the balls
acceleration?
Enter (9) if the direction cannot be determined.
Commentary
Purpose: Develop your understanding of the vector nature of acceleration in curvilinear motion.
Discussion: When an object is traveling along a curve, it is useful to look at components of vectors parallel or tangent to the
surface at a particular point, and also at the components perpendicular to the surface. Acceleration is one vector that can be
analyzed more easily this way.
In this case, since the ball is moving in a circle, we know the direction of motion is changing, which means there is
necessarily a component of acceleration perpendicular to the surface. The direction of this component is (1).
The ball is also speeding up, which means there is a component of acceleration along the direction of motion, (3).
The acceleration is the vector sum of these components. Even though we do not know how large these two components are, it
is likely that the direction of the acceleration will be closest to direction (2).

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Chapter 7
Key Points:

Acceleration is a vector that describes the rate of change of the velocity vectors magnitude and its direction.

It is often useful to divide the acceleration into components that are parallel (tangential) and perpendicular to the objects
direction of motion.

A nonzero tangential component of acceleration indicates that the object is changing speed.

A nonzero perpendicular component of acceleration indicates that the object is changing direction.

For Instructors Only


It is common for students to neglect one component or the other. Those who focus excessively on the balls speeding up will
choose direction (3), while those who focus excessively on the radial acceleration will choose direction (1).
Choosing (9), impossible to determine, is valid in this context, since we are assuming that students do not have sufficient
experience to derive the relationships needed to be specific. These students should be pressed to find out the range of
answers. They should recognize that if the perpendicular component is much larger than the parallel component, then the
best answer is direction (1). For a wide range of components, the best answer is direction (2). If the parallel component is
much larger, then the best answer is direction (3).
Students might not realize just how large the ratio of components must be for direction (1) or (3) to be the best answer. The
ratio must be more than 2.4.
Worked out carefully, the perpendicular component of acceleration is twice as large as its parallel component, so the
direction of the acceleration is 18.43 degrees above direction (2).

Question B1.07c
Description: Developing understanding of net force and acceleration in curvilinear motion.
Question
A small ball is released from rest at position A and rolls down a vertical circular track under the influence of gravity as
depicted below.

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Chapter 7

When the ball reaches position B, which of the indicated directions most nearly corresponds to the direction of the net force
on the ball?
Enter (9) if the direction cannot be determined.
Commentary
Purpose: Develop your understanding of the vector nature of force in curvilinear motion, and stress the relationship between
force and acceleration.
Discussion: There are three forces on the ball: (1) gravitation, down, due to the Earth; (2) normal force, up and to the right
(direction 1), due to the surface; and (3) static friction, up and to the left (direction 7), also due to the surface. It is likely that
the normal force is larger than the static friction force, but it is hard to predict how these will compare to gravitation. Thus, it
would seem as though it is impossible to determine the direction of the net force.
However, there is another way to look at this situation. According to Newtons second law, the direction of the net force must
be the same as the direction of the acceleration. In the previous question, we found that the balls acceleration vector points
approximately in direction (2). Thus, the net force must also point that way.
Key Points:

The net force on an object and the object's acceleration vector always have the same direction.

For Instructors Only


You may think this question is highly redundant with the previous one, but many students still get it wrong. They focus on
the individual forces and try to figure out what the sum will be, and ignore Newtons second law.
Students will choose (1) if they are focusing excessively on the normal force.
They will choose (3) if they are focusing on the component of gravitation parallel to the incline, and ignoring the normal
force.

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Chapter 7
They will choose (4) if they think the net force is the gravitational force.
They will choose (5) if they think the net force is the centrifugal force.

Question A3.06a
Description: Developing the concept of tangential acceleration for linear motion.
Question
A mass of 5 kg is released from rest on a smooth incline making an angle of 37 to the horizontal. The tangential component
of acceleration is closest to:

1.

10 m/s2

2.

8 m/s2

3.

6 m/s2

4.

4 m/s2

5.

2 m/s2

6.

0 m/s2

7.

Exactly halfway between 2 of the above answers

8.

The negative of one of the answers above

9.

It is impossible to determine the tangential component of the blocks acceleration.

10.

I do not know what is meant by tangential in this situation.

Commentary
Purpose: To hone the concept of the tangential component of acceleration by applying it to a familiar situation with linear
motion.
Discussion: Sometimes, it is easier to learn the meaning of new term using a familiar situation. In this case, since there is no
friction, it is relatively easy to determine the acceleration of the block as it slides down the incline. What is not so easy is to

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Chapter 7
apply the definition of tangential component.
The tangential component of acceleration is the rate at which the speed is changing. It is the component of acceleration along
the direction of motion, even if that motion is in a straight line. In this case, the object is speeding up, so the tangential
component of acceleration is positive.
For = 37, the acceleration is 6 m/s2 down the incline, so the tangential component of acceleration is also 6 m/s 2: answer
(3).
Even though the block is sliding down the incline, the tangential component is not negative, because this would mean the
block is slowing down. In a rotated coordinate frame in which the x-axis lies along the incline with the positive direction
uphill, the x-component of the acceleration would be 6 m/s2, but this is different from the tangential component.
Key Points:

The tangential component of acceleration is the component in the direction of the objects velocity vector. The object
does not have to be moving along a curved path.

If an object is speeding up in any direction, the tangential component of acceleration is positive.

The sign of the tangential component of acceleration does not depend on the coordinate system you have chosen for the
problem.

For Instructors Only


This is first of two questions designed to help students understand the tangential and radial components of acceleration by
applying the new concepts to familiar, straight-line motion.
Some students will think that tangential has no meaning when the motion is in one dimension, or along a straight line. Even
students who have much experience in physics might never have considered the concept in this context.
Some students will answer (3) correctly even though they do not totally understand what is being asked of them. They might
simply be telling you that the magnitude of the acceleration is 6 m/s2. Thus, drawing out the reasoning behind students
answers is vital.

Question A3.06b
Description: Developing the concept of radial acceleration for linear motion.
Question

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Chapter 7
A mass of 5 kg is released from rest on a smooth incline making an angle of 37 to the horizontal. The radial component of
acceleration is closest to:

1.

10 m/s2

2.

8 m/s2

3.

6 m/s2

4.

4 m/s2

5.

2 m/s2

6.

0 m/s2

7.

Exactly halfway between 2 of the answers above

8.

The negative of one of the answers above

9.

It is impossible to determine the radial component of the blocks acceleration.

10.

I do not know what is meant by radial in this situation.

Commentary
Purpose: To hone the concept of the radial component of acceleration by applying it to a familiar situation with linear
motion.
Discussion: When an object is moving along a curved path, the radial direction is toward the center of the circle that best
approximates the curve at the objects current location. This direction is always perpendicular to the direction of motion.
When an object is moving along a straight line, the radial direction is still perpendicular to the direction of motion, and the
best circle has an infinite radius.
The component of the acceleration perpendicular to the incline is zero, so the radial component of acceleration is also zero:
answer (6).
For straight-line motion, there is an ambiguity here: the radial direction is perpendicular, but in which way? The center of the
circle of infinite radius can be in any direction perpendicular to the line of motion: directly away from the plane, directly
into the plane, directly out of the page, directly into the page, or somewhere in between. Fortunately, since this ambiguity
only exists for straight-line motion, and the radial component of acceleration is always zero for straight-line motion, it
doesnt matter.

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Chapter 7
Key Points:

The radial component of acceleration is the component of an objects acceleration vector along a direction perpendicular
to the direction of the objects motion, pointing towards the center of the imaginary circle that best fits the curved
trajectory of the object at its current location.

For straight-line motion, the radial component of the acceleration is always zero.

For Instructors Only


This is the second of two questions designed to introduce the concepts of radial and tangential components of
acceleration, by applying the new terms to a familiar one-dimensional situation students should already know how to treat.
Most students will probably not know how to apply the term radial to this situation, since there does not appear to be any
circle or curved path. Others might not know if the best circle should be above or below the incline (or parallel to it,
perpendicular to the page).
Some students will likely answer 6 m/s2, since that is the magnitude of the blocks acceleration. Other students might think
that the component is 6 m/s2, perhaps because the block is accelerating down the incline.
It is useful to point out to students that even in straight line motion, tangential and radial form a perpendicular pair of
components, which means it is relatively easy to find the (total) acceleration vector.

Question A3.07
Description: Honing the concept of tangential acceleration.
Question
A ball is rolled up an incline so that it goes part-way up and then rolls back down. Which of the graphs below could represent
its tangential component of acceleration vs. time, from the instant it is released until it returns to its starting point?

1.

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Chapter 7
2.

3.

4.
5.

Graphs 1 and 2

6.

Graphs 3 and 4

7.

None of the graphs

8.

Im not sure what is meant by tangential in this situation.

Commentary
Purpose: To hone the concept of tangential acceleration through graphical representation.
Discussion: When learning about acceleration and its vector nature, you may have difficulty understanding why the
acceleration of the ball in this situation is constant. Intuitively, it may seem that the acceleration should be negative when the
object is slowing down and positive when it is speeding up. However, as weve covered previously (c.f. Question A2.04a),
the acceleration of the ball in this situation is constant, pointing down the plane during the balls entire motion. The
component of acceleration along the plane will be always positive or always negative, depending on the coordinate system

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Chapter 7
defined.
There is, however, a quantity that does describe the rate of change of the speed of an object: the tangential component of
acceleration. When the object is slowing down, the tangential component of acceleration is negative, and when the object is
speeding up, the tangential component of acceleration is positive. Therefore, graph (2) is a valid answer to this question.
(It is called the tangential component because when an object is moving along a curved path, it is the component of the
acceleration vector along a direction tangential to the curve, in the direction the object is moving. You will see this quantity
used most often when discussing circular motion, but it can be applied to straight-line motion as well.)
The tangential component does not depend on the coordinate frame chosen. Rather, it is defined relative to the direction of
motionthe direction of the velocity. Graph (1) is not a valid answer for any choice of coordinate system, since it means the
object is speeding up and then slowing down.
Key Points:

The tangential component of acceleration is the component of the acceleration vector along an objects direction of
motion, where the direction the object is moving is taken to be positive.

The tangential component of acceleration is the rate of change of an objects speed (not velocity). When the tangential
component of acceleration is positive, the object is speeding up; when negative, it is slowing down.

The value of an objects tangential component of acceleration does not depend on the coordinate system chosen for the
problem.

For Instructors Only


This question is a follow-up to Questions 23a and 23b, which asked about the velocity and acceleration graphs for this same
situation. It gives a name to the concept of rate of change of speed that many students intuitively attach to the word
acceleration.
Some students will not know how to interpret tangential when the motion is along a straight line. They might think
tangential and radial only have meaning when an object is moving along a curved path. Although the tangential
component of acceleration is mostly used in circular or at least curvilinear motion settings, applying it to linear motion as in
this problem extends the context in which students encounter the concept. This helps them relate it to kinematics in general,
rather than pigeonholing it with circular motion ideas only.
Students who select answers (3), (4), or (5) might be choosing a graph for the acceleration, not its tangential component.
Students may not see why (1) cannot be valid if (2) is. They do not realize that we cannot choose the direction that is positive
for tangential acceleration, but that it is always the direction of motion. And this would not be surprisingweve tried hard to

Page 7.20

Chapter 7
convince them that components can be positive or negative depending on coordinate system, and now we introduce a strange
kind of component where its not!
It may or may not be helpful to describe this component in terms of a coordinate system that is attached to the object and
travels and turns along with it. (Formally, such a system is called the Frenet-Serret frame, and consists of a tangential unit
vector in the direction of the derivative of the particles position, a normal unit vector orthogonal to that and in the direction
of the second derivative of the position, and a binormal unit vector orthogonal to the other two and forming a right-handed
coordinate system.) Making this connection can be enriching, but it opens up a large can of worms, and should probably not
be attempted unless you are willing to spend a good deal of time discussing inertial vs. noninertial reference frames and
similar issues.

