Dec. 2014. Vol. 4, No.

ISSN 2307-227X

International Journal of Research In Social Sciences

2013-2014 IJRSS & K.A.J. All rights reserved
www.ijsk.org/ijrss

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPIRITUAL LEADERSHIP,

SPIRITUAL WELL-BEING AND JOB SATISFACTION IN THE
MALAYSIAN SHIPPING INDUSTRY: A PILOT STUDY
1

JUHAIZI MOHD YUSOF, 2MAHADZIRAH MOHAMAD

School of Maritime Business & Management, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu,

Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia
2
Faculty of Business Management & Accountancy, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin,
Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia.
E-mail: 1juhaizi@gmail.com, 2mahadzirahmd@unisza.edu.my

ABSTRACT
Spiritual leadership is a relatively new concept in leadership literature. It aims to intrinsically motivate the
leaders and the followers for their spiritual well-being. Job satisfaction is a critical concept with various
antecedents and consequences. The situational and dispositional factors or the combination of both factors
determine the level of satisfaction of the employees toward their job. This pilot study aims to validate the
26-items of Spiritual leadership Theory scale (SLT) measuring spiritual leadership and spiritual well-being
constructs, and 25-items of Abridged Job Descriptive Index (aJDI) measuring job satisfaction in the
Malaysian shipping industry. The study was conducted among 175 employees of 20 shipping agents
companies in the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia. The results of exploratory factor analysis and
confirmatory factor analysis led to some modifications of the survey instruments for future comprehensive
research on the spiritual leadership theory in the Malaysian context.
Keywords: Spiritual Leadership, Spiritual Well-being, Job satisfaction, Exploratory Factor Analysis,
Confirmatory Factor Analysis

1.

related variables such as job satisfaction and

involvement.

INTRODUCTION

The relationship between spirituality and workrelated variables such as job satisfaction has been
the subject of a limited number of empirical
studies (Duffy 2006). Ghazzawi and Smith (2009)
noted employees who view work as a means of
spiritual expression will have a more positive
outlook, contribute more, effectively creating
better working conditions, and leading to higher
levels of job satisfaction (p. 305). Clark et al.
(2007) remarked that although the past years have
shown a growing interest in the relationship
between spirituality and job satisfaction, only a
few empirical investigations have provided
support for the claimed positive influence of
spirituality on job satisfaction. Millman et al.
(2003) and Garcia-Zamor (2003) have found that
certain dimensions of spirituality, particularly
those associated with life coherency such as
meaning making and sense of purpose, were
positively related with various aspects of work-

Studies on the link between spirituality and

organizational leadership; and the impact of
spirituality to employees outcomes such as
absenteeism, productivity, turnover, ethicality,
stress, and health are growing and have become a
central issue in current trend of spirituality studies
(Fairholm, 1998; Fry, 2003; Giacalone &
Jurkiewicz, 2003). Justin (2010) states that in the
past decade there has been a heightened curiosity
concerning the impact of spirituality on leadership
practices, as there were evident that the
effectiveness of the leaders has been associated
with their spiritual values and practices (Reave,
2005). How spirituality impact the organizations
and individuals; such as leaders and followers
(employees) are the main areas of empirical
research which tend to highlight the importance
of spirituality in the workplace. Nevertheless,
Thompson (2000) states that most leadership
research giving less attention to spiritual issues,
and those spiritual qualities are commonly
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ISSN 2307-227X

International Journal of Research In Social Sciences

2013-2014 IJRSS & K.A.J. All rights reserved
www.ijsk.org/ijrss

overlooked in relation to leadership positions.

Previous leadership theory mainly focused on the
aspects of physical, mental, or emotional elements
of human interaction in organisations and
neglected the spiritual component (Fry, 2003).
This pilot study aims to validate the 26-items of
Spiritual leadership Theory scale (SLT)
measuring spiritual leadership and spiritual wellbeing constructs, and 25-items of Abridged Job
Descriptive Index (aJDI) measuring job
satisfaction in the Malaysian shipping industry.

2.

