H 0 m est u d y and

Ext e lJ S ion C0 u r s e

Presented

American
American

by

Society
for Metals
and
Welding
Society

Ultrasonic Inspection

METALS ENGINEERING INSTITUTE'

AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR METALS
METALS PARK, OHIO

Course 36
Lesson, Test 13

EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY
MIAMI, FLORIDA

':v

Ultrasonic Inspection

Ultrasonic inspection is one of the most widely

used methods of nondestructive
inspection.
Its
primary application is the detection and characterization of internal flaws; it is also used to detect
surface flaws, to define bond characteristics,
to
measure thickness and extent of corrosion, and
. (much less frequently)
to determine
physical
properties, structure, grain size and elastic constants.

also be detected by causing partial reflection or

scattering of the ultrasonic waves, or by producing
some other detectable effect on the ultrasonic
waves. Variations in reflections resulting from differences in acoustic properties
caused by imperfections in the boundary are shown in Fig. 13-1.
Advantages. The principal advantages of ultrasonic inspection, as compared to other methods
for nondestructive inspection of metal parts, are:

High-frequency sound waves are introduced into the material being inspected to detect surface
and subsurface flaws. The sound waves travel
through the material with some loss of energy (attenuation) and are reflected at interfaces. The reflected beam is detected and analyzed to define the
presence and location of flaws.

1. Superior penetrating power, which allows the

detection of flaws deep in the part.
2. High sensitivity, permitting
extremely small flaws.

4. Only one surface need be accessible.

5. Operation
is electronic,
which provides
almost instantaneous
indications of flaws.
This makes the method suitable for immediate interpretation,
automation,
rapid
scanning, in-line production monitoring and
process control. With some systems, a permanent record of inspection results can be
made for future reference.

Cracks, laminations, shrinkage cavities, bursts,

flakes, pores, bonding faults and other discontinuities can be easily detected. Inclusions and other
inhomogeneities
in the metal being inspected can

may not be reproduced

6. Scanning ability enables inspection

of a
volume of metal extending from front surface to back surface of a part.

in whole or in part in any form whatsoever.

Fully protected

1979 American
and American

of

3. Greater accuracy in determining the position

of internal flaws, estimating their size and
characterizing
their orientation,
shape and
nature.

Most ultrasonic-inspection
instruments
detect
flaws by monitoring one or more of the following:
(a) reflection of energy from discontinuities within
the metal itself; (b) time of transit of a sound wave
through the test piece from the entrance point at
the sending (transmitting)
transducer to the exit
point at the receiving transducer; and (c) attenuation of the sound waves by absorption and scattering within the test piece.

This material

the detection

by copyright

Society for Metals

Welding Society

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Fig. 13-2. Similarities between reflections of light and

sound at boundaries. (a) Normal incidence, (b) angle incidence and (c) corner incidence.

large differences in the mean distance between particles in these forms of matter.
On the basis of the mode of particle
displacement, ultrasonic waves are classified as
longitudinal waves, transverse waves, surface
waves and Lamb waves. These four types of waves
are described in the following paragraphs.
Longitudinal waves, sometimes called compression waves, are the type of ultrasonic waves
most widely used in the inspection of metals. They
travel through metal as a series of alternate compressions and rarefactions in which the particles
transmitting the wave vibrate back and forth in the
direction of travel of the waves.
Longitudinal ultrasonic waves are readily propagated in liquids and gases as well as in elastic
solids. The velocity of longitudinal ultrasonic
waves is about 6000 m per sec in steel, 1500 m per
sec in water and 330 m per sec in air.
Transverse waves (shear waves) also are used extensively in the ultrasonic inspection of metals.
Transverse waves are visualized readily in terms of
vibrations of a rope that is shaken rhythmically.
Each particle vibrates up and down in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation, rather
than vibrating parallel to the direction of wave
motion as in the longitudinal wave. A transverse
wave is represented schematically in Fig. 13-3,
which shows particle oscillation, wave front, direction of wave travel and the wave length ( A ) corresponding to one cycle.
For the propagation of transverse waves, it is
necessary that each particle exhibit a strong force
of attraction to its neighbors so that as a particle
moves back and forth it pulls its neighbor with it.
This causes the sound to move through the material with the velocity associated with transverse
waves, which is about 50070 of the longitudinalwave velocity for the same material.