Question F1.01
Description: Reasoning with universal gravitation and linking it to experience.
Question
An iceberg weighing 1 000 tons is floating in the North Atlantic. Consider the gravitational forces on the iceberg due to the
Earth, the Moon, and the Sun. Put these gravitational forces in order of increasing magnitude.
You do not need to do any calculations. Use reasoning, or simply guess.
1.

Earth < Moon < Sun

2.

Earth < Sun < Moon

3.

Moon < Sun < Earth

4.

Moon < Earth < Sun

5.

Sun < Moon < Earth

6.

Sun < Earth < Moon

Commentary
Purpose: To develop your ability to reason with universal gravitation.
Discussion: The gravitational force on an object due to some source is equal to the mass of that object times the gravitational
field strength due to the source. The gravitational field strength of a source depends on the mass of the source and how far
away it is, as describe by Newtons law of universal gravitation. However, you can solve this problem purely through
deduction, without any calculation at all.
In this situation, the weight and circumstances of the iceberg are irrelevant; the ordering of the gravitational forces depends

Page 7.21

Chapter 7
only on the value of the gravitational field strength due to each of the three celestial objects.
If the water were removed, the iceberg would fall towards the Earth, not towards the Moon or Sun. Thus, the Earth must be
exerting the strongest gravitational force. In fact, almost every time we solve a physics problem that takes place on the
surface of the Earth, we consider the force of gravity due to the Earth but neglect the gravitational forces of the Moon and
Sun because they are negligibly small.
Which of the other objectsthe Moon or the Sunexerts the next largest force? The Earth orbits the Sun, not the Moon. If
the Moon were removed, the Earths behavior would not change significantly; it would still orbit the Sun once a year.
However, if the Sun were removed, the Earths behavior would change dramatically; it would respond slightly as the Moon
orbited it, but would no longer travel in its large circle about the Sun. Thus, the effect of the Suns gravitational field on the
Earth (and objects on it) is clearly larger than the effect of the Moons gravitational field.
It might be tempting to think that the Moon exerts a larger force than the Sun because it is so much closer, but remember that
it also has far less mass. You might also argue that the Moon has a larger influence than the Sun because the Moons gravity
causes significant tides on the Earth, while the Suns causes only a small perturbation to those tides. However, tides are
caused by the gradient of a gravitational field, not by the strength of that field. The Moons gravitational field is weaker, but
it is changing more rapidly with distance.
Key Points:

To figure out which force on a system is stronger, determine which has the larger effect (unless another force balances it
and cancels out its effect).

The strength of the gravitational force on an object depends on both the mass of the source and the distance to that
source.

For Instructors Only


Students who select answers (1) or (2) may think that the Earth exerts no gravitational force at all on the object, perhaps
because the object is floating. This indicates a fundamental misconception about weight.
Note that impossible to determine is not an available option. Students should be encouraged to select one of the answers,
even if they are not sure if it is correct.
Students will likely want to compute the three forces using Fg GMm/d2, and may be frustrated if they are not given sufficient
time to do this. They should be reminded that the question asks them only to compare the forces, not to compute them. They
should be encouraged to find qualitative arguments.
We can confirm our qualitative argument via calculations, though this is not necessary and students should be discouraged
from doing so. We include the following for the instructors benefit.

Page 7.22

Chapter 7
The gravitational field strength at some location is g = GM/d2, where G is the Universal gravitational constant, M is the mass
of the agent exerting the gravitational force, and d is the separation of the agent and the object. (That is, the force is Fg = mg
GMm/d2.) Since G is the same for all 3 forces, we can compare M/d2 to find out which is largest and which is smallest.
For the Earth M = 6 1024 kg and d = 6 400 km is the radius of the Earth. For the Moon, M = 7.4 1022 kg and d = 400 000
km is the orbital radius of the Moon about the Earth. For the Sun, M = 2 1030 kg and d = 150 000 000 km is the orbital
radius of the Earth about the Sun.
The results are tabulated below.
Mass, M

Separation, d

Ratio, M/d2

Agent

(1021 kg)

(103 km)

(1012 kg/km2)

Earth

6 000

6.4

150 000

Moon

74

400

0.5

2 109

150 000

90

Sun

Thus, as reasoned above, the Earth exerts the strongest force, the Sun is next, and the Moon is smallest. Further, the Sun
exerts a force almost 200 times as strong as that of the Moon.
We can also compute g due to each celestial body. Due to the Earth, it is about 10 N/kg. Due to the Sun, it is equal to the
acceleration of the Earth relative to the Sun, or about 6 mN/kg (i.e., 0.006 N/kg). Due to the Moon, it is equal to about 30
N/kg (3 10-5 N/kg), which can be deduced from its acceleration relative to the Earth multiplied by the ratio of the two
masses (1:81). Of course, we can also use g = GM/d2, but it is noteworthy to discover than we do not need G to determine
these values of g.

Question F1.02a
Description: Applying energy ideas to universal gravitation.
Question
Two identical objects are released from rest from heights R and 2R above the surface of the Earth. After traveling a distance
Ry2, which object has the larger speed?

Page 7.23

Chapter 7

1.

Object A

2.

Object B

3.

Neither; they have the same speed.

Commentary
Purpose: To extend work and energy ideas to a situation requiring universal gravitation, and to sensitize you to the danger of
applying remembered results to new situations without resorting to general principles.
Discussion: In a uniform gravitational field (local gravity approximation), two objects that fall the same distance from rest
will have the same final speed, regardless of any difference in their starting heights. In this problem, however, the distances
are comparable to the size of the Earth, so the gravitational field is far from uniform. (The questions wording does not
explicitly state this, but the diagram implies it.)
You can try to argue for an answer based on Newtons law of universal gravitation (noting that the gravitational force is
weaker for objects farther away), Newtons second law, and kinematics, but this tends to be confusing. Object B is farther
away, so it experiences a weaker force; however, it falls for a longer time to cover the same distance, so it has more time to
accelerate due to that force. Determining anything definitive about the final speed requires careful calculation.
As usual when talking about distances and speeds but not times, energy ideas are easiest to use. In this case, you must
recognize that total mechanical energy is conserved since all acting forces are conservative; therefore, whichever object loses
the most gravitational potential energy as it falls a distance of Ry2 will gain the most kinetic energy and thus have the
greatest final speed.
The trick is that for universal gravitation, an objects gravitational potential energy is zero at infinity and increasingly
negative as the object gets closer to the Earth. Furthermore, the potential energy goes as one over the distance (from the
center of the Earth), so that a given change in distance causes a greater change in potential energy closer to the source
compared to far away. (This is clearer if you sketch a plot of 1/r.) Given this, object a will lose more potential energy falling
a distance R/2 than will object B; both have a potential energy that starts negative and gets more negative, but a has the larger
change. Thus, a will gain more kinetic energy and have the larger final speed, so (a) is the best answer.
Key Points:

Know what assumptions (like local gravity) are involved in any physics principles, laws, rules, derived results, etc.,

Page 7.24

Chapter 7
that you learn, and be on the lookout for situations that violate those assumptions.

Be careful about using derived results like objects that fall the same distance from rest end up with the same speed,
regardless of how high they start as if they were general truths. Trust general principles like the workenergy theorem,
not specific rules that may depend on the details of a situation.

Energy ideas are usually more useful than forces and kinematics when reasoning about forces, distances, and speeds (but
not times).

It is traditional to choose r = 0 as the reference point at which the gravitational potential is zero. With this convention,
potential energy is always negative for universal gravitation.

For Instructors Only


This is a classic extend the context problem: it asks a familiar question in an unfamiliar context, requiring students to
extend their understanding of conservation of energy outside the realm of local gravitation.
The problem may be considered ambiguous because its wording does not state that R is significant compared to the size of
the Earth, and therefore that the local gravity approximation is inappropriate. However, the diagram shows a spherical Earth
and clearly implies it. In addition, one might suspect that the choice of R as the distance variable is meant to signify the
radius of the spherical Earth. This ambiguity is not a weakness of the question, but rather a strength: it provides the
opportunity to sensitize students to the assumptions they may make. If some students fail to recognize the figures
implication, the instructor should engage students in a brief discussion about problem-solving strategy and exhort students to
use all the information available in a problem, including figures and variable names. Ambiguity in a question is often an
asset rather than a liability.
This is a good problem for challenging students to reason qualitatively using tools like ratios and sketched graphs, rather than
pulling out equations. One can go a long way here with a simple 1/r sketch for gravitational potential energy, indicating how
the change in ordinate for a given change in abscissa varies at different points on the graph. One can build additional links by
reasoning from the area under a force vs. position graph, and relating the work done to the change in kinetic energy.
Question F1.02b continues the exploration of negative potential and total energy in this situation, so the instructor need not
fully resolve confusion about that here.

Question F1.02b
Description: Applying energy ideas to universal gravitation.
Question

Page 7.25

Chapter 7
Two identical objects are released from rest from heights R and 2R above the surface of the Earth. After traveling a distance
R/2, which object has the larger energy?

1.

Object A

2.

Object B

3.

Neither; they have the same energy.

Commentary
Purpose: To encounter and resolve the confusion that commonly surrounds negative potential energies in universal
gravitation.
Discussion: Because no dissipative forces act in this problem, total mechanical energy is conserved. Therefore, whichever
object begins with the larger total energy will have the larger total energy at the end. (Note that the problem asks for the
larger energy, not for the larger kinetic energy.)
Since both objects are initially at rest and thus have no kinetic energy, the one with the larger gravitational potential energy
has the larger total energy. Note that gravitational potential energy is always negative, and gets more negative as an object
gets closer to the Earth. Thus, object B has the greater (less negative) potential energy, and the answer must be (2).

Key Points:

A number can be greater than another number even if it is closer to zero: if both are negative, the less negative number
is the larger one.

The total mechanical energy of a system can be negative.

When a question refers to energy, be careful not to interpret that as the wrong kind of energy (kinetic, potential, or
total mechanical).

When a system conserves mechanical energy, you can solve for it at the easiest point in time (e.g., the initial condition)
even when the problem asks about it at a different time (e.g., the final condition).

For Instructors Only

Page 7.26

Chapter 7
This question builds upon Question F1.02a, and is intended to follow it. Question F1.02a should be presented and discussed
to satisfaction before this one is presented.

Question F2.01a
Description: Integrating mechanics ideas in the context of elliptical orbits: energy.
Question
A planet has the orbit shown below. Use the 8 labeled points to answer all questions.

Where is the planet when the total energy of the system is largest?
1.

1 only

2.

2 and 8 only

3.

3 and 7 only

4.

4 and 6 only

5.

5 only

6.

1 and 5 only

7.

2, 4, 6, and 8

8.

The total energy is the same everywhere.

9.

None of the above

10.

Impossible to determine

Page 7.27

Chapter 7
Commentary
Purpose: To understand orbits, and to integrate various ideas in mechanics.
Discussion: Taking the system to be the sun and the planet, the total energy consists of gravitational potential energy and
kinetic energy. Since no external forces act on this system, the total energy is constant, so the total energy is the same at all
the labeled points.
Key Points:

For an isolated system of one object orbiting another, total mechanical energy is conserved.

Gravitational potential energy is a property of the interaction between two masses, and does not belong to either object
by itself but only to the two-body system.