Spirituality and spiritual well-being may be used

interchangeably and congruently (Ellison, 1983;
Paloutzian & Ellison, 1982). Well-being is
defined by Merriam Webster Online as the state
of being happy, healthy, or prosperous. Spiritual
well-being is defined as peoples perception of
the quality of their spiritual life (Paloutzian &
Ellision, 1982), while Hawks, Hull, Thalman, &
Richins (1995) defined spiritual well-being as a
sense of relatedness or connectedness to others, a
provision for meaning and purpose in life, the
fostering of wellbeing (through a stress buffering
effect), and having a belief in and a relationship
with a power higher than the self. Spiritual wellbeing has been conceptualized as satisfaction with
ones spiritual life domain (Lee, Sirgy, Efraty, &
Siegel, 2003). In the context of this study,
spiritual well-being is defined as a self perceived
state of the degree to which one feels a sense of
purpose and direction (Fry, 2005).

LITERATURE REVIEW:

Spiritual leadership
Spiritual leadership can be viewed as a field of
inquiry within the broader context of workplace
spirituality. Fry defined spiritual leadership as
the values, attitudes, and behaviors that are
necessary to intrinsically motivate ones self and
others so that they have a sense of spiritual
wellbeing through calling and membership
(2008, p. 108). The theory of spiritual leadership
is developed within an intrinsic motivation model
that incorporates vision, hope/faith, and altruistic
love, theories of workplace spirituality, and
spiritual well-being; where the spiritual wellbeing variables are meaning/calling and
membership (Fry et al., 2005).

Job satisfaction
Porter and Lawler (1968) define job satisfaction
as an unidimensional construct; that is, you are
generally satisfied or dissatisfied with your job.
They further explain that job satisfaction is
peoples affective (emotional) response to their
current job conditions. Locke (1976) then defined
job satisfaction as a pleasurable or positive
emotional state resulting from ones job or job
experiences (p.1300). Job satisfaction is a critical
construct because job dissatisfaction has been
acknowledged as the single most important reason
people leave their job (Sturges & Guest, 2001).
However, the actual aspects of job satisfaction
that caused people to leave their job are not
specified and vary according to circumstances
around the peoples experience in the
organisation. The situational and dispositional
factors or the combination of both factors
determine the level of satisfaction of the
employees toward their job.

The spiritual leadership is about creating value for

the organization, through the employees (Fry,
2003). Fry (2005) states that a leader who highly
values
honesty,
integrity,
forgiveness,
compassion, and helping others would have
different attitudes and behave very differently
toward followers than if he or she ultimately
valued egoistic need satisfaction and personal
ambition. It can be said that the followers are
strictly motivated with the spiritual leaders, who
create different atmosphere. This atmosphere
composes a coherence between the leaders and
the followers, which affects the working
environment positively. Fry (2003) mentions that
people have to satisfy some certain needs to
survive and he considers spirituality as one of
these basic needs. Fry and Cohen (2009, p. 267)
also maintained that spiritual leadership involved
tapping into both followers and leaders for
spiritual well-being.

The most notable situational influence on job

satisfaction is the nature of the work itself - often
called intrinsic job characteristics. Managers
need to be aware that they can shape
organisational (situational) factors through job
enrichment such as task significance, task
identity, work autonomy, role clarity, an effective
communication (feedback) system and allowing
participation in the decision making process, as
these factors all affect the employees satisfaction
attitude (Fried & Ferris, 1987). To achieve a high

Spiritual well-being
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level of job-satisfaction, it is important to have a

good fit between an employee and his or her work
environment because the work environment (e.g.,
leaders and organizational culture) could be an
important predictor of the employees job
satisfaction (Taris & Feij, 2001). Snyder (1990)
found that the degree of an employees job
satisfaction could be different depending on the
leadership style of his or her managers or leaders.
In another perspective, Davis-Blake & Pfeffer
(1989) claim that an accumulating body of
evidence indicates that differences in job
satisfaction across employees can be traced, in
part, to differences in their disposition or
temperament (House, Shane, & Herold, 1996).
However, how exactly disposition affect job
satisfaction
is
inconclusive
despite
its
contributions to the understanding of the causes
of job satisfaction (Erez, 1994). Judge and Bono
(2001) found that a key personality trait, core
self-evaluation, correlates with employee job
satisfactions which indicate that there is in fact a
relationship between disposition or personality
and job satisfaction. In 1965, Kornhauser have
assumed that person variables such as mental
health and personality are primarily influenced by
satisfaction and not vice versa (Arvey et al.,
1991). Konhauser also established that job
satisfaction is significantly associated with
general mental health indices. Hammermeister et
al. (2005) conclude that spiritual well-being
happens to have a positive influence on most
aspects of health (p. 80), including mental
health. In that sense, it is posited that spiritual
well-being is positively associated with mental
health of the employees, and also a significant
influencer of job satisfaction. Individual
spirituality has been empirically found to be
positively associated with life satisfaction (Wolf,
1998) and more specifically with job satisfaction
(Brown 2003, Komala & Ganesh 2007).

productivity, and financial performance (Fry &

Slocum, 2008).