Air and water will not support transverse waves.

In gases, the forces of attraction between
molecules are so small that shear waves cannot be
transmitted. The same is true of a liquid, unless it
is particularly viscous or is present as a very thin
layer.
Surface waves (Rayleigh waves) travel along the
flat or curved surface of relatively thick solid
parts. For the propagation of waves of this type,
the waves must be traveling along an interface
bounded on one side by a solid and on the other
side by gas molecules. Surface waves, therefore,
are essentially nonexistent in a solid immersed in a
liquid, unless the liquid covers the solid surface
only as a very thin film.
Surface waves are subject to less attenuation in a
given material than longitudinal or transverse
waves. They have a velocity approximately 90% of
the transverse-wave velocity in the same material.
The region in which these waves propagate with effective energy is not much thicker than about one
wave length beneath the surface of the metal. At
this depth, wave energy is about 4% of the wave
energy at the surface, and the amplitude of oscillation decreases sharply to a negligible value at
greater depths.
Rayleigh waves follow contoured surfaces. For
instance, Rayleigh waves traveling on the top surface of a metal block are reflected from a sharp
edge, but if the edge is rounded off, the waves continue down the side face and are reflected at the
lower edge, returning to the sending point. Surface
waves will travel the entire way around a cube if all
edges of the cube are rounded off. Surface waves
can be used to inspect parts that have complex contours.

DIRECTION
OF
WAVE TRAVEL

-------

Wove

front
SMAll
INDICATE
OF PARTICLE

ARROWS
DIRECTION
OSCillATION

Fig. 13-3. Schematic representation

of transverse
(shear) waves. The wave length ( A) is the distance
corresponding to one complete cycle.

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inspection. (Separate transducers are always used

for sound-transmission inspection.) Depending
mainly on geometric considerations, as discussed
later in this lesson, these separate transducers may
be housed in a single search unit or in two separate
search units. The term "pitch-catch" is often used
in connection with separate sending and receiving
transducers, regardless of whether reflection
methods or transmission methods are involved.
Information from pulseecho inspection can be displayed in one of three
forms: (a) A-scan, which is a quantitative display
of intensity and time-of-flight data obtained at a
single point on the surface of the test piece; (b) Bscan, which is a quantitative display of time-offlight data obtained along a line on the surface of
the test piece; or (c) C-scan, which is a semiquantitative display of echo intensity obtained over an
area of the surface of the test piece. The A-scan
Data

Presentation.

SWEEP
GENERATOR

display, which is the most widely used form, can

be analyzed in terms of the type, size and location
(chiefly depth) of internal flaws. The B-scan
display, which also can semiquantitatively record
echo intensity, is used mainly to determine size
(length in one direction), location (both position
and depth) and, to a certain degree, shape and
orientation of large internal flaws. The C-scan
dis lay, which also can semiquantitatively record
time-of-flight
ata, IS used to map out the
pOSitIons of flaws on a plan view of the test Qiece.
~scan:d
B-scan data usually are presented on
an OSCI oscope screen: C-scan data are recorded
~yan x-y !,Qtter gr fac!limile devree:A-scan display is basically a plot of amplitude
versus time, in which a horizontal base line on an
oscilloscope screen indicates elapsed time while the
heights of vertical deflections (called indications,
pips or blips) represent intensities of echoes. An
estimate of flaw size can be determined by comparing the height of a discontinuity pip with that
of a pip from a discontinuity of known size and
shape. Flaw location (depth) is determined by
comparing the horizontal position of a flaw indication on the oscilloscope screen with the
positions of two major indications that represent
the front and back surfaces of the test piece. Alternatively, the position of a flaw indication can be
measured from either of the two major indications; in this instance, the time base (horizontal sweep) is calibrated, usually in units of length.
A typical A-scan setup that illustrates the essential elements in a basic system for pulse-echo inspection is shown in Fig. 13-5. These elements include:
1. Power supply, which may run on llO-volt
alternating current or on batteries.
2. Electronic clock, or timing circuit, to trigger
pulser and display circuits.
3. Pulser circuit, or rate generator, to control
frequency, amplitude and pulse-repetition
rate of the voltage pulses that excite the
search unit.

