Research Anthology

Kyleigh Pharris
Research Anthology
Final: December 2015
The importance of
welcoming nature in
the early childhood
setting
http://myfourhensphotography.com/2012/06/06/inspired-a-very-special-project-leah-zawadzki-of-lily-blue-photography/
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction:
Kyleigh Pharris
Part I: WHY CONNECT CHILDREN TO NATURE?
1. Is Contact with nature Important for Healthy Child Development? State of
the Evidence
Andrea Faber Taylor & Frances E. Kuo
2. A Case for Outdoor Education
Donald Hammerman
Part II: OUTDOOR PLAYSCAPES
3. Learning Environments for Children in Outdoor Spaces
Habibe Acar
4. Take It Outside: Rethinking and Reclaiming Outdoor Play
Lisa P. Kuh, Iris Chin Ponte, Clement Chau, & Deborah Valentine
5. Landscape Design for Children and Their Environments in Urban Context
Habibe Acar
Part III: INTEGRATING CURRICULUM AND NATURE
6. Outdoor Integration: Looking to Nature to Accentuate Science and Language Arts Connections
Shawna Tatarchuk & Charles Eick
7. The School Garden: Fertile Ground for Learning
Carley Fisher-Maltese
8. Children and Nature Design Principles
David Sobel
Part IV: BENEFITS FOR CHILDREN WITH DIFFERENCES
9. Inclusive Outdoor Education: Facilitating Groups that Include People with
Disabilities
Deborah Sugerman
10. Integrating Outdoor/Environmental Education into the Special Education
Curriculum
Ruth A. Wilson
Conclusion:
Kyleigh Pharris
References
Introduction
WELCOMING NATURE IN
THE EARLY CHILDHOOD SETTING
Kyleigh D. Pharris
The air is cool and crisp as the sun is beginning its journey to sleep and the
moon is awakening. As daylight continues to hang in the sky a little longer
before darkness falls, children are seen kneeing in the grass heads tilted toward each other forming a circle. Instead of looking at one another the childrens eyes are looking down toward the ground. Calm voices can be heard
from the circle as children are communicating with each other, but what is
being said is unknown from a distance. Drawing closer to the children the
conversation can be heard a bit clearer, It has a big tall back" Yeah, and
lots of spots on its back Wait! Guys, look! There are little spikes all over its
legs! I think thats its eyeball! The children have discovered a Buffalo Treehopper, that is an insect native to North America. Although the children do not
know the name of their discovery just yet, they are carefully investigating the
characteristics of the insect in effort to learn more about this mystery creature.
Nature is an intriguing place for young learners filled with excitement and discovery,
that is different every time a child walks outside. Each day there is something different to find and investigate because a tree may have just dropped some of its leaves,
flower petals may just be blossoming, dirt may be recently wet from a summer
shower. The possibilities to explore are endless and ever intriguing for young minds
to explore. When discussing childhood memories with many of my adult colleagues,
all becoming early childhood educators, everyone could think of at least one rich
memory involving the outdoors. With all these memories occurring in a variety of
outdoor spaces. Outdoor childhood memories do not only have to happen in a forest, they could occur in a park within the walls of a city, a backyard in the suburbs, a
farm in the country, or even during a walk on a sidewalk. Nature is everywhere and
is often a treasure to young learners.
This compilation of peer reviewed and edited journal articles, considers the many different ways nature can facilitate and inspire young children to learn more about the
world that surrounds them. Focusing upon evidence based theories valuing childrens
connection to nature to foster education, the structure and organization behind the
design of outdoor playscape's for young children, the practice of integrating nature
into curriculum based standards to expand childrens thinking, as well as how nature
education can benefit children of varying abilities. The anecdote at the beginning of
this chapter illustrates the story of childrens inquiry that occurs when outside, and
how this play based structure allows for meaningful connections between experiences and learning. Valuing the childrens discoveries and interests to further expand
upon their life long learning journey.
PROMOTING INQUIRING MINDS

Before diving deeper into the concepts around designing outdoor playscapes and
integrating nature into the early childhood curriculum, it is important to understand the
many ways educators can promote inquiry amongst their students. The most successful way to create a classroom environment that is invested in the content of the
curriculum, is by first carefully observing what children do, when children engage in
certain activities, and what children say allowing for careful analysis into understanding childrens thinking and prior experiences. When teachers carefully observe children with an objective mind, this allows for more opportunities to understand thought
processes and how to guide children to make more discoveries to further learning
opportunities. Many early childhood settings value the use of emergent curriculum
and social constructivist theory to guide the construction of curriculum and learning
encounters in the classroom. Following the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky, allowing
for play and social interactions to guide childrens development, can be a foundational skill for educators to create a learning environment that promotes inquiry.
Emergent curriculum centralizes the curriculum development to focus upon what is of
interest to the child or children and guiding the next pieces of curriculum based
upon teacher observation. The practice of emergent curriculum involves children in
the inquiry of discovering more about a central topic, while connecting to Common
Core State Standards as well as Early Learning Guidelines provided by the state. The
purpose of this philosophy of instruction emerges from the childs curiosity and goes
on a journey in answering the childs question in effort to develop the child in all developmental domains.
This philosophy is an important component to welcome nature in the early childhood
setting. Often times when children are outside their play is guided by different discoveries or questions that evolve. Nature brings a sense of curiosity into childrens
play, and by valuing a curriculum centralized in child curiosity will only promote
young learners to think more critically about their environments and make connections across content areas.
Learning through the use of nature and the many materials incorporated in the outdoor setting allows for children to become actively invested in their time in school.
The beauty of learning with natural materials is that children are able to find many of
the same materials both at home and at school, while comparing and contrasting
their play experiences between the settings. Nature can foster many different types of
play situations furthering the development of a variety of developmental domains,
such as cognitive, social-emotional, speech and language, and physical needs.
BRIDGING THE LEARNING: OUTDOORS AND INDOORS

Now that an understanding of curriculum design and structure has been established
to promote inquiry in young childrens minds, it is time to discuss the importance of
bridging the learning between settings. Many times learning is seen to take place
within the four walls of a classroom inside a school building. This has been a defined space to foster routines and classroom structure that works hard to establish
expectations that young learners can predict and become independent within these
walls. This indoor learning space is still very important to young childrens development, and when we talk about outdoor education we are not asking teachers to
abandon the inside classroom. Although the outdoor environment is full of rich learning encounters to foster curiosity amongst children, it is not realistic for teachers to
only teach outside and never inside.
That being said it is also important for teachers to expand upon they're understanding of spaces in which children learn, and think critically about how children learn
outside as well as inside. Many times outside play time is seen as a time of day for
children to run wild and release their energy to then be better learners in the indoor
classroom. The outdoor learning environment often does not have as much structure
as the indoor classroom, and is seen as a devalued space for childrens learning.
This notion is often influenced by the misperception that play is not learning, when in
fact play is learning lead by children and not adults. This misconception needs to be
eliminated in order to foster a positive learning environment for young children because not all learning occurs from the direction of the teacher, and many meaningful
learning experiences come from children themselves.
The first step in facilitating childrens learning across settings and bridging learning
spaces together is by valuing the indoor and outdoor settings equally. When educators equally see that learning is occurring outside as well as inside, the whole image
of the child and their development becomes the central focus. It is important to understand that the learning between the two spaces will look different from time to
time, but these spaces are both highly valuable in the growth and development of
young children.
The outdoor learning environment will always have a looser structure than the indoor
classroom, but the flexibility of the outdoor space can aide in childrens evolution of
confidence and independence. Outdoor spaces can be composed of the schools
playground, a field, and even woods or a stream. It is important to establish a respect
for child safety in these different outdoor settings and having the proper number of
staffing to ensure the safety of the children and further they're learning. When schools
have the means and space, it can be extremely meaningful to create an outdoor
classroom where the children have similar materials in the classroom but are outside.
In my personal experience with outdoor classrooms the space has been designed in
cleared areas in the woods just on the other side of a fenced in playground. The
learning space has wooden chairs, tables, benches, bridges, puppet stages, easelsall made from tree logs. Hanging from the trees are artifacts children have created
out of natural materials. Old dingy boats create a dramatic play area or sand box.
This outdoor classroom has many components of an indoor classroom, it is just
placed within nature. In an outdoor classroom many of the same expectations of the
indoor classroom are established and children know they must be mindful of other
childrens work. The outdoor classroom provides gross and fine motor development
opportunities as well as imaginative play with peers to promote language and social
development.
It can be difficult to think about bridging the outdoor and indoor classrooms in the
sense that outside is outside and inside is inside. However, for the sake of bridging
childrens learning environments to promote more inquiries it is important to brainstorm ways to connect these two very different spaces. A way in which I have
bridged the two learning spaces is by physically bringing outdoor natural materials
into the inside classroom. For instance, when children need a challenge to further
expand their block play I may bring inside some leaves, sea shells, acorn caps,
sticks, and rocks. With these materials, children are able to add a whole new meaning to their block building.
By the same token, these natural materials can be incorporated into the curriculum
by being used as manipulative tools during mathematics and literacy. Since these
tools are familiar with young children and have been incorporated in their play, they
are then able to use these materials to illustrate a
higher order of thinking. Teachers can also utilize
these materials to help guide children in certain
focus areas of the curriculum. For instance in a
kindergarten classroom children are expected to
write in their journals each morning. There are
times where children struggle to brainstorm a
topic to write and draw about, leaving them at
their seats pondering. To assist children with this
struggle to find something to write about, teachers painted rocks that children discovered on the
playground with different objects. This then was
offered to children when feeling stuck and needing help in a writing topic. Children are able to
use these story stones as needed and independently complete their journal work.
NATURE PROMOTING INCLUSIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
Nature is an area of interest for many children and is often a space where children
can connect with their peers. Typically developing children and children of varying
needs can all use this space to facilitate their learning and build a sense of school
community. The early childhood education field has been moving closer to inclusive
environments and providing in class services to limit the amount of pull out of the
classroom to promote learning. This movement has created a more welcoming
learning environment for all young children and their families. While teaching children
from an early age the philosophy of anti-bias curriculum. The anti-bias curriculum is
centered upon welcoming classroom diversity and assisting young learners understand that each person is different from the next and that is nothing to be unsure
about. This movement has allowed for children with disabilities to be included in
more settings with their peers, and not only learning from the teacher but also the
environment and classmates.
Welcoming nature into the early childhood setting is another way to include al children into the general classroom curriculum and build upon every childs learning.
Outdoor play is a crucial time for children of disabilities to connect with their peers in
a less structured setting, allowing for all children to incorporate each other in their
play. Child can engage socially while being outside through communication both
verbally and through body language.
Incorporating the outdoors into the early childhood setting enriches childrens play
with peers along with collaborative social development. Outside time is a valuable
time for young children, and by creating this space to be inclusive for all learners,
allows for all children to find interests in common beyond the classroom walls.
Friendships are often blossoming outside and children are able to play with multiple
play partners or just one at a time. This supports children of all abilities because
some may flourish in large group settings, where others do in smaller groups.
Part I
WHY CONNECT CHILDREN TO NATURE?

This section focuses upon the importance of connecting children to nature. Being
outdoors is a valued activity for young children, and the following chapters highlight
why outdoor education is beneficial for expanding learning encounters. Chapter 1
discusses the research methods and conclusions behind the benefits outside time
has for childrens overall development. The authors describe the correlation between
childrens increased green space experiences and self confidence and self awareness. The chapter also identified the importance of childrens connections with animals for moral development.
Chapter 2 explicitly describes the case for why outdoor education is essential
to young learners. Within the chapter readers will understand the fundamental tasks
of outdoor education, and how the outdoor experiences should compliment the
classroom learning encounters, providing young children with multiple areas for expression of their knowledge and learning.
Case
Outdoor
for
By DONALD
THAT
OUTDOOR EDUCATION
HAS COME OF
AGEis demonstrated by the fact that an increasing number of institutions of higher education have incorporated outdoor learning
experiences into their professional education sequence. School camping, or resident
outdoor education, has made a significant
impact upon public education across the
nation, with the number of "outdoor
school" programs continuing to develop at
a rapid rate.
Since 1947, outdoor education has developed from an experiment in camping education' to the place where over 800 school
districts in practically all of the United
States participate annually in a resident
outdoor education experience.2 Outdoor
education has obviously permeated American public school education to a far
greater degree than is commonly recognized. In such school systems as Battle Creek
HAMMERMAN
(Michigan), Cleveland Heights (Ohio),
and Los Angeles and San Diego (California), outdoor education is, and for a number of years has been, firmly entrenched as
an integral part of the total educational
program. The number of school systems
utilizing the concept of the extended classroom as another avenue through which
curricular goals may be realized continues
to grow each year. Outdoor education as a
curriculum experience has been influenced by the same changing cultural conditions, social forces, and educational concepts that were instrumental in determining
the role to be played by the contemporary
public school.
The Fundamental Task
The only rationale upon which justification for outdoor education can be maintained is the fact that it helps to fulfill, in
a way that "indoor instruction" cannot, the
aims of education. The educational systems of this nation would be hard put to
justify operating camp-like programs in direct conflict with the services presently
performed by other agencies and institutions. The outdoor school, on the other
hand, can be justified as an extension of the
ordinary school facility, whose purposes and
aims are in keeping with the aims of education.
What fundamental purpose, then, should
resident outdoor education serve? It should
provide the setting for curricular experiences that cannot be offered, or achieved
as readily, within the confines of the school
building. School studies are very often far
removed from reality. The outdoor school
setting provides the natural environment
where pupils have the opportunity to
come to grips with reality-where close, first-
1 For a full report on this pilot project see New

