TWI

TWI
Tuition Notes for 3.1U Course

(DIS 1)
Training and Examination Services

Granta Park, Great Abington
Cambridge, CB1 6AL
UK
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006
Page 1 of 382

Table of Contents
Table of Contents
TWI TUITION NOTES FOR 3.1U COURSE (DIS 1)........................................................................... 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................................................................................... 2
PREFACE................................................................................................................................................. 11
THE CERTIFICATION SCHEME FOR WELDMENT INSPECTION PERSONNEL ORGANISATION AND
EXAMINATION........................................................................................................................................ 11
1
The Certification Scheme for Weldment Inspection Personnel (CSWIP)................................ 11
2
TWI.................................................................................................................................................... 11
2.1 Company Profile........................................................................................................................... 11
2.1.1
Single Source of Expertise ...................................................................................................... 11
2.1.2
Non-profit Company ............................................................................................................... 11
2.1.3
Global Benefits........................................................................................................................ 12
2.1.4
Confidential Consultancy ........................................................................................................ 12
3
TWI Certification Ltd ................................................................................................................... 12
3.1 Certification Management Board.................................................................................................. 12
3.1.1
Responsibilities of the Board................................................................................................... 13
3.1.2
The Management Committees:................................................................................................ 13
4
CSWIP Certification for Underwater Inspectors .......................................................................... 15
4.1 Inspector Categories ..................................................................................................................... 15
4.2 The CSWIP 3.1U Examination .......................................................................................................... 15
4.2.1
The Theory Examination......................................................................................................... 15
4.2.2
Practical Examination.............................................................................................................. 16
CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................................................. 18
ENGINEERING OFFSHORE STRUCTURES.................................................................................................. 18
1
General Background ............................................................................................................... 18
1.1
1.2
Safe to Operate................................................................................................................................... 18
Government Legislation..................................................................................................................... 18
Design Specifications.............................................................................................................. 18
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
3
4
Materials ............................................................................................................................................ 18
Working Life ..................................................................................................................................... 18
Loading.............................................................................................................................................. 19
Environment ...................................................................................................................................... 19
Maintenance....................................................................................................................................... 19
Weight ............................................................................................................................................... 19
Dimensions ........................................................................................................................................ 19
Construction Activity Monitoring System ............................................................................... 19

Guidance on Design and Construction ................................................................................... 19
4.1
4.2
United Kingdom ................................................................................................................................ 19

Guidance from the UK Regulations ................................................................................................... 20
4.2.1
Specific Guidance.................................................................................................................... 20
4.2.2
Environment ............................................................................................................................ 21
4.3 Steel and Concrete ............................................................................................................................. 21
4.3.1
Steel......................................................................................................................................... 21
4.3.2
Concrete Structures ................................................................................................................. 22
4.4 Loads ................................................................................................................................................. 22
5
6
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 22
Pipelines.................................................................................................................................. 23
6.1
7
8
Pipeline Laying .................................................................................................................................. 23
Offshore Oil Terminals ........................................................................................................... 24

Future Trends.......................................................................................................................... 24
8.1
8.2
Drilling............................................................................................................................................... 24
Design Practices................................................................................................................................. 27
CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................................................. 30
OFFSHORE STRUCTURES AND INSTALLATIONS ....................................................................................... 30
1
Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 30
2
2.1
Steel Production Platforms................................................................................................................. 30

Brent A Statistics .......................................................................................................................... 30
Page 2 of 382

Table of Contents
2.2
Terminology ...................................................................................................................................... 32
2.2.1
Basic Components of Steel Platforms ..................................................................................... 34
Concrete and Steel Gravity Platforms .................................................................................... 39

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
Cormorant A Statistics....................................................................................................................... 40
Disadvantages of Concrete Structures................................................................................................ 40
Basic Components of a Concrete Gravity Structure........................................................................... 41
Common Concrete Components ........................................................................................................ 42
Terminology with Different Offshore Structures..................................................................... 45

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
Jack-up Rigs....................................................................................................................................... 45
A Semi-submersible Rig .................................................................................................................... 46
Drill ship ............................................................................................................................................ 48
Compliant Towers.............................................................................................................................. 48
Tension Leg Floating Platforms......................................................................................................... 52
Floating Production Systems ............................................................................................................. 54
Floating Production Storage & Offloading Units (FPSO) ..................................................... 55

5.1
5.2
Reasons for using an FPSO................................................................................................................ 55

Features of an FPSO .......................................................................................................................... 55
Inspection of FPSO systems.................................................................................................... 58

6.1
6.2
Seabed Facilities ................................................................................................................................ 58

Pipelines............................................................................................................................................. 68
CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................................................. 76
LOADING ON OFFSHORE STRUCTURES - ENGINEERING CONCEPTS ........................................................ 76
1
General Introduction .............................................................................................................. 76
1.1
1.2
Stress.................................................................................................................................................. 76
Types of Stress................................................................................................................................... 77
Properties of Materials ........................................................................................................... 80

2.1
2.2
2.3
3
4
5
Yield Stress........................................................................................................................................ 80
Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) ....................................................................................................... 81
Stress Concentration .......................................................................................................................... 82
Crack Stopping or Blunting .................................................................................................... 83

Residual Stresses..................................................................................................................... 84
Forces on a Structure.............................................................................................................. 84
5.1
The Steady Force on a Structure in a Fluid Flow............................................................................... 84

5.1.1
Drag Coefficient ...................................................................................................................... 85
5.2 Vibrational Forces on a Structure in a Fluid Flow ............................................................................. 86
5.3 Wave Loadings .................................................................................................................................. 86
5.3.1
Structural Design for Wave Loadings ..................................................................................... 87
5.4 Structural Response to Wave Loading ............................................................................................... 88
CHAPTER 4 ............................................................................................................................................. 92
DETERIORATION OF OFFSHORE STEEL STRUCTURES .............................................................................. 92
1
General Comments.................................................................................................................. 92
2
Categories of Deterioration and Damage............................................................................... 92
3
Accidental Damage................................................................................................................. 92
4
Corrosion ................................................................................................................................ 93
5
Fatigue .................................................................................................................................... 93
6
Wear........................................................................................................................................ 94
7
Embrittlement.......................................................................................................................... 96
8
Structural Deterioration ......................................................................................................... 96
8.1
Stage One Production of the Raw Materials ................................................................................... 96

8.1.1
Steel......................................................................................................................................... 96
8.2 Stage Two - Fabrication..................................................................................................................... 99
8.2.1
Steel Structures Fabrication Defects........................................................................................ 99
8.3 Avoiding Problems by Design ......................................................................................................... 100
8.4 Stage Three Installation ................................................................................................................... 101
8.4.1
Possible Damage Caused During Installation........................................................................ 102
8.5 Stage Four In-Service ...................................................................................................................... 102
8.5.1
Steel In-Service Defect Categories........................................................................................ 102
8.6 In-Service Defect Categories That Affect both Steel and Concrete ................................................. 105
8.6.1
Inter-tidal and Splash Zones .................................................................................................. 105
8.6.2
Risers..................................................................................................................................... 105
8.6.3
Conductors and Conductor Guide Frames............................................................................. 105
Page 3 of 382

Table of Contents
8.6.4
8.6.5
Caissons................................................................................................................................. 105
Overloading........................................................................................................................... 106
Repairs to Offshore Structures.............................................................................................. 106

9.1
Welding Repairs .............................................................................................................................. 106

9.1.1
Wet Welding ......................................................................................................................... 106
9.1.2
Hyperbaric Welding .............................................................................................................. 107
9.2 Clamp Repairs.................................................................................................................................. 107
9.2.1
Grout Clamps ........................................................................................................................ 107
9.2.2
Friction Clamps ..................................................................................................................... 107
9.3 Concrete Repairs.............................................................................................................................. 107
9.3.1
Repairs to Concrete ............................................................................................................... 107
9.3.2
Reinforcement Repairs .......................................................................................................... 107
10
Repair Inspection .................................................................................................................. 108
CHAPTER 5 ........................................................................................................................................... 111

DETERIORATION OF OFFSHORE CONCRETE STRUCTURES .................................................................... 111
1
General Comments................................................................................................................ 111
2
Structural Deterioration ....................................................................................................... 111
3
Stage One Production of the Raw Materials...................................................................... 111
3.1
Concrete........................................................................................................................................... 111
3.1.1
Portland Cement .................................................................................................................... 111
3.1.2
Mixing ................................................................................................................................... 112
3.1.3
Setting ................................................................................................................................... 112
3.1.4
Hardening.............................................................................................................................. 112
3.1.5
The Importance of Water....................................................................................................... 114
3.2 Concrete........................................................................................................................................... 114
3.2.1
Aggregates............................................................................................................................. 115
3.2.2
Water Content ....................................................................................................................... 115
3.2.3
Concrete as a Material ........................................................................................................... 115
3.2.4
Reinforced Concrete.............................................................................................................. 115
3.2.5
Reinforcement Design Philosophy ........................................................................................ 116
3.2.6
Pre-stressing .......................................................................................................................... 117
3.2.7
Production Problems ............................................................................................................. 118
Stage Two - Fabrication ....................................................................................................... 118

4.1
5
6
Concrete Structure Fabrication Defects ........................................................................................... 118
Stage Three Installation ........................................................................................................ 119

Stage Four In-Service ........................................................................................................... 119
6.1
6.2
7
8
In-Service Defect Categories That Affect Concrete Structures........................................................ 119

Deterioration Caused By Chemical Attack ...................................................................................... 120
6.2.1
Sulphate Attack ..................................................................................................................... 120
6.2.2
Chlorides ............................................................................................................................... 120
6.2.3
Carbonation ........................................................................................................................... 121
6.2.4
Reinforcement Corrosion ...................................................................................................... 123
6.2.5
Corrosion of Built-in Components ........................................................................................ 124
6.2.6
Cracking ................................................................................................................................ 124
Standard Terminology .......................................................................................................... 125

Additional In-service Defects................................................................................................ 131
CHAPTER 6 ........................................................................................................................................... 135

MARINE GROWTH ................................................................................................................................ 135
1
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 135
2
Types of Marine Growth ....................................................................................................... 136
2.1
2.2
Soft Fouling ..................................................................................................................................... 137

Hard Fouling.................................................................................................................................... 142
Factors Affecting the Rate of Marine Growth....................................................................... 144

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
Depth ............................................................................................................................................... 144

Temperature ..................................................................................................................................... 145
Water Current .................................................................................................................................. 145
Salinity............................................................................................................................................. 146
Food Supply..................................................................................................................................... 146
Cathodic Protection.......................................................................................................................... 146
CHAPTER 7 ........................................................................................................................................... 149
Page 4 of 382

Table of Contents
CORROSION .......................................................................................................................................... 149
1
Energy Considerations in Corrosion .................................................................................... 149
2
The Corrosion Process ......................................................................................................... 150
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
The Anodic Reaction ....................................................................................................................... 151

The Cathodic Reaction..................................................................................................................... 152
Seawater Corrosion.......................................................................................................................... 154
Electrochemical Aspects of Corrosion............................................................................................. 154
Electrical Theory .................................................................................................................. 155
CHAPTER 8 ........................................................................................................................................... 159

TYPES OF CORROSION .......................................................................................................................... 159
1
Corrosion Cells..................................................................................................................... 159
1.1
Dissimilar Metal Corrosion Cell ...................................................................................................... 159

1.1.1
The Electrochemical Force Series ......................................................................................... 159
1.2 Concentration Cell Corrosion .......................................................................................................... 162
1.3 Pitting............................................................................................................................................... 163
1.4 Inter-granular Corrosion .................................................................................................................. 166
1.5 Grain Boundary Corrosion............................................................................................................... 167
1.6 Stress Corrosion Cracking ............................................................................................................... 168
1.7 Fretting Corrosion............................................................................................................................ 169
1.8 Erosion Corrosion ............................................................................................................................ 171
1.9 Corrosion Fatigue ............................................................................................................................ 173
1.10
Biological Corrosion................................................................................................................... 173
CHAPTER 9 ........................................................................................................................................... 176

FACTORS AFFECTING CORROSION RATES ............................................................................................ 176
1
Polarisation and Corrosion Rate .......................................................................................... 176
2
Environmental Factors Affecting Corrosion Rates ............................................................... 177
2.1
2.2
2.3
Temperature ..................................................................................................................................... 177

Water Flow Rate .............................................................................................................................. 178
The pH Value of the Water .............................................................................................................. 179
CHAPTER 10 ......................................................................................................................................... 183

CORROSION PROTECTION ..................................................................................................................... 183
1
Corrosion Protection ............................................................................................................ 183
2
Cathodic Protection .............................................................................................................. 184
2.1
Cathodic Protection: The Sacrificial Anode Method ....................................................................... 185

2.1.1
Advantages and Disadvantages of Sacrificial Anode Systems .............................................. 186
2.2 Cathodic Protection: Impressed Current Method ............................................................................. 186
2.2.1
Practical Considerations for Installing ICCP Systems........................................................... 188
2.2.2
Reference or Control Electrodes............................................................................................ 191
Using Coatings to Protect the Structure ............................................................................... 192

3.1
Paints ............................................................................................................................................... 192
Inhibitors (Controlling the Electrolyte) ................................................................................ 194

4.1
4.2
4.3
5
6
Anodic Inhibitors ............................................................................................................................. 195

Cathodic Inhibitors........................................................................................................................... 195
Adsorption Inhibitors ....................................................................................................................... 196
Corrosion Protection by Design ........................................................................................... 196

Anodic Protection ................................................................................................................. 196
CHAPTER 11 ......................................................................................................................................... 199

CORROSION PROTECTION MONITORING ............................................................................................... 199
1
Monitoring Corrosion Protection ......................................................................................... 199
1.1
Inspection Requirements.................................................................................................................. 199
Cathode Potential Measurement........................................................................................... 200

2.1
2.2
3
4
High Purity Zinc Electrodes (ZRE).................................................................................................. 200

CP Readings Utilising Silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl) Electrodes................................................ 201
Current Density Measurements ............................................................................................ 202

Calibration Procedures for Hand-held CP Meters............................................................... 203
4.1
4.2
Necessary Equipment....................................................................................................................... 203

Procedure ......................................................................................................................................... 204
4.2.1
Proving the Calomel Cells..................................................................................................... 204
Page 5 of 382

Table of Contents
4.2.2
Calibration of the Meter ........................................................................................................ 205
4.2.3
Calibration of a Bathycorrometer .......................................................................................... 205
4.3 Overall Calibration of any CP Meter ............................................................................................... 205
4.4 Calibration of Ag/AgCl Proximity Probes ....................................................................................... 206
Operating Procedures........................................................................................................... 206

5.1
Normal Cathode Potential Readings Against Ag/AgCl ................................................................... 207
CHAPTER 12 ......................................................................................................................................... 210

WELDING AND WELDING DEFECTS ...................................................................................................... 210
1
Joining Metal Components ................................................................................................... 210
2
Fabricating Offshore Structures ........................................................................................... 210
3
Welding Processes ................................................................................................................ 210
3.1
Flux Shielded Arc Welding.............................................................................................................. 211
Types of Welded Joint ........................................................................................................... 212

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
5
6
The Butt Joint................................................................................................................................... 212

T Joint ........................................................................................................................................... 212
Lap Joint .......................................................................................................................................... 212
Corner Joint ..................................................................................................................................... 213
Cruciform Joint ................................................................................................................................ 213
Types of Weld........................................................................................................................ 214

Welding Metallurgy .............................................................................................................. 215
6.1
Further Considerations for Weld Control......................................................................................... 217
Welding Terms ...................................................................................................................... 218

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
Plate Preparation Terms ................................................................................................................... 218

Terms Defining Weld Features ........................................................................................................ 219
Welding Process Terminology......................................................................................................... 221
Welded Nodes and Nozzles ............................................................................................................. 222
Weld Defect Terminology...................................................................................................... 223

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
Cracks .............................................................................................................................................. 224

Cavities ............................................................................................................................................ 225
Solid Inclusions................................................................................................................................ 225
Lack of Fusion and Penetration........................................................................................................ 226
Imperfect Shape ............................................................................................................................... 227
Miscellaneous .................................................................................................................................. 228
Defect Categories and Reporting.......................................................................................... 230

9.1
9.2
Reporting Defects in Welds ............................................................................................................. 230

Dimensional Checking Weld Parameters......................................................................................... 230
9.2.1
The Welding Institute Measuring Gauge............................................................................... 231
9.2.2
Welding Institute Leg Length Gauge .................................................................................... 231
CHAPTER 13 ......................................................................................................................................... 234

PHOTOGRAPHY..................................................................................................................................... 234
1
Introduction to Photography................................................................................................. 234
1.1
Light and Photography..................................................................................................................... 235
The Camera........................................................................................................................... 236

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
Lens Aperture .................................................................................................................................. 236

Shutter Speed ................................................................................................................................... 237
Relationship between Aperture and Shutter Speed .......................................................................... 238
How Digicams Compare to Conventional Cameras......................................................................... 238
Bracketing Getting the Exposure Right......................................................................................... 239
Focusing the Camera ............................................................................................................ 239

3.1
3.2
3.3
The Lens Focal Length .................................................................................................................... 240

Depth of Field .................................................................................................................................. 241
Framing the Subject ......................................................................................................................... 243
Light and Underwater Photography ..................................................................................... 244

4.1
4.2
Colour Absorption ........................................................................................................................... 245

Loss of Light Intensity ..................................................................................................................... 245
Artificial Light for Underwater Photography ....................................................................... 247

5.1
6
7
Electronic Strobe Lighting ............................................................................................................... 247

5.1.1
Strobe Placement................................................................................................................... 247
Close-up Weld Mosaic Photography .................................................................................... 248

Specific Applications for Offshore Photography .................................................................. 250
7.1
MPI Photography............................................................................................................................. 250

Page 6 of 382

Table of Contents
7.2
8
9
10
Stereo-photography and Photogrammetry........................................................................................ 251
Specific Requirements for Inspection Photographs .............................................................. 253

ROV Mounted Cameras ........................................................................................................ 254
Recording Photographs and Care of Equipment .................................................................. 254
10.1
Care of Equipment...................................................................................................................... 255
CHAPTER 14 ......................................................................................................................................... 259

THE USE OF VIDEO IN OFFSHORE INSPECTION ..................................................................................... 259
1
The Scope for Video Underwater.......................................................................................... 259
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Diver Hand Held.............................................................................................................................. 259

Diver Head (Hat) Mounted .............................................................................................................. 260
Remote Operated Vehicles (ROV)................................................................................................... 261
Fixed Remotely Operated Video...................................................................................................... 262
Types of Video Camera ......................................................................................................... 262

2.1
2.2
2.3
3
4
5
6
Tube Cameras .................................................................................................................................. 262

Silicon Intensified Target (SIT) Cameras ........................................................................................ 263
Charged Coupled Device (CCD) Cameras....................................................................................... 263
Advantages and Disadvantages with Video Recording......................................................... 263

Equipment ............................................................................................................................. 266
Picture Quality...................................................................................................................... 266
How Video is used................................................................................................................. 267
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
Commentary .................................................................................................................................... 267

What to Say...................................................................................................................................... 267
Terms used to Direct Camera Movements ....................................................................................... 267
Video Logs....................................................................................................................................... 268
Care of Equipment ........................................................................................................................... 269
CHAPTER 15 ......................................................................................................................................... 273

ULTRASONIC DIGITAL THICKNESS METERS ......................................................................................... 273
1
Ultrasonic Inspection............................................................................................................ 273
2
Producing Ultrasound .......................................................................................................... 273
3
What Is Ultrasound? ............................................................................................................. 273
4
Frequency of the Wave.......................................................................................................... 275
5
Speed of the Wave ................................................................................................................. 277
6
Types of Ultrasonic Wave ..................................................................................................... 277
7
Waves That Propagate Through Solids................................................................................. 277
7.1
7.2
8
9
10
11
Longitudinal or Compression Waves............................................................................................... 277

Shear or Transverse Waves.............................................................................................................. 278
Surface Waves....................................................................................................................... 278

Velocity of Ultrasonic Waves................................................................................................ 279
Ultrasonic Wavelength.......................................................................................................... 280
Further Effects of Ultrasonic Properties in Materials.......................................................... 282
11.1
11.2
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
The Decibel System ............................................................................................................... 282

The Direction of Propagation of an Ultrasonic Wave .......................................................... 283
Law of Reflection .................................................................................................................. 284
Law of Refraction.................................................................................................................. 284
Test Frequency...................................................................................................................... 285
Ultrasonic Transducers......................................................................................................... 286
Types of Transducers (Probes) ............................................................................................. 287
18.1
18.2
18.3
18.4
18.5
19
20
21
22
23
Acoustic Impedance (Z).............................................................................................................. 282

Acoustic Attenuation .................................................................................................................. 282
Single Crystal Probes.................................................................................................................. 288

Probe Selection........................................................................................................................... 288
Twin Crystal Probes ................................................................................................................... 288
Compression or Zero Degree Probes .......................................................................................... 289
Angle Probes .............................................................................................................................. 289
Couplant................................................................................................................................ 290
The Ultrasonic Beam ............................................................................................................ 290
Principles of Ultrasonic Testing ........................................................................................... 291
Ultrasonic Test Systems ........................................................................................................ 293
Calibration and Thickness Measurement.............................................................................. 293
Page 7 of 382

Table of Contents
23.1
23.2
23.3
23.4
24
25
Calibration and Reference Blocks .............................................................................................. 294

Reference Block ......................................................................................................................... 294
Calibration Block........................................................................................................................ 294
Calibration Checks ..................................................................................................................... 294
Thickness Plotting................................................................................................................. 295

Digital Thickness Meters ...................................................................................................... 295
25.1
26
Accuracy of the Readings Obtained With a DTM ...................................................................... 295
Care and Maintenance of Equipment ................................................................................... 296
CHAPTER 16 ......................................................................................................................................... 300

INSPECTION METHODS AVAILABLE TO ASSESS UNDERWATER STRUCTURES ....................................... 300
1
Visual Inspection................................................................................................................... 300
2
Video ..................................................................................................................................... 301
3
Photography.......................................................................................................................... 301
4
Cathodic Potential Readings ................................................................................................ 301
5
Ultrasonic Inspection Techniques......................................................................................... 301
6
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) ..................................................................................... 301
7
Radiography.......................................................................................................................... 302
8
Alternating Current Potential Drop (ACPD)........................................................................ 302
9
Electro Magnetic Detection Techniques (EMD or EMT)...................................................... 302
10 Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) ................................................................ 302
11 Flooded Member Detection (FMD) ...................................................................................... 302
12 Summary of Inspection Methods and Their Use ................................................................... 303
13 Taking Measurements ........................................................................................................... 303
14 Linear Measurement ............................................................................................................. 304
14.1
Ruler ........................................................................................................................................... 304
14.2
Magnetic Tape ............................................................................................................................ 304
14.3
Flexible Tape Measures.............................................................................................................. 304
14.4
Electronic Methods..................................................................................................................... 304
14.4.1 Laser and Infra-red Measuring .............................................................................................. 304
15
Circular Measurements......................................................................................................... 304

15.1
15.2
15.3
16
Callipers...................................................................................................................................... 304
Vernier Gauges ........................................................................................................................... 305
Specialist Jigs ............................................................................................................................. 305
Angular Measurements ......................................................................................................... 305

16.1
16.2
17
Protractor .................................................................................................................................... 305

Pendulum Gauges ....................................................................................................................... 305
Dents and Deformations ....................................................................................................... 305

17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5
17.6
Profile Gauges ............................................................................................................................ 305

Pit Gauge .................................................................................................................................... 306
Linear Angular Measurement (LAM) Gauge ............................................................................. 306
Casts ........................................................................................................................................... 307
Straight Edge .............................................................................................................................. 307
Taut Wire.................................................................................................................................... 307
CHAPTER 17 ......................................................................................................................................... 311

INSPECTION MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR, QUALITY ASSURANCE AND CONTROL, RECORDING,
REPORTING .......................................................................................................................................... 311
1
Legislation Relating to Inspection of Offshore Structures .................................................... 311
2
The Importance of QA and QC ............................................................................................. 312
2.1
2.2
3
4
5
Databases and Trend Analysis ......................................................................................................... 312

The Importance of Documentation and Record Keeping ................................................................. 313
2.2.1
Types of Reporting Systems.................................................................................................. 313
Reasons Why Inspection Is Required .................................................................................... 314

Continuity of Inspection ........................................................................................................ 314
Design Stage ......................................................................................................................... 315
5.1
Structural Marking Systems............................................................................................................. 315

5.1.1
Unique Identification System ................................................................................................ 315
5.1.2
The Alpha Numeric System .................................................................................................. 316
5.1.3
The Box Matrix System......................................................................................................... 317
5.1.4
Clock Orientation and Datum Points..................................................................................... 318
5.2 Safety Critical Elements (SCE)........................................................................................................ 319
Page 8 of 382

Table of Contents
6
7
8
Production of the Raw Materials .......................................................................................... 319

Fabrication Stage.................................................................................................................. 320
Launching and Installation ................................................................................................... 320
8.1
8.2
9
10
Base Line Survey ............................................................................................................................. 320

In Service ......................................................................................................................................... 321
8.2.1
Damage Survey ..................................................................................................................... 321
How the Criteria of Non-conformance System is Applied..................................................... 322

Documentation in an Anomaly Based Reporting System ...................................................... 324
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
11
12
13
14
Work Scopes and Workbooks in an Anomaly Based System..................................................... 325

Damage Register......................................................................................................................... 326
Data Sheets ................................................................................................................................. 326
Written Reports........................................................................................................................... 327
Verbal Reporting................................................................................................................... 328

Corrosion Protection and Coating Inspection Report Requirements ................................... 329
Procedure for the Close Visual Inspection of a Weld ........................................................... 329
Summary of Other Recording Methods Used Underwater.................................................... 331
14.1
Scratchboards .......................................................................................................................... 332
14.2
Sketches...................................................................................................................................... 332
14.3
Photography................................................................................................................................ 332
14.4
Video .......................................................................................................................................... 332
14.5
Radiography ............................................................................................................................... 332
14.6
Casts ........................................................................................................................................... 332
14.7
EMD, EMT and ACFM Incorporating Computer Recording ..................................................... 332
14.8
Sampling..................................................................................................................................... 332
15
Certification of Personnel and Equipment ....................................................................................... 332
15.1
CSWIP Grade 3.1U Diver Inspector........................................................................................... 333
16
17
Equipment Certification........................................................................................................ 333

Inspection Activities in an Anomaly Based System ............................................................... 333
17.1
18
Real Time Data Gathering .......................................................................................................... 334
Decommissioning.................................................................................................................. 334
CHAPTER 18 ......................................................................................................................................... 337

OTHER NDT METHODS USED OFFSHORE ............................................................................................ 337
1
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 337
2
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) ..................................................................................... 337
3
Radiography.......................................................................................................................... 338
4
Production of Radiation........................................................................................................ 339
4.1
X-ray Production.............................................................................................................................. 339
Production of Rays ............................................................................................................. 340
5.1
Safety ............................................................................................................................................... 343
How the Method Works......................................................................................................... 343

6.1
Radiograph Quality.......................................................................................................................... 344
Electro Magnetic Detection Techniques (EMD or EMT)...................................................... 345

7.1
How the Method Works................................................................................................................... 346
Alternating Current Potential Drop (ACPD)........................................................................ 349

8.1
Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) ................................................................ 350

9.1
9.2
10

Application of the Technique........................................................................................................... 351
Flooded Member Detection (FMD) ...................................................................................... 351

10.1
11
12
Radiographic FMD ................................................................................................................. 352
Ultrasonic FMD.................................................................................................................... 354

General Point for all FMD Readings.................................................................................... 354
CHAPTER 19 ......................................................................................................................................... 357

CLEANING FOR INSPECTION AND PROFILE GRINDING .......................................................................... 357
1
General Comments................................................................................................................ 357
1.1
1.2
1.3
HP Water Jets................................................................................................................................... 357

Diving Medical Advisory Committee (DMAC) Advice .................................................................. 358
Management of any Injury............................................................................................................... 359
Standard of Surface Finish ................................................................................................... 359
Page 9 of 382

Table of Contents
3
4
Area to Be Cleaned ............................................................................................................... 360

Profile Grinding.................................................................................................................... 360
4.1
Profile Grinding ............................................................................................................................... 361
APPENDIX 1.......................................................................................................................................... 365

EXTRACT OF OFFSHORE TECHNOLOGY REPORT OTH 84 206.............................................................. 365
Category A (Defects) ...................................................................................................................... 365
Category B (Areas of Concern) ...................................................................................................... 367
Category C (Blemishes).................................................................................................................. 371
General Concrete Terms ................................................................................................................ 378
Reporting.................................................................................................................................................... 379
Weathering ..................................................................................................................................... 379
Page 10 of 382

Preface
PREFACE
The Certification Scheme for Weldment
Inspection Personnel Organisation and
Examination
1
The Certification Scheme for Weldment Inspection Personnel (CSWIP)
CSWIP is an accreditation body approved by the UK Governments Board of

Trade and Industry. CSWIP is a subsidiary of TWI Certification, which is
incorporated into The Welding Institute (TWI).
2
TWI
Is a world centre for materials joining technology and is the parent
organisation for TWI Certification.
2.1
Company Profile
TWI Ltd, the operating arm of The Welding Institute, is one of the world's
foremost independent research and technology organisations. Based at
Great Abington near Cambridge since 1946, TWI provides industry with
engineering solutions in structures incorporating welding and associated
technologies (surfacing, coating, cutting, etc.) through Information
Advice and technology transfer
Consultancy and project support
Contract R&D
Training and qualification
Personal membership
2.1.1 Single Source of Expertise

TWI Ltd is the only single source of expertise in every aspect of joining
technology for engineering materials - metals, plastics, ceramics and
composites.
2.1.2 Non-profit Company
TWI is a non-profit distributing company, limited by guarantee and owned
by its Members; it is therefore able to offer independent advice. It is
internationally renowned for bringing together multidisciplinary teams to
implement established or advanced joining technology or to solve
problems arising at any stage - from initial design, materials selection,
production and quality assurance, through to service performance and
repair.
Page 11 of 382

CSWIP Organisation and Examination
2.1.3 Global Benefits
Over 450 skilled staff are dedicated to helping industry apply all forms of
joining technology safely and efficiently. Some 3200 companies and
organisations - representing virtually all sectors of manufacturing industry
from over 60 countries around the globe - benefit from TWI services.
2.1.4 Confidential Consultancy
TWI undertakes contract R & D in confidence for both industry and
governments. As a consultant it can offer individual experts or teams
able to help solve problems of all kinds related to materials joining. It will
send its specialists anywhere in the world at short notice on
troubleshooting missions.
3
TWI Certification Ltd

This is a TWI Group company formed in 1993.
3.1
Certification Management Board

The body with overall responsibility for the activities of TWI Certification
Ltd is the Certification Management Board
Professional Board of TWI
Certification Management Board

(TWI Certification Ltd)
Membership, Registration
& Education Committee
Membership, Registration
& Education Committee
CSWIP Welding
Specialists & Practitioners
Management Committee
CSWIP Plastics Welders
Certification Management Committee
Welding Fabricator
Certification Management Committee
Certification Scheme for
Welder Training Organisations
CSWIP In-Service Inspection
Management Committee
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Preface
3.1.1 Responsibilities of the Board
Thus the Certification Management Board:
Acts as the Governing Board for Certification in keeping with
the requirements of the industries served by the scheme
In turn, appoints specialist Management Committees to
oversee specific parts of the scheme.
The Certification Management Board comprises 12
representatives of industry and other parties with a valid
interest in the certification schemes, for example, fabricators,
client organisations, design authorities and training
associations. This ensures that the certification schemes truly
reflect the needs of industry.
3.1.2 The Management Committees:
Meet regularly and monitor the administration of the
examinations
Recommend changes where they are needed if it means that
the examinations can be improved to meet the requirements of
industry
Discuss new certification ideas.
It can therefore be seen that CSWIP is a comprehensive scheme, which
provides for the examination and certification of individuals seeking to
demonstrate their knowledge and/or experience in their field of operation. The
scope of CSWIP includes Welding Inspectors, Welding Supervisors, Welding
Instructors and Underwater Inspection personnel
Page 13 of 382

Page 14 of 382

Preface
CSWIP Certification for Underwater Inspectors

Requirement documents: all CSWIP examination requirements
documents are available free of charge and may be downloaded from the
website www.cswip.com.
4.1
Inspector Categories
There are four categories of certification in the Underwater Inspector
scheme:
3.1U Diver Inspector
3.2U Diver Inspector
3.3U ROV Inspector
3.4U Underwater Inspection Controller
(This is an approved course for preparation for the 3.1U examination.)
4.2
The CSWIP 3.1U Examination

The examination itself consists of two main elements, a theoretical
examination and a practical assessment.
4.2.1 The Theory Examination

This consists of 50 multi-choice questions which will include questions on
concrete and 5 questions requiring longer written answers, one from
each of five sections.
4.2.1.1 The Written Sections:
Underwater visual inspection, steel
Underwater visual inspection, concrete
Recording methods
Corrosion protection
NDT methods (general knowledge) and
ultrasonic digital thickness measurement
Page 15 of 382

4.2.2 Practical Examination

This will consist of the following parts: Visual examination of an underwater steel structure
Cathodic potential measurements
Ultrasonic digital thickness measurements
Underwater photography
Use of Video with oral commentary
Page 16 of 382

Preface
This page is blank
Page 17 of 382

Chapter 1
CHAPTER 1
Engineering Offshore Structures
1
General Background
Historically it is true to say that in the initial stages of development of offshore oil
platforms the designs evolved from land-based structures and were constructed
on site. The engineering design knowledge was either borrowed or extrapolated
from traditional fields of civil engineering and naval architecture. During the
1950s, however, new technology began to be developed for this type of
structure. Since then many advances have been made particularly in the field of
materials. Governments legislation in the various host countries with offshore
oil has also played a role in shaping the design of production platforms and the
various other structures seen offshore. Economics are very important and play
a leading role in platform design. For example it is only possible to justify the
expenditure for a massive eight-legged steel or a huge concrete gravity platform
when the hydrocarbon reserves in a particular field are large enough to not only
warrant the initial capital cost but will also guarantee a good income for a long
period of time. There is also a growing concern for the environment and this
consideration influences certain aspects of structural design. Another factor of
prime importance is safety of personnel. There are two facets to this:
1.1
Safe to Operate
The first facet is the usual concern of engineers to design a structure which is
elegant if possible, conservative in its use of materials, fit for the design
purpose, able to operate for the prescribed length of time, safe to operate and
within the allowed budget.
1.2
Government Legislation
The other facet is government legislation. This is put in place to ensure that
structures are fit in all aspects, including safety, for the purpose they are
designed to fulfil.
2
Design Specifications
The requirements for an offshore platform will necessitate the consideration of a

number of factors and involve drawing up DESIGN SPECIFICATION. The full
design specification will contain many different factors, but by way of illustration
the following list should serve to indicate some factors affecting load bearing
and cost.
2.1
Materials
These should be readily available from suppliers in the required form and
should meet the requirements of the design specification.
2.2
Working Life
This may typically be 25 years
Page 18 of 382

2.3
Loading
The platform should provide a safe working environment for the purpose of
recovering hydrocarbon reserves. It must be capable of withstanding the loads
imposed on it by the drilling and other works performed in and on the work
areas and it must withstand the forces imposed by wind and wave action.
2.4
Environment
Open sea conditions will impose very harsh conditions indeed on the entire
structure but especially the jacket. Due consideration must be made to the
effects of corrosion because of this environment.
2.5
Maintenance
This should be kept to the barest minimum. Due consideration must be given to
the underwater maintenance being especially singled out with a view to not only
minimising it but also to use the most cost effective means of achieving any
necessary works.
2.6
Weight
The weight of the deck modules must be considered so that the jacket can be
designed to support this weight. The all-up weight will have ramifications on the
cost and on the seabed design of the foundations.
2.7
Dimensions
The size of the structure will be dictated by the work functions required to be
carried out and will be strongly affected by the requirements to keep the topside
weight to the minimum.
3
Construction Activity Monitoring System
At the same time as the Design Specification is drafted it is possible for the
QUALITY ASSURANCE (QA) function to be implemented. This can take the
form of an Activity Monitoring System that would compile: Full certification for the location of all components, normally by way of as
built drawings. This would normally include any concessions, repairs
and the actual location of J tube and temporary access holes.
Full material certification
Non-destructive Testing (NDT) and inspection certification, which would
include personnel qualifications.
4
Guidance on Design and Construction
With these engineering requirements in mind as the basic starting point design
and structural engineers will be able to obtain guidance as to what minimum
standards are acceptable to the appropriate authority or government body
whatever country they are operating in. For an example the guidance in the UK
sector of the North Sea will be illustrated.
4.1
United Kingdom
There is a history of legislating in United Kingdom waters going back to 1972

when Parliament enacted legislation that provided for the health, safety and
Page 19 of 382

Chapter 1
welfare of persons working on offshore installations. This was The Mineral
Workings (Offshore Installations) Act 1971
The Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974 followed this.
Subsequently in 1975 The Petroleum and Submarines Pipelines Act
1975 was enacted, providing for all pipelines and offshore installations
not covered by the 1971 act.
Using the powers embodied in the 1971 Mineral Workings (Offshore
Installations) Act in 1974 the United Kingdom Department of Energy authorised,
The Offshore Installations (Construction and Survey) Regulations 1974
(SI 289).
This Statutory Instrument (SI) was followed, in April 1984 by, Offshore
Installations: Guidance on Design and Construction. The latest
amendment to this document was dated 1990
Both of these Statutory Instruments are now superseded as indicated later in
this Chapter.
4.2
Guidance from the UK Regulations
The guidance given in the UK regulations in the early 1970s followed good
engineering practice and provided design engineers what was then the most up
to date basic information as to the forces and loads acting upon any offshore
structure, with specific emphasis on the North Sea environment. It is worth
examining these regulations in a little detail because a good number of North
Sea structures in the UK sector were designed and installed during this period.
At that time a distinction was made between Primary Structure and
Secondary Structure; Primary Structure was defined as meaning all
structural components of an Offshore Installation, the failure of which would
seriously endanger the safety of the installation. Examples are, for fixed
Installations, piles, jacket legs and bracings, concrete caissons and towers, and
main deck girders, for a mobile Installation, lower hulls or pontoons, columns,
main bracings and deck beams and Secondary Structure, defined as, The
structural elements which are not primary structure are secondary structure.
Examples are deckhouses, walkways and helicopter decks The Guidance also
specified that the latest edition of any British Standard or Code of Practice
should be used where appropriate and further that standards and/or codes
other than British may be used provided that the Certifying Authority* was
satisfied there was an equivalent degree of safety and integrity
*In SI 289 in 1974 and the other legislation in force up to 1996 there were five authorised
certifying authorities. The current legislation now in force has revoked this authorisation and
now requires verification not certification
4.2.1 Specific Guidance

In SI 289 1974 The Guidance gave specific advice on: Clearance above waves (air gap)
Hazardous areas
Page 20 of 382

Layout of equipment and systems
Fendering
Pipeline risers
Location of accommodation and working areas
Escape routes
And various other subjects concerned with the safety of personnel and structure
4.2.2 Environment
Environmental considerations were also dealt with in some detail - advising
designers to determine parameters on: The speed and direction of winds
The heights, periods and directions of waves, the probability of their
occurrence and the effect of currents, seabed topography and other
factors likely to modify their characteristics
The water depth and variations in water level from tide and storm surge
The speed and direction of tidal and other currents
Air and sea temperatures
The extent of snow and ice accumulations
The extent to which marine growth may form on the submerged sections
of the installation
To assist the designer in determining these parameters various tables were
provided showing the then, current relevant data. Comprehensive guidance was
also given on corrosion protection and site investigations.
4.3
Steel and Concrete
Both these materials were considered in some detail with design parameters
indicated for structural and design engineers guidance.
4.3.1 Steel
This material may fail in service for a number of reasons as will be detailed in
later Chapters. The Guidance notes in the 1970s considered a number of
specific items.
Fatigue Life
Throughout its service life a structure is exposed to environmental loading.
This causes cyclic stress variations in its structural members. Of these
forces wave loading is the main source of potential fatigue cracking. The
calculated fatigue life should be not less than 20 years, or the required
service life if this is greater.
In most situations the potential fatigue crack is located in parent material
(e.g. at a weld toe) and the relevant cyclic stress is accepted as the range of
maximum principal stress at the potential crack location.
Specific Joint Design
Page 21 of 382

Chapter 1
The objective is to minimise stress concentration areas
Buckling
This is another prime possibility for component failure and must therefore
warrant special attention.
The Requirement for Destructive Testing
This is considered in order to minimise potential failures and as part of the
overall QA.
4.3.2 Concrete Structures
As with steel failure in service could occur due to a number of factors some
specific to concrete.
Limit State Design
Limit States
Shear
Fatigue
Deflection
Cracking
Cover Over Reinforcement
Reinforcement Detailing
4.4
Loads
The prime categories of loads are: Dead Loads

Imposed (Operational) Loads
Hydrostatic Loads
Environmental Loads
Deformation Loads
Accidental Loads
As far back as 1974 the Guidance indicated the required minimum
considerations for designers to take into account when considering accidental
loadings, along with the then current best advise on how best to determine
these loads.
5
Conclusion
It is obvious from the examples given here and from common engineering
experience that the engineering requirements for offshore structures anywhere
in the world will be similar. The only marked changes will be due to local
conditions either imposing greater loadings on the structure or perhaps the local
environment being more aggressive. The basic engineering will not change but
some components may have to be more massive or higher-grade materials may
be required to meet these local requirements.
Page 22 of 382

6
Pipelines
Offshore pipelines are used to transport oil or gas from platform to loading
towers or to shore. They are fabricated from high-grade steel pipe (e.g.API-5LX)
which is bitumen wrapped for corrosion prevention and coated with a layer of
reinforced concrete to provide a weight coating which gives additional protection
as well.
The sizes normally vary from 50 mm (2) to 914 mm (36) and the wall thickness
normally varies according to the pressure rating required.
6.1
Pipeline Laying
The methods for laying pipe has evolved since the 1950s and utilises lay barges
on which standard 12 m lengths of pipe are welded together along the centre of
the specially designed and fitted out deck of the vessel.
Each joint is X-rayed and then coated with bitumen and wrapped with a
protective sheathing.
As new lengths of pipe are added the assembly is fed over the stern and
the barge is moved forward, usually by pulling on anchors, which have
been laid by an associated anchor-handling vessel.
An alternative approach is laying pipe from a reel barge. The earliest application
of this technique occurred during World War II when a 76 mm (3) diameter pipe
was laid across the English Channel in Operation PLUTO (Pipeline Under The
Ocean). This early application utilised floating reels with the pipeline being
unwrapped from them as they were towed along.
The modern application requires the pipe to be prepared on land and then
wound onto the reel which is mounted on the stern of the reel laying vessel
which itself is moored at a specially designed pier. The vessel then proceeds to
the required site and lays the pipeline by un-reeling it over the stern as the
barge steams forward.
The welding and preparation work on land is carried out in a spooling
yard, where the pipe sections are supplied in 12 m (40 ft) lengths. These
are welded together to form stalks, usually about 518 m
(1700 ft) long. All the welds are X-rayed and coated and the stalks are
stowed in racks alongside the spooling dock
At the start of spooling, the first stalk is moved into the roller system. The
end is welded to a stub of pipe on the reel and is pulled onto the reel.
The second length is then welded to the end of the first, the weld is Xrayed and coated and the procedure is then repeated for subsequent
stalks
All welding and loading operations are performed at the shore facility and
therefore are less affected by weather conditions
The major area of criticality is establishing and maintaining even
tightness of the wraps on the reel, this is to avoid potential breakthrough
of one wrap into another, which would cause damage to the pipe
Page 23 of 382

Chapter 1
The reeling and un-reeling of the pipe actually causes yielding of the
steel and the maximum diameter pipeline that can be laid is 600 mm
(24). See Figure 1.1
Figure 1.1
MSV Norlift, laying the 10in pipeline,
between the Neptune and Mercury fields.
7
Offshore Oil Terminals
Large oil tankers are cheaper to run than small tankers. This philosophy of
building large tankers was reinforced in the 1950s when the Suez crisis forced
tankers from the Gulf to detour around the South of Africa in order to reach
Europe. As tanker sizes increased the number of ports that could handle
tankers decreased and public opinion was against allowing such tankers too
close to inhabited areas. Many solutions were proposed to solve this problem of
shrinking docking facilities which included artificial harbours, artificial offshore
islands, multiple buoy mooring systems, tower mooring systems and Single
Point Mooring or Single Buoy Mooring systems (SPMs or SBMs).
The SPM is the most widely used because of its relatively low operational cost,
reliability and flexibility. This configuration is illustrated in Chapter 2.
8
Future Trends
The future is likely to see continued development of current trends and

techniques in all areas of offshore engineering, with the probability of new
techniques being evolved to enable the exploitation of reserves which are
currently marginal or beyond the range of present day techniques.
8.1
Drilling
This is a branch of engineering, which has seen numerous developments the

results of which have made recovery of reserves more efficient and more
effective. Cost reduction and further development of marginal reserves will, no
Page 24 of 382

doubt, cause a continuation of developments of the present techniques and
trends. There will surely be, for instance, increased use of: Horizontal Drilling
This enables more formation to be exposed to production and reduces
reservoir problems such as associated gas and water production. It is useful
for thin and tight, low permeability reservoirs. Fewer wells are needed to
achieve optimum reservoir production than with conventional drilling
Extended Reach Drilling
This can reduce the number of platforms required to develop a field as a
greater reservoir area can be drained from one central platform. Horizontal
distances up to 7000 m have been achieved
Slim Line Well Design
Involves cost-effective casing design around an optimal production conduit,
this can also reduce the number of wells needed to achieve optimum
reservoir drainage
Rig Automation
This will allow several labour-intensive tasks such as pipe handling to be
carried out automatically. For instance, on the rig package developed for
Norske Shells Troll platform, only one driller and an assistant man the rig
floor. On a conventional rig, between five and seven people would be
needed to carry out equivalent tasks. All pipe-handling operations are
carried out from a specially designed control cabin. Removing personnel
from the drill floor means more cost-effective and potentially safer operations
Temporary (Lightweight) Topsides On Platforms
This design can make production platforms lighter and cheaper than
traditional platforms, which include permanent integrated drilling facilities.
For example, Norske Shells Draugen and Troll platforms are designed so
that the derrick set can be removed at the end of the drilling and completion
phase. Shells Gannet Platform is another lightweight design. Figure 1.2
refers
Page 25 of 382