For Instructors Only


This is first of five questions using this situation. You might like to use it to ask some of your own questions as well. Orbits
are great opportunities to revisit and integrate basic ideas in motion, interactions, and energy.
This question sets up subsequent questions by grounding students understanding of the situation in energy conservation.
Since the question does not explicitly define the system, a valid (but not encouraged) choice is impossible to determine.
(The system might conceivably refer to the planet alone. In this case, the best answer would be point 1, since that is where
the planets speed is largest and therefore where its kinetic energythe only energy attributable to the planet aloneis
largest.)
Students, more familiar with circular than elliptical orbits, might interpret the diagram as a tilted circle with the sun at the
origin (ignoring the yellow spot). In this case, they may plausibly select answer (8) whether or not they include the sun in the
system. Since students can reach the best answer even though they have misinterpreted nearly everything about the
problem, drawing out students reasons for their answers is crucial.
Additional Questions:
1.

Where is the kinetic energy of the planet largest?

2.

Where is the planet when the gravitational potential energy of the system is least? When it is greatest?

Question F2.01b
Description: Integrating mechanics ideas in the context of elliptical orbits: energy.

Page 7.28

Chapter 7
Question
A planet has the orbit shown below. Use the 8 labeled points to answer all questions.

At which point(s) is the speed of the planet smallest?


1.

1 only

2.

2 and 8 only

3.

3 and 7 only

4.

4 and 6 only

5.

5 only

6.

1 and 5 only

7.

2, 4, 6, and 8

8.

The speed is the same everywhere.

9.

None of the above

10.

Impossible to determine

Commentary
Purpose: To understand orbits, and to integrate various ideas in mechanics.
Discussion: Total energy is conserved in the system of a sun with an orbiting planet, which means there is a never-ending
transfer of energy from kinetic to potential and back again.
For an elliptical orbit as shown, the distance between the planet and the sun is constantly changing. To predict where the
speed is smallest, we need to find where the kinetic energy is smallest. This occurs when the gravitational potential energy is

Page 7.29

Chapter 7
greatest, which occurs when the planet is farthest from the sun, at point 5.
Do not be distracted by the fact that the gravitational potential energy is negative. A small negative value is greater than a
large negative value. Just imagine an object far from the sun. The potential energy of the system is zero. As the object falls
toward the sun, the potential energy decreases and the kinetic energy increases. The only way to decrease from zero is to
become negative. Thus, the gravitational potential energy is greatest when it is least negative.
Key Points:

The total mechanical energy of a system comprised of one object orbiting another is constant.

Gravitational potential energy is negative, and decreases (becomes more negative) as the object gets closer to the source
of attraction.

Energy ideas are often useful for reasoning about speed.

For Instructors Only


This is second of five questions using this situation. You might like to use it to ask some of your own questions as well.
Orbits are great opportunities to revisit and integrate basic ideas in motion, interactions, and energy.
This question is intended primarily to make sure that students understand the diagram, with the orbit elliptical and the sun at
the right focus.
Students choosing answer (8), the same everywhere, may be misinterpreting the figure as a perspective drawing of a
circular orbit with the sun at the center (ignoring the yellow spot).
Students choosing answer (6) may be recognizing that the orbit is elliptical but assuming the sun is at the origin of the graph
(overlooking the yellow spot), and reasoning that the sun is farthest and equidistant at points 1 and 5.
Students choosing answers (1) or (3) may be confused about the minus sign in the gravitational potential energy, and looking
for where the potential energy is largest rather than greatest.
Additional Questions:
1.

Where is the speed of the planet largest?

Question F2.01c
Description: Integrating mechanics ideas in the context of elliptical orbits: velocity components.
Question

Page 7.30

Chapter 7
A planet has the orbit shown below. Use the 8 labeled points to answer all questions.

At which point(s) is the y-component of velocity largest?


1.

1 only

2.

2 and 8 only

3.

3 and 7 only

4.

4 and 6 only

5.

5 only

6.

1 and 5 only

7.

2, 4, 6, and 8

8.

The y-component of velocity is the same everywhere.

9.

None of the above

10.

Impossible to determine

Commentary
Purpose: To understand orbits, and to integrate various ideas in mechanics.
Discussion: The speed of the planet is smallest at point 5 and largest at point 1. Since the direction of motion is entirely in
the y direction at point 1, this must also be the point at which the y-component of velocity is largest.
It does not matter whether the motion of the planet is clockwise or counterclockwise. Since largest refers to magnitude, the
y-component of velocity can be positive or negative.

Key Points:

Page 7.31

Chapter 7

The speed of a planet in elliptical orbit is largest when the object is at its perihelion (closest point to the sun).

At the perihelion, a planets velocity is perpendicular to the vector from the sun to the planet.

For Instructors Only


This is third of five questions using this situation. You might like to use it to ask some of your own questions as well. Orbits
are great opportunities to revisit and integrate basic ideas in motion, interactions, and energy.
This question sets up the next one, which asks about the x-component of velocity. We expect most students to get this
question correct, but the reasoning used here will not be applicable to the next question.
Some students might interpret the figure as a tilted circular orbit, or they might think that the sun is at the origin of the
coordinate frame, in which cases they might choose answer (6).
Students might think that the answer is impossible to determine because they are not told whether the motion is clockwise or
counterclockwise. (Since we are asking for the largest y-component, it does not matter.)

Question F2.01d
Description: Integrating mechanics ideas in the context of elliptical orbits: forces, kinematics, and velocity components.
Question
A planet has the orbit shown below. Use the 8 labeled points to answer all questions.

At which point(s) is the x-component of velocity largest?

Page 7.32

Chapter 7
1.

1 only

2.

2 or 8

3.

both 2 and 8

4.

3 or 7

5.

both 3 and 7

6.

both 1 and 5

7.

The x-component of velocity is the same everywhere.

8.

None of the above

9.

Impossible to determine

Commentary
Purpose: To understand orbits, and to integrate various ideas in mechanics.
Discussion: It is tempting to think that the x-component of velocity must be largest where the y-component is zero and
choose points 3 and/or 7, but this is not correct.
Lets start at point 1, where the speed of the planet is largest, and assume that it travels counterclockwise around its elliptical
orbit. Lets also focus on the x-direction only.
At point 1, x = 0. The gravitational force acts to the left, so the force has a negative x-component, and the planet must have
an acceleration in the negative x direction. Thus, x is getting larger and negative. Between points 1 and 2, the sun exerts a
force down and to the left, so ax is still negative, and x must be getting still larger and more negative. At point 2, the sun
pulls straight down, and ax = 0.
After point 2, the sun pulls down and to the right, which means ax is positive and x is getting smaller and less negative. This
process continues past points 3 and 4, until x = 0 again at point 5. Therefore, between points 1 and 5, x is largest at point 2.
At point 5, the sun is pulling to the right, so now x is getting larger and positive. After point 5, the sun pulls up and to the
right, so x is getting larger and more positive. At point 8, the sun pulls straight up.
Between points 8 and 1, the sun pulls up and to the left, so x is getting smaller, until it is zero at point 1. Therefore, between
points 5 and 1, x is largest at point 8.
By symmetry, we know that x is equally large at points 2 and 8, so that is where x is largest during the orbit of the planet.
If the motion is clockwise, the same reasoning applies.
Key Points:

Page 7.33

Chapter 7

You can reason about one component of an objects velocity by ignoring the other and considering the net force and
acceleration on it in that direction only.

The x-component of an objects velocity will get larger (more positive or more negative) if the x-component of the net
force has the same sign, and will get smaller if it has the opposite sign.

For Instructors Only


This is fourth of five questions using this situation. You might like to use it to ask some of your own questions as well. Orbits
are great opportunities to revisit and integrate basic ideas in motion, interactions, and energy.
This question is relatively difficult. Students tend to compartmentalize their physics knowledge and are likely to overlook
forces and accelerations in this situation. Although many students will get the question wrong, the explanation should be
accessible to all.
The most common reason for students to choose (4) or (5) is that the y-component of velocity is zero, so the x-component
must be largest. (In the previous problem, the y-component was largest where the x-component was zero, but only because
the speed was also largest there.)
Some students might interpret the figure as a tilted circular orbit, or they might think that the sun is at the origin of the
coordinate frame, in which cases they might choose answer (4) or (5).
Students might think that the answer is impossible to determine, perhaps because they are not told whether the motion is
clockwise or counterclockwise. (Since we are asking for the largest x-component, it does not matter.) Some of these
students might choose one of the or answers, i.e., (2) or (4).

Additional Questions:
1.

Where is the force on the planet largest? smallest?

2.

Where is the force on the sun largest? smallest?

3.

Where is the x-component of acceleration largest? smallest?

4.

Where is the y-component of acceleration largest? smallest?

QUICK QUIZZES
1.

(c). For a rotation of more than 180, the angular displacement must be larger than = 3.14 rad. The angular
displacements in the three choices are (a) 6 rad 3 rad = 3 rad, (b) 1 rad (1) rad = 2 rad, (c) 5 rad 1 rad = 4 rad.

2.

(b). Because all angular displacements occurred in the same time interval, the displacement with the lowest value
will be associated with the lowest average angular speed.

Page 7.34

Chapter 7
3.

(b). From

2 02 2 0
2

2
2
2

it is seen that the case with the smallest angular displacement involves the highest angular acceleration.
4.

(b). All points in a rotating rigid body have the same angular speed.

5.

(a). Andrea and Chuck have the same angular speed, but Andrea moves in a circle with twice the radius of the circle
followed by Chuck. Thus, from vt r , it is seen that Andreas tangential speed is twice Chucks.

6.

1. (e). Since the tangential speed is constant, the tangential acceleration is zero.
2. (a). The centripetal acceleration, ac vt2 r , is inversely proportional to the radius when the tangential speed is
constant.
3. (b). The angular speed, vt r , is inversely proportional to the radius when the tangential speed is constant.

7.

(c). Both the velocity and acceleration are changing in direction, so neither of these vector quantities is constant.

8.

(b) and (c). According to Newtons law of universal gravitation, the force between the ball and the Earth depends on
the product of their masses, so both forces, that of the ball on the Earth, and that of the Earth on the ball, are equal in
magnitude. This follows also, of course, from Newtons third law. The ball has large motion compared to the Earth
because according to Newtons second law, the force gives a much greater acceleration to the small mass of the ball.

9.
10.

(e). From F = G Mm/r2, the gravitational force is inversely proportional to the square of the radius of the orbit.
(d). The semi-major axis of the asteroids orbit is 4 times the size of Earths orbit. Thus, Keplers third law (T2/r3 =
constant) indicates that its orbital period is 8 times that of Earth.

ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS


1.

Earth moves 2 radians around the Sun in 1 year. The average angular speed is then

av

2 rad
1y

1.99 10 rad s
1 y 3.156 107 s

which is choice (e).


2.

The angular displacement will be

Page 7.35

Chapter 7

f i
12.00 rad s 4.00 rad s
av t
t
4.00 s 32.0 rad

2
2

which matches choice (d).


3.

The wheel has a radius of 0.500 m and made 320 revolutions. The distance traveled is

2 rad
s r 0.500 m 320 rev
1.00 103 m 1.00 km
1 rev
so choice (c) is the correct answer.
4.

At the top of the circular path, both the tension in the string and the gravitational force act downward, toward the
center of the circle, and together supply the needed centripetal force. Thus, Fc = T + mg = mr 2 or

2
T m r 2 g 0.400 kg 0.500 m 8.00 rad s 9.80 m s 2 8.88 N

making (a) the correct choice for this question.


5.

The required centripetal force is Fc = mac = m2/r = mr 2. When are both constant, the centripetal force is directly
proportional to the radius of the circular path. Thus, as the rider moves toward the center of the merry-go-round, the
centripetal force decreases and the correct choice is (c).

6.

Any object moving in a circular path undergoes a constant change in the direction of its velocity. This change in the
direction of velocity is an acceleration, always directed toward the center of the path, called the centripetal
acceleration, ac = 2/r = r2. The tangential speed of the object is t = r, where is the angular velocity. If is
not constant, the object will have both an angular acceleration, av = /t, and a tangential acceleration, at = r.
The only untrue statement among the listed choices is (b). Even when is constant, the object still has centripetal
acceleration.