York City Board of Education, Extending Education
Through Camping, Outdoor Education Association,
Inc.,
Education
1948.
Julian W. Smith, Director of the Outdoor Education Project for the American Association for
Health, Physical Education and Recreation, in conference materials distributed May, 1962.
EDITOR'S NOTE
Fortunate, indeed, are the pupils of
those schools which have established
an outdoor program as an integral part
of their curricular offerings. If your
school has not ventured into this type
of activity, take heed. The author presents a convincing case for bringing the
classroom out of the confines of its four
walls and into Mother Nature's own
laboratory. He is an associate professor
at Northern Illinois University, The
Lorado Taft Field Campus at Oregon,
Illinois.
54
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September
1963
A CASE FOR OUTDOOR EDUCATION
hand observation, independent investigation, analysis of data, and problem solving

are the order of the day.
The American public school ought to
provide an opportunity to learn the ways
of democracy by living it. Very little living actually takes place in our classrooms
today. The socialization values which our
educative institutions purport to foster
should be implemented through realistic
practice in the total-living situation that is
provided by the resident outdoor school
experience.
Another fundamental task of outdoor
education is to provide purposeful work
experience for youngsters. The transition
from an agrarian society to a highly industralized nation, along with accompanying urbanization, has placed the modern-day
pupil in a situation where there is minimum opportunity for purposeful work experience. The modern home has long
ceased to fill this need. Nor can the school,
under ordinary circumstances, fulfill such
a need. The unique setting of the resident
outdoor school, however, with its emphasis on self-responsibility, helps to satisfy the
basic need that man feels to perform useful
work.
Possible Approaches
During the past decade there has been a
strong tendency for some outdoor education programs to acquire a high degree of
organization and standardization. This is
a move in the wrong direction. Granted,
outdoor education should be an integral
part of the curriculum. Likewise, outdoor
learning activities should be closely related
to the ongoing, indoor instructional program of the schools. In fact there should be
no significant distinction between education and outdoor education. The distinction, if in fact it exists at all, is merely one
of setting, wherein certain facets of education may be more readily facilitated. This
distinction, no matter how slight it may
appear to be, is nevertheless of fundamental
55
importance.
Outdoor education should complement
the ongoing instructional program of the
school. It should not become school-like,
however. When the structure and content
of the outdoor school curriculum become
too much like those of the indoor school
curriculum, so there is virtually no difference, outdoor education will have expired.
Only by retaining its individuality can it
continue to enrich school curriculums. Educators should resist the tendency to standardize and regiment outdoor school curricular experiences. There should, in fact, be
a concerted effort to preserve the sphere of
experimentation within which early school
camping ventures operated. Solving the
problems of daily outdoor living, for example, is one of many possibilities that may
constitute the core of the outdoor school
curriculum. Various learning activities
grow out of the problems faced in living
and working together in a miniature community. Furthermore, these experiences of
living and learning in the outdoor school
relate to the overall goals of education.
The general objectives of education, as defined by the Mid-Century Committee on
Outcomes in Elementary Education, fall in
the areas of (1) physical development,
health, body care; (2) individual social
and emotional development; (3) the social
world; (4) social relations; (5) ethical behavior, standards, values; (6) the physical
world; (7) communication; (8) quantitative relationships; and (9) esthetic development.3
Outdoor education is simply one of an
infinite number of approaches through
which the achievement of these goals may be
facilitated. As a teaching-learning medium
it cuts across subject matter areas and is
interdisciplinary in nature. School camping, or resident outdoor education, is one
means which may be employed to help
8 Chester
W. Harris (ed.), Encyclopedia of Educa-
tional Research (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1960), p. 431.
56
The CLEARINGHOUSE
carry out the curricular aims of the school.

No modern educational system can afford
to ignore this frontier of curriculum development. Outdoor education provides an
September 1963
avenue for facilitating, complementing,

and enriching instruction without which
no system of education can truly be said to
be complete.
Pupils Evaluate Their Own Social Studies Progress

By
ALBERT
E.
BRENNER
KingstonHigh School, Kingston,Pennsylvania

All students, from excellent to poor, are interested in their grades, but teachers concur that students generally do not understand how the grades
are determined, particularlyin social studies. More
often than not students believe that test results are
the sole basis for grading. To help the student in
my social studies classes arrive at an understanding
of his daily progress, and consequently of his sixweek grade, I request that he keep his own record
on a self-ratingprogresssheet.
Examination of individual records at the close
of each markingperiod indicates that most students
maintain accurate accounts of their achievements
when I compare them with my records.
By use of the progress record, a student is
trained to view his class accomplishments more
objectively. He is encouraged to plan his work
more effectively. He comes to realize that a single
grade for a marking period is a composite of many
minor and major projects as indicated in the
progress record. Above all, he understands that
a good social studies course offers many opportunities to do and learn, that a mere categorical or
encyclopedic fixation of textbook facts is not the
sole aim of the course, that a knowledge of the
complex facets of our social, political, and economic
structureis more in keeping with the demandsof a
complex and changing society.
Television and radio programs of historical or

2
social value: 1st. week.--.
3
4
Oral contributions to social problems discussed

in class. (Encircleeach day you made a worthwhile
contribution): 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1o 11 12I 13 14
15 16 17 18 19 o 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
days.
Library reference reports: date of each report:
,-------,
-,
---
Maps completed: date turned in:
Encircle days you read the daily textbook assignment: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Io 11 12 13 14 15 16

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Daily written assignments completed: 1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8 g 1o 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Daily class recitations of textbook reading:
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
16 17
i8
1 2
19 20
Dates of class absence:
Total days absent during this marking period:

Makeup work for the days you were absent
(list specific work done for day absent)
Test average:
Test grades:
Self-Rating ProgressRecord for Social Studies
2
My weekly grade is: Ist. week
6
Student
5
3
4
Please record your individual accomplishments
My marking period grade is:
under the categorieslisted below:
My general comments concerning my progress
Current magazine reading: Number of articles are:
read: 1st. week
2
3
4
Signature
5
6
Part II
OUTDOOR PLAYSCAPES
This section provides educators with best practice principles for designing an outdoor
playscape to fit the needs of their children. The following chapters break down the
many different landscape designs, while encouraging professionals to bridge theory
and practice. In Chapter 3, Habibe Acar emphasizes the child developmental theorist
Piaget and explains the importance of childrens ability to play within natural settings.
Readers will understand that in order to design outdoor spaces for children there are
many aspects to consider to design an outdoor learning space that expands upon
childrens learning experiences.
Chapter 4 identifies the different types of playgrounds, traditional, contemporary, adventure, and natural, while also providing specific details of how one school
transformed their playground. The chapter highlights the values of playing outdoors
for young children, and how all areas of development can be explored in this space.
The authors encourage early childhood educators to brainstorm ways to enhance
and create an outdoor learning space that challenges childrens inquiry.
Chapter 5 focuses upon the context of childrens playscapes within the urban
setting. The chapter emphasizes the best practices of using child development theories to guide the structuring and implementation of outdoor spaces for children living
in urban cities. While also being sensitive to how children perceive the world in contrast of adult perspectives.
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect
Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 141 (2014) 846 853
WCLTA 2013
Learning Environments for Children in Outdoor Spaces

Habibe ACAR
Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Forestry, Karadeniz TechnicalUniversity, 61080, Trabzon/Turkey
Abstract
Learning continues permanently from the start to the end of life. During this period, there are many factors that help learning.
Considering the learning process in the childhood, play is the best communication and the most natural learning environment for
children. Play recognizes and develops childs talents and creative potential; increases languistic, mental, social, emotional, and
motor skills; provides learning opportunities through trial knowledge and experience that will be required throughout their
lifetime. In this way, learning can be realized permanently. Outdoor spaces are the best play environments for children. These
areas offer opportunities that are not found in indoor spaces and physical environment contributes to childrens learning with
owned affordances. Thus, outdoor spaces designed for children are very important. These outdoor spaces will be more
meaningful and useful when they contribute to childrens learning. This paper primarily focuses on the concept of childenvironment relationships, learning environments, and discusses the contributions of the physical environment to childrens
learning. It describes with examples what a learning environment is, how to provide children with physical environments for
learning, and which environmental characteristics contribute to learning. In addition, the paper explains the importance of
designing learning environments and the design of these environments. In this way, the paper will give clues to the designers who
design outdoor spaces for children that are of higher quality and that will contribute to the learning process of children.
Consequently, it will show the importance of outdoor environments for children in education and point out the issues of learning
with play and learning environments.
2014
2014 The
The Authors.
Authors. Published
Published by
by Elsevier
ElsevierLtd.
Ltd.This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/).
Selection
and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of WCLTA 2013.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of WCLTA 2013.
Keywords: Learning environments, child, affordance, physical environment, outdoor spaces;
1. Introduction
The environment is an essential element for human beings. The environment around children has an important role
on their development. According to psychologists Bloom and Deutsch, especially in their early childhood childrens
environments and experiences have an important effect on their intelligences and developments. Working on
childrens environments, Clare Cooper Marcus (cited in Loebach, 2004) claims that children are more deeply
affected by the environment than any other age group.
Corresponding author: Habibe Acar. Tel.: +90-462-3774052
E-mail address: habibeacar@hotmail.com, habibe@ktu.edu.tr
1877-0428 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/).
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Organizing Committee of WCLTA 2013.
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.05.147
Habibe Acar / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 141 (2014) 846 853
As soon as human beings starts to develop in their mothers womb, they become sensitive to their environment.
And after they were born, the stimuli that they receive from their environments influence their physical, cognitive,
social and emotional development and learning. For it is not possible to think of a human being as a separate entity
from his environment. An individual is both in the center of his environment and is an element of that environment.
Accordingly, he is both affected by his environment and affects his environment with his activities. He shapes his
behavior in this way. Therefore, the environment and behavior are interrelated and the physical environment affects
behavior and learning with different affordances that it has (Acar, 2009).
Based on what has been said so far, this study will emphasize primarily the importance of the notions of
environment and learning environments that influence especially the development of children and then the study
will touch on the contributions of the physical environment to the learning process of children. Furthermore, given
the effects of the outdoor learning environments for children on their learning, the study will also deal with the
design of such spaces. In this way, the paper will give clues to the designers who design outdoor spaces for children
in creating playgrounds that are of higher quality and that will contribute to the learning process of children.
Consequently, the study will unveil the importance of the environment in educating children and will draw attention
to the issues related to learning by playing and learning environments.
Disciplines of different areas of interest make contributions to the design of play environments that support
childrens learning. These disciplines are development and child psychology, early childhood education research
and environment-behaviour (Loebach, 2004). In order to design spaces for children, one must first know the child,
know about the nature of his relationship with the environment and understand the importance of this relationship,
know about the needs and demands of the child and his developmental process, and evaluate the opportunities that
the environment offers to satisfy the childs needs and demands, and only then should one create spaces in
accordance with the design principles. At this point, it is necessary to discuss the following notions during the
process of designing outdoor learning environments for children.
1.1. Learning
In the past, learning was considered as a passive activity and learners as empty organisms that incidentally
react less or more to stimuli. This perception is within a deterministic model which suggest that specific learning
activities or responses are produced by bringing in specific stimuli in the learners perceptual environment.
However, the individuals intent has not been taken into consideration in this interaction. If this model had been
absolutely accurate, then all children would have learned the same things with the same method even if their
individual competences and capacities were different. The advances in learning processes and learners show that it
is not true. According to Piaget, children are active participants in their learning processes. Later studies made by
child psychologists have also indicated that even newborn babies perceive the stimuli around them. Today the
prominent view is that childhood is a time period which consists of active and continuous learning, which is started
and managed generally by children during the play, and which is influenced by different environmental factors
(Loebach, 2004). Thus, the role of the environment is important in this process.
1.2. The child-environment relationship
Issues regarding childrens experiences with, and needs in the environment can be found in the studies of the
disciplines of ecologic psychology, developmental psychology, and environmental psychology. Of these, especially
the discipline of environmental psychology deals with issues of perception, cognition and social learning between
human and environment. The best concept in evaluating the child-environment relationship in the discipline of
environmental psychology is the theory of affordance which refers to the functional opportunities and elements that
the environmet offers (Acar, 2013). Children carry out outdoor activities according to the affordances of the
environment and their aims, and as a result of these activities learning is realized. For physical environment affects
human behaviour (Proshansky et all, 1976; Day and Midbjer, 2007), enables children to know themselves during the
childhood years, (Francis, 1997), and outdoor spaces have been neglected educational areas (Francis, 1990 cited
in Jones, 1997). Children become socialized and learn about the environment as a result of their experiences in the
physical environments (Francis, 1997). For this reason, by considering the importance of the outdoor spaces to be
created for children, it is necessary to design environments which will have equipment that are not standard and
which will offer different activities and learning opportunities.
847
848
Childrens experiences with the nature and environment appear to be in three different types of use. These are
direct, indirect and symbolic or imaginary. The formation of personality and character in childhood is connected
with these three levels of experience and the three modes of learning in childhood (cognitive, emotional, moral).
Conitive development refers to thinking and problem solving skills; emotional maturity focuses on the emergence of
feelings and emotions; moral development emphasizes the appearance of values, benefits and moral aspects (Figure
1) (Kellert, 2002).
Modes of learning
Types of experience with the nature
Ability of thinking and

problem solving
Cognitiv
e
Emergence of feelings
and emotions
Emotional
Indirect
Moral
Symbolic
Emergence of values,
benefits and moral
aspects
Direct
There is physical contact

with nature
The physical contact with

nature is limited and
programmed
There is no physical contact
with nature
Figure 1. Types of experience in nature and modes of learning in childhood development (Adapted from Kellert,
2002) (Acar, 2009).
As seen in Figure 2, the three types of experience contribute to the cognitive, emotional and moral learning
modes of children (Acar, 2009). Of these, the one that offers most opportunities is the direct experience. It is so
because it enables learning by touching, seeing, hearing and experince. In order to learn about the environment
children need actively use and explore the environment (Francis, 1997). In this case, the movement-learning
relationship comes into the agenda.
1.3. The movement-learning relationship
Movement is important for both perception of the environment and physical development. Yet, today children
spend most of their out-of-school time at home. In the past, children went to school on foot while today the majority
of children go to school by school buses or by their own cars. The reasons for this are the distance between home
and school, security concerns, parents protective behaviour towards their children and comfort conditions. Security
is an important and primary concern; however, the interaction with the environment which is lost during
transportation must be compensated. To do this, children need spaces where they will be able to use the environment
directly in the breaks between classes and in their out-of-school times.
1.4. Learning by playing
That plays in any environment and especially outdoor spaces have an important role in the life and healthy
development of children is an unquestionable fact. Furthermore, child specialists also accept the fact that play has an
important role in facilitating the learning process. For the best way for a child to get information is practice rather
than theoretical instruction (Loebach, 2004). Plays provide opportunities for such practices. Depending on the type
of play, the activities, repetitions, and observations both support a childs physical development and contributes to
his cognitive and social development. During the play, children should be away from parents interventions.
Because of the fact that children explore new things, imitate adult behaviour, test their capacities, and therefore
widen their worlds when they are free in their plays (Loebach, 2004). Many studies on this issue have shown that
play has important effects on child development and learning. Viewed from the environmental design perspective,
play is a very useful activity for children, and designing spaces which will be suitable for children, of good quality,
preferred, used for a long time, sustainable, and which will contribute to childrens development and learning is a
very important issue.