Chapter 1
Figure 1.2
Gannet Platform North Sea
Central Sector
Tender Assisted Operations
These operations also help to minimise the weight of the production platform
by providing most drilling support equipment on a floating anchored, shipshaped tender in calm waters or an anchored semi- submersible unit for
deeper or harsher environments.
Mobile Drilling Units
These are jack-up or semi-submersible rigs, depending on water depth.
They can be used to drill production wells (with well completion on the
seabed and production pipelines led to a nearby facility) where size and
economics of the reservoir do not justify the installation of a platform.
Page 26 of 382

8.2
Design Practices
Todays fixed platforms are lighter, slimmer and simpler than the giant platforms
built in the 1970s. There is scope for further simplification, for example of
topsides, which account for more than half the capital cost of a platform. Figure
1.3 refers.
Figure 1.3
Comparisons of Capital Costs
Topside costs can be reduced, for instance by standardising designs and
reducing sparing (duplication of equipment).
Another option is to examine alternatives to conventional platform designs.
Studies of a purpose-built production jack-up unit, a concrete gravity structure
and a tripod tower platform have shown that all three are technically viable and
could offer cost saving for applications in water depths around 100 m.
Greater use of sub-sea satellite technology instead of building a platform can
reduce costs, especially where infrastructure already exists nearby which can
be used as a host platform. As indicated by the relative sizes of the pie charts
in Figure 1.3, the capital costs of constructing a sub-sea satellite 20 km from an
existing platform are much lower than the costs of constructing an additional
platform. However, in such an instance, the long term technical integrity of
existing facilities, platforms and pipelines must be ensured, given that they may
be in continued use beyond the original design life which was probably in the
order of 20 years anyway.
Page 27 of 382

Chapter 1
Bibliography
Engineering Aspects of North Sea Operations The Shell Approach
PP Tapper
The Gatwick Press
The Offshore Challenge
Shell Briefing Service
A Handbook for Underwater Inspectors
L K Porter
HMSO
The Offshore Installations (Construction and Survey) Regulations 1974
(SI 289)
BSI
Offshore Installations Guidance on Design and Construction
HMSO
API Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Fixed
Offshore Platforms
American Petroleum Institute
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
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Page 29 of 382

Chapter 2
CHAPTER 2
Offshore Structures and Installations
1
Introduction
Offshore hydrocarbon deposits may be gas or oil or a mixture of the two. They
are found at different depths in the seabed, they are of different sizes and the
recovery of the reserves can be easy or difficult depending on the actual
geology of the particular well. These factors influence the design of offshore
structures and combine to be one of the basic reasons for there being different
types of offshore installations. Some of the biggest installations are in the North
Sea and consist of concrete gravity structures. Then there are the more
common steel platforms, which can be of the eight-legged type or may be of a
lightweight four-legged variety. There are also jack-up rigs, which are mobile,
and tension leg platforms (TLP), which float. Apart from these production
facilities there are also, seabed wells, manifold centres and thousands of
kilometres of pipelines. Another common structure seen worldwide is the single
point mooring (SPM) which comes in a variety of designs, some of which
incorporate storage facilities.
2
Steel Production Platforms
With steel fixed platforms the jacket supports the superstructure, which contains
all the necessary facilities. The jacket is built in a fabrication yard and if it is a
large six or eight-legged jacket designed to support full production facilities it
may well have modified legs designed as floats, or additional ballast tanks may
be installed so that it can be floated out to the site. Smaller steel structures,
which have been designed, and built as a result of advances made in materials,
better understanding of the forces imposed on offshore structures and different
design concepts are loaded onto a barge which carries them out. Both these
types of platform are sometimes referred to as steel piled structures because
the jacket is piled into the seabed once it is in the upright position with piles
either driven through the legs or positioned around the main legs and driven
through pile sleeves, so-called skirt piles. One example of the large fixed
production platform is the Brent A, which is installed in ShellExpros Brent Field
in the North Sea.
2.1
Brent A Statistics
Water Depth
140 m
Substructure
Jacket Type
Self-floating steel construction
Number of legs
Number of piles
32 (skirt piles)
Weight of jacket
14,225 tonnes
Weight of piles
7,316 tonnes
Page 30 of 382

Superstructure
Production capacity
100,000 bbl/d oil and 200-mmscfd gas
Height of deck above sea level
21.7 m
Deck area
2300 m2
Deck construction
Plate girder
Weight of deck
1,507 tonnes
Weight of deck facilities
2,354 tonnes
Weight of modules and equipment
14,762 tonnes
See Figure 2.1
Figure 2.1
ShellExpros Brent A Production Platform
North Sea
An example of a lightweight platform servicing seabed wellheads and facilities is
the Gannet A platform in ShellExpros Gannet Field in the central North Sea.
The structure itself is of the same basic design, but is much less massive than
the production platform. Figure 2.2 refers
Page 31 of 382

Chapter 2
Figure 2.2
ShellExpros Gannet Platform
2.2
Terminology
The production platforms are the most massive installations and they may be of
steel or concrete construction, steel being the most prevalent. Both types have
standard components and a through working knowledge of this terminology is
necessary to be able to communicate with other engineers. Much of this
terminology also applies to the other types of structures and therefore a review
of this topic for platforms forms the basis for a comprehensive working technical
vocabulary.
See Figures 2.3 and 2.4
Page 32 of 382

Figure 2.3
Steel Platform
Page 33 of 382

Chapter 2
2.2.1 Basic Components of Steel Platforms
Following is the common terminology for the components making up the steel
sub-sea structure, the jacket, which is constructed of steel pipe work and piled
into the seabed.
Figure 2.4
A Four Legged Jacket
Built For the Compression Platform
Installed As Part of CMS 2
Can
One of the sections making up a leg
Conductor Guide Frame
Horizontal sections of framework, which restrain and guide the conductors
Page 34 of 382

Leg
The main vertical component, constructed from a number of sections welded
together, supporting the rest of the structure
Member
One of the horizontal, vertical or diagonal components of the jacket
Node
A point on the welded steel structure where two or more members meet and
are joined. Figure 2.5 refers.
Figure 2.5
Typical Node
Pile Guides
This is a steel cylinder that supports the pile while it is driven into the
seabed. Pile guides are mounted in clusters around each leg at various
levels. They are often removed on completion of piling operations
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Chapter 2
Pile Sleeves
These are long steel cylinders, grouped around the base of the legs into
which the piles are located before being driven into the seabed. The tops of
the piles should be level with the tops of the sleeves on completion of piling.
See Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6
Pile Sleeves
Additional to these components are a number of appurtenances (attachments).
The more important of these are: Caissons
Open bottomed tubular components terminating at various depths for the
purpose of the intake or discharge of water or waste
Conductors
These are tubes for drilling purposes connecting seabed wells to the
topside. Figure 2.7 refers.
Page 36 of 382

Figure 2.7
Conductors
Flowline Bundles
Pipe work-bringing oil or gas from satellite wellheads into the platform and
containing control lines, product lines and well injection lines See Figure
2.48
Oil And Gas Risers
The vertical section of the pipeline extending up the full height of the jacket
that used for transporting oil or gas. Production risers carry oil or gas up
from the seabed wellheads via the submarine pipelines. Export risers take
the processed hydrocarbons down to pipelines. Refer to Figures 2.8 and 2.9
and 2.xx to 2.tt
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Chapter 2
Conductor
Sea level
Export or Import
Riser
Vertical
Diagonal brace
Horizontal brace
Riser clamp
Node
Pile
Pile
Flow-line
Seabed
Figure 2.8
Steel Structure Terminology
Batter
Sea level
Export or Import
Riser
Conductor
Vertical
Diagonal brace
Horizontal brace
Riser clamp
Node
Pile
Pile sleeve
Flowline
Seabed
Figure 2.9
Steel Structure Terminology
Page 38 of 382

3
Concrete and Steel Gravity Platforms
The first gravity structure was installed in the North Sea in the mid-1970s while
the first steel gravity platform was installed offshore in the Congo in the late1970s. Steel gravity structures have not proliferated while concrete have.
The concept of a concrete structure came about because of some of the
problems associated with steel structures, namely the necessity for a large
number of heavy and large piles and the corrosion problem with steel in a
hostile environment. Concrete gravity structures require no piles and are
immune to corrosion.
Initially there were perceived additional advantages of storage space within the
base cells and potentially huge deck space which could be fitted out in calm
sheltered water which in turn would minimise on-site commissioning thus
reducing expensive offshore construction manpower.
Figure 2.10
ShellExpros Brent D Concrete
Gravity Platform North Sea
Apart from Brent D illustrated in Figure 2.10 there are numerous examples of
this type of structure constructed to different designs, such as Condeep, CG
Page 39 of 382

Chapter 2
Doris and McAlpine Seatank. To give some idea of the scale of this type of
platform the main statistics for Cormorant, A which is a four-legged design,
installed in the Cormorant Field in the North Sea are detailed here.
3.1
Cormorant A Statistics
Water Depth
150 m
Substructure
Storage Capacity
1,000,000 bbls
Caisson shape
Square
Caisson height
57 m
Number of legs
Weight in air
294,655 tonnes
Superstructure
3.2
Production capacity
60,000 b/d oil and 30-mmscfd gas
Height of deck above MSL
23 m
Area of deck
4,200 m2
Deck construction
box girder
Weight of deck
5,593 tonnes
Weight of deck equipment
3,593 tonnes
Weight of modules
19,011 tonnes
Disadvantages of Concrete Structures
In spite of the initial optimism for the design of concrete structures it has been
found that there are a number of disadvantages for this type of structure.
There are stability problems during tow-out to site that have to be counteracted
by limiting the topside weight thus reducing the apparent advantage of large
deck space fitted out in sheltered waters.
The very heavy lift derrick barges now operating are able to operate in
comparatively wide weather variations, which has reduced the cost of offshore
installations thus limiting the apparent cost advantage of concrete constructions.
Concrete as a material cannot withstand tensile forces. This in turn means the
use of the base storage cells must be carefully monitored at all times to avoid
any possibility of the storage of crude oil causing a build-up of differential
loadings between cells thus causing excessive tensile stresses. Also pressure
must not be allowed to build up in the cells; vapour pressure must not exceed
2 bar (30 psi). A further consideration is that oil temperature in the cells must
not exceed 38o C in order to avoid thermal stresses. Another, problem
associated with the storage of crude oil is that if it is not carefully monitored
emulsions formed by the inter-action of oil and associated water can
accumulate permanently within the cells. Reservoir sand must not be allowed to
accumulate and build up either and therefore steps have to be taken to
eliminate this from the crude before it reaches the cells.
Page 40 of 382

At least one of the main shafts will house utilities and because it is some 100m
tall and very narrow ventilating it is difficult which necessitates the use of
breathing apparatus by maintenance staff working there. This in turn makes
routine maintenance and operations of the equipment difficult.
Stagnant water accumulated in the structure encourages the growth of aerobic
bacteria, which consume oxygen, which in turn generates ideal conditions for
the formation of Sulphate Reducing Bacteria (SRB). The growth of SRBs in turn
leads to the production of Hydrogen Sulphide H2S. This problem necessitates
the creation of safety zones and special procedures to avoid risk to personnel.
Figure 2.11
Processing Takes Place on Statoils Gullfaks A Platform.
North Sea
3.3
Basic Components of a Concrete Gravity Structure
Gravity structures may be made of steel or a mixture of steel and concrete but
the most usual material is concrete itself. They are anchored to the seabed by
their own mass hence the term gravity. Common features of this type of design
are the large diameter columns supporting the deck module and numerous
ballast/storage tanks making up the base. See Figure 2.11 and 2.14
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Chapter 2
3.4
Common Concrete Components
Some components are common to all concrete structures. The following list
defines a number of these.
Anchorage Point
This is an essential part of the tensioning components in pre-stressed
concrete structures. The anchorage point is cast into the concrete at the
ends of the tensioning tendon or bundle of tendons. It grips the tendon and
thereby transfers the load from it to the structural concrete. It is commonly
encased in protective concrete domes. Figure 2.12
Breakwater Walls
Concrete walls in the splash zone, containing cast in holes that dissipate the
wave energy and thus protect the structure within the walled area
Cachetage Point
This is an alternative name for Anchorage Point. Refer to Figure 2.12
Figure 2.12
Cross-sectional Drawing of a Cachetage Point
Jarlan Holes
A term used to describe the cast in holes in the Breakwater Walls. See
Figure 2.13
Page 42 of 382

Figure 2.13
Close-up Photograph Of A Jarlan Hole
Support Columns
These are the concrete, or steel, columns supporting the deck module. See
Figure 2.14
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Chapter 2
Figure 2.14
Support Columns and Support Domes
on a Condeep Design Concrete Platform
Page 44 of 382

Support Domes
These are the tops of the tanks at the base of the structure, which may store
oil, water or drilling mud. See also Figure 2.15
4
Terminology with Different Offshore Structures
Having introduced the terminology associated with production platforms the

discussion should be extended to other types of offshore structures and
vessels. There are a number of different configurations for structures that are
designed to fulfil different functions.
4.1
Jack-up Rigs
These rigs are used for wildcat drilling, production drilling and workovers. See
Figure 2.15.
Figure 2.15
A Three-legged Jack-up Drilling Platform
With Tow Still Attached Starting to Jack-up
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Chapter 2
The jack-up platform consists of a main platform, which is watertight (the hull)
and floats for transit. Attached to the hull via a rack and pinion assembly are the
tubular steel lattice frame legs. The gears lower the legs to the seabed and the
hull is then jacked up by this same method to clear the water. On completion of
the drilling the whole operation is reversed and the rig is towed away to a
different site.
4.2
A Semi-submersible Rig
These are used for the same tasks as jack-ups and may be self-powered or not.
Figures 2.16 to 2.18 refer.
Figure 2.16
The sgard B Semi-Submersible Production Platform Is Linked To
the Semi-submersible Accommodation Flotel Safe Britannia
In deeper water the legs of a jack-up platform would be so long as to give
concern about the stability of the legs unless they were much larger in section.
Therefore this type of rig is not used in water deeper than about
60 m. At greater water depths the semi-submersible platform is employed. The
rig has large hollow legs and pontoons, which can be flooded or pumped dry at
will, thus ballasting the platform. When moving from site to site the rig is
ballasted up to reduce water drag during transit and, when drilling, the rig is
ballasted down to improve stability. It does float at all times and therefore when
drilling it is kept in place usually by anchors but it may keep position by dynamic
positioning (DP). That is the main engines run all the time and computers
especially programmed for the task with current data on weather, tide, sea state
and various navigation inputs control the thrust to the various thrusters
Page 46 of 382

(propellers) to keep the vessel stationary in the sea directly over one point on
the seabed.
Figure 2.17
Delivery of the sgard B Hull by the Mighty Servant 3
Figure 2.18
The Turret Of The sgard A Floating Production Vessel
Merges With The Internal Pipe Work.
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Chapter 2
4.3
Drill ship
The drill ship is used for the same tasks as a jack-up but in deeper water it is
more weather dependant. It is also more manoeuvrable and mobile. See Figure
2.19
Figure 2.19
Drillship Discovery 1
Either DP or anchors normally keep drillships on station dependent on the water
depth, site and project parameters. See Figure 2.19
4.4
Compliant Towers
This design is a tall, slim steel structure that is designed to sway slightly, that is
complies with the effects of the wave action. The design is conceived as a halfway house between fixed and floating structures. It is possible to use the
design in water depths up to some 1000 m in moderate environments. The
Baldpate GB 260 Platform is located in 499m (1,650ft) of water, in Garden
Banks (GB) block 260, 120 miles off the Louisiana coast. This is the first
freestanding offshore compliant tower ever, as well as one of the tallest
freestanding structures in the world. The tip of the flare boom extends (575m
1,902ft) above the seafloor. Figures 2.20 to 2.24 refer.
Page 48 of 382

Figure 2.20
GB 260 Compliant Tower
Gulf of Mexico
Page 49 of 382

Chapter 2
Figure 2.21
Artist Impression of
GB 260 Compliant Tower
Page 50 of 382

Figure 2.22
GB 260 Base on Tow Barge
during Tow out To Site
Figure 2.23
GB 260 Jacket
before Float Out
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Chapter 2
Figure 2.24
GB 260 Base Launch
4.5
Tension Leg Floating Platforms
Tension Leg Platforms (TLP) consist of a hull anchored to the seabed with
vertical tendons. Vertical movement is constrained by the tendons thus allowing
production wells to be located on deck. An example of this type of structure is
Conocos TLP in the Hutton Field in the North Sea which was installed in 1984.
This design is suitable for deep-water production and some engineers believe
the technology could be extended to water depths of 3000 m. See Figures 2.25
to 2.27
Figure 2.25
Statoils Snorre B TLP
North Sea
Page 52 of 382

Figure 2.26
Diagrammatic Layout of
a Typical TLP
Figure 2.27
Snorre B Anchor Points under Tow
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Chapter 2
4.6
Floating Production Systems
Floating production systems (FPS) are a variation on the theme of TLPs and
consist of a floating vessel with production facilities connected to seabed wells
by flexible risers. Vessels may be purpose built, or converted and may be
mono-hulls or semi-submersible. Tankers, for example can be converted for this
task relatively quickly and cheaply. In this case they are usually known as
Floating Production and Storage Operations (FPSO). These vessels are quite
weather dependant, which is why purpose built vessels, have been developed
and why semi-submersibles are used for this concept. Semi-submersibles do
not have oil storage capacity, which therefore has to be provided separately.
FPSs were first introduced in the 1970s and today they have potential for
development for deep water drilling. Figures 2.28 to 2.30 refer.
Figure 2.28
The sgard A FPSO
Measures 278m in Length
and Has A Displacement of 184,300t.
Figure 2.29
Terra Nova FPSO
Page 54 of 382

Figure 2.30
Terra Nova FPSO Schematic
5 Floating Production Storage & Offloading Units (FPSO) FPSOs have
been used since 1977 when the first FPSO was installed off Spain. A typical
offshore installation is shown in Figure 2.31, 2.32 and 2.36
5.1
Reasons for using an FPSO
FPSOs are used where: The water depth is too great for installing a fixed platform
In shallow water locations where the size of the hydrocarbon
accumulations are not large enough to make a fixed installation
commercially viable
In remote locations where export pipelines would be too expensive
Where the hydrocarbon accumulations are dispersed so far as to make
drilling from one platform not viable.
Where weather conditions are extreme, utilising purpose designed
units.Features of an FPSO
There are a number of common components that are found on any FPSO: Turret see Figure 2.35, to 2.37
Flexible Riser Systems see Figure 2.33Sub-sea Pipeline and Wellhead
systems see Figures 2.37Offloading systemMooring systemFigures 2.28
to 2.46 refer
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Chapter 2
Figure 2.31
Typical FPSO
Figure 2.32
Tanker Conversion FPSO
Page 56 of 382

Figure 2.33
FPSO Diagrammatic Layout
Figure 2.34
Flexible Riser Flotation
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Chapter 2
6
Inspection of FPSO systems
Inspection programs for FPSOs revolve around the dry docking program. As
these systems are vessels it is usual for them to be dry docked every 5 years.
This is not a hard and fast rule in every part of the world as there are
arrangements for these vessels to be inspected on site over a longer period
than this. Also extensions are possible even on a 5-year regime. However, a
typical inspection program would include the following: Mooring and Riser Inspection
ROV visual hull survey
Specific inspection of all sea chests
Turret Inspection
Inspect mid-water arch and confirm the lazy S configuration
Measurements of individual mooring chain links for wear
These inspections should be carried out when the FPSO is loaded in order to
video the entire wetted area of the hullMore detailed inspections are normally
carried out during refit or dry-dock and include: Eddy current or MPI inspection of specified components
Wall thickness measurements in specified areasCP survey and
replacement of anodes
6.1
Seabed Facilities
The first sub-sea production Christmas tree was installed by Shell offshore
California in 1961. Since then there has been a steady increase in these
facilities with the early wellheads being installed and serviced by divers.
Developments now allow these tasks to be completed remotely thus,
importantly extending the depth range for installation and maintenance.
Apart from seabed wellheads there are also manifold centres such as the
Underwater Manifold Centre (UMC) in Shells Cormorant Field, Linear Block
Manifolds (LBM) as installed in Shells Osprey Field and Sub-sea Isolation
Valves (SSIV) as installed throughout the North Sea. Currently there are more
than 650 sub-sea wells worldwide of which approximately one third are installed
on the UK continental shelf. These structures can offer advantages over
platforms.
To reach remote pats of the field inaccessible to the existing platform
To develop a field too small to warrant the cost of a fixed platform where
process facilities can be provided as required by a floating facility
To develop a wide spread field using dedicated FPS and linking the wells
with pipelines
To develop a number of smaller fields all in the same district again using
FPS
Some of these facilities are illustrated below. See Figures 2.38 to 2.46
Page 58 of 382

Figure 2.35
Balder Field FPU
Page 59 of 382

Chapter 2
Figure 2.36
Artist Impression
Balder Field Schematic
Page 60 of 382

Figure 2.37
Balder FPU Turret
Being Installed
Page 61 of 382

Chapter 2
Figure 2.38
Machar Field Seabed Manifolds
Page 62 of 382

Figure 2.39
Dunbar Sub-sea Choke Manifold
Figure 2.40
Schematic Seabed Four Well Layout
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Chapter 2
Figure 2.41
Gannet Sub-sea Isolation Valve (SSIV)
Assembly Installation
Page 64 of 382

Figure 2.42
Gullfaks Hinge-over Sub-sea Template (HOST)
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Chapter 2
Figure 2.43
Renee Field Manifold
and Wellheads
Figure 2.44
Snohvit Seabed Wellheads
and Protection Frame
Page 66 of 382

Figure 2.45
Vixen Sub-sea Tree
Figure 2.46
Vixen Wellhead Structure
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Chapter 2
6.2
Pipelines
Pipelines are used extensively for the transport of crude oil and gas and there
are many thousands of kilometres of sub-sea pipelines throughout the world.
Figures 2.47 to 2.56 indicate some of these facilities and how they are laid.
These structures may appear to be simple on an initial cursory inspection but
they are carefully designed and a good deal of specialised design effort goes
into their construction. Traditional pipelines are constructed of steel and may be
made up of nominal 40 foot (12.1 m) lengths of pipe sections up to 3 feet (0.9
m) in diameter which are welded together. Figure 2.47 shows a lay barge in
operation.
Alternatively smaller diameter steel pipe up to 2 foot (0.6 m) diameter can be
laid up onto special reels and then laid in long lengths off the back of specially
designed reel-laying vessels. Modern developments in materials have led to the
widespread use of composite pipes made up of a variety of polymers. One such
pipe is known as Coflexip. This type of pipe is commonly laid from specially
designed reels off the back of suitable vessels. Figures 2.51 to 2.55 give an
indication of reel laying operations.
A typical field joint in a pipeline is illustrated in Figure 2.56 that indicates some
of the complexities of the design and fabrication of this joint.
Page 68 of 382

Figure 2.47
Lay barge LB 200 Operating in
Dunbar Field
Figure 2.48
Dunbar Field Double Wall Interpipe
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Chapter 2
Figure 2.49
Gullfaks Flowline Bundle
Page 70 of 382

Figure 2.50
Beach Launched Pipeline Bundle Showing PLEM About To
Enter the Water
Figure 2.51
A General View of CSO Apache Reel Laying Vessel
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Chapter 2
Figure 2.52
Onshore Facilities and Jetty for Fabrication, Preparation
and Loading Pipelines onto Reel Laying Vessels
Figure 2.53
Pipe Sections Stockpiled Ready for Fabrication
Page 72 of 382

Figure 2.54
Pipeline Fabrication in the Sheds at the Pipe Yard
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Chapter 2
Figure 2.55
Stern View of the CSO Apache Reel Laying On the Cook Project
Figure 2.56
Diagram of a Standard Pipe Length Field Joint
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This page is blank
Page 75 of 382

Chapter 3
CHAPTER 3
Loading On Offshore Structures - Engineering
Concepts
1
General Introduction
When any structure is being designed the engineers will, as a matter of course,
consider the forces exerted by wind, water, weight of equipment and working
loads. The material that the structure is built from supports these forces. The
forces set up stresses within the material.
Stress is a convenient way of defining the load a material is required to
withstand in such a way that comparisons with the loading on other structures of
different sizes and shapes can be made. It also allows comparison with the
mechanical properties; for example, how near the working stress of any
member is to the yield stress or ultimate tensile stress of the material.
Comparisons of stresses in different parts of the structure identify those
members that are carrying the heaviest loads.
1.1
Stress
Stress is defined as the Force (or load) divided by the cross-sectional area
carrying that load. Stress is denoted by the Greek letter (sigma) and is
defined mathematically
As a simple example of how the concept of stress is applied consider the

following. Figure 3.1 illustrates a connecting rod. The rod experiences a tension
force of 700 N (Newton). Estimate the average stress at each of the crosssections P and Q
Figure 3.1
Connecting Rod Diagram
Page 76 of 382

Loading on Offshore Structures Engineering Concepts
Solution
Section P
From the diagram the force acting on the section P
is 700N outward from the surface. The cross-section area is:
A = r2 =19.6 x 10-6 m2
Then using
= A
= 35.7 MNm-2
Section Q
Again from the diagram the force is 700N outward from the
surface. The new cross-section area is
A = r2 =7.07 x 10-6 m2
Then using
F = A
= 99.0 MNm-2
1.2
Types of Stress
When a material is required to support or transmit a load, it does so by creating

a force between the atoms of the material by moving them from their equilibrium
position. This can occur in a number of ways.
Tensile stress
This is created in the material when the atoms are pulled apart. See
Figure 3.2
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Chapter 3
Figure 3.2
Tensile Loading on a Solid
Compressive stress
This is the exact opposite of tensile stress. The atoms are pressed
together as illustrated in Figure 3.3. Usually tensile stresses are thought
of as positive (+) stresses and compressive stresses as negative (-)
stresses.
Figure 3.3
Compressive Loading of a Solid
Page 78 of 382

Bending stress
Structures are sometimes loaded in such a way that there is a mixture of
tensile and compressive stresses in it. A simple beam supported at the
ends and loaded in the middle is a good example as illustrated in Figure
3.4
Figure 3.4
A Simple Beam with a Point Load
The top surface is observed to get shorter as it experiences compressive
stresses, and the bottom surface gets longer as it experiences tensile
stresses. This type of loading gives a stress distribution that varies from
maximum compressive stress on one side, to zero at an unstressed layer
called the neutral axis, to maximum tensile stress at the other side. In
this type of structure, there are both tensile and compressive stresses.
Most braces in platform structures experience this mixture of stresses.
Shear Stress
Another way in which the atoms can be moved to create a force is when
layers of atoms are pushed past each other. This is called shear.
Shear stress ( ) is defined mathematically thus
The symbol generally used for shear stress is the Greek letter
Shear stress is illustrated in Figure 3.5.
(tau).
o As a note of interest, in general, fluids and gasses at rest,

cannot produce shear resistance when stationary, and so are
subjected to pressure only, which acts at right angles to any
surface.
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Chapter 3
o As well as the shearing action shown in Figure 3.5 most
rotating motion is transmitted by shear; for example, the drive
shaft of a car or the force to tighten a valve. This is often
referred to as Torsion.
Figure 3.5
Shear Loading of a Solid
Every material will have a characteristic way of reacting to stress. The particular
reaction for a given material will be determined by the material properties.
2
Properties of Materials
Materials are identified by their characteristic qualities such as; hardness,

rigidity, conductivity, magnetic or not and so on. In order that engineers can
compare one material with another it is necessary to quantify these material
properties. Among those properties commonly considered when selecting a
material for a particular application are: Stress
Strain
Youngs Modulus
Toughness
Electrical Conductivity
Thermal Conductivity
Density
Hardness (wear resistance)
There are others but these will serve to illustrate the principle. It is not
necessary here to consider all these properties but some comments on those
affecting load bearing should be of some benefit.
2.1
Yield Stress
When a component is loaded, the material initially behaves elastically. This

means that when the load is removed, the component returns to its original size
Page 80 of 382

and shape. This will continue while the component is in use, unless the yield
load is exceeded.
Yield Stress is therefore the stress at which the material will no longer behave
wholly elastically.
If the loading is continued beyond the yield point, the material will deform and
some of that deformation will be permanent. Therefore, if a structure or part of it
is dented or bent, this indicates that it has been loaded above the yield stress.
2.2
Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)
If loading is continued well into the yield region, it reaches a maximum value
known as the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS).
Ductile Fracture
Attempts to load beyond this value will result in the material failing by ductile
fracture. Ductile fracture can be identified by a large amount of local
deformation in the region of the fracture.
Loading a material beyond its UTS can occur within the material at microscopic
sites such that there is no noticeable deformation. This type of failure can be
caused by:
Brittle Fracture
This occurs due to the metal becoming harder locally than the surrounding
matrix. This local hardening may be as a result of:
o Differences In The Material Microstructure
This can occur during either the smelting process or during the
welding process. In either case the root cause is incorrect
management of the cooling process leading to local quenching. This
leaves some of the grain structure in a brittle state.
o Hydrogen Embrittlement
On an offshore structure hydrogen embrittlement may be caused
because of overprotection from an impressed current cathodic
protection system. Hydrogen embrittlement may also be caused due
to incorrect welding techniques.
In either case the fracture surfaces do not display any deformation.
Fatigue Fracture
Cyclic loading causes this. In a corrosive environment such as seawater a
structure will have a design finite fatigue life. The vibrations caused by wave
and wind actions as well as drilling operations on platforms apply the cyclic
loads. Local components may fail prematurely, however due to macroscopic
variations. The mechanism for failure is the cyclic loadings cause metal to
become harder locally than the surrounding metal (a form of workhardening). This local brittleness prevents the metal from flexing normally
and can lead to failure. The signs of fatigue failure are the same as brittle
fracture in that there is no local deformation.
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Chapter 3
This lack of noticeable local deformation has been one of the driving forces
behind the development of the science of non-destructive testing which is
considered in depth in later chapters. See Figure 3.6
Figure 3.6
Typical Tensile Test Characteristics for
Ductile and Brittle Failure
2.3
Stress Concentration
Stress concentration is caused within a material because geometric

irregularities magnify applied stresses locally. These irregularities can be large
or small including; holes, notches, sharp corners, inclusions and cracks. What is
vitally important about a stress concentration is its shape not its size. Professor
Inglis first developed the theory of stress concentration at the beginning of the
20th century when studying the cause of the formation of cracks from the
corners of hatch covers in the decks of merchant ships.
The effects of stress concentration can be illustrated by considering an elliptical
hole in a large flat plate made of an elastic material such as mild steel as shown
in Figure 3.7
Page 82 of 382

Figure 3.7
Stress Concentration
The applied stress is enhanced locally by a factor of:
Where 2l is the length of the major axis of the hole and r is the radius at the
sharper end, the minor axis.
This factor is called the stress concentration factor Kt. For a circular hole
l = r and the stress concentration factor becomes 3.
As r gets smaller compared to l the elliptical hole becomes crack-like and the
stress concentration factor increases.
3
Crack Stopping or Blunting
From the discussion above it should be obvious why one of the standard
emergency remedial procedures, when a crack has been discovered, is to drill a
hole at the tip of the crack. This is often referred to as crack blunting or
stopping. Whatever the stress intensity factor is prior to the hole being drilled,
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Chapter 3
after the hole is drilled it reduces to 3. This same principle is applied to the toes
of welds which are ground out if undercutting is severe and it applies when an
inspection procedure calls for crack-like defects to be ground out, thus reducing
the l/r ratio and reducing Kt
4
Residual Stresses
Residual stresses are set up within the structure during manufacture. They may
have arisen from thermal stresses caused by welding during manufacture or by
mechanical stresses set up by force-fitting members of a structure together. It is
possible to remove these by a stress relieving treatment. If, for whatever
reason, this is either not done, or is incorrectly applied, residual stresses will
remain in a material, The working stresses then set up during the operational
life of the structure will add to the value of the residual stress. This means that
the structure is subjected to a higher stress in service than the design predicted,
as the designer would have calculated only the working stress.
5
Forces on a Structure
The stresses on the structure will be affected by the forces that the structure
experiences. These are of two types; steady and vibrational. Several different
effects produce these forces; for example the weight of the equipment, the
reaction of the drilling forces, the hydrodynamic forces due to wind and wave
action.
5.1
The Steady Force on a Structure in a Fluid Flow
The steady force exerted by a fluid as it passes a stationary structure is known

as the drag force. Therefore if a structure is placed in a current of water (the
tide) or air (the wind) it will experience a force in the direction of the flow trying
to move it in that direction. This can be illustrated in a simple way by placing a
walking stick in a swiftly flowing stream. A holding force must be exerted to
keep the stick in position. This holding force is equal and opposite to the drag
force on the walking stick caused by the stream. Figure 3.10 Refers
Figure 3.10
Force On a Cylinder in a Steady Flow
Page 84 of 382

The size of this drag force depends on several factors that are related by a
simple formula: Drag Force (Fd) = Cd AV2
Where
V is the velocity of the fluid flow
(Note that the force on the cylinder in the flow varies with the square of the
velocity. For example, double the flow speed and the drag force is increased
four times, treble the flow speed and the drag force is increased by nine times)
A is the projected area at right angles to the direction

of the fluid flow
(Which for a cylinder of diameter D immersed to a depth h is given by
A = Dh)
is the density of the fluid

(As water id denser than air, the drag force on a cylinder in water would be
greater than that of air flowing at the same velocity.)
Cd is the drag coefficient

(This is a number that takes into account the shape of the structure and the
roughness of its surface.)
5.1.1 Drag Coefficient

For illustration consider a disc of diameter D in a fluid flow of velocity V. If a
hemisphere of the same diameter as the disc is fixed on the front of the disc, we
find that the drag force is reduced. As nothing else has changed, it means that
the drag coefficient of this shape is less than that of a disc. If a cone is now
added behind the disc, we find that the drag force is further reduced. Again, as
nothing else has changed it means that the drag coefficient has reduced. See
Figure 3.11.
Figure 3.11
Change of Drag Coefficient with Shape
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Chapter 3
5.2
Vibrational Forces on a Structure in a Fluid Flow
Consider the example of a cylinder in a fluid flow as outlined in paragraph 5.1

but this time look at the flow pattern behind the cylinder. Figure 3.12 illustrates
this. Notice that the flow behind the cylinder is not symmetrical but that vortices
are shed alternatively form each side.
Figure 3.12
Von Karmen Vortices Shed From a
Cylinder in a Fluid Flow
The effect of this is to place on the cylinder an alternating force at right angles
to the fluid flow and drag force direction. Figure 3.13 refers.
Figure 3.13
Variations in Side Forces on a
Cylinder in a Fluid Flow
The cyclic forces generated by the wind and water flowing past the structure
causes the vibrations that are so important when considering the fatigue life of a
structure.
5.3
Wave Loadings
Waves provide an oscillatory motion to the structure, producing forces that act
in addition to the forces produced by tidal currents.
These forces deform or try to overturn the structure
The waves have a predominant direction for their maximum effect, but
can come from any direction, since they are wind generated
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Waves produced in a storm are generally short and very confused
However, when produced by winds blowing over a long distance, or
fetch, the waves tend to moderate into long, high swell waves with a long
period
A period of 14 seconds produces a wavelength of about 300 m
The height of the waves is independent of the period, but depends upon
the stability of the waves and the energy content
For the purposes of classification by the Duty Holder and for insurance,
there are standards for any design; these are based on statistical data.
As much information as possible is collected over as long a period as
possible on: o Wave heights
o Wave directions
o Wave periods
The analysis of these data produces two main results: The maximum wave to be expected in a given time span, generally a 100
year period. (This is only a statistical quality adopted for design, so more
than one of these waves, or even larger waves, might actually occur
An energy spectrum of the waves (i.e. the graph of the energy in the
waves at different periodic times)
5.3.1 Structural Design for Wave Loadings
Structures are therefore designed for two conditions:
Static loading, using the maximum 100 year storm wave
Dynamic loading, using the energy spectrum
Owing to the directional properties of the waves, the structure will be designed
and placed so that the largest waves from the predominant direction are taken
on its strongest orientation, but all other directions should be considered.
Inaccuracy in placing the structure can create loads greater than the design
loads in that direction.
5.3.1.1 Static Loads
The static analysis based on the 100 year storm wave is straightforward, but
requires a great deal of work, since both the direction and position of the wave
crest, relative to the structure, will produce different effects on different parts of
the structure.
A wave, being an oscillatory motion, contains water particles with both velocity
and acceleration.
The velocity will produce drag forces, as mentioned above
The acceleration will produce inertia forces, in the same way as any car
that is slowed down requires a breaking force
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Chapter 3
5.3.1.2 Dynamic Loading
The dynamic response of a structure can be demonstrated easily by swinging a
weight on the end of a string, as a pendulum.
If the movement of the hand holding the string varies in frequency so will
the deflection of the weight at the other end of the string
If the amplitude of the hand movement is fixed and the swing or
displacement of the weight is noted, it will be observed that as the
frequency of oscillation of the hand increases, so the amplitude of the
swinging weight will change
o First, the amplitude will increase up to a maximum value, the
frequency of the hand movement at this condition will be the
natural frequency of the system
o Thereafter the amplitude will decrease
Another observation is that as the weight displacement increases, the
direction of the swing well be the same as that of the hand movement.
The motion of the hand and the weight are in phase
o Once the maximum amplitude of the weight has been exceeded, it
will be noticed that the weight is moving in the opposite direction
to the hand movement and the motion is then said to be out of
phase
o As the frequency of the hand motion is further increased, the
amplitude of the weight reduces to almost nothing
o The peak displacement of the weight occurs at a point called the
natural frequency
o This frequency will decrease with increasing length of string and
increasing weight
o Thus considering the hand movement of this example, at certain
frequencies of forcing the displacements produced can be very
large
5.4
Structural Response to Wave Loading
When a structure is placed in the sea it will experience a range of wave

energies and frequencies causing the structure to deflect
As the frequency of the wave energy peak approaches the natural
frequency of the structure, so the deflection of the structure increases
and with it the stress
The further the peaks of wave energy, frequency spectrum and natural
frequency are separated, the lower the maximum deflection of the
structure
The same analysis applies to diving and other floating vessels in heave roll and
pitch. Thus vessels designed for use in one part of the world may be unsuitable
for use in another, where the frequency spectrum differs.
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The natural frequency decreases as the height of the structure increases. Thus
new designs of structures developed for open water applications such as the
compliant tower and the TLP have natural frequencies below the wave energy
peak.
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Chapter 3
Bibliography
Mel Bayliss
David Short
Mary Bax
Failure of Stressed Materials
The Open University
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Chapter 4
CHAPTER 4
Deterioration of Offshore Steel Structures
1
General Comments
As soon as any piece of engineering equipment, such as an engine, pipeline,