Fig. 13-4. Schematic diagram of a pulse-echo flaw

detector.

4. Receiver-amplifier circuit to convert output

signals from the search unit into a form
suitable for oscilloscope display.
5. Sweep circuit, to control (a) time delay between search-unit excitation and\ start of
American Welding Society

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techniques have been more widely used in medical

applications than in industrial applications, Bscans can be used for the rapid screening of parts
and for the selection of certain parts, or portions
of certain parts, for more thorough inspection
with A-scan techniques. Optimum results from Bscan techniques are generally obtained with small
transducers and high frequencies.
C-scan display records echoes from internal portions of test pieces as a function of the position of
each reflecting interface within an area. Flaws are
shown on a readout, superimposed on a plan view
of the test piece, and both flaw size (flaw area) and
position within the plan view are recorded. Flaw
depth normally is not recorded, although it may be
measured semiquantitatively by restricting the
range of depths within the test piece that is covered
in a given scan.
In a basic C-scan system, shown schematically
in Fig. 13-6, the search unit is moved over the surface of the test piece in a search pattern. The search
pattern may take many forms: for instance, a
series of closely spaced parallel lines, a fine zigzag
pattern or a spiral pattern (polar scan).
Mechanical linkage connects the search unit to xaxis and y-axis position indicators, which in turn
feed position data to the x-y plotter or facsimile
device. Echo-recording
systems vary; some
produce a shaded-line scan with echo intensity
recorded as a variation in line shading, while
others indicate flaws by an absence of shading so
that each flaw shows up as a blank space on the
display (see Fig. 13-6).

Interpretation of
Pulse-Echo Data
Interpretation of pulse-echo data is relatively
straightforward for B-scan and C-scan presentations. The B-scan always records the front reflection, while internal echoes or loss of back reflection, or both, are interpreted as flaw indications.
Flaw depth is measured as the distance from the
front reflection to a flaw echo, the latter representing the front surface of the flaw. The length of a
flaw can be measured as a proportion of the scan
length, or can be estimated visually in relation to
total scan length or to the size of a known feature
of the test piece. The position of a flaw can be

determined by measuring its pOSItion along the

scan with respect to either a predetermined
reference point or a known feature of the test
piece. C-scan presentations are interpreted mainly
by comparing the x and y coordinates of any flaw
indication with the x and y coordinates of either a
predetermined reference point or a known feature
of the test piece. The size of a flaw is estimated as a
percentage of the scanned area. If a known feature
is the size or position reference for interpretation
of either B-scan or C-scan data, it is presumed that
this feature produces an appropriate echo image
on the display.
In contrast to normal B-scan and C-scan
displays, A-scan displays are sometimes quite
complex. They may contain electronic noise,
spurious echoes or extra echoes resulting from
mode conversion of the initial pulse, all of which
must be disregarded in order to focus attention on
any flaw echoes that may be present. Furthermore,
flaw echoes may exhibit widely varying shapes and
intensities. Accurate interpretation of an A-scan
display depends on the ability of the operator to
(a) recognize the type of flaw from echo shape or
from echo-intensity effects, (b) determine flaw
location by accurately measuring echo position on
the time trace, (c) estimate flaw size, mainly from
echo-intensity effects with or without simultaneously manipulating the search unit, and (d)
assess the quality of the test piece by evaluating
the A-scan data in terms of appropriate specifications or reference standards.
Echo shape is affected mainly by the shape,
orientation and sound-reflecting characteristics of
an interface. Metal-air interfaces produce sharp
indications if the interfaces are relatively smooth
and essentially parallel to the front surface. If an
interface is curved (such as the surface of a large
pore), or rought (such as a crack, seam or lamination), or if it is not ideally reflecting (such
as the surface of a metallic inclusion or a slag inclusion), the interface will produce a broadened
echo indication, as shown in Fig. 13-7. If the interface is smaller in area than the cross section of
the ultrasonic beam, or if ultrasonic waves are
transmitted across the interface, a back-surface
echo (back reflection) will appear to the right of
the flaw echo on the oscilloscope screen as shown
in Fig. 13-7a. However, if the flaw is larger than
the ultrasonic beam or if the back surface is not