1.5. What is the concept of learning environments? Where are the outdoor learning environments?
There are two main activity categories in the concept of learning environments. One of them is the formal
activities managed by teachers within the confines of the school curriculum, and the second one is the informal
activities realized primarily by children acording to their own preferences. Both types contribute to physical,
cognitive, social and emotional development of children (Loebach, 2004). This paper will focus more on the
learning environments realized outdoors by childrens play activities. Among such spaces are the activity areas
which will improve childrens physical development and skills according to their abilities; observation, exploration
and adventure areas which will contribute to their cognitive development; areas that will improve their creative
potential and help them introduce new products; areas which will support their social development and which will
give them the opportunity to be with others in the society; and areas where they will be able to get information about
living things, life cycle and environmental events.
1.6. The education, learning and environment relationship
The issues of the role of environment in education and environmental education can also be evaluated in the
learning environments. Environmental education contains such processes as informing, consciousness-raising,
warning, balancing, development, protection, etc. and aims to create behavior in humans towards these. It also
targets the recognition and discrimination of the values, attitudes and concepts related to the biophysical and social
environments of human beings. During the Conference on Environmental Education held in Tbilisi in 1977, it was
emphasized that a successful environmental education should make a human being more aware of the environment
in which he lives, more responsible, more knowledgeable, more experienced, more skillful, and more participatory
(Gler, 2009).
If you are thinking a year, plant a seed. If you are thinking a decade, plant a tree. If you are thinking a century
ahead, educate the people (Davis, 1998). These lines taken from a Chinese poem show the importance and value of
education. Environmental education is finding solutions to environmental problems and issues in democratic ways
with children, teachers and society standing together. This is an interdisciplinary circumstance. Environmental
education is not an alternative; it is a way of thinking and a practical way (Davis, 1998). The aim of environmental
education is to make human beings gain an understanding of the ecological balance and their own roles in this
balance; to enable them to develop ideas about how to live together in harmony with the planet; and to make them
gain the necessary skills needed for an effective and liable participation (Gler, 2009).
Early childhood education and environmental education are compatible with each other (Davis, 1998). Because
the information and habits that an individual acquire in childhood will also be effective in adulthood. Furthermore,
such activities as playing in outdoor spaces with water, sand and mud that enables exploration, and collecting fallen
leaves, creating living spaces for birds, ants and lizards, etc. are the necessary practices to develop a sensitive and
responsible attitude towards the environment (Davis, 1998), and we need to offer such opportunities to children.
The best and most permanent type of learning is learning by experience. And outdoor spaces offer different
opportunities to children for environmental experiences. The bond created between the child and environment
during such experiences will make children more sensitive towards the environment. This will make a major
contribution to children to be environmentally conscious individuals in the future.
In their study, Glay and Ekici (2010) analyzed the aims, gains and concepts in pre-school curricula in Turkey in
terms of environmental education. They found that among the aims in the pre-school curricula, the psychomotor and
language development areas did not have any aims and gains about environmental education. Besides, the aims
regarding the environment in the social-emotional, cognitive and self-care skills areas constituted only 25,9% of the
total aims. They also found that the gains in environmental education constituted 15,5% of all gains.
In another study carried out with the 6th, 7th and 8th graders in Turkey, students were administered a test that
included the issues of environmental problems and environmental pollution, animals and plants, energy resources
and recycling, human-environment relationships and natural disasters, atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere,
ecosystem, biome, and food chain. However, the findigns showed that nearly half of the questions were answered
wrongly. In addition to this test, an attitude scale was developed for the same group for the purpose of assessing
their thoughts and feelings about, and attitudes towards, the environment. The findings showed that students were
849
850
not knowledgeable enough in terms of environmental attitude (Atasoy ve Ertrk, 2008).

If we look at it from educational point of view, this lack of information and attitude may be stemming from the
inadequacies in the curricula, or from the fact that lessons are not practical but theoretical, or from the inadequacies
in the teaching methods. However, this should not be seen as an inadequacy stemming only from the system of
education in schools. The interaction between children and environment in the out-of-school times is also important.
Because many studies stress the importance of playing in outdoor spaces in childhood, experiencing the
environment, learning by seeing, touching, hearing and feeling. Experience and information obtained in this way
about life and environment are also vitally important. Therefore, if you look at the issue from the point of view of
landscape architecture, which is the present authors area of specialisation, the importance of outdoor play spaces to
be designed for children is manifested. The important thing in such areas is to contribute to childrens learning while
meeting their need of play.
2. Designing outdoor learning environments for children
It is necessary to pay attention to the following three constituents when designing childrens environments
(Loebach, 2004):
Childrens perception and interpretation of the environment,
The effects of the physical environment on childrens behaviour,
The motivations behind childrens environmental interactions.
Research has shown that childrens environments must consist of the four environments given in Figure 2 (Min
and Lee, 2006, cited in Acar, 2009).
Favoured or important but not
used well
Favoured or important and

used well
Used well, but not favoured

or important
Environments
around
children
Not favoured/important
and
d ll
Psychological realm
Behavioural realm
(Environment in childrens minds) (Environment children use)
Figure 2. Settings for psychological importance and actual use

In the outdoor spaces that are designed for children, the areas shown in Figure 2 are ideal areas, and of these
areas, the psychological realm and behavioral realm partly overlap, and this overlapping part may create the most
preferred, important and much used areas. For this, one must know the child, what he wants, and what he can do in
different age groups. After this, the data about the space to be designed and the opportunities that the space offers
should be evaluated. The next step is, depending on the types of activity that children will do, to create spatial
organizations in the area to be designed. At this point, the designer should take into consideration the kinds of
contribution that the activities to be suggested and the equipment and materials for these activities will make.
Furthermore, children can also be incorporated into the design process. For human beings become heavily attached
to the environments to whose formation they contribute; as a result, they become better protectors and managers of
the environment, and therefore vandalistic behavior is reduced (Martin, 2008).
While designing outdoor spaces, designers must use natural materials by considering the fact that outdoor apaces
and especially the natural areas have positive and important contributions to the learning and development of
children (Acar, 2009). For while such natural materials as plant parts, water and sand can be changed and reshaped,
artificial materials offer only limited opportunities. However, such natural materials must be suitable for functional
use by children as well as being visual elements. In other words, they must offer direct experience opportunities.
Examples of outdoor learning environments for children are given in Figures 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.
851
Figure 3. Environments with animals help children learn about them (a-Paris, France b-Nara, Japan Photos by Acar,
H.)
Figure 4. Water and sand are preferred by children and they improve childrens creativity (a,b-Viena, Austria Photos
by Acar, C.; c-Luxemburg, Luxemburg Photo by Acar, H.)
Figure 5. Fixed equipment cannot be changed but with the activity opportunities that they offer such as swinging,
sliding, and climbing they contribute to childrens physical development and learning about their limits. At the same
time, depending on their abilities of creativity, children can also use them for different purposes (e.g., sliding leaves,
using sports materials according to their abilities, etc.). (a, b-Viena, Austria Photos by Acar, C.; c,d- Trabzon,
Turkey Photos by Acar, H.).
852
Figure 6. Spaces and equipment suitable for sports activities support learning about these activities (a,b- Viena,
Austria Photos by Acar, C.,
c-Paris, France Photo by Acar, H ).
Figure 7. Outdoor classes or environmental education help children learn by seeing and experiencing (a-b-c, Nara,
Japan Photos by Acar, H.).
Given the time that children spend in school throughout the educational year, scoolyards and outdoor classrooms
are important outdoor spaces for children. Studies have shown that, compared to the closed classrooms inside the
schools, having classes in outdoor classrooms inreases academic achievement and acquisition of knowledge (Taylor
and Kuo, 2008). The Reggio Emilia schools, which are an alternative to outdoor classrooms, define how to use the
physical environment in schools according to childrens learning environments and educational philosophy. If one
considers the characteristics of the physical environments of these schools regardless of their educational
philosophy, one sees that there are transparent connections between the classrooms and outside with large windows.
Because such natural elements as trees and water elements outside are perceived as if they were inside the
classroom, children are kept in a continuous communication with this area. Such a conscious use of the physical
environment of the school supports the interactive education philosophy. The school environment creates a harmony
between the schools vision and user activities (Loebach, 2004). As seen in this example, as well as designing
school gardens for suitable uses in the breaks, other architectural solutions must also be produced that will create
opportunities for children to see suitable designs in the school environment during the lessons.
3. Conclusions
In the light of what has been said so far, childrens experience with, and education about, the environment can be
in two ways. The first one is the inclusion of activities and practices based on experiments, observations and
explorations into the curricula through which children will gain environmental experience. Secondly, when children
use the outdoor spaces for play purposes, they can unconsciously get information and gain experience about the
environment through observation during their activities.
In conclusion, different alternatives may be developed for children to enhance their environmental experience, to
improve their environmental consciousness, and to contribute to their learning through the information that they get
from the environment. All these may also be evaluated in terms of different disciplines. In terms of education; more
activities based on practice and observation of practice results must be included in the curricula, applied
environmental education must be offered, outdoor classrooms must be brought into the agenda by creating suitable
conditions, school gardens must be designed in such a way as to enable children to interact with the natural
elements. In nursery schools, children must have more opportunities to use the outdoor spaces. Especially in city
centers, outdoor spaces that children can use must be designed, and these spaces must contribute to childrens
learning while they are meeting their need for play. In such designs, both natural and artificial elements must be
used; however, the number of natural elements must be more than artificial elements. Once such outdoor spaces
have been designed, which will meet childrens needs and expectations, they will contribute to their learning; and
children who spend most of their time in such closed areas as homes and internet cafes, in front of televisions and
computers will have been encouraged to use the outdoor spaces. Consequently, we will have raised healthy
individuals who had experience with the nature in their chilhood, who know the environment, and who have more
practice and permanent information than theoretical information.
References
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elemanlarnn oyun olanakllklarnn deerlendirilmesi). (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Karadeniz
Technical University, The Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Department of Landscape
Architecture, Trabzon, Turkey.
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Advances in Landscape Architecture, Edited by Murat zyavuz), INTECH, Croatia, 291-324.
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(In English: A feld study about environmental knowledge and attidudes of elementary school students).
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Creating Outdoor Environments for Children and Youth, (pp. 45-87). John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New York,.
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Eitimi Dergisi, Yl 7, Say 1, Mart 2010, 74-84.
Gler, T. (2009). The effects of an ecology based environmental education on teachers opinions about
environmental education, (In Turkish: Ekoloji temelli bir evre eitiminin retmenlerin evre eitimine kar
grlerine etkileri). Education and Science, 34 (151), 30-42.
Jones, E. (1997). Basics. In S. Stine (Ed.), Landscapes for Learning: Creating Outdoor Environments for Children
and Youth, (pp. 13-43). John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New York.
Kellert, S., R. (2002). Experiencing Nature: Affective, Cognitive, and Evaluative Development in Children. In P.H.
Kahn, Jr. and S.R. Kellert (Ed.), Children and Nature: Psychological, Sociocultural, and Evolutionary
Investigations), (pp. 117-151). The MIT Press, London.
Loebach, J. (2004). Designing learning environments for children: An affordance-based approach to providing
developmentally appropriate settings, (Unpublished master dissertation). Environmental Design Studies,
Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia.
Martin, S.H. (2008). The classroom environment and childrens performance-is there a relationship?. In C.Spencer
and M.Blades (Ed.), Children and Their Environments, (pp. 91-107). Cambridge University Press, New York.
Rissotto, A., & Giuliani, M.V. (2008). Learning neighbourhood environments: the loss of experience in a modern
world. In C. Spencer&M. Blades (Ed.), Children and Their Environments, (pp. 75-90) Cambridge University
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Taylor, A. F., & Kuo, F.E. (2008). Is contact with nature for healthy child development? State of evidence. In C.
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New York
853
Chapter 12
Landscape Design for Children