bridge or offshore structure is brought into service it starts to wear out because
of use and if it is not maintained it will eventually cease to operate satisfactorily,
either by no longer carrying out the function for which it was designed or by
failing in a catastrophic manner. The possible causes of deterioration of an
offshore structure including accidental damage, corrosion, fatigue, wear and
embrittlement are discussed in this chapter.
2
Categories of Deterioration and Damage
Broadly speaking the modes of deterioration may be classified into 6 groups: Gross structural damage
Corrosion and erosion
Fouling defects
Coating defects
Scour
Metal and weld defects
Specific types of deterioration and damage within these groups may be
categorised as: Deformation of the structure caused by impact
Loss of concrete matrix through impact or internal flaws
Missing bolts
Coating damage through abrasion or impact or deterioration
Damaged cables or ducts caused by impact or deterioration
Unstable foundations through poor geology
Missing members caused by accidental damage or failure
Debris, which may cause impact damage or create fouling or overload
the corrosion protection system
3
Accidental Damage
Engineers will try to anticipate all the different modes of failure when they first
design a structure but deterioration due to accidental damage is difficult to
design against (this does not prevent the guidance notes for offshore structural
design from recommending that engineers in fact do just that). In the United
Kingdom safety cases have to be submitted to the HSE for evaluation and
assessment in an attempt to prevent accidental damage from being a threat to
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safety. Because of the difficulties associated with preventative design one of the
prime methods for dealing with accidental damage is the implementation and
effective execution of reporting procedures for informing the appropriate
responsible persons as soon as any accidental damage is caused.
This type of damage is also likely to occur on any structure because of the
reliance placed on being serviced by boats and helicopters. This presents a real
possibility for damage caused by accidents such as collisions and the dragging
of either anchors or trawls across seabed installations. Ideally, as indicated
above should this type of accident happen it should be reported and surveyed
as soon as it happens, but in the past, at least, such accidental damage was
mainly discovered during routine inspections, the event not having been
reported.
There have been numerous examples of this type of damage and just by way of
illustration the Northwest Hutton suffered an accident during installation that
resulted in a main leg suffering loss of member straightness. An accident
involving a stand-by vessel and Brae Bravo resulted in a horizontal member just
above the splash zone suffering a similar fate.
4
Corrosion
Because steel is placed in a hostile environment, namely salt water, one of the
ever-present deterioration mechanisms on the structure will be corrosion
Corrosion takes place in two different ways
o First of all, uniform corrosion is the process whereby metal is
removed uniformly from all over the surface, so that progressive
thinning of the member or pipe wall goes on until the thickness is
reduced so as to necessitate the renewal of the component
o Secondly, pitting corrosion is a very localised corrosion which
takes place in an otherwise corrosion free material, creating a pit
in the surface of the material
These pits deepen with time and if another failure
mechanism does not take over, the pit will penetrate the full
thickness of the material, causing leakage in the case of a
pipeline or service duct, and so necessitate local repair
Corrosion attacks of both kinds are accelerated by erosion, increase in
temperature and increase in oxygen content, added chemical attack from
biological sources and loading on the member from either external loading or
residual stresses caused in manufacture. This last is known as stress corrosion.
As corrosion is such an important deterioration mechanism in the offshore
environment the entire subject is more fully explained in Chapters 7 to 11.
5
Fatigue
Fatigue is the local failure of the material by crack growth caused by cyclic
loading. The cracks can grow from flaws in the material, such as a welding
defect or notches caused by accidental damage. Alternatively, they can initiate
in regions of highly stressed material, which are brought about by residual
stresses or stress concentration. Fatigue cracks can also start from pits created
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Chapter 4
by corrosion. This condition is known as corrosion fatigue and is covered in
Chapter 8.
Fatigue causes more in-service failures of machines, vehicles, bridges
and similar structures than any other mode of failure
The main reason for fatigue failure being so prevalent, and therefore so
important, is that it can occur when the applied stress is significantly
lower than the yield stress of the material. Indeed even if the stress
intensity is kept below the fracture toughness limit Kic crack growth can
occur
Fatigue is a cumulative form of failure, in that a crack is initiated at some
point of stress concentration and then propagates through the material
by acting virtually as its own stress raiser
The final fatigue crack is the result of the accumulation of the small-scale
events associated with each of a great many load cycles. The fatigue
crack thus eventually reduces the cross-sectional area to such an extent
that final failure occurs by rapid fracture, often with gross deformation of
the remaining un-cracked area
Fatigue cracking does not affect the material properties therefore fracture
toughness remains unchanged. Different materials do however have
varying resistance to fatigue although the experience of service failures
and laboratory testing has demonstrated that fatigue is difficult to predict.
This is because the process is sensitive to a large number of variables
including: o Number of load cycles
o Stress or strain amplitude
o Mean stress level
o Temperature
o Environment
o Microstructure of the material
o Surface condition
For design purposes the metallurgist and the design engineer centre
their interest on the results of laboratory tests that assess the number of
loading cycles N of a given type that the sample survives before fracture
occurs. Measurements of N are made as a function of the stress
amplitude a. When N is plotted on a logarithmic scale against a the SN curve for the material is obtained and this is used for design purposes.
6
Wear
Wear is normally thought of as the loss of material from surfaces that have been
rubbed against one another and it is often measured in terms of the mass lost in
a given time under specified conditions. More precisely, wear involves a
redistribution of material that adversely alters the surface. In the offshore
environment wear is the thinning of material due to uniform corrosion or erosion
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or a combination of the two. In the wider sense wear can be caused by a
number of different mechanisms.
Adhesive
When two surfaces rub together it causes friction and to explain this it is
postulated that some welding of the two contact surfaces occurs within the
contact area
The mechanism of adhesive wear follows directly from this. When the two
surfaces slide over each other material breaks away and does so at the
weakest sections. This is found to be the hills which make contact as indicated
in the sketch in Figure 4.1
Figure 4.1
Adhesive Wear
The junctions at which the surfaces are in contact have been strengthened by
work hardening and therefore the fractures take place within the materials, at
some distance away from the interfaces between the points of contact (the
shaded areas in Figure 4.1). Each surface tears out some material from the
other and both surfaces become roughened as they gouge and score one
another. Wear is rapid and for this reason, in good engineering practise, sliding
combinations of similar metals are usually avoided.
Abrasive Wear
In the mechanism for abrasive wear a hard particle in one surface indents,
groves and then cuts material from the other surface. In service, the main
cause of abrasion between sliding metals is the presence on one of the two
surfaces of particles of hard materials, such as carbide in steels, work
hardened wear fragments or hard oxide films. The particles may also be
airborne dirt such as grit
Wear Caused By Fatigue
When there is relative motion between two surfaces in contact the state of
stress at any given point on or near the surfaces varies with time and this
may cause fatigue the slow growth of cracks. The development of such
cracks may eventually detach pieces of material from the surfaces, thereby
constituting wear
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Chapter 4
Chemical And Corrosive Wear
Chemical effects are most commonly exemplified by the repeating cycle of
the formation, removal and reformation of oxides
7
Embrittlement
In this case the material changes its properties from being ductile to brittle. This
can be a localised effect. Brittle materials fail due to crack propagation so that
they are susceptible to fatigue as well as to brittle fracture. Embrittlement in
service could come about due to incorrect welding procedures or by the
absorption of a gas, generally hydrogen. Embrittlement has been encountered
in natural gas pipelines and could come about from the absorption of hydrogen
produced in an overprotected impressed current corrosion protection system.
The temperature of the environment affects the brittle behaviour of steel, brittle
fracture being more likely to occur at low temperatures
This effect is also known simply as Brittle Failure
8
Structural Deterioration
The foregoing paragraphs outline the modes of failure associated with any steel
structure and these failure systems will now be put into the context of offshore
steel structures. Concrete structures are considered in Chapter 5. A convenient
way of illustrating these types of failures is to divide the life of a structure into
four stages. At every stage defects leading to deterioration and then failure can
occur.
8.1
Stage One Production of the Raw Materials
During the manufacturing of the raw materials several defects can be included
into what will become the parent plate. A selection of possible manufacturing
defects are laid out below by way of illustration
8.1.1 Steel
Casting defects that can occur
Fishtails
These may occur in steel produced by traditional mills. During the filling of
the moulds while molten steel is being poured into the moulds it is possible
for some of the liquid steel to splash up the sides of the mould. This will then
cool on coming in contact with the cold sides of the mould and will solidify.
The remainder of the steel continues to be poured in and then covers the
solidified splashes. When the ingot is removed from the mould, the splashes
which form shapes similar to fish tails adhere to the surface. If these fish
tails are not removed before rolling they may be rolled into the surface
without bonding, thus causing a reduction of material thickness. Figure 4.2
refers
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Figure 4.2
Fishtails
Inclusions
These will always be present in commercial steels. They are there because
of the way iron ore is found and steel is made. The basic ingredient, iron,
which usually contains entrapped non-metallic inclusions and typically
something over 4 wt% carbon, 1 wt% of both manganese and silicon and
there are smaller amounts of both sulphur and phosphorus both of which are
highly undesirable. Figure 4.3 refers
Because this is the case, in any standard specification the chemical analysis
of any unalloyed carbon steel will always involve the determination to the
big five, carbon, silicon, manganese, sulphur and phosphorus, though
none of them are likely to be present in any amount exceeding 1.5 wt%. The
inclusions present in the steel will become aligned as the steel is
subsequently worked and therefore give rise to a so-called fibre structure.
Figure 4.3
Inclusions
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Chapter 4
o In fact silicon and manganese are beneficial as deoxidizers and as
solid-solution strengtheners. However, sulphur and phosphorus
have an embrittling effect and are usually kept below 0.05 wt%
unless deliberately increased to impart specific properties such as
machinability
Banding And Segregation
Steel as it cools from the molten state forms solid grains that will have
different chemical compositions and orientations within the forming solid
material. This is caused by the way the cooling occurs and in individual
grains it gives rise to coring where different sections of dissimilar chemical
compositions can be viewed through a microscope within each discrete
grain. This effect will also manifest itself within the entire solidifying mass
where it can be viewed as bands, which give, rise to its name of banding the
results of which is macro-segregation within the material caused by the
chemical in-homogeneity.
o Banding can become troublesome in alloyed steels where there is
more solute to become segregated and where any alloying elements
are required to cause a specific response to heat-treatment. Even in
unalloyed carbon steels macro-structural segregation of phosphorus,
silicon, manganese and carbon may give rise to directional
properties. See Figure 4.4
Figure 4.4
Left Micrograph Shows Banding
and Right Shows Segregation
Laminations
Occasionally the structural effects of segregation can become pronounced
to the point that the material behaves as if it were made up of different
layers. This is referred to as lamination and, particularly in thick sections of
approximately 40 mm or greater, can cause serious problems in welded
structures where the laminations provide paths of easy crack propagation.
This possibility of laminated steels developing internal ruptures is of serious
concern to any structural engineer
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8.2
Stage Two - Fabrication
While the structure is being built there are a multitude of problems associated
with all the aspects of fabrication. Ensuring that the correct materials are being
used, verifying the correct fit-up and tolerances are applied and many other
specific construction details are important daily tasks for all construction staff
throughout the fabrication period of any structure.
8.2.1 Steel Structures Fabrication Defects
With steel structures the major fabrication processes involve welding and
therefore some of the problems associated with this process will be outlined.
There are numerous variables associate with welding and each of these
can be subjected to either human or system errors some of which are
listed herewith.
o Incorrect machining of the angle of bevel
o Improper pre-heat treatment
o Poor fit-up
o Using improper weld consumables
o Incorrect storage of weld consumables
o Incorrect post-heat treatment
These possible faults have to be guarded against during the fabrication stage of
any offshore structure
During the actual welding process again there are a number of possible weld
defects that must be avoided. These are fully explained in Chapter 8. For
illustration a short catalogue follows: Lack of root penetration
This is a weld defect associated with both submerged arc and manual metal
arc welding. Setting too low a voltage with the submerged arc process
causes the defect and incorrectly positioning the weld rod is the cause with
manual metal arc. In either case the result is a crack-like defect in a very
sensitive part of the weld
Slag inclusion
Another example of a weld defect is slag inclusion. It is possible for this
defect to occur when manual metal arc welding is the weld method utilising a
multi-pass technique. The cause of the defect is slag from the previous run
is imperfectly cleaned off. This leaves isolated pieces of slag that remain
and are over-welded by the next run. These inclusions form the sites for
potentially dangerous notches
Porosity
This is a weld defect that must always be guarded against. There may be
many causes for this fault such as: -
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Chapter 4
o Air contamination of the weld pool
o Dirt or damp finding their way into the weld
These contaminants breakdown in the weld and produce either;
o Nitrogen
o Hydrogen or
o Carbon Monoxide
These gases dissolve in the weld pool and then, as it cools they come out of
solution forming gas bubbles, which is porosity in the weld
Hydrogen-induced cold cracking
This final example of a fabrication defect is a type of cracking normally
formed in the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) some time after the weld is
completed. The cracking may occur almost immediately, some hours later or
even days after the weld is finished. The cause is hydrogen initially
dissolved in the weld pool permeates through the weld into the HAZ in
sufficient quantities to embrittle the Martinsitic structure and cause cracking.
It is possible for cracks not to occur on cooling but for the hydrogen to make
the HAZ more susceptible to crack propagation under in-service loads
8.3
Avoiding Problems by Design
Designers are aware of the problems associated with fabrication and the
processes that accompany it and over time have evolved new designs to
minimise these problems. It is well known for example that stress is
concentrated at any site where there is a sharp change of geometry such as in
weld toes and traditional tubular joints. See Figure 4.5.
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Figure 4.5
Stress Concentration Areas
As illustrated in Figure 4.5 the stress concentration may be lowered by profiling
the weld cap to make the geometry more contoured and less angular.
By alterations to the design concept the stress concentration areas may be
removed from the nodal areas by utilising cast joints thus removing the welding
to less highly stressed regions. Figure 4.6 refers.
Figure 4.6
Cast Node
8.4
Stage Three Installation
Steel structures are commonly constructed on their side and then floated into
position where they are rotated to the upright position by flooding ballast
compartments in the jacket legs. This rotation imposes a bending moment on
the structure that may impose stresses on the structure that are transiently
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Chapter 4
greater than the working stresses the structure will subsequently withstand. Of
course the flooding operation is conducted as carefully as possible and some
modern steel structures have been positioned with the ballast tanks pre-flooded
to minimise the stresses involved. The method is illustrated in Figure 4.7, which
shows the sequence of events with a self-floating structure.
Figure 4.7
Self-floating Structure
8.4.1 Possible Damage Caused During Installation
At any time during the launch and installation stages of the structure damage
may be caused through, accidents, piling operations, grouting defects, stress
induced failure, seabed anomalies. There is always a possibility of the structure
being out of its final position or being out of final orientation.
8.5
Stage Four In-Service
This is the stage in the life of a structure where underwater inspection first
becomes pre-eminent. The major categories of defects that cause concern are
outlined below.
8.5.1 Steel In-Service Defect Categories
Fouling
This term covers both marine growth building up on the structure and debris
collecting on and around it. Fouling may cause structural damage, galvanic
corrosion, see Chapter 8, overloading of the CP system and may cause
safety hazards to divers and ROVs.
Coating Damage
All types of coatings, paint, bituminous, epoxy, metallic may suffer from
defects caused either when they were applied or subsequently because of
deterioration or accidental damage. See Chapter 10
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Cracks
These may be caused by latent flaws initiated during any of the earlier
stages in the life of the platform. They are certainly associated with welded
joints especially on nodal areas and cracking may be the end result of a
defect initiated at the fabrication stage. As stated earlier in this chapter,
fatigue is the major cause of component failure in-service.
An example of this type of damage is conductor guides that failed due to
fatigue cracking on one North Sea structure. The failure is illustrated in
Figure 4.8
Figure 4.8
Failure of a Conductor Guide
o This type of failure may be avoided if the crack is identified at an early
stage, before it propagates. It can be considered to be a notch at
this stage and profile grinding will remove this effect. This will reduce
the weld throat thickness and the wall thickness, however provided
this is kept within design parameters and a smooth profile is achieved
the possibility of failure is more remote. Profile grinding is more fully
discussed in Chapter 19
Corrosion
This is a most important form of structural deterioration and it is examined in
detail in Chapters 7 to 11. A great deal of underwater inspection effort goes
into monitoring corrosion
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Chapter 4
Physical Damage
This form of deterioration is generally caused by either collision or impact
damage caused by components being dropped. As mentioned earlier all
accidental damage, indeed any incident, should be reported immediately so
that it can be assessed. Figure 4.9 illustrates damage caused to a horizontal
diagonal member by a 24 m length of caisson pipe that had fallen off from
three levels above and pierced through the member. No one on the platform
was aware that anything had happened.
Figure 4.9
Sketch Indicating Damage Caused
By A Caisson Section That Failed In Service
Scour
The foundations of a structure are an obvious area susceptible to
movements of material on the seabed. Any movement is likely to weaken
the foundations which, of course, jeopardises the whole structure
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8.6
In-Service Defect Categories That Affect both Steel and Concrete
The in-service defects enumerated for steel can also affect concrete. Concrete
structures may suffer from cracks, the reinforcement may corrode, physical
damage is certainly possible and scour is also quite possible. Cracks in the
concrete surface are less serious than cracks in steel because, as indicated in
the concrete section, offshore structures fall into the prestressed category and
major components are therefore kept in compression.
There are other considerations that do affect both steel and concrete structures
and that may cause defects in service such as detailed following.
8.6.1 Inter-tidal and Splash Zones
The inter-tidal and splash zones on any structure are regions of particular
susceptibility to deterioration.
Corrosion is more aggressive in this area and must be more carefully
monitored
Marine Growth build-up is greater in the top 30 m of the sea and is
particularly dense in the inter-tidal region. This increases mass and drag
in a part of the structure, which can be more vulnerable to these effects.
Marine growth may also affect corrosion rates
The risk of physical damage is greater in this region due to the risk from
floating objects and, in those parts of the world that are susceptible,
icebergs may collide with the structures. Certainly this is possible
offshore Canada for example
8.6.2 Risers
These components are common to both types of structures, although on
concrete platforms they may be installed inside the shaft it is not uncommon to
have them mounted externally as well. These items are considered as part of
the associated pipeline and therefore are inspected annually because they can
suffer the same deterioration as the pipelines. The clamps, guides and flanges
are subjected to the same regime.
8.6.3 Conductors and Conductor Guide Frames
As with risers these components can be common to all platforms and they are
exposed to the same risk of failure as risers, perhaps more so as there are
greater vibrations possible with these components than the rest of the platform.
Furthermore conductors are normally kept in place by guides rather than
clamps which allow relative movement between the conductor and its guides;
hence wear must be monitored and is a real possibility for fatigue cracking to
occur.
8.6.4 Caissons
Caissons are another group of components that are carefully monitored on an
annual basis. There is a common problem with this component when it is used
as a pump caisson. The pump is commonly suspended from the surface inside
the caisson. It is common for the pump to be at about 18 m water depth level
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Chapter 4
inside the caisson. Conditions therefore at this point on the inside of the caisson
are near perfect for corrosion to progress at excessive rates. This has caused
component failure on more than one occasion.
8.6.5 Overloading
Changes in the working practices and other commercial factors may lead to
extra items of equipment being installed, such as a newer, bigger crane. This
may lead to overloading if not carefully monitored.
9
Repairs to Offshore Structures
When any defects are identified on offshore structures the Duty Holders
engineering department will make a decision on what course of action to take
depending on the severity of the defect and its position on the structure. It may
be that increasing the inspection effort monitors the defect or it may be repaired.
The types of defect that may be identified are: Welding defects
Impact damage
Fatigue damage
Corrosion
Welding defects will normally be the most sensitive items and remedial action is
therefore more likely with this type of anomaly
Impact damage may well be monitored as indicated earlier in this chapter.
Fatigue damage is the most difficult to identify and component failure may well
occur before this type of defect is identified. This type of defect is also very
difficult to predict. This type of discontinuity will be the subject of a repair.
Corrosion consumes metal in the corrosion process and reduces the wall
thickness of the structural members. Corrosion is such a serious consideration
for offshore structures that the subject is dealt with fully in chapters 7 to 11.
9.1
Welding Repairs
Underwater welding repairs may be completed by wet welding or by deploying a

hyperbaric chamber and using dry welding procedures.
9.1.1 Wet Welding
Wet welding has been used underwater for at least the last 70 years. However
due to the problems associated with it such as: Uncontrolled cooling rate
Brittleness caused by the quenching effects of the water
Lack of sidewall fusion
Lack of inter-run fusion
Hydrogen embrittlement
This technique has, until recently, only been considered to be a temporary
repair or a non-structural repair to low stressed components.
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However, in the last few years there have been advances in wet welding and
currently techniques are available that may be used for structural repairs. To
date this has only been achieved under test conditions.
9.1.2 Hyperbaric Welding
This technique requires that a hyperbaric chamber is sealed onto the repair site
and the weld is then completed in dry conditions. The actual weld technique is
frequently the TIG method. Specially qualified welder divers are employed to
complete the weld.
9.2
Clamp Repairs
Two types of clamps may be used for repairs.

Grout Clamps
Friction Clamps
9.2.1 Grout Clamps
These are used to repair pipeline leaks and node joints.
The clamp is positioned and once it is in place with the bolts tightened the
annulus is pumped full of grout which completes the repair.
9.2.2 Friction Clamps
These are fitted by bolting on and will be manufactured to close tolerance so
that when the bolts are tighten the repair clamp offers a proper stress path for
the loads imposed on the repaired area. This type of clamp is fitted to at least
one offshore structure where it has been in place for some 20 years without
further deterioration of the structure.
9.3
Concrete Repairs
Repairs to concrete structures may require a repair to the concrete, or both the
concrete and the reinforcement.
9.3.1 Repairs to Concrete
Small repairs may be accomplished with resin and at least one North Sea
structure has been repaired in this manner. This type of repair is normally only
undertaken on small but significant defects.
Large repairs may be completed using either grout or concrete.
9.3.2 Reinforcement Repairs
Repairs to the reinforcement will require either: Welding
Mechanical coupling
Steel plates
Grouted connections
In all cases the passivation of the reinforcement must be recovered if the repair
is to last for a significant period.
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Chapter 4
10 Repair Inspection
All repairs will be inspected to ensure compliance with the procedure, that the
repair work is of the required standard, the damage register is maintained up to
date and that engineering confidence in the structure is maintained.
Page 108 of 382

Bibliography
L K Porter
HMSO
E & F N Spon
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Chapter 4
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Chapter 5
CHAPTER 5
Deterioration of Offshore Concrete Structures
1
General Comments
This chapter looks at concrete as a building material suitable for offshore

structures. Following the format of Chapter 4 the various modes of deterioration
will be considered. Effects such as accidental damage and fabrication defects
may occur with concrete in similar fashion to steel and generally the comments
made in Chapter 4 regarding these items apply. Otherwise this chapter will
concentrate on aspects of deterioration specific to concrete
2
Structural Deterioration
The format of illustrating types of failures by dividing the life of a structure into
four stages laid out in Chapter 4 will be continued in this chapter.
3
Stage One Production of the Raw Materials
The fabrication of concrete structures has the potential for producing several
defects included into what will become the concrete matrix surrounding the
reinforcement. A selection of possible manufacturing defects are laid out below
by way of illustration
3.1
Concrete
This is a composite material consisting of cement, fine aggregates and coarse

aggregates. The cement is the binding agent and contains the reactive agents;
therefore this will be examined first.
3.1.1 Portland Cement
This is the most popular and therefore most important of the cement binders
and the comments made here will be confined to this material. This type of
cement is made up of a mixture of about 75% limestone (CaCO3) and 25% clay,
which is principally aluminosilicate; it does have a significant iron and alkalioxide content. These raw materials are ground together and fed through a kiln
where various chemical reactions occur. The resultant constituents are laid out
in table 5.1
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Constituents Of Portland Cement

Compound Name
Shorthand
Nomenclature
Mineral Name
Tricalcium silicate
C3S
Alite
Dicalcium silicate
C2S
Belite
Tricalcium aluminate
C3A
Aluminate
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite
C4AF
Ferrite
Hydrated calcium sulphate
CSH2
Gypsum
Table 5.1
Constituents of Portland Cement
3.1.2 Mixing
When water is added to the cement hydration begins and two things happen;
the mix is transformed into a paste and heat is evolved in an exothermic
reaction
3.1.3 Setting
The first stage in the process of forming concrete into a structural building
material once the water is added to form the paste it is called setting. The
setting period is the length of time the mix remains workable
The setting period will last for a few hours during which time heat is
evolved at a very high rate, reaching a maximum of approximately
200Wkg-1 at about 30 seconds, and then falling to a low value. During
this period the compressive strength is barely measurable
The pH value of the mixture also rises very rapidly during the first minute
after water is added, starting at about 7 going up to a maximum of about
12.9 after about 3 hours and then settling to a constant 12.6
o
Its pH number specifies the acidity or alkalinity of any aqueous solution. This is a
measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions present in the solution. This is
commonly written in shorthand form by using square brackets [H+]. The pH number
is defined by: pH = log10 1/ [H+]
Or
pH = -log10 1/ [H+]
Hence pH 1 is extremely acidic and pH 14 is extremely alkaline. Pure water, which
is neutral, has a pH value of 7.
There is a fuller explanation of the pH system in Chapter 6
3.1.4 Hardening
The next stage is hardening which begins when setting ends.
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Chapter 5
In the hardening period heat is again evolved reaching a peak of about 1% of
the initial exothermic maximum after about 10 hours. The compressive strength
increases during this period, the process continuing over a number of years
until it reaches its maximum of some 50 MNm-2 after about 27 years.
During the hardening process silicon ions form together to form polymers, this
reaction is exothermic which goes some way to explaining the heat output
during hardening.
The sequence of events during the hydration process is thought to be: On adding water to the cement there is an initial period of about one
minute of very rapid hydration, with C3S and C3A being the main
reactants. This is accompanied by a high rate of heat evolution, silicate
polymerisation and a rapid increase in [OH-] which causes a similar rise
in the pH number
The reaction rate then slows dramatically as the surface cement grains
become coated with silicate and aluminate gels. Concurrently the
gypsum dissolves so that [Ca2+] and [SO24-] both increase rapidly to a
peak after about 2 minutes
This peak and subsequent fall is due to the formation of ettringite which
is a fine, needle-like crystal phase
The cement paste cohesion during the setting period is due to gel-to-gel
contact between adjoining grains. This is increasingly aided by the
formation of ettringite crystals
The gel coating is permeable to Ca2+ and OH- both of which diffuse out
during the setting period thus increasing the pH number. At the same
time water diffuses in continuing the hydration of the cement grains. The
silicates and aluminates do not diffuse through the gel coat but either add
to it or build up in solution inside it, thus they are not present in the liquid
outside
The water inside the gel coating eventually builds to such a pressure that
the coating ruptures, and then peels away from the grain forming gel foils
and fibrils and also some tubules. The grain locally is then exposed to
contact with the outside liquid and further hydration continues
As each grain sprouts multitudes of these fibres they grow and multiply
and start to interlock and the paste starts to harden. Concurrently with
this Ca(OH)2 precipitates out of the supersaturated solution and forms
portlandite which is a plate-like hexagonal crystal
The continued hardening of the cement comes from the multiplication,
growth and interlocking of gel fibres and crystal species such as
portlandite. Over a longer time scale C2S participates in the hydration
process forming the same products as C3S but developing more slowly
and long-term polymerisation of the silicate in the gel all contributes to
the hardening process, as does the gel drying out below its saturation
point
Summarising the parts played by the individual constituents then: Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006
Page 113 of 382

Alite
Major ingredient, initial gel formation contributes to setting, hydration
products, fibres and crystals, make a major contribution to strength,
particularly in the early stages of hardening
Belite
Same hydration products as Alite but reacted more slowly, contributes to
increase in strength at later stages of hardening
Aluminate
Contributes to setting through gel and ettringite formation, but contributes
little to hardening
Ferrite
This along with Aluminate acts as a flux in the cement kiln during the initial
manufacture of cement powder. Its hydration products play little part in either
setting or hardening. It gives colour to cement
Gypsum
Controls the hydration rate of the Aluminate and is a constituent of ettringite
which contributes to setting.
3.1.5 The Importance of Water
Water is an important constituent of concrete firstly because of the hydration
process but also because it materially affects the final strength of the concrete.
Pores form in the interstices between fibres and between fibres and crystals
and these invariably contain water. This gel water constitutes some 15% by
weight of the hydrated cement. Combined chemically with the hydrated
compounds in the cement is a further 25% by weight, which means that some
40% by weight of water is required for complete hydration. The pores are
basically responsible for the tensile strength of concrete being only about 10%
of its compressive strength. Excessive amount of water in the initial mix have
other effects on the final material.
Both compressive strength and stiffness decrease with increasing watercement ratio
The stiffness increases with increasing hardening time
The stress-strain curves are non-linear. The Youngs Modulus has no
unique value, which is the same as with polymers. This means that either
a secant or a tangent modulus is used
3.2
Concrete
Concrete is made by adding cement to aggregates and mixing them together to

form a versatile building material.
Composite materials normally display material characteristics that are better
than the characteristics of the individual constituents. With concrete the
composite can be considered in two ways:
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Chapter 5
Either the aggregates toughen the cement paste by introducing
numerous weak interfaces into the material
Or the cement paste provides the means of binding together the
aggregates into a low cost useful material
The actuality lies between the two.
3.2.1 Aggregates
In a concrete mix the aggregate consists of a mixture of sand, with a mean
particle size of less than 2 mm, and crushed rock or gravel, with a mean particle
size greater than 2 mm. There must be sufficient cement paste to bind these
materials together and using graded aggregate that contains particles of a
range of sizes can in fact reduce this. The small particles fit into the spaces
between the large particles and the cement only has to flow into any remaining
spaces. In this case the usual ratio of aggregate to cement is about 5:1 and the
typical proportion of sand to gravel is about 3:2. The actual shape of the stones
in the gravel affects the final mix. Stone crushed from quarried stone will be
angular and give a stronger but less workable mix than stones from river gravel
which are smooth and rounded giving a more workable mix but with less
strength.
3.2.2 Water Content
Water content is as important in the concrete mix as it is in cement mixes. A mix
containing 40% water by weight will be totally unworkable but concrete with a
high water: cement ratio will result in a lower strength material than a similar mix
made with a lower ratio water: cement. This is because quite large pores can
develop if compaction is inadequate. It can be seen from this that the actual
water content of any mix is very important and must be high enough to allow the
mix to be worked but at the same time be low enough to allow the concrete to
attain its full strength.
One method of overcoming this problem is to use flow-enhancing
admixtures (plasticizers) which can keep the water:cement ration low
3.2.3 Concrete as a Material
Concrete as a material can be compared to stone in that it can withstand
compressive loads very well indeed but it cannot withstand tensile loads. As a
building material then it is only safe to use it in situations where it is subjected to
compressive stresses only. Its big advantage over stone is that it can be cast on
site into almost any required shape.
3.2.4 Reinforced Concrete
In order to exploit concrete as a building material to its full potential steel
reinforcement bars made from mild steel, which has been heavily cold-worked,
are combined with it. This reinforcement may be assembled into quite complex
shapes on site prior to the concrete being poured. Shuttering is then used to
retain the required shape while the concrete is setting. The complex
reinforcement is the result of having to resist stresses other than, for example,
the main tensile stresses due to bending. See Figure 5.2
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Figure 5.2
Placement of Reinforcement
to Counteract Crack Formation
3.2.5 Reinforcement Design Philosophy
A point to note in reinforced concrete structures is that if full advantage is to be
taken of the high strength of the steel reinforcement that surface of a beam, for
example, which is under tensile stress is allowed to crack. This allows the
steel to carry all the tensile forces. This also explains the placement of the
reinforcement in Figure 4.7, which is positioned close to the surface that is
under the tensile load.
This leads to one problem with reinforced concrete, which is that the
concrete on the tension side is cracked which means that it is doing no
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Chapter 5
work and therefore represents a weight penalty on the structure.
Additionally vibrations and environmental forces can cause the cracks to
open and close repeatedly which leads to gradual deterioration and
crumbling of the concrete and may expose the reinforcement to corrosion
3.2.6 Pre-stressing
A way to overcome the problem of cracking is to ensure the entire structure is
kept in compression. This is known as prestressing.
There are two techniques prestressing and post-stressing. In both cases
high-tensile steel wires with a tensile strength of 1500 to
1800 MN m2 are employed to apply compression.
The technique can be applied in a factory environment in the
manufacture of standard prestressed components that can be
transported to the site
Or the method can be applied on site. In this case the technique is posttensioning and the cables are laid through ducts deliberately left empty
for the purpose. The cable is then tensioned up and the duct filled with
grout under pressure. Figure 5.3 refers.
Figure 5.3
Diagram of a Prestressed Beam
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3.2.7 Production Problems
The forgoing will serve to introduce concrete as a material and a selection of
possible production problems will serve to illustrate what may go wrong at the
manufacturing stage.
Too much water in the mix can result in a loss of both compressive
strength and stiffness and by creating large pores within the matrix it may
promote in-service cracking
A reaction between the alkalis in the cement and susceptible, mainly
siliceous materials, in the aggregates is a possibility. This expansive
reaction is known as alkali/aggregate reaction (AAR). The process is
quite slow taking a number of years to develop. The symptoms in the
latter stages are cracking and spalling. This is not a problem on offshore
structures as the quality of manufacture was and is high. There have
been no reports of this defect on any offshore concrete structure to date
Exudation is a viscous, gel-like material, which can form a deposit on the
surface of the concrete. As this is associated as a symptom of AAR it is
unlikely to be seen on offshore structures as indicated above and the
more-so as it may be dissolved in the seawater anyway
Rust stains are possible on these structures and the worst-case scenario
is that it indicates corrosion of the reinforcement. There could be other
causes however, such as corrosion of embedment plates or even nails
cast into the surface being left over from the shuttering operation. This is
a possible serious anomaly and therefore rust stains must always be
treated seriously
Incrustation, which is caused by the leaching of lime from the cement,
will leave a white crusty deposit on the concrete surface. Once more this
is unlikely to be identified on offshore structures due to the QC at
manufacture and the possibility of the deposit being dissolved by the
seawater
4
Stage Two - Fabrication
Comments made in Chapter 4 regarding fabrication problems apply to concrete,

of course, and items specific to concrete are enumerated here
4.1
Concrete Structure Fabrication Defects
There can be numerous fabrication defects with concrete as with steel and a
selected sample will once more serve to illustrate the types of faults that may be
encountered.
Honeycombing
This is a common construction defect that leaves the surface of the concrete
looking like a honeycomb with numerous voids forming between coarse
aggregate grains. The cause is inadequate compaction during the forming
which allows air to be trapped between the concrete surface and the inside
face of the shuttering. This reduces the cover over the reinforcement and
leaves voids on the surface that may degenerate more quickly than a firm
surface. See Figure 5.4
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Chapter 5
Figure 5.4
Honeycombing
Efflorescence
This is the deposit of salts, usually white, coming out from the concrete
mass. It may indicate a reaction between the constituents of the cement and
the water used for mixing. Underwater these deposits may well be dissolved
Inadequate cover over reinforcement
The recommended minimum cover of concrete over reinforcement in very
severe conditions, such as surfaces exposed to seawater is
60 mm as stated in CP 110. If the cover is inadequate the reinforcement
may corrode which will be manifest by rust stains
5
Stage Three Installation
Concrete structures are commonly built from the base up using a continuous
slip forming technique in a dry dock. When the construction reaches a
predetermined level the dock is flooded and the structure then floats while work
continues. The structure is then towed to position already upright. It is then
ballasted down by controlled flooding of tanks built into the base. Stresses are
thus minimised and the main consideration with this type of structure is its
stability during the tow. This limits the towing speed and weather perimeters
that can be tolerated.
6
Stage Four In-Service
The major categories of defects that could cause concern in concrete structures
are outlined below.
6.1
In-Service Defect Categories That Affect Concrete Structures
Concrete can deteriorate because of either chemical or physical deterioration.

Because concrete is permeable to various ions it is susceptible to chemical
attack. Physical damage is possible externally and possibly internally, should
the reinforcement corrode, for example it would cause the concrete surrounding
it to crack.
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6.2
Deterioration Caused By Chemical Attack
It is unlikely that any significant deterioration will occur in concrete of the quality
that is normally specified for offshore structures. Never the less, deterioration
may occur in concrete that has not been properly compacted or because of
environmental pollution.
6.2.1 Sulphate Attack
The Tricalcium aluminate, C3A, in the cement can react with magnesium
sulphate, which is present in concentrations of about 0.5% in seawater. The
reaction is expansive which will lead to cracking but the presence of chlorides
inhibits the degree of expansion. The net result is softening and disruption of
the concrete in the form of solution and crumbling.
Sulphate-resisting Portland cement (SRPC) is a form of Portland cement
low in C3A content and the use of this type will minimise the risk of this
problem occurring. This type of cement has a higher content of
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite, C4AF, than other Portland cements which
gives it a darker colour. There are detailed requirements for the use of
this cement in CP 110 and BRE Digest 174. The British Standard for this
cement is BS 4027:1996
6.2.2 Chlorides
Chlorides do not attack plain concrete when present in the concentrations that
are normally present in seawater, but they may greatly accelerate the corrosion
of the reinforcement by destroying the passivity of the concrete coating.
Chloride, [Cl-] ions react with the oxide film on the steel by becoming
incorporated into the oxide lattice and increasing the electrical
conductivity of the film. The effect of increasing [Cl-] moves the
corrosion/passivity boundary to higher pH levels. If carbonation is
occurring concurrently this will reduce the pH of the combined water in
the concrete, which in turn reduces the concentration of [Cl-] necessary
for corrosion to occur. See Figure 5.5
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Chapter 5
Figure 5.5
The Concentration of Chloride Ions
In Concrete Plotted Against pH
6.2.3 Carbonation
Carbon dioxide is present in the air and can attack the concrete directly. It has
the effect of destroying the normal passivity of the concrete coating over the
reinforcement, thus leading to reinforcement corrosion. The permeation is
generally limited to a penetration of approximately 50 mm, which will take many
years to accomplish. Figure 5.6 refers
Page 121 of 382

Figure 5.6
Depth of Carbonation Layer
Plotted Against Time
CP 110 recommends 60 mm cover over the reinforcement for concrete exposed
to very severe conditions. To illustrate the likelihood of carbonation being a
problem in the normal course of events it is possible to apply:
x = Dt
Hence
t = x2/D
Where
t = time in years
x = depth of penetration
D = Diffusivity of CO2
(Taken as 1.4 x 10-13 m2 s-1)
Thus (where x = 60 mm as being the recommended minimum cover)

t = (60 x 10-2)2/1.4 x 10-13 x 60 x 60 x 24 x 365 = 815 years
In the normal course of events than 815 years would elapse before the steel
starts to corrode because of carbonation! While this is not a realistic situation, it
does indicate that the effects of carbonation take years to become manifest. Of
course potentially any cracks could radically reduce this time by providing a
path for the carbonation.
It has been found, however that in cracks less than 0.3 mm wide CaCo3
precipitates from the cement and acts as a seal. A further point to note here is
that offshore structures are of a prestressed design and are therefore unlikely to
crack.
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Chapter 5
6.2.4 Reinforcement Corrosion

The normal pH of concrete is approximately 12.5 and the pore water
incorporated within the concrete at this pH reacts with the steel to form hydrated
iron oxide, Fe2O3, which is insoluble at this pH and therefore forms a passive
film. The Pourbaix diagram in Figure 5.7 shows the possible environments
when considering the electrode potential and the pH surrounding the steel.
Figure 5.7
Pourbaix Diagram for
Steel in Concrete
If the passivation is destroyed for any reason the reinforcement will corrode.
This is an expansive reaction, which leads to cracking and then spalling of the
concrete accompanied by rust staining. Once the cracks are wider than 0.3 mm
or spalling has occurred seawater will come in contact with the steel and
corrosion may proceed more quickly.
The first signs of this type of corrosion are rust staining and cracking following
the line of the reinforcement.
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It almost goes without saying that the inter-tidal zone is the area most at risk
due to the high oxygen concentration along with the possible increase in
chloride ion concentration.
By contrast the submerged part of the structure is less at risk mainly because
the oxygen content in seawater is low.
6.2.5 Corrosion of Built-in Components
This form of deterioration is perhaps more likely than reinforcement corrosion.
There are a number of different types of steel components cast into the
structure such as riser clamp supports, steel skirts and towing eyes. Should any
of this steelwork be in contact with the internal reinforcement the exposed
steelwork acts as an active anode and the reinforcement becomes the cathode,
as shown in
Figure 5.8.
Figure 5.8
Corrosion of Cast-in Items
6.2.6 Cracking
It is generally accepted that all concrete structures will contain cracks; indeed
this is a design philosophy in reinforced structures. As detailed above these
cracks can be caused by: Overloading
As in the case on the tensile face of a reinforced beam
Shrinkage
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Chapter 5
May be caused at the fabrication stage
Thermal Stresses
Can be caused at the fabrication stage during the setting period
As the presence of cracks in concrete structures will not normally impair the
performance and furthermore as the structure is in compression anyway any
cracks will be of much less significance than a crack found in a steel structure.
As stated above, provided the crack width is less than 3 mm there should be no
corrosion to the reinforcement. Never the less all cracks must be reported and
there is a standard terminology applied to this class of defect.
7
Standard Terminology
There are a number of standard terms used to precisely describe flaws in

concrete. The following list enumerates several of them.
General Cracking
An incomplete separation into one or more parts
Cracks in concrete are further classified by:
Direction
Longitudinal, transverse, vertical, diagonal or random
Width
(Fine less than 1 mm, Medium 1 to 2 mm, Wide over 2 mm see
Figures 5.9 to 5.10)
Depth
Figure 5.9
Medium and Wide Cracks
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Figure 5.10
Wide Crack with Rust Staining
Pattern Cracking
A series of fine interlocking cracks over an area, Caused by either surface
shrinkage or expansion of the sub-surface matrix
There are a number of other common concrete defects that have not been
mentioned earlier but do have standard terms as listed below.
Spalling
This is the loss of material from the surface of the concrete. It is usually
conically shaped and is caused by either an impact or by pressure from
within. It may well be associated with reinforcement corrosion in which case
it will probably follow the line of the reinforcement and in this case it will not
have the typical conical shape, see Figure 5.11
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Chapter 5
Figure 5.11
Spalling
Delamination
This is the loss of a large sheet of surface material that exposes the coarse
aggregates. Caused by the build-up of internal pressure over a large area,
Figure 5.12
Figure 5.12
Delamination
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Disintegration
This involves the general breakdown of the matrix with numerous small
fragments breaking away from the surface. This is a very serious problem
caused by internal chemical reactions, such as AAR that causes the
concrete to become soft. It is a most uncommon problem and there are no
instances of it on offshore structures to date
Scaling
A local or general flaking or peeling away of the surface layer, occasionally
there is some loss of aggregate particles. Weathering or chemical reactions
between the concrete and the environment may be the cause of this defect.
Even if scaling is present it will only become a problem if it becomes very
progressive provided there is adequate cover over the reinforcement in the
first case. As this defect is associated with poor quality control it should be
unlikely to be found on platforms
Pop out
This appears as small roughly 10 to 50 mm diameter, conically shaped
fragments breakaway from the surface. This defect is similar in appearance
to spalling but the fragments are smaller. The cause is internal pressure and
may be caused by excessive water in the mix. This defect is again unlikely
given the QC applied to offshore platforms see Figure 5.13
Figure 5.13
Pop out
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Chapter 5
Erosion
This is long-term deterioration caused by abrasive action. The abrasive
particles may be air or water-born and it may become evident on platforms
in the inter-tidal region later in the life of the structure. This is a long-term
problem most unlikely to cause any concern until several years have passed
Stains
The most serious stain on concrete surfaces is rust staining. This may be
the early sign of reinforcement corrosion and therefore all such stains must
be reported. It is possible that subsequent investigation and document
checks will show stains to be benign as there are a number of causes that
are of no structural significance
o Reinforcement may have been included to withstand construction
stresses and subsequently is un-important
o Mesh reinforcement that is not structurally significant could possibly
corrode and would then look cosmetically poor but once again be of
no real significance
In any case the rule is to report and allow the responsible engineers make the
judgement. See Figure 5.11.
In Artic waters freeze/thaw damage is quite possible. The repeated
freezing and thawing of moisture in the porous concrete surface in the
splash zone causes high stresses in these pores due to water expansion
during freezing. This in turn causes small fissures which then fill with
water on the next annual cycle and so on
Marine organisms that bore into the concrete have seriously attacked
concrete structures in tropical water. The organisms involved seem to
have an affinity for limestone and include:
o Boring worms
o Mussels and
o Sponges
The boring sponge Cliona and the boring mussel Lithophaga are both
known to do considerable damage. The sponge confining its activities to
the outer surfaces and the mussel penetrates deeply into the interior
where it fashions ovoid cavities
o Probably the most destructive mussel is the species Lithophaga
antillarum that can grow up to 10 cm in length and 2 cm in diameter.
This species is common in tropical waters world wide
There are several other marine organisms that also bore into concrete such as:
Gastrochaena, which is a bi-valve mollusc
Upogebial which is a burrowing mud shrimp
There are also other creatures that make their homes in concrete.
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This problem has been known for a number of years in the Persian Gulf and the
current method of dealing with it is to fit a cladding to the concrete surface to try
to prevent access to the marine organisms in the first place thus preventing the
problem.
As a resume Table 5.14 is laid out to summarise the in-service types of defects
mentioned so far in this chapter.
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Chapter 5
Defect Type
Reported
As
Description
Cause
Details
Reported
General
Cracking
Cracking
Jagged
separations with or
without a gap
Overloading,
steelwork
corrosion or
shrinkage
Length,
depth and
width
Pattern
Cracking
Cracking
As above but
covering an area
Volume changes
between interior
and exterior
Surface
area,
width and
depth
Exudation
Surface
deposit
Viscous, gel-like
substance; often
associated with
cracking
Alkali Aggregate
Reaction (AAR)
Severity,
area and
thickness
Rust Stains
Surface
deposit
Brown stains
Corrosion of
surface steelwork,
tie wires or
reinforcement
Severity,
area and
thickness
Incrustation
Surface
deposit
White, crusty
deposit
Leaching of lime
from cement
Severity,
area
thickness
Popout
Concrete
loss
Shallow conical
depression
Increase in internal
pressure
Area and
depth
Spalling
Concrete
loss
Conical shaped
fragment
expressed from the
surface
External impact or
internal pressure
Area and
depth
Delamination
Concrete
loss
Loss of a large
area of the
concrete surface
Internal pressure
Area and
depth
Voids between
coarse aggregate
particles
Lack of vibration
Area and
depth
Honeycombing Construction
defect
Table 5.14
Possible In-service Defects in Concrete
8
Additional In-service Defects
The Offshore Technology Report OTH 84 206 was produced in 1984 and
currently remains the most comprehensive document for classification of
defects on offshore structures. Apart from the defects already mentioned there
are a number that are defined in this publication an extract of which, showing
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photographs of the anomalies is listed in the appendix to this chapter Appendix
1. The document groups defects into 3 categories:
Category A (Defects)
Category B (Areas of Concern)
Category C (Blemishes)
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Chapter 5
Bibliography
L K Porter
HMSO
E & F N Spon
Materials
The Open University
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Notes:
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Chapter 6
CHAPTER 6
Marine Growth
1
Introduction
Once any structure is placed into the sea marine growth will colonise it. This
build-up will have two effects:
First
The profile area of any component presented to the water flow will be
increased. This will increase the force on the structure overall.
Second
Marine growth will change the texture of the surface from a smooth, round
steel or painted surface, to a surface made much rougher by the presence of
the marine growth on it. This roughness will increase with time as the
surface becomes more irregular due to parts of the dead marine growth
sloughing off. The effect or this is to increase the drag coefficient. Both these
effects increase the force on the structure. Information on the types and
amounts of marine growth build-up is required to confirm or modify the
design-predicted loads on the structure. See Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1
Flow conditions Around
A Cylinder
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Marine Growth
These two effects of marine growth will have a knock-on effect with the
structure that will manifest itself
By producing an increase in mass without any significant change in
stiffness. This causes a reduction in the structures natural frequency
By increasing the added mass of water and the drag forces on the
structure. Marine growth being most abundant at and just below the
water level coincides with the zone of maximum wave and water force.
So the forces on the structure are increased in the region of maximum
water force
By affecting the corrosion rate, either by accelerating or retarding it
By reducing the effective area of the service inlets and outlets, hence
reducing system efficiency
By obscuring the important features on the structure, such as diver
orientation marks, valve handles anodes and similar objects
By making inspection impossible before cleaning
These effects give marine growth such an importance that it is necessary to
examine the problem in a little more detail.
2
Types of Marine Growth
From the engineering standpoint there are two main categories of fouling; soft
and hard.
Those organisms that have a density approximately the same as
seawater cause soft fouling. They are important because of their bulk,
but are generally easy to remove
Organisms causing hard fouling are much denser and more firmly
attached to the structure and therefore are more difficult to remove
These organisms will colonise the structure at different rates and at different
depths dependant on the natural propensity of the particular species. Some
guidance is available to designers as indicated in Table 6.2. Using this and
other data designers can predict the most propitious time of the year to launch
and install a structure.
Page 136 of 382

Chapter 6
Type
Settlement
Season
Typical
Growth Rate
Typical
Coverage
(%)
Typical
Terminal
Thickness
Depth
(Relative To
MSL)
Comments
Hard Fouling
Mussels
Jul Oct
25 mm in1 yr
100
150 200 mm
0 to 30 m
But faster growth rates are

found on installations in the
North Sea
50 to 70
About 10 mm
(tubeworms
lay flat on the
steel surface)
0 to mud line
Coverage is often 100%

especially on new structures
1 to 2 years after installation.
Tubeworms also remain as a
hard, background layer when
dead
0 to mud line
A permanent hydroid turf

may cover an installation and
obscure the surface for many
years
50 mm in 3 yr
75 mm in 7 yr
Solitary
tubeworms
May Aug
30 mm (L) in 3
mths
Soft Fouling
Hydroids
Apr Oct
50 mm in 3
mths
100
Summer 30
70 mm
Winter 20
30 mm
Plumose
Jun Jul
50 mm in 1 yr
100
300 mm
-30 to 120 m
Usually settle 4 to 5 years

after installation and can then
cover surface very rapidly.
Live for up to 50 years
Soft coral
Jan Mar
50 mm in 1 yr
100
About
200 mm
-30 to 120 m
Often found in association

with anemones
-3 to 15 m
May be several years before

colonisation begins but
tenacious holdfast when
established. Present on some
installation in Northern and
Central North Sea
Seaweed Fouling
Kelp
Feb Apr
2 m in 3 yrs
60 to 80
Variable up to
6 m long
Table 6.2
Typical Distribution of Marine Growth
in The North Sea
(Extract from Offshore Installations: Guidance on design,
construction and certification Forth edition 1990)
2.1
Soft Fouling
Organisms in this group include: Algae