Relationship Between Spiritual Leadership,

Spiritual Well-Being and Job satisfaction

Many studies on the relationship between spiritual

well-being and job satisfaction have been
conducted in health care related settings, and
found a positive relationship between these two
constructs (Clark, et al., 2007; Duggleby, Cooper
& Penz, 2009; Smalls, 2011). Nevertheless, all
the empirical studies on spiritual well-being
mentioned above utilised a various survey
instrument of spiritual well-being which included
religious aspects as one of its dimensions. This
current study adopts Frys spiritual leadership
theory (SLT) scale which is free from any
religious elements.
Bodla & Ali (2012)
conducted a research to investigate whether

Fry et al. (2011) utilised a SLT scale of spiritual

well-being to test a dynamic relationship between
spiritual leadership and spiritual well-being (i.e., a
sense of calling and membership), and key
organizational outcomes in a sample of emerging
military leaders. The findings revealed a positive
and significant relationship between spiritual
leadership and spiritual well-being; and spiritual
well-being was found to mediate the relationship
between spiritual leadership and organisation
commitment. The study also concludes that
overall spiritual leadership model provides
support that the variables comprising spiritual
leadership (i.e., hope/faith, vision, and altruistic
love) form a higher order formative construct that
positively influences spiritual well-being in
groups (i.e., calling and membership).
There are no studies found to date that attempted
to examine specifically the relationship between
spiritual leadership and overall job satisfaction; or
spiritual leadership and facets of job satisfaction.
This area of study is largely remained unexplored
and need to be addressed to further understand the
impact of spiritual leadership to various
organizational outcomes. However, there is a
study by Aydin and Ceylan (2009) to investigate
the relationship between spiritual leadership,
organizational culture and employee satisfaction
on workers of metal working manufacturing
industry in Turkey. The findings of the study
revealed that employee satisfaction has strong
correlation with organizational culture and
spiritual leadership. In addition to that, results
also indicate that spiritual leadership does not
have as much considerable effect as the cultural
dimensions on employee satisfaction in metal
working area.

Many studies across diverse arrays of

organisations so far support a significant positive
influence of spiritual leadership through spiritual
well-being on employee life satisfaction,
organizational commitment and productivity,
various measures of work unit performance, and
sales growth (Fry, 2005). Spiritual leadership
fosters spiritual well-being, which then positively
influences employee life satisfaction, corporate
responsibility, organizational commitment and
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leadership spirituality affect the individual

outcomes
i.e.
performance,
organisation
commitment and job satisfaction and the role of
spiritual well-being as mediator on the banking
sector in Pakistan. The results found a positive
relationship between spiritual leadership and
elements
of spiritual
survival/well-being.
Caling/meaning and membership as the
dimensions of spiritual well-being were found to
have positive relationship with individual
outcomes. In the nutshell, spiritual well-being was
found significantly correlated with job
satisfaction. The study also observed a mediation
effect of spiritual well-being to the relationship
between spiritual leadership dimensions and
organizational outcomes.

Previous studies have consistently confirmed the

spiritual leadership causal model and the
reliability and validity of the items measured (Fry,
2003, 2005, 2008,2009). The questionnaire
utilizes a 5-item Likert scale (from strongly
disagree to strongly agree). The scales exhibited
adequate coefficient alpha reliabilities between
0.83 and 0.93 in previous studies (Fry et al.,
2005). In the Malaysian context, a study by
Jamaludin et al. (2011) showed coefficient alpha
reliabilities of 0.906, while a study by Mansor et
al. (2013) revealed coefficient alpha for spiritual
leadership dimensions were between 0.798 to
0.904.