7.

According to Newtons law of universal gravitation, the gravitational force one body exerts on the other decreases
as the distance separating the two bodies increases. When on Earths surface, the astronauts distance from the
center of the Earth is Earths radius r0 = RE. If h is the altitude at which the station orbits above the surface, her
distance from Earths center when on the station is r = RE + h > r0. Thus, she experiences a smaller force while on
the space station and (c) is the correct choice.

8.

The mass of a spherical body of radius R and density is M = V = (4R3/3). The escape velocity from the
surface of this body may then be written in either of the following equivalent forms:

Page 7.36

Chapter 7

vesc

2GM
R

and

vesc

2G 4 R3
8GR 2

R 3
3

We see that the escape velocity depends on the three properties (mass, density, and radius) of the planet. Also, the
weight of an object on the surface of the planet is Fg = mg = GMm/R2, giving

g GM R 2

G 4 R 3 4

GR
R 2 3 3

The acceleration of gravity at the planet surface then depends on the same properties as does the escape velocity.
Changing the value of g would necessarily change the escape velocity. Of the listed quantities, the only one that
does not affect the escape velocity is choice (e), the mass of the object on the planets surface.
9.

The satellite experiences a gravitational force, always directed toward the center of its orbit, and supplying the
centripetal force required to hold it in its orbit. This force gives the satellite a centripetal acceleration, even if it is
moving with constant angular speed. At each point on the circular orbit, the gravitational force is directed along a
radius line of the path, and is perpendicular to the motion of the satellite, so this force does no work on the satellite.
Therefore, the only true statement among the listed choices is (d).

10.

In a circular orbit, the gravity force is always directed along a radius line of the circle, and hence, perpendicular to
the objects velocity which is tangential to the circle. In an elliptical orbit, the gravity force is always directed
toward the center of the Earth, located at one of the foci of the orbit. This means that it is perpendicular to the
velocity, which is always tangential to the orbit, only at the two points where the object crosses the major axis of
the ellipse. These are the points where the object is nearest to and farthest from Earth. Since the gravity force is a
conservative force, the total energy (kinetic plus gravitational potential energy) of the object is constant as it moves
around the orbit. This means that it has maximum kinetic energy (and hence, greatest speed) when its potential
energy is lowest (i.e., when it is closest to Earth. The only true statements among the listed choices are (a) and (b).

11.

The weight of an object of mass m at the surface of a spherical body of mass M and radius R is Fg = mg = GMm/R2.
Thus, the acceleration of gravity at the surface is g = GM/R2.
For Earth,

gE

GM E
RE2

and for the planet,

Page 7.37

Chapter 7

gp

GM p
R

2
p

G 2M E

2 RE

1 GM E 1
g E 0.5 g E
2 RE2 2

meaning that choice (b) is the correct response.


12.

The total gravitational potential energy of this set of 4 particles is the sum of the gravitational energies of each
distinct pair of particles in the set of four. There are six distinct pairs in a set of four particles, which are: 1 & 2, 1
& 3, 1 & 4, 2 & 3, 2 & 4, and 3 & 4. Therefore, the correct answer to this question is (b).

13.

We assume that the elliptical orbit is so elongated that Sun, at one foci, is almost at one end of the major axis. If the
period, T, is expressed in years and the semi-major axis, a, in astronomical units (AU), Keplers third law states
that T2 = a3. Thus, for Halleys comet, with a period of T = 76 y, the semi-major axis of its orbit is

762

18 AU

The length of the major axis, and the approximate maximum distance from the Sun, is 2a = 36 AU, making the
correct answer for this question choice (e).

ANSWERS TO EVEN-NUMBERED CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS


2.

If we assume they are separated by about 10 m and their masses are estimated to be 70 kg and 40 kg, then, using
the law of universal gravitation, we estimate a gravitational force on the order of 10 -9 N.

4.

To a good first approximation, your bathroom scale reading is unaffected because you, Earth, and the scale are all
in free fall in the Suns gravitational field, in orbit around the Sun. To a precise second approximation, you weight
slightly less at noon and at midnight than you do at sunrise or sunset. The Suns gravitational field is a little weaker
at the center of the Earth than at the surface sub-solar point, and a little weaker still on the far side of the planet.
When the Sun is high in your sky, its gravity pulls up on you a little more strongly than on the Earth as a whole. At
midnight the Sun pulls down on you a little less strongly than it does on the Earth below you. So you can have
another doughnut with lunch, and your bedsprings will still last a little longer.

6.

Consider one end of a string connected to a spring scale and the other end connected to an object, of true weight w.
The tension T in the string will be measured by the scale and construed as the apparent weight. We have w T =
mac. This gives, T = w mac. Thus, the apparent weight is less than the actual weight by the term mac. At the poles
the centripetal acceleration is zero. Thus, T = w. However, at the equator the term containing the centripetal
acceleration is nonzero, and the apparent weight is less than the true weight.

8.

If the acceleration is constant in magnitude and perpendicular to the velocity, the object is moving in a circular path
at constant speed. If the acceleration is parallel to the velocity, the object is either speeding up, and a in same

Page 7.38

Chapter 7
direction, or slowing down, and a in opposite directions.
10.

Keplers second law says that equal areas are swept out in equal times by a line drawn from the Sun to the planet.
For this to be so, the planet must move fastest when it is closest to the Sun. This, surprisingly, occurs during the
winter.

12.

Yes. A weak, but nonzero, nonconservative force due to air resistance, opposes the motion of the satellite and
causes its speed to decrease with time.

PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
7.1

(a)

Earth rotates 2 radians (360) on its axis in 1 day. Thus,

(b)
7.2

2 rad 1 day
5

7.27 10 rad s
t 1 day 8.64 104 s

Because of its rotation about its axis, Earth bulges at the equator.

The distance traveled is s = r , where is in radians.


For 30,

rad
s r 4.1 m 30
2.1 m
180

For 30 radians,

s r 4.1 m 30 rad 1.2 102 m


For 30 revolutions,

2 rad
2
s r 4.1 m 30 rev
7.7 10 m

1
rev

7.3

(a)

s 60 000 mi 5280 ft
8

3.2 10 rad
r
1.0 ft 1 mi

Page 7.39

Chapter 7

7.4

1 rev

(b)

3.2 108 rad


5.0 107 rev
2 rad

(a)

(b)

Yes. When an object starts from rest, its angular speed is related to the angular acceleration and time by the

1.00 rev s 0
rev 2 rad

3.33 102 2
0.209 rad s 2
t
30.0 s
s 1 rev

equation = (t). Thus, the angular speed is directly proportional to both the angular acceleration and the
time interval. It the time interval is held constant, doubling the angular acceleration will double the angular
speed attained during the interval.

7.5

(a)

(b)

7.6

2.51 10

rev min 0 2 rad 1 min


2

821 rad s
3.20 s
1 rev 60.0 s

rad

i t t 2 0 821 2 3.20 s 4.21 103 rad


2
2
s

i 3 600

rev 2 rad 1 min

377 rad s
min 1 rev 60.0 s

2 rad
50.0 rev
314 rad
1 rev

Thus,

w i2 0 377 rad s

226 rad s 2
2
2 314 rad
2

7.7

(a)

From 2 02 2 , the angular displacement is

2 02 2.2 rad s 0.06 rad s

3.5 rad
2
2 0.70 rad s 2
2

Page 7.40

Chapter 7
From the equation given above for , observe that when the angular acceleration is constant, the

(b)

displacement is proportional to the difference in the squares of the final and initial angular speeds. Thus, the
angular displacement would increase by a factor of 4 if both of these speeds were doubled.
7.8

(a)

The maximum height h depends on the drops vertical speed at the instant it leaves the tire and becomes a
projectile. The vertical speed at this instant is the same as the tangential speed, t = r, of points on the tire.
Since the second drop rose to a lesser height, the tangential speed decreased during the intervening rotation
of the tire.

(b)

From v 2 v02 2a y y , with 0 = t ay = g, and = 0 when y = h, the relation between the tangential
speed of the tire and the maximum height h is found to be

0 vt2 2 g h

or

vt 2 gh

Thus, the angular speed of the tire when the first drop left was

vt 1

2 gh1
r

and when the second drop left, the angular speed was

vt 2
r

2 gh2
r

From 2 02 2 , with = 2, the angular acceleration is found to be

22 12
2gh2 r 2 2gh1 r 2
g

2
h h1
2
2
r 2

or

7.9

9.80

m s2

0.381 m 2 rad
2

0.510 m 0.540 m

0.322 rad s 2

Main Rotor:

rev 2 rad 1 min

v r 3.80 m 450
179 m s

min 1 rev 60 s

Page 7.41

Chapter 7

m vsound

v = 179
= 0.522 vsound

s 343 m s

Tail Rotor:
rev 2 rad 1 min

v r 0.510 m 4 138
221 m s

min 1 rev 60 s

m vsound

v = 221
= 0.644 vsound

s 343 m s

7.10

We will break the motion into two stages: (1) an acceleration period and (2) a deceleration period.
The angular displacement during the acceleration period is

5.0 rev s 2 rad 1 rev 0


f i
t
8.0 s 126 rad

2
2

1 av t

and while decelerating,

0 5.0 rev s 2 rad 1 rev


f i
t
12 s 188 rad

2
2

1 rev
50 rev .
The total displacement is 1 2 126 188 rad
2 rad

7.11

(a)

The linear distance the car travels in coming to rest is given by v2f v02 2a x as

v2f v02
2a

0 29.0 m s

2 1.75 m s2

240 m

Since the car does not skid, the linear displacement of the car and the angular displacement of the tires are
related by x = r (). Thus, the angular displacement of the tires is

Page 7.42

Chapter 7

(b)

x
240 m
1 rev

728 rad
116 rev
2 rad
r
0.330 m

When the car has traveled 120 m (one half of the total distance), the linear speed of the car is

v02 2a x

29.0

m s 2 1.75 m s2 120 m 20.5 m s


2

and the angular speed of the tires is

7.12

v
20.5 m s

62.1 rad s
r
0.330 m

2.30 s

(a)

The angular speed is 0 t 0 2.50 rad s2

(b)

Since the disk has a diameter of 45.0 cm, its radius is r = (00.450 m)/2 = 0.225 m.

5.75 rad s .

Thus,
vt r 0.225 m 5.75 rad s 1.29 m s

and

at r 0.225 m 2.50 rad s2 0.563 m s2


(c)

The angular displacement of the disk is

f 0

2f 02
2

5.75

rad s 0
2

2 2.50 rad s2

360
6.61 rad
379
2 rad

and the final angular position of the radius line through point P is

f 0 57.3 379 436


or it is at 76 counterclockwise from the + x-axis after turning 19 beyond one full revolution.

7.13

i
t , we find the initial angular speed to be
From av t

2
i

t

2 rad
2 37.0 rev
1 rev
98.0 rad s 57.0 rad s
3.00 s

Page 7.43

Chapter 7
The angular acceleration is then

7.14

(a)

i
t

98.0 rad s 57.0 rad s


13.7 rad s2
3.00 s

The initial angular speed is

0 1.00 10 2

rev 2 rad 1 min


10.5 rad s
min 1 rev 60.0 s

The time to stop (i.e., reach a speed of = 0) with = 2.00 rad/s2 is

(b)

7.15

0
0 10.5 rad s

5.25 s

2.00 rad s2

0
0 10.5 rad s
av t
t
5.25 s 27.6 rad

2
2

The centripetal acceleration is ac vt2 r r 2 where r radius of the circular path followed by the object in
question. The angular speed of the rotating Earth is

(a)

rad
1 day

7.27 10 5 rad s

4
day 8.64 10 s

For a person on the equator, r = RE = 6.38 106 m, so

ac r 2 6.38 106 m 7.27 10 5 rad s

(b)
(c)

For a person at the North Pole, r 0

3.37 10 2 m s 2

ac 0 .