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Fig. 13-7. A-scan displays of broadened-echo indications from curved rough or partly reflecting surfaces, (a) indications with back reflection and (b) indications without back reflection.

reflection; other factors, such as excessive

roughness of the back surface or internal
micro porosity , also can reduce the height of the
back reflection. One means of distinguishing
whether a certain loss of back reflection is due to
the presence of identifiable flaws is to move the
search unit back and forth about a mean position
over the suspected flaw. If the back reflection rises
and falls as the search unit is moved, the presence
of specific identifiable flaws can be presumed.
Angle-beam techniques or other nondestructiveinspection methods can then be used for positive
identification of the flaw. However, if the back
reflection remains relatively steady as the search
unit is moved, but the height of the indication is
measurably lower than the expected or standard
value, the material presumably contains many
small flaws distributed over a relatively broad
region. This material condition mayor may not be
amenable to further study using other ultrasonic
techniques or other nondestructive methods.

Regardless of whether transmission ultrasonic

testing is done with direct beams or reflected
beams, flaws are detected by comparing the intensity of ultrasound transmitted through the test
piece with the intensity transmitted through a
reference standard made of the same material.
Transmission testing requires wo search units,
one to transmit the ultrasonic waves and one to
receive them.
l

The main application of transmission methods

is the inspection of plate for cracks or laminations
that have relatively large dimensions compared to
the size of the search units. Immersion techniques
or water-column (bubbler or squirter) techniques
are most effective. Good coupling is critical to
transmission methods because variation in sound
transmission
through
the couplants
have
corresponding effects on measured intensity.
These variations introduce errors into the test
results, and frequently lead to invalid tests.
Besides good coupling, accurate positioning of the
search units with respect to each other is critical.
Once proper alignment of the search units is
established, they should be rigidly held in position
so that no variations in measured sound intensity
can result from relative movement between them.
Scanning is then accomplished by moving test
pieces past the search units.

Generation and detection of ultrasonic waves

for inspection is accomplished by means of a
transducer element acting through a couplant. The
transducer element is contained within a device
most often referred to as a search unit (or
sometimes as a probe). The active element in a
search unit is a piezoelectric crystal. The most
common types of piezoelectric materials used for
ultrasonic search units are quartz, lithium sulfate,
and polarized ceramics such as barium titanate,
lead zirconate titanate and lead metaniobate.

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search unit is the receiver. The transmitting search

unit projects a beam of vibrations into the
material; the vibrations travel through the
material and are reflected back to the receiving
search unit from flaws or from the opposite surface, as shown in Fig. 13-9b.
In the through-transmission
technique, two
search units are used - one as a transmitter and
the second as a receiver. The transmitting search
unit projects a beam of vibrations into the test
piece; these vibrations travel through the material
to the opposite surface, where they are picked up
by the receiving search unit (see Fig. 13-9c). Flaws
in the path of the beam cause a reduction in the
amount of energy (sound-beam intensity) passing
through to the receiving search unit. For optimum
results when using two search units, it may be
desirable to use different transmitter and receiver
materials, depending on the electrical characteristics of the ultrasonic instrument used. For instance, a polarized-ceramic search unit may be
used as the transmitter, and a lithium sulfate
search unit as the receiver.
Angle-Beam Units. Figure 13-8b illustrates the
construction of an angle-beam contact-type search
unit. A plastic wedge between the piezoelectric
element and the contact surface establishes a fixed
angle of incidence for the search unit. The plastic
wedge must be designed to reduce or eliminate internal reflections within the wedge that could
result in undesired false echoes.
Angle-beam search units are used for the inspection of sheet or plate, pipe or tubing, and test
pieces having shapes that prevent access for