and Their Environments in Urban Context
Habibe Acar
Additional information is available at the end of the chapter
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55751
1. Introduction
One of the most important topics of landscape architecture profession is to design highquality open spaces for people to meet their needs and expectation. These open spaces range
from smaller-scale residential gardens, used by certain number of people, to large city parks,
used by people with different age groups and the crowded masses. These different open
spaces and differences in uses lead to changes in the needs and expectations. Therefore, it is
necessary to know well about the needs and expectations of people when designing spaces
for them.
Children constitute a significant part of users in urban open spaces. Because childrens time,
spent in open spaces with play during the development, is extremely important and
necessary in terms of physical social, emotional, and cognitive aspects. Therefore, nature of
the play space is very important. Because, the elements, facilities and quality of a space also
affect the quality of the play. As it will be discussed in the following sections of this text,
when importance of play for children is considered, the design of open spaces for children
becomes an extremely important issue.
Today cities are getting crowded due to the variety of business and social opportunities
offered to the people. Due to the increasing population density and intensive construction,
open spaces that children can use are decreasing. In this context, introducing new and
alternative play spaces and play options are a solution. It is extremely important that
designed play areas should be qualified to meet childrens needs and desires and to make
positive contributions to their development.
This chapter focuses on landscape designs for children, particularly in urban spaces. At this
point, the subject will be discussed in terms of landscape design, children, and urban
context. First, it will be focused on the general definition of landscape design, interests, and
2013 Acar, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
292 Advances in Landscape Architecture
the place of children's play areas among them. Second, the concept of play, the relationship
of the child with their environment, open spaces, natural areas and their importance, the
differences between environmental perceptions of children and adults will be mentioned.
Childrens needs and expectations in urban open spaces will also be discussed. Third, all of
above mentioned issues will be evaluated in terms of urban context with playgrounds
examples selected from around the world. Finally, in the light of all this information and
assessments, childrens expectations from open spaces, design process of childrens play
areas and considerations to design an ideal playground will be presented.
2. Landscape design
Landscape, originates from French word paysage which means scenery. Nowadays, the
word encompasses a wider and deeper meaning. While in the medieval period, landscape
was used as a synonym for region and territory in most of the Germanic languages,
beginning from the 15th century landscape became a pictorial genre. The use of landscape as
a term in science is relatively new. Today, landscape refers to not only a phenomenon
described and analyzed by scientific methods, but also a subjective experience which has
perspective, aesthetical, artistic and existential meaning (Memlk, 2012).
Design is the creative process of responding to conditions and concentrating meaning;
landscape design is the creation of responsive, evocative, meaningful, sustainable,
regenerative landscapes (Motloch, 2000). In other words landscape design is the art
science of organizing and enriching outdoor space through the placement of plants
structures in agreeable and useful relationship with the natural environment (Van
Zanden and Rodie, 2008, Adapted from the Nebraska Master Gardener Handbook, 1994).
and
and
and
and
Der
A designer must handle both aesthetics and function at the same time in the designs.
Because one cannot exist without the other in quality design (VanDerZanden and Rodie,
2008). Especially, when the area is considered for children, function is more important.
Because children evaluate the environment with its functional rather than its esthetical
features. The aim of the landscape design is to build up qualified spaces in open areas for
people. Open areas that are the interest of landscape design may be urban or rural and
private or public. In this article urban landscape will be emphasized. From a wider
perspective, urban landscape is a part of urban matrix. Therefore design of urban
landscapes should be considered as an integral part of urban design. Urban landscape
design is clearly not urban design, but a crucial part of it. Hence, factors influencing urban
design also influence the form and functioning of urban landscapes (Memlk, 2012).
There are lots of spaces, having different functions, that can be subject of landscape design
in urban. Some of them may be ranged as urban squares, public gardens, playgrounds, open
areas of public institutes such as education, healthetc. and yards. Each of these spaces
requires different activity fields according to their users and locations. Among these spaces,
childrens play areas have an important place because playing in open areas in the
childhood period is extremely important for childrens healthy development.
Landscape Design for Children and Their Environments in Urban Context 293
3. Children
When designing places for people, the first necessary thing is to know the users of these
places. In this way, it would be possible to determine the user's needs and expectations.
Places to meet these needs are preferred and used by users. Therefore, design for children
requires to know the child, to understand the importance and necessity of play for child,
and to know activities children do and want to do especially in public areas.
Play and importance of play for children
When you think of a child, the first thing that comes to mind is play. The play is a concept of
universal that extremely important for the development of child's personality. There are
many definitions of play in the literature.
According to the Winnicott to play is to use imagination, the most important thing a person
can doPlay is always an experience of creating, also of uniting time and space- so is
fundamental to how we live(Day and Midbjer, 2007).
Moore (1990) states that play lies at the heart of childhood, limited in its boundaries only
by the opportunities afforded by physical settings and by the attitudes and commitment of
those whose business it is to manage them (Jones, 1997).
According to Piaget, play is not a condition of mental, but is a behavior or action and it
causes the child makes effort about what to do. According to him, the play is necessary for
the development of intelligence (Piaget and Inhelder, 1971).
Play is a form of behavior which has many definition, description and developmental
theories (Piaget and Inhelder, 1971; Jones, 1997). As a result, if we need to briefly mention,
the play refers to a unscheduled, spontaneous situation. It is possible to mention the four
assumptions about the play (Jones, 1997). These are listed as follows;
1.
2.
3.
4.
children learn during the play and play is necessary for the child's development and
growth,
the play is not limited to younger children, it is an important concept in adults lifecycle,
to play outside is an important need because it offers opportunities not found anywhere
else,
play environments are educational areas
Children obtain feelings of achievement and self-security, of being together with others,
respect for themselves and others as a result of playing the play (Day and Midbjer, 2007).
Play is an extremely important concept in terms of children's rights. The International Play
Association (IPA) Declaration of the Child's Right to Play was introduced in November 1977
at the IPA Malta Consultation held in preparation for the International Year of Child (1979)
(Clements and Fiorentino, 2004). Play was emphasized that nutrition, health, housing and
education, as well as of vital importance for the development potential of each child in this
declaration (Ylmaz and Bulut, 2003).
Experts working on childhood states that the best learning is provided through play and
exploration for children (Vicki and Stoecklin, 2004). A child learns and discovers himself
and his environment during the play. During the play, children use objects to learn how to
use them, perform activities with them and recognize them. Children should change the
places of them, create compositions, bring together, separate, take a piece of them, and reinstall the missing part (Piaget and Inhelder, 1971). In this way, children find the
opportunity to learn by trying different things. Therefore play is the child's experiment tool.
Benefits of play on the development of children can be classified under two headings. These
are; the benefits of playing during the play, the benefits of playing over time. In 1978, Jones
and Prescott stated that through play, children (and bigger people, too) learn a great deal
about the variety and complexity of the world, and about themselves as self-directed
learners (Jones and Prescott, in Jones, 1997).
There are also benefits that bring to the play over time, summarized as follows:
Children gain a sense of freedom and self-confidence
When a child's respect for other individuals increases, sharing also increases
Children become an healthy individual both physically and mentally, the learning
ability of children develop
Childrens creativity increases
Recognizing the importance of play and playing game will provide to better understand the
importance of play spaces as well. Because the nature of space and its components affects
children's play. As we live in an environment that surrounds us, outdoor areas where
children play are not possible to think independently from the environment. In this context,
the relationship between the child and their environment is important.
Child and Environment
The physical environment influences everybodys behavior (Proshansky et al., 1976; Day
and Midbjer, 2007) and supports the formation of self-identity during childhood years.
Children obtain information about environment and interact socially as a result of their
experiences in the physical environment. In order to learn about the environment children
need actively use and explore the environment. They invest certain meanings and names in
special environments for themselves. The importance of these special environments
continues through adulthood period. This sense of attachment and meaning of color, smell
and texture of special places has been studied by educators and designers (Francis, C. 1997).
Studies on this subject and the remaining images in the minds of children about their
environment can be evaluated in future play space design.
Individuals' motivation, behavior and mental health are affected between individual
characteristics from the environment and the characteristics of the environment (zdemir
and Ylmaz, 2008). When we look at it in terms of children, if an environment meets the
psychological needs of children, it provides satisfaction, if it does not meet, it provides
dissatisfaction. In addition, motion is required in order the children get to know a place and
to explore it. Before they can locomote or move from place to place (crawl, walk, run, etc.)
independently, infants are interested in many of things that fall within their reach (Bell,
2008). Environments that offer opportunity for movement and that offer diversity for
children are more preferred. At the same time, as this kind of environment will provide an
opportunity to explore, it will make positive contributions to the development of children.
Studies on childrens needs and the experiences in the environment can be found in the
environmental psychology literature (Spencer and Woolley, 2000). Environmental
psychology is a branch of discipline developed by Proshansky, Rivlin and Ittelson. This
interdisciplinary work area includes specific research topics such as perception, cognition
and social learning in the relationship between the environment and human (Loebach,
2004). In the field of environmental psychology, the best concept to assessment the child's
relationship with the environment, the opportunities presented by the environment and
its elements is affordance theory. Affordance generally refers to functional facilities
offered by the environment. Firstly, it has been developed by James J. Gibson in the late
1970's. Later, the concept of affordance used to identify children's environments
opportunities by many researchers particularly in Harry Heft (1988) and Marketta Kytt
(2002, 2003, 2004) (Loebach, 2004; Clark and Uzzell, 2008; Acar, 2009). Functional
possibilities offered by the environment create opportunities for different activities for
children (figure 1, 2, 3).
Figure 1. Sloping surfaces in any area are used to slide by children (Photo Acar, H., Rotterdam,
Netherland).
Figure 2. Any object that children can enter might be a play space for them (Photo Acar, H., Den Haag,
Netherland).
Figure 3. Open green spaces provide opportunities for different activities (Photo Acar, H., Paris, France).
Children use these opportunities according to their own imagination, creativity, or purposes
(figure 4).
Figure 4. Children use materials in the environments according to their own purposes (Photo Acar, H.,
Paris, France).
These activity opportunities may be in open or closed spaces. But open areas are more
important for children than closed areas.
Opportunities offered by open spaces for children
Children need environment-related experiences during the character decisive years of their
life. Environmental experiences helps children prepare for their life and provide positive
contributions to their development. Open spaces are important places for obtaining these
experiences because play outside offers a direct relation with environment and makes
children discover their environment. Therefore open areas must be provided for children to
play. Outside play areas contribute to the development of childrens gross motor, allow
them to play freely and noisier plays, and also help them to learn about the natural
environment (Wilson, 2004).
Open spaces provide more opportunity than the closed spaces with the materials they have
(Heerwagen and Orians, 2002; Day and Midbjer, 2007; Acar, 2009). First of all, these spaces
experimentally allow children to contact with their environment, to make observation
and to learn natural events (change of the seasons and so on). Also, it helps children to
become social because it presents the opportunity of being together with other children
(figure 5, 6).
Figure 5. Open spaces provide the opportunity to be together with other children (Photo Acar, H.,
Paris, France).
It is possible to increase these opportunities offered by open spaces for children. The
importance of children's use of open spaces is more valuable, especially in urban areas.
Childrens opportunity to benefit from and access to open areas is less than in the rural areas
than urban areas due to security, traffic and intensive construction. Therefore, it has become
more important to make the existing places more qualified.
Figure 6. Even a fountain allows children come together, to communicate, to socialize. At the same time
helps them to learn issues such as to respect the rights of others and their right to self-defense (Photo
Acar, H., Paris, France).
Natural materials and play potential

Natural areas, one of the open spaces, and the materials they have can provide lots of
opportunity for different activities when they are used in accordance with the creativity and
imagination of children. Some researchers state that experiences in natural areas play an
important role on children's cognitive and affective development (Pyle, 2002; Derr, 2008).
Actually these studies show that this situation is a reflection of adults childhood experience
(Derr, 2008). That is, adults childhood experiences affect attitudes of their adulthood.
Therefore, being in interaction with nature and natural materials in childhood contribute to
getting information about this subject in future, being sensitive and conscious towards the
environment and handing down this experience to the next generations.
Childhood is a period for exploring and it is wonderful, powerful and life-changing
discoveries for many children. In this process, period of 6-12 years is considered as middle
childhood (Tai et al., 2006). Especially during middle childhood, children get significant
experiences and skills that they can use throughout their lives. Therefore, interaction with
nature is extremely important for people during this period (Bixler et al., 2002; Tai et al.,
2006; Acar, 2009).
Studies show that children have a tendency to more natural materials and these materials
provides a positive contribution to their healthy development (Fjrtoft and Sageie, 2000;
Fjrtoft , 2004; Taylor and Kuo, 2008; Louv, 2008). For this reason, these materials should be
used in the play areas by considering their utility situations in plays and activity facilities.
Especially these materials must be used in play spaces in urban areas where it is difficult to
find natural areas and materials. But, it cannot be provided just by taking these materials
into the playground. The important thing is that these materials should support children's
activities. For example, if the climbing activity will be done by a tree instead of a climbing
wall, the tree should be appropriate for childrens dimensions and in an appropriate form to
climb.
As childhood has become more restricted, opportunities for interaction with nature and
natural experience are even more critical (Mark Francis, in Lyle, 1997). Interaction with
nature and natural materials contribute children's physical, mental, moral and emotional
development. There are strong evidences that constant change and growth in nature have a
strong effect on the development of intelligence. Also, when human beings and animals are
in dynamic environment containing natural areas, neural connections in the brain increase
and start to be more complex. Being deprived of such rich environments can cause lack of
energy and violent behavior (Tai et al., 2006).
Diversity and complexity offered by the environment support children's play. This
complexity and diversity creates opportunities for social interaction and problem solving. If
a play environment contains complexity and diversity, this environment will continue to
attract the attention of children over time (Jones, 1997). These complexity, diversity and
richness in the environment can be created more with the natural materials.
Because natural materials can be evaluated in different ways in the extent of children's
creativity due to their variability. Therefore, areas that have such elements will attract the
attention of children for a long time.
In addition, natures contributions to the development of children are frequently mentioned
in the literature. These can be grouped under the following headings (Acar, 2009);
Nature contributes in terms of psychological, cognitive, and emotional health, treatment
of attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder, motor development, play quality,
increased sensitivity to the environment, socialization
Nature develops the imagination, creativity and social play
Nature evokes positive emotions, sense of place
Nature has a stimulating effect
Nature allows thinking, observation and research
Natural environments are rich, tutorial, educational and informative environments
Stephen R. Kellert who is social ecology expert express that children can relate to nature in
three ways. These are (Kellert, 2002);
Direct; there is physical contact with nature and children recognize the nature more
closely.
Indirect; physical contact with nature is limited and is programmed, such as zoos,
botanical gardens.
Symbolically; there is no physical contact with nature, children recognize the nature with
materials such as book and computer.
The most ideal of these for children is direct contact with nature (figure 7). But today
establishing a direct relationship with nature and access to natures facilities are limited for
children in their daily experiences. The most important factor of this is the vast majority of
the population has begun to live in urban and suburban areas. In this case children see the
natural areas in their environment less than children live in rural or even they cannot see,
they usually go to school by service or other vehicles, they cannot have the experience or the
opportunity to explore their environment, children use more open areas under adult
supervision due to security matters or they are recommended to use closed areas to play
and due to the increasing constructions children can use limited areas for play. Studies
about subject show that all of them effect the healthy development of children negatively.
Considering we dont have a chance to change our living conditions and after that these
conditions would change more against the children, especially designers who design open
spaces for children have important role from now on.
Study nature, love nature, stay close to nature. It will never fail you Frank Lloyd Wright
(Tai et al., 2006). This expression of Wright explicitly refers to the result of being in
relationship with nature.
Figure 7. An activity allowing direct contact with nature- pony ride on the area- (Photo Acar, H., Paris,
France)
Differences in the perceptions and expectations of children and adults about the environment
Children and adults see and perceive the world differently (Day and Midbjer, 2007) and use
open spaces differently (Moore, 1991). Therefore, while making a decision about the design
of open spaces we should not forget that there are differences between children's and adults
perspectives. Functional features of the environment are more important than the aesthetic
features for children (figure 8). Therefore, when designing areas for children we should
determine according to childrens needs and desires.
Adults just focus on how to use space and they know what it is. On the other hand, for
children what the space means and how they meet and experience it is more important
(figure 9). Paula Lillard distinguishes these approaches: children use the environment to
improve themselves; adults use themselves to improve the environment. Children work for
the sake of process; adults work to achieve and result. This means places-for adults-are for
pre-defined purposes; but to children, they offer opportunities for things to do. Adults live
(mostly) in a world of material facts-known and unchanging. For children, the real world
is often servant to an imaginary world (Day and Midbjer, 2007).
Figure 8. Figure 8. A rock garden and rocks in the garden designed aesthetically for adults are
elements seating, climbing, over and around the watch for children (Photo Acar, H., Trabzon, Turkey)
Figure 9. Figure 9. A curved equipment designed by adults for aesthetically or sitting in the shopping
center can be play element to slide for a child (Photo Acar, H., Trabzon, Turkey)
For example, while adults enjoy looking at a lake, trees, the grass, these must be a tactile
auditory, oral and olfactory experience for children. It is through body contact, direct and
often disorderly, that need to experience their world. Puddles of water that adults avoid
are funny places splashing when pressed for children. Lush green hills adults likes looking
at is a place to roll down, feel the wet soft grass, smell its green smell for a child, an
experience the free fall of tumbling round and round. Adults prefer visually clean and well
maintained places instead of irregular and wet grass in open spaces. However, children as
one of the players that use the environment are place-messers (Francis, M. 1997).
The streets have always been one of the important and attractive play spaces for children
(figure 10). Children meet their friends around there, get to know each other and explore the
environment. The most important feature that makes streets attractive is its accessibility for
both sexes and all age groups. However, streets are thought as a transportation routes used
to go from a point to b point or parking areas for vehicles by adults (Moore, 1991).
Figure 10. Figure 10. Streets are play spaces for children near their home (Photos Acar, H., Trabzon,
Turkey)
One way to understand how children use the environment and what kind of environment
they want is observing them. If the user of area that is designed for the child is apparent - for
example a school or daycare garden- in order to learn the expectations of children we
should observe childrens behavior in the area instead of learning by interviews. In this way,
it can be determined that which points in the area, when, how often, with how many people
and finally and most importantly, for which activity children use. Also, children can build
special places such as wooden houses, clubhouses built with waste materials, cottages, and
so on, for their own needs in their environments. These places built by the children are an
important indicator of their expectations from the environment. These special places are not
very aesthetically pleasing but it is important for the development of children's creativity.
Therefore, designers should learn to look at the environment through childrens eyes or
listen them while designing the spaces for children.
4. Urban context
Human has needed spaces that have different functions for various needs and wishes since
the transition of urban life. These can be either open or closed spaces. Space, with the
simplest definition, is place of a person or group. Space is a place which has human, human
relations, and equipment required for these relations and the boundaries of a space is
defined according to the structure and characteristics of activity (Gr, 1996). Urban is a
settlement consists of these spaces and people using them.
While Norberg Schulz defines the urban as a "meeting place" in which people come together
and a "microcosm surrounding the people (Erdnmez and Ak, 2005), Lynch (1960) defines
the urban as a place of a communication in which there are open and closed symbols,
religious symbols, signs and plates, towers, columns, entries and rural areas. Urban have a
different user segments together with the diversity of this place. So, all of the city's open
spaces especially in public spaces are used by different age groups. Children are one of the
most important of these user groups.
Churchman (2003) began his research with a question "Is there a place for children in the
city?. In fact, we should ask this question for all cities and even all the settlements where
children are in. Because unfortunately open green spaces decreases in parallel with an
increase in the population and the number of structural elements such as residential and
business centers increases in urban areas with the process of urbanization. Decrease in open
areas also causes a decrease in outside play areas for children. Whereas as mentioned in the
previous sections playing in open spaces is really important and necessary for the healthy
development of the children.
Being Child in the City
Nowadays childhood has shown a change through over-controlled by families rather than
child-centered (Francis and Lorenzo, 2008). Especially changing environmental conditions in
urban areas-traffic density, lack of security- have significant impact on this change. As a
result of this, while children spend less time in open areas, they spend more time with
individual plays in their homes, in virtual environments such as computers and television
and with technological devices such as mobile phone, portable play station, play station
(Heerwagen and Orians, 2002; Onur, 2007; Acar, 2009). Eventually, problematic children
who cannot interact with nature and with their peers, cannot develop talents and creativity
and have limited knowledge about their environment are brought up. This also means
problematic adults (Francis and Lorenzo, 2008). Whereas former children were playing in
the gardens of their houses or in vacant fields near their homes, on the streets or special
places they created. They could find opportunity to be with the same or different age groups
and friends in there. Today this condition disappeared in urban areas although it continues
in rural areas. This case is not special only for Turkey but for the world-wide (Francis and
Lorenzo, 2008; Acar, 2009).
Especially in the last four decades of childhood both negative and positive changes have
been occurred. The most alarming cause of these changes is developed cities. Children are
increasingly disappearing in density and the chaos of the cities. They are often under the
control of the adults while using open spaces. Researchers refer that this situation prevents
the needs and the rights of living and enjoying the city of children (Francis and Lorenzo,
2008). Therefore, it is very important to find solutions that will allow children to use open
spaces freely and happily for their needs in advanced and crowded cities. Because kids are
the same everywhere and need opportunities for healthy development. According to Ellen
Ruppel Shell (2001) the title of her article Kids dont need equipment, they need
opportunity.
There are open spaces that have different qualities in the urban centers. These areas provide
opportunities for children and are grouped under the following headings;
Private residential gardens
Schools and daycare centers open spaces
Shopping centers-plazas open spaces and courtyards