This is often referred to as slime and is generally the first organism to inhabit
an offshore structure. As it is very light sensitive, it is seldom observed in
any quantity below 20 m (76 feet). This is a very large family of organisms
and even includes kelp, thus is goes from the very small to the very large.
Bacteria
This, like algae, will be amongst the first inhabitants of an offshore structure
and will be present in depths will in excess of 1000m (3333 feet)
Page 137 of 382

Marine Growth
Sponges
These are often found as a fouling species on offshore platforms and are
present at depths greater that 1000m (3333 feet)
Figure 6.3
Different Species of Sponges
Sea Squirts
These are soft-bodied animals and sometimes grow in large colonies
Figure 6.4
Different Species of Sea Squirts
Hydroids
These grow in colonies and from their appearance can be mistaken for
seaweed, but they are in fact animals related to sea anemone. The colonies
can produce dense coverage to depths of 1000m (3333 feet)
Page 138 of 382

Chapter 6
Figure 6.5
Close Up Photograph of
a Hydroid
Figure 6.6
Different Species of Hydroids
Seaweeds
There are many types of seaweed that attach themselves to underwater
structures, but of these, kelp produces the longest fronds, which in the North
Sea, grow up to 6m (20 feet) in length under favourable conditions
Page 139 of 382

Marine Growth
Figure 6.7
Green Seaweed (Left) Bladder Wrack (Ascophyllum) (Right)
Figure 6.8
Kelp
Holdfast (Centre)
Laminaria Digitalis (Left) Laminaria (Right)Bryozoa
This has a moss-like appearance, and is really an animal with tentacles
Page 140 of 382

Chapter 6
Figure 6.9
Different Species of Bryozoa
Anemones
These are sometimes called anthozoans, which means flowering animals.
The cylindrical body is surmounted by a radical pattern of tentacles and
looks a bit like broccoli. It attaches itself to the structure by a basal disc, and
this attachment is so firm that attempts to remove it often result in tearing the
body of the anemone. The colours and shapes are extremely variable even
within the same species
Page 141 of 382

Marine Growth
Figure 6.10
Anemones
Dead Mens Fingers (Alcyonium Digitalum)
Colonies have been observed on pier piles, rocks on the foreshore and
offshore structures. These colonies often grow to 150 mm (6 inches) in
length. When submerged, many small polyps arise from the finger-shaped,
fleshy main body, each polyp having eight feathery tentacles. It is white to
yellow or pink to orange in colour, but when out of the water it is flesh
coloured and the similarity to the human hand gives it its common name
Figure 6.11
Dead Mens Fingers
2.2
Hard Fouling
Composed of calcareous or shelled organisms, the common types in this group

include: -
Page 142 of 382

Chapter 6
Barnacles
The common species is Balanus Balanoides. These grow in dense colonies
to a depth of 15 20m (49 67 feet), but are observed to depths of 120m
(394 feet)
Figure 6.12
Barnacles
Mussels
The main species is Mytilus edulis. The hard-shelled mollusc attaches itself
to the structure by byssal threads at the hinge of the shell. These thread
attachments are very strong and mussels generally form dense colonies.
Main colonisation is to depths of 20m (67 feet), but mussels are found to
depths of about 50m (164 feet)
Figure 6.13
Blue Mussels (Mytilus edulis)
Tubeworms
The full title for this species is calcareous serpulid tubeworm. This often
forms on flat surfaces. It is white in colour, very firmly attached to the surface
Page 143 of 382

Marine Growth
of the metal and difficult to remove. It also grows in colonies and these have
been known to fill a warm water outlet, arranging themselves parallel to the
flow to obtain maximum nutriments. Power cleaning is required to remove
this growth, so firmly is it attached. Although the main growth occurs to
depths of 50m (164 feet), tubeworms are found to depths of 100m (328 feet)
Figure 6.14
Tubeworm
3
Factors Affecting the Rate of Marine Growth
If no steps are taken to prevent growth, such as application of an anti-fouling

solution or paint, the formation of bacterial slime occurs in two to three weeks.
As indicated in Table 6.3 marine growth can mature very rapidly with barnacles
and soft fouling having been known to attach themselves and reach maturity on
three to six months. It generally takes two seasons for mussel colonies to
develop, often on top of the dead earlier fouling. The type of organism, its
development and growth rate will depend on several factors, including the
following.
3.1
Depth
Figure 6.15 gives a generally accepted diagrammatic representation of the

combined effects of weight and volume on the various types of marine fouling in
British waters. This should be read in conjunction with Table 6.2, which contains
information more specific to the design function. The diagram shows clearly that
the most weight is added in the vicinity of the surface which is the region of
highest water-induced loading The total column in the diagram is not the sum of
the others, but an estimate of a balanced colony. Note that the long lengths of
seaweed have not been included.
Increase in depth reduces light intensity, which therefore reduces the ability of
organisms such as algae to photosynthesise. Algae therefore gradually
disappear with depth and there is also a change in species to red algae at the
greater depths. Algae growth at depths below 30m (98 feet) has been observed
in the North Sea due mainly to the clarity of the water.
Page 144 of 382

Chapter 6
Figure 6.15
Diagrammatic representation Of the
Distribution of Marine Growth with Depth
3.2
Temperature
In general, a rise in water temperature will increase the growth rate of a colony.
The growth rate approximately doubles with a 10o C rise in temperature. There
will of course be a limit and most organisms cease growth at 30o 35o C. As the
temperature variation is greatest near the surface, there is seasonal growth in
the marine colonies near the surface, and continuous, slower growth as the
depth increases.
3.3
Water Current
The speed at which the water flows over the surface plays an important part in
the type of fouling colony that develops. There are two aspects to consider, the
first being that of the larvae attaching themselves to the structure.
It is suggested that at speeds greater than 1 knot, many larvae are
unable to attach themselves. However, once attached, most fouling can
withstand water currents of more than 6 knots. At high water velocities,
weakly attached fouling is removed leaving only the firmly attached hard
fouling. Also, colonies growing on dead or dying fouling become loose
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Marine Growth
and may be sloughed off. The larvae can attach themselves to structures
during slack flow periods, on in localised spots of slower flow or dead
water, such as crevices and locations between hard fouling
The second aspect to consider is that in general, once the organism is
established, a strong current brings more food and growth is accelerated
3.4
Salinity
In nearly fresh water, fouling is usually confined to algae slime. As the salinity
increases, so the amount and type of fouling increases. First hydroids and
barnacles and finally mussels occur. The normal salinity of seawater is about
3% - 3.5% and the size of mussels, for example, increases five-fold from a
salinity of 0.6% to 3.5%.
3.5
Food Supply
Growth of the fouling is obviously dependent on the quantity of nutriment

available. Growth rates seem to be faster in coastal waters then those a few
miles offshore where the water is deeper. Investigations suggest that the slow
currents that circulate around platforms become enriched with nutriments from
sewage and other waste that will increase the growth rate.
3.6
Cathodic Protection
There are two types of corrosion protection widely used on North Sea structures
(see Chapter 10) on those that use sacrificial anodes, the patterns of marine
growth on the structures themselves seem normal, but the anodes generally
remain clear of growth. The other system, which uses an impressed current to
cancel the corrosion-induced ionic currents between the structure and the sea,
suggests, on a limited amount of evidence, that the marine growth rate is
increased. Currently the mechanism that encourages an increased growth rate
in not understood, more data is required before the observations of increased
growth can be confirmed.
Page 146 of 382

Chapter 6
Bibliography
Mel Bayliss
David Short
Mary Bax
E & F N Spon
ISBN 0-419-13540-5
L K Porter
HMSO
OTI 88 539
Structural Materials
The Open University
Butterworths
ISBN 0408 04658 9
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Marine Growth
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Page 148 of 382

Chapter 7
CHAPTER 7
Corrosion
1
Energy Considerations in Corrosion
With time most materials react with their environment to change their structure.
The reaction in metals is called corrosion, in polymers (plastics) degradation
and in concrete weathering.
Corrosion in metals is defined as the chemical or electrochemical reaction
between a metal and its environment, which leads to one of three
consequences:
The removal of the metal
The formation of an oxide
The formation of another chemical compound
This change in the metal will be expected if the thermodynamics (energy state)
of the system is considered.
The FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS states:
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed
As a direct consequence of this Law when spontaneous changes occur they
must follow a rule, which is:
Whenever a spontaneous change occurs it must release free energy
from the system to the surrounding at constant temperature and pressure
Which is a way of stating the SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS when
corrosion occurs naturally it releases free energy, as it is a spontaneous
process.
Take the case of a metal such as iron or aluminium as an example; both are
fund in nature as ores which, when analysed, are found to be a chemical
compound including oxygen and carbon amongst other elements. This
necessitates the extraction of the metal itself from the other elements before it
can be used in fabrication. The process whereby the metal is extracted requires
either the smelting of the ore or an electrolysis process. The final metal
produced is therefore at a higher energy level than the ore from which it was
extracted i.e. energy is added to the system.
One of the fundamental laws of equilibrium is that all systems try to reduce their
energy level to a minimum. This is why water runs downhill thus reducing its
potential energy level as it flows. In similar fashion metals tend to reduce their
energy and therefore the rule imposed by the second Law. Thus free energy is
released.
There are numerous forms of energy but the energy causing corrosion is
chemical energy that is utilised to form lower energy chemical compounds, like
the metal oxide, which resemble the original ore. Because steel (iron alloys of
Page 149 of 382

Corrosion
various types) is such an important material in building and industry the
corrosion of iron has a special term, rust. Figure 7.1 refers.
Figure 7.1
Changes in Energy Levels of
a Typical Metal Extracted From Ore
2
The Corrosion Process
Knowing there is a driving force for the process it is necessary to consider the
mechanism by which corrosion can take place.
Firstly a reminder of the basic structure of the atom will assist in the
understanding to the topic. In its simplest form an atom is a positive nucleus
surrounded by negatively charged electrons. Figure 7.2 shows a simplified
diagram of the structure of an atom that is adequate for the purposes of this
discussion.
Figure 7.2
Simple Structure of an Atom
The overall charge on the atom is zero and an atom is so composed that the
negative charge of the electrons is equal to the positive charge of the nucleus.
Page 150 of 382

Chapter 7
However, electrons can be added to or taken from the group that surrounds
each atom. When this happens, the overall charge on the atom is no longer
zero. This condition of the atom is called ionic.
Thus if the atom loses an electron it becomes a positive ion, which means that
the atom now has a positive charge. This may be referred to as a cation.
If the atom gains an electron it becomes a negative ion and now has a negative
charge. This may be referred to as an anion.
The first step in the corrosion process is that metal atoms change their state
from being metallic (that is no charge on the atom) to being ionic (that is having
a charge on the atom) by losing at least one electron from the outer shell.
The process of corrosion then goes on at the atomic level, each atom losing
one or more (usually no more than 3) electrons to become an ion.
2.1
The Anodic Reaction
The reaction in which the metal is changed from its metallic state into its ionic
state is known as an anodic reaction that is part of an overall reaction involving
the metal and other species present in the environment. This process is also
called oxidation. The overall reaction may be summarised by a chemical
equation thus:
M
Mz+ + ze-
Z may be 1, 2 or 3. Higher values are possible but rare. Reaction such as those
indicated by this equation that produce electrons are known as oxidation Figure
7.3 illustrates this anodic reaction diagrammatically.
Figure 7.3
Anodic Reaction
The site at which it takes place is the anode, which is positive using
conventional notation. The anodic reaction for iron releases two electrons. This
Page 151 of 382

Corrosion
is shown diagrammatically in Figure 7.4, which represents a free rusting iron
surface immersed in seawater.
Figure 7.4
Anodic Sites on Surface of
Iron Exposed To Seawater
This is one part of the reaction in electrochemical corrosion that takes place in
the presence of an electrolyte that is often water or a water-based solution of
ionic compounds such as acids, bases or salts. The metal ion passes into
solution and the electron passes through the metal that is not actually being
corroded, that is, an electric current flows as indicated in Figure 7.4
2.2
The Cathodic Reaction
These free electrons formed in the anode reaction must be used up if the
reaction is to proceed. This part of the reaction in the electrochemical corrosion
process therefore takes place at the site where the free electrons are
neutralised and is known as the cathodic reaction. Alternatively reactions such
as this that consume electrons are also known as reduction reactions. A part
reaction is illustrated in Figure 7.5
Page 152 of 382

Chapter 7
Figure 7.5
Cathodic Reaction
Typically a complete reaction is for the free electrons to be taken up by positive
ions and atoms of oxygen in the electrolyte. This gives the oxygen a negative
charge. Oxygen, however, readily accepts the free electrons because for its
electron stability it needs eight electrons in its outer valence shell yet occurs
naturally with only 6. Figure 7.6 refers.
Figure 7.6
Cathode Reaction
Page 153 of 382

Corrosion
Free electrons move through the metal cathode to its surface where negative
ions form and subsequently emit free electrons into the electrolyte where they
combine with elements creating different compounds. The site of this reaction is
known as the cathode, which conventionally is negative.
The actual reduction reaction at the cathode will vary according to the
composition of the electrolyte. Some common frequent recurring reactions in
metallic corrosion are:
2H+ + 2e
Hydrogen evolution
H2
Oxygen reduction (acid solutions)
O2 + 4H + 4e
2H2O
Oxygen reduction (neutral or basic

solutions)
O2 + 2H2O + 4e
4OH-
Metal ion reduction
M3+ + e
M2+
Hydrogen evolution is a common reaction when the electrolyte is acidic while

oxygen reduction is very common since any aqueous solution in contact with air
is capable of producing this reaction. It is, of course, the reaction encountered in
seawater. Metal ion reduction is less common and is normally found in chemical
process streams. The common denominator with all these reactions is that they
consume electrons and this is the most important point to note.
2.3
Seawater Corrosion
These partial reactions are included here because they can be used to interpret
virtually all corrosion problems. For example, consider iron in seawater;
corrosion occurs.
The anodic reaction is:
Fe2+ + 2e
Fe
The seawater contains dissolved oxygen and therefore: The cathodic reaction is:
O2 + 2H2O + 4e
4OH-
The effective overall reaction can be found by adding these two equations
thus:
2Fe + 2H2O + O2
2Fe2+ + 4OH-
2Fe(OH)2
This is ferrous hydroxide precipitate from solution. This compound is unstable in

oxygenated solutions and it oxidises to ferric salt:
2Fe(OH)2 + H2O + O2
2Fe(OH)3
This final product is the familiar rust.

2.4
Electrochemical Aspects of Corrosion
A fundamental definition for corrosion is:

CORROSION IS THE DEGRADATION OF A METAL BY AN
ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTION WITH ITS ENVIRONMENT
For corrosion to take place four criterions must apply:
There must be an anode. This normally corrodes by loss of electrons
There must be a cathode. This does not normally corrode
Page 154 of 382

Chapter 7
There must be an electrolyte. This is the name given to the solution that
conducts electricity. Pure distilled water is not an electrolyte while
seawater is
There must be an electrical connection between the anode and the
cathode
These four elements are shown diagrammatically in Figure 7.7 and all
electrochemical corrosion takes place by setting up cells like this.
Figure 7.7
Corrosion Circuit
As this is an electrochemical reaction and the chemistry has been touched on
already a few basic electrical definitions will round off this section.
3
Electrical Theory
Electricity is the passage of electrons between two defined points. This normally
occurs through a metal wire connecting the two points and is called a current.
Electricity can also pass through suitable aqueous solutions, but the electrical
charge is then carried by ions.
The amount of charge carried by an electron is known and when a given
electron flow is passed at a constant rate it is measured in amperes and
is given the symbol I.
o In the MKS system one ampere is defined as that constant current
which, if maintained in each of two infinitely long straight parallel
wires of negligible cross-section placed 1 m apart, in a vacuum,
will produce between the wires a force of 2 x 10-7 Newtons per m
length
The driving force causing this current to flow is the potential difference
between two points and is measured in volts, which has the symbol V.
Page 155 of 382

Corrosion
o In the MKS system this is defined as that difference of electrical
potential between two points of a wire carrying a constant current
of 1 ampere when the power dissipation between those points is 1
watt
The flow of electric charges is impeded by a quantity called resistance
and between any two points there is always some resistance to the
passage of the current. The unit of resistance is the ohm which has the
symbol .
o The MKS system defines the unit of electrical resistance as being
the resistance between two points of a conductor when a constant
potential difference of 1 V applied between these points produces
in the conductor a current of 1 A
During the majority of this chapter all discussion and illustrations will be in terms
of electron or ion flow and as far as possible positive and negative notations will
be avoided so as to avoid confusion, which often occurs when corrosion is
studied. This confusion arises because of an historical accident that resulted in
producing what is now called conventional current. Electron flow is exactly
opposite to conventional current, which is what causes the confusion when
studies in corrosion so often involve discussion on electron or ion flow. To avoid
such problems for the rest of this discussion on corrosion only electron flow will
be considered. Figure 7.8 illustrates the two types of flow.
Figure 7.8
Conventional and Electron Flow
Page 156 of 382

Chapter 7
Bibliography
L K Porter
HMSO
E & F N Spon
Corrosion for Students of Science and Engineering
K R Trethewey & J Chamberlain
Longman Scientific & Technical
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Corrosion
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Page 158 of 382

Chapter 8
CHAPTER 8
Types of Corrosion
1
Corrosion Cells
Corrosion cells, using the corrosion process outlined in Chapter 7, can be set
up by many different means, but they all operate because there is some
dissimilarity between the anode and the cathode, such as:
Dissimilar metals
Dissimilar phases in the grains of the metal
Dissimilar energy levels between the grain and the grain boundary of the
metal
Dissimilar ion concentrations
Dissimilar oxygen concentrations
1.1
Dissimilar Metal Corrosion Cell
It is found that when dissimilar metals are placed in the same fluid (electrolyte)
a potential difference (voltage) exists between them.
This can be demonstrated easily by placing two rods of different metals in water
and connecting a voltmeter between them. The voltmeter measures a voltage
and current flows from the anode to the cathode via the outside connection.
The cell acts as a very basic, low powered battery and in battery terms the
anode is the negative and the cathode the positive. Electrons flow from the
negative terminal to the positive terminal in the external circuit. Figure 7.7
refers.
It is possible to determine which of the two metals will be the cathode and which
the anode by reference to an Electrochemical Force Series.
1.1.1 The Electrochemical Force Series
Under standard conditions, where the electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid at a
temperature of 25oC, the potential of various metals is measured and given in a
table known as the Electrochemical Force Series, or Electromotive Series, (see
Table 8.1). From the table, it will be seen that any metal will be anodic to any
metal lower in the table and cathodic to any metal higher in the series. It must
be remembered, however, that the table only applies under the standard
conditions stated.
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issued 01/09/2006
Page 159 of 382

Types of Corrosion
Metal Atom
Potassium
Calcium
Sodium
Magnesium
Electrode Reaction Atom to Ion

K
Ca
Na
Mg
Potential in Volts Standard
K+ + e++
-2.92
-
Ca
+ 2e
-2.87
Na + e
-2.71
Mg++ + 2e++
-2.34
Beryllium
Be
Be
+ 2e
-1.70
Aluminium
Al
Al+++ + 3e-
-1.67
Manganese
Mn
++
Mn
++
+2e
-1.05
-0.76
Zinc
Zn
Zn
+ 2e
Chromium
Cr
Cr+++ + 3e+++
-0.71
Gallium
Ga
Ga
+ 3e
-0.52
Iron
Fe
Fe++ + 2e-
-0.44
Cadmium
Indium
Thallium
Cd
In
++
+ 2e
-0.40
+++
-0.34
Cd
In
Ti
+ 3e
Ti+ + e++
-0.34
-
Cobalt
Co
Co
+ 2e
-0.28
Nickel
Ni
Ni++ + 2e-
-0.25
Tin
Sn
++
Sn
++
-0.14
-0.13
0.00
+ 2e
Lead
Pb
Pb
Hydrogen
H2
2H+ + 2e-
Copper
Copper
Mercury
Silver
Palladium
Cu
Cu
2Hg
Ag
Pd
++
Cu
+ 2e
+ 2e
Cu+ + eHg2
++
+
0.52
-
+ 2e
Ag + e
0.80
Pd++ + 2e++
Hg
Platinum
Pt
Pt++ + 2e-
Gold
Au
+++
Au
0.83
Hg
Au
0.80
Mercury
Gold
0.34
+ 2e
0.85
Ca 1.2
+ 3e
Ca 1.42
Au + e
1.68
Table 8.1
Electrochemical Force Series
Similar tables are produced for metals under actual conditions and these are
called Galvanic Series. Table 8.2 give the series for seawater. The same rule
applies to the Galvanic Series as for the foregoing table, i.e. metals found lower
in the series are cathodic to any metal above them. For example, zinc is higher
Page 160 of 382

Chapter 8
in the series than mild steel; therefore, if zinc is connected to mild steel and
immersed in seawater zinc will be the anode and corrode and mild steel will be
the cathode and not corrode. If on the other hand mild steel, in the form of a
ships hull is connected to manganese bronze, the ships propeller, the mild
steel now becomes the anode and corrodes and the manganese bronze
propeller is the cathode, which does not corrode.
Magnesium
Magnesium Alloys
Zinc
Galvanised Iron
Aluminium 52Sh
Alcad
Cadmium
Mild Steel
Wrought Iron
Cast Iron
50-50 Lead-Tin Solder
18-8 Stainless (Active)
Lead
Manganese Bronze
Nickel (Active)
Yellow Brass
Admiralty Brass
Aluminium Bronze
Red Brass
Copper
Nickel (Passive)
70% Ni, 30% Cu (Monel)
18-8 (3%Mo) Stainless steel (Passive)
Silver
Gold
Table 8.2
Galvanic Series in Seawater
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Types of Corrosion
This type of corrosion cell, consisting of two dissimilar metals, is easy to
identify, but corrosion can occur in a much more localised way, caused by
small-size effects that can lead to corrosion pits and thereby cause
considerable damage. This type of corrosion and some others are discussed
below.
1.2
Concentration Cell Corrosion
Corrosion of this type is associated with crevices in the order of 25 to 100 m

wide and commonly involves chloride ions in the electrolyte. The stages in the
process are:
Corrosion will at first occur over the entire surface of the exposed metal at a
slow rate, both inside and outside the crevice. During this period of time the
electrolyte may be assumed to have a uniform composition and normal anodic
and cathodic processes take place. Under these conditions positive metal ions
and negative hydroxyl ions are produced so as to maintain equilibrium within
the electrolyte
This process consumes the dissolved oxygen, which results in the diffusion of
more oxygen from the atmosphere at any surface where the electrolyte is in
contact with air. In turn then the oxygen in the bulk of the electrolyte is replaced
more easily at metal surfaces rather than in any small crevices. This creates a
low oxygen situation within the crevice that in turn impedes the cathodic
process and the production of hydroxyl ions is therefore reduced
This results in excess positive ions accumulating in the crevice which causes
negative ions to diffuse there from the bulk of the electrolyte outside in order to
maintain minimum potential energy overall. The metal ions, water molecules
and chloride all react in complicated chemical reactions forming complex ions,
which it is thought, react with water in an hydrolysis reaction resulting in
corrosion products. This can be described by a simplified equation thus
M+ + H2O
MOH + H+
The increase of hydrogen ion concentration accelerates the metal dissolution

process, which, in turn, makes the problem worse, as does the accompanying
increase of anion (chloride) concentration within the crevice. An important
feature of active crevice corrosion cells is that they are autocatalytic that is once
started they are self-sustaining. It is worth underlining the fact that the
electrolyte in an active crevice can become very acidic. This is the situation
shown in Figure 8.3. The metal inside the crevice is corroding rapidly while that
outside is cathodically protected.
Page 162 of 382

Chapter 8
Figure 8.3
Crevice Corrosion
1.3
Pitting
Pitting is localised corrosion that selectively attacks areas of a metal surface.

The point of initiation may be:
A compositional heterogeneity such as an inclusion or segregate or
precipitate
A surface scratch or any similar blemish in an otherwise perfect film
Or it may be an emerging dislocation or a slip step caused by applied or
residual tensile stresses.
o All metals have crystal lattice structures but these are never defect
free. All metals contain imperfections in their lattice structures, and
these are known as defects, these may occur in a number of
ways:
Vacancies This is where there is an atom missing from
the lattice site
Substitutional Defects This is where a foreign atom
occupies a lattice site that would have been occupied by a
host atom
Interstitial Defects This is where an atom occupies a site
that is not a normal lattice site and it is squeezed in
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Types of Corrosion
between atoms of the host lattice. The interstitial atom may
be either a host atom or a foreign atom. Figure 8.4 refers
Figure 8.4
Point Defects in a
Crystal Lattice
These point defects are very significant in the theory of alloying where
they cause a significant improvement in mechanical properties of metals.
They also play a role in some corrosion mechanisms, notably hydrogen
embrittlement, selective attack, oxidation and hot corrosion, that all rely
on the diffusion of species through the metal lattice
Another type of defect occurs within the grain structure when planes of
atoms are not perfectly fitted into the lattice. These are known as line
defects. An example of this type of defect is the dislocation and a specific
examples of this type of dislocation are:
o Edge Dislocations This is where an unfinished plane of atoms is
present between two other planes. Figure 8.5a refers
o Screw Dislocations
This is where a plane is skewed to give
it a different alignment to its immediate neighbour. Figure 8.5b
refers
Page 164 of 382

Chapter 8
Figure 8.5
(a) Edge Dislocation (b) Screw Dislocation
Corrosion pits once formed propagate in the same way as crevice corrosion; it
is the initiation phase that is different. In the case of corrosion pits the initiation
is dependant on metallurgical factors alone.
Now consider the case of a water drop laying on the surface of a sheet of
clean mild steel
o The corrosion process initiates uniformly on the surface of the
steel under the water. This consumes oxygen by the normal
cathode reaction in what is a neutral solution at this stage
o This causes an oxygen gradient to form within the water drop. It is
obvious that the wetted area around the water/air interface has
more oxygen diffusion from the air than the centre of the drop
o This concentration gradient anodically polarises the central region,
which dissolves
o The hydroxyl ions generated in the centre of the drop at the
cathode diffuse inwards and react with iron ions diffusing
outwards, causing the deposition of insoluble corrosion product
around the depression, or pit
Page 165 of 382

Types of Corrosion
o This further retards the diffusion of oxygen, accelerates the anodic
process in the centre of the drop and causes the reaction to be
autocatalytic. Figure 8.6 refers
Figure 8.6
The Mechanism of Pitting Because Of
Differential-aeration Beneath a Water Drop
As the process continues the corrosion products accumulate over the pit and its
immediate surroundings, forming a scab or tubercle and isolating the
environment within the pit from the bulk electrolyte. It is thought that the
autocatalytic process is assisted by an increased concentration of chloride ions
within the pit. This type of corrosion would be possible in the splash zone of a
structure if it were not protected with a coating such as paint
1.4
Inter-granular Corrosion
Intergranular corrosion occurs between the grain boundaries because of

precipitates in these regions. This is primarily because grain boundaries are the
preferred sites for the precipitation and segregation processes which occur in
many alloys. These intrusions are of two types: -
Page 166 of 382

Chapter 8
Intermetallic (Iintermediate Constituents)
These are species formed from metal atoms and having identifiable
chemical formulae. They can be either anodic or cathodic to the metal
Compounds
These are formed between metals and non-metallic elements, such as;
hydrogen, carbon, silicon, nitrogen and oxygen
o Iron carbide and manganese sulphide, which are both important
constituents of steel, are both cathodic to ferrite
In principle any metal that has intermetallics or compounds at grain boundaries
will be susceptible to Intergranular corrosion. For example, it has most
frequently been found in austenitic stainless steels but it may occur in ferric and
two-phase stainless steels and nickel base corrosion resistant alloys.
Plain carbon steel is a two phase metal and some grains are cathodic while
others are anodic and Intergranular corrosion initiates as indicated in Figure 8.7
Figure 8.7
Corrosion in Two Phase Metal
In the Galvanic Series the phase is below the phase and will therefore
corrode
1.5
Grain Boundary Corrosion
The driving force behind grain boundary corrosion is the area of higher energy
found at the grain boundary itself. These higher energy regions become the
anodic sites while the bulk of the grain itself becomes the cathode.
This situation results in the loss of material in the anodic reaction at the grain
boundaries themselves in the form of a line.
Page 167 of 382

Types of Corrosion
Figure 8.8
Grain Boundary Corrosion
Weld decay or preferential corrosion is an example of this type of decay.
In this case the boundary is the fusion boundary that forms along the toe
of the weld and is a region of higher energy. This region becomes the
anode and corrosion sets in, often giving quite significant visual
indications of its presence. Figure 8.9 refers
Figure 8.9
Weld Decay or Preferential Corrosion
1.6
Stress Corrosion Cracking
This type of corrosion is a form of Intergranular corrosion that increases in

severity when the material is subjected to a tensile load and a specific
environment.
The effects are to concentrate the corrosion on a limited number of grain
boundaries that are at right angles to the direction of loading.
Page 168 of 382

Chapter 8
A common feature of stress corrosion cracking that repeatedly occurs is the
unexpectedness of its manifestation. Often a material that has been chosen for
its corrosion resistance is found to fail at a stress level well below its normal
fracture stress.
It is rare that there is any obvious evidence of failure and it presents itself in
components that are apparently unstressed.
Problems with pipes and tubes are common because of the hoop residual
stresses that are the result of the fabrication process. Stress-relieving heat
treatments are a vital part of the quality control for these components because
of this.
It is currently agreed that there is no one mechanism for producing stress
corrosion cracking, but rather a number of significant factors.
For this cracking to occur there must be tensile stress, which may be
applied directly during the working life of the structure, or it may be
present as a consequence of the installation or fabrication process
In general alloys are more susceptible than pure metals although copper
is one known exception
A particular metal may crack in the presence of a relatively few chemical
species that may be present in small concentrations
In the absence of stress the alloy is usually inert to the same
environment that would otherwise cause cracking
Even with particularly ductile materials stress corrosion cracks have the
appearance of a brittle fracture
It is usually possible to determine a threshold stress below which stress
corrosion cracking does not occur.
1.7
Fretting Corrosion
Fretting describes corrosion occurring at contact areas between materials under

load subjected to vibration and slip. In appearance it shows pits and groves in
the metal surrounded by corrosion products.
It has been observed in a number of different components in machinery and in
bolted parts. In essence this is a form of erosion corrosion that occurs in the
atmosphere rather than under aqueous conditions.
Fretting corrosion is very detrimental due to the destruction of metallic
components and the production of oxide debris. This leads to loss of tolerance
and may result in fatigue fracture due to the excessive strain caused by the
extra movement and the pits acting as stress raisers. A classic case on land of
fretting occurs at bolted tie plates on railroad tracks.
The basic requirements for the occurrence of fretting corrosion are: The interface must be under load
Vibration or repeated relative motion between the interface must be
sufficient to produce slip or deformation on the surfaces
Page 169 of 382

Types of Corrosion
The load and relative motion of the interface must be sufficient to
produce slip or deformation on the surfaces
The relative motion need only be as little as 10-10 m but it must be cyclic in
nature and does not occur between surfaces in continuous motion. There are
two theories proposed for fretting corrosion; wear-oxidation and oxidation-wear
both of which are shown schematically in Figures 8.10 and 8.11
Figure 8.10
Schematic Illustration of the
Wear-oxidation Theory of
Fretting Corrosion
The wear-oxidation mechanism is based on the concept that cold welding or
fusion occurs at the interface between metal surfaces under pressure and,
during the subsequent relative motion, these contact points are ruptured and
fragments of metal are removed.
These fragments, because of their small diameter and the heat due to friction
are immediately oxidized. This process is repeated resulting in the loss of metal
and accumulation of oxide residue.
Figure 8.11
Schematic Illustration of the
Oxidation-wear Theory of
Fretting Corrosion
The oxidation-wear concept is based on the hypothesis that most metal
surfaces are protected from atmospheric oxidation by a thin, adherent oxide
layer.
When metals are placed in contact under load and subjected to repeated
relative motion, the oxide layer is ruptured at high points and results in oxide
debris. It is assumed that the exposed metal re-oxidizes and the process is
repeated.
Page 170 of 382

Chapter 8
This type of corrosion could occur in the metal adjacent to clamps and collars of
risers, conductors and caissons if there is the slightest movement underneath
them. See Figure 8.12.
Figure 8.12
Possible Fretting Corrosion
between Riser and Riser Clamp
1.8
Erosion Corrosion
This is a self-explanatory name for a form of corrosion that results from a metal
being attacked because of the relative motion between an electrolyte and a
metal surface. Examples of this type of corrosion are attributable to mechanical
effects, such as, wear, abrasion and scouring.
Soft metals such as, copper, brass, pure aluminium and lead are particularly
vulnerable.
Two main forms of erosion corrosion are: Corrosion associated with laminar flow
Damage caused by impingement in turbulent conditions
A laminar flow will cause several effects:
The ionic distribution in the double layer is carried away by the flow and
equilibrium cannot be established which leads to an increased rate of
dissolution. Figure 9.1 Chapter 9 refers
Where the increased flow replenishes aggressive ions such as chloride
and sulphide this has a detrimental effect and corrosion rates increase
Page 171 of 382

Types of Corrosion
If the flow contains any solid particles protective layers may be scoured
away causing excessive corrosion
The alternative to this is that it is sometimes possible in pipes for the
deposit of silt or dirt to be prevented thus preventing the formation of any
differential-aeration cells in the crevices beneath
A possible beneficial effect is that more oxygen is carried to the area,
which minimises the formation of differential-aeration cells that are
normally a common cause of attack. Stainless steels in particular benefit
from improved corrosion resistance because oxygen replenishment
maintains its protective oxide film
Another possible beneficial effect is where a steady supply of inhibitor is
concentrated within the flow, as in a pipeline for example
These combined circumstances make the effects of laminar flow unpredictable.
Taking the case of turbulent flow, however the situation is much more
straightforward.
The fluid molecules now impinge directly on the metal causing wear. This
obviously increases the corrosion rate
This effect can easily occur inside a pipe because turbulence can be caused by,
sudden changes in bore diameter, sudden changes in direction (i.e. pipe
bends), a badly fitted joint or gasket, any deposits that may be either
circumferential welds or silt deposits. Figure 8.13 refers.
Figure 8.13
Effects of Flow in Pipes
Page 172 of 382

Chapter 8
1.9
Corrosion Fatigue
There are many similarities between corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion
cracking but the most significant difference is that corrosion fatigue is extremely
non-specific.
As detailed in Chapter 4 fatigue affects all metals causing failure at stress levels
well below the UTS.
In aqueous environments it is frequently found that a metals fatigue resistance
is reduced, or even that it no longer has a fatigue limit.
Summarising the stages in the development of a fatigue crack as discussed in
Chapter 4 yields: Firstly the formation of slip bands
Next the nucleations of an embryo crack in the order of 10 m long
Then the extension of this crack along favourable paths
Finally macroscopic, 0.1 to 1 mm, crack propagation in a direction at right
angles to the maximum principal stress that leads to failure
Corrosion fatigue can occur in any of the three corrosion states indicated by the
Pourbaix diagram as shown in Chapter 10, Figure 10.1, it can also occur at
stress levels much lower than those for stress corrosion cracking (SCC). It is
also true that while SCC growth rates are independent of the stress intensity
factor during much of the crack growth, fatigue crack growth is always affected
by it.
It is thought that the use of cathodic protection systems that place the metal in
the immune state and over time cause calcareous deposits to form that tend to
inhibit crack growth ensure that the structures are resistant to corrosion fatigue.
1.10 Biological Corrosion
Corrosion by marine biological action can be initiated in various ways:
By the production of corrosive substances like hydrogen sulphide or
ammonia, which result in direct chemical attack on the metal
By producing or actually being a catalyst in the corrosive action
By the reaction of sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRBs) under anaerobic
conditions
o The most important of these are the bacteria Sporovibrio
desulfuricans. These thrive in the reduced oxygen conditions
created under heavy accumulations of marine growth, under thick
deposits of corrosion products, or under mud
There are indications that because oxygen is unable to
diffuse through the heavy marine growth the effect of this
organism is to take the place of oxygen in the usual
cathodic reaction
By the formation of concentration cells around and under the organisms
Page 173 of 382

Types of Corrosion
Bibliography
E & F N Spon
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Chapter 8
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Page 175 of 382

Chapter 9
CHAPTER 9
Factors Affecting Corrosion Rates
1
Polarisation and Corrosion Rate
When a metal is exposed to an aqueous solution containing ions of that metal,

both oxidation of metal atoms to ions and reduction of metal ions to atoms
occurs on its surface according to the formula: Men+ + ne-
Me
This means that there are two reactions involving the flow of electrons and the
rate at which these reactions occur can be given by two current densities.
The necessity for using current density as a measurement of corrosion currents
can be demonstrated by considering two pieces of metal; one say, of 10 mm2,
the other of 1 mm2 and suppose they both corrode such that the current flow is
10 electrons per second. The smaller piece will obviously corrode 10 times
faster than the larger piece. Thus the surface area of the corroding metal must
be taken into account when measuring current.
The unit of current density is Am-2 (amps per square meter)
The corrosion rate and the current density are directly related; which makes
the topic quite important when considering the long-term deterioration of metals
in aqueous solution
These two current densities can be indicated as forward and reverse reaction
currents thus: i and i
and at equilibrium (Eo)
exchange current density.
i = i = io and io is known as the
If a net current (i) is applied to the surface i I this applied net current will be
the difference between the forward and reverse currents. This difference in
current changes the electrode potential and this new potential is given the value
Ei and the electrode is said to be polarized. The change in electrode potential
is called polarization and is given the Greek letter (eta).
= Ei - Eo
There are two main polarization components to consider.
Concentration Polarization
Caused by the difference in concentration between the layer of electrolyte
nearest the electrode surface and the bulk of the electrolyte. See Figure 9.1
Page 176 of 382

Factors Affecting Corrosion Rate
Figure 9.1
Concentration Polarization (The Double Layer)
o The initial polarization at the anode produces a surfeit of positive
cations that in turn causes a non-homogeneous distribution of ions
with the most densely populated layer nearest to the electrode
being the Helmholtz and the second more diffuse being the GuoyChapman. In this layer the potential changes exponentially. This
distribution is commonly referred to as the double layer
Activation Polarization Caused by a retardation of the electrode
reaction. The polarization of an anode is always positive and that of a
cathode always negative.
Later in these notes the monitoring of corrosion in a seawater environment will
be discussed and reference will be made there to measuring both potential and
current density
2
Environmental Factors Affecting Corrosion Rates
The corrosion rate is predictable within certain parameters and corrosion

engineers work this out when designing a protection system. There are
however, environmental factors that effect the overall corrosion reaction and
these will be indicated here. Specifically the factors considered will be:
Temperature
Water Flow Rate
The pH of the Water
2.1
Temperature
Most chemical reactions are speeded up by an increase in temperature. Thus

temperature cycling and temperature differences will also have this effect.
Page 177 of 382

Chapter 9
Hot risers, exhaust and cooling water dumps are all sites that can and do
corrode more quickly than the remainder of typical offshore structures.
Studies undertaken by the Dow Chemical Company showed that the corrosion
rate of mild steel and a selected low alloy steel, in a standard brine solution at a
pH of 9.4, approximately doubled as the temperature was increased from 180o
F (82o C) to 250o F (121o C).
Therefore, components like cooling water outlets and hot risers are particularly
susceptible to corrosion and must be inspected regularly.
The effect of seawater temperature is illustrated by the graph in Figure 9.2.
Figure 9.2
The Effect of Temperature on
Corrosion of Steel in Seawater
2.2
Water Flow Rate
In general if the flow rate is increased the rate at which metal is removed is also
increased.
If there is impingement of the flow on the metal or aeration takes place in the
region of the surface, then a very much larger rate of metal removal is
experienced locally. The pitting of ships propellers and pump and dredger
impellers are general examples of this.
Tests carried out by P Ffield show how the corrosion of steel pipes carrying
seawater is effected in a straightforward way by increasing the velocity of the
flow. Figure 9.3 illustrates his findings.
Page 178 of 382

Figure 9.3
Effect of Seawater Velocity on Corrosion
of Steel at Ambient Temperature Exposed 38 Days
2.3
The pH Value of the Water
The corrosion rate of metals in directly affected by the pH value of the

electrolyte. Steel for example corrodes least when in a solution that has a pH
between 11 and 12. A resume of the pH system is laid out below. The resume
starts by considering water, which is neutral.
Water is a neutral molecule in which two atoms of hydrogen combine with one
of oxygen, there is a limited amount of dissociation into hydrogen ions and
hydroxyl ions in the normal course of events and this can be noted in the form
of an equilibrium thus: H2O
H+ + OH-
The Law of Mass Action can be applied to this equilibrium process and
assuming the concentration of water in dilute solution is constant given
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) a new equation for water can be
written thus: [H+]. [OH-] = constant
(I)
This constant has been measured experimentally as 10-14 (STP) and this value
and the relationship equation form the basis of a scale of acidity.
All acids have one common property that is the presence in aqueous solution of
the hydrogen ion.
The opposite of acid is alkali or basic, which means that acids are neutralised
by alkalis and that alkalinity, is associated with hydroxyl ions.
Page 179 of 382

Chapter 9
Water as indicated by the equilibrium equation represents a neutral substance
as it contains both acid, (H+) and alkali (OH-) in equal quantities.
The modern method of defining acidity is by means of a term called pH, which
indicates the amount of hydrogen activity. It is measured on a scale of 0 to 14
thus: -
Figure 9.4
pH Scale
Page 180 of 382

Bibliography
E & F N Spon
Page 181 of 382

Chapter 9
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Page 182 of 382

Chapter 10
CHAPTER 10
Corrosion Protection
1
There are numerous methods for preventing corrosion including, coatings,

inhibitors (controlling the electrolyte), selective design, anodic protection and
cathodic protection. Before considering these methods a brief examination of
the way in which the corrosion process is influenced by the two main variables;
the electrode potential and the pH value will assist in understanding the various
protection methods.
These data are often presented in diagrammatic form known as Pourbaix
diagrams. These diagrams are obtained from laboratory tests carried out under
controlled conditions of constant temperature and no flow.
Figure 10.1
Pourbaix Diagram for
Iron in Water
It can be seen from Figure 10.1 that there are three distinct possible states of
corrosion depending on electrode potentials and pH values:
Page 183 of 382

Corrosion At intermediate electrode potentials and over a very wide
range of pH values corrosion takes place and metal is removed
Passivity
At higher electrode potentials and over a wide range of pH
values, there is a passivity region. This is the region in which a corrosion
product film is formed, that in most cases is an oxide film. It is worth
noting that the diagram only indicates that an oxide film is formed; it does
not mean that the oxide film gives protection. The properties of the film
must be known in order to determine this
Immunity
At low electrode potentials and over almost the whole of the
pH range, the rate of corrosion is so low that the metal is said to be
immune
2
Cathodic Protection
Apart from the three stages indicated by Figure 10.1 it is also possible to
determine basic strategies for preventing corrosion.
Making the electrode potential more positive will produce passivation at
point C
Making the electrode potential more negative will produce immunity at
point B
Making the electrolyte more basic will produce passivation at point D
Altering the electrical potential to produce passivation or immunity by the
methods of cathodic or anodic protection is the most useful technique for
offshore structures.
In designing a Cathodic Protection system the system designer starts by
determining an acceptable corrosion rate (r) this information is input to a graph
to determine a value for current density (I). This level of current density will
ensure the required corrosion rate is achieved.
The electric potential to achieve this current is approximately -850 mV. Now it
may seem that potentials more negative that 850 mV (Ag/AgCl) would produce
even less metal loss. There are two reasons why it is not prudent to use very
much more negative potentials.
At potentials much more negative than 1000 mV (Ag/AgCl) the
possibility of hydrogen evolution exists and this can cause hydrogen
embrittlement
Secondly large currents are associated with more negative potentials
that produce high local concentrations of hydroxyl ions that often damage
barrier coating such as paint if it is present
These last two points are more likely to occur with an electrical impressed
current protection system but non-the-less are quite valid which makes the
choice of 800 to 900 mV (Ag/AgCl) a valid design parameter in all cases for
offshore platforms.
Page 184 of 382

Chapter 10
2.1
Cathodic Protection: The Sacrificial Anode Method
With this method of corrosion prevention the entire structure is made into the
cathode in a massive corrosion cell as indicated diagrammatically in Chapter 7,
Figure 7.7. The structure will therefore not corrode but at the expense of the
anode, which is sacrificed providing the electron flow and gives the process its
name. Refer to Figure 10.2
Figure 10.2
Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection
The anode must be picked from the appropriate galvanic series. The most
appropriate metals are zinc, aluminium and magnesium.
This method of corrosion protection is almost as straightforward as that. The
main question is how much anode material will be required?
This question has two parts:
How large a surface area must the anodes protect?
How long will the protection last?
To answer the question an example will be given:
An uncoated steel offshore drilling platform has a sacrificial anode
cathodic protection system installed designed to last for 10 years. What
anode material should be used and how many anodes are required?
o Total wetted surface area of structure
Minimum number of anodes required
= 2500 m2
= 2510
Anode material should be zinc or aluminium, as magnesium would react

to quickly
Aluminium anodes will last longer and may be selected because of this
Page 185 of 382