straight beam. Angle-beam search units can be

used to produce shear waves or combined shear
and longitudinal waves, depending on wedge angle
and test-piece material. There is a single value of
wedge angle that will produce the desired beam
direction and wave type in any given test piece. A
search unit having the appropriate wedge angle is
selected for each specific application.
The surface-wave search unit is an angle-beam
unit insofar as it uses a wedge to position the
crystal at an angle to the surface of the test piece.
It generates surface waves by mode conversion.
The wedge angle is chosen so that the shear-waverefraction angle is 90 deg and the wave resulting
from mode conversion travels along the surface.
Dual-Element Units. Figure I3-8c shows a dualelement contact-type search unit. Dual-element
units provide a method of increasing the directivity
and resolution capabilities (especially near-surface
resolution) in contact inspection. By splitting the
transmitting
and receiving functions,
twotransducer echo inspection can be done with a
single search unit. The dual-element design allows
the receiving function to be electrically and
acoustically isolated from effects of the excitation
pulse. The receiving transducer is ~ways in a
quiescent state and can respond to a signal reflected from a flaw close to the test-piece surface.
Immersion-Type Units. There are three broadly
classified scanning methods that utilize immersion-type search units: (a) conventional immersion methods in which both the search unit and
the test piece are immersed in liquid, (b) squirter
and bubbler methods in which the sound is transTransmitting
search unit

Fig. 13-9. Applications of the straight beam (longitudinal-wave) contact-type search unit illustrated in Fig. 13-8a,
showing reflection techniques with (a) single search unit and (b) two search units, and (c) through-transmission with
two search units.

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appears on the display as an extended indication

(see Fig. 13-lOa); the discontinuity in a defective
weld appears as a strong indication within the
weld-zone indication (see Fig. 13-lOb).
When different portions of the sound beam encounter a flaw as a direct beam and as a reflected
beam, two indications can appear on the display.
The inspector should be aware of this possibility,
and should manipulate the search unit to resolve
any question of whether the two indications are in
fact two flaws or only one. Manual scanning of the
search unit back and forth between one-half skip
distance and one skip distance (see below) from an
area of interest can be used for initially detecting
flaws and for defining the location, depth and size
of a flaw.
A shear wave from an angle-beam transducer
progresses through a flat test piece by reflecting
from the surfaces at points called nodes (see Fig.
13-11). The linear distance between nodes is called
the skip distance and is important in defining the
path over which the transducer should be moved
for reliable and efficient scanning of a weld. This
skip distance can be measured by using a separate
receiving unit to detect the nodes or by using an
angle-beam test block, or it can be calculated. This
region should extend the entire length of the weld
at a distance from the weld line of approximately
\t1 to 1 skip distance.
The path along which the transducer is moved
can be zigzag (Fig. 13-12a) or a square-path (Fig.
I

13-12b). The ultrasonic beam should be directed

approximately perpendicular to the weld. The
longitudinal movement necessary to advance the
transducer parallel to the weld should not exceed
750/0of the activewidth of the transducer per transverse scan. The weld should be scanned from both
sides on one surface, or from one side on both surfaces to assure that nonvertically-oriented flat discontinuities are detected. This type of imperfection
can be distinguished from vertically-oriented flat
discontinuities because the amplitude of the signal
from one side is different than that from the other
side.
To detect transverse discontinuities in welds that
are ground flush, the transducer is oscillated to the ,
left and right in a radial motion, with an included
angle of approximately 30 deg while scanning
along the top of the weld from two opposing directions. If the width of the weld exceeds the width
of the transducer, parallel scans should be performed, with each succeeding scan overlapping the
previous one by a minimum of 25% of the active
width of the transducer.
The entire volume of full penetration welds in
corner joints should be scanned with shear waves
by directing the sound beam toward, or across and
along, the axis of the weld. If longitudinal-wave'
testing is utilized, the weld is scanned by moving
the transducer over the weld with overlapping paths
as noted above.
For detection of discontinuities in the root area
in T-joints (such as incomplete root fusion), the