Play areas in urban parks
Playgrounds
Streets
Urban forests
Vacant fields and natural areas
Cities
Some of these open areas used by children designed especially for children, some of them
are not designed (such as natural areas, streets). Needs of each designed areas can show
diversity according to the state of the user and usage. While designing these places,
designers should pay attention to these needs and children's desires. There are studies on
the design of these open spaces in the literature (Moore et al., 1997; Francis, 1998; Spencer
and Woolley, 2000). Generally issue of how urban open spaces should be designed for
children will be discussed under the next heading.
How cities should be for the children?
Issues such as how cities should be for children, design criteria for urban open spaces
designed for children, and specific points need to be considered in design are classified
under specific headings by experts who design open space for children and work on these
issues.
Elizabeth Jones (1997), classified specific design elements of spaces under the 9 titles
including children play activities depending on the design requirements. These are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Accessible-Inaccessible
Active-Passive
Challenge/Risk-Repetition/Security
Hard-Soft
Natural-People/Built
Open-Closed
Permanence-Change
Private-Public
Simple-Complex
They all are essential in the creation of outdoor settings offering guidance in meeting the
needs of children intellectually, socially, cognitively and physically (Jones, 1997).
Owen (1988) determined the qualities required for children in urban design in accordance
with the relevant experts and childrens statements to define best cities. Francis and Lorenzo
(2008) also determined characteristics of better urban places for children based on their
design experiences and Owen's (1988) suggestions. These characteristics are;
1.
Accessibility: Play areas (if far away from childrens home), especially for small children,
should be separated from traffic flow, and be connected to their home or school with a
good link or be within reach by bike.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Mixed use and mixed users: Children do not like mono-functional zoning. These ideas are
consistent with the mixed use and zoning idea of urban designers and planners today.
Children want to be together with individuals with different age groups and cultures
rather than special places for themselves. They want to try events and functions, and
make observations without limitation of adults in a space.
Sociability: Children want to be together with different age groups of children and
young people autonomously. Besides, children and youth want to be involved in
management of some places.
Small, feasible, flexible: Children often prefer small-scale constructions formed by
recycled, low-cost materials, and natural and green components.
Natural, environmentally healthy, growing and in movement: Natural elements, especially
plants are preferred by children and are responded to their expectations as they are
living materials and reflect seasonal changes. Natural elements, therefore, used for
different activities by children and should be included in the design of children places.
In addition, other living materials and water should be considered.
Urban and place identity: Disorder in scale, function and form in childrens place,
especially in urban areas, cause perception of space, as a market place. Whereas
children know that places need to be identifiable. Signals and signs can be designed
into the physical plan. Their design solutions are colors, materials, plantings, etc.
Places and opportunities for participation: Children want to contribute to the ongoing,
flexible, and permanent design in the process. Children feel good about themselves and
have protective attitudes when they have a voice and contribute to the design of the
environment they live in.
Tai et al. (2006) classified the design process in a play area under the titles such as research
(the inventory and analysis, program development and user needs, design) and construction
documentation (cost estimating, implementation). Considerations for determining user
needs in this process are listed as follows;
Five senses: Designs to outdoor areas used by children should contribute to the use and
are aware of their feelings. Scientifically, unchanging and unchangeable environments
is not ideal for the senses. When diversity is not exist in the environment, the brain
searches for other ways to stimulate such as self-introspection or goes to sleep,
concentration deteriorates, attention fluctuates and lapses. In contrast, varying stimuli
provides attention and awareness keeps you awake (Day and Midbjer, 2007).
Scale: While adults see the world on a larger scale, children are more cautious about the
details. Studies in this area also support this idea. Gary Nabha, one of the authors of
The Geography of Childhood, saw his photographs are different, looking at the photos
taken by his son in western National parks travels. While his photographs present
interesting vistas, his son took more photos with rocks, twigs, lizards and other more
tactile, small-scale objects. Therefore, when an adult designs a space for children, he
should care for the child's point of view.
Safety: Creating a play space, safety is one of the most important design principles to be
considered. At this point, there are two important elements that children like to see
around; the water and the high elements. Therefore they should be used in children
places by taking the necessary safety precautions.
Retreat: Although children are different from adults, it should be noted that they are
also individuals and there are similarities between adult and kids. Adults need special
places that they will be alone for relaxing and escaping. Children need spaces away
from the control of adult, feeling secure and playing privately. These spaces should be
in a safe environment and close to adults so the security of children should be
guaranteed. Such areas can be form in bounded tree house or a building, such as plastic
game tubes.
Play: Play is an activity that is important to explore the world through the eyes of a
child. There are many theories and classifications for play. One of them is contributing
to the child's physical development and active movement. Another one is contributing
to the development of the child's mind and the discovery of creative environment.
Active play: Active play, in essence, includes a lot of action. These are extremely
important for the development of physical health and motor skills. However, it should
be noted that children having different needs have different expectations. This situation
is related to different skill levels and preferences of the children. In this case, play
spaces should be funny and comfortable for physical and active play. These places
should also be versatile for the different needs and abilities of children.
Creative play: Creative play is one of the most important experiences in the childhood
period. Childrens creativity develops when stimulated in a healthy play environment.
The natural environments are the best areas to stimulate creativity and to encourage
children. In such areas, twigs, leaves, rocks, provide opportunities for different play.
When a child is given any material to create a new world, possibilities are endless.
Plants: The selection of plant materials in the play area requires care. Dangerous,
poisonous, thorny, and allergic species should not be used.
Wildlife: Plants, necessary for play areas, is also important for wildlife. Monitoring these
habitats is necessary for childhood learning.
Food: While plants provide habitat for wildlife, they also provide information about
ecology for children with the features such as acorns, nuts, berries, or other seeds.
Water: All animals need water to drink or bathe. A water feature in the garden
guarantees that birds will come into this area in the future. In this way, children can be
ensured to see birds.
Shelter: To attract wildlife and keep them in the area, shelters, especially on plants, can
be made for animals. Brush piles, fallen logs, rock piles and other natural elements can
provide animals safety and shelter.
Place to rise the young: Wildlife has benefits both for adults and children. Children can
learn about wildlife by observing the natural environments.
There are different elements around that we can use to draw childrens attention. These
elements should be utilized in the designed areas for children. Water is one of these
elements. Water, either artificially created or with natural surroundings (a river, lake or sea),
in the city are always offers unlimited opportunities for children to explore (figure 11).
Similarly, blankets, pillows and boxes can be used to create places to hide. Trikes and bikes
encourage children to be active. All of these and other similar elements can contribute to the
development of children's physical ability, motion, coordination, balance and testing skill,
and encourages them to play. The setting that include "attractive materials can be a clue
when designing play spaces for kids (Jones, 1997).
As a part of biological diversity, plants, animals, water elements (lake, river, ...) that provide
habitat for a particular species, and natural areas that include a portion or all of them in
urban areas, can be a source of inspiration for play (Acar, 2010 ) (figure 12). Even if not
completely natural, these should be used in the design of children spaces. As discussed in
detail in the previous sections, contact with natural areas and natural elements in childhood
is extremely important for children. As Robin Moore pointed out, "green" alone is not
enough as well as. Spaces created for children should be child-centered, recollective and
inviting, and should continuously be effective on the development of children (Tai et al.,
2006).
Figure 11. Playing with water have always been attractive and exciting for children (Photos Acar, H.)
Gender differences should be taken into account in play space design. Girls and boys are
different from each other physically, and activity elements should be suitable for both sexes.
Although the reason is not always clear, girls and boys are attracted to different places.
Boys plays can often last over days even weeks to complete. While boys usually construct
unused buildings (especially tower), the girls usually construct rooms with people in them.
Girls are often pay attention to the aesthetics of the environment and like colorful and
beautiful flowers. Girls particularly 13-15 aged ones, have a variety of definition about the
space when compared to boys (Day and Midbjer, 2007). It is observed, that girls prefer, for
example, flowers and butterflies and trees, whereas boys prefer more active play such as
sliding and playing hide and seek. However, they all need quite places to rest, talk, and
socialize (Simonic et al., 2005).
Figure 12. Figure 12. The opportunity of interaction with animals allows children to have information
about the animals (Photo Acar, H., Nara, Japan)
Color is an important factor in the children's preferences. Color preferences are personal.
Young children love bright colors. In the 1960s, some educationalists were considering that
children can only perceive main colors. Today, it is believed that they are over-stimulating.
Strong colors can be used in small spaces. But, in large spaces in which we spend more time,
it would be better to use muted colors or mood stabilizers. Distinct and warm colors (red,
yellow, and orange) are preferred by children over 6 years old. This is not surprising. At this
age, they are activity-led, not feeling- or thought-led. Boys preferred red color more than
girls that is compatible with their behavior. Older children prefer blue color. Beyond the
personal preferences, there are also powerful therapeutic effects of the color (Day and
Midbjer, 2007). The color choice seems to change according to age. H. Friedling, in his study
performed in 1974, showed the color preferences of children according to age. According to
this study, popular and unpopular colors vary as follows (Gr and Zorlu, 2002):
Popular colors:
5-8 ages pinkish purple, red, pink, lilac, lemon yellow
9-10 ages purples, pink, red, turquoise, reddish orange, coffee,
11-12 ages green, light blue, red, purple
13-14 ages light blue (masculine), red (feminine), blue, green, orange, dark orange
Unpopular colors:
5-8 ages black, white, gray, dark brown
9-10 ages gray, dark brown, black, rust green, rust blue
11-12 ages olive green, rust green, purple, lilac
13-14 ages rust green, brown, dark brown
Children would like to see plants that can be used for play. For this purpose, plants can also
be used to serve a variety of outdoor activities in open spaces designed for children. Trees,
shrubs, flowers, vegetables and parts of these plants, such as branches, leaves, pinecones are
important elements of children's environments and plays (figure 13, 14, 15). Plants in child
environments are used with the objectives of enclosure, identity, movement, climbing, play
props, programmed activities/education, accessibility/integration, landmarks, seasonal
change, wildlife enhancement, climate modification, and environmental quality (Moore,
2002). Plants offer different color options in different seasons with their colorful leaves,
flowers and fruits. Results of the authors master thesis that focused on the plant preferences
for children play spaces revealed that children like red, yellow, mottled, blue and orange
colored leafs while they do not like yellow and green colored leafs. Study also revealed that
purple, pink and white flowers were favorite, while red and white colors were
unfavourable. In terms of fruit color, study also found that red and blue were favorite, while
yellow and orange colors were unfavourable (Acar, 2003).
Figure 13. Plants are interesting materials for children (Photo Acar, H., Paris, France)
The functional properties of the plants can be assessed by children in addition to the esthetic
properties such as color, form, etc. As mentioned in previous sections, to evaluate existing
elements, such as the functional point of view is more important for children. In this respect,
children use plants in the playground depending on the features that they have for activities
such as climbing, hiding, symbolic games (branch and leaf-like parts of the imaginary cone),
and swinging (Acar, 2009). For these purposes, appropriate species selection is needed
depending on, function and usage of the space, and the activities that will take place (e.g.
size, form, texture, evergreen-deciduous, coniferous-broadleaved, fruit-fruitless, etc.)
(Moore, 2002). In addition, care must be taken for childrens health and safety according to
selected species (allergens, toxic, barbed should not be used).
Figure 14. Figure 14. Plants are ideal materials to hide behind (Photo Acar, H., Trabzon, Turkey)
Figure 15. Figure 15. Plant parts are important play materials (Photo Acar, H., Trabzon, Turkey)
Finally, White and Stoecklin (1998), cited the following features that children likes to see in
public areas;
water
vegetation including trees, bushes, flowers and the long grass
animals, creatures living in ponds
sand and water
natural colors, diversity and change
places to sit under, in, and on, and sheltered places
hidden, and private, places and places providing good view
especially replaceable structures, materials, and equipment that they imagine
These features and everything mentioned so far are important clues for the design of open
space for the children Needs and preferences can vary depending on the individual;
however, the knowledge of the general trend provides a significant contribution for space
design.
Children's participation in the design process
Overall, by definition, participation refers to that the active participation in decisions
affecting one's self and has a say. This is also the right of individual citizens in a democracy.
A meaningful participation in the design of open space can be achieved by the participation
of individuals from all ages on the subject that includes designed field evaluation,
identification of problems, evaluation of the available data, solution proposals, needs and
the development of alternatives and by combining all of these on a common plan for a
conclusion. Participation is local, transparent, inclusive, interactive, responsive, relevant,
educational, reflective, transformative, sustainable, personal and voluntary (Driskell,
2002).
Children should be included in the design of kid play areas through the design process, if
possible. Children participation in the decision-making process has advantages for both
designers and practitioners. In this way, their needs will be met and their contribution to the
construction process leads to a protective attitudes towards these areas among them. Local
Agenda 21 action plan that was introduced in the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and accepted by the UN
members, strongly supports the involvement of children in the planning of local
environments.
A meeting was held in Bologna (Italy) in May 1994 to contribute the identification of childfriendly cities. Approximately more than 300 children from 100 primary and secondary
schools in different cities of Italy, educators, planners, and administrations all have
described the problems of the cities. All of the children supported by WWF Italy took part in
participatory design projects. As a result of these activities, The Children's Manifesto: How to
Win Back Our Cities gives clues for future urban design. According to this, the children's
ideas are grouped under following headings: "needs in general, expectations from the city,
needs regarding urban green spaces, needs in school, needs related to whelming traffic, and
needs for the future" (Francis and Lorenzo, 2002). Some of their expectations are;
to interact with nature in cities which means: playing, climbing, building huts, listening,
looking and understanding,
to have different experiences, sleeping out of doors, strolling together, kites between
the houses, bridges between the windows, etc.
more sport activities and children's theaters,
areas for cycling
to be heard by others
to establish childrens council to participate decision-making
quiet environments
colourful and beautiful schools