2.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sacrificial Anode Systems
The advantages and disadvantages of sacrificial anode systems are
summarised in Table 10.3
Advantages and Disadvantages of Sacrificial Anode Systems
Advantages
Disadvantages
No external electric power required
Current output decreases with time
No danger of overprotection
Comparatively difficult to increase

protection by retro-fitting anodes
No running costs
Initial costs are comparatively high
Active from day of immersion
Adds considerable weight and drag

to the structure
A well proven and reliable method

Table 10.3
Advantages and Disadvantages of Sacrificial Anodes
2.2
Cathodic Protection: Impressed Current Method
An Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP) system works on the same

principal as the sacrificial system in that the structure is made to be the
cathode. However in the case of the ICCP system the necessary potential and
current flow is provided by a DC generator rather than by a galvanic coupling.
This system can be made to be self-adjusting by incorporating reference
electrodes into the circuit that measure potential. The potential can vary
depending on the circumstances; if the structure has a coating initially that in
subsequent service becomes damaged this will increase the exposed surface
area needing to be protected. The control unit can deal with this by increasing
the current density. If on the other hand there were a reduction in the surface
area; as for instance a calcareous deposit building up, there would be less
surface area exposed and the current requirement would be less.
In both cases the reference electrode provides the means of monitoring the
potential, which varies proportionally according to the current. Figure 10.4
shows the system diagrammatically.
Page 186 of 382

Chapter 10
Figure 10.4
The Principle of Impressed Current
Cathodic Protection Using a Potentiostat
The anode material is selected from the bottom of the galvanic series not the
top. Materials such as titanium, Platonised niobium and lead/silver alloys are
used. The anode and supply cables are insulated from the structure to prevent
any of the problems associated with over-protection.
Noble metals, virtually non-consumable anodes, can be used in this system
because in electrolytes of pH 7 or less the anode reaction is the oxidation of
water, rather than metal dissolution: 2H2O
O2 + 4H+ + 4e-
In electrolytes of pH values greater than 7 (alkaline solutions) the reaction is the

oxidation of hydroxyl ions: 4OH-
O2 + 2H2O + 4e-
In seawater the reaction is usually the oxidation of chloride ions to chloride gas:
2Cl-
Cl2 + 2e-
Table 10.5 lists some properties of impressed current anode materials.
Page 187 of 382

Material
Consumption
Recommended Uses
(Kg yr-1)
8 x 10-6
Marine environments and high purity

liquids
High Silicon Iron
0.25 1.0
Potable waters and soil or

carbonaceous backfill
Steel
6.8 9.1
Marine environments and carbonaceous

backfill
Iron
Approx 9.5

backfill
Cast Iron
4.5 6.8

backfill
Lead-Platinum
0.09
Marine environments
Lead-Silver
0.09
Marine environments
Graphite
0.1 1.0
Marine environments, potable water,

and carbonaceous backfill
Platinum
Platonised Metals
Table 10.5
Some Impressed Current Anode Materials
and Their Properties
(From Brand)
2.2.1 Practical Considerations for Installing ICCP Systems
Anodes made from materials such as listed in Table 10.5 are capable of
supplying high current densities and it would be possible to protect a structure
with a few large anodes supplied with a high current. However, in practice
anodes are usually distribute at regular intervals over the whole structure. This
is because: The high current density that would be present in the immediate vicinity
of a single anode could damage paint surfaces and possibly cause
embrittlement as previously discussed.
o The use of more anodes reduces the current density for each one
and reduces the probability of this type of damage
Offshore structures have a reasonably complicated geometry that makes
it difficult for corrosion engineers to predict the total distribution
potentials. Therefore it is prudent to use more anodes, each one
protecting a smaller area thus minimising the areas at risk of inadequate
protection
Page 188 of 382

Chapter 10
o When designing the system should the corrosion engineers have
any doubts about protecting any particular area of the structure
sacrificial anodes may be installed to work in conjunction with the
ICCP system
The ICCP system installed on the Claymore platform was designed to provide
160 mA m-2 utilising 55 platinum-iridium anodes and 12 reference electrodes.
Also the Murchison platform uses 100 anodes and 50 reference electrodes. In
general in the North Sea the most common anode materials are Platinum
sheathed Titanium and Lead/Silver alloys.
It is vitally important that the power supply is connected with correct polarity.
The negative terminal must be connected to the structure and the positive
terminal must be connected to the anode. Should these connections be
reversed the structure would corrode catastrophically. Figures 10.6 and 10.7
refer.
Figure 10.6
Diagrammatic Layout of an
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection System
Page 189 of 382

Figure 10.7
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
Distribution of Anodes and Dielectric Shield
As indicated in paragraph 2.2.1 the actual distribution of the anodes on any
structure may be either: Platform Based
Here numerous anodes are attached to the structure at intervals around it in
similar fashion to sacrificial anodes but ensuring that they are insulated from
the structure. Figure 10.7 refers.
o Two problems are associated with this method. One is the
possibility of shadow areas where inadequate protection is
provided. This problem can be solved by the use of sacrificial
anodes complementing the ICCP system as indicated earlier. The
second problem is the possibility of current flowing directly from
the anode to the adjacent structure. This could cause
embrittlement as discussed earlier and to avoid this dielectric
shields are employed to insulate the structure electrically. Also the
current is limited by design because each anode is positioned to
provide adequate protection for the local area only. This limits as
well the possibility of embrittlement and coating damage. See
Figure 10.7
o There is also a diver safety consideration in that these anodes are
at about 80 V potential with some 1000 A current. If divers are
employed adjacent to any of the anodes they should be isolated
from the system
Remote from the Structure
A number of anodes may be placed on the seabed at a designated distance
from the structure.
Page 190 of 382

Chapter 10
o This method avoids the possibility of current flowing directly from
the anode to the adjacent structure but there being fewer anodes
the current density is higher and therefore there is still a possibility
of coating damage and embrittlement.
o As discussed in paragraph 2.2.1 design considerations generally
favour more anodes distributed around the structure.
o There is a safety issue with divers but as the anodes are some
distance away from the structure it may be possible to ensure
safety by imposing an exclusion zone around the anode. See
Figure 10.8
Figure 10.8
Diagram of ICCP System
with Anodes Remote from Structure
2.2.2 Reference or Control Electrodes
These electrodes are commonly zinc, silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl) or (SCC)
or copper/copper-sulphate (CSE). CSE is favoured in applications with
reinforced concrete.
Reference or control electrodes are vital components of any ICCP system. They
determine the current required from the power source, without these items the
system cannot provide a quantifiable degree of protection. Figure 10.9 refers.
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Figure 10.9
Zinc Reference Electrode Installed
On an Offshore Structure
3
Using Coatings to Protect the Structure
Coatings form a barrier between the electrolyte and the surface of the protected
structure. They may be paints, organic films, varnishes, metal coatings or
enamels and even sheathing. It is surprising how effective coatings can be
when consideration is given to the thickness of a typical paint coat. This may be
only in the order of 25 to 100 microns thick for some applications.
3.1
Paints
When paint is applied to a metal surface it presents a barrier to air, moisture

and ions aggressive to the metal. However, paint cannot provide a complete
barrier to oxygen or water. In time these will penetrate through to the surface of
the metal. Any paint system used underwater must have a strong bond onto the
metal surface and therefore high quality metal surface preparation is required
such as SA 3. The bonding between successive coats must also be strong and
the topcoats must provide as impervious a barrier to the electrolyte as is
possible. This last is achieved by ensuring the constituents making up the
topcoats have very low water absorption and transmission coefficients.
Coal Tar Epoxides are used extensively on offshore structures. They
consist of coal tar and epoxide resin for the binder. These coatings are
highly impermeable to water and resistant to attack by most chemicals
and hydroxyl ions (that are produced by the cathodic reaction)
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Chapter 10
Zinc coatings utilising a combination of zinc dust and complex silicates
with a solvent-based self-curing binder give good protection to steel
surfaces. These coatings are frequently over-painted by another system
and are used on components such as ladders in a marine environment
Concrete is used to provide a protective coating to pipelines where it
provides a passive environment for the steel pipe as well as adding
weight.
Metallic coatings such as galvanising, using zinc impose a continuous
barrier between the metal surface being protected and the surrounding
environment. These coatings may be applied in a number of ways.
Electroplating utilises a bath of salts as an electrolyte. The component
and rods of the plating metal are immersed in the electrolyte and a
potential is applied between the component and the rods. The
component becomes the cathode and the rods the anode so metal ions
of the plating material deposit from the solution onto the component
Hot dipping involves the component being immersed in a bath of molten
coating metal. Galvanising is accomplished by this method. See Figure
10.10
Figure 10.10
Galvanising
Spray coats utilise a specialised torch that is fed with wires of the coating
metal that are melted and blown out by it. The molten metal is expressed
in the form of droplets travelling at 100 to 150 m s-1 that flatten and
adhere on impact with the component
Cladding uses metal skins laminated onto the component. The skin can
be applied by
o Rolling
o Explosive welding
o Buttering (building up a welded coat on the surface to be
protected)
o Sheathing
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Aluminium roll-bonded to duralumin is marketed as Alcad.
o Some offshore risers are sheathed with Monel (cupronickel) See
Figure 10.11
Figure 10.11
Monel Cladding on
an Offshore Riser
Diffusion requires the component to be heated to just below the melting
point of the coating metal in the presence of the coating in powder form
and in an inert atmosphere. The component is allowed to baste for
several hours and the coating diffuses into the surface of the component.
4
Inhibitors (Controlling the Electrolyte)
Remember the Pourbaix diagram indicates three methods for preventing

corrosion: Making the electrode more positive
Making the electrode more negative
Changing the electrolyte pH
This section will outline methods for changing the electrolyte.
Also remember there are four processes in metal corrosion: The anodic reaction
The cathodic reaction
Ionic conduction through the electrolyte
Electron conduction through the metal
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Chapter 10
Only the first three are affected by the electrolyte, electron conduction through
the metal is not considered here. The properties of the electrolyte that can be
affected by using inhibitors are: The conductivity of the electrolyte
The pH of the electrolyte
The interaction of the electrolyte with the metal surface, attacking or
strengthening passive films
As an example of how this can be achieved consider steel in seawater. If
distilled water is substituted for the seawater the conductivity and pH of the
electrolyte is reduced and a passive film will form on the surface of the steel.
4.1
Anodic Inhibitors
Anodic inhibitors increase the polarisation of the anode by reaction with the ions
of the corroding metals to produce either thin passive films or salts of limited
solubility that coat the anode. See Figure 10.12
Figure 10.12
Anodic Inhibitor
4.2
Cathodic Inhibitors
Cathodic inhibitors affect both normal reactions

In one effect the inhibitor reacts with hydroxyl ions to precipitate insoluble
compounds on the cathodic site thus blanketing the cathode from the
electrolyte and preventing access of oxygen to the site.
In the other reaction increasing the polarisation of the system controls
the evolution of hydrogen. This forms a layer of adsorbed hydrogen on
the surface of the cathode. This type of inhibitor may allow hydrogen
atoms to diffuse into steel and cause hydrogen embrittlement
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4.3
Adsorption Inhibitors
Adsorption inhibitors interrupt the ion flow from the metal surface by forming
long organic molecules with side chains that are adsorbed and desorbed from
the metal surface. These bulky molecules can limit the diffusion of oxygen to the
surface, or trap the metal ions on the surface, stabilise the double layer and
reduce the rate of dissolution
In general anodic inhibitors are more efficient than cathodic ones.
5
Corrosion Protection by Design
This aspect of corrosion protection has been indicated earlier in Chapter 8. The
methods employed to protect structures from corrosion can be summarised
thus: Avoid all unnecessary bimetallic corrosion cells
Avoid differential-aeration cells (crevices, debris traps, inadequate
drainage, etc.)
Avoid stray currents from electrical machinery or conductors
Choose the material with the best properties for the environment
6
Anodic Protection
In this method of corrosion protection a potential is applied to the anode that

maintains it in the passive range of the Pourbaix diagram. This allows the
formation of a passive film that is robust enough to provide a barrier to the
normal corrosion process. However, this film is unreliable for steel in aqueous
solutions and therefore is not used on offshore structures. Aluminium does form
such a film naturally and some types of aluminium can benefit from this
because the passive layer is sufficiently robust to be relied upon.
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Chapter 10
Bibliography
E & F N Spon
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Chapter 11
CHAPTER 11
Corrosion Protection Monitoring
1
Monitoring Corrosion Protection
It has been indicated several times during this discussion on corrosion that
there are variables presented in-service that cannot be adequately predicted.
Therefore a monitoring regime is necessary to ensure that the designed
corrosion protection system is operating to its design specifications and that
there are no in-service effects interfering with this.
The amount of current from sacrificial anodes or from an impressed current
system required for protection varies:
From metal to metal
With the geometry of the structure
With differences in sea water environment (temperature, pH value etc.)
With any other factors that affects the resistance of the circuit
Since the amount for current required for protection of any structure cannot be
accurately predicted or distributed evenly through the structure, the method of
checking for adequate protection is to measure the potential and current density
of the structure at various places.
1.1
Inspection Requirements
Monitoring or inspection requirements for corrosion protection systems are

therefore as follows: Visual inspections of the anode (both sacrificial and impressed current
nodes) for wear
Visual inspection of electrical connections of the sacrificial system to see
that it is intact and of the impressed current system to ensure that there
are no breaks in the insulation of the supply cables
Potential measurements on the structure to confirm that it is still the
cathode by confirming the readings obtained are in the immunity range of
the Pourbaix diagram
Current density measurements to confirm that the impressed current
system is providing adequate protection
Visual and ultrasonic inspection for corrosion damage including pitting
and loss of wall thickness
The specific visual inspection requirements are detailed in Chapter 17 Visual
inspection. The ultrasonic requirements are covered in Chapter 15
The potential measurements usually referred to as Cathode Potential (CP)
readings are obtained by:
Taking contact readings with a CP meter
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o By hand employing a diver with a hand-held instrument
o By mounting a contact probe on an ROV
Taking proximity readings with a proximity probe mounted on an ROV
Monitoring proximity readings via remotely mounted permanent sensors
with readout in a surface control room
Current density measurements and monitoring are obtained by:
Taking current density readings normally with an ROV mounted sensor
and usually for a specific requirement. This method is not used for
regular inspections
Monitoring potential and current through remotely mounted electrodes
incorporated into the impressed current system
2
Cathode Potential Measurement
The cathode potential is measured by using a reference electrode incorporated

into an instrument that has a readout calibrated in mV. As stated in the previous
Chapter these electrodes are commonly: High purity zinc
Silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl) or (SCC)
Copper/copper-sulphate (CSE) (this is more favoured for concrete
structures)
2.1
High Purity Zinc Electrodes (ZRE)
High purity zinc (99.9% pure) is most commonly used with remote mounted
monitoring systems as shown in Chapter 10 Figure 10.9. The site for mounting
the electrode is selected because it is either, a representative site, it is an area
of marginal protection or it is an area of high stress and it is installed as part of
the impressed current system. The electrode is connected to a meter in the
surface control room. See Figure 11.1
Figure 11.1
High Purity Zinc Electrode (ZRE)
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Chapter 11
2.2
CP Readings Utilising Silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl) Electrodes
The most common reference electrode used in offshore corrosion monitoring is

Silver/silver chloride. This electrode is used extensively for both contact and
proximity applications whether diver or ROV deployed.
Ag/AgCl electrodes, most frequently referred to as half-cells (because they form
a cell when the meter is connected to the cathode) are utilised in several
contact CP probes, including the Bathycorrometer, the Morgan Berkeley
Rustreader, that are hand held, and ROV probes. They are commonly used as
proximity probes also. The probe contact tip is placed on the cathode and the
meter gives the readout in mV of the electrical potential between it and the halfcell. Figure 11.2 refers for a hand-held meter. Figure 11.3 illustrates an ROV
contact probe and Figure 11.4 diagrammatically shows the proximity method.
When taking proximity CP readings it is vital that a sound electrical
connection is made between the structure and the positive terminal of the
surface control room installed meter, as indicated in Figure 11.4
Figure 11.2
Diver-held CP Meter
(Bathycorrometer or similar)
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Figure 11.3
Contact CP Reading Taken By an ROV
Figure 11.4
Proximity CP Measurement
3
Current Density Measurements
Current density may be measured using a specialised probe mounted on an

ROV. This type of inspection would be undertaken for a specific purpose such
as investigating a particular area of the structure that was suspected of being
under-protected or following up a visual inspection that had identified more
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Chapter 11
corrosion than was anticipated. Specific procedures will be provided for this
type of survey.
As stated earlier impressed current systems have reference electrodes installed
to monitor current flow and potential. Figure 10.10 Chapter 10 shows a ZRE
monitoring potential and Figure 11.5 illustrates a monitored anode.
A monitored anode is a sacrificial anode that is isolated electrically from the
structure and is connected via an insulated cable to the surface control room.
Thus the current can be constantly monitored.
Figure 11.5
Monitored Electrode
4
Calibration Procedures for Hand-held CP Meters
It is necessary to calibrate CP meters to ensure that the readings obtained are

accurate and comparable with other and previous readings. A standard method
of calibration has been adopted in the offshore industry for this purpose. This
procedure is detailed here.
4.1
Necessary Equipment
Three Calomel Electrodes complete with electrical connectors, or three screwon calomel cells for hand-held CP meters (these are available for the
Bathycorrometer and can be provided with screw in electrical connectors, which
should be specified. The electric connector is provided so that the cells can be
proven as described below.)
High impedance (10 ) voltmeter
Zinc (99.9% pure) block with clamp and electrical connector
Plastic bucket filled with fresh seawater (not from fire main which could contain
inhibitors)
Log sheets
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4.2
Procedure
The first part of the procedure proves that the calomel cells are chemically
saturated and sufficiently stable enough to be used as reference cells.
4.2.1 Proving the Calomel Cells
There are different types of cells available. One type is specifically designed for
use with a Bathycorrometer. This type has a solid polymer body protecting the
calomel cell. The procedure outlined below also applies to this type of cell;
however it is not possible to visually confirm they are fully saturated with
solution. They are sealed, and to confirm they are saturated it is necessary to
unscrew a sealing cap to gain access to the solution reservoir.
Visually inspect the electrodes to ensure they are undamaged and full of
solution. The solution is potassium chloride (K Cl) and if the solution is
saturated or supersaturated solid crystals may be seen in the phial.
(Commonly the phials are glass or clear plastic)
Label the electrodes 1,2 and 3
Soak the electrodes in the bucket for 24 hours, being careful to immerse
each one only as far as the filling hole in the phial
While the electrodes continue to soak connect electrode 1 to the
negative terminal of the voltmeter and electrode 2 to the positive terminal
and record the reading
Repeat the test with each permutation of electrodes
1 and 3
2 and 3
o Acceptable readings between any pair of electrodes is 0 2 mv
Figure 11.6
Proving Calomel Reference Cells
If all the readings are within this range any electrode may be used
If one reading is out of this range the electrode not in that pair is the one
to use
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Chapter 11
If one reading is in range either of the electrodes in that pair can be used
If all of the readings are either replace all the calomel cells or flush out
the phials with pure distilled water, obtain a new saturated solution of
potassium chloride, refill the phials and re-test
On completion of the entire procedure rinse the electrodes in fresh water.
Figure 11.6 refers.
The second part of the procedure confirms the calibration of the CP meter.
4.2.2 Calibration of the Meter
The calibration procedure for a contact CP meter is basically the same whether
it is diver hand-held or ROV deployed.
4.2.3 Calibration of a Bathycorrometer
There is slight difference in the application if the meter is a Bathycorrometer
being calibrated with the specifically designed screw-on cells. In this case the
following procedure applies.
Fully charge the CP meter batteries and soak in fresh seawater (not
drawn from the fire main)
Remove the contact probe tip from the meter
Screw the calomel reference electrode onto the Bathycorrometer instead
of the tip
Immerse the meter in the bucket at least far enough to submerge the
semi-permeable membrane. (The meter display may be left out of the
water to assist taking readings.)
Allow time for the meter to stabilise (approximately 10 minutes
maximum)
The voltage potential between the reference electrode and the meters
own Ag/AgCl cell is read off the meter display directly.
Record the reading on the log
o Acceptable readings are between 0 to -10 mV. (The reading will
be negative as the Ag/AgCl cell built into the hand-held meter is
connected to the positive terminal of the meter).
The calibration of other types of contact CP meters is by comparison. The
procedure is outlined under paragraph 4.3 below.
4.3
Overall Calibration of any CP Meter
Select the proven calomel electrode and immerse the tip for 30 minutes into a
plastic bucket on deck
Take a zinc block, attach a clamp and electric wire and place the block
into the same bucket
Connect the calomel electrode to the negative terminal of a high
resistance voltmeter via the electric cable attached to the electrode
Page 205 of 382

Connect the zinc block to the positive terminal of the voltmeter via its
electric connector. (Immerse only the zinc, not the clamp or connector)
Take a reading from the voltmeter. Acceptable readings are
1.00 V 5 mV. Record the reading on the log
Remove the zinc block and disconnect it from the clamp
Soak the CP meter assembly in a bucket of fresh seawater for 30
minutes
Place the zinc block into the same bucket as the CP meter and make
submerged contact between the probe tip and the zinc.
Take a reading from the CP meter. This reading should be the same as
that recorded from the calomel 10 mV (this proves the CP meter by
comparison)
Record the reading on the log
Remove the zinc and calomel cells from the seawater, wash in fresh
water, dry and store.
4.4
Calibration of Ag/AgCl Proximity Probes
Before initiating this procedure ensure that the insulation on the conductors for
the proximity cell is intact. This may be achieved by using an insulation test
meter. The cable must be properly insulated to avoid any possibility of the
copper conductor being exposed to seawater and affecting the readings.
Select a proven calomel cell and immerse the tip in a bucket of fresh
seawater for 30 minutes
Immerse the Ag/AgCl proximity probe in the same bucket for the same
time
Connect the negative terminal of the high resistance voltmeter to the
Ag/AgCl half-cell
Connect the positive terminal of the voltmeter to the calomel electrode
Take the reading. Acceptable readings are 0 10 mV
Remove the calomel electrode and immerse the zinc block (only)
positioned 100 mm from the Ag/AgCl half-cell. The zinc block is
connected to the positive terminal of the meter system via the clamp and
electrical connection
Take the reading. Acceptable readings are 1.00 V to 1.050 V
5
Operating Procedures
To ensure that accuracy is maintained and that repeatable results are obtained
CP monitoring methods should follow a procedure as follows.
Ensure any self-contained meters are fully charged and maintain a
battery-charging log. (Usual requirements for charging batteries for
battery-operated equipment is 14 to 16 hours from fully discharged)
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Chapter 11
Ensure the probe tip for contact meters is sharp (hand-held meters are
usually supplied with spare tips)
Soak meters and half-cells for a minimum of 30 minutes before use.
(This allows time for ion penetration through the semi-permeable
membranes.)
Confirm the calibration of the system in use according to the appropriate
calibration procedure. Record the results on the appropriate log sheet
Record meter serial number and any other specified details on the
appropriate log sheet
Take a reference reading on zinc on the inspection site prior to starting
the survey
For each contact reading ensure that there is correct metal-to-metal
contact between the probe tip and the cathode surface.
With proximity probe surveys ensure there is a solid electrical connection
to the structure connected to the positive terminal of the surface
instrument
For proximity probe readings ensure the standoff between the probe and
the cathode is correct
During the course of the survey ensure that each reading is correctly
recorded on the appropriate log
On completion of the survey take another reference reading on zinc
Recover the equipment, wash in fresh water, dry and store. Charge any
battery-operated equipment as necessary and complete the batterycharging log
Notes: Morgan-Berkley meters can be left soaking in a solution of silver chloride,
on trickle charge continuously if required
If a large number of readings are being taken it is prudent to take check
readings periodically during the survey
5.1
Normal Cathode Potential Readings Against Ag/AgCl
Following are the normal range of readings expected during a survey of a steel
structure
Over-protected structure
<-1.10 V (<-1100 mV)
Zinc
-1.00 to 1.05 V (-1000 to 1050 mV)
Protected Steel
< -0.80 V (<-800 mV)
Unprotected Steel
-0.45 to 0.65 V (-450 to 650 mV)
Calomel (K Cl)
0 to 0.01 V (0 to 10 mV)
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Bibliography
E & F N Spon
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Chapter 11
Notes:
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Chapter 12
CHAPTER 12
Welding and Welding Defects
1
Joining Metal Components
In considering joining, forming or shaping metal components there are four

ways in which they can be formed into shape. By machining, when the material
is cut away; by casting, where the metal is moulded to shape in the first place;
by forging, where the material is worked into shape; and by fabricating, where
the component is built up a bit at a time from different parts.
The components that are inspected underwater are almost all formed by
fabrication. This being the case, a closer look at this process is in order.
Fabrication can be accomplished by mechanical fastenings, for example bolting
or riveting components together; by welding, where parts are joined together by
metallurgical bond; by brazing, where a metal of a different composition from
the pieces to be joined is melted between them to solidify and thus make a
bond (a stronger version of soldering); or by adhesive bonding, where parts are
glued together. The most important technique for consideration here is welding.
2
Fabricating Offshore Structures
Steel fabricated structures are used extensively offshore as has been indicated
in previous chapters. In fabricating the structures the designers choose to use
welding as the prime means of joining the various parts together. However, it is
extremely difficult indeed to guarantee that any particular weld is free from all
faults and because of this welds are constantly inspected to ensure they are not
about to fail. The knowledge of how the welding was achieved in the first place
is of great assistance when inspecting welded joints because all techniques
have certain faults that are common to that technique. It is therefore important
to have some knowledge of the main type of welding.
3
Welding Processes
Currently there are more than thirty-five different welding processes used in
industry. These different welding processes can be classified into seven major
groups. All processes within each group have similar characteristics and thus
similar effects on the parent metals. The seven groups are:
Solid phase welding
Thermo-chemical welding
Electric-resistance Welding
Unshielded arc welding
Radiant energy welding
Flux-shielded arc welding
Gas-shielded arc welding
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From the point of view of offshore structures and underwater inspection, the
following welding process is the most widely used.
3.1
Flux Shielded Arc Welding
This is the most widely used of all the welding processes. An arc is formed
between a consumable electrode and the work; the heat thus formed melts and
fuses the joint together. The electrode provides the filler metal and the flux is
used to prevent contamination. For example:
Manual Metal Arc (MMA) Welding
This is the most widely used technique. In this process, heat to melt the
work piece is supplied by an electric arc; the electrode is covered by flux and
melts down forming small drops, which are transferred to the weld pool; the
flux forms molten slag that protects the weld together with protective gases
formed at the same time. See Figure 12.1.
Figure 12.1
Manual Metal Arc Welding
Common faults associated with MMA are:
Overlap
Porosity
Slag inclusion
Excessive spatter
Lack of fusion
Crater cracks
Arc strike
Incomplete penetration
Undercut
Excessive penetration
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Chapter 12
Types of Welded Joint
There are approximately 110 different welded joint variations; however the vast
majority of these are not seen in the construction of offshore structures.
Therefore it is only necessary to have knowledge of only five types of joint.
4.1
The Butt Joint
The two components that make up this joint are fitted together end to end at an
angle of between 135o and 180o. This joint is used to join pipe sections end to
end, welding plates together and numerous other applications. See Figure 12.2.
Figure 12.2
Butt Joint
4.2
T Joint
The two components are fitted together at an angle of 5o to 90o. This

configuration is found on offshore jackets at nodes and in numerous other
areas. See Figure 12.3.
Figure 12.3
T Joint
4.3
Lap Joint
The two components are fitted one on top of the other. The angle between them
is 0o to 5o. See Figure 12.4.
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Figure 12.4
Lap Joint
4.4
Corner Joint
The two components are connected at the ends to make a joint at an angle
between 30o and 135o. See Figure 12.5
Figure 12.5
Corner Joint
4.5
Cruciform Joint
A joint made by welding two components to a third at right angles, on the same
axis, on opposite sides of the third component to form the shape of a cross. See
Figure 12.6.
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Chapter 12
Figure 12.6
Cruciform Joint
5
Types of Weld
The two types of weld most frequently inspected on offshore structures are the
butt and the fillet.
A butt weld is defined as: A tension resisting weld in which the bulk of the weld metal is contained within
the planes of thickness of the joined parent metals.
A fillet weld is defined as: The bulk of a fillet weld is contained outside the parent metal planes or
thickness.
The fillet weld has less strength than the butt weld. See Figure 12.7
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Figure 12.7
Types of Weld
Butt and Fillet Welds
As fillet welds are not used for structural joints that must withstand high stresses
the butt weld will be the type of weld most frequently inspected offshore. All
nodes including any Safety Critical Nodes on the structure will be constructed
with butt welds.
6
Welding Metallurgy
The welding processes outlined in paragraph 2 and the types of joint and types
of weld specified in paragraphs 3 and 4 are all designed for the purpose of
fixing components together safely for the entire duration of the design life of the
structure. In order that this prime aim may be achieved the mechanism by which
welding takes place must be understood. The prime factor in welding is
temperature. The various welding processes, types of weld and types of joint
are all designed so that the heat generated during the welding process can be
dissipated uniformly as the molten metal cools once the weld metal is
deposited. To form an appreciation of how this occurs consider Figure 12.8.
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Chapter 12
Figure 12.8
Temperature Variation in a Butt Weld
At point 1 within the molten weld pool, the temperature will be above the melting
point of the filler rod metal. The welding current and technique of the welder
determine this temperature. The main heat flow away from the weld pool will be
along the parent plate. Between point 1 and 2, the temperature must raise
above the parent metal melting temperature so that fusion (i.e. melting the
parent plate and mixing with the weld pool metal) occurs. This region (between
point 1 and 2) is known as the fusion zone and can be readily seen if a sample
of the weld is sectioned, polished and etched. The temperature then reduces
from point 2 to 3, which is a region of the parent metal that has sufficient heat
input to cause grain structure modification, known as the heat affected zone
(HAZ).
HAZ
One of the means of making a material softer (often called annealing) is to
heat it up and allow it to cool slowly. A common example of this is copper
pipes for domestic water systems that are softened in this way in order to
bend them to required shapes. To achieve this softening effect a material
has to be heated above its re-crystallisation temperature (Trecry). Above this
temperature, grains in the material will reform and grow.
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In the diagram of the weld, Figure 12.8 this temperature is reached at point 3 so
that the material between point 2 and 3 that has been raised above the recrystallisation temperature will be liable to a change of properties. This region
can also be seen on a polished and etched sample of the weld.
The temperature continues to fall between point 3 and 4, which is ambient
temperature. Figure 12.8 only shows what is happening along the line AA; but
of course this happens throughout the section. This then, leads to the different
regions of the weld as shown in Figure 12.9 below and is a graphic indication of
the way temperature gradients have to be managed in any weld.
Figure 12.9
Weld Regions or Zones
This temperature management is as important for cooling as it is for heat
energy input into the weld. The cooling rate must be as controlled as the heat
flow during the actual welding. In general, fast cooling rates (often referred to as
quenching) make the material harder. In steel, this comes about by the
formation of a structure known as martinsite. Martinsitic steel has a grain
structure arranged in a regular lattice, which makes the steel hard and less
tough (i.e. less able to withstand crack propagation).
Note that if the cooling rate is not properly controlled and the material is allowed
to quench it has the opposite effect to annealing outlined above.
6.1
Further Considerations for Weld Control
While heat input and cooling rate control may be of paramount importance to
the finished quality of a weld there are several other factors that must also be
considered. Defects, for example porosity, often arise in welds due to gas
penetrating the weld pool protection. Gases that are likely to be present in the
weld are hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. These are derived from the
atmosphere, water, hydrocarbons (usually in the form of grease and oil) and
other oxides present in the vicinity of the weld because of a lack of care in
preparation to see that the weld area is clean and dry. These products get into
the arc and provide a supply of gas that can be dissolved in the liquid metal of
the weld pool. On cooling, the solubility of the dissolved gas in metal reduces
and the gas comes out of solution to form bubbles trapped in the weld metal; or
sometimes the gas diffuses into the parent metal. Hydrogen diffusing into the
HAZ will cause hydrogen embrittlement, which may lead to cracking.
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Chapter 12
The different temperatures in the regions around the weld will cause differential
expansion. On cooling, if cracking does not immediately occur in the weld or in
the HAZ, the material is put under a permanent stress, unless a stress relieving
procedure is specified. This state of stress is referred to as a residual stress, so
that the normal working stress is imposed on top of and added to this residual
stress, thus giving an in-service stress that is higher that the normal design
working stress. The effect of residual stresses will be at the very least that the
fatigue life is shortened. At the moment, there is no way that these residual
stresses can be measured during the course of a routine inspection. (ACFM
may be developed for this purpose).
7
Welding Terms
There are a number of standard, defined, welding terms and also symbols that
are used internationally to define different parts or elements of welds. These
terms and symbols are defined in several international standards.
BS EN 24063:1992, ISO 4063:1990:
Welding, brazing, soldering and
braze welding of metals. Nomenclature of processes and reference
numbers for symbolic representation on drawings
BS EN 22553:1995:
Welded, brazed and soldered joints. Symbolic
representation on drawings
BS EN ISO 5817:2003:
Welding. Fusion-welded joints in steel, nickel,
titanium and their alloys (beam welding excluded). Quality levels for
imperfections
BS EN 13622:2002:
Gas welding equipment. Terminology. Terms
used for gas welding equipment
BS 499-1:1991:
Welding terms and symbols. Glossary for welding,
brazing and thermal cutting
(This standard has the status of being current, partially replaced by BS
EN 13622:2002)
A list of extracts from these standards that may apply to in-service inspection is
compiled below.
7.1
Plate Preparation Terms

Double V butt weld
A butt weld in which the prepared faces will form two opposing Vs in
section, welded from both sides
Included angle of a butt weld
The angle between the prepared faces
Included angle of a fillet weld
The angle between the parent plates
Parent plate
The metals that are to be joined by the weld
Prepared angle, weld prep
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The angle of bevel between the prepared face and the perpendicular
Prepared face
The bevelled portion of the parent plate prior to welding
Root gap
Separation between the parent plates to be joined
Root face
The un-bevelled portion of the parent plate adjacent to the root gap
Single bevel butt weld
A butt weld that has only one prepared face, welded from one side only
Single V butt weld
A butt weld in which the prepared faces will form a V in section, welded from
one side only
Figure 12.10 refers
Figure 12.10
Standard Weld Terms for Plate Preparation
7.2
Terms Defining Weld Features

Cap, Face of the weld
The visible face of the completed weld
Excess weld metal
The weld metal lying outside the line joining the weld toes
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Toe of the weld
The junction between the cap and the parent plate
Root
The point where the back of the weld intersects the back face of the parent
plate
Weld zone
The area containing the weld and both heat affected zones
Heat affected zone (HAZ)
The part of the parent plate that has been affected by heat from the welding
process but which has not melted
Throat thickness
The total thickness of the weld metal
Effective throat thickness (design throat thickness)
Weld thickness for design purposes, usually a line between both toes and
the root
Weld width
The shortest distance between the toes of the weld
Toe blend
The transition between the weld material and the parent plate
Leg (of a fillet weld)
The distance from the root of the weld to the toe of the weld
Figure 12.11 refers
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Figure 12.11
Weld Feature Terminology
7.3
Welding Process Terminology

Filler rod
The filler metal for a weld in the form of a rod 440 mm long used in MMA
welding
Filler bead
When the weld is made up of more than one pass of a filler rod the
successive passes are called filler beads
Run or pass
The weld metal laid down in a single pass from a filler rod
Weldment
An alternative term to describe the weld zone
Fusion zone
The edge of the parent plate along the prepared face and the root face along
which the weld metal fuses with the parent plate
Root bead
Weld bead laid into the root that protrudes beyond the back wall of the
parent plate
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Chapter 12
Figure 12.12 refers
Figure 12.12
Weld Process Terminology
7.4
Welded Nodes and Nozzles
Underwater in-service inspection of offshore oil platforms is almost exclusively

on pipe work and will involve inspection of pipe joints. These will be nodes or
nozzles.
Node
A node is a T or cruciform joint between two pipes that only has preparation
on the minor member, a single bevel weld. The minor tubular is called the
brace and it is this member that has the preparation. The major tubular is
known as the chord. In joints where both members are the same size the
through tubular is the chord.
Nozzle
Both tubular members have preparation, which also means that the chord
has a hole to match the brace. This is a full penetration butt-welded joint.
This type of joint is commonly found in pipelines and where fluid flow is
required.
Figure 12.13 refers.
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Figure 12.13
Nodes and Nozzles
8
Weld Defect Terminology
An inspector must be capable of not only recognising a fault in a weld but

subsequently be able to describe this fault accurately. In common with welding
terminology this aspect of welding also has internationally agreed and defined
terms. In this case the International Institute of Welding (IIW) and BS EN ISO
5817:2003 apply. In the same way that welding terms are defined in this
standard weld defect terminology is also defined. The different types of defect
are listed in 6 categories.
Cracks
Cavities
Solid inclusions
Lack of fusion and penetration
Imperfect shape
Miscellaneous
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Only a certain number of these standard terms apply to defects that may be
found on the surface of the weld accessible to the underwater inspector but
knowledge of a representative sample of standard terms from all categories will
assist any inspector when reporting findings and conversing with other
engineers.
8.1
Cracks
These are linear discontinuities produced by fracture, cracks may be; Longitudinal
Transverse
Crater
Centreline
Toe
HAZ
Figure 12.14 and 12.15 refer.
Figure 12.14
Cracks
Figure 12.15
HAZ Cracking
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8.2
Cavities
There are a number of flaws that are covered by this category.

Porosity
Gas pores that may be located in different locations
Elongated cavities
A string of gas pores parallel to the weld axis
Shrinkage cavity
A cavity cause by shrinkage of the weld metal while it is in a plastic state
Crater
A depression caused by shrinkage at the end of a run if the heat is removed
quickly
Crater pipe
A hole in the centre of a crater again caused by shrinkage
See Figure 12.16
Figure 12.16
Cavities
8.3
Solid Inclusions
These are volumetric defects that are caused by solids trapped in the weld pool
before it solidifies.
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Chapter 12
Figure 12.17
Slag Inclusions
8.4
Lack of Fusion and Penetration

Lack of fusion
The weld metal has not bonded
Lack of sidewall fusion
No union between the weld metal and the parent plate. See Figure 12.17
Lack of root fusion
No bonding at the root of the weld joint
Incomplete root penetration
No weld metal extending into the root of the weld
Figure 12.18 refers
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Figure 12.18
Lack of Fusion and Penetration
8.5
Imperfect Shape
Excess weld metal
Weld metal lying outside the plane joining the toes
Excess penetration
Excess weld metal protruding through the root
Root concavity
A shallow grove in the root
Incompletely filled grove
A grove caused by insufficient weld metal being laid onto the cap
Undercut
A grove in the toe of the weld where parent plate is gouged due to the
welding current
Overlap
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Weld metal spilled over from the cap onto the parent plate outside the line of
the toe that has not fused with the parent metal
Burn through
A collapse in the weld pool caused by excessive penetration resulting in a
hole in the weld
Unequal leg length
(Not a standard term but internationally understood), describing different leg
lengths on a fillet weld, usually a T joint
Poor restart
(Not a standard term but internationally understood), an irregular start or
pick-up after one bead is ended or interrupted and the next arc strike is
imperfectly aligned with the previous bead
Misalignment
(Not a standard term but internationally understood), poor fit-up resulting in
the parent plates being out of alignment either laterally or angularly
See Figure 12.19 and 12.20
Figure 12.19
Imperfect shape
8.6
Miscellaneous
Stray flash, or arc strike
Burn marks on the parent metal caused by striking arcs with the welding rod
off the line of the weld
Excessive dressing
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Grinding away too much weld metal and leaving the weld below the depth of
the parent plate
Grinding mark
Groves or marks on the parent plate caused by poorly controlled grinding or
surfacing tools
Tool mark
Marks indented into the parent plate caused by chipping hammers or similar
hand tools
Hammer mark
Obvious damage caused by a hammer blow
Torn surface
Surface irregularity caused by breaking off temporary attachments
Surface pitting
Small depressions on the parent plate
Spatter
Spots of weld metal thrown out from the weld pool and attaching themselves
to the parent plate
Dog scar
A welding scar left over after removal of a dog, which is a temporary metal
fixing used to stabilise the parent plates during the welding process
See Figure 12.20
Figure 12.20
Miscellaneous Defects
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Chapter 12
9
Defect Categories and Reporting
Internal weld defects are categorised broadly into two types: Planar Defects:
These have a large surface area but small volume such as cracks and
laminations. They are essentially 2 dimensional.
Volumetric Defects:
Inclusions, porosity and other internal flaws that have a large volume
compared to surface area are in this category. They are 3 dimensional and
will also include undercut and lack of penetration. This category of defect is
caused during fabrication, not in-service; while planar defects may be
caused by in-service deterioration.
9.1
Reporting Defects in Welds
As diver inspectors are concerned with in-service inspections volumetric defects