The centripetal acceleration of an object is directed toward the center of the circular path the object is following.
Thus, the forces involved in producing this acceleration are all forces acting on the object which have a component
along the radius line of the circular path. These forces are the gravitational force and the normal force.

7.16

1609 m
4.0 103 m . Thus, from ac = r 2, the required angular
The radius of the cylinder is r 2.5 mi
1 mi

velocity is

Page 7.44

Chapter 7

7.17

ac

9.80 m s2
4.9 10 2 rad s
4.0 103 m

The final angular velocity is

f 78

rev 1 min 2 rad


8.17 rad s
min 60 s 1 rev

and the radius of the disk is


2 .54 cm
r 5.0 in
12.7 cm 0.127 m
1 in

(a)

The tangential acceleration of the bug as the disk speeds up is


8.17 rad s
at r r
0.127 m
0.35 m s2

3.0 s
t
(b)

The final tangential speed of the bug is


vt r f 0.127 m 8.17 rad s 1.0 m s

(c)

8.17 rad
At t = 1.0 s i t 0
3.0 s

Thus, at r 0.35 m s2

s
1.0 s 2.7 rad s

as above, while the radial acceleration is

ac r 2 0.127 m 2.7 rad s 0.94 m s2


2

The total acceleration is a

ac2 at2 1.0 m s2 , and the angle this acceleration makes with the

direction of a c is

at
0.35
tan 1

0.94
a
c

tan 1

7.18

20

The normal force exerted by the wall behind the

Page 7.45

Chapter 7
persons back will supply the necessary centripetal
acceleration, or
Figure P7.18
n mac mr 2

where r = 29 ft is the radius of the circular path followed by the person.


If it is desired to have n = 20 weight = 20mg, then it is necessary that m r 2 20 m g , or

7.19

20 g

20 9.8 m s2

4.7

29 ft 1 m 3.281 ft

rad 1 rev 60 s
45 rev min
s 2 rad 1 min

The total force, directed toward the center of the circular


path, acting on the rider at the top of the loop is the sum of
the normal force and the gravitation force. If the magnitude
of the normal force (exerted on the rider by the seat) is to
have a magnitude equal to the riders weight, the total
centripetal force is then

Fc n Fg mg mg 2mg
Also, Fc m v2top r so we solve for the needed speed at the top of the loop as

2
m vtop

2 mg

or

2
vtop
2rg

Ignoring any friction and using conservation of energy from when the coaster starts from rest ( i = 0) at height h
until it reaches the top of the loop gives

1
1
2 m g 2r
m vi2 m gh
m vtop

2
2

or

0 gh

1
2rg g 2r
2

and reduces to h = 3r = 3(4.00 m) = 12.0 m.


7.20

(a)

The natural tendency of the coin is to move in a straight line (tangent to the circular path of radius 15.0 cm),

Page 7.46

Chapter 7

and hence, go farther from the center of the turntable. To prevent this, the force of static friction must act
toward the center of the turntable and supply the needed centripetal force. When the necessary centripetal
force exceeds the maximum value of the static friction force, ( fs )max s n s mg , the coin begins to
slip.
(b)

When the turntable has angular speed, the required centripetal force is Fc = mr 2. Thus, if the coin is not to
slip, it is necessary that mr 2 s mg, or

s g
r

0.350 9.80

m s2

0.150 m

4.78 rad s

With a constant angular acceleration of = 0.730 rad/s2, the time required to reach the critical angular speed
is

7.21

(a)

0
4.78 rad s 0

6.55 s

0.730 rad s2

From Fr = mac, we have

v2
55.0 kg 4.00 m s
T m t
0.800 m
r

(b)

(a)

2.04 times

The centripetal acceleration is ac vt2 r . Thus, when ac = at = 0.500 m/s2, we have


vt

(b)

1.10 103 N 1.10 kN

The tension is larger than her weight by a factor of

T
1.10 103 N

mg
55.0 kg 9.80 m s2

7.22

r ac

400 m 0.500

m s2

200 m s 14.1 m s

At this time,

Page 7.47

Chapter 7

vt vi

at

200 m s 0
28.3 s
0.500 m s2

and the linear displacement is

200 m s 0
v vi
s vt av t t
t
28.3 s 200 m

2
2

(c)
7.23

The time is t 28.3 s as found in part (b) above.

Friction between the tires and the roadway is capable of giving the truck a maximum centripetal acceleration of

ac,max

vt2,max

32.0

m s

150 m

6.83 m s2

If the radius of the curve changes to 75.0 m, the maximum safe speed will be

vt ,max

7.24

Since Fc m

m s2

22.6 m s

vt2
m r 2 , the needed angular velocity is
r

Fc
=
mr

75.0 m 6.83

r ac,max

4.0 10 11 N

3.0 1016 kg 0.150 m

1 rev
= 9.4 102 rad s
= 1.5 102 rev s
2 rad

7.25

(c)

(a)

ac r 2 2.00 m 3.00 rad s 18.0 m s2

(b)

Fc m ac 50.0 kg 18.0 m s2 900 N

We know the centripetal acceleration is produced by the force of friction. Therefore, the needed static friction force
is fs = 900 N. Also, the normal force is n = mg = 490 N. Thus, the minimum coefficient of friction required is

fs max
n

900 N
= 1.84
490 N

So large a coefficient of friction is unreasonable, and she will not be able to stay on the merry-go-round.

Page 7.48

Chapter 7

7.26

(a)

The only force acting on the astronaut is the normal force


exerted on him by the floor of the cabin.
Figure P7.26

(b)

(c)

Fc

mvt2
n
r

If, n

1
mgE then
2

(d)

1
60.0 kg 9.80 m s2 294 N
2

From the equation in Part (b),

nr

vt

(e)

60.0 kg

7.00 m s

vt
7.00 m s

0.700 rad s
r
10.0 m

The period of rotation is

(g)

294 N 10.0 m

Since 1 = r , we have

(f)

2
8.98 s
0.700 rad s

Upon standing, the astronauts head is moving slower than his feet because his head is closer to the axis of rotation.
When standing, the radius of the circular path followed by the head is rhead = 10.0 m 1.80 m = 8.20 m, and the
tangential speed of the head is

vt head
7.27

(a)

rhead 8.20 m 0.700 rad s 5.74 m s

Since the 1.0-kg mass is in equilibrium, the tension in the string is

Page 7.49

Chapter 7

T m g 1.0 kg 9.8 m s2 9.8 N

7.28

(b)

The tension in the string must produce the centripetal acceleration of the puck. Hence, Fc = T = 9.8 N.

(c)

v2
From Fc mpuck t , we find vt
r

(a)

Since the mass m2 hangs in equilibrium on the end of the string,

Fy T m2 g 0
(b)

or

r Fc

mpuck

1.0 m 9.8 N
0.25 kg

6.3 m s .

T m2 g

The puck moves in a circular path of radius R and must have an acceleration directed toward the center equal
to ac vt2 R . The only force acting on the puck and directed toward the center is the tension in the string.
Newtons second law requires

Ftoward m1ac

giving T m1

center

(c)

Combing the results from (a) and (b) gives

m1

(d)

vt2
R

vt2
m2 g
R

or

vt

m2 gR
m1

Substitution of the numeric data from problem 7.27 into the results for (a) and (c) shown above will yield the
answers given for that problem.

7.29

(a)

The force of static friction acting toward the roads center of curvature must supply the briefcases required
centripetal acceleration. The condition that it be able to meet this need is that
Fc m vt2 r

fs max

s mg , or s 2t /rg. When the tangential

speed becomes large enough that s vt2 rg the briefcase will begin to slide.
(b)

As discussed above, the briefcase starts to slide when s vt2 rg . If this occurs at the speed, t = 15.0 m/s,
the coefficient of static friction must be

Page 7.50

Chapter 7

15.0 m s 2
62.0 m 9.80 m s2

7.30

(a)

0.370

The external forces acting on the water are the gravitational force and the contact force exerted on the water
by the pail.

(b)

The contact force exerted by the pail is the most important in causing the water to move in a circle. If the
gravitational force acted alone, the water would follow the parabolic path of a projectile.

(c)

When the pail is inverted at the top of the circular path, it cannot hold the water up to prevent it from falling
out. If the water is not to spill, the pail must be moving fast enough that the required centripetal force is at
least as large as the gravitational force. That is, we must have

(d)

v2
mg
r

or

rg

1.00 m 9.80

m s2

3.13 m s

If the pail were to suddenly disappear when is it at the top of the circle and moving at 3.13 m/s, he water
would follow the parabolic are of a projectile launched with initial velocity components of

v0 x 3.13 m s , v0 y 0
7.31

(a)

The centripetal acceleration is


2

ac
(b)

r 2

rev 2 rad 1 min


2
9.00 m 4.00
1.58 m s
min 1 rev 60 s

At the bottom of the circular path, the normal force exerted by the seat must support the weight and also
produce the centripetal acceleration. Thus,
n m g ac 40.0 kg 9.80 1.58 m s2 455 N upward

(c)

At the top of the path, the weight must offset the normal force of the seat plus supply the needed centripetal
acceleration. Therefore, mg = n+ mac, or
n m g ac 40.0 kg 9.80 1.58 m s2 329 N upward

(d)

At a point halfway up, the seat exerts an upward vertical component equal to the childs weight (392 N) and

a component toward the center having magnitude Fc mac 40.0 kg 1.58 m s2 63.2 N . The total
force exerted by the seat is

Page 7.51

Chapter 7

FR

392 N 2 63.2 N 2

397 N directed inward and at

392 N
80.8 above the horizontal
63.2 N

tan 1

7.32

(a)

At A, the track supports the weight and supplies the centripetal acceleration. Thus,

20.0 m s
vt2

n mg m
500 kg 9.80 m s
r
10 m

(b)

25 kN

At B, the weight must offset the normal force exerted by the track and produce the needed centripetal
acceleration, or mg n m vt2 r . If the car is on the verge of leaving the track, then n = 0 and
m g m vt2 r . Hence,

vt

7.33

rg

15 m 9.80

m s2

12 m s

At the half-way point the spaceship is 1.92 108 from both bodies. The force exerted on the ship by the Earth is
directed toward the Earth and has magnitude

FE

GmE ms
r2
6.67 10 11 N m 2 kg2

5.98 1024 kg 3.00 104 kg


1.92 108 m 2

325 N

The force exerted on the ship by the Moon is directed toward the Moon and has a magnitude of

FM

GmM ms
r2
6.67 10 11 N m 2 kg 2

7.36 1022 kg 3.00 10 4 kg


1.92 108 m 2

The resultant force is (325 N 4.00 N) = 321 N directed toward Earth.


7.34

The radius of the satellites orbit is

Page 7.52

4.00 N

Chapter 7

r RE h 6.38 106 m 2.00 106 m 8.38 10 6 m

(a)

PEg

GM E m
r

24

N m 2 5.98 10 kg 100 kg
6.67 10 11
4.76 10 9 J

kg2
8.38 106 m

(b)

7.35

2 5.98 1024 kg 100 kg

GM E m
11 N m

6.67

10
568 N a

2
r2
kg2
8.38 106 m

The forces exerted on the 2.0-kg mass by the other bodies are Fx
and Fy shown in the diagram at the right. The magnitudes of
these forces are

Fx

6.67 1011

2.0 kg 4.0 kg

N m 2 kg2

4.0 m 2

3.3 10 11 N
and

Fy

6.67 1011

N m 2 kg2

2.0 m

2.0 kg 3.0 kg

The resultant force exerted on the 2.0-kg mass is F

1.0 10 10 N

Fx2 Fy2 1.1 10 10 N directed at

tan 1 ( Fy Fx ) tan 1 3.0 72 above the x axis .