Measuring instrument of spiritual leadership,

spiritual well-being and job satisfaction

Stanton et al. (2001) stated, The JDI has been

described as the most popular and widely used
measure of job satisfaction. The instrument was
translated into nine different languages and
administered in at least 17 countries (p. 1105).
According to DeMeuse (1985) and Zedeck
(1987), the JDI is one of the most frequently used
measures of job satisfaction. Stanton et al. (2001)
state that the JDI has been widely used and
considered as the most reliable measure of job
satisfaction. The JDI is a useful tool for spotting
different problem areas in organisations. JDI
scores also can be used to show the affects of
planned or unplanned changes in jobs (Balzer et
al., 1997). It is designed to be a multifaceted
measure of job satisfaction applicable to a wide
range of workers (Balzer et al., 1997; Smith et al.,
1969). Landy and Conte (2004) states that if a
measure is facet-based, overall job satisfaction is
typically defined as a sum of the facets. They
explained that overall job satisfaction can be
determined by mathematically combining scores
based on satisfaction with specific important
aspects of work or a single overall evaluative
rating of the job information related to specific
facets or elements of job satisfaction.

1.

2.

Spiritual Leadership Scale (SLT)

Fry has developed the only theory of spiritual

leadership that has been extensively tested and
validated in a variety of settings. Many studies
have been conducted in more than 100
organisations including schools, military units,
city offices, and corporations (Malone & Fry,
2003; Fry & Slocum, 2008; Fry et al., 2005). This
study adopted the Spiritual Leadership Scale
created by Fry et al. (2005), totaling 26 items.
The three dimensions of spiritual leadership vision, hope/faith, and altruistic love were
measured using survey questions developed and
validated especially for spiritual leadership theory
(Fry, 2008; Fry & Matherly, 2006). The vision
section of the questionnaire measured whether an
organization creates a vision that calls for feelings
of meaningfulness in employees (5 items).
Hope/faith measured employee affirmation for
expected tasks and the firm belief that the
vision/purpose/mission of the organization could
be achieved (5 items). Altruistic love measured
the altruistic love of organisations and leaders
toward the employees (7 items). Frys spiritual
leadership theory includes not only these three
dimensions of spiritual leadership but also
spiritual well-being. Two dimensions of spiritual
well-being meaning/calling and membership are
among the measures included in the Frys
spiritual leadership theory. Meaning/calling
measured employees feelings of meaningfulness
toward work (4 items). Membership measured
employees feelings of being understood and
appreciated (5 items).

Abridged Job Descriptive Index (aJDI)

The JDI consists of five scales that are reflective

of common facets of job satisfaction; Satisfaction
with Work, Satisfaction with Supervisor,
Satisfaction with Co-worker, Satisfaction with
Pay and Satisfaction with Promotion. Satisfaction
With Work scale measures employees
satisfaction with the work itself, for example,
whether the job satisfies a need to increase
knowledge or to use a variety of skills.
Satisfaction With Supervisor scale assesses
employees satisfaction with their supervisor,
particularly supervisors competency and
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feedback. Satisfaction With Co-workers scale

measures employees satisfaction with their
fellow employees, that is, their satisfaction with
work-related interactions and whether or not
employees like their co-workers. Satisfaction
With Pay scale addresses the employees attitudes
about pay and the perceived differences between
actual pay and expected pay. Satisfaction With
Promotion scale reflects employees satisfaction
with the companys promotion policy, for
example, frequencies and importance of
promotions. For each scale, the JDI provides a list
of adjectives or short phrases. Respondents are
asked to indicate whether each word or phrase
applies to the particular facet of his or her job
being assessed.

Supervision (.83), Co-workers (.76), Pay (.75)

and Promotions (.82).
3.

METHODOLOGY

Population and data collection method

The population consisted of 175 employees of 20
shipping agents companies in the East Coast of
Peninsular Malaysia. A cover letter accompanied
the SLT, JDI, and demographics instruments have
been administered to the participants via their
respective human resource personnel. Anonymity
is assured as mentioned in the cover letter of the
questionaires. Employees were directed to read
the instructions and complete the SLT, JDI, and
demographics instruments. The instruments were
returned to the respective human resources
departments and collected by the researcher. A
total 146 questionaires were returned and usable
for analysis using SPSS and AMOS softwares.