will seldom be identified as they are usually caused during fabrication. Planar
defects may be observed as these could be caused by stress or fatigue failure
leading to crack-like features becoming evident. This type of discontinuity will be
of most concern in the toe of the weld, which is also the zone where it is most
likely to be found. This is because at this point there is a region that has been
heated and melted causing grain structure changes as outlined earlier. Also in
this area the geometry of the weld changes, which may create a notch effect
that, is an area where stress is increased above the average for the rest of the
component.
Any defects identified must be reported by recording at least: The type of defect
Describe the defect with correct terminology
Location
State the global location, i.e. what component is damaged, where on the
component is the damage (state the clock position), give the relative
location, i.e. is it on the HAZ, in the toe, on the weld cap or in the parent
plate
Dimensions
State the start position and give length. If the defect is a crack-like feature
state whether it is continuous or branching, the orientation and if it is
measurable give width and depth
Description
Describe the feature, if it is a crack is it branching, if it is state the orientation
of the branches
9.2
Dimensional Checking Weld Parameters
During fabrication the weld dimensions are checked and verified against the
weld design specifications to ensure that the welding is completed to the
required quality to meet design parameters ensuring that it is fit for purpose.
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Welding inspectors will confirm that the welds meet these requirements and for
the visual elements of the inspection requirements there are a number of
measuring gauges, templates and devices that are employed. These
instruments are available for in-service inspections a review of a selection will
be of interest for underwater applications.
9.2.1 The Welding Institute Measuring Gauge
This is a gauge specially designed to accurately measure weld reinforcement
height, leg length, throat thickness and depth of lack of fill. Figure 12.21 refers
Figure 12.21
Welding Institute Gauge
Measuring Various Weld Parameters
9.2.2 Welding Institute Leg Length Gauge
This gauge is specially designed for measuring T joint leg length as indicated in
Figure 12.22
Figure 12.22
Welding Institute
Leg Length Gauge
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Chapter 12
Bibliography
Mel Bayliss
David Short
Mary Bax
Principles of welding technology
L M Gourd
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Chapter 13
CHAPTER 13
Photography
1
Introduction to Photography
Photography is a prime method for recording images of defects that have been
identified by either close visual inspection or magnetic particle inspection.
Photographs provide: A permanent record of the subject
Comparatively high-resolution images for detailed interpretation
Close-up, magnified images when required
A cheap method for obtaining verification of inspection findings
Time lapse exposures should this be required
A proven visual recording technique
An easily deployable system
Stereo-photography that may be analysed by photogrammetry to provide
a variety of very accurate computer generated presentations
A readily available method for recording images
An adaptable technique that can be tailored to suit different requirements
Until recently the traditional method of photography using conventional cameras
loaded with conventional colour film was the preferred application of this
technique. However modern digital photography utilising the newest cameras
deployed underwater in specialised housings has taken over the field. It will be
this type of photography that is considered here
With this in mind and having considered the advantages of the system as a
recording method it is necessary to consider the disadvantages of still
photography
It is necessary to ensure that the subject is correctly in frame and in
focus
The actual definition of the recorded image is dependant on the quality of
the digital camera. This type of camera records the image electronically
not on a film. The electronics are either Complementary Metal Oxide
Semiconductors (CMOS) devices or Charged-Coupled Devices, (CCD)
that take in light and give out electricity. These are rated by the number
of pixels and the greater the number per square unit of screen, (the
greater the density) the better the resolution. For underwater applications
it is necessary to use the best quality cameras that provide the best
resolution. For the applications considered here the camera should be at
least 6 mega-pixels and preferable greater, up to 12 mega-pixels.
Lighting has to be correct to ensure an acceptable image is captured
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Lighting is the most crucial element in this list, followed closely by the pixel
density.
1.1
Light and Photography
Although digital cameras record the light image electronically a brief look at the
way traditional film records light will assist greatly in gaining a better
understanding of how the camera actually captures the image.
Traditional film is made of celluloid that has an emulsion coating containing
silver halide salts, which react when exposed to light. When the film is
processed the silver halides are converted chemically to dyes to produce either
colour negatives or colour positives, (slides). The slides can be viewed once
processed while the negatives must be further processed to produce colour
prints.
Digital cameras, of course, react to light electronically and the image is
recorded immediately the exposure is taken, however the image will be sharp or
muddy, crisp or blurred, good or bad depending on how the shutter speed and
aperture controls are selected by the circuitry. In this regard the digital camera
is the same as the traditional camera, the quantity and quality of light falling
onto the recording medium must be correctly controlled. In other words the
exposure must be correct.
The basis for monitoring and controlling the amount of light entering the
traditional camera was the film speed. The film manufacturers grading the
silver halides used on the film stock determined this, the finer the grains the
slower the film, or the larger the grains the faster the film. The way that the film
manufactures marked the film speed was by evolving a numbering system that
indicated the film speed by increasing numbers.
Traditionally there were two numbering systems; one in the US called the ASA
system (ASA is the American Standards Association), the other was in Europe
called the DIN system (DIN is Deutsch Industries Norm). Both were an
increasing number series where the higher the number the faster the film
reaction to light. Some 20 years ago the International Organisation for
Standardisation (ISO) combined the two systems to one international standard.
The chart in Figure 13.1 shows a typical series
Figure 13.1
Film Speed
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As can be seen by consulting the chart the ISO system merely grouped the
other two systems together. Also the chart groups the films into slow, medium
and fast films. Furthermore, it is obvious that as the ISO number increases the
film speed, its speed of reaction to light, also increases. There is another,
more fundamental but less obvious relationship to film speed and light that is
also shown on the chart.
This relationship is more readily demonstrated by considering the ASA system.
Taking 100 ASA as an example; film of this rating will react twice as quickly to
a given quantity of light than 50 ASA but only half as quick as 200 ASA. This
relationship between adjacent film speeds is the same for the DIN system and
therefore for the ISO system. Thus ISO 400/27 will react twice as quickly to light
as ISO 200/24 but only half as quickly as ISO 800/30. This relationship is known
as being a one stop difference, which will be fully explained when
considering the lens system of a camera.
2
The Camera
In its simplest form the camera is no more than a lightproof box with a hole in it
and that contains the film. Indeed that is all the original cameras were. However
modern cameras have evolved and as the film stock became standardised so
cameras developed standard calibrated controls to meter the amount of light
entering to expose the film. Thus the ISO number for a film has a tangible and
fundamental impact on the conventional camera. Modern digital cameras only
differ from conventional cameras in the recording medium and therefore they
have either the same or comparable controls.
2.1
Lens Aperture
All cameras then, have a lens system containing three elements, including the
most fundamental, a diaphragm called the aperture that has a certain
diameter, which can be adjusted by the aperture control. The aperture control is
calibrated to integrate with the ISO numbering system although the units are
different.
Aperture controls are calibrated with f-numbers and the size of the aperture is
called the f-stop. In this system f stands for factor because that is what it is.
The f-stop is the number representing the ratio of the focal length of the lens to
the aperture diameter thus: -
The method for determining any particular f-stop is shown by the following
examples. Firstly take a typical focal length for a standard lens to be 50 mm and
an aperture diameter (for a given intensity of light) of 12.5 mm.
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Photography
Then: -
Now for comparison take a typical focal length for a telephoto lens to be 135
mm with an aperture diameter of 33.75 mm (for the same intensity of light).
Hence: -
It can be seen from these two examples that regardless of what the focal length
of the lens is setting the f-stop control to f4 will always allow the same, metered
amount of light to enter the camera, provided the aperture diameter varies in a
standard manner. Of course, the camera, or lens manufactures design the lens
diaphragm to open and close to the correct diameter in response to the control
setting, which provides a universal standard, integrated with the ISO film
speeds.
Altering the aperture control by one step will either double or halve the quantity
of light entering the camera. The chart in Figure 13.2 demonstrates this.
Figure 13.2
Relationship Between f-stops
and Metered Light
The aperture control steps are called stops because each step down stops a
metered amount of light from entering the camera.
2.2
Shutter Speed
The second lens control to be considered is the shutter speed control. This is
more straightforward than the aperture control as it is quite obvious that if the
speed of opening of the lens is either halved or doubled the quantity of light
entering the camera will also be halved or double. The chart in Figure 13.3
shows a standard set of shutter speeds.
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Chapter 13
Figure 13.3
Shutter Speeds
2.3
Relationship between Aperture and Shutter Speed
There is a fixed relationship between film speeds; apertures and shutter speeds
because they are all calibrated to the ISO film speed even though different units
are used. Changing the lens settings by one stop will either halve or double the
quantity of light getting into the camera and changing the film speed by one
does exactly the same. The chart in Figure 13.4 shows the relationship between
aperture and shutter speed.
Figure 13.4
Relationship between
Aperture and Shutter Speed
In the chart the example shows that if f8 at 1/16th sec allows the correct amount
of light (1 unit) to enter the camera then f5.6 at 1/30th sec and f11 at 1/8th sec
would also allow the same amount of light in. (Conventional light meters commonly
provide exposure values (EV) rather than actual f-stop and shutter speeds allowing a choice to
be made on the spot for any given light situation).
(Problem: Using this chart and Figures 13.2 and 13.3 confirm whether the
arbitrary light units indicated for f22 at 1.125th sec and f2.8 at sec are
correct.)
2.4
How Digicams Compare to Conventional Cameras
The difference between a digital and a conventional camera is the digital

camera does not contain film. The light entering the camera does not fall on
light sensitive silver halides but instead onto a light sensitive computer chip.
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This chip may be either a CMOS or a CCD sensor. Either will have numerous
closely packed pixels as mentioned in paragraph 1. The pixels each react to the
amount of light falling on it in the same way as the grains of silver halide react in
conventional film. The difference is that the reaction produces a varying
electrical charge that is transmitted to the built in microprocessor that then
transforms this signal into digital bits, which are stored onto the memory card.
Of course, this circuitry is a permanent part of the camera and cannot be
changed unlike traditional film that can be taken out to put in a faster or slower
film to compensate for changing light conditions.
Camera manufactures understand that it may be necessary to alter the light
sensitivity for different circumstances and provide an option to change the
equivalent ISO number of the pixels. This option may be either an option on
the cameras computer menu or a physical control. Either way the cameras
sensitivity to light, how quickly it reacts, is actually adjusted electronically but
the ISO number system is maintained because it is so universally understood.
2.5
Bracketing Getting the Exposure Right
In the majority of circumstances Digicams will be self-selecting for exposure,

automatically selecting a correct exposure value. It may be that occasionally a
difficult lighting situation presents itself and the camera selection does not give
an acceptable result. In this case the camera can be made to bracket the
exposure. This entails stopping up and down by one stop on the aperture or
shutter speed. Figure 13.5 refers.
Figure 13.5
Bracketing
3
Focusing the Camera
The final control on a lens system is the focus control. In digital cameras
focusing is automatic with a manual override facility. If the digicam is a single
lens reflex (SLR) type manual focus is straightforward as the image is viewed
through the lens and it can be seen in the viewfinder when sharp focus is
obtained. If, however, the subject is being viewed on the cameras mini-screen it
may be difficult to actually judge when sharp focus is obtained. In the
underwater environment setting the focus control to a pre-determined distance
and then using either a measured prod or string and magnet to actually
measure the camera standoff can overcome this.
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The pre-determined distance should be no more than 1/3rd the visibility
distance. Figure 13.6 refers.
Figure 13.6
Focus Using a Measured Rod
There are three other factors that must be considered when focusing the
camera: The focal length of the lens
The depth of field
Framing the image or subject in the centre of shot
All three of these factors can affect whether the final recorded image is of
acceptable quality.
3.1
The Lens Focal Length
The focal length of the lens determines the field of view. The actual focal length
of the lens is the distance from the film plane in the camera to the first optical
element of the lens. The larger this measurement the narrower is the field of
view and the greater the magnification. Long lenses are telephoto, while short
lenses, (optical element close to the film plane), are wide angle.
Underwater where it is necessary to get close to the subject because light levels
are always low and contrast is always poor due to the environment wide-angle
lenses are normally used.
See Figure 13.7.
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Photography
Figure 13.7
Lens Focal Length
3.2
Depth of Field
What is depth of field? On a photograph it is the amount of foreground in front of

a subject and the depth of background behind the subject that appears to be in
sharp focus as well as the subject itself. Figure 13.8 refers.
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Figure 13.8
Depth of Field
Suppose the lens is focused on the yellow dot as shown in Figure 13.9 below.
This subject generates a yellow dot on the image plane. Once focused, all
subjects that have the same subject to lens distance as that of the yellow dot
will appear sharp. Now, consider a grey dot that is behind the yellow dot (i.e.,
with larger subject-lens distance). Since it is out of focus, it will not produce a
sharp grey dot image. Instead, its image is formed somewhere in front of the
image plane. On the image plane, the image of this grey dot is a circle as
shown below. This circle is usually referred to as a circle of confusion. As the
subject to lens distance increases, the size of this circle increases. The same
holds true for a subject in front of the yellow dot (e.g., the green dot in Figure
13.9). Since these circles of confusion are actually out of focus images of
subjects, if the size of circle of confusion can be reduced the sharpness of the
resulting image can be increased.
This is actually easy to accomplish since light rays passing through the lens
tube form circles of confusion, the size of a circle of confusion is proportional to
the amount of light that can pass through the lens tube. This means smaller
circles of confusion will be formed if less light can pass through. Restricting how
much light can pass through the lens is the function of the diaphragm in the lens
tube that sets the aperture values. Therefore, a smaller aperture means a
smaller diaphragm opening, which, in turn, means allowing less light to strike
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Photography
the film/CCD plane. Thus smaller circles of confusion are produced and, as a
result, a sharper image is formed.
Figure 13.9
Depth of Field
In practical terms to produce the greatest depth of field: Use the shortest possible focal length lens as the shorter the focal length the
greater the depth of field because the light path of the lens is shorter
Make the camera to subject distance as long as possible as the further the
camera is away from the subject the greater is the depth of field
Use the smallest possible aperture as the smaller the aperture the less light
enters and the greater the depth of field
This means that setting the aperture at f22 gives a greater depth of field than
setting f2.8. The higher the f-stops number the smaller the aperture and the
greater the depth of field. Conversely the lower the f-number the bigger the
aperture and the depth of field is less.
3.3
Framing the Subject
At first glance this would appear to be the easiest part of using the camera,
having set all the controls just point in the right direction and shoot.
Unfortunately this is not the case unless extreme close-up photography is
considered where special close-up lenses or dioptres are used in conjunction
with specially designed close-up frames. In all other cases it is the
photographers own responsibility to ensure that the actual required subject is in
the centre of the photograph. Always remember that an excellent rule of thumb
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Chapter 13
underwater is to never try to take a photograph of a subject that is more than
1/3rd the visibility away from the camera.
Normally with digicams the subject is framed up in the mini-screen built into the
camera. When this is the case there is no problem with framing. However,
underwater the mini-screen may be difficult to see because of the effects of
refraction, reflection and parallax.
The effects of refraction and reflection are that the image on the mini-screen is
inside a housing in air. The image path from the air-filled housing to the outside
water must be both refracted and reflected which will, at times, make it
impossible to see especially when it is considered that the light path must then
go through another water to air interface to get to a diver inspectors eyes.
The effects of parallax are less obvious but still may affect framing the subject.
The problem exists when a diver inspector is trying to see the mini-screen
image at the same time as observing the subject himself. In this situation his
eyes are not in the same plane as the lens producing the image on the miniscreen. This can be compared to the situation when using a hat-mounted Video
camera. The camera on the hat is on a different plane to the diver inspectors
eyes and neither is seeing the same image. Figure 13.10 applies.
Figure 13.10
Parallax
4
Light and Underwater Photography
As photography is all about recording light and as it is being considered for

underwater use it is necessary to examine how light is affected by water. As
light entering the water passes through an air/water interface the light wave will
be subjected to the laws of light and some will be reflected while the remainder
is refracted as it passes through the interface. As the light wave penetrates the
water it is subjected to absorption (attenuation), which is the dissipation of the
light wave energy as it passes through the water. The two most noticeable
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Photography
effects of this are that as the depth increases it becomes darker, there is less
light penetration and also colours disappear as the water becomes deeper.
4.1
Colour Absorption
Looking at the loss of colour firstly it will be seen that in open sea conditions the
red light is absorbed first followed by orange with indigo and violet penetrating
much deeper. See Figure 13.11
Figure 13.11
Colour Absorption in Sea Water
4.2
Loss of Light Intensity
The loss of light intensity is due to: Reflection

Because of reflection at the surface of the ocean only those light rays
meeting the interface at, or very close to the normal angle will penetrate into
the sea. This, of course, means that only a limited amount of the visible light
ever penetrates into the sea at all. If the surface of the sea is rough this will
exacerbate the problem by providing many more reflecting surfaces as
numerous different angles of incidence. Figure 13.12 refers
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Chapter 13
Figure 13.12
Loss of Light Intensity
with Increasing Water Depth
Attenuation
What light does penetrate the interface will be attenuated as it penetrates
deeper into the water. The rate of attenuation increases with increasing
water depth. See Figure 13.12
Scatter
As the light passes through the water is meets suspended particles in the
sea and is scattered, reflected, by these particles. See Figure 13.12.
These effects on the passage of light in water will also occur horizontally which
is where they will impact most strongly on the underwater inspector trying to
record images for an inspection report.
The effects outlined here can largely be overcome by introducing artificial light
into the scene normally in the form of flashlights for photography and floodlights
for video.
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Photography
Artificial Light for Underwater Photography
The most common form of lighting used for underwater photography is

electronic strobe flashlight. Commonly this is referred to as strobe light.
5.1
Electronic Strobe Lighting
This form of flash photography uses an electronic capacitor discharge devise to

produce an intense, short duration (in the order of 1/1000th sec) intense white
light. This type of flash recycles quickly and has a very long life, being capable
of taking tens of thousands of exposures.
All modern cameras likely to be used for underwater inspection photography will
utilise cameras with dedicated or compatible strobes that are synchronised so
that the camera exposure value is automatically matched to the strobe output
and duration. The basis for this is quite simple and it will be of value to
understand this.
The light output for a strobe will be given a numerical value by the manufacturer
that is calibrated to the ISO number of the film and integrated with the camera
lens controls. The numerical value is called the Guide Number (GN) and is
usually rated for film speed ISO 100/21 and may be given for metric or imperial
units and for underwater or air use. To use this guide number for manually
setting the camera controls the procedure is straightforward.
Set the shutter speed to synchronise with the strobe (normally 1/60th sec)
Divide the GN by the distance from the flash to the subject to obtain the f-stop
Set the f-stop and take the picture
Example: Take the GN to be 22 (metric) and the strobe to subject distance to be 2 m
Some strobes have half-power settings in which case divide the GN by 2 and
than apply the formula.
Once the camera is set to automatic the electronic circuitry does all the
necessary calculations provided that it has through the lens (TTL) light metering
which the majority of them do.
5.1.1 Strobe Placement
The placement of the strobe relative to the subject is quite important if an
acceptable image is to be recorded. The preferred orientation is at as large an
angle to the centreline of the lens of the camera as possible and within 1/3rd the
visibility distance to the subject. See Figure 13.13
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Chapter 13
Figure 13.13
Strobe Placement to
Avoid Backscatter
Orientating the strobe in this fashion will avoid backscatter, reflected light from
suspended particles, as far as possible.
6
Close-up Weld Mosaic Photography
Diver inspectors will often be required to take close up photographs to record

the results of a CVI or an MPI. For this type of photography there are a number
of factors to keep in mind.
The subject area will be quite small so framing will be more critical
The depth of field will be minimal so focus will also be more critical
There will be a minimum standoff distance determined by the camera
lens
Some form of prods may be required to maintain a correct standoff
A scale will be required in each frame
If a weld is photographed a complete mosaic of the entire weld will be
required
Weld mosaic photographs require a minimum of 40% overlap for each
frame; see Figure 13.14 and 13.15
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Photography
Figure 13.14
Weld Mosaic Photographs
Figure 13.15
Close-up Weld Photograph
Showing Member Identification Tabs
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Chapter 13
An identification board containing specified information is normally
required
o A typical example is in Figure 13.16
Figure 13.16
Identification Board on
a Spool-piece (North Sea)
7
Specific Applications for Offshore Photography
There are two specialised applications for underwater photography that are
used periodically in offshore inspection. Taking photographs to record
indications of defects identified during MPI is one and Stereo-photography that
is subsequently analysed by computer programs, called photogrammetry is the
other.
7.1
MPI Photography
With modern digicams this should be a straightforward photographic

application. The weld should have a tape measure and identification labels
applied as shown in Figure 13.15 and the photograph should be taken as a
close up as indicated in paragraph 5. An example of a digital photograph
recording a weld sample with fluorescent ink illuminated by an ultraviolet lamp
set up in The Welding Institutes MPI practical workshop is shown as Figure
13.17.
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Photography
Figure 13.17
MPI Indications Test
Photograph
7.2
Stereo-photography and Photogrammetry
This application of photography requires a stereo-pair of photographs that have

been taken by a specially set up stereo-photographic pair of cameras. The
photographic results are then analysed by special computer programs that have
been evolved from aerial photography and the results can be presented as
drawings, photographs or digital printouts.
These photographs have been used for a number of inspection tasks: Damage survey
Weld defect analysis
Corrosion pitting assessment
Marine growth assessment
Anode wastage assessment
Scour survey
In addition some engineering tasks have been undertaken: Production of engineering drawings compiled from stereo-photographs
for sub-sea components
Producing measurements of the ovality of tubular members
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Chapter 13
Producing accurate measurements obtained from stereo-photographs of
physical damage (these measurements have been accurate enough to
allow a template of the damage to be made which was then used to
produce the repair component)
Accurate measurements of distances and relative positions of structural
members subsequently used to assist in the installation of risers, clamps
and pipeline end-flanges
Producing as-built drawings of nodes confirming the actual geometry
The actual camera rigs for the stereo-cameras that produce the photographs
are constructed to very high specifications and are carefully calibrated so that
each lens system is an exactly matched pair. A flat glass plate etched with
calibration marks, called a Reseau Plate is installed on the film plane to act as a
pressure plate to ensure that the film is held absolutely flat and that there are no
irregularities on the film surface. The film itself will be a medium format rather
than small format. These cameras must be handled very carefully as heavy
handling may throw them out of calibration. The calibration marks on the
Reseau plate are used in the analysis process. See Figure 13.18.
Figure 13.18
An Example of a Photograph
Taken With a Camera That
Incorporates a Reseau Plate
A diagram of a typical stereo-camera rig set up for producing photographs that
will be subjected to photogrammetry is shown in Figure 13.19
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Photography
Figure 13.19
Stereo-Cameras Set Up
to Take Photogrammetric Pairs
Finally stereo-photography can be completed with small format cameras and
with digital cameras but the photographs produced will be used for viewing in 3
dimensions rather than being used for photogrammetry.
8
Specific Requirements for Inspection Photographs
When photographs are taken to record inspection findings each frame must
include: A Scale
The subject in frame centre
Identification of the component
In addition the following points should be addressed: When taken by a diver inspector ensure there are no items hanging in the
frame, umbilicals hog-off lines or the like
Make sure there are no exhaust bubbles in shot
Avoid camera shake; be comfortable before taking the shot
Position lighting to avoid backscatter
Always be prepared to bracket the exposure
With digicams it may well be possible to take photographs using hat lights or
ROV vehicle lights but always remember that underwater photography is always
in a low contrast situation. This means that artificial light is even more crucial to
obtaining good, acceptable results than normal.
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Chapter 13
9
ROV Mounted Cameras
ROVs can have cameras mounted either independently of any onboard video
cameras or coupled with the video camera. The latter situation is easier for
taking photographs as whatever is shown on the TV monitor will be what the still
camera records. In either case there are two difficulties that must be addressed.
Identification tabs and scales are difficult to include in the frame and therefore
the photo-log is even more important than usual.
The scale problem can be addressed by inserting a 30 cm long rod with 1 cm
graduations on it into one of the vehicle manipulators if it has them or by
securing it on the vehicle frame. In either case the rod should be positioned so
that each time a still photograph is taken the rod is included in the frame. The
photo-log can be used to record each frame subject matter as normal and also
member identification will have to be included. This should address both
difficulties of using still cameras on an ROV.
It has been quite common for some time now to have picture grabbers
included in the ROV video suite. These are useful for initial reports of damage
or discontinuities but lack quality because they are basically stills recorded from
the video camera. Modern video cameras are improving in quality all the time
and this issue will improve no doubt.
10 Recording Photographs and Care of Equipment
It is most important that a photo-log be maintained during any photographic
survey and Figure 13.20 illustrates a typical example.
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Photography
Figure 13.20
A Typical Photo-log
10.1 Care of Equipment
Prior to use the following points should be completed: Ensure that the batteries are fully charged, if rechargeable complete
charging log
Set the camera controls to any required settings
Prepare a photo-log sheet
Choose any close up or special lenses required for the specific task
Inspect, lubricate and secure any seals and sealing faces on the camera,
housing or strobe. Switch on camera and strobe for test
Take a test shot and switch off unless deployed immediately
Fit the camera to the ROV or pass it to the diver inspector and switch it
on as necessary
Remove any lens caps as required
After the dive complete the following: -
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Chapter 13
Switch off the camera and the strobe
Wash the system in potable water
Dry everything thoroughly
Take out the memory chip or connect the camera up to the computer and
download the data
Lightly grease the O rings as necessary
Store in a clean, dry place
Ensure the photo-log is completed
Replace or re-charge the batteries
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Photography
Bibliography
E & F N Spon
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Chapter 13
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Chapter 14
CHAPTER 14
The Use of Video in Offshore Inspection
1
The Scope for Video Underwater
Every time an ROV is put into the water video is used extensively for, navigating
to the work site, observation of any ROV task, video surveys and diver
observation when in support of divers. All offshore divers are deployed with a
hat camera and it is extremely common in all other aspects of underwater work.
In the case of diver-deployed systems these are used for, monitoring the divers
well being, monitoring the job, survey work and site identification. The methods
of deployment including the advantages and disadvantages of each are
summarised in the following tables and Figures 14.1 to 14.5.
1.1
Diver Hand Held

Advantages
Disadvantages
Can be manipulated into tight areas
The diver only has one hand free
Best for recording CVI
Lighting for the camera may be an

issue
The diver can either give a

commentary or be asked questions
Movement around the work site

may be restricted by the extra
cable and the camera is difficult to
swim with
The diver can respond to surface

instructions and direct the camera to
show specific items
Table 14.1
Diver Hand-held Video
Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue date: 01/09/2006
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1.2
Diver Head (Hat) Mounted

Advantages
Disadvantages
Enhances diver safety as he can be

more closely monitored as he works
Increases the load on the divers

neck and shoulders
Can be used to assist in site or

component identification
When used for CVI the issue of

parallax must always be addressed
Can be used to monitor the diver as

he works and may generate helpful
suggestions to improve work
efficiency
When the diver is directed to show

a specific item to the surface he
may not be able to see it himself,
due to parallax again
The diver can respond to surface

instructions and direct the camera to
show specific items
If the diver is working at a specific
task requiring specialised knowledge
engineers on the surface can more
easily monitor the task and offer
specific advise
The diver can be asked questions or
may give a commentary
Table 14.2
Diver Head Mounted Video
Figure 14.3
Parallax between Divers Eyes
and the Video Camera
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Chapter 14
1.3
Remote Operated Vehicles (ROV)

Advantages
Disadvantages
May be safely deployed in

circumstances where personnel
could be at risk
There will be occasions when

access into tight areas is
impossible
As long as the ROV is serviceable

the video can be kept on the job
indefinitely
The detail on the monitor screen

may be limited as it is dependant
on camera resolution. A diver
would have his eyes on the job
The video can be sent to any

accessible site at any time as there
are no decompression consideration
There is no human on the job and

this can impact on the work at
times
Vehicle lights give very good

illumination for the best quality
picture available
Dependant on the type of ROV high
currents can be tolerated so that the
job can continue
Dependant on the type of ROV
several different types of camera and
stereo-video cameras can be
deployed to the work site
A wide variety of sensors can be
fitted to the vehicle again depending
of the class of ROV
Table 14.4
ROV Deployed Video
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1.4
Fixed Remotely Operated Video

Advantages
Disadvantages
Excellent for monitoring an item or

area continuously
Limited range of vision even if it

has 360o pan and 180o tilt
Can be safely deployed in any area

that may present a danger to
personal safety
Needs regular cleaning
Barring un-serviceability will be

constantly available
Deployed for one specific task only

Table 14.5
Fixed, Remote Operated Video

2
Types of Video Camera
There are different types of Closed Circuit Television (video) cameras in use
underwater. Some are used specifically by ROV whereas others are used
universally. The older type of tube camera is virtually superseded by more
modern developments.
2.1
Tube Cameras
Rough handling or strong light sources can easily damage this type of camera
also it will not be able to function in strong magnetic fields. They can even be
damaged if left for periods of time either without a lens cap or being constantly
pointed at one spot. One advantage with this type of camera is that depth of
field is very good. Figure 14.6 shows a diagram of one of these types of camera
because it indicates the working principal of video cameras.
Figure 14.6
A Tube Camera
The camera consists of a photo-cathode at the front end that emits electrons in
return for and in proportion to the amount of light focused on it by the lens
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Chapter 14
system. The more light focused on it, of course, the more electrons there are
emitted. The cathode at the back end is an electron gun that emits a stream of
electrons that are focused into a beam and made to scan the target by the
electro-magnets. When this focused electron beam scans the target the
electron density, which electronically represents the image that already, exists
on the target either, enhances the strength of the electron beam or detracts
from it. This effectively has changed the light image into a series of electrical
impulses known as the picture signal. The picture signal is collected by the
electron multiplier where it is amplified and transmitted down the line.
Modern CCD cameras do not work exactly like this but they do have electronic
components internally changing light into electrons thus producing a picture
signal.
2.2
Silicon Intensified Target (SIT) Cameras
This type of camera has been in use offshore at least since the late 1970s and
is still extensively used on ROVs where it is most frequently used for navigation.
The SIT camera is a low light camera that can be used in light levels equivalent
to bright starlight. This means that the vehicle lights can be kept at a low level
thus avoiding backscatter from suspended particles and allowing the maximum
penetration possible for the camera. The ROV personnel thus have the best
chance of seeing landmarks as they go about the work site or navigate to it.
This type of camera does not have good resolution and is a monochrome
camera. It is not used for actual inspection work but is extensively used in
support of inspection tasks.
2.3
Charged Coupled Device (CCD) Cameras
This type of camera is widely used and operates on the same principal as a
digital camera as outlined in Chapter 13 paragraph 2.4. These video cameras
are lightweight and physically small and are the normal type fitted to divers
helmets and band-masks. Because they are solid state they are robust and can
tolerate some rough handling. Normally colour cameras are deployed,
monochrome is available.
Unlike tube video cameras CCD cameras are not damaged by very strong,
bright lights and will operate in magnetic fields. The major restriction with them
compared to a tube camera is that depth of field is more limited. These cameras
are very widely used to record inspection results.
3
Advantages and Disadvantages with Video Recording
In underwater inspection and NDT different methods for recording inspection

results are widely used because it is so difficult to go back for a second look.
The time, effort and money involved in deploying resources underwater are so
high that it becomes imperative to get it right first time. With some forms of
inspection there is no facility built in to the method that allows results to be
recorded, which is one prime reason why video is so widely used and video
recordings have been so extensive.
Considering video purely as a recording method, like still photography, there are
advantages and disadvantages that everyone involved with the selection,
Page 263 of 382

deployment and application of the method should be aware of. Table 14.7
applies.
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Chapter 14
Advantages
Disadvantages
Video transmits real time images.
The system cannot freeze fast

movement because the picture
signal is transmitted at the
equivalent of 1 frame every 1/50th
sec. (Fast movement may be caused by
the current moving the ROV or diver, it
does not have to be caused purely by
deliberate fast panning)
A video or digital or computer

recording can provide a permanent
record
The cameras currently cannot

provide such good resolution as
still cameras this limits how much
fine detail can actually be recorded
Numerous electronic signals from

numerous sensors can be combined
with the picture signal:
CP readings
Depth
Time and Date
All kinds of pipeline data
Typewritten information can be
included
If the information is recorded on a

video cassette recorder (VCR)
there will be further loss of picture
quality
Instant playback ensures that the

recording is actually correct before
leaving the work site
There is normally only a 2D image

and without the depth dimension
picture information may be difficult
to interpret
Personnel safety is enhanced when

divers are involved. video can be
deployed in circumstances that
preclude access to personnel
When operated by a diver inspector

video can cause diver fatigue
When deployed with a diver the

human senses of 3D vision and
touch can greatly assist in the
interpretation of the item being
inspected
The sense of touch is not available

when deployed by ROV
An on the spot commentary is

possible from a diver inspector who
can also answer questions while
actually on the spot
Table 14.7
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Video as a Recording Method
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4
Equipment
Mention has been made several times thus far of video this refers to the video
system that gathers the pictures. The system consists of a number of items
including:
The camera
Converts focused image into the picture signal
The umbilical
The cable used to carry the picture signal to the

monitor and the control signals to the camera
Surface control unit Controls camera functions, focus, pan, tilt, lights
Monitor
Receives and decodes the picture signal converting

it back to a visual image
There will most frequently be a number of ancillary items included with the
system such as:
Video typewriter
Used to type in headings, member or

component identification information and
labels as necessary
Video Cassette Recorder Most often two are installed. The black box
running all the time as a safety or security
measure and another for inspection purposes
only
Video Printer
This device will print an individual frame from

any recorded video
DVD Recorder
Rapidly replacing VCRs to record the picture

signal
Picture Quality
Modern cameras are much improved over the older tube types but the actual
picture definition and resolution is still less than what is obtainable from still
cameras. This means that very fine detail cannot be seen on the video screen.
The actual quality of the picture signal from a tube camera is determined by the
way it is transmitted. The picture signal is made up of packets of information
each packet representing one scan line; see Figure 14.1. The number of scan
lines per picture is determined by the transmission standard. The two most
popular are:
PAL/Secam The European systems transmitting 625 lines per field
NTSC
The US system transmitting 510 lines per field
This picture signal when recorded on videotape will be further degraded:

Video Home System (VHS)
Only uses 200 lines per frame
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Chapter 14
Super VHS (S-VHS)

Only uses 400 lines but does record luminance (brightness) and
chrominance (colour) separately to improve quality. (To operate correctly this
require either two co-axial cables or a special S-VHS cable)
6
How Video is used
Common techniques used with video are outlined below

6.1
Commentary
When a commentary is required it should be fluent, use correct terminology and

be factual. The manner of speaking should follow good voice procedure
practice:
6.2
Rhythm
A steady normal speech rhythm normally modulated
Speed
Slightly slower than normal but not stilted
Volume
Just a little higher than conversational volume
Pitch
Do not mumble, pitch the voice up a little
What to Say
An introduction may be required to let subsequent viewers know what the video
is about. Surface personnel often speak it when divers are involved and with
ROVs it will be whoever is making the recording rather than flying the vehicle.
The following points will help.
Who
State company name, (inspectors name if required)
Where
State the global location,(North Cormorant Jacket) the site location, (leg A1)
What
State the task, (GVI of all platform members in accordance with contract
2/6/06 task code listing 301)
When
State the date and time
6.3
Terms used to Direct Camera Movements
There are a few standard terms used to describe camera movement, taken from
the world of cinema.
Pan
The camera is rotated left or right. If diver deployed the diver holds his
position and moves only the camera. An ROV may rotate on the spot or use
an onboard mechanism
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Tilt
The camera is pivoted up or down again without other movement
Move Left (or Right)
The diver or ROV physically moves left or right
Come In (or Out)
The diver or ROV physically moves into or out from the subject
Rotate
The camera is twisted clockwise or anticlockwise about its own axis
See Figure 14.8
Figure 14.8
Camera Movements
The camera movement commands apply to the camera not the carrier and are
relative to the picture displayed on the monitor.
Picture Framing
The best technique is to aim the camera mid-water or towards a neutral
background to begin so that any required headings and introductions might be
inserted. This also gives an anonymous start point for the recording.
This should be followed by a general shot taken as far away from the subject as
is comfortably possible within the limits of the underwater visibility. This will give
an overall impression of the area when the video is later reviewed.
Then move the camera in to complete the actual task whether a GVI, CVI or
MPI.
6.4
Video Logs
As with all other inspection tasks a written record is required. A typical log sheet
is shown at Figure 14.9
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Chapter 14
Figure 14.9
Sample Video Log
6.5
Care of Equipment
A check list of the requirements for care of the equipment follows: Wash in potable water after use
Inspect for damage before and after each use
Store in a warm dry environment
Keep the lens cap in place at all times when the camera is not in use
Always handle with care
Do not leave power on out of the water as this generates heat that may
damage seals
Lamps must be switched off out of the water
Protect all topside equipment from the elements
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Do not allow magnets anywhere near any of the equipment or recording
media
Mark all tapes and CDs with appropriate labels as soon as they are
started
Ensure that all recorded tapes and CDs are write-protected
Ensure that all seals are properly lubricated and assembled prior to use
Always make as many copies of recordings as necessary immediately
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Chapter 14
Bibliography
E & F N Spon
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Chapter 15
CHAPTER 15
Ultrasonic Digital Thickness Meters
1
Ultrasonic Inspection
Ultrasonic inspection is based on the behaviour of an ultrasonic sound wave as

it passes through the material under inspection. The ultrasonic wave is a stress
pulse travelling at the speed of sound within the material under test. Such a
wave travels in straight lines and will be partially reflected from any interface in
its path. Measurements of the time interval between the transmitted wave and
the reflected wave will give information about the length of the waves path
through the material. From this information the thickness of materials can be
measured using ultrasonic digital thickness meters and the presence of flaws
can be detected. For offshore applications this NDT method is used regularly for
corrosion monitoring and occasionally for weld inspection.
2
Producing Ultrasound
Ultrasonic testing depends on the manner in which sound waves pass through
the material under test. Ultrasonic sound waves are used because it has been
determined that at frequencies in this part of the frequency spectrum sound
waves travel furthest with the minimum loss of energy. Thus the greatest
penetration into solid materials is achieved by this selection. Table 15.1 refers.
3
What Is Ultrasound?
Ultrasound is sound waves at a frequency beyond the range of human hearing.

The frequency spectrum at Figure 15.1 refers.
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FREQUENCY SPECTRUM
Velocity of a wave = Frequency x wavelength (f x ) Speed of sound in air = 330 m sec-1
Speed of light in a vacuum = 3 x 108 m sec-1
Sound Waves
Frequency
(Travelling at the speed of sound)

Infrasound
(kHz)
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
Electro-magnetic Waves
(Travelling at the speed of light)
2 x 10-2 kHz (20 kHz)
Sonar uses frequencies in the audio range
Human hearing range
10
2.5 kHz
10
LF
10
MF
10
10
10
UHF
10
SHF
10
EHF
10
Ultrasonic frequency test range

10 MHz
VLF
Radio frequencies
HF
VHF
Infra-red
10
10
10
11
3.8 Red
10
12
7.6 Visible
10
13
10
14
10
15
10
16
10
17
10
18
10
19
10
20
10
21
10
22
10
23
Ultra-violet
X-rays
-rays
Cosmic radiation
Table 15.1
The Frequency Spectrum
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Chapter 15
The ultrasonic sound wave range of frequency is from 20 kHz up to
approximately 6 MHz. For most practical ultrasonic testing the frequency range
from 0.5 to 6 MHz is used. Frequencies lower than 0.5 MHz are not used for
test purposes and the lower frequencies between 0.5 and 1.5 MHz are used for
testing materials with very large grain structures such as concrete or cast iron.
Frequencies from 2 to 6 MHz are used for testing materials with fine grain
structures including steels.
4
Frequency of the Wave
The number of oscillations it causes per second determines the frequency of a

signal. The basic unit of frequency is the Hertz, abbreviated Hz. One Hertz is
one complete cycle of an event per second.
See Figure 15.2, which displays a graph for an alternating voltage
Figure 15.2
Graph of a Signal with a Frequency of 1 Hertz (Hz)
Considering a sound wave it can be compared with Figure 15.2 in that as the
sound wave train passes through a material it propagates a stress front that
causes the atoms within the crystal lattice structure of the material to be
alternatively tensely and compressively stressed and relaxed.
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Figure 15.3
The Stress Variation with Time at a
Point in a Solid Subjected to an Ultrasonic Impulse
from an Ultrasonic Transducer
The frequency of the signal shown in Figure 15.3 may be calculated thus: -
It is not usual to include all the zeros with the numbers related to frequency.
Normally the writing is reduced by the use of prefixes thus: -
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Chapter 15
Number
Engineering
Prefix
Symbol
1,000,000,000
109
giga
1,000,000
106
mega
1,000
103
Kilo
0.001
10-3
milli
0.000001
10-6
micro
Table 11.4
Number Prefixes Used With Frequency
The frequency calculated above would normally be written as 10 kHz.
5
Speed of the Wave
So far only the effects of the wave passing one point in the material have been
considered. However, the wave itself is passing along through the material.
(Like a surface wave on water, the water at any point goes up and down, but as
well as this, the wave travels forwards).
Ultrasonic waves travel through a solid at the speed of sound for a given type of
wave in a given material. That is, the speed of travel of a sound wave is
different for different types of wave and the speed of travel is also different in
different materials.
6
Types of Ultrasonic Wave
Sound waves propagate through a material (liquid, solid or gas) by causing the
atoms to oscillate as the wave front passes through it. There are two types of
wave that propagate through the solid material and three types that propagate
as surface wave along the surface skin of the material.
7
Waves That Propagate Through Solids
The two type of wave that propagates through a solid are discussed below.
7.1
Longitudinal or Compression Waves
This type of wave is denoted by the symbol L. Thus, VL is the velocity of

propagation of these longitudinal or compression waves. With this type of wave
propagation, the direction of oscillation of the atoms is the same as the direction
of the wave propagation. Figure 15.5 refers.
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Figure 15.5
Longitudinal or Compression Wave
7.2
Shear or Transverse Waves
Shear or transverse waves are denoted by the symbol T. Thus VT is the velocity
of propagation of these waves. The direction of oscillation of the atoms in this
mode of travel is at right angles to the direction of motion of the propagating
wave. This mode of propagation is employed with angle probes for weld
inspection and is not used with digital thickness meters. It will not be discussed
further in these notes.
8
Surface Waves
There are three types of surface wave used in ultrasonic testing for specialised
applications.
Raleigh Waves
The Raleigh Wave is the main type of surface wave. These waves travel
only on the surface of the material.
Lamb Waves
These waves are generated when the thickness of the material is
comparable with the wavelength of the Lamb wave.
Love Waves
Love waves travel on the surface of the material.
Surface waves do not have any applications in underwater inspection and will
not be discussed further in these notes. Table 15.6 summarises properties of all
these modes of propagation.
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Chapter 15
Type of
Wave
Symbol
Condition
Atomic Motion
Single
Velocity
Comments on
Use
Longitudinal
or
Compression
VL
Passes
through the
large bulk of
the material
Longitudinal
that is, in the
direction of
wave
propagation
Yes
Used for
thickness and
lamination
measurement
Shear or
Transverse
VT
Passes
through the
large bulk of
the material
Transverse
that is, at right
angles to the
direction of
wave
propagation
Yes
Used for defect

sizing
Raleigh
(often
referred to as
surface
waves)
VS
Semi-infinite
free surface
Compound
that is, motion
up and down as
well as in the
direction of
wave
propagation
Yes
Not used
underwater
Lamb (plate
waves)
VRN
Thin sheet
Compound
No
Not used
underwater
Thin rods
VO
Small diameter
bars
Compound
Yes
Not used
underwater
Table 15.6
Properties of Ultrasonic Waves
9
Velocity of Ultrasonic Waves
In order that ultrasonic waves can be used to measure depths and sizes within
any material it is a fundamental principal that the velocity of the sound wave
remains constant for different samples of the same material. This is in fact the
case; furthermore the ultrasonic wave obeys the laws of light and can therefore
be used with confidence for inspection tasks.
A summary of wave velocities of the various waves discussed here for a
selection of materials is shown in Table 15.7.
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Acoustic Velocity (ms-1)
Material
VL
VT
VS
3100
VO
2900
5100
Density
(kgm-3)
Modulus
(GNm-2)
Modulus
(GNm-2)
2710
70.8
26.5
Aluminium
6350
Araldite
2500
1200
Concrete
4600
2000
Brass (Naval)
4430
2120
1950
3490
8100
98.4
36.4
Copper
4660
2260
1930
3710
8900
122.7
45.5
Lead (Pure)
2160
700
630
1200
11400
16.1
5.6
Air
333
Bronze,
Phosphor (5%)
3530
2230
2010
3430
8860
Lead,
Antimony (6%)
2160
810
740
1370
10900
Steel
(Structural)
5940
3250
213.3
82.9
Steel
5850
3230
2790
5170
7800
Steel
Stainless 302
5660
3120
3120
4900
8030
Steel
Stainless 410
7390
2990
2160
5030
7670
Water
1490
1000
Motor Oil
1740
870
Transformer
Oil
1380
920
Nylon
2620
1080
1100
3.59
1.28
Polyethylene
2340
925
940
2.26
0.80
Perspex
(Plexi-glass)
2730
1430
1180
6.33
2.41
7850
Table 15.7
Acoustic Velocities for Different Modes
in Selected Materials
10 Ultrasonic Wavelength
A further property of the ultrasonic wave is its wavelength. This property
indicates how far the ultrasonic stress wave moves forward during one
complete stress cycle and has to be considered when the maximum sensitivity
of any ultrasonic test is being assessed.
The method of calculation is shown in the following equation.
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Chapter 15
For example, to calculate the wavelength for a 20 kHz ultrasonic compression

wave in aluminium: -
o Now calculate the wavelength for a 5 MHz compression probe in

steel.
(Answer
1.17 x 10-3m or 1.17mm)
o What would the wavelength be if it were a shear wave?
(Answer
6.46 x 10-4m or 0.646mm)
Because the wavelength depends on the velocity of sound, the wavelength of
the ultrasonic signal will change when it passes from one material into another.
For example, when an ultrasonic compression wave passes from perspex into
steel, (perspex would be the material used for the shoe of the transducer and
steel the work piece), the wavelength in steel would be larger than that in the
perspex as the velocity of sound in perspex is smaller than the velocity in steel.
Refer to Table 15.7 and Figure 15.8 below.
Figure 15.8
Compression Wave Passing From One
Material (Perspex) Into another (Steel)
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11 Further Effects of Ultrasonic Properties in Materials
As the ultrasonic signal propagates through a material a pressure or stress front
will be initiated in the material which will present resistance to the passage of
the sound wave energy. The amount of resistance will depend on the properties
of the material. This is a useful parameter of a material and must be determined
if the pressure or stress magnitude of the ultrasonic wave is to be determined.
11.1 Acoustic Impedance (Z)
The resistance to the passage of ultrasound is called acoustic impedance (Z). It
is a material property and is the reason that ultrasound travels at different
speeds in different materials.
11.2 Acoustic Attenuation
A further effect on the sound wave is the reduction in energy of the wave as it
passes through the material. The strength of the ultrasonic signal will be
reduced and eventually will be so low that it cannot be detected.
The main physical phenomena that attenuate the ultrasonic signal are,
Scattering
Diffusion
Viscous damping losses
Relaxation losses
The first two are due to the wave motion of the ultrasound and the second two
are due to the effect of stressing the atoms in the material.
12 The Decibel System
It is usual to measure how much a signal is attenuated in terms of the ratio of
one signal to another; for example the ratio of the input to the output. In the
case of an amplifier the output is larger than the input, while with an attenuator
the reverse is the case. It is therefore consistent to measure the attenuation of a
signal using this technique. It is not an absolute measurement but gives the
relationship of the loss of the power in a signal as it passes through a section of
a material. Figure 15.9 refers.
Figure 11.9
Power in the Ultrasonic Signal
Will Decrease With Distance into the Material
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Chapter 15
The amount of signal attenuation is given by the curve that joins up the peaks of
the graphs and the attenuation in decibels (dB) is given by
P1 and P2 can be any successive two peaks.