7.36

(a)

The density of the white dwarf would be

Msun
Msun
3Msun
M

3
V
VEarth
4 RE 3
4 RE3

and using data from Table 7.3,

3 1.991 1030 kg

4 6.38

106

1.83 109 kg m3

Page 7.53

Chapter 7

(b)

Fg mg GMm r 2 , so the acceleration of gravity on the surface of the white dwarf would be

(c)

6.67 10 11 N m 2 kg2 1.991 1030 kg


GMsun

3.26 106 m s2
2
RE2
6.38 106 m

The general expression for the gravitational potential energy of an object of mass m at distance r from the
center of a spherical mass M is PE GMm r . Thus, the potential energy of a 1.00-kg mass on the surface
of the white dwarf would be

PE

7.37

(a)

GMsun 1.00 kg

RE
6.67 10 11 N m 2 kg2 1.991 1030 kg 1.00 kg

6.38

106

2.08 1013 J

At the midpoint between the two masses, the forces exerted by the 200-kg and 500-kg masses are oppositely
directed, so from F

GMm
and r1 r2 r , we have
r2

GMm1
GMm2
GM

2 m1 m2
2
2
r1
r2
r

or

6.67 1011

N m 2 kg2

50.0 kg 500 kg 200 kg

0.200 m 2

2.50 10 5 N toward the 500-kg mass

(b)

At a point between the two masses and distance d from the 500-kg mass, the net force will be zero when

G 50.0 kg 200 kg

0.400 m d

G 50.0 kg 500 kg
d2

or

d 0.245 m

Note that the above equation yields a second solution d = 1.09 m. At that point, the two gravitational forces do have
equal magnitudes, but are in the same direction and cannot add to zero.
7.38

The equilibrium position lies between the Earth and the Sun on the line connecting their centers. At this point, the

Page 7.54

Chapter 7
gravitational forces exerted on the object by the Earth and Sun have equal magnitudes and opposite directions. Let
this point be located distance r from the center of the Earth. Then, its distance from the Sun is

(1.496 1011 m r ) , and we may determine the value of r by requiring that

G mS m
G mE m

2
r
1.496 1011 m r

where mE and mS are the masses of the Earth and Sun respectively. This reduces to

1.496 1011 m r
r

mS
577
mE

or 1.496 1011 m = 578 r, which yields r = 2.59 108 m from center of the Earth .

7.39

(a)

When the rocket engine shuts off at an altitude of 250 km, we may consider the rocket to be beyond Earths
atmosphere. Then, its mechanical energy will remain constant from that instant until it comes to rest
momentarily at the maximum altitude. That is, KEf + PEf = KEi + PEi or

GME m
GME m
1

m vi2
rmax
2
ri

or

1
rmax

vi2
1

2GM E
ri

With ri RE 250 km 6.38 106 m 250 10 3 m 6.63 10 6 m and


vi 6.00 km s 6.00 103 m s , this gives

1
rmax

6.00 103

ms

2 6.67 10 11 N m2 kg2

5.98 1024 kg

1
1.06 10 7 m 1
6.63 106 m

or rmax = 9.46 106 m The maximum altitude above Earths surface is then

hmax rmax RE 9.46 106 m 6.38 106 m 3.08 106 m 3.08 103 km

(b)

If the rocket were fired from a launch site on the equator, it would have a significant eastward component of
velocity because of the Earths rotation about its axis. Hence, compared to being fired from the South Pole,
the rockets initial speed would be greater, and the rocket would travel farther from Earth.

Page 7.55

Chapter 7

7.40

We know that m1 m2 5.00 kg , or m2 5.00 kg m1

2 m 5.00 kg m

G m1 m2
1
1
8 N 6.67 10 11 N m

1.00

10

2
r2
kg2

0.200 m

5.00 kg m1

m12

1.00 10 8 N 0.200 m 2
6.67 10 11 N m 2 kg 2

6.00 kg 2

Thus, m12 5.00 kg m1 6.00 kg2 0, or m1 3.00 kg m1 2.00 kg 0 giving


m1 3.00 kg, so m2 2.00 kg .

The answer m1 2.00 kg and m2 = 3.00 kg is physically equivalent.


7.41

(a)

The gravitational force must supply the required centripetal acceleration, so

vt2
G mE m

m
r
r2

This reduces to

G mE
vt2

which gives

N m2
r 6.67 10 11
kg2

5.98 1024 kg
5 000

m s

1.595 10 7 m

The altitude above the surface of the Earth is then

h r RE 1.595 107 m 6.38 106 m 9.57 106 m


(b)

The time required to complete one orbit is

2 1.595 107 m
circumference of orbit

2.00 10 4 s 5.57 h
orbital speed
5 000 m s

Page 7.56

Chapter 7
7.42

For an object in orbit about Earth, Keplers third law gives the relation between the orbital period T and the average
radius of the orbit (semi-major axis) as

4 2
T2
GM E

3
r

Thus, if the average radius is

rmin rmax
6 670 km 385 000 km

1.96 105 km 1.96 108 m


2
2

the period (time for a round trip from Earth to the Moon) would be

1.96 108 m 3
6.67 1011 N m2 kg2 5.98 1024 kg

r3
T 2
2
GM E

8.63 105 s

The time for a one way trip from Earth to the Moon is then
t

7.43

1
8.63 10 5 s
1 day

T
8.64 10 4 s 4.99 d
2
2

The gravitational force exerted on Io by Jupiter provides the centripetal acceleration, so

v2
GMm
r vt2
m t
M

,
or
r2
G
r

The orbital speed of Io is

vt

2 4.22 108 m
2 r

1.73 10 4 m s
T
1.77 days 86 400 s day

Thus,

7.44

(a)

4.22 108 m 1.73 104

ms

6.67 10 11 N m2 kg2

1.90 1027 kg

The satellite moves in an orbit of radius r = 2RE and the gravitational force supplies the required centripetal

acceleration. Hence, m vt2 2 RE G mE m 2 RE , or


2

Page 7.57

Chapter 7

vt
(b)

The period of the satellites motion is

(c)

2 5.98 10 24 kg

11 N m
6.67

10
5.59 103 m s

kg2 2 6.38 106 m

G mE

2 RE

2 2 6.38 106 m
2 r

1.43 10 4 s 3.98 h
vt
5.59 103 m s

The gravitational force acting on the satellite is F = G mE m/r2, or

24

N m2 5.98 10 kg 600 kg
F 6.67 10 11
1.47 103 N
2
kg2

6
2 6.38 10 m

7.45

The radius of the satellites orbit is


r RE h 6.38 106 m 200 103 m 6.58 10 6 m

(a)

Since the gravitational force provides the centripetal acceleration,

v2
G mE m
m t
r2
r
or

vt

2 5.98 1024 kg

11 N m
6.67

10
7.79 103 m s

kg2 6.58 106 m

G mE

Hence, the period of the orbital motion is

2 6.58 106 m
2 r

5.31 103 s 1.48 h


vt
7.79 103 m s

(b)

The orbital speed is vt 7.79 103 m s as computed above.

(c)

Assuming the satellite is launched from a point on the equator of the Earth, its initial speed is the

Page 7.58

Chapter 7
rotational speed of the launch point, or

vi

2 6.38 106 m
2 RE

464 m s
1 day
86 400 s

The workkinetic energy theorem gives the energy input required to place the satellite in orbit as

Wnc KE PEg

KE PE , or
g i

vt2 vi2
1
GME m 1
GM E m
1
1
2
Wnc mvt2

m
v

m
GME

2
r 2
RE
2
r
RE

Substitution of appropriate numeric values into this result gives the minimum energy input as

Wnc 6.43 109 J .


7.46

A synchronous satellite will have an orbital period equal to Jupiters rotation period, so the satellite can have the
red spot in sight at all times. Thus, the desired orbital period is
3 600 s
T 9.84 h
3.54 10 4 s
1 h

Keplers third law gives the period of a satellite in orbit around Jupiter as

T2

4 2
r3
GMJupiter

The required radius of the circular orbit is therefore

GM Jupiter T 2
r

4 2

13

6.67 10 11 N m 2 kg2 1.90 1027 kg 3.54 10 4 s


4 2

13

1.59 108 m

and the altitude of the satellite above Jupiters surface should be

h r RJupiter 1.59 108 m 6.99 107 m 8.91 107 m

7.47

The gravitational force on mass located at distance r from the center of the Earth is Fg mg GME m r 2 . Thus,
the acceleration of gravity at this location is g GM E r 2 . If g = 9.00 m/s2 at the location of the satellite, the

Page 7.59

Chapter 7
radius of its orbit must be

GM E

6.67 1011

N m 2 kg2

5.98 1024 kg

9.00 m s2

6.66 106 m

From Keplers third law for Earth satellites, T 2 4 2 r 3 G M E S , the period is found to be

r3
2
GM E

T 2

6.66 106 m 3
6.67 1011 N m2 kg2 5.98 1024 kg

5.41 103 s

or

1h
T 5.41 103 s
1.50 h 90.0 min
3 600 s

7.48

The gravitational force on a small parcel of material at the stars equator supplies the centripetal
acceleration, or

vt2
G Ms m
2

m
R m Rs
Rs2
s

Hence,

7.49

(a)

G M s Rs3

6.67 1011

vt

98.0

N m 2 kg2 2 1.99 1030 kg


1.63 104 rad s
3
10.0 103 m

0.447 m s
mi h
1 mi h
rad 1 rev
59.0
9.40 rev s
0.742 m
s 2 rad

2 i2
9.40 rev s 0 44.2 rev s2

2
2 1 rev
2

(b)

Page 7.60

Chapter 7

0.447 m s
98.0 mi h

2
1 mi h
vt

ac

r
0.742 m

2.59 103 m s2

rev 2 rad
2
at r 0.742 m 44.2 2
206 m s
s 1 rev

(c)

In the radial direction at the release point, the hand supports the weight of the ball and also supplies the cen
tripetal acceleration. Thus, Fr mg mar m g ar , or

Fr 0.198 kg 9.80 m s2 2.59 10 3 m s 2 514 N

In the tangential direction, the hand supplies only the tangential acceleration, so

Ft mat 0.198 kg 206 m s2 40.8 N

7.50

(a)

vt
1.30 m s

56.5 rad s
ri
2.30 10 2 m

(b)

vt
1.30 m s

22.4 rad s
rf
5.80 10 2 m

(c)

The duration of the recording is

t 74 min 60 s min 33 s 4 473 s


Thus,

av

f i
t

2f i2

22.4 56.5

rad s

4 473 s

22.4

7.62 10 3 rad s2

rad s 56.5 rad s


2

(d)

(e)

The track moves past the lens at a constant speed of t = 1.30 m/s for 4 473 seconds. Therefore, the length of

2 7.62 10 3 rad s2

Page 7.61

1.77 10 5 rad

Chapter 7
the spiral track is
s vt t 1.30 m s 4 473 s 5.81 103 m 5.81 km

7.51

The angular velocity of the ball is 0.500 rev s rad s.