Initial pulse

/
/
(a)

'-

...,

Weld-zone
reflection

./

Fig. 13-10. A-scan displays oj weld indications jrom angle-beam contact ultrasonic inspection showing (a) echoes
from a sound weld and (b) echoesjrom a weld containing a crack.

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transducer along the edge of the weld from both

sides on one surface or from two opposing directions.
In such applictions,
the transmitting
and receiving elements are positioned so that a reflected signal from the perpendicular
reflecting surface will produce a signal that can readily be
recognized.
Fixtures to maintain
the relative
position of the transducers to each other and to the
weld center line are employed. This test would be
used in conjunction
with a conventional
singletransducer test for other weld imperfections.
Another multiple-angle transducer test has been
successfully applied to continuous seam welds, as
in welded pipe. This test is used where both
longitudinal and transverse cracks are suspected.
Various specific combinations have been used, one
of which is illustrated here. Four transducers are
positioned as shown in Fig. 13-14. All are set at
about 45 deg tothe axis of the weld.

-1-

75% active width

of transducer

II
Beam
direction

One-half
skip distance

The sound passes from the transmitting transducer into the weld zone. The good weld (Fig. 1314a) produces little reflection of the sound, and the
transmitted signal is picked up by transducer R1
This is displaced on the test instrument and indicates not only a good weld, but also the fact that
couplant is being maintained and a test is being
performed.
Longitudinal
cracks (Fig. 13-14b) in
the weld will intercept the sound and reflect much
of it to transducer R2 Transverse cracks (Fig. 1314c) will intercept the sound and reflect it to transducer RJ If the distances for the sound to travel
to the three receiving transducers are varied, this
will produce received signals at three separate
positions on the CRT trace. These may be electronically monitored by suitable gating circuits,
which in turn are used to initiate alarms or to
automaticaHy
mark the pipe for further investigation.
Porosity (Fig. 13-14d) scatters the
sound such that no discrete signals are reflected
back to any of the receivers.

-\-75%

active width
of transducer

~
One-half
skip distance

Fig. 13-12. Transducer motions for optimum weld inspection. The rkctangle marks the initial location of the transducer, dark arrows trace path of transducer and light arrows show path of ultrasonic beam.

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/(c)

/
/
/
/

o
R3

Fig. 13-14. Multiple transducers in a fixture to track on and continuously monitor quality of seam weld in mill
production. Transmission of sound to various receiving transducers indicates various typical imperfections. (a) T to
Rj, not affected, good weld; (b) T to R2, lengthwise crack or lack of fusion; (c) T to R3, transverse crack and (d)
porosity scatters sound, no discrete signal at any receiver.

from which a block is prepared is specified by the

International Institute of Welding (IIW) as killed,
open-hearth or electric-furnace, low-carbon steel
in the normalized condition and with a grain size
of McQuaid-Ehn No.8. All IIW-type standard
reference blocks are about the same size and
shape; official IIW blocks are dimensioned in the
metric system of units.

operator will recognize these additional irrelevant

echoes and ignore them.

The characteristics of an ultrasonic beam in a

test piece are affected by the following variables
which should be considered when selecting standard reference blocks: nature of the test piece,
alloy type, grain size, effects of thermal or
mechanical processing, distance-amplitude effects,
flaw size and direction of the ultrasonic beam.

3. Interference from the surface of the material

examined.
4. Interference caused by diffraction.
5. Interference caused by the shape of the piece
being examined.