The JDI has undergone two revisions since its

initial development almost 40 years ago (Balzer et
al., 1997). An abridged version of the JDI was
recently developed and made up of 5 questions
for each facet for a total of 25 questions.
Abridged Job Descriptive Index (aJDI) developed
by Stanton et al. (2001) was used to assess job
satisfaction in this study. The respondents in this
study described how well each of the words or
phrases described their work in a 5-point Likerttype scale from strongly disagree, disagree,
neutral, agree, strongly agree, on the right side of
each item on the surveys. Even though this
scoring system is different from the standard JDI
scoring system; which based on a 3-point scale
yes, no, or a question mark (?), research
has proven that that the reliability, stability, and
validity of the five JDI subscales are not
significantly different across these two forms of
scoring system (Likert-type vs. yes-no-? scaling);
(Johnson, Smith, & Tucker, 1982). This is also to
address the problems faced by the researchers
using a yes, no response format (Bartolo &
Furlonger, 2000). Hanisch (1992) found the
(?), neutral response was more representative of
dissatisfaction.

Instrumentation
A questionnaire which included questions on (1)
respondents demographic details, (2) spiritual
leadership, (3) spiritual well-being, and (4) job
satisfaction was developed for the study.
Demographic details such as (1) age, (2) gender,
(3) education level, (4) years with organisation,
(5) years with leaders, and (6) nature of job, were
asked to provide an understanding of the
background information of the respondents
participating in the study.
Table 1: Instruments
Study variables
No of
items
Spiritual
17
leadership

Leong and Vaux (1992) reported that the five JDI

scales show excellent internal consistency and
stability and that the dimensional structure of the
measure is stable, robust, and congruent over a
wide range of occupational types and levels (p.
330). Regarding internal consistency, Balzer et al.
(1997) reported alpha coefficients for the JDI
scale between .86 and .91; specifically, Work
(.90), Supervision (.91), Co-workers (.91), Pay
(.86) and Promotions (.87). Stanton et al. (2001)
reported alpha coefficients for the aJDI scale
between .75 and .84, specifically, Work (.84),

Source of
scale
Fry (2005)

Spiritual wellbeing

9 Fr

Fry (2005)

Job satisfaction

25

Stanton et
al. (2001)

Type of
scale
5-points
Likert
scale
5-points
Likert
scale
5-points
Likert
scale

Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)

version 17.0 and AMOS version 17.0 were used
for the statistical analyses.

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2013-2014 IJRSS & K.A.J. All rights reserved
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4.

and retained for further analysis. The EFA for job

satisfaction construct resulted in four factors been
extracted with loadings more than .50. All items
from the original co-worker scale were excluded;
whereas, one items from promotion and two
items from pay were also excluded. The
summary of retained and dropped items for all
constructs were shown as Appendix A.

FINDINGS & DISCUSSION

Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)

For this study, three EFA have been carried out
separately for spiritual leadership, spiritual wellbeing and job satisfaction construct. Before
further analysis of EFA could be conducted, the
values of Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) Measure of
sampling adequacy should be greater than 0.50
(Hair et al., 2010), and Bartletts Test of
Spherecity should be statistically significant at p
< 0.05. The results of KMO and Bartlettss Test
of Sphericity for all constructs satisfy the
minimum requirements as suggested by Hair et al.
(2010).

Measurement Models
Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was
conducted using the results from EFA. The aim
of the CFA is to validate the scale before data
collection process for future survey is conducted.
There were four measurement models assessed
for the constructs of the study i.e. spiritual
leadership, spiritual well-being, job satisfaction,
and overall measurement models combining all
the constructs. Based on the CFA, the convergent
validity, discriminant validity, unidimensionality
and reliability of the constructs were established.

As recommended by Tabachnick and Fidell

(2001); Pallant (2007); and Hair et al. (2006), the
current study employed the most commonly used
orthogonal approach, the Varimax method, which
aims to minimise the number of variables that
have high loadings on each single factor. In this
study, loading below 0.5 was ignored, because
higher loading provides a clearer guide to what
the factor is measuring (Hair et al., 2006).
Kaisers criterion or eigenvalue rule is one of the
most frequently used techniques in EFA. Using
this rule, only factors with an eigenvalue of 1.0 or
more can be retained for further investigation
(Pallant, 2007). The percentage of variance
criterion is a technique based on achieving a
specified cumulative percentage of total variance
extracted by successive factors (Hair et al., 2006).
As stated by Hair et al. (2006), the satisfactory
cut-off point of 60% or less is acceptable in social
science research.