(a)

vt r 0.800 m rad s 2.51 m s

(b)

ac

(c)

We imagine that the weight of the ball is supported by a frictionless platform. Then, the rope tension need

vt2
2
r 2 0.800 m rad s 7.90 m s 2
r

only produce the centripetal acceleration. The force required to produce the needed centripetal acceleration is

F m vt2 r . Thus, if the maximum force the rope can exert is 100 N, the maximum tangential speed of

the ball is

vt max

7.52

(a)

r Fmax

0.800 m 100 N
5.00 kg

4.00 m s

When the car is about to slip down the incline,


the friction force, f , is directed up the incline as
shown and has the magnitude f n . Thus,

Fy n cos n sin mg 0
or

mg
cos sin

[1]

2
R), or
Also, Fx n sin n cos m (vmin

vmin

nR
sin cos
m

[2]

Page 7.62

Chapter 7
Substituting equation [1] into [2] gives

vmin

sin cos
Rg

cos sin

tan
Rg
1 tan

If the car is about to slip up the incline, f = n is directed down the slope (opposite to what is shown in the
sketch). Then, Fy n cos n sin mg 0 , or

mg
cos sin

[3]

2
R
Also, Fx n sin n cos m vmax

or

vmax

nR
sin cos
m

[4]

Combining equations [3] and [4] gives

vmax

(b)

sin cos
Rg

cos sin

tan
Rg
1 tan

If R = 100 m, = 10, and = 0.10, the lower and upper limits of safe speeds are

vmin

100 m 9.8

tan 10 0.10
m s2
8.6 m s
1 0.10 tan 10

vmax

100 m 9.8

tan 10 0.10
m s2
17 m s
1 0.10 tan 10

and

7.53

The radius of the satellites orbit is

Page 7.63

Chapter 7

r RE h 6.38 106 m 1.50 102 mi 1 609 m 1 mi 6.62 10 6 m

(a)

The required centripetal acceleration is produced by the gravitational force, so

v2
G ME m
m t
,
r2
r
which gives

(b)

vt

G ME
r

vt

2 5.98 10 24 kg

11 N m
6.67

10

kg2 6.62 106 m

(a)

7.76 10 3 m s

The time for one complete revolution is

7.54

2 6.62 106 m
2 r

5.36 103 s 89.3 min


vt
7.76 103 m s

At the lowest point on the path, the net upward force (i.e., the force directed toward the center of the path and

supplying the centripetal acceleration) is Fup T mg m vt2 r , so the tension in the cable is

3.00 m s

vt2

2
T mg
0.400 kg 9.80 m s
8.42 N

r
0.800 m

(b)

Using conservation of mechanical energy, KE PEg

KE PEg , as the bob goes from the lowest


i

to the highest point on the path gives

1
0 mg L 1 cos max mvi2 0 , or
2

max cos 1 1

cos max 1

vi2
2gL

vi2
3.00 m s 2
1 1

cos

2gL
2 9.80 m s2 0.800 m

Page 7.64

64.8

Chapter 7
(c)

At the highest point on the path, the bob is at rest and the net radial force is

v2
Fr T mg cos max m t 0
r

Therefore,

T mg cos max 0.400 kg 9.80 m s2 cos 64.8 1.67 N

7.55

(a)

When the car is at the top of the arc, the normal force is upward and the weight downward. The net force
directed downward, toward the center of the circular path and hence supplying the centripetal acceleration, is

Fdown mg n m vt2 r .

Thus, the normal force is n m g vt2 r .

(b)

If r 30.0 m and n 0 , then g

vt

7.56

rg

30.0 m 9.80

vt2
0 or the speed of the car must be
r

m s2

17.1 m s

The escape speed from the surface of a planet of radius R and mass M is given by

ve

2G M
R

If the planet has uniform density, , the mass is given by

M volume 4 R 3 3 4 R 3 3

The expression for the escape speed then becomes

ve

8 G
2 G 4 R3

R

R
3
3

constant R

or the escape speed is directly proportional to the radius of the planet.

Page 7.65

Chapter 7

7.57

The speed the person has due to the rotation of the Earth is t = r where r is the distance from the rotation axis
and is the angular velocity of rotation.
The persons apparent weight, (Fg)apparent , equals the magnitude of the upward normal force exerted on him by the
scales. The true weight, (Fg)true = mg, is directed downward. The net downward force produces the needed
centripetal acceleration, or

Fdown n Fg

true

Fg

apparent

Fg

Fg

true

v2
m t m r 2
r

m RE 2

Fg

(a)

At the equator, r RE , so

(b)

At the equator, it is given that r 2 0.0340 m s2 , so the apparent weight is

g apparent

Fg

true

g true

apparent

apparent

mr 2 75.0 kg 9.80 0.0340 m s2 732 N

At either pole, r = 0 (the person is on the rotation axis) and

g apparent

7.58

Fg

true

mg 75.0 kg 9.80 m s2 735 N

Choosing y = 0 and PEg = 0 at the level of point B, applying the workenergy theorem to the blocks motion gives

Wnc

1
2

mv2 mgy

v2 v02
(a)

1
2

mv02 mg (2 R) , or

2 Wnc
2 g 2 R y
m

[1]

At point A, y = R and Wnc = 0 (no nonconservative force has done work on the block yet). Thus,
v2A v02 2 gR . The normal force exerted on the block by the track must supply the centripetal

acceleration at point A, so

v2

v2
nA m A m 0 2 g
R
R

4.0 m s 2

0.50 kg
2 9.8 m s2 15 N
1.5 m

Page 7.66

Chapter 7

At point B, y = 0 and Wnc is still zero. Thus, v2B v02 4 gR . Here, the normal force must supply the
centripetal acceleration and support the weight of the block. Therefore,

v2

v2
nB m B mg m 0 5 g
R
R

4.0 m s 2

0.50 kg
5 9.8 m s2 30 N
1.5 m

(b)

When the block reaches point C, y = 2R and Wnc fk L k mg L . At this point, the normal force is

to be zero, so the weight alone must supply the centripetal acceleration. Thus, m vc2 R mg , or the
required speed at point C is vc2 R g . Substituting this into equation [1] yields R g v02 2 k gL 0 , or

4.0 m s 1.5 m 9.8 m s2


v02 R g

2 gL
2 9.8 m s2 0.40 m
2

7.59

0.17

Define the following symbols: Mm = mass of moon, Me = mass of the Earth, Rm = radius of moon, Re = radius of
the Earth, and r = radius of the Moons orbit around the Earth.
We interpret lunar escape speed to be the escape speed from the surface of a stationary moon alone in the
universe. Then,

2 G Mm
Rm

vlaunch 2 vescape 2

2
vlaunch

or

8 G Mm
Rm

Applying conservation of mechanical energy from launch to impact gives

1
2
m vimpact
PEg
2

vimpact

2
vlaunch

1
2
m vlaunch
PEg , or
i
2

2
PEg
m

PE
i

g f

The needed potential energies are

PE

g i

G Mm m
G Me m

Rm
r

and

PE

g f

Page 7.67

G Me m
G Mm m

Re
r

Chapter 7

2
Using these potential energies and the expression for vlaunch
from above, the equation for the impact speed reduces

to

vimpact

3 Mm
M
Me M m
2G
e

Re
r
Rm

With numeric values of G 6.67 10 11 N m 2 kg2 , M m 7.36 10 22 kgs , and Rm 1.74 106 m ,
Re 6.38 106 m , r 3.84 108 ms we find

vimpact 1.18 10 4 m s 11.8 km s

7.60

(a)

When the passenger is at the top, the radial forces producing the centripetal acceleration
are the upward force of the seat and the downward force of gravity. The downward force
must exceed the upward force to yield a net force toward the center of the circular path.

(b)

At the lowest point on the path, the radial forces contributing to the centripetal acceleration
are again the upward force of the seat and the downward force of gravity. However, the
upward force must now exceed the downward force to yield a net force directed toward
the center of the circular path.

(c)

The seat must exert the greatest force on the passenger at the lowest point on
the circular path.

(d)

At the top of the loop, Fr m

v2
Fg n
r

or

n Fg m

4.00 m s 2 546 N
v2
v2
2
mg

70.0
kg
9.80
m
s

r
r
8.00 m

At the bottom of the loop, Fr m (v2 r) n Fg


or

Page 7.68

Chapter 7

n Fg m

7.61

(a)

4.00 m s 2 826 N
v2
v2
2
mg

70.0
kg
9.80
m
s

r
r
8.00 m

In order to launch yourself into orbit by running, your running speed must be such that the gravitational force
acting on you exactly equals the force needed to produce the centripetal acceleration. That is,
GMm r 2 m vt2 r , where M is the mass of the asteroid and r is its radius. Since
M density volume [(4 3) r 3 ] , this requirement becomes

m vt2
4
m
G r 3 2
3
r
r

or

3vt2
.
4 G

The radius of the asteroid would then be

3 8.50 m s

4 6.673 10 11 N m 2 kg 2 1.10 10 3 kg m 3

1.53 10 4 m

or r 15.3 km .
(b)

The mass of the asteroid is given by

4
4

M r 3 1.10 103 kg m 3
1.53 10 4 m
3

(c)

Your period will be

7.62

1.53 10 4 m
2 r

1.13 10 4 s
vt
8.50 m s

(a)

Page 7.69

1.66 1016 kg

Chapter 7
(b)

The velocity vector at A is shorter than that at B. The gravitational force acting on the spacecraft is a conser
vative force, so the total mechanical energy of the craft is constant. The gravitational potential energy at A is
larger than at B. Hence, the kinetic energy (and therefore the velocity) at A must be less than at B.

(c)

The acceleration vector at A is shorter than that at B. From Newtons second law, the acceleration of the
spacecraft is directly proportional to the force acting on it. Since the gravitational force at A is weaker than
that at B, the acceleration at A must be less than the acceleration at B.

7.63

Choosing PEs = 0 at the top of the hill, the speed of the


skier after dropping distance h is found using conservation
of mechanical energy as

1
m vt2 m g h 0 0 , or vt2 2 g h
2
The net force directed toward the center of the circular
path, and providing the centripetal acceleration, is

v2
Fr m g cos n m t
R
Solving for the normal force, after making the substitutions vt2 2 g h and cos

gives

Rh
h
1
R
R

h
3h

2 g h

n m g 1 m
m g 1

R
R

The skier leaves the hill when n 0 This occurs when

7.64

3h
0
R

or

R
3

The centripetal acceleration of a particle at distance r from the axis is ac vt2 r r 2 If we are to have ac =
100g, then it is necessary that

r 2 100 g

or

100 g
r

The required rotation rate increases as r decreases. In order to maintain the required acceleration for all particles in
the casting, we use the minimum value of r and find

Page 7.70

Chapter 7

7.65

100 g

rmin

100 9.80 m s2
2.10

10 2

216

rad 1 rev 60.0 s


rev
2.06 103
s 2 rad 1 min
min

The sketch at the right shows the car as it passes the highest point
on the bump. Taking upward as positive, we have

v2
Fy may n mg m
r
or

v2
n mg
r

(a)

If v 8.94 m s , the normal force exerted by the road is

8.94 m s 2
m
n 1 800 kg 9.80 2
s
20.4 m

(b)

When the car is on the verge of losing contact with the road, n = 0. This gives g = 2/r and the speed must be
v

7.66

1.06 10 4 N 10.6 kN

rg

20.4 m 9.80

m s2

14.1 m s

When the rope makes angle with the vertical, the net
force directed toward the center of the circular path is

Fr T m g cos as shown in the sketch. This force


supplies the needed centripetal acceleration, so

v2
T m g cos m t , or
r

v2
T m g cos t
r

Using conservation of mechanical energy, with KE = 0 at

= 90 and PEg = 0 at the bottom of the arc, the speed when


the rope is at angle from the vertical is given by

1
2

m vt2 m g r r cos 0 m g r , or

vt2 2 g r cos . The expression for the tension in the rope at angle then reduces to T 3 m g cos .