secure traffic
a lot of trees, shrubs and grasses,
collect fruit trees
These are very important as it reflects the expectations of children's requests.
Francis and Lorenzo (2002) stated that children should be included into the process of urban
design. In this context, they identified seven realms for childrens participation in urban
design and planning.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Romantic
Advocacy
Needs
Learning
Rights
Institutionalization
Proactive
A new approach is on the agenda in line with the participatory design to re-planning of
cities which are not suitable for children to meet their needs. This approach is a proactive
process that is including idea of children, adults and professional designers. This approach
is fundamentally different approach to the participation of children, which indicates multifaceted perspective and multi-faceted participation. It is based on listening and learning
the ideas of children, adults, designers, planners and decision-makers. Differences of
opinion between children and adults are negotiated. In the design process, the concepts of
equality, justice, and sustainability are important. This process is also based on social
science methods that adults re-remember their childhood experiences and share them as
their own children. In addition, this involves the use of Internet and Digital Media
interactively. This approach claims that the work of children in other age groups, will
contribute to the formation of livable, ecologically sustainable and child-and adult
friendly cities (Francis and Lorenzo, 2008). In this process, children can participate to the
design of children's play areas.
5. Examples from the world

In order to make an overall assessment of selected samples around the world, it is important
to see the different perspectives and approaches for the design of children's play. It is
possible to increase the number of samples.
Rotterdam, Netherland
This example is a play space in which spaces boundaries are defined with color differences
on the ground in the city. This area is composed of artificial equipment completely and is
quite small. Despite this, it allows more than one activities (figure 16).
Figure 16. Play space from Rotterdam, Netherland (Photos Acar, H.)
Brussels, Belgium
This area was designed in woodland in the city. It is particularly suitable for disabled people
with ramp play equipment. It provides an opportunity to contact with nature for children as
it is in a woodland area (figure 17).
Figure 17. Figure 17. Play space from Brussels, Belgium (Photos Acar, H.)
Luxemburg, Luxemburg
Ship is a play element that is frequently used in playgrounds and is also attractive in any
time for children. It evokes discovery and adventure. The figure of the ship, located in the
city offers many activities (sliding, hiding, stable standing, monitoring around, climbing,
etc.) for children. Timber materials are used in the area and their colour are in a harmony
with wooded area. Animal figures are used as sitting equipment. Although they are
artificial, they give an opportunity to children to see and touch the turtle. Water-related
spaces that children would like to see were designed in a wide range. In addition, there are
towers offering different height options in this play spaces (figure 18).
Figure 18. Figure 18. Play space from Luxemburg, Luxemburg (Photos Acar, H.)
Den Haag, Netherland

There is also a ship figure in this play space. In addition, there are different equipment for
different activities such as swinging, sliding, balancing, jumping, and playing with sand.
Seating areas were also designed around the playground for parents together with the
children (figure 19, 20).
Figure 19. Figure 19. Play space from Den Haag, Netherland (Photos Acar, H.)
Figure 20. Play space from Den Haag, Netherland (Photos Acar, H.)
Istanbul, Turkey
This example is in woodland of the city. There are only artificial equipment offering
different activities in this play space. Because these play spaces located in a natural area,
they provide the opportunity to become intimate with nature for children (figure 21).
Figure 21. Play space from Istanbul, Turkey (Photos Acar, H.)
Paris, France
This play area located in Paris is an extremely good example in terms of different
topography options. The existing slope in this area was evaluated without too much
intervention. As described in affordance theory, curved surfaces afford to climb or slid. So,
there is more climbing activity provided with different equipment such as rope in this play
area. In addition, this play space is suitable for sliding. Also, although this is a fairly curved
area, the safety of children is provided by safety barriers. Boundary elements are also
suitable to sit (figure 22, 23).
Figure 22. Play space from Paris, France (Photos Acar, H.)
Figure 23. Play space from Paris, France (Photos Acar, H.)
6. Conclusion
As a result, looking at the subject in the light of information covered so far in general, the
design process in outdoor play space for children in urban areas can be classified under the
following headings.
Site analysis and data collection
To form main design decisions in accordance with the field opportunities and the needs
and preferences of children
Producing scenario
Selection of ideal scenarios and detailing
Application
In this process, the design considerations of play spaces in urban areas can be grouped
under the following headings.
The nature of the site and facilities:
Designed area: The location of designed area in the city, the relationship of space with its
surroundings and the possible means of transportation and routes of people expected to use
this area should be determined.
The usage status: The place that will be designed as play space or its surroundings and the
purpose of use should be evaluated. For example, the school, city park, playground, and so
on. Accordingly, the users (age group), as well as the needs and demands of these users
should be determined. For example, if the designed area is a primary school, intensive use
depending on the number of students at certain intervals such as break hours; areas of
application that can be made for courses such as science or nature experiences; areas for
active movement such as physical education courses should be considered.
Site facilities: The whole data during the site analysis and information gathering about field
(topography, climate, existing vegetation types, soil, space and constructions around the
pedestrian-vehicle transport) should be reviewed and evaluated. The positive ones (plant
species evaluated in case of the protection, different topography options) should be
evaluated in the designs by maintaining or strengthening. In this way, the area will be
completely unmodified and untreated, so the existing facilities will be evaluated. The
negative features (bad images, features that constitute a threat to children) should be
removed from the area or improved.
The needs of children:
User profile: The user group of the area is extremely important. Because when the
development, changes in physical measurements, sense and mental capacities and motion
abilities of children according to their age is considered, the change of needs and desires is
inevitable. Therefore, the varieties of activity and capacities of spaces should be determined
appropriately for the age groups of children that will use these areas.
Expectations: The preferences of people vary according their personal expectations,
environments and cultures. This situation is also same for children. However, the needs and
desires of children about open spaces have been shown by some investigations. It is possible
to determine on the basis of their general tendency. It will give useful results if some
interviews are made with the users of the area to determine their direct expectations and
even by including the children to the designing process. In this way, children's expectations
will be fulfilled by mutual consultations. In this way, designed play spaces can be used by
children for a long time. Apart from this, if there will be a revision to the design area, giving
design decisions would be more healthy after observing the behaviors of children using the
area for a while before design it from the beginning.
Activities: Before you design an environment, you need to determine the activities which are
expected to be implemented in that area. Because, spaces are designed depending on the
particular activities. When designing the space for the child, users' requests, the age groups
of children are kept in mind to decide which activities would be done. These activities may
be active or passive. The form, capacity and equipment of space are designed according to
the type of determined activity and number of people performing this activity. Suggested
activities for children in outdoor areas should contribute to their physical, mental, emotional
and social developments. In addition, it is essential to suggest some areas for the parents to
sit and rest since they need to be near their children.
Safety: Safety is one of the most important issues in children's play spaces. If a field is not
safe, no matter how many different activities it suggests, the children will not favour them.
Or their families will not allow their children to use that space. Security in play areas should
be ensured in terms of accessories used in the play space as well as its relationships with its
environment.
Nature: As it is mentioned the contribution of natural areas and materials for to the
development of children are extremely high. For this reason, the natural elements designed
children's play spaces must be provided transportation. Therefore in designs, natural
materials such as plant, rock, and water should be used so that they allow for children to use
the appropriate size in playing.
Plant: Plants and parts such as branches, leaves, and pinecones are very good play materials
for children. They are preferred especially when children can use them with different aims
due to their creativity during their plays if they are open to be changed. For this reason, they
contribute to children's intellectual development and the development of their power of
creativity. In addition, the use of nature enables the children to learn the natural cycle since
they are alive seasonal changes, leafing, flowering and fructification time. However to
manage this it is necessary to ensure the appropriate planting for play area. For example, for
climbing activity, species that has branching structure which are not so high and are
appropriate for climbing should be selected. To show seasonal variations, species showing
coloration in autumn and having leaved broad can be selected. Species with edible fruits
may be included where appropriate. For the development of children's visual senses, leaves,
wind, sound-producing species should be suggested. These examples can be multiplied. If
the existing plant species in the area will be used for these purposes, they should be
protected. In addition, those which have psychologically negative affect or which are
harmful for children with, such as barbed or very tall species should be avoided.
Water: Water which always attracts the attention of children is a very important material. It
should be used necessarily in play areas. It can be used such as a fountain, water gushing
from the ground, pied feet of small puddles of water, with sand in different forms.
Animal: Animals always attract the attention of children because of they are living
organisms and acting. Children tend to touch or examine a small ant whenever they see
them. Seeing animals around themselves will be affective to understand and have
information on their roles in the life cycle, their nutrition their habitats. Zoos are open areas
offering children a chance to see animals in nearly natural environments. However,
arrangements can be made in smaller areas to provide the opportunity to see animals which
do not need special care such as ant, bird, butterfly. For example, to manage this, plant
species which attract birds and butterflies can be used.
Topography: Topography of the area can be used for different activities. For example, curved
surfaces enable children to climb and slide, high places do the same for going on around
the watch, the hills are good for rolling over and hiding behind. If these and similar
topography options are present in field, they should be established or improved in the
different options. Because children prefer very irregular forms than a uniform backgrounds.
Socialization: Open spaces allow children to be associated with ones at the same or different
ages. It is important for the socialization of children. Therefore, you need to design areas to
ensure children to have time together with other children. These places may include
activities that meet large groups of people, and activities in large areas. Moreover, there
should be relatively small-scale spaces allowing two children to sit and chat in more quiet
corners of the field, either.
The use of the senses: The play spaces should contribute to the development of the senses of
children. Therefore, designs and accessories that we can collect data from environment by
five senses in the play should be used. For example, plant species with fragrant flowers to
smell, different sound-producing musical instruments to hear, different display mirrors
offering a choice of perceive to see by looking at the outside environment, edible plant
species to taste, different textured surfaces or plants created by offering a choice of vertical
and horizontal planes or different textures to touch should be used.
Creativity: Outdoor play areas contribute to the development of children's creativity.
However, for this, environment elements can be modified and used for different purposes.
These can be different materials such as water with sand, or non-constant materials to build
a structure in the field, flowers and leaves to make a symbolic meal in children's plays, the
boat leaves to refloat, the plant parts to ride a horse and so on. Children use them in playing
in accordance with their creativity and imagination.
The materials that is to be used:
Safety: Security is the most important criteria in playgrounds design. For this reason, safety
should come first both for the designed play areas, its surroundings and the material; we
should avoid the life-threatening risks for children.
Soundness: All the materials to be used in play space should be sound, convenient and
ergonomic in terms of anthropometric measurements of children. For more use, the
deformed space and accessories should be renewed or replaced as soon as possible. Wooden
materials that will be used should not be cracked or rough.
Health: Plant material that will be used in the play space should not be constituted a threat to
the health of children. To do this, toxic, allergenic pollen, with thorny species should be
avoided. In addition, horizontal, vertical, or other artificial materials used in contact with
reinforcement made of materials should be non-toxic.
Natural-Artificial: Based on the studies on the subject, most of them appear to prefer natural
areas or natural materials. And this material provides a positive contribution to their
development. However, this does not indicate the need for children's play spaces using only
natural materials. Because, artificial materials with color, texture and potential in different
sizes attract children. For this reason, natural materials, as well as artificial materials should
be included in the designs.
Free materials: In play areas, there should be portable free standing, unstable materials that
allow children to change their places and take them together to build new things. These
enable children to build up the objects in their dreams and to learn while doing and trying
so and to be in cooperation with other children also.
Design for Everyone: The right of every citizen is to take advantages of urban open spaces
equally. Therefore, in the play places designed for children in cities all children (disabled,
non-disabled) should take advantage of them. Therefore, non-impaired persons with
disabilities at the beginning of the design process needs to be considered. Both efficacy and
regulations (space and reinforcement measures) should be considered.
As a result this article deals with children's play areas design in urban open space. It should
not be forgotten that children's preferences and expectations may vary according to the
individual, the society and the culture. However, scientific studies on children, children's
environment and children's preferences, observations and experiences show us that the
general trend is in this direction. In addition, all the types referred to in a play space, variety
of activity areas or equipment may not be able to use together. In particular concept (such as
water gardens, water gardens or sense) of one or a few of them in the play area may be
considered. In addition, the above mentioned information is considered to be an important
resource for those working with children and general open space designer for children.
Finally, "a child's play space should ideally never be finished, it should be in a constant state
of change" (Goltsman, in Loughlin and Suina, 1997).
Author details
Habibe Acar
Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture,
Trabzon, Turkey
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Part III
INTEGRATING CURRICULUM AND NATURE