Spiritual leadership construct consisted of two

variables i.e. altruistic love (six items) and
hope/faith (four items). All these items were then
subjected to a CFA with initial measures of fit
satisfy the values as recommended by Zainuddin
(2012). However, SMCC for item AL7 was the
lowest (.39) as compared with other items ;
therefore, it was decided to drop item AL7 to
improve the validity of the construct. Another
CFA was conducted (without item AL7) in the
re-specified model and the measures of fit as
recommended by Zainuddin (2012) for spiritual
leadership were summarised by GFI (.956), CFI
(.990), RMSEA (.037) and Chisq/df (1.20) and
hence, the model was judged to have an
acceptable fit. All measures associated with the
construct were statistically significant with the
correct positive signs. With respect to the Squared
Multiple Correlation Coefficient (SMCC) or RSquared, all measures for spiritual leadership
have the coefficient of more than 0.4, being
greater than 0.3 as suggested by Hair et al.
(2006). Thus, all observed variables are strongly
significantly associated with spiritual leadership.
Composite reliability for altruistic love (.875) and
hope/faith (.774) exceeds the minimum threshold
of 0.7 while the average variance extracted of
altruistic love (.584) and hope/faith (.534) satisfy
the minimum threshold of 0.5. This indicated that
the retained items were considered reliable as
well as valid for this construct measure (Hair et
al., 2006).

During the EFA for spiritual leadership construct,

seven items did not load higher than .50 on any of
the factors and were dropped from the subsequent
analyses of factors associated with spiritual
leadership domains. One item from the original
vision scale (VS5) joined items from the
hope/faith scale. For spiritual leadership
construct, the sub-dimensions were finally
reduced to two (altruistic love, hope/faith) from
the original three (altruistic love, hope/faith,
vision). These dimensions were later renamed
after completing the CFA test. As for the spiritual
well-being construct, the EFA extracted two
factors with factor loading of items more than .50.
However, factor two only consisted of two items
(MC1, MC2). Therefore, EFA was re-run for a
single factor and the results revealed that only
items from original membership scale remained
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After the CFA for first order latent construct had

been conducted, the research was continued by
running the second order CFA for the main
construct that was spiritual leadership. The factor
loadings of the main construct towards its subvariables were estimated in order to confirm the
theorized second order construct loads onto its
respective sub-variables. The results show that the
effects of spiritual leadership towards altruistic
love (.54) and hope/faith (.64) were highly
significant. Overall, the model was adequately fit
to the data based on the model fitness indexes
given.

are strongly significantly associated with job

satisfaction. Composite reliability (CR) for work
(.888), supervisor (.919), pay (.895) and
promotion (.812) exceeds the minimum threshold
of 0.7 while the average variance extracted (AVE)
of work (.728), supervisor (.791), pay (.744) and
promotion (.592) exceed the minimum threshold
of 0.5. This indicated that the retained items were
considered reliable as well as valid for this
construct measure (Hair et al., 2006).
After the CFA for first order latent construct had
been conducted, the research was continued by
running the second order CFA for the main
construct that was job satisfaction. The factor
loadings of the main construct towards its subvariables were estimated in order to confirm the
theorized second order construct loads onto its
respective sub-variables. The results show that the
effects of job satisfaction towards work (.87),
supervisor (.60), pay (.41) and promotion (.58)
were highly significant. Overall, the model was
adequately fit to the data based on the model
fitness indexes given.

Spiritual well-being construct is a one-factor

construct after EFA and consisted of five items.
All these items were then subjected to a CFA with
the measures of fit as recommended by Zainuddin
(2012) for spiritual well-being were summarised
by GFI (.972), CFI (.983), RMSEA (.082) and
Chisq/df (1.979) and hence, the model was judged
to have an acceptable fit. All measures associated
with the construct were statistically significant
with the correct positive signs. With respect to the
Squared Multiple Correlation Coefficient
(SMCC) or R-Squared, all measures for spiritual
leadership have an acceptable coefficient, being
greater than 0.3 as suggested by Hair et al. (2006).
Thus, all observed variables are strongly
significantly associated with spiritual well-being.
Composite reliability (CR) for spiritual wellbeing (0.857) exceeds the minimum threshold of
0.7 while the average variance extracted (AVE) of
0.547 satisfy the minimum threshold of 0.5. This
indicated that the retained items were considered
reliable as well as valid for this construct measure
(Hair et al., 2006). Overall, the model was
adequately fit to the data based on the model
fitness indexes given.