A standard formula that is applied to the attenuation of an ultrasonic signal
propagated in any material under test is: 20 Log10 V1/V2 dB
This expression is a standard ultrasonic formula for calculating the attenuation
of a signal in dB.
For example, what is the attenuation of the ultrasonic signal between the first
and second echoes for the signals shown in Figure 15.10?
Figure 15.10
Attenuation of the Ultrasonic Signal
between the First and Second Echoes
From the diagram the first echo is 12 units high and the second is 6 units high
Applying the formula gives: = 20 log10 (12/6)
= 20 log10 (2)
= 20 x 0.3010
= 6.02 dB
What would the attenuation be if V2 were exactly one-tenth V1?
(Answer
20 dB)
This calculated result is most important as it is utilised in practical material
testing. It should be remembered that if the signal is halved that is a 6 dB drop
and if the signal is one tenth that is a 20 dB drop.
13 The Direction of Propagation of an Ultrasonic Wave
Thus far it has been established that the ultrasonic wave travels at a known
speed in a straight line and it has been mentioned that the wave obeys the laws
of light. In order to predict the direction that the wave travels as it passes
Page 283 of 382

through interfaces into different materials it is necessary to determine what
happens when the wave meets an interface.
An interface is any boundary between two materials of differing properties (e.g.
water and steel, perspex and steel, water and air etc.).
An interface will include the outside edges of a component and indeed, the back
surface is referred to as the back wall. Similarly the surfaces of a crack or a
porosity bubble are boundaries also.
At these interfaces, in accordance with the laws of light, the direction of travel of
the wave after meeting the interface will be determined by the law of reflection
for the wave moving in the initial material (material 1) and the law of refraction
(Snells Law) for the wave that passes into the second material (material 2).
14 Law of Reflection
This states that the angle the reflected wave makes with the normal angle to the
interface from which the wave is being reflected is the same as the angle that
the incident wave makes with the same normal angle. Figure 15.11 refers.
Figure 15.11
Reflection of an Ultrasound
Wave from an Interface
When the angle of incidence is 0o the reflected angle is also 0o so the wave is
reflected back along the incident direction. The wave is travelling in the same
material therefore there will be no change in wavelength of the signal or the
mode of travel of the wave. This is the ideal condition for thickness
measurement using ultrasonic compression waves.
15 Law of Refraction
At an interface, part of the ultrasonic wave is reflected and the rest will pass into
the second material. The path in the second material will still be a straight line,
but the direction of this wave will not be continuous with the direction of the
incident wave, as it will have been turned through an angle that can be
determined by Snells Law.
Snells Law of Refraction states that: -
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Chapter 15
Angle need not be larger than as shown in Figure 15.12. The value of is
determined by the properties of material 1 and material 2. The wavelength will
always change between the two materials. See Figure 15.12
Figure 15.12
Snells Law
16 Test Frequency
The test frequency used for flaw detection in land-based equipment varies with
different applications. Table 15.13 gives some examples of frequency and
application.
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Applications
Frequency Range
Concrete
25 100 kHz
Wood
Natural rocks
Coarse grain metal structures (e.g. cast iron,
copper, stainless steel)
200 kHz 1 MHz
Finer grain metal structures
400 kHz 5 MHz
Plastics
200 kHz 2.25 MHz
Forgings
1 10 MHz
Welds
1 2.25 MHz
Table 15.13
Selected Applications and Frequencies
17 Ultrasonic Transducers
A transducer is any device that transforms energy from one form to another.
In the case of the ultrasonic transducer, it transforms high frequency electrical
signals to the same high frequency mechanical signals and vice versa. There
are two possible types of device for doing this. At the lower frequency end of the
scale (below 100 kHz) a magneto-strictive device is used, and above this range
Piezo electric devices are used. At the moment, ultrasonic non-destructive
testing uses mostly Piezo electric devices, while magneto-strictive devices are
widely used in sonar and underwater signalling.
The Piezo electric transducer makes use of the property that certain
crystalline and ceramic materials have whereby, if the material is
subjected to a mechanical extension of contraction, it generates an
electrical signal related to the size of the mechanical input. This effect is
also reversible; if an electrical signal is applied to the material it will
generate mechanical vibrations. Early transducers were made from
quartz, and Rochelle salt crystals, but now they are made from a range
of synthetic crystalline and ceramic materials that include barium titanate,
lithium sulphate and potassium zirconium titanate.
In practice the transducer is mounted in a probe assembly for protection and to
enable electrical connections to be made. The crystal is fitted with electrodes;
often silver foil, to apply the voltage across the crystal if it is acting as a
transmitter, or to take the voltage signal from it if it is acting as a receiver. The
crystal is attached to the case by the mounting, which acts not only as a fixing
but also as a backing to the crystal. The backing has a significant influence on
the transducers performance. Its impedance controls the bandwidth of the
transducer and the damping of the crystals ring. For maximum damping, the
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Chapter 15
impedance of the backing must equal the impedance of the crystal. Also, it must
have the ability to attenuate completely the sonic energy transmitted from the
back of the Piezo electric element so that this signal is prevented from returning
to the back of the Piezo electric crystal, which would thereby produce an
unwanted signal.
A shoe is added to protect the crystal from physical damage or wear, and also
from the environment. Most transducers are completely sealed units.
Furthermore, the shoe can be shaped to act as a lens. In this respect, sound
waves behave like light waves and acoustic lenses are designed in a similar
manner to light lenses.
The index of refraction is the ratio of the velocities of sound in the lens to those
in the other acoustic media (e.g. sea water), as defined by Snells Law.
The shoe should absorb as little of the sound as possible and so its impedance
is usually selected to be between the crystal and the material with which the
transducer is in contact. Shoes are often constructed of perspex.
Also, a probe that operates in a shear mode can be produced from a Piezo
electric crystal that operates in a longitudinal mode, by having a wedge-shaped
shoe. The wedge shape directs the longitudinal wave at an angle to the surface
of the test part. Depending on the angle of incidence, this will produce partial or
total conversion of the longitudinal wave into a shear wave. Figure 15.14 refers.
Figure 15.14
Basic Arrangement of a
Single Crystal Transducer
18 Types of Transducers (Probes)
There are a number of different types of probes some designed for specific
tasks. However, in the sphere of inspection and NDT it is only necessary to be
familiar with the main types.
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All probes are designed to transmit an ultrasonic signal into the test specimen
with maximum efficiency. The configuration of any probe is dependant on the
actual task it is designed for. There are broadly four types of probe.
Single Crystal Probes
Twin Crystal Probes
Compression or Zero Degree Probes
Angle Probes
18.1 Single Crystal Probes
These probes are designed to utilise a single Piezo electric crystal that both
transmits and receives the ultrasonic signal. The acoustic characteristics of this
transducer are quite specific and the selected crystals possess particular
characteristics. The crystal must transmit the signal, stop ringing, ring down to
rest, pick up any reflected signal, ring up to produce electrical energy that is
passed onto the receiver amplifier.
So, the natural frequency of the crystal needs to be very widely separated from
the ultrasonic frequency being used for the test. Figure 15.14 indicates the main
design features of a single crystal compression probe.
18.2 Probe Selection
Ultrasonic probes are selected depending on their output characteristics.
Single crystal probes have:
Advantages
o Good power output
o Greater penetration
Disadvantages
Poor near zone resolution
Cannot measure thin plate accurately
Twin crystal probes:
Advantages
o Good near zone resolution
o Initial pulse and dead zone are contained in the shoe
o Can be focused to any depth
o Can measure thin plate
Disadvantages
o Less power output
o Less penetration
18.3 Twin Crystal Probes
This type of transducer has separate crystals for transmission and reception.
The two crystals are mounted in the same housing but are carefully isolated
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Chapter 15
from each other electrically and acoustically. The material properties of the
crystals are quite different from those of the single crystal probe because the
two crystals are not required to ring down in order to receive. One is constantly
transmitting while the other is constantly receiving. The electrical isolation is
achieved by providing two co-axial connectors one for transmit and one to
receive, while the acoustic barrier is generally a thin layer of cork. Figure 15.15
refers.
Figure 15.15
Twin Crystal Compression Probe
18.4 Compression or Zero Degree Probes
This type of probe transmits longitudinal waves that are transmitted into the test
specimen at the normal angle. Thus there is no refraction and the signal passes
directly through the specimen at the normal. This type of probe may be single or
twin crystal. This is the type of probe that is fitted to a digital thickness meter.
Figures 15.14 and 15.15 refer
18.5 Angle Probes
Angle probes produce an ultrasonic beam that is introduced into the material at
an angle to the interface, and not perpendicular, as is the case of normal angle
probes. The angle is determined to either match the weld angle of preparation
or to introduce the beam at an angle most propitious to reflect from internal
defects. These types of probes are used for weld inspection and will not be
further considered here. See Figure 15.16
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Figure 15.16
Single Crystal Angle Probe Using a Piezo electric
Crystal in Compression Mode, The Angle on the Wedge
Producing a Shear Wave in the Material
19 Couplant
Ultrasonic testing cannot be carried out in air without the use of a suitable
coupling agent between the transducer and the test surface. This is because
the small mechanical pulses cannot travel across the small air gap that exists
between the two surfaces, because of the mismatch in acoustic impedance
between the shoe of the transducer and the air. For land-based tests, liquids,
greases or pastes are therefore used. Under the sea, the equivalent of the land
based immersion technique exists and transmission across the gap between
the work piece and the probe is not a problem. The surface of the work piece
must, of course, be free from marine fouling or other detritus on the surface as
this would attenuate and scatter the ultrasonic signal to such an extent that it
would not enter the work piece.
20 The Ultrasonic Beam
In order to use the passage of the ultrasonic wave through the material to
search for defects, it is necessary that the effective volume of the material
covered by the beam be visualised. An easy analogy for this is to visualise a
beam of light from a hand torch (flashlight) as this illustrates an ultrasonic beam
exactly.
The shape of the beam can be considered as a short cylindrical portion
containing the Dead Zone and Near Zone followed by a conically shaped Far
Zone (or Far Region).
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Chapter 15
The Ultrasonic Beam
Far Zone
Near Zone
Dead Zone
Crystal
Figure 15.17
The Shape of the Ultrasonic Beam
and the Beam Energy Envelope
21 Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
There are two basic principles of ultrasonic testing.
The first is based on the detection of a decrease in energy of the ultrasonic
beam due to absorption by the flaw. This often involves the transformation of
energy due to the internal friction of the defect or a failure to transmit energy
across the air gap of the defect. This is sometimes referred to as the shadow
method. It can be referred to as a through transmission technique also. Figure
15.18 refers.
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Figure 15.18
Flaw Detection by Decrease in
Energy of the Ultrasonic Wave
The second principle of ultrasonic testing is based on the reflection of energy
from a flaw or interface. This is the method used in A-scan ultrasonic inspection,
digital thickness meters and it is the basis of a majority of ultrasonic test
systems. It is commonly referred to as the pulse echo technique. The principle
is illustrated in Figure 15.19
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Chapter 15
Figure 15.19
Flaw Detection by Reflection
of the Ultrasonic Wave
22 Ultrasonic Test Systems
An ultrasonic test system should be able to measure either the amplitude of the
signal if a through transmission test is used or the time required for the
ultrasonic signal to travel between specific interfaces if the pulse echo
technique is employed. A versatile test system in fact measures both the
amplitude and the time simultaneously. For thickness measurement the main
use of ultrasonic testing is the measurement of the time the ultrasonic signal
takes to travel between specific interfaces, and the instrument is referred to as
either a digital thickness meter or an A-scan flaw detector.
A-scan instruments display real time depth or distance along the horizontal axis
of a cathode ray tube display with signal amplitude or strength on the vertical
axis. Digital thickness meters incorporate a digital display that shows the depth
measurement directly.
23 Calibration and Thickness Measurement
With any A-scan instrument the CRT display represent time on the base line or
X-axis, which is calibrated to represent distance, while the vertical or Y-axis
gives the amplitude of the returning signal; the higher the amplitude of this
signal the greater the strength of the reflected signal. Of course, in the case of
thickness measurements this signal will be the back wall echo.
A-scan types of ultrasonic instruments all require calibration before they can be
used for testing. Modern instruments incorporate computer chips that assist in
this process but a standard calibration block will still be required. Digital
thickness meters are pre-calibrated for use with low carbon steel but the
calibration must be verified before each use. This will require the use of either a
calibration block or a specified reference block or step wedge.
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23.1 Calibration and Reference Blocks
Normally calibration will require the use of a calibration block, however a
reference block may be used if this is either specified or agreed by the
contracting party.
23.2 Reference Block
A reference block is produced to agreed measurements and specifications, is
manufactured to the same tolerances and surface finish as a calibration block
and is used in the same way. The difference between this and a calibration
block is that the reference block is intended to be used only for the specified
task and is not intended to be used for general work on any other components.
23.3 Calibration Block
There are several different calibration blocks available for ultrasonic testing. The
two most popular are the V1 and the V2 calibration blocks. A calibration block is
manufactured to standard specifications and to international standards. It is
produced from specified material and is machined to close tolerances and laid
down standard of surface finish. All the dimensions on the block are also
specified and it is used to calibrate ultrasonic flaw detectors in general. A sketch
of the V1 calibration block in Figure 15.20 shows all the major dimensions.
Figure 15.20
IIW V1 Block
23.4 Calibration Checks
Check the power supply is fully charged
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Chapter 15
Place the probe on the surface of the calibration or reference block using a
suitable couplant and confirm the meter is calibrated.
24 Thickness Plotting
Should there be any flaws such as heavily corroded internal surfaces or
laminations in the scanning area the signal will be reflected from these and not
the back wall. If an area is to be scanned the area may be marked out in a grid
pattern to ensure 100% coverage. See Figure 15.21
Figure 15.21
Scanning for Flaws or Laminations
25 Digital Thickness Meters
Digital thickness meters measure the thickness of the material using
longitudinal waves propagated by a compression probe and transmitted into the
material under test at the normal angle.
Digital thickness meters are widely used for obtaining wall thickness
measurements, especially underwater. Instruments manufactured by Baugh
and Weedon, Wells Krautkramer, and Cygnus have all been employed for this
purpose.
25.1 Accuracy of the Readings Obtained With a DTM
A DTM is only designed to give a single readout for each application of the
probe. This is different from an A-scan instrument, which is designed to display
multiple reflections simultaneously on the CRT screen.
The beam may reflect from an inclusion
The beam may reflect from an isolated corrosion pit
The beam might reflect from the sidewalls of a long narrow plate
If the back wall is very corroded the beam may be totally scattered
Poor probe contact will prevent the beam propagating into the material at all
If the material under test is very hot a false reading may result due to different
sound velocities between the material and the calibration of the DTM
Insufficient beam energy will be reflected from a small isolated corrosion pit
because the reflected energy from the BWE will swamp it and the meter will
only display the depth to the back wall
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If the scanning surface of the plate is very corroded there may be so much
reflection of the beam that it will not propagate into the material at all
Should the back wall of the plate be at an angle to the front wall the reflected
signal may not be directed back to the probe and no reading will be displayed
All of these considerations may be summed up for a DTM by stating that the
major limiting factor with this instrument is that it can only display the depth of
the MAJOR REFLECTOR, It is not designed for any other purpose.
Figure 15.22
Possible Problems Associated With a DTM
26 Care and Maintenance of Equipment
The care of all ultrasonic equipment follows the same pattern as all equipment
deployed underwater.
Clean all terminations, plugs, leads and controls
Charge all batteries in accordance with manufactures recommendations
Do not overcharge (with some batteries this may evolve Hydrogen gas
and cause an explosive hazard)
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Chapter 15
Store equipment is a dry warm place
Be aware of the danger of electric shock from some components
Never operate equipment that is thought to be damaged get it repaired
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Mel Bayliss
David Short
Mary Bax
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Chapter 15
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Chapter 16
CHAPTER 16
Inspection Methods Available to Assess
Underwater Structures
1
Visual Inspection
There are a number of methods used to conduct an inspection or damage

survey but the prime method is visual inspection because it has a number of
advantages over other methods. Table 16.1 refers
Advantages of Visual Inspection Over Other Methods
Advantages
Disadvantages
With a diver inspector on the job good

vision is possible
There is no record of an eyeball

inspection
The object can be viewed in three

dimensions
The brain interprets what is seen and

this interpretation affects how any object
is seen
The object is viewed in colour
Only those indications that can be seen

on the surface of the component being
inspected can be assessed
This method is always available
Poor underwater visibility may adversely

affect the results
With a diver inspector the sense of touch

may assist interpretation
Divers are constrained by

decompression considerations which
may curtail or inhibit the inspection when
diver inspectors are used
A commentary that contains the

inspectors impressions and interpretation
of the visual evidence can be given
The problem of interpretation may

impact on the results of the inspection.
An experienced inspector will acquire
better information than one who lacks
experience
No specialised equipment is required.

Only the diver inspector need be deployed
to the worksite
Table 16.1
A visual inspection will be completed before any other inspection method or
non-destructive test is undertaken to identify any features or areas of concern
that may impact on the quality of these other methods.
To properly assess the extent of any defects identified during a CVI it will be
necessary to measure the flaws. Comments on standard measurements are
contained in paragraph 13.
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Inspection Methods Available
to Assess Underwater Structures
2
Video
This method is used extensively to record the results of a visual inspection

when diver inspectors have been deployed. When ROVs are employed to
complete inspections this is the prime method of inspection. The advantages
and disadvantages of this method are summed up in Table 16.2.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Video shows real time pictures
Cannot freeze fast movement
Video recording is a permanent record
Poor resolution compared to

photography
Additional information can be included

in the picture, CP readings, depth etc.
Gives a two dimensional image
Instant playback
When diver deployed can cause

diver fatigue
Safety
When diver hat-mounted deployed

parallax must be considered
A commentary can be given

Table 16.2
3
Photography
This method of recording inspection information is widely used and is fully

explained in Chapter 13. With digital cameras photographs can be obtained in
real time and be viewed immediately. Stereo-photography is also possible as is
photogrammetry.
4
Cathodic Potential Readings
This method is extensively used to monitor the corrosion protection coverage of

offshore structures. The methods are fully explained in Chapter 11. It should be
remembered that this is not a defect detection method. It is used to monitor the
entire structure and data obtained is analysed to determine whether some other
inspection or action needs to be taken.
5
Ultrasonic Inspection Techniques
These techniques are fully explained in Chapter 15. Ultrasonic digital thickness
meters are widely used as another means of monitoring corrosion. A-scan
instruments can find and size internal defects in welds or the parent plate
although this application of the method is much less widely used.
6
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)
This technique is explained in Chapter 18. It is widely used to inspect for fine
surface breaking and slightly sub-surface discontinuities in Ferro-magnetic
materials.
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Chapter 16
7
Radiography
This method is explained in Chapter 18. The method is widely used in pipeline
survey and occasionally for platform inspection. It is used in specialised
applications.
8
Alternating Current Potential Drop (ACPD)
This method is explained in Chapter 18. It is not widely used but can be
deployed to measure the depth of surface breaking crack-like features. It is not
used as a detection method.
9
Electro Magnetic Detection Techniques (EMD or EMT)
These methods are fully explained in Chapter 18. These methods are being
more widely deployed and in some cases are superseding MPI. The method
can identify surface breaking crack-like features even under non-conductive
coatings and can size them for length and depth. A permanent record is made
at the time of the inspection
10 Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM)
This method is fully explained in Chapter 18. The method is a variation of the
EMD technique and is employed in the same manner. The method can also be
used to measure the thickness of coatings, which may be useful offshore.
11 Flooded Member Detection (FMD)
This method is fully explained in Chapter 18. The method is used to assess the
integrity of the structural members in a batch-testing manner. The method is a
go/no go technique that is quickly applied and gains results quite fast. However,
when results indicate a loss of member integrity follow up inspections with other
methods must be deployed to identify the cause of the lack of integrity.
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12 Summary of Inspection Methods and Their Use

Method
Widely
Used
Frequency
Uses
Visual Inspection
Yes
Daily
GVI, CVI, Initial assessment

before other methods are used
Video
Yes
Daily
Video surveys and recording

visual inspections
Photography
Yes
Daily
Recording Visual and Video

inspections
CP Readings
Yes
Very
frequently
Assessment of CP system
coverage
Ultrasonic DTM
Yes
Often
Assessment of wall thickness in

conjunction with CP Readings
Ultrasonic A-scan
No
Occasionally Specialised tasks associated

with welds
MPI
Yes
Often
Radiography
No
Occasionally Specialised tasks associated

with welds
ACPD
No
Seldom
Sizing known defects, possibly

recorded on the damage register
EMD
Yes
Often
Weld inspection on SCE and

nominated nodes
ACFM
Yes
Often

nominated nodes
FMD
Yes
Very often
Annual surveys for structural

integrity

nominated nodes
13 Taking Measurements
All the methods outlined in this chapter are useful for identifying some in-service
defects or damage, some are better than others for certain types of damage
and some will record dimensions when defects are identified while others,
especially CVI will not. It is, of course, essential that any defect be measured as
accurately as possible so that the actual risk of failure posed by it may be
accurately assessed.
The major reasons for taking measurements are: -
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Chapter 16
To provide dimensions that are as accurate as possible
To locate the defect in relation to a known datum
To provide a measured record that may be used later for relocating the
defect
To provide measurements so that any repair components can be
manufactured
A measurement may be taken directly or by comparison. Some methods are
outlined below.
14 Linear Measurement
Straight measurements between two points may be taken with traditional means
or electronically.
14.1 Ruler
An engineers ruler may be used for measurements up to 1m. The accuracy for
this method will be 0.5mm.
14.2 Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tapes up to 3m in length are used for measuring welds. The accuracy
will be 1.0mm in 1m.
14.3 Flexible Tape Measures
Flexible tape measures may be fibre or steel and are available up to 100m in
length although 30m tapes are the most common in use offshore. The accuracy
will be 2mm over 5m.
14.4 Electronic Methods
Both sonar and infrared methods for ranging and measuring are employed for
taking measurements up to 1000m (for area mapping). The accuracy will
depend on the actual method but infrared methods may achieve 1mm over
5m.
14.4.1 Laser and Infra-red Measuring
Both laser and infrared measuring techniques are becoming widely employed
underwater. This is especially true with ROV based inspections
15 Circular Measurements
There are several means of taking circular measurements one of which is a
comparison method.
15.1 Callipers
This method is an indirect method of measuring and therefore a comparison.
The diameter of the item is accurately taken by either the inside or outside
callipers and the measurement is taken between the points of the calliper legs.
Measurements up to 1m diameter may be taken. The accuracy depends on the
ruler being used but will be 0.5mm usually.
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15.2 Vernier Gauges

Vernier gauges are used to take both inside and outside diameters up to
300mm. The accuracy is 0.1mm.
15.3 Specialist Jigs
Ovality gauges are made up for specialist applications and can measure up to
1m diameter. They are usually a comparison method and accuracy will be
2mm.
16 Angular Measurements
Angular measurements may be taken by a number of methods.
16.1 Protractor
These are available in sizes up to 1m. They may take vertical or horizontal
angular measurements and the accuracy will be 0.5o.
16.2 Pendulum Gauges
These are also called inclinometers and are a form of vertical protractor. Figure
16.3 refers.
Figure 16.3
Pendulum Gauge
17 Dents and Deformations
Impact damage can be measured either directly, or by photogrammetry or
electronically.
17.1 Profile Gauges
If the damaged area is less that 300mm profile gauges may be used. They are
a comparison method and the accuracy will be 0.5mm. Care must be taken
not to disturb the setting of the pins once the profile is obtained. See Figure
16.4
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Chapter 16
Figure 16.4
Profile Gauge
17.2 Pit Gauge
Small corrosion pits or similar may be measured with a pit gauge that consists
of a calibrated plunger that is pushed into the pit and the depth read off from the
calibrated part.
17.3 Linear Angular Measurement (LAM) Gauge
The LAM is an accurate measuring device specifically designed to take angular
and depth measurements. It can effectively measure:
Pit depth
Misalignment
Weld leg length
Weld throat thickness
Excessive weld metal
Undercut
All the weld profile angles and measurements
The gauge can take measurements from flat or curved surfaces. Figure 16.5
refers.
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Figure 16.5
LAM Gauge
17.4 Casts
A cast may be made of any depression to accurately mimic the exact shape.
Several materials may be used.
Plasticine
Putty
Two part compounds (e.g. Microset)
There are a number of problems that may occur when using casting materials: The cast may be difficult to remove without distortion
The cast may be deformed or damaged during transfer to the surface
The cast is a negative image
The casting material may be difficult to apply. In cold seawater two part
compounds may not flow and malleable materials do not mould easily. A
hot water box may be required
17.5 Straight Edge
This method may also be used for small deformations. Holding the straight edge
over the area and using a ruler to measure vertically down at small increments
obtains a profile of the damage. The accuracy may be 0.5mm.
17.6 Taut Wire
This method may be used for any size deformation. A wire is stretched over the
deformed area and vertical measurements taken at small increments obtain the
profile.
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Chapter 16
The wire should be set up in two planes at 90o to each other to ensure that any
out of straightness of the member is measured. Accuracy of 0.5mm may be
achieved with care. Figure 16.6 illustrates the method.
Figure 16.6
Taut Wire
Page 308 of 382

Bibliography
L K Porter
HMSO
E & F N Spon
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Chapter 16
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Chapter 17
CHAPTER 17
Inspection Maintenance and Repair, Quality
Assurance and Control, Recording, Reporting
1
Legislation Relating to Inspection of Offshore Structures
In 1992 the UK Government brought into force The Offshore Installations

(Safety Case) Regulations SI 2885 (1992). These regulations expand the
Health and Safety as Work Act (1974) to offshore structures in the UK sector
of the North Sea. These regulations are very wide ranging in scope and are
further clarified and are made more precise by amplifying guidance notes,
Approved Codes of Practice and further Statutory Instruments.
DCR SI 913 (1996)
Design and Construction Regulations
PSR SI 825 (1996)
Pipeline Safety Regulations
PFEER SI 743 (1995)
Prevention of Fire, Explosion and Emergency

Response Regulations
MAR SI 738 (1995)
Management and Administration Regulations
PUWER SI 2932 (1998)

Regulations
Provision and Use of Work Equipment

(Plant and Equipment)
There are numerous requirements laid down in this legislation but the main
intent for all of it is to reduce any risk to be As Low As Reasonably Practical
(ALARP).
DCR SI 913 (1996) and TOISCR SI 2885 (1992) specify and rely on
VERIFICATION NOT CERTIFICATION. The regulations also specify that there
must be an appointed DUTY HOLDER who has the authority to carry out a selfcertification scheme. The Duty Holder will normally be the operating company.
The Duty Holder is responsible for ensuring that the structure remains in a safe
condition to carry out its design purpose.
The regulations specify that verification must be obtained from an
INDEPENDENT VERIFYING BODY (IDVB). There are five IDVBs appointed by
the regulations: Lloyds Register of Shipping
Det Norske Veritas
Bureau Veritas
Germanischer Lloyd
American Bureau of Shipping
There is no statutory requirement to inspect structures, however the Duty
Holder must satisfy the IDVB that a particular structure or component does not
require any inspection to ensure safety and obtain verification of this. The IDVB
does have the authority to stop all operations on any structure if it considers that
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IMR, QA/QC, Recording, Reporting
it is damaged or that major alterations or deterioration are likely to impair the
structures ability to perform its design task. In practice the Duty Holder will
invariably evolve a full inspection program that will ensure the safety of plant
and personnel, which must be submitted to the IDVB for verification.
The Duty Holder must appoint the IDVB at the design stage of the structure
development so that continuity of verification may be maintained.
2
The Importance of QA and QC
Quality Assurance and Quality Control are two sides of the same coin. All the
Offshore Operators operate quality management systems which all rely on
quality assurance procedures to ensure that all management functions,
including but not limited to, efficient operations, safety, conformance to
legislation and protection of assets are completed effectively, without waste or
duplication up to required standards. Furthermore, all these functions must be
applied the same way every time to a measurable standard; the entire system
must also be actively managed and continuously improved. The quality control
is applied to ensure that all the processes associated with the management
system are in fact complied with and executed correctly. The QC ensures that
the processes meet the measured standard and that this fact is recorded.
The QA for offshore structures starts with the written procedures and continues
with the inspections, audits and other documentation that is certified and
recorded throughout the life of the structure. The QC follows this same path
producing the documentation that verifies that the various processes have all
been completed.
There are a number of different methods that any company can adopt to ensure
that Total Quality Management (TQM) is achieved but commonly BS EN ISO
9002:2002 is adopted.
The importance of QA and QC to any large organisation is that it is fundamental
to the ability of a company to function. Without procedures that demand a
certain standard that are controlled by verification to ensure correct compliance
a large company would descend to anarchy and bankruptcy very quickly in the
modern business world.
As indicated in Chapter 1 QA and QC begin with the conception of the structure
and continues throughout all the stages of the structures life right through to
decommissioning.
2.1
Databases and Trend Analysis
Modern QA systems make extensive use of databases and offshore inspection

reporting follows this trend. The major factor to emphasise with a database
system is the way information is stored. The great advantage of a database is
the accessibility to the information. Each item of information will have a number
of tags the information can then be called up from different points. Take as an
example that an anomaly has been reported on a horizontal brace on a jacket.
The anomaly can be called up or accessed by: Type of anomaly, pitting, crack, impact damage etc
Using member identification
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Chapter 17
Using platform identification, in this case all damage on the platform will
be listed with its location
Using platform identification and defect type, in this case all defects of
that type on the platform will be listed with its location
Once the database is set up trend analysis is facilitated and all the data
required for any type of analysis is both more extensive and more easily
accessed.
2.2
The Importance of Documentation and Record Keeping
The fundamental importance of the QA system indicates how important

documentation and record keeping are and of course, documentation and
record keeping are fundamental elements of any quality system. The various
inspection reports, damage registers, fabrication drawings, material
documentation and other documents and records become part of the QA
forming the archives that prove structural integrity. Additionally the offshore
operators will maintain records for: Engineering assessments and analysis
Recording defects and damage
Maintaining the damage register
Monitoring defects or damage that is not repaired
Modifying the existing IMR program where necessary
Evolving future structural designs
Compliance with the statutory requirements and verification by the IDVB
2.2.1 Types of Reporting Systems
There are basically two types of reporting systems:
Full Reporting
This system requires that every item or component inspected that has any
blemishes, deterioration or damage no matter how minor is reported as
being defective. This way of reporting generates large quantities of data a
large proportion of which is on no interest to structural engineers. This
system:
o Generates large volumes of data that must be reviewed by
responsible engineers
o Much of the data will be considered non-relevant after being
reviewed
o The review of the data requires a good deal of time
o It is possible that serious defects could deteriorate further during
the time taken to review the inspection data
This system is seldom used offshore as the anomaly based reporting system is
preferred
Anomaly Based Reporting
This system requires that only items that are outside specified parameters
be reported. Any other, blemishes, deterioration or minor damage is
accepted with the component being considered as fit for purpose. This
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system still requires that every item included in the inspection program is
fully inspected but only items out-with the specifications are reported as
defective. This has several ramifications.
o The Duty Holder must specify the parameters for all types of
damage or deterioration. The normal response to this requirement
is that a Criteria of Non-conformance (CNC) is evolved by the
Duty Holder
o All inspection personnel must be fully qualified in the various
inspection methods and skilled enough to make value judgements
on the job site in real time to apply the parameters laid down in the
CNC
o There is a high level of responsibility on all inspection staff to
properly identify any indication found during the inspection,
whether it is to be reported or not, that is whether it is an anomaly
or not. If any inspector misses any reportable defect it will remain
undetected until the next scheduled inspection that includes that
component.
o Every reportable defect will require some actions to be initiated in
accordance with the instructions given in the CNC. These actions
may be to repair or conduct further inspections or monitor. In any
event there will be more reports and records generated to prove
that the reported anomalies have been dealt with properly.
3
Reasons Why Inspection Is Required
There are a number of reasons why any structure must be inspected regularly.
The safety of personnel is of paramount importance and a regular
Inspection, Maintenance and Repair (IMR) program will ensure that
component or structural failure is avoided thus guaranteeing the safety of
personnel
Any structure will deteriorate in service and a properly applied IMR cycle
will target and identify items that require repair, renewal or replacement
in a timely manner allowing these actions to be undertaken as part of a
planned, controlled program
The Operators of any offshore structure must comply with the
requirements of Government legislation and Statutory Instruments
Whether structures are insured against damage by outside agencies or
the risk is carried by the Operator an IMR program will be required so
that the risk of catastrophic failure is minimised
A properly implemented IMR program will provide raw data that can be
entered into data bases for computer analysis to complete trend analysis
for engineering applications
Inspection data can be utilised to evolve improved designs for later
generation structures
4
Continuity of Inspection
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Chapter 17
The life of a structure after the concept is agreed may be split into six stages: Design
Production of the raw materials
Fabrication
Launch and Commissioning
In service
Decommissioning
Structural inspection programs are instigated immediately after the conception
of the structure and then run throughout its life forming part of the quality
management approach to structural engineering.
Statutory regulations also require that the Operators ensure the structures are
fit for design purpose and that verification of this is obtained from appointed
independent verification bodies.
5
Design Stage
Quality Assurance and Quality Control (QA/QC) is an integral part of the design
stage for any structure. All the designs, design calculations, and drawings have
to be prepared and completed to specified procedures that include checks and
internal verification to ensure compliance with the numerous standards that
apply to the various engineering disciplines and functions. At this stage The
Duty Holder will nominate the Independent Verification Body that will be
responsible during the life of the structure for verifying that all the statutory
requirements are met.
At the outset then the design drawings are subjected to a form of inspection,
validation and verification before they are sent to the yard for fabrication.
Also at the outset a marking system will be evolved or adopted so that every
component can be identified, tracked, audited and inspected throughout its life
cycle. With topside items this may be a Tag system where unique
identification numbers are assigned to components such as pumps or
generators. The jacket for a structure will similarly have an identification system
specific to the requirements for the component parts.
5.1
Structural Marking Systems
There are several marking systems used in the North Sea but all are based on
a grid system where the structure is considered in plan view to have x and y coordinates and the various depth levels are the z component.
Examples of three systems are included here but any personnel involved with
structural inspection must ensure that they understand the actual system used
on whatever structure they inspect.
5.1.1 Unique Identification System
In this system, which is an extension of the tag system, each platform has a
unique 3-digit identification number. This is used as a prefix to a 6-digit number
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made up of 3 pairs. The first pair is a 2-digit code number for the type of
component.
Main legs are
11
Horizontal braces
12
Main nodes are
13
And so on for the various types of member making up the jacket. The next 2
digits indicate the level starting with 0 at the top of the jacket where the module
is located and finally the last 2 digits are the identification number of that type of
component on that level. Figure 17.1 refers.
Figure 17.1
Unique Identification System
5.1.2 The Alpha Numeric System
This system uses letters to denote different levels starting with A at the top of
the jacket working up the alphabet as the levels descend. This first letter is
followed by an alphanumeric pair that identify the x and y co-ordinates on the
level. For example see Figure 17.2 that identifies component DC 3 and DB 3.
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Chapter 17
Figure 17.2
5.1.3 The Box Matrix System
The box matrix system firstly denotes a letter for each type of member
Member
Diagonal member
Node
Riser
Conductor
Pile guides
Anodes
And so on for all types of members.

Then the levels are denoted by letters starting with A at the top of the jacket
working up the alphabet as the depth levels increase. Finally there are 2 digits
that represent the x and y co-ordinates. See example ME 45 in Figure 17.3
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Figure 17.3
The Box Matrix Marking System
5.1.4 Clock Orientation and Datum Points
In conjunction with the platform marking system datum points will be nominated.
Tubular members are always inspected clockwise and so the clock orientation
is nominated. The 12 oclock position is invariably the datum point and this may
be marked with up to three punch marks during the fabrication stage. Figure
17.4 shows the common orientation for reading the clock and indicates the way
the datum point may be marked.
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Chapter 17
Figure 17.4
Clock Positions
5.2
Safety Critical Elements (SCE)
Another design function is to calculate, identify and specify the numerous Safety
Critical Elements (SCE) that exist on the jacket, the platform modules and in all
the systems and sub-systems. A SCE is any part or parts of an offshore
installation the failure of which would cause or substantially contribute to a
major incident or a component the purpose of which is to prevent or limit the
effect of a major incident. Examples of SCE are: Systems
Primary structure
Fire and water systems
Fire and gas detection systems
Hydrocarbon containment systems
Subsystems Mooring system
Deluge system
Control panels
Equipment Mooring system main bearing
Fire pumps
Fire detection heads
Electrical equipment in hazardous areas
6
Production of the Raw Materials
During the design stage of the structures development decisions are made
regarding what materials are to be used in the fabrication of the structure.
These materials are chosen with careful attention as to their suitability for the
design task. Mild steel to the 50D specification with tight quality control over
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manufacture is a common choice for North Sea steel structures. Other materials
are selected for different design specifications and concrete for gravity
structures is equally carefully specified.
Taking steel as an example the steel foundry producing the steel will provide
certified documentation with casting specification and material composition.
Plates are serial numbered and totally traceable. Other specified materials will
have similar documentation.
All these documents are verified and filed as part of the QC function. The
materials supplied to the fabrication yards are stored in controlled locations so
that it remains fit for purpose and traceable. As it is issued certification goes
with it and is filed with the as built drawings and other documentation.
The raw materials may contain flaws or manufacturing defects in spite of the
best QA and QC arrangements which has two ramifications: The QA systems employed to minimise defects will be aimed at 100%
effectiveness, however 98% may be realistically achievable. This would be
normally acceptable provided that these defects were with design limits.
The presence of manufacturing defects in the raw material would not normally
cause in-service failures but there is a small risk that they might. Within the
realms of good engineering practice and design tolerances this is acceptable.
7
Fabrication Stage
The QA and QC continue throughout the fabrication stage of the structure

development. Welding procedures and parameters are all carefully applied and
certified. Concrete composition is monitored confirmed and certified. All the
inspection documentation and certification is verified and filed with the
remaining documents continuing to build up the QA database.
The types of flaws that may occur during fabrication are discussed in Chapter
12.
8
Launching and Installation
The launching and installation stages in the structure life are again subjected to
tight QC and the relevant supervision, inspection, control and reporting
processes continue to be implemented and recorded. It is reasonably obvious
that launching a 15,000 T jacket, swinging it from horizontal to vertical, then
sinking it upright in the correct position at the correct orientation must require
very through procedures and tight control. See Chapter 4 Figure 4.7.
It is at this stage that the most extensive underwater inspection will take place.
The inspection undertaken on the structure so far has been extensive and will
not be so comprehensive for the remainder of the life of the structure, although
it will continue un-interrupted.
8.1
Base Line Survey
The first major in-water inspection will be totally comprehensive including the
entire jacket and all underwater components, attachments and appurtenances
including, of course, the Safety Critical Elements. The seabed surrounding the
structure will be inspected up to 30 to 50 m from the base. A complete CP
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Chapter 17
system survey will also be completed including CP readings and an anode
count to confirm the presence and the physical integrity of each anode. This
survey is usually referred to as the Base Line Survey.
The Base Line Survey will confirm that: The structure is in the correct position
Whether any significant damage has occurred during launch and
installation
That any damage that is identified is accurately reported and recorded
That any significant defects are highlighted for immediate rectification
The structure will only be declared fit for purpose when either there are no
reported significant defects or any reported significant defects have been
rectified and re-inspected and the results of the Base Line Survey are accepted
by the Duty Holder and verified by the appointed Approved Verification Body.
The Base Line Survey will be used to evolve or modify an ongoing inspection
program that will extend throughout the remaining life of the structure.
8.2
In Service
The in-service IMR program will ensure that adequate monitoring is

accomplished to satisfy the requirements of the Duty Holder, safe working
practices and to achieve verification by the IDVB.
The usual program for in-service inspections is based on a five-year cycle.
Some items are inspected each year while others are inspected less frequently
within the five-year cycle. Each year 20% of all SCE are inspected as a matter
of routine so that over the five years all will be inspected once. There is always
the option to change the schedule should the need to do this be identified. The
typical annual inspection would include: CP survey
Inspection of all riser, conductors and caissons
CVI of 20% of selected representative welds
MPI of 20% of selected representative welds
Complete GVI of the entire structure
Debris and marine growth survey
Scour survey
Items on the damage register may be monitored during the annual inspection.
The annual inspection program reports are monitored and used to update the
damage register and to modify the IMR program as necessary.
8.2.1 Damage Survey
During the service life of a structure damage may occur at any time due to
environmental forces, accidents, failure and numerous other causes. It is a
requirement that all damage be reported and that any incidents are also
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reported. Unfortunately not all incidents actually are reported and damage
underwater cannot be seen unless there is an underwater inspection program.
It has been determined that approximately 70% of damage found offshore is
primarily due to: Collision by shipping
Fatigue failure
Dropped objects
Furthermore the biggest majority of this type of damage was discovered by
routine inspections.
During any inspection the basis of the inspection is to report anything that
appears to be not in the as made condition. Superimposed on top of this basic
rule of thumb are any specific instructions contained in the damage survey
workbook.
9
How the Criteria of Non-conformance System is Applied
The Criteria for Non-conformance is a set of parameters issued by the Duty

Holders engineering department that defines the limit of acceptance of any
damage or defect that may be identified during any inspection. During any
inspection if any item is identified as not being in the as made condition the
CNC is referred to determine whether the anomaly is reportable or can be
considered as being within acceptable engineering parameters. As an
illustration an extract of a typical CNC Table is shown in Figure 17.5
Inspection
field
Possible anomalies
Anomaly code
Criteria of non-conformance
(CNC)
General Coating damage

Visual
Debris
Inspection
Physical damage
CD
Any
DB
Metallic or hazardous
PD
Any
Weld
Corrosion on welds
inspection
CR
Greater than 2 mm deep
CP survey Cathodic Potential
CP
Outside 850 to 1100 mV
Anode wastage
AW
Severe > 75%
Leak
LK
Any
Anode
survey
Riser
Figure 17.5
Extract of a Typical CNC Table
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Chapter 17
Anomaly
Actions to be taken
Additional checks
AW
Record anode identification and position
CR, CP, DB, LI
CP
Take additional CP measurements to establish

extent
AW, CR, DB
CR
Measure corroded area & cover in area, max and AW, CR, CP, DB
average depth and diameter of pits in the area
DB
Record type, position and dimensions, include a

sketch
AW, CD, CP, DB
LK
Record flange identification and location, sketch

and estimate rate of loss of product
PD, LI, DB, CR, SD
WT
Record element and location, take additional WT

readings to assess the extent of the area
CR, PD, CP
Figure 17.6
Extract of a Typical Technical Specification
Key to Abbreviations
Abbreviation
Meaning
AW
Anode Wastage
CP
Cathodic Potential Readings
CR
Corrosion
DB
Debris
LK
Leak
WT
Wall Thickness
LI
Lack of Integrity
SD
Seal Displacement
PD
Physical Damage
CD
Coating Damage
It is normal that either the CNC includes follow up actions that are authorised to
be implemented without further instructions in the event of finding any
anomalous items or to have a table of technical specifications that lays down
these follow up actions. The method for applying the CNC is straightforward.
When any item is identified as being outside the CNC the actions dictated by
the technical specification are implemented. The item and all the data
concerning it is recorded and submitted in the inspection report. Any authorised
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immediate follow up action is implemented and the fact that this has been done
together with the results of the actions taken is recorded and reported.
The flow chart in Figure 17.7 refers
Figure 17.7
Flow Chart for CNC Actions
In the flow chart the reference to the job card applies to the actions taken by the
Duty Holders engineering department. A job card system for initiating work
actions of any kind is a common approach to control of resources, personnel
and finances throughout industry.
10 Documentation in an Anomaly Based Reporting System
The documentation involved with an anomaly-based system is normally
standardised data report sheets and is commonly on a computer-based system.
With this method the responsible engineers become familiar with one method of
presentation of information which saves time when reviewing the inspection
data. Using standard data sheets also ensures that all the required information
is included and does not rely on memory. The data report sheets will be
reviewed and subsequently form the basis for: Further follow-up or additional structural inspection programs
Maintenance or repair projects
Any engineering analysis that is required by the Duty Holder
Reports submitted to the IDVB for verification
On completion of any review action the reports will be archived to become part
of the QA records for the structure.
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Chapter 17
10.1 Work Scopes and Workbooks in an Anomaly Based System