This section encourages early childhood educators to explore possibilities of incorporating the outdoor setting and academics. Through the two chapters, readers will
be provided with concise details of how educators have all ready integrated nature
and curriculum to benefit young learners.
Chapter 6 provides readers with a visionary model of how outdoor classrooms
can expand childrens inquiry in the content areas of literacy and science. Tatarchuk
and Eick break down the key components for educators to be successful in their
curriculum planning for bridging the indoor classroom to the outdoor, by decomposing their journey with third graders. This chapter encourages readers to incorporate
science into their literacy curriculum through the outdoor classroom, to ensure science education is not lost in this standard driven world.
Chapter 7 takes readers on a philosophical and historical journey of school
gardens, with the support of child development theorists Rousseau and Montessori.
During this chapter readers will dive deeper into how school gardens benefit young
learners, how this concept of gardening can be tied to the curriculum, and explicit
details of how one school connected each grade to the school garden.
In Chapter 8, David Sobel divulges gripping details to assist educators in developing a curriculum that integrates nature. Within this chapter readers will explore
the many ways to create a curriculum for young children that focuses upon the incorporation of adventure, fantasy and imagination, animal allies, maps and paths,
special places, small worlds, along with hunting and gathering. This chapter provides
design principles essentials to create the ultimate outdoor learning experience.
Looking to nature to accentuate

science and language arts connections
n outdoor classroom is an exciting way to connect the learning of science to nature and the
environment. Many school grounds include
gardens, grassy areas, courtyards, and wooded
areas. Some even have nearby streams or creeks. These
are built-in laboratories for inquiry! Young students can
begin to conduct inquiry through their natural curiosity
about living and nonliving things found in the outdoors
(McGlashan and Gasser 2007). Students are generally
observant of nature and want to know what plants and
animals are called and how they interact within their habitats. We build on students natural curiosity with a linking of science and language arts in which students read,
observe, classify, predict, and write about items found in
nature (Douglas, Klentschy, and Worth 2006). We view
PHOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF THE AUTHORS
Outdoor
Integration
By Shawna Tatarchuk and Charles Eick
the outdoor classroom as a context for learning through

inquiry and a place for students to apply what they are
learning in their science and language arts curriculum. In
doing so, we hope to also connect many students to the
outdoors and nature as a place for personal exploration
and appreciationa place not to be feared (Louv 2005).
In our third-grade classroom, we align and integrate
language-arts process skills with science-process skills
through a curriculum based on nature study in our outdoor
classroom. Our article takes the reader through our basic
format in a science unit from skill-based reading about
nature to conducting outdoor inquiries to writing about
nature learning. We provide three examples of units that
we have completed following this model in our outdoor
classroom: seeds, butterflies, and stream health.
February 2011
35
Our Integrated Format

Students begin science units by first reading a science article
or story that spurs curiosity and interest in a natural science
topic. Through reading expository text together and using
our states reading initiative strategies, students are explicitly taught reading comprehension skills such as finding
the main idea, identifying the authors purpose, locating
supporting details, making inferences, using context clues,
making predictions, and drawing conclusions. Many of
these process skills are similar to those used in science (Figure 1). Students then learn more about the science concepts
through an indoor, standards-based science curriculum in
which they concurrently gather evidence supporting conceptual development and understanding.
As students progress through their science studies, we
use the outdoor classroomin our case trails, gardens, and
creekfor them to apply their conceptual knowledge to the
natural world, connecting their previous reading and science
learning to the outdoors. The spaces we use are free of
poison ivy, dangerous drops, and nearby road traffic.
Follow your school guidelines for outdoor safety.
While in the outdoor classroom, students rely on their
science-process skills of focused observation, measurement, and classification to answer guiding questions and
their own predictions about the natural environment.
Having an inquiry-based purpose for going outdoors helps
students stay on task and reduces potential behavior problems. Afterward, students process their learning from their
inquiries through writing about them in various forms, including narrative, expository, descriptive, and persuasive
compositions (Fulwiler 2007). We give students writing
prompts that help them address what they have observed
in nature and how it connects to their science learning. We
also have found it helpful for some students to start with
drawing a picture or image of what they observed. Writ-
Figure 1.
Comparison of related science- and

reading-process skills.
Science-Process Skills
Observing
Predicting
Inferring
Comparing and
Contrasting
Communicating
Classifying
Collecting and
Organizing Data
Interpreting Data
Linking Cause and Effect
Formulating Conclusions
36
Science and Children
Reading-Process Skills
Noting details
Predicting
Inferring
Comparing and
Contrasting
Communicating
Sequencing
Summarizing
Recognizing Main Ideas
Recognizing Cause
and Effect
Drawing Conclusions
Figure 2.
The 6+1 Trait Writing Model.

Ideas
Organization
Voice
Word choice
Sentence fluency
Conventions and presentations
ing assignments also incorporate aspects of the 6+1 Trait

Writing Model (Figure 2; see Internet Resources).
Seed Study on the Wooded Trail

In our unit of study on plant growth and development,
students first study the seed in terms of a plants life cycle.
Students read the content area reader, Plants and How They
Grow by Kim Fields (2006), and apply some of the
reading skills that they are learning to it. They apply the skill of sequencing to the life cycle of a plant.
They also use compare and contrast as they look at the way
different plants disseminate seeds. These are new skills for
students, but we also emphasize existing skills such as using text features (e.g., the illustrations of how water moves
through root hairs). As the students gain essential reading
skills, they begin to learn scientific knowledge on which to
further scaffold new learning and explorations in our unit
specifically, how seeds germinate, grow into plants, and new
seeds are disseminated.
One of the first inquiries students conduct is the germination of radish seeds and the charting of root (radicle)
growth and development. From this initial inquiry arises
multiple student-generated questions about the effect of
various conditions on seed germination and growth such
as light, heat, and moisture, all of which students explore
further. These inquiries also initiate further independent
reading in age-appropriate trade books.
After completing the first part of our study on seeds and
germination, and further related content reading (see NSTA
Connection), students walk the schools wooded trail looking for and gathering seeds or seedlike objects. Before going
out on the trail, students record predictions in their science
notebooks about the types of seeds they think they may find,
like fruit-type seeds or cone-bearing seeds, and also begin
thinking about how they came to be there. These predictions are based on the reading they have completed and
their prior knowledge of seeds and the wooded trail, which
they have walked as part of previous lessons. Afterward,
they share their collected seeds in class, classify them by
seed type, and tally their findings on the classroom board.
Students then refer to their predictions and record whether
their thinking has changed or been confirmed based on the
evidence gathered. This process also results in a classroom
discussion about the seeds on our school grounds and in
Outdoor Integration
sentence. Their content understanding about seed dispersal
is also checked for accuracy within the writing rubric (Figure
3). Students are asked to use inference to determine how
each particular seed was dispersed, connecting their observations to their science learning about seed dispersal. For
example, is it a hitchhiker, a fruit carried by an animal, or
other? They are encouraged to tape samples of their found
seeds or draw them on their paper.
Monarch Study in the Butterfly Garden
our area, and further research on their questions using the

available trade books. For example, students often wonder why tree seeds have a hard outer covering, the role of
squirrels in seed dissemination, and how animals transport
fruit-type seeds. Students select a sample of different seed
types as specimens for their collections before returning
the remainder of them to the woods. This provides further
education in stewardship of nature.
Last, students reflect on their experience on the trail
what they found and what they learned about seeds
through writing an expository piece about this activity. The
purpose of their expository piece is to inform others about
the types of seeds found along the trail and how they were
disseminated. They are asked to include a hook sentence
at the beginning of their piece, three different types of sentences in the body of their composition, and a concluding
Figure 3.
Rubric checklist for writing about

their seed inquiry.
___1. Write a hook sentence about your topic.

___2. Write the body of your paragraph with your
facts from the trail in your own words.
___ What types of seeds did you find?
{TEACHER NOTES: ___Accurate, ___Inaccurate}
___ How was each type of seed dispersed?
___3. Sum up your topic in the last sentence.
___4. Make sure that you have used two different
types of sentences in your paragraph:
___ Declarative sentence (statement or telling)
___ Interrogative sentence (question)
___ Imperative sentence (command)
___ Exclamatory sentence (shows emotion or surprise)
___ I have a comma to join two short sentences or
list something.
In our unit on animal behavior, students further explore

the life cycle of the butterfly, learned the previous year,
through studying the migration of monarch butterflies.
This migration study builds on the previous years examination of live butterfly larvae in the second grade
and the metamorphosis under which they go. The ongoing study of animal life cycles intersects with the new
study of plant life cycles through the planting and use of
a butterfly garden. We begin this unit by first reading an
article from the National Gardening Associations Kids
Garden (see Internet Resources) about enticing butterflies to a butterfly garden. Students learn to use text features and begin noting details as they read new information about plants to include in a garden, such as host and
nectar plants, to entice butterflies to visit the garden. The
school has an existing butterfly garden, but as part of the
unit students plant additional perennials and annuals.
Students study the behavior of monarch butterflies
using Journey North along with trade books made available in the classroom (see NSTA Connection for a more
extensive trade book list). Part of this curriculum requires
students to look for monarchs outside during fall migration
and to post their observations on the website. During the
predicted peak migration for our location, students look
for butterflies during recess or science time at the butterfly
garden and nearby areas. Once a butterfly is sighted, the
class must determine whether it is a monarch butterfly
based on its characteristics and appearance. Students keep
a record of observations by date in their science notebooks
and later compare these findings to the expected time of
peak migration in our region.
In completing their studies, students create a storybook
about the life cycle of monarch butterflies. During their
language arts time, students are asked to write expository
reports about monarch butterflies using information from
their ongoing outdoor studies and additional research from
trade books and the internet. They are given a graphic organizer (Figure 4, p. 38) to guide them in what to include in
their book. This organizer includes the important content
about the butterfly life cycle. Guiding questions within
the graphic organizer help students focus on what they
are looking for from their journals and what to glean from
books and websites. The report can be used as language
arts and science assessments of learning.
February 2011
37
Figure 4.
Butterfly storybook graphic organizer for science learning.

Purpose
Explain
Describe
Class
Persuade
Tell a story
STEP 1
Tell about how
it starts life
Audience
Thesis/topic
Monarch Butterfly
Hook
Details
STEP 2
Describe the stages it goes
through to reach adulthood
Details
STEP 3
Describe it as an adult.
What does it look like?
Details
STEP 4
Details
Where does it live? What does
it eat? What job does it do?
STEP 5
What are the predators or
dangers for this animal?
Water Quality Study at the Stream

In our unit on protecting the environment, we incorporate our students prior learning about the water cycle and
animal life cycles to conditions of potential environmental
degradation in the schools nearby stream. Students begin this unit of study by reading an article from the Wet-
Figure 5.
Authors purpose assignment for

writing about macroinvertebrates in
the stream.
You will answer each of the following questions in a

separate paragraph in your writing:
1. What are macroinvertebrates?
2. Why do we look for macroinvertebrates?
3. How do we find these special animals?
4. What do we do with them once we find them?
You may use the strategy some expository writers use
by beginning with the above questions and then answering them in your paragraphs.
38
Science and Children
Details
land Health Evaluation Program (see Internet Resources)

about macroinvertebrate organisms in fresh water and
how specific ones are used to help determine water quality.
Many of these organisms are insects in an early life cycle
stage that are directly affected by rain events in our area.
Through this reading, students use the reading skills of
determining the authors purpose (in this case to inform)
and inferring meaning. Students further explore this topic
through the use of internet-based and hands-on stream
simulation activities for finding and sorting macroinvertebrates and classifying stream health based on simulated
data (see Internet Resources).
Returning outdoors, students consider the health of the
stream. First, they walk the school grounds surrounding
the stream and record their observations about human
effects to it, including visible erosion from water runoff. Then they make predictions about the quality of the
stream based on their observations. The students then test
out their predictions by conducting a bioassessment of the
stream through use of a stream quality protocol in which
they collect, identify, and classify macroinvertebrates
from the stream bottom. This outdoor activity places the
students in the stream with their water shoes and is one
that generates the most excitement in our students. Be sure
that stream levels are low and that access to the stream is
easy and safe before taking students. We also recommend
Outdoor Integration
carrying a cell phone and having extra parental or
teacher assistance for such an excursion. Back in
the classroom, students further discuss their findings in light of their predictions and the effect of recent
construction and weather events.
Upon completion of the study, students compose
their own authors purpose expository writingwith the
purpose being informing other third graders about macroinvertebrate organisms. They need to teach third graders
what macroinvertebrates are and what they indicated or
inferred about their streams health from their evidence
through sampling. This important content is also assessed
for accuracy within the writing rubric (Figure 5). In this
way, the students further process their science learning
about macroinvertebrates and their stream inquiry as they
must incorporate it into their writing. We also encourage
drawings of the organisms that the students discover with
as much detail as possible.
A Powerful Context
The outdoor classroom is a powerful tool for motivating
students to learn both language arts and science in the
context of authentic inquiry that is real for children. Research supports this learning of important reading skills
within the context of science and ecology (Wigfield et al.
2008). However, in our test-driven era, science is one of
the first things to go. We cannot lose science and its related
expository texts and expect to see uniform improvement
in reading. Students tend to enjoy science, with its many
kinesthetic and inquiry opportunities, and so it makes a
perfect context for reading and writing improvement.
In integrating content area process skills and linking
them to the outdoors, elementary teachers create an exciting classroom in which student curiosity and interest are
piqued through nature study. Finding these similarities
and capitalizing on them is in our students best interest
as we scaffold their instruction to help them reach their
potential in all areas of literacy. O
Shawna Tatarchuk (statarchuk@auburnschools.
org) is a third-grade teacher at Yarbrough Elementary
School, and Charles Eick (eickcha@auburn.edu) is
an associate professor of curriculum and instruction at
Auburn University, both in Auburn, Alabama.
References
Douglas, R., M.P. Klentschy, and K. Worth. 2006. Linking science and literacy in the K8 classroom. Washington, DC:
NSTA Press.
Fields, K. 2006. Plants and how they grow. Glenview, IL: Pearson Education.
Fulwiler, B.R. 2007. Writing in science: How to scaffold instruction to support learning. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Louv, R. 2005. Last child in the woods: Saving our students from
nature deficit disorder. Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin Books.