Overall Measurement Model Fit

In this section, an overall measurement model test
consisted of all constructs has been conducted to
test the adequacy of the measurement model. The
results show that all standardised factor loadings
were above 0.60. The measures of fit as
recommended by Zainuddin (2012) were
summarised by GFI (.837), CFI (.940), RMSEA
(.057) and Chisq/df (1.466) and hence, the model
was judged to have an acceptable fit. All
measures associated with the construct were
statistically significant with the correct positive
signs. With respect to the Squared Multiple
Correlation Coefficient (SMCC) or R-Squared, all
measures have an acceptable coefficient, being
greater than 0.3 as suggested by Hair et al.
(2006). Composite reliability (CR) for all
constructs exceeds the minimum threshold of 0.7
while the average variance extracted (AVE) of all
constructs exceed the minimum threshold of 0.5.
Therefore, the CFA results for overall constructs
exhibited a satisfactory values with regards to the
fit indices, unidimensionality, convergent validity
and reliability. Overall measurement model was
depicted in Appendix B.

Job satisfaction construct consisted of four

variables i.e. work (five items), supervisor (5 five
items), pay (three items), and promotion (four
items). All these items were then subjected to a
CFA with the measures of fit as recommended by
Zainuddin (2012) for job satisfaction were
summarised by GFI (.925), CFI (.975), RMSEA
(.065) and Chisq/df (1.607) and hence, the model
was judged to have an acceptable fit. All
measures associated with the construct were
statistically significant with the correct positive
signs. With respect to the Squared Multiple
Correlation Coefficient (SMCC) or R-Squared, all
measures for job satisfaction have an acceptable
coefficient, being greater than 0.3 as suggested by
Hair et al. (2006) . Thus, all observed variables

Validity of the Constructs

In the validation process of the research survey
instruments, there are two basic validities, namely
7

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content and construct that can be assessed to get

the uniqueness of the measures. Content validity
is the subjective assessment of the measures
affiliated with the face validity for informal as
well as common sense evaluation of the scales
and measures by the expert judges (Malhotra,
2002). Content validity involves the subjective
assessment of scale measures or characteristics of
the included variables (Malhotra, 2002). For this
study, all construct measures were derived from
the close extant studies having a higher reliability
consistency (not less than .70).

among composite constructs must be lower than

the respective standardised composite reliabilities.
Fornell and Larcker (1981) further recommend
that the average variance extracted (AVE) is 0.50
or to be greater than all corresponding squared
construct correlations which is an additional
evidence of discriminant validity of the
constructs. While, Zainududdin (2010) states that
the correlation between construct must be lower
than 0.85 and also must be lower than the square
root of AVE to establish a discriminant validity of
the construct.

Convergent validity refers to the extent to which

the scale correlates positively with other measures
of the same construct and discriminant validity
is the extent to which a measure does not
correlate with other constructs from which it is
supposed to differ (Malhotra, 2002, p.294). In
other words, convergent validity is evidenced
when correlations between theoretically similar
measures are high, while for discriminant validity,
correlations between theoretically dissimilar
measures should be low (Trochim, 2006). Spector
(1992, p. 47) notes that, discriminant and
convergent validities were frequently studied
together
and
involve
investigating
the
comparative strengths or patterns of relations
among several variables. As both convergent and
discriminant coefficients are used to support or
refute a claim of construct validity (Zhu, 2000,
p.190), these were assessed and discussed in the
following section.

In this study, discriminant validity was examined

by methods suggested by Zainuddin (2010). The
correlation values among constructs are less than
0.85, and the value of square root of AVE are
greater than the correlation values among
constructs as shown in Appendix C. Based on the
above discussion, it was established that the
constructs of this study had overall demonstrated
sufficient
evidence
of
convergent
and
discriminant validity.