(a)

At the beginning of the motion, = 90 and T = 0

Page 7.71

Chapter 7

(b)

At 1.5 m from the bottom of the arc, cos

T 3 70 kg 9.8 m s2

(c)

(a)

0.63 1.3 103 N

1.3 kN

At the bottom of the arc, = 0 and cos = 1.0, so the tension is


T 3 70 kg 9.8 m s2

7.67

2 .5 m
2 .5 m

0.63 and the tension is


r
4.0 m

1.0 2.1 103 N

2.1 kN

The desired path is an elliptical trajectory


with the Sun at one of the foci, the departure
planet at the perihelion, and the target planet
at the aphelion. The perihelion distance rD is
the radius of the departure planets orbit, while the
aphelion distance rr is the radius of the target planets
orbit. The semi-major axis of the desired trajectory is
then a rD rT 2 .
If Earth is the departure planet, rD 1.496 1011 m 1.00 AU .
With Mars as the target planet,
1 AU

rT 2.28 1011 m
1.52 AU
1.496 1011 m

Thus, the semi-major axis of the minimum energy trajectory is

rD rT
1.00 AU 1.52 AU

1.26 AU
2
2

Keplers third law, T2 = a3, then gives the time for a full trip around this path as

a3

1.26 AU 3

1.41 yr

so the time for a one-way trip from Earth to Mars is

1
1.41 yr
T
0.71 yr
2
2

Page 7.72

Chapter 7

(b)

This trip cannot be taken at just any time. The departure must be timed so that the spacecraft arrives at the
aphelion when the target planet is located there.

7.68

(a)

Consider the sketch at the right. At the bottom of the


loop, the net force toward the center (i.e., the centripetal
force) is
mv2
n Fg
R

Fc

so the pilots apparent weight (normal force) is

n Fg

Fg g v2

mv2
v2
Fg
Fg 1
R
R
gR

or

2.00 102 m s
n 712 N 1

9.80 m s2 3.20 103 m s2

1.62 103 N

(b)

At the top of the loop, the centripetal force is Fc mv2 R n Fg , so the apparent weight is

Fg g v2
mv2
Fg
Fg Fg
R
R
2

2.00 102 m s
712 N
9.80 m s2 3.20 103

(c)

v2

gR 1

m s2

1 196 N

With the right speed, the needed centripetal force at the top of the loop can be made exactly equal to the
gravitational force. At this speed, the normal force exerted on the pilot by the seat (his apparent weight) will
be zero, and the pilot will have the sensation of weightlessness.

(d)

When n = 0 at the top of the loop, Fc mv2 R mg Fg , and the speed will be

mg

m R

Rg

3.20 103 m 9.80

Page 7.73

m s2

177 m s

Chapter 7
7.69

(a)

At the instant the mud leaves the tire and becomes a projectile, its velocity components are

v0 x 0, v0 y vt R . From y v0 y t ay t 2 2 with ay g , the time required for the mud to


return to its starting point (with y = 0) is given by
gt

0 t R

for which the nonzero solution is

(b)

2R
g

The angular displacement of the wheel (turning at constant angular speed ) in time t is = t. If the
displacement is 1 rev 2 rad at t 2 R g , then

2 R
2 rad
g

7.70

(a)

or

g
R

and

g
R

At each point on the vertical circular path, two forces are acting on the ball:
(1) The downward gravitational force with constant magnitude Fg mg
(2) The tension force in the string, always directed toward the center of the path

(b)

The sketch at the right shows the forces acting on the ball
when it is at the bottom of the circular path and when it is
at the highest point on the path. Note that the gravitational
force has the same magnitude and direction at each point
on the circular path. The tension force varies in magnitude
at different points and is always directed toward the center
of the path.

(c)

At the top of the circle, Fc mv2 r T Fg , or

v2

mv2
mv2
Fg
mg m
g
r
r
r

2
5.20 m s

0.275 kg
9.80 m s2 6.05 N
0.850 m

Page 7.74

Chapter 7

(d)

At the bottom of the circle, Fc mv2 r T Fg T mg , and solving for the speed gives

v2

r
T

T mg r
g

and

r
g
m

If the string is at the breaking point at the bottom of the circle, then T = 22.5 N, and the speed of the object at
this point must be

7.71

22.5 N

9.80 m s2 7.82 m s

0.850 m 0.275 kg

From Figure (a) at the right, observe that the


angle the strings make with the vertical is
1.50 m
41.4
2.00 m

cos 1

Also, the radius of the circular path is

2.00 m 2 1.50 m 2

1.32 m

Figure (b) gives a free-body diagram of the object with the +y-axis vertical and the +x-axis directed toward the
center of the circular path.
(a)

Since the object has zero vertical acceleration, Newtons second law gives

Fy T1 cos T2 cos mg 0

T1 T2

or

mg
cos

[1]

In the horizontal direction, the object has the centripetal acceleration ac v2 r directed in the +x-direction
(toward the center of the circular path). Thus,
Fx T1 sin T2 sin

mv2
r

or

T1 T2

Adding equations [1] and [2] gives

Page 7.75

m v2
r sin

[2]

Chapter 7

g
v2
2T1 m

r sin
cos
so the tension in the upper string is

T1

(b)

4.00 kg 9.80

6.00 m s2
m s2
109 N

cos 41.4
1.32 m sin 41.4

To compute the tension T2 in the lower string, subtract equation [1] above from equation [2] to obtain

v2
g
2T2 m

cos
r sin
Thus,

4.00 kg 6.00 m s2
1.32 m sin 41.4
2
2

T2

7.72

9.80 m s2

56.4 N
cos 41.4

The maximum lift force is FL max C v2 , where C 0.018 N s2 m 2 and is the flying speed. For the bat to
stay aloft, the vertical component of the lift force must equal the weight, or FL cos mg where is the banking
angle. The horizontal component of this force supplies the centripetal acceleration needed to make a turn, or
FL sin m (v2 r ) where r is the radius of the turn.

(a)

To stay aloft while flying at minimum speed, the bat must have 0 (to give cos cos max 1 ) and
also use the maximum lift force possible at that speed. That is, we need

FL max cos max

mg ,

2
Cvmin
1 mg

or

Thus, we see that minimum flying speed is

vmin

(b)

mg

0.031 kg 9.8
0.018 N

s2

m s2
m2

4.1 m s

To maintain horizontal flight while banking at the maximum possible angle, we must have

FL max cos max

mg , or C v2 cos max mg . For v 10 m s , this yields

Page 7.76

Chapter 7

cos max

(c)

0.031 kg 9.8 m s2
mg

0.17
2
C v2
0.018 N s2 m2 10 m s

or

max 80

The horizontal component of the lift force supplies the centripetal acceleration in a turn,
FL sin mv2 r .Thus, the minimum radius turn possible is given by

rmin

mv2
m v2
m

FL max sin max C v2 sin max C sin max

where we have recognized that sin has its maximum value at the largest allowable value of . For a flying
speed of = 10 m/s, the maximum allowable bank angle is max = 80as found in part (b). The minimum
radius turn possible at this flying speed is then

rmin

(d)

0.018

0.031 kg

N s2 m2 sin 80.0

1.7 m

No. Flying slower actually increases the minimum radius of the achievable turns.
As found in part (c), rmin m C sin max . To see how this depends on the flying speed, recall that the
vertical component of the lift force must equal the weight or FL cos mg . At the maximum allowable
bank angle, cos will be a minimum. This occurs when FL FL max C v2 . Thus, cos max mg C v2
and

sin max

1 cos2 max

mg
1
C v2

This gives the minimum radius turn possible at flying speed v as


rmin

m
mg
C 1
C v2

Decreasing the flying speed v will decrease the denominator of this expression, yielding a larger value for the
minimum radius of achievable turns.

Page 7.77

Chapter 7
7.73

The angular speed of the luggage is = 2 /T where


T is the time for one complete rotation of the carousel.
The resultant force acting on the luggage must be
directed toward the center of the horizontal circular
path (that is, in the +x direction). The magnitude of
this resultant force must be

v2
mac m t mr 2
r
Thus,

Fx max fs cos n sin mac

[1]

and

Fy may fs sin n cos mg 0


or

mg fs sin
cos

[2]

Substituting equation [2] into equation [1] gives

sin2
fs cos mg tan fs
mac
cos
or

fs

(a)

mac mg tan
cos sin2 cos

[3]

With T = 38.0 s and r = 7.46 m, we find that

0.165 rad s and mac mr 2 30.0 kg 7.46 m 0.165 rad s 2 6.09 N


Equation [3] then gives the friction force as

Page 7.78

Chapter 7

(b)

6.09 N 30.0 kg 9.80 m s2 tan 20.0

fs

cos 20.0

20.0
cos 20.0

sin 2

113 N
107 N
1.06

If T = 34.0 s and r = 7.46 m, then = 0.185 rad/s and

mac mr 2 30.0 kg 7.94 m s2

0.185

rad s 8.15 N
2

From equation [1],

8.15 N 30.0 kg 9.80 m s2 tan 20.0

fs

sin 2 20.0
cos 20.0
cos 20.0

115 N
108 N
1.06

while equation [2] yields

30.0 kg 9.80

m s2 108 N sin 20.0


cos 20.0

Since the luggage is on the verge of slipping, fs

7.74

fs max

273 N

s n and the coefficient of static friction must be

fs
108 N

0.396
n
273 N

The horizontal component of the tension in the cord is the only


force directed toward the center of the circular path, so it must
supply the centripetal acceleration. Thus,

v2
vt2
T sin m t m
r
L sin
or

T sin 2

m vt2
L

[1]

Also, the vertical component of the tension must support the weight of the ball, or

T cos m g

[2]

Page 7.79

Chapter 7
(a)

Dividing equation [1] by [2] gives

v2
sin 2
t
cos
Lg

or

Lg
cos

vt sin

[3]

With L = 1.5 m/s and = 30,


vt sin 30

(b)

1.5 m 9.8

m s2

cos 30

2.1 m s

From equation [3], with sin2 1 cos2 , we find

v2
1 cos2
t
cos
Lg

v2
cos2 t cos 1 0
L g

or

Solving this quadratic equation for cos gives

v2
cos t
2 L g

vt2
2 L g 1

If L = 1.5 m and t = 4.0 m/s, this yields solutions: cos 1.7 (which is impossible),
and cos = +1.7 (which is possible).
Thus, = cos-1 (0.59) = 54 .
(c)

From equation [2], when T = 9.8 N and the cord is about to break, the angle is

m g

0.50 kg 9.8 m s2
60

9.8 N

cos1
cos1

T
Then equation [3] gives

vt sin

Lg
sin 60
cos

1.5 m 9.8

m s2

cos 60

Page 7.80

4.7 m s

Chapter 7
7.75

The normal force exerted on the person by the cylindrical wall must provide the centripetal
acceleration, so n = m (r 2).
If the minimum acceptable coefficient of friction is present, the person is on the verge of slipping and the maximum
static friction force equals the persons weight, or fs max s min n mg.
Thus,

s min

7.76

mg
g
9.80 m s2

0.131
n
r 2
3.00 m 5.00 rad s 2

If the block will just make it through the top of the loop, the force required to produce the centripetal acceleration at
point C must equal the blocks weight, or . m (vc2 R ) m g
This gives vc

R g , as the required speed of the block at point C.

We apply the workenergy theorem in the form


Wnc = ( KE + PE g PEs)f ( KE + PE g PEs.)i
from when the block is first released until it reaches point C to obtain

fk AB cos180

1
1
mvc2 mg 2 R 0 0 0 kd 2
2
2

The friction force is fk = uk (mg), and for minimum initial compression of the spring, vc2 Rg
as found above. Thus, the workenergy equation reduces to

dmin

dmin

2 k mg AB mRg 2 mg 2 R
k

0.50 kg 9.8

mg 2 k AB 5 R

m s2 2 0.30 2.5 m 5 1.5 m


0.75 m
78.4 N m

Page 7.81

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