In general, echoes caused by secondary mfluences of no immediate interest for the

examination can be classified in seven groups.
1. Electrical interference.
2. Interference from the probes.

6. Interference caused by material structure.

7. Accidental interference.

In practice, the images on the cathode-ray tubes

of ultrasonic test instruments are not always as .
simple as suggested by sketches that illustrate
fundamental principles. Interpretation difficulties
can arise because of differences between various
ultrasonic test methods. The appearance or disappearance of an echo indication on the screen may
be reason for rejecting the part under examination.
Some echoes are of no interest because they are
produced by secondary effects. The experienced

False indications may arise from electrical sources in a number of ways, including noise effects,
moving signals in a horizontal plane and reverberations in test materials.
Noise Effects. Noise can be recognized as vertical broadening of the horizontal time-base line in
A-scan indications. It can be caused by a poor electrical contact with the specimen when usi~g a
crystal that is silver-plated on one side only. It can
also be caused by a bad contact in the coaxial lead.

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Through hole,
2diam

hole,
0.060 diam

Angle-beam
search unit

Index
point

Sound
beam

-----(

b) Determination

of index paint---~J

,----,(

c) Determination

of beam angle ---~

Straight-beam
search unit

Surface E
---(d)

Calibration of instrument time base--~J

'----(e>Determination

lNotc'h
of straight-beam

Surface B
resolution--.J

Fig. 13-16. Positioning of angle-beam and straight-beam search units for calibration using the International Institute
of Welding (IIW) type of standard reference block.
of the specimen, and the reflected surface waves
produce an echo on the screen. This echo usually
has a very sharp shape. Varying the position of the
search unit changes the distance from the unit to

the edge of the specimen and modifies the travel

path length. The echo of the surface waves will
move over the screen simultaneously with the
movement of the search unit.

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to rectangular specimens with internal bores. In

general, these do not cause much difficulty.
Evaluating Shape Disturbances. All possible
disturbing echoes due to the shape of the specimen
cannot be described. To distinguish the various
echoes:
1. Mark the echoes found. From material and
technical considerations it will soon become

Surface signal

r\

11\
~

~~

Fig. 13-19. Sound path and ultrasonic indications

resulting from travel of surface waves between sending
and receiving transducers.

I-

Bottom echo

~
""'"

.... -.......-.Transmitter

pulse

difficulties in interpretation when examining complicated structures such as weldments. The

following methods can aid in analysis:
1. Examination from two opposite sides of the
specimen, if possible.
2. Duplicate measurements at symmetrical
points. In this way, one can determine
whether the findings are general for the
whole specimen.
Fillets and Corners. Other disturbances can be
caused by fillets and corners, as indicated in Fig.
13-22. This possibility should be kept in mind
when examining welds because it may give the impression that a'defect is present. The same applies

Surface waves f7

I
..J

\.

Fig. 13-20. Surface-wave reflection path and indications where waves reflect from corner of test
specimen.

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method itself and special improvements will not

overcome the difficulties. Using the maximum
frequency may reduce some of the disturbances
described previously. However, other factors influence the choice of frequency.

A useful characteristic of the ultrasonic test is its

ability to determine the position of a discontinuity
within the weld. This assists in determing the type
of weld discontinuity and its extent. It also permits
planning the most economical weld repair, and
sometimes determines the need for repair. The
specific location of echoes also helps identify normal or geometric reflecting surfaces, such as weld
reinforcement or backing strip.

'Fig. 13-23. Disturbing echoes from coarse-structured

test specimens.

changes in structure except, for example, when one

of the structures is very coarse. When coarse structure is examined separately, scattering reflections
will be observed. This will occur, however, only
when the area of the transition zone is relatively
large. This may be an advantage or a disadvantage
because sudden changes in structure can also indicate sudden changes in mechanical properties.