Convergent Validity

Table 2: Reliability of the instruments

Towards assessing convergent and discriminant

validity, correlation coefficients and measurement
of constructs in CFA along with standardized
loadings were reviewed and discussed. In order to
demonstrate convergent validity, correlations
between constructs in respective measures were
positively correlated with moderate to high
coefficients. Further, CFA findings reported
earlier indicated that all construct measures were
unidimensional (loadings more than 0.60), and
having an acceptable construct realibility (more
than 0.70) which suggested that the construct
measures achieved not only convergent validity
but also discriminant validity (Ping, 2009).

Construct

Number of
Items

Cronbachs
Alpha

Spiritual
Leadership

0.833

0.855

12

0.864

Reliability analysis was conducted using

Cronbachs alpha coefficient for internal
consistency. The coefficient for all constructs
range from .833 to .864 which were within
acceptable limit. The coefficient for spiritual
leadership construct was .833, the coefficient for
spiritual well-being was .855, and the coefficient
for job satisfaction construct was .864 and all
values are well above the recommended value.

Spiritual
being

Well-

Job Satisfaction

Modifications of Questionnaires
Based on the results of the pilot survey and after
consulting with the expert in questionnaire
design, several modifications were made to the
questionnaire to be used in the future survey.
First, the headings of the questionnaires have
been re-worded to reflect the contents of the
statements and to assist the target respondents in
understanding the issues. The translation should

Discriminant Validity
There are many methods suggested by literature
to assess discriminant validity of the construct.
Gaski (1984) recommends that the correlations
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always aim at the conceptual equivalent of a word

or phrase, not a word-for-word translation, i.e. not
a literal translation (Billin, 2000). The examples
were Spiritual Leadership heading have been
reworded to Leadership Characteristics,
Altruistic Love reworded as Welfare Of The
Employees. An idiom was also rewritten by its
meaning such as in Item 3 of Section 2 (Welfare
of the Employees); The leaders in my
organization walk the walk as well as talk the
talk has been changed to The leaders in my
organization always do what they say.

by the outcomes of the analyses done in the

present study. Future research could replicate the
study by using a different population to shed more
light on the structure underlying the study
constructs.
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The data collected for pilot study were subjected
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5.

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This pilot study aimed to validate the measuring

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different kind of sample, is strongly emphasised
9

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2013-2014 IJRSS & K.A.J. All rights reserved
www.ijsk.org/ijrss

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APPENDIX A: DROPPED AND RETAINED ITEMS AFTER EFA

Construct /Sub-dimension
Spiritual leadership
Vision
Hope/faith
Altruistic love
Total
Spiritual well-being
Meaning/calling
Membership
Total
Job satisfaction
Work
Supervisor
Co-worker
Pay
Promotion
Total

Initial items

Dropped items

Retained items

5
5
7
17

4
2
1
7

1*
3
6
10

4
5
9

4
5
4

0
5
5

5
5
5
5
5
25

0
0
5
2
1
8

5
5
0
3
4
17

Note: * item joined Hope/faith

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APPENDIX B: OVERALL MEASUREMENT MODEL

Fitness Indexes
ChiSq = 407.441
df =278
P-Value = .000
ChiSq/df = 1.466
GFI=.837
AGFI=.795
TLI=.930
CFI = .940
NFI = .836
RMSEA = .057

APPENDIX C: CORRELATION MATRIX AND SQUARE ROOT OF AVE

Constructs
PY
PR
WK
SV
SWB
ALT
HOP

PY

PR

WK

SV

SWB

ALT

HOP

.866
.247
.374
.178
.325
.192
.070

.770
.483
.391
.335
.428
.239

.854
.525
.686
.363
.161

.890
.471
.225
.012

.739
.517
.302

.763
.347

.712

Note: Square root of AVE in bold (diagonal)

APPENDIX D: ARRANGEMENT OF QUESTIONAIRES
Questionaire
Section
Part 1

Descriptions
Demographic profiles (6 items)

Part 2

9 items measuring Spiritual Leadership

(Trust: 5 items, Inspiration: 4 items)

Part 3

5 items measuring Spiritual Well-being

Part 4

12 items measuring Job Satisfaction

(Work:3 items, Supervisor: 3 items,
Pay: 3 items, Promotion: 3 items)

13