A central feature of an anomaly based system will be a defined scope of work
for each inspection campaign detailing the extent of the inspection, the
components or items to be inspected and the required tasks. The scope of work
will be contained in the workbook issued at the start of the campaign. The
workbook is a part of the contractual documentation.
The workbook will contain: The scope of work
The list of inspection tasks
The procedures
The CNC
All the required drawings
Blank log sheets
Blank data sheets
Anomaly report forms
Daily report forms
An extract of the damage register applying to the items in the scope of
work
In some operating companies the inspection tasks take the form of Task Code
Listings, which contain three digit codes. Each code represents a group of
tasks all associated with one activity. Then within that group different aspects or
applications of the activity can be specified. The Table 17.8 applies.
Task Group
Task
Specifications
100
General swim round
GVI report any gross damage
101
Specific swim round
Anode inspection
200
Weld inspection
Cleaning for inspection
201
Weld CVI
CVI of specified welds
300
Marine growth survey
General marine growth survey
301
Specific marine growth

survey
Report build up of specified species
Table 17.8
Example of Task Code Listing
The workbook will generally be in sections thus: -
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Work Scope
Defines the extent of the inspection
Technical Specifications
Defines design details such as brace diameters, wall thicknesses structural
marking system
Field and Platform Data
Structural drawings, field layout drawings and environmental details such as
water depth, tides, currents
CNC and Anomaly Reporting Requirements
Acceptance criteria to be applied to any anomalies identified during the
inspection and reporting requirements
Data and Log Sheets
Contains master copies of standard report forms, to be copied as necessary
in a paper reporting system. In a computer reporting system the formats will
be in the associated computer program
10.2 Damage Register
The damage register forms a crucial part of the documentation. Any damage on
the structure is recorded on the register along with the engineering action taken
to resolve the damage. Any new damage identified during inspection activities
will be added to the register.
10.3 Data Sheets
Data sheets are all computer-generated and most commonly the inspection will
be recorded directly onto a computer. It is becoming more prevalent that the
data gathered during the inspection is input into a database, which is accessible
by any authorised party. The advantage of having a database is the
accessibility of the information that lends itself very well to any engineering
analysis that may be required. An example of a typical data sheet is shown in
Figure 17.9
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Chapter 17
Figure 17.9
Typical Data Sheet
10.4 Written Reports
If required, written reports will follow a standard layout as dictated by the
operating company. As a guide the usual report layout will contain the major
items enumerated below.
Title
This is normally the specified project title with the date of starting and the
completion date
Signing off sheet
This is a sheet containing the signature of the project managers and key
personnel involved with the project
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Table of contents
The page numbers for the items included in the report
Introduction
Gives the purpose of the report. It will contain: Location
The extent of the inspection or project
The client
The contractor company name
The dates of the inspection
Summary
This is a very condensed resume of the report, which will contain: The overall scope of the inspection
Listings of any anomalies out side the CNC
Results
This is the body of the report that lays out all the findings and the total
extent of the inspection. It will refer to the appendices where the raw data
sheets are contained
Conclusions or Recommendations
Both, either or neither of these may be included in the report. Unless
qualified engineers have prepared the report these paragraphs should be
omitted
Appendices
These are the data sheets, logs, drawings and any other raw data
gathered during the inspection
11 Verbal Reporting
Verbal reports are normally concerned with diver intervention and frequently
follow a question and answer scenario with the topside asking specific
questions for the diver inspector to respond to. The voice reproduction is via the
diver communication unit and may leave something to be desired regarding
clarity of reproduction. A radio procedure approach is adopted with the diver
being the control station. Some prowords are used but over is seldom used.
Care must be exercised to speak plainly and the divers speech is sometimes
difficult to understand because of poor amplification. When receiving verbal
reports from saturation divers the situation can be quite difficult indeed, as their
speech has to go through a de-scrambler because of the distortion to the
voice pitch caused by the helium environment. Always: Use correct terminology
Maintain a fluent flow of speech (decide what to say before you speak)
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Chapter 17
If a full verbal report is to be recorded onto a video ensure that the introduction
includes answers to the questions: Who is speaking?
Where is the inspection site?
What actions are being completed?
When is the verbal report being made?
12 Corrosion Protection and Coating Inspection Report Requirements
The normal inspection reporting requirements for CP surveys are
Visual assessment of anode condition, and deposits including their type
and extent
% Anode wastage (may be required to be measured)
Sacrificial anode stub integrity
Impressed current cable and cable duct integrity and electrode
connection
Marine growth build up on any anodes
Metallic debris in contact with the structure identify location, type and
quantity
CP readings at specified sites or spacing
Photographs of representative anodes
Coating Inspections will normally require that the following be assessed: Note the % present of topcoat, primer and bare metal
Note any blistering and burst them and try to collect a sample of any
deposit
Assess the surface condition of the steel under any blister
Note the % of any paint cracking
Note any paint sagging with the extent
Note any paint wrinkling with the extent
Note any flaking and note the extent
If inspecting Monel cladding is especially careful to inspect very closely for any
breaks or deformation however small in the Monel surface.
13 Procedure for the Close Visual Inspection of a Weld
Verbal reports are commonly recorded onto data sheets during the actual
inspection. A typical procedure for a weld CVI would include: Complete surface checks of all the equipment
Obtain the work permits
Locate the correct weld
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GVI to assess any gross damage and the build up of marine growth
Clean to SA 2 (or any other specified standard) 75mm either side of
the weld
Establish the datum and a tape measure and mark up the clock positions
Measure and record the overall weld length (in accordance with the
established platform conventions or procedure)
Complete the CVI
Record the results in real time on the data sheet
Record the CVI on Video and video
Take still photographs as required
Recover all equipment
Wash all equipment in potable water
Report any anomaly out with the CNC in accordance with the instructions
contained therein (normally to the offshore client representative)
Take any follow up remedial actions authorised in the CNC (normally in
consultation with the offshore client representative)
Cancel work permits when clear of the work site
Incorporate the data sheet into the final report along with any new
anomaly report sheets and any remedial actions taken
An example of a typical CVI sheet is contained in Figure 17.10
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Chapter 17
Figure 17.10
Typical CVI Data Sheet
14 Summary of Other Recording Methods Used Underwater
Because of the nature of underwater inspection with intervention methods being
so costly and weather dependant a good deal of effort is expanded to ensure
that any data gained during inspection activities is recorded in the event of a
future need to reassess any item. The methods for recording can be very simple
or complex as illustrated in the following notes.
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14.1 Scratchboards
This may be a rigid white plastic board or a plastic sheet of paper with a pencil.
Can be used underwater by a diver to make a sketch or take notes when
nothing else is available.
14.2 Sketches
These can be useful if there is no other way of recording what the diver
inspector has identified or incorporated into a report to show a point of detail.
14.3 Photography
Good quality images of any anomalous items or points of interest may be
obtained by photography and prints included in any type of report.
14.4 Video
This is a prime method for recording all manner of inspection information and is
extensively used throughout the underwater commercial industry. The video
records real time images that subsequently may be easily incorporated into a
report.
14.5 Radiography
A radiograph is a permanent record by itself and is easily incorporated into a
report.
14.6 Casts
These may be taken on occasion but they are difficult to take and difficult to
incorporate into a report. There are other ways of recording the images set into
casts and whenever possible these are used in preference to taking a cast.
When they are taken care must be exercised in storing them as they can easily
be damaged.
14.7 EMD, EMT and ACFM Incorporating Computer Recording
These methods are all available with computer recording facilities and the ability
to have the program print out the data. This is ideal for incorporation into a
formal report.
14.8 Sampling
This is normally a specialist form or recording for marine life for example. It
does have other uses such as collecting gas escaping from the seabed for
analysis. Storage of samples is a difficulty that must be anticipated before the
sampling is undertaken.
15 Certification of Personnel and Equipment
Any Quality Management System (QMS) will include the requirement that
personnel and equipment is certified to a known standard. In the case of
personnel in the UK sector of the North Sea the Certification Scheme for
Weldment Inspection Personnel (CSWIP) scheme for underwater inspectors
has been adopted. The notes in the preface outline the CSWIP organisation.
The scheme certificates four types of inspectors as detailed in the preface. The
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Chapter 17
more important proficiencies for 3.1U Diver Inspector level of certification is
outlined below
15.1 CSWIP Grade 3.1U Diver Inspector
This diver inspector will be proficient in: Visual inspection
The use of Video in the hat mounted or hand held deployment mode
Taking still photographs
Taking CP readings
Taking ultrasonic wall thickness readings using an Ultrasonic Digital
Thickness Meter
16 Equipment Certification
Any equipment used during an inspection program must be certified so as to
conform to the QA requirements. This requirement is intended to ensure that all
equipment is, safe to operate, in good working order and is within the required
calibration specifications. The requirements for legal compliance and the typical
QA calibration requirements are: Electrical equipment shall be tested 6 monthly
All electrical equipment must be tested for safety each time it is used;
e.g. all Residual Current Devices (RCD) should be tested daily, any other
type of electrical equipment should be visually inspected and confirmed
safe to use before each use
All inspection equipment shall be calibration checked before and after
each use
A competent person shall calibrate all electrical equipment at intervals
proscribed by regulations or manufacturers recommendations and certify
this fact. This includes Voltmeters and Digital Volt Meters which shall be
calibrated annually and tagged to confirm the date the next calibration is
due
17 Inspection Activities in an Anomaly Based System
Good planning and briefings are the difference between success and, at worst,
failure with any project, not least inspection campaigns. Good planning and
briefing leads to efficient, focused and effective inspection activities that are
themselves crucial in insuring that the tasks are completed as quickly as
possible, without having to go back, that the correct items are inspected, to the
correct standard, that the personnel involved are all focused on the job,
motivated and sufficiently well briefed and skilled to be able to recognise any
defects and apply the correct actions to them. These activities are fundamental
in any anomaly based reporting system as it is recognised that any items being
inspected in real time will not be subjected to any secondary inspection.
Should anything be missed during the current inspection it will remain
undiscovered until there is another scheduled inspection of that component.
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17.1 Real Time Data Gathering

Real time data gathering means that the personnel on the job inspect and
assess the components under inspection. Any items judged to be outside the
CNC will be flagged up and recorded in real time on video, by photography or
by electronic means. This data may then be re-evaluated at a later date for
second opinions or follow up analysis. The crucial point is that data is only
submitted if it is judged to be anomalous at the moment in time when it is
inspected.
As a comparison some forms of inspection lend themselves to retrospective
inspection. For example eddy current inspection and ACFM inspection both of
which store real time data on computer programs. The original inspector will
make on the spot judgements but all the data can subsequently be reviewed.
The computer will contain all of the gathered information not a selection
determined by the original inspector.
18 Decommissioning
When the fields become depleted the various platforms and seabed
completions will be removed. The QA and QC will continue throughout this
process to ensure that everything actually is removed and to verify that the
ocean floor is left clear of any debris.
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Chapter 17
Bibliography
L K Porter
HMSO
E & F N Spon
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Chapter 18
CHAPTER 18
Other NDT Methods Used Offshore
1
Introduction
There are a number of non-destructive test methods employed for particular

inspection tasks on offshore structures. These methods may not be used so
frequently as the NDT techniques outlined in Chapter 15 but they are important
additions to the spread of techniques that can be employed to test structural
integrity. An outline of the methods principles of operation, advantages and
disadvantages and uses is contained below.
2
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)
MPI is a traditional NDT method for finding fine surface breaking discontinuities.
MPI can only be used on ferrous materials. Specifically the method can only be
used on ferromagnetic metals, (iron, steel, cobalt and nickel).
The method works because magnetic fields react in a specific predictable
manner at all times. One of the properties of magnetic fields is that they prefer
to travel in the path of least magnetic resistance. This results in the fact that
crack-like features on the surface of ferromagnetic materials distort the
magnetic field and cause it to become stronger in the immediate vicinity of the
discontinuity.
The method is easy to apply but does require at least an industrial strength
magnet to induce the magnetic field and iron filings to give a visual indication of
any indications that are discovered.
The way that the method is used is to clean the site to SA 2 . Then induce the
magnetic field into the test area. This is accomplished in the simplest case by
using a magnet. Once the magnetic field is induced the iron filings are applied
and the inspector views the area. Any indications found may be recorded by
photography. See Figure 18.1.
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Figure 18.1
MPI Magnetic Field Induced by a Permanent Magnet
3
Radiography
Radiography is a well proven method of NDT that has been employed in

industry for many years to test welds and many other items. It is extensively
used in the Health Service as X-rays to enable health workers to see inside the
human body. Offshore radiography is used in pipeline survey, topside platform
inspections and occasionally underwater for specific tasks. The worlds Navies
employ radiography for specialist mine disposal activities. Table 18.2 indicates
the advantages and disadvantages of the method as a non-destructive test.
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Chapter 18
Advantages
Disadvantages
Permanent records are produced as

radiographs
Safety requirements are very high
The radiograph can be viewed by

many
Storage and transport of the

radioactive sources are expensive
due to the safety requirements
It is a well proven method
In the UK Government approval is

required
Measurements can usually be taken

directly off the radiograph
The radiographers must be HSE

controlled and carry dosimeters
Cleaning standard is only SA 1
Costs are high because of the safety

requirements and the production
methods to produce radioactive
isotopes
Interpretation of the radiograph often
requires trained radiographic
interpreters
Table 18.2
Advantages and Disadvantages

of Radiography as an NDT Technique
4
Production of Radiation
Radiography employs two methods of producing radiation and two types of

radiation, X-rays and Gamma () rays. X-rays are produced electronically and
therefore there is no storage of radioactive sources but the equipment is bulky
and heavy, rays are produced by radioactive isotopes that are always a
source of radiation and are therefore always potentially harmful to personnel
and storage must be extremely carefully controlled.
4.1
X-ray Production
X-rays can be produced within a thermionic valve where a stream of electrons

emitted from the cathode bombards an anode. The impact of the electrons on
the anode produces photons or X-rays. See Figure 18.3
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Figure 18.3
Production of X-rays
As well as being bulky and heavy high voltages are required to produce the
electron stream and this presents a hazard to diver deployment. Commercially
this equipment is not used underwater.
5
Production of Rays
Radiation is produced by the spontaneous disintegration of the nuclei of an

unstable element as it emits particles thereby reducing to a lower energy state
to become stable. The units of measure of this radiation are the Curie (Ci).
Some radioactive isotopes exist naturally but they emit low levels of radiation
and commercially artificial isotopes are produced by bombarding certain
elements, such as Iridium, with neutrons. This changes the atomic structure of
the element because the neutrons are captured in its nucleus.
The most common source used offshore is Iridium 192 which has a radiation
output of some 480 Ci when first produced. This drops as the isotope ages.
Iridium 192 can penetrate approximately 90mm of steel but is normally limited to
50mm. Cobalt 60 is an alternative source that is used offshore if a stronger
source is required.
In use the source is housed in a radiation shielded housing that may be
constructed with depleted uranium. The housing is designed with an aperture
that can be opened remotely to expose the source for a controlled exposure.
There is at least one diver deployable source that is remotely controlled. The
diver will place the film cassettes and the source in its housing unexposed. The
housing is connected to a compressed air supply on the surface and is locked
with a key in the safe, housed position. The last task for the diver when all is set
up is to unlock the safety and withdraw the key and leave the site. The safety
zone is maintained as 8m.
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Chapter 18
The housing aperture is opened from the surface remote control to expose the
source. On completion of the timed exposure the aperture is closed and an
ROV would confirm via a visual indicator that the source is housed. The diver
then returns to lock the unit and adjust it for the next exposure. The aim would
be to cover the pipe radius in three hits. Figures 18.4 to 18.6 refer
Figure 18.4
Diver Deployed Radioactive Source in Housing
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Figure 18.5
Source Placed at 12 Oclock
Setup for First Exposure
(Arrow indicates direction of 3 oclock)
Figure 18.6
Source Connected to Surface Unlocked
with Key Removed Ready to be exposed
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Chapter 18
The method of placing the film cassettes is illustrated in Figure is 18.7
Figure 18.7
Placing Film Cassettes for Double Wall
Single Image Technique
5.1
Safety
It is imperative to maintain an 8m-exclusion zone at all times. The most

important factor when handling radioactive sources is safety; there can be no
compromise. The company supplying the source, equipment and radiographers
must be Home Office approved and the staff are all badged and monitored.
6
How the Method Works
The radiation emitted from the source will cause silver halides contained in the
film emulsion to react in the same way that light causes a reaction in
photography. The more radiation falling on the film the darker it will appear
when developed. Figure 18.8 illustrates the method.
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Figure 18.8
Radiation Exposing the Film
The preferred method of recording an image is the single wall, single image or
panoramic technique, which is illustrated in Figure 18.9. The alternative when
there is only access to one side is the double wall single image technique as
shown in Figure 18.7.
Figure 18.9
Single Wall Single Image or
Panoramic Technique
6.1
Radiograph Quality
The quality of the radiograph is important because it will determine how small a
defect can be found. Radiography is best at recording volumetric defects not
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Chapter 18
planar as illustrated in Figure 18.8. The quality of the radiograph is commonly
indicated by the use of an Image Quality Indicator (IQI). This is a plastic packet
that contains wires of different diameters that record or not on the radiograph.
The size of the smallest wire that records is the size of the smallest defect that
will show on the radiograph. See Figure 18.10
Figure 18.10
Image Quality Indicator
7
Electro Magnetic Detection Techniques (EMD or EMT)
Eddy current testing of welds is widespread offshore because developments

have taken place to improve the equipment design to better adapt it to the
environment. Eddy current techniques are used to: Detect and size for length and depth surface breaking cracks in
conducting materials whether magnetic or non-magnetic
Inspecting tubes and bar materials during production
Sorting pure metals and alloys
Taking coating thickness measurements
Assessing stress in conducting materials
Assessing the thickness of marine growth
The most sensitive area for stress cracks propagating is the toes of welds and
this type of defect will be surface breaking. Eddy currents can find this type of
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defect through paint coating and therefore has real potential in the offshore
scene.
7.1
As shown in Chapter 14 MPI when an electric current is passed through a

conductor a circular magnetic field at 90o to the current flow is generated
around the conductor. If the conductor is twisted into a coil the magnetic field
vectors into a longitudinal flux orientation. With the eddy current technique this
is called the PRIMARY FIELD. If this coil is brought to close proximity to a
conducting material the primary field will pass through the material and produce
a circular electric current orientated at right angles to the direction of the primary
magnetic field. This induced electric current is called an eddy current and this is
the principal that transformers work on. Figure 18.11 refers.
Figure 18.11
The Eddy Current Principle
These eddy currents will induce another magnetic field that is called the
secondary field, which has the opposite orientation to the primary field. These
two fields can be balanced via the instrumentation that can have a display that
would then read zero.
This would be the case with a plane conducting material with no discontinuities.
If there were a surface breaking crack in the plate this will cause the lines of
current flow to bunch together which in turn will cause the induced lines of
magnetic flux to bunch. As seen in Chapter 14 this increases the flux density,
this in turn increases the magnetic field strength in the secondary magnetic
field. This causes an imbalance between the two fields that will be indicated on
the instrument display, which is commonly a CRT. Figure 18.12 refers.
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Chapter 18
Figure 18.12
Effects of a Crack
Interacting With the
Eddy Currents
There are a number of factors that can affect the eddy currents apart from
surface breaking cracks: Probe lift off can cause spurious indications
Varying permeability can cause spurious indications
If the probe is close to the edge of a plate edge effect will cause
spurious indications
Differences in material thickness can cause spurious indications
Figure 18.13 refers
Figure 18.13
Spurious Indications
Other factors that effect eddy currents are: Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006
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Test probe frequency
The higher the frequency the less the penetration
Material permeability
The higher the permeability the less the penetration
Material conductivity
The higher the conductivity the less the penetration
Table 18.14 indicates the advantages and disadvantages of the method.
EMD/ACFM Advantages over MPI
MPI Advantages over EMD/ACFM
Can size a defect for length and

depth
Well proven industrial technique
Works through non-conducting

materials
Easier to use on complex geometry
Data recorded directly onto

computer
Good for finding transverse or complex

branching cracks
Permanent record of inspection data
Good for finding shallow cracks
Quicker than MPI
Gives a visual unambiguous indication
Lower cleaning standard required
Better for use with remedial grinding
Works on non-magnetic materials
The equipment is less complex
Interpretation is completed topside
The equipment is less costly
Off-line interpretation is available

There are no lighting problems
ROV deployment may be possible
Table 18.14
Advantages of EMD/ACFM over MPI
Finally there are a number of important points to note that must apply during
any EMD or ACFM inspection.
The probe operation must be agreed between the surface technician and
the diver inspector
The terminology to be used during the dialogue between the technician
and the diver inspector must be agreed and understood by both
Cleaning standard must be a minimum of SA 2
The diver inspector must appreciate the important points concerning
probe manipulation and know the name of the parts of the probe
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Chapter 18
The weld must be correctly marked
The diver inspector must be aware of the limitations of the technique
regarding weld profile, seams and component geometry
8
Alternating Current Potential Drop (ACPD)
ACPD is a method for sizing the depth of a surface breaking defect. The
method is not used to detect defects only to size a known flaw. The method can
be used on any conducting material as it relies solely on the resistance path to
an alternating current.
8.1
Alternating current exhibits a skin effect as has been mentioned previously. The
skin effect is more prevalent the higher the frequency of the alternating current.
A pair of probes, called field probes is placed in contact with the surface of the
material being tested and a current is applied across them. The current will flow
from one probe to the other through the skin of the material. A second probe,
which is the equivalent of the two prods of a voltmeter, measures the potential
drop between them when they are placed in the current field established by the
field probes. This establishes a baseline reading. The sensing probe is then
placed to straddle the crack and a different reading is obtained because the
resistance path is longer. Care must be exercised to ensure that the current
carrying conductor for the field probes is kept as far away from the measuring
probe and its umbilical as possible to avoid any interference with the readings.
See Figure 18.15
Figure 18.15
Methodology for ACPD
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To size the depth of the crack the two readings are compared and a simple
formula is applied to calculate the actual crack depth. A probe designed for
underwater deployment is shown in Figure 18.16.
Figure 18.16
ACPD Underwater Probe
9
Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM)
ACFM will find and size surface-breaking defects in most metals even through
coatings up to 5mm thick. ACFM has largely replaced MPI offshore in the UK
sector of the North Sea. The method is applied by diver inspectors and may be
achievable by ROVs in the near future. The diver inspector manipulates the
probe and the surface technician interprets the results and records the data.
The minimum qualification for the diver inspector is 3.1U. A 3.2U diver inspector
is often specified, however as remedial grinding may be necessary. The
scanning techniques and terminology are as for the EMD techniques in
paragraph 7.1 above. ROV deployed probes will require 3.3U qualified
personnel.
Cleaning standard of SA 1 is required.
9.1
The ACFM method was evolved to combine the ACPD technique of sizing with
a method that does not require surface contact. This is achieved by inducing an
electric field similar to EMD methods. With ACFM the induced electric field then
induces magnetic fields as with EMD methods and these magnetic fields are
measured electronically to determine crack length and depth. The fact that
electric fields exhibit the skin effect is utilised to confine the measurement of the
magnetic field to the crack area only. Figure 18.17 refers.
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Chapter 18
Figure 18.17
Principle of Operation of ACFM
9.2
Application of the Technique
The standard ACFM probe contains both the field induction and the magnetic
field sensors in one probe assembly. No electrical contact is required to the
worksite and therefore cleaning to SA 1 is sufficient.
There are two cables connected to the probe, one for input current to the field
induction unit and one to carry output current from the magnetic field sensors.
These two cables are contained in a single umbilical. Care should be exercised
not to pass this close to the probe assembly as it could alter the induced field
strength.
The probe is manipulated by the diver inspector under directions from the
surface technician. The surface technician will brief the diver as detailed in
paragraph 6.1 before the inspection. Interpretation is completed on the surface
by the surface technician and the results are all recorded in real time and can
be reviewed at any time during or after the inspection.
The system does not suffer from probe lift off as EMD does. Cracks can be
sized for length and depth.
10 Flooded Member Detection (FMD)
Flooded members can be detected in two ways
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Gamma Radiography
Ultrasonically
The most widely used in the North Sea is radiography.
FMD is used to identify tubular members that have flooded. It is used as a batch
testing method on a go/no go system. If a member is tested and found to be
dry it is a go and considered to be serviceable and fit for purpose. If it is
flooded it is a no go and is identified for further follow up analysis and testing
to determine where it has failed, why it has failed and what ramifications this
has on the structure.
10.1 Radiographic FMD
This technique places and exposes a source on one side of the tubular while a
dosimeter is held opposite on the other side. The radiation penetrating the
tubular will be much less if it is flooded than if it is dry. The diameter and wall
thickness of the member must be known so that the expected doses may be
calculated. The most common source used for this method is caesium 137 and
safety zones must be established around the ROV when it is on deck with the
source fitted. The last person to leave the ROV before launching is the
radiographer and the first person to approach it on recovery is the radiographer.
No cleaning is required as long as the thickness can be assessed as the
software will compensate for the marine growth.
Figure 18.18 illustrates the technique and Figure 18.19 shows a typical
configuration on an ROV.
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Chapter 18
Figure 18.18
Radiographic FMD
Figure 18.19
Radiographic FMD Mounted on ROV
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11 Ultrasonic FMD
The ultrasonic technique uses a standoff ultrasonic method with an A-scan
display. The 500 kHz probe is mounted on a standoff frame which must be held
exactly at the normal to the surface of the member. The ultrasonic signal is
propagated through the water to the near wall of the member. If the member is
dry there is a reflected signal from the near wall only. If the member is flooded
there is a reflected signal from the near wall and from, either the far wall or the
surface of the internal water. It is a go/no go method the same as the
radiographic technique. Figure 18.20 refers.
Figure 18.20
Ultrasonic FMD
The cleaning standard is SA 2. As this method is diver deployed the necessary
cleaning can be accomplished by the diver prior to taking the reading.
12 General Point for all FMD Readings
All FMD readings must be taken at either the 6 oclock position on any
horizontal members or as low as possible on any vertical or vertical diagonal
members. This is because this is the point where liquid will accumulate. It is
also vital to know the diameter and wall thickness of any member that is to be
tested.
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Chapter 18
Bibliography
L K Porter
HMSO
E & F N Spon
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Chapter 19
CHAPTER 19
Cleaning for Inspection and Profile Grinding
1
General Comments
There are two prime reasons for cleaning areas of structures. The first is to
prepare the area for CVI, MPI or other NDT. The second is to remove excessive
marine growth, debris or other fouling. In either case only discrete areas of the
structure will be cleaned, not the entire jacket. A number of methods for
cleaning exist and are tabulated in Table 19.1
Method
Advantages
Disadvantages
ROV
Hand Cleaning
(Scrapers etc)
Inexpensive, easy to
deploy
Slow, diver fatigue, poor

finish
NO
Pneumatics
More efficient
Depth limits, control, exhaust
YES
Hydraulics
More efficient
Expensive, limited choice,

bulky hose
YES
HP Water Jet
Fast, effective, least

damaging
Hazardous, leaves reflective

surface
YES
HP Water Grit
Entrainment
Fast, matt finish
Hazardous, may damage the

surface
NO
Grit Blasting
Removes all growth,

matt finish
Hazardous, maintenance,
backup team required
YES
LP Air Grit
Fast, matt finish
May be depth limited, large

compressor required
YES
Cavitation Jet
Effective on hard
growth, safe, no grit
Will not remove soft growth
Inhibitors (Including
Henderson Rings)
No diver intervention
required
Only in splash zone,

environmental impact
NO
NO
Table 19.1
1.1
HP Water Jets
HP water jets are widely used offshore as are the grit entrainment and LP grit
blasting systems. These methods of cleaning have potential to harm the
operator and therefore some safety considerations must be included with any
discussion as to their use. A Hughes standard system is shown in Figure 19.2
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Figure 19.2
Hughes HP Water Jet
Safety considerations are:
Never block or wire the trigger open
When in use never point at anything other then the area to be cleaned
Keep clear of any retro-jets
Never get any part of the body in front of the jet
Ensure that all HP hoses, fittings and unions are in test, good condition
and are correctly fitted and tightened
If grit is used be aware of the grit entering the life-support system
because of circulation in the water
If grit penetrates the suit or gloves take medical advice immediately
Treat the equipment with respect, it is capable of maiming or even killing
if not handled correctly
All HP water jet or grit guns must be properly designed for underwater
use.
1.2
Diving Medical Advisory Committee (DMAC) Advice
The Diving Medical Advisory Committee (DMAC) has published the following
advice on managing any accident that might occur while using this type of
equipment.
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Chapter 19
The wound caused may appear insignificant and give little indication of the
extent of the injury beneath ant the damage to deeper tissue. Large quantities
of water may have punctured the skin, flesh and organs through a very small
hole that may not even bleed.
Initial mild damage to the wall of an organ may result in subsequent rupture,
particularly if infection has been introduced. The development of subsequent
infection is particularly important in abdominal injuries.
1.3
Management of any Injury
The outcome depends upon the extent of the initial injury and the presence or
absence of infection and even through the injury seems trivial on the surface
and the patient has no complaints, it is of great importance to arrange for
medical examination as quickly as possible. Where surgical examination is not
immediately possible in a remote situation, first aid measures are confined to
dressing the wound and observing the patient closely for the development of
further complaints over four or five days. The development of fever and a rising
pulse rate suggest the injury is serious together with persistence or occurrence
of pain. On evacuation, the diver should carry the following card, which outlines
the possible nature of the injury.
This man has been involved with high pressure water jetting up to 14,500
psi (100Mpa, 1000 bar, 1019 Kgcm-2) with a jet velocity of 900 mph (1440
Kmhr-1). Please take this into account when making your diagnosis.
Unusual infections with micro-aerophilic organism occurring at low
temperatures have been reported. These may be gram negative pathogens
such as are found in sewage, bacterial swabs and blood cultures may
therefore be helpful
2
Standard of Surface Finish
The standard of surface finish that is normally adopted in the North Sea was
originally a Swedish standard for specifying blast cleaning of steel prior to the
application of paint coatings. This standard in now incorporated into BS EN ISO
8501-1:2001, BS 7079-A1: 1989 and .BS EN ISO 8501-1: Supplement: 2001,
BS 7079-A1: Supplement 1: 1996 The specifications from these standard
normally applied offshore are:
SA 1
Light cleaning, removal of gross fouling (for general visual inspection)
SA 2
Cleaning to paint coat including removal of loose paint and corrosion
products
SA 2
Very thorough blast cleaning with grit entrainment resulting in dull matt
metal finish. (This is the most widely adopted cleaning level applied
offshore as it leave a surface, sometimes referred to as stippled, that
does not unduly reflect light. It is an excellent surface for CVI, MPI Video,
Photography and all other NDT.)
Page 359 of 382

SA 3
Thorough blast cleaning to bright shiny metal. This is good for most
inspection but will reflect light and is therefore not such a good surface if
Video and Photography are employed.
3
Area to Be Cleaned
The size of the cleaned area must be large enough to ensure that there is a
valid inspection but small enough to ensure that time is not wasted in unnecessary cleaning.
For CVI and MPI the area cleaned to SA 2 should include the weld and an
area 75mm wide either side of it. Also an area large enough to allow access for
inspection equipment and the diver inspector should be cleaned to SA 1 either
side of the weld. An area approximately 1m wide should be sufficient. See
Figure 19.3.
Figure 19.3
Cleaned Area
4
Profile Grinding
Profile grinding may be required during the fabrication stage of the structures
life as a means of improving the profile of fabrication welds that may have
process faults such as, excessive weld metal, undercut, poor restart, stray arc,
spatter or any other fabrication flaws. If pressure vessels such as caissons and
conductors are constructed to PD 5500:2000 all welds should be dressed to
comply with the requirements of the standard. Profile grinding obviously has an
established place in welding fabrication.
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Chapter 19
Regarding the in-service stage for any structure the need to employ profile
grinding may be dictated by:
The need to establish whether or not any indications identified during
MPI or EMD investigations are actually cracks
The requirement to grind out any cracks that are actually confirmed
during inspection activities
The practice of removing identified notches and stress raisers discovered
during the normal IMR cycle
When profile or remedial grinding is undertaken it will be authorised either by
the CNC or by instructions from the Duty Holders engineering department via
the on site Client Representative. The actual parameters for the grinding will be
given in a written instruction.
4.1
Profile Grinding
The most common application of remedial grinding is when crack-like features

are identified during either MPI or EMD activities undertaken as part of the
annual IMR program.
A common inclusion in a typical CNC is the instruction to grind out any
indications to a maximum depth of 2mm in 0.5mm steps. There is normally a
requirement to re-inspect after each step to determine whether the indication
has been ground out or not.
The on-shore engineering department in accordance with their requirements
and procedures will initiate further follow up actions if the indication remains
after the full 2mm depth is reached. Figure 19.4 applies.
Page 361 of 382

Figure 19.4
Remedial Grinding
Page 362 of 382

Chapter 19
Bibliography
L K Porter
HMSO
E & F N Spon
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Appendix 1
Appendix 1
Extract of Offshore
Technology Report OTH 84 206
Category A (Defects)
Cracks
Cracks can be divided into three categories:
Fine cracks not more than 1mm wide
Medium cracks between 1mm and 2mm wide
Wide cracks more than 2mm wide
The edges of the fracture are normally sharp and the aggregate may also be
fractured. The usual cause is structural movement. Although all concrete
structures have some cracks in them they will not become significant until they
are measurable, which usually only occurs in-service
Delamination
A Delamination is a thin sheet of concrete, which has become partially or
completely detached from the main structure. Beneath the Delamination the
surface of the structure is much rougher and shows aggregate. Delamination is
caused by corrosion of a layer of reinforcement or possibly impact damage and
is principally an in-service defect
Pop-out
A pop out is a small conical depression in the concrete surface, usually with a
piece of corroding reinforcement at its base. It is caused by the expansion of
isolated particles in the concrete or by corrosion of the ends of reinforcing bars.
This causes the surface of the concrete to be put under tension and will so
produce local failure in the form of a conical piece of the concrete popping out
from the structure. The edges will usually be sharp and well defined. Pop outs
are an in-service defect
Impact Damage
Impact damage is described as a rough area in which the smooth surface of the
concrete has been removed by means of a blow or impact. It is caused by a
blow from an object, which will dislodge part of the structure usually at the
edges or corners. Impact damage could occur either during the construction
phase or the installation phase. It should have been found and corrected
Tearing
Tearing is crack-like in its appearance but the width will vary and the edges are
often rough and indistinct. Coarse aggregate will not be broken. It will be widest
at the mid-length point and it will tend to taper towards the ends. There may be
some indications of rust staining. While the concrete was inside the slip form
Page 365 of 382

Extract of Offshore
shutter it adhered to the surface of the shutter and so when the shutter was
moved upwards the concrete was torn apart
Exposed Reinforcement
The steel reinforcement bars become visible on the surface of the concrete
accompanied by rust staining. There are two ways in which this occurs: either
by displacement of the steelwork during construction or by removal of the
outside covering of concrete during the in-service life of the structure (impact
damage)
Figure A1.1
Exposed Reinforcement
Faulty Repair
Any repair, which allows the ingress of seawater to the reinforcement cage,
should be described as faulty. Normally this will have the appearance of a
patch, which will be of different texture and colour to the surrounding concrete.
There may also be cracking around the edge of the repair and maybe a poor
porous surface to the repair. The cause is normally a defect, which has
occurred during the construction phase and ahs been repaired badly
Page 366 of 382

Appendix 1
Figure A1.2
Faulty repair
Variable Cover
Concrete protect the reinforcement cage by passivation but in order for this to
be effective then there must be a minimum thickness of concrete over the
reinforcement. This defect may not be visible but in extreme cases there may
be some rust staining seen. The cause is either due to the reinforcement cage
being displaced or the slip form shutter being dislodged. Variable cover is a
construction defect.
All of the above are defects primarily because they will allow a more or less
unrestricted flow of seawater to the reinforcement cage, thus allowing corrosion
to take place
Category B (Areas of Concern)
Embedded Objects
Consists of objects such as wire, nails, wood etc., which have been accidentally
dropped into the concrete while it is still wet and become embedded objects.
They will all have been included at the time of construction
Page 367 of 382

Extract of Offshore
Figure A1.3
Embedded Object
Cast in sockets
The visible description of cast in sockets is just a small hole, which may have
some threads visible inside. They will have been caused by the use of bolt
fixings during the construction phase. The bolts will have been removed leaving
the sockets still embedded in the concrete. They may well be filled with mortar.
Cast in sockets will have been included during the construction phase
Figure A1.4
Cast in Socket
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Appendix 1
Recessed metal plates
This is a metal plate, which has been cast into the structure. Usually it will be
recessed some way into the concrete in order to allow the slip form shutter to
pass unhindered. The recess will have rough uneven sides, there may also be
some corrosion of the plate and so possibly some staining and cracking of the
concrete around the plate.
These plates will be included in the structure during the construction phase
Figure A1.5
Recessed Metal Plate
Water jet damage
Water jets can be used to cut through concrete, so great care must be taken in
order to prevent the damage of the surface of the concrete during cleaning
operations. If damage occurs it will form dark lines in an irregular pattern over
an area of concrete, which has been cleaned. Aggregate may be exposed and
the surface will feel rough to the touch.
The damage is caused by the use of pressures which are too high, or by the
use of a jet which is too small.
Water jet damage will occur in-service
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Extract of Offshore
Figure A1.6
Water Jet Damage
Abrasion
Abrasion can look similar to water jet damage but the surface will be smooth.
Although the aggregate may well be visible the edges will be well defined.
Abrasion will be caused by movement of hard objects against the concreter
wearing away (abrading) the surface of the concrete. This is normally an inservice problem
Figure A1.7
Abrasion
Page 370 of 382

Appendix 1
Honeycombing
Honeycombing will appear as an area of coarse aggregate, which has little or
no grout around it. Voids will be apparent in the concrete. The course aggregate
will not be broken.
It is caused by insufficient compaction or vibration of the concrete during
construction, or maybe grout loss beneath a shutter. Also it can be caused by
the concrete not having sufficient fine material present.
Honeycombing occurs during the construction phase
Category C (Blemishes)
Construction joint
This will be a fairly straight line on the surface with irregular ridges and/or
depressions along its length. The edges may be indistinct and may be
accompanied by some tearing. The coarse aggregate will not be broken. The
colour or texture of the surface above and below the joint nay differ somewhat.
This blemish is formed at the end of one pour of concreter and beginning of
another pour where the formwork has not been tailored to fit the structure very
well.
It will occur during the construction phase and may be useful as a datum for the
location of defects etc.
Formwork misalignment
This will show as a step or a ridge on the surface of the concrete.
It is caused by the poor tailoring or fitting of shutters during the fabrication or the
structure.
It will occur during the construction phase
Figure A1.8
Formwork Misalignment
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Extract of Offshore
Blowholes
These will be small holes in the surface of the concrete usually less than 10mm
in diameter with sharp edges. There will not normally be any aggregate visible.
Blowholes are caused by air bubbles being trapped against the formwork face.
There will always be some blowholes in a concrete structure but they will not be
significant unless they are frequent, due to insufficient vibration of the liquid
concrete slurry
They will occur during the construction phase
Figure A1.9
Blowholes
Scabbling
This will have a rough surface appearance due to the surface of the concrete
having been removed so exposing the course aggregate.
This is an intentional removal of the smooth surface, usually prior to placing
further concrete. It will normally be done at the construction phase
Page 372 of 382

Appendix 1
Figure A1.10
Scabbling
Rubbing down marks
Irregular marks on the surface of the concrete may have the appearance of
brush marks on wet concrete.
These are caused by the rubbing down of the concrete to remove surface
blemishes as they emerge from the formwork. It may indicate a repair.
Rubbing down marks will have been done at the construction phase
Good repair
This will be a repair, which has a smooth and complete appearance, which in
not likely to allow seawater ingress to the reinforcement cage.
This will have been done to repair a slight defect from the construction phase
Page 373 of 382

Extract of Offshore
Figure A1.11
Good Repair
Regular horizontal ridge
These are ridges formed on the surface of the concrete, which are spaced
regularly and will normally extend all around the structure.
As the slip form shutters rise the concrete should be self-supporting as it
emerges from the bottom of the shutter. The shutter will be jacked up
approximately once every hour and will then be stationary for the next hour.
While the shutter is stationary there is often some sagging of the concrete from
the base of the shutter, which will form a ridge.
This will be formed at the construction phase
Irregular horizontal ridge
Irregular horizontal ridges may be from 50mm to 250mm apart but will not
expose aggregate.
These ridges are a feature of slip forming. The shutters are tapered at the top
and the pressure of each pour of concrete may cause outward movement of the
shutters at the bottom allowing grout seepage below the shutters.
These are formed during the construction phase
Vertical drag marks
These are straight vertical marks with a coarse surface, sometimes referred to
as pebble runs.
The drag marks are normally caused by stones or pebbles being trapped
behind the slip form shutters and being dragged up the structure with them, so
Page 374 of 382

Appendix 1
causing indentation in the surface of the concrete. They can also be caused by
dents or deformations in the shutter itself.
Vertical drag marks are formed during the construction phase
Figure A1.12
Vertical Drag Marks
Resin mortar repair
This is a patchy of a plastic type of substance on the surface of the structure.
It indicates that a defect has been repaired, maybe in the service life of the
structure.
It cam be an in-service blemish
Page 375 of 382

Extract of Offshore
Figure A1.13
Resin Mortar Repair
Curing compound
These are large areas of coloured coating, which may well be peeling off and
flaking.
Curing compounds are applied to concrete during the construction process to
reduce water loss by evaporation during the curing of the concrete.
Therefore curing compound will be applied during the construction phase
Page 376 of 382

Appendix 1
Figure A1.14
Curing Compound
Grout run
These will often be associated with a construction joint and will have the
appearance of ragged, irregular runs of grout, adhering to the surface of the
concrete.
They are formed by the leakage of concrete from the bottom of poorly fitting
shutters. The concrete underneath will be unaffected by the run and so it will not
pose a problem.
Grout runs will be formed during the construction phase
Page 377 of 382

Extract of Offshore
Figure A1.15
Grout Run
General Concrete Terms
Spalling
Spalling does not appear as a specific term, this is because spalling is
considered to be a symptom of something more serious. A spall is a loose piece
of concrete, which must have come from a spalled area. One of the Category A
defects will be the cause of the spall.
Grout
Grout is a semi-fluid slurry consisting of cement and water.
Gunite
Concrete sprayed by compressed air. Will have high strength and density, used
to repair walls and as weight coat on pipelines. It has a darker colourisation
than normal concrete.
Cable Duct
Cast tubular duct through which the pre-stressing tendons will run. Normally
grout filled after tensioning.
Prestressed concrete
Concrete that has all the tensile and shear stresses relieved by the introduction
of compressive stress on the structure.
Base Raft
The foundation slab bearing on the seabed.
Page 378 of 382

Appendix 1
Caisson
Large cylindrical structure often referred to as a cell.
Cell
Void bounded by diaphragm walls, term used synonymously with caisson for
the base cells of a structure.
Invert
The lowest point of an opening or tunnel.
Soffit
The underside of a concrete beam.
Jarlan Hole
Perforation in a breakwater wall, used to dissipate the forces from wave action,
some of the force will be repelled and some will be admitted through the wall
where the ventury principle dissipates the energy thus reducing the forces
acting on the wall.
Laitance
This is a fine powdery substance, which accumulates on the surface of concrete
as it sets; it will need to be removed prior to any new pour being applied.
Exudation
Exudation consists of salts, which dissolve, in the concrete when fluid is passing
through a crack; it shows on the surface of the concrete as a whitish semi-fluid,
which accumulates around the crack. Note that on the surface it will always run
downwards, however in water it may drift sideways or even upwards, owing to
the fact that its density may be less than the water around it.
Reporting
When inspecting concrete always report:
All defects using correct terminology
Length of defect
Width of defect
Depth of defect
Location on the structure
Any staining
As far as possible report all defects in three dimensions
Weathering
Weathering is the term used for the deterioration of concrete due to
environmental forces; this is the concrete equivalent of corrosion in steel.
Weathering may be caused by:
Erosion from water borne particles both in the splash zone and near the
seabed may be caused by cavitation in the water flow
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Extract of Offshore
Frost damage in the splash zone, water will penetrate the structure to a
degree and will freeze and expand during winter weather thus causing
the concrete to crack and spall
Chemical attack, such as salt attack will cause the concrete to become
softened; it occurs near the surface of the structure and will take a very
long time to show. Alkali Aggregate Reaction from the aggregate can
cause cracking but takes a number of years to manifest itself
Corrosion of the reinforcement can occur if the seawater is allowed to
flow too freely through the concrete reinforcement cage or pre-stressing
tendons. This could lead to catastrophic failure, especially with prestressed structures
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Appendix 1
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Extract of Offshore
Page 382 of 382

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Tuition Notes for 3.1U Course

Training and Examination Services

Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006

Tuition Notes for 3.1U Course

Construction Activity Monitoring System ............................................................................... 19

United Kingdom ................................................................................................................................ 19

Pipeline Laying .................................................................................................................................. 23

Offshore Oil Terminals ........................................................................................................... 24

Steel Production Platforms................................................................................................................. 30

Tuition Notes for 3.1U Course

Concrete and Steel Gravity Platforms .................................................................................... 39

Terminology with Different Offshore Structures..................................................................... 45

Floating Production Storage & Offloading Units (FPSO) ..................................................... 55

Reasons for using an FPSO................................................................................................................ 55

Inspection of FPSO systems.................................................................................................... 58

Seabed Facilities ................................................................................................................................ 58

Properties of Materials ........................................................................................................... 80

Crack Stopping or Blunting .................................................................................................... 83

The Steady Force on a Structure in a Fluid Flow............................................................................... 84

Stage One Production of the Raw Materials ................................................................................... 96

Tuition Notes for 3.1U Course

Repairs to Offshore Structures.............................................................................................. 106

Welding Repairs .............................................................................................................................. 106

Repair Inspection .................................................................................................................. 108

CHAPTER 5 ........................................................................................................................................... 111

Stage Two - Fabrication ....................................................................................................... 118

Concrete Structure Fabrication Defects ........................................................................................... 118

Stage Three Installation ........................................................................................................ 119

In-Service Defect Categories That Affect Concrete Structures........................................................ 119

Standard Terminology .......................................................................................................... 125

CHAPTER 6 ........................................................................................................................................... 135

Soft Fouling ..................................................................................................................................... 137

Factors Affecting the Rate of Marine Growth....................................................................... 144

Depth ............................................................................................................................................... 144

CHAPTER 7 ........................................................................................................................................... 149

Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006

Tuition Notes for 3.1U Course

The Anodic Reaction ....................................................................................................................... 151

Electrical Theory .................................................................................................................. 155

CHAPTER 8 ........................................................................................................................................... 159

Dissimilar Metal Corrosion Cell ...................................................................................................... 159

CHAPTER 9 ........................................................................................................................................... 176

Temperature ..................................................................................................................................... 177

CHAPTER 10 ......................................................................................................................................... 183

Cathodic Protection: The Sacrificial Anode Method ....................................................................... 185

Using Coatings to Protect the Structure ............................................................................... 192

Paints ............................................................................................................................................... 192

Inhibitors (Controlling the Electrolyte) ................................................................................ 194

Anodic Inhibitors ............................................................................................................................. 195

Corrosion Protection by Design ........................................................................................... 196

CHAPTER 11 ......................................................................................................................................... 199

Inspection Requirements.................................................................................................................. 199

Cathode Potential Measurement........................................................................................... 200

High Purity Zinc Electrodes (ZRE).................................................................................................. 200

Current Density Measurements ............................................................................................ 202

Necessary Equipment....................................................................................................................... 203

Issue 1.0 Rev 0 Issue Date 01/09/2006

Tuition Notes for 3.1U Course

Operating Procedures........................................................................................................... 206

Normal Cathode Potential Readings Against Ag/AgCl ................................................................... 207

CHAPTER 12 ......................................................................................................................................... 210

Flux Shielded Arc Welding.............................................................................................................. 211