Couplant flaw indications are one form of accidental echoes that can be readily differentiated
because their position or amplitude is slowly
altered. This change occurs because the coupling
fluid moves along the workpiece surface however,
the effect is seldom noticed. The cause for the
special echo is discovered by measuring the
location of its source. Couplant flaw indications
may be noticed when using angle search units,
especially when working with high sensitivity.

All disturbance echoes, except those arising in

the equipment, are inherent in the ultrasonic test

The location of reflectors is based on two factors, direction and time. The beaming of the sound
and its direction can be predicted from the way the
test is initially set up. In angle-beam tests, as the
sound bounces from geometric boundaries, the
point of reflection can also be predicted.
The relative distance the sound has traveled over
the known path is determined from the time base
on the CRT display. This may be accomplished by
calibrating the instrument with linear overlay
scales in which each major division may represent
an increment of the zig-zag path, a unit of the actual path distance or a unit of the horizontal or
vertical component of the actual path distance.
Selection of the specific distance component is
based on overall test conditions, and to some
degree on the preference of the inspector.
The total distance displayed on the CRT includes the short time that the sound passes from
the transducer through the wedge. Correction
must be made so that this fixed time delay is not included in the distance within the test specimen.
Various external attachments and accessories
have been used to assist in the location of flaws.
Weld rulers, shown in Fig. 13-24, attached to the
transducer provide information about the distance
component ahead of the angle beam transducer.
Weld rulers help relate the information on the
CRT to the actual test specimen. They must be
calibrated for a specific angle, material thickness
and test distance.

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a. The surface of the weldment that makes

contact with the probe must be relatively
smooth and free from scale, weld spatter
and dirt.
b. Coarse metallurgical grain structure, particularly in some nonferrous alloys, may
cause excessive scattering of the sound
and obscure reflections from defects. Assurance of penetration may be obtained
by observing reflections from geometric
boundaries or other mechanical reflectors
beyond the weld zone.

c. The reinforcement of the weld may produce reflections if its surface contains
irregularities to trap the sound beam. If
dressing the irregularities is not possible,
the inspector must be extremely careful in
determining the location of a reflection so
as not to confuse the reinforcement with
possible imperfection signals.
d. A weld backing may also produce reflections similar to those described above.
The inspector must be careful not to confuse reflections from the backing with
possible discontinuity signals.

Table 13-1. Summary of PulseEcho Ultrasonic Inspection

Method

Concise description of key process

and basic result

Ultrasonic pulses are directed into test object. Ultrasonic echoes and reflections indicate presence, absence and location of flaws, interfaces and/or
discontinuities.
Principles

Probe medium and/or energy source

Nature of signal and/or signature

Beam of pulsed ultrasound, 20 I<Hzto 50 MHz in range

Reflection or transmission of pulses or echoes

Detection and/or sensing method

Indication and/or recording method

Oscilloscope trace and pulse-echo gating

Interpretation basis

Piezoelectric transducer(s)
Quantitative for flaw and interface location; reference standards required for calibration and flaw characterization
Objectives

Discontinuities and separations

Cracks, voids, laminations, inclusions and debonds

Structure or malstructure
Dimensions and metrology

Porosity; metallurgical structure and graininess

Thickness

Physical and mechanical properties

Density and sonic velocity

Stress and dynamic responses

Crack growth
Applications

Materials to which applied

Metals, nonmetals and composites

Features and forms to which applied

Process control applications

Substrates, joints and bonds, structure components

Heat treatment, grinding and joining and crack monitoring and control

In situ and diagnostic applications

Rolling mill process control and monitoring

Example structures and components

Sheet, plate, bar and tube stock; castings; forgings; welds; airframe and
engine components; pressure vessels; and nuclear reactor components
Limitations

Access, contact, and/or preparation

Access to one side and liquid coupling to object

Probe and object limits

Special probes, coupling and alignment fixtures usual

Sensitivity and/or resolution

Flaws to order of 0.01 mm in size

Ambiguous signals may arise as a result of scatter effects, multiple reflections, and geometric complexity.

Interpretation limits

Small or thin parts are difficult to inspect.