McGlashan, P., and K. Gasser. 2007. Outdoor inquiries: Taking
science investigations outside the classroom. Portsmouth,
NH: Heinemann.
Wigfield, A., J. Guthrie, K. Perencevich, A. Taboada, S. Klauda,
A. McRae, and P. Barbosa. 2008. Role of reading engagement in mediating effects of reading comprehension
instruction on reading outcomes. Psychology in the Schools
45 (5): 432445.
Internet Resources
Creek Connections Classroom Resources
http://creekconnections.allegheny.edu/classroom_
resources.html
Education Northwest: 6 + 1 Trait Writing
http://educationnorthwest.org/traits
Inviting Butterflies to the Schoolyard
www.kidsgardening.com/growingideas/projects/feb04/
pg1.html
Journey North
www.learner.org/jnorth
Macroinbertebrate Identification
www.fergusonfoundation.org/hbf/lessons.shtml#macros
Macroinvertebrate Sampling
www.mnwhep.org/id28.html
Potomac Highlands Watershed School
www.cacaponinstitute.org/elementary.htm
NSTA Connection
Download lists of trade books about monarchs and seeds at www.nsta.org/SC1102.
Connecting to the Standards

This article relates to the following National Science
Education Standards (NRC 1996):
Content Standards
Grades K4
Standard A: Science as Inquiry
8Zadala]kf][]kkYjqlg\gk[a]flax[afimajq
Standard C: Life Science

:`YjY[l]jakla[kg^gj_Yfakek
Ca^][q[d]kg^gj_Yfakek
Fj_YfakekYf\]fnajgfe]flk
Standard F: Science in Personal and Social

Perspectives
:`Yf_]kaf]fnajgfe]flk
National Research Council (NRC). 1996. National
science education standards. Washington, DC:
National Academies Press.
February 2011
39
Part IV
BENEFITS FOR CHILDREN

WITH DIFFERENCES
This section is to bring awareness to educators and provide resources to support
individuals with learning differences to engage in outdoor educational settings. In
Chapter 9, Sugerman introduces the Model of Inclusive Facilitation that allows educators to facilitate groups and bring people with and without disabilities together through
outdoor experiences. Chapter 10 focuses upon the integration of special education
and outdoor classrooms, providing children with more spaces to display and apply
their knowledge and understanding.
Inclusive Outdoor Education: Facilitating

Groups that Include People with Disabilities
Deborah Sugerman
As people
with disabilities
responsibility
Model
of the practitioner
of Inclusive
Facilitation
techniques
to facilitate
developing
a resource
as learning
general
(d) designing
program,
petent
abilities
become
groups
language
and interaction
people
programs
the process.
in outdoor
safe and effective
that include
to make
and (f) evaluating

rather than
to facilitate
involved
that leads practitioners

both people
base of written materials
adaptations
in including
increasingly
through
inclusive
contacts,
(c) obtaining
and programmatically
disabilities.
information
by developing
introduces
the
and
The model
personal
specific
accessible,
is to enable facilitators
the
information
(b) addressing
structurally
it becomes
This article
of gathering
guidelines,
in their programs
programming,
programs.
a process
with and without
and community
The goal of the model
with disabilities
adventure
includes:
attitudes
to a client's
to focus
on
(a)
as well
disability,
(e) implementing
to be comfortable
the ability
learning
and
the
com-
participants'
disabilities.
Key words: disabilities, outdoor education, adventure education, accessibility, inclusion
eople with disabilities are increasingly involved in

adventure programs. Recent research indicates that
patterns of participation in adventure activities for
people with, and without, disabilities are similar
(McCormick, n.d.). Individuals are not interested in participating in segregated programs designed specifically
for people with disabilities, but are interested in participating in programs that are inclusive. The Americans
with Disabilities Act (ADA) legally provides access to
inclusive adventure programs and ensures that people
with disabilities have opportunities that are similar to
those of the rest of the population (McAvoy & Lais, 1999;
Sugerman, 1993). As a result of the ADA, the responsibility for inclusion rests with the facilitators of adventure
Deb Sugerman,
Ph. D., is an Assistant Professor of
Outdoor Education in the Department
of Kinesiology at
the University of New Hampshire,
Durham, NH, USA.
Her research
interests
include
outdoor
adventure
programs for older adults and facilitation
in outdoor
education.
She can be reached
at 603-862-1162
or at
deborahs@hopper.unh.edu.
The Journal of Experiential Education
programs. It is the facilitator's responsibility to ensure

that s/he is knowledgeable about disability issues and is
able to safely, effectively, and successfully implement
programs for all individuals who participate in adventure
activities, including those who have disabilities.
The purpose of this article is to introduce a model
that leads practitioners through a process of facilitating
outdoor adventure groups that include people with disabilities. It offers a sequential outline of steps that will
enable the facilitator to become more comfortable with,
and more knowledgeable about, disabilities. My experience has been that many facilitators, novice or seasoned,
have little experience working with people who have
disabilities, and are sometimes at a loss concerning
where to begin learning effective techniques. After many
years of teaching an undergraduate course about how to
include people with disabilities in adventure programs,
I realized that the process I used to help students develop necessary skills and attitudes was applicable to a
broader population of adventure facilitators. The concepts of the process were developed to form The Model
of Inclusive Facilitation (see Figure 1). The goals of the
model are to enable practitioners to: (a) be comfortable
Winter 2 0 0 1 , Volume 24, No. 3
Downloaded from jee.sagepub.com at UNIV OF NEW HAMPSHIRE on December 12, 2015
pp. 1 6 6 - 1 7 2
and competent in including people with disabilities in

their programs, (b) develop the ability to focus on participants' abilities rather than disabilities and, (c) manage and minimize the impact of a disability on the
adventure experience. The model starts with the development of a resource base of written materials and community contacts that can be accessed by the facilitator. It
continues by addressing personal attitudes and feelings
about working with people who may have different
needs than the typical participant, as well as general
teaching guidelines concerning facilitating groups that
include people with disabilities. The next step in the
model involves obtaining information specific to a
client's disability from the resource base and from the
client. The following step entails developing adaptations to make programs structurally and programmatically accessible. The next steps in the model include trying out the adaptations in a practice environment, and
implementing the program. The final step in the model
involves reflection on, and evaluation of, the process
outlined in the model.
Figure 1 . M o d e l o f inclusive f a c i l i t a t i o n .
Developing a Base of Resources

The first step in the Model of Inclusive Facilitation
(See Figure 1, Step 1) involves the development of a
base of community resource people and written
resource materials. This base will form a support structure from which facilitators can gather information and
obtain feedback. The resources will be instrumental
when designing a plan of how to include individuals
with a disability in adventure programs, and should be
developed before any clients with disabilities take part
in programming. To build a network of resource people,
contact local organizations in the community such as
centers for independent living, therapeutic recreation
departments at local colleges and universities, rehabilitation hospitals, disability specific organizations such as
the Multiple Sclerosis Society, or the state Department
of Rehabilitation. The network should include people
with disabilities and professionals who have backgrounds in working with people with disabilities. The
two groups may offer different perspectives and information, depending on facilitator needs. People with disabilities may be good resources concerning questions
about a specific disability or care of equipment related
to a specific disability. Professionals in the disability
field, many of whom have disabilities themselves, may
be good references for ideas about adapting equipment,
or the implications of certain disabilities for outdoor
activities. In addition to local resource people, national
organizations that specifically work with people who
have disabilities in integrated adventure settings, such
as the American Canoe Association (www.acanet.org),
Project Adventure (www.pa.org), Wilderness Inquiry
(www.wildernessinquiry.org), a n d
C.W.
HOG
(www.isu.edu/department/cwhog), a r e e x c e l l e n t
resources. Other national organizations include the
National Therapeutic Recreation Society
(http://www.nrpa.org/index.cfm?publicationID=21),
and the American Therapeutic Recreation Association
(http://www.nrpa.org/index.cfm?publicationID=21).
These organizations, as well as similar local organizations, may be able to provide information about disabling conditions, ideas about adapting equipment, and
suggestions concerning managing and leading inclusive
outdoor adventure programs.
Winter 2001, Volume 24, No. 3
167
The base of written resources may include books,

periodicals, and internet sources. Appropriate resources
in the outdoor adventure field include: Canoeing and
Kayaking for Persons with Physical Disabilities (Weber &
Zeller, 1990); Bridges to Accessibility
(Havens, 1992);
Sports and Recreation
for the Disabled
(Paciorek &
Jones, 1989); Integrated
Outdoor
Education
and
Adventure
Programs
(Schleien, McAvoy, Lais, &
Rynders, 1993), Adapted Adventure Activities (Ellmo &
Graser, 1995), and Adventure Programming
(Miles &
Priest, 1999). These resources have information about
specific disabilities, the implications for outdoor adventure, and ideas for adapting equipment and programs. A
medical dictionary is another valuable resource for
describing medical terminology. Local libraries may
have access to periodicals concerning lifestyle, sports,
and recreation for people with disabilities such as
Sports and Spokes, New Mobility, Wemedia, and the
Therapeutic Recreation Journal. These periodicals provide a broader understanding of current disability
issues, elite disabled athletes, and the field of adapted
recreational equipment. A web search of the term "disabilities" on the internet results in many disability specific organizations that offer information on disability
issues and interests from recreation to politics.
The legal aspect of providing programs to people
with disabilities is another topic that warrants background information. The U.S. Department of Justice
offers a web page (http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/adahoml.htm) that details the Americans with Disabilities
Act, including standards for accessible design, regulations, and technical assistance materials. Other authors
(e.g., Lovdokken, 1993; Sugerman, 1993) have outlined
how the ADA specifically affects outdoor programs.
The
National
Center
for
Accessibility
(http://www.indiana.edu/~nca) has recent information
on accessibility guidelines and standards for outdoor
programs. Facilitators may also have questions concerning the legal liability of including people with disabilities in their outdoor programs. The issues of safety and
liability in integrated courses are no different than in
traditional adventure programs (McAvoy & Lais, 1999).
Facilitators should be concerned with having:
Addressing Personal Attitudes

The next step in the Model of Inclusive Facilitation
(See Figure 1, Step 2) entails recognizing, understanding, and confronting personal attitudes about people
with disabilities. Because of the manner in which
American society has previously removed people with
disabilities from everyday life, most of us have not had
personal contact with anyone who has a disability. Most
discomfort comes from not knowing what to say or how
to act around people with disabilities. This step in the
model is an opportunity to examine attitudes towards
disabilities, and to change attitudinal barriers in facilitating groups that include people with disabilities.
From their experiences with disabilities, Paige and
Carpenter (1986) described a dichotomous approach to
working with people with disabilities (see Figure 2).
They stated that people with disabilities are viewed
from either a compensation or a transcendence viewpoint. The compensation approach is based on the belief
that people with disabilities have suffered a loss because
of their disability that results in the individual not being
whole or complete. It is the trained professional who
provides the assistance that the individual with a disability needs in order to compensate for the loss. In this
approach, the job of the facilitator is to help the individual with a disability compensate for loss by providing human and technological aids. The facilitator
becomes the expert, giving advice and teaching methods
of using technology to overcome the disability. The transcendence approach is based on the belief that each
individual is a whole person and has the ability to
become the manager of his or her life. The professional
works with an individual with a disability so that s/he
can achieve personal control of the human and technological aids necessary for independence. Using this
approach, the job of a facilitator is to provide resources
and facilitate the adventure experience (Paige &
Carpenter, 1986). The model of perspectives on disability is helpful to facilitators in examining their personal
belief system concerning disabilities. Ultimately, the goal
is to view people with disabilities as valuable, contributing members of the community, and the practitioner as
the facilitator of the experience. Understanding values
1. a well administered, well documented program,

2. appropriate numbers of qualified staff to participants (based on the type of activities, staff qualifications, environmental conditions, and the physical/cognitive requirements of the activities),
Figure 2 . M o d e l o f perspectives on disability.
3. appropriate activities and locations for participants and,

4. appropriate methods of informing participants of
potential risks involved (Schleien et al., 1993).
168
and beliefs concerning people with disabilities, and

being willing to address prejudices, is an important
step in providing effective facilitation for inclusive
adventure programming.
Equally important in addressing attitudes is learning general guidelines regarding speaking and interacting with people with disabilities. Learning current and
appropriate language helps facilitators communicate
effectively on the subject of disability and shows respect
to persons with whom the facilitator is communicating
and interacting (Language is a powerful tool, n.d.).
Language guidelines include:
Using the term person with a disability because
s/he is a person first and secondly has a disability.
Avoiding terms that group all individuals with disabilities together such as the deaf or the disabled.
Avoiding terms that stereotype people with disabilities such as brave, inspirational,
unfortunate,
or special.
Using the term people with disabilities rather than
trendy terms such as physically
challenged,
differently abled, or handi-capable
(Language is a
powerful tool, n.d.; Weber & Zeller, 1990).
Interacting with a person with a disability involves
treating that individual as a person first; the disability
should be a secondary consideration. Guidelines for
interacting that avoid stereotyping people with disabilities in inappropriate ways include:
Speaking directly to the person who has a disability;
Respecting privacy by not asking personal questions that you would not ask a person without a
disability;
Respecting personal property (e.g., not leaning on
someone's wheelchair without permission);
Asking first if assistance is needed rather than
assuming it is needed (Interactions with people
who have disabilities, n.d.; Weber & Zeller, 1990).
Learning general guidelines around speaking and
interacting with people with disabilities presents an
opportunity to utilize the written resources and personal contacts previously developed to become familiar
with, and ask questions about, disability issues, and also
to learn about psople with disabilities as individuals,
not as their disabilities.
Obtaining Specific Information

When a potential client has an identified disability,
the facilitator needs to obtain specific information about
that disability and the implications for adventure programs. The resource base developed in the first step of
the model (see Figure 1, Step 1) will be important in

obtaining this specific information. Having written
information about certain impairments gives facilitators
a general idea of what they might expect from a person
with that particular disability. The resource books listed
not only describe specific disabilities, but also health
and safety issues, implications for instruction and possible equipment adaptations for various disabilities.
Facilitators can refer to books and articles to answer
questions they may have, or to reinforce learned information. Community resources can share information
related to specific disability issues, such as methods of
transferring, care of leg bags, care of hearing aids, etc. A
person who uses a wheelchair would be an excellent
resource to discuss how the chair is used and how to
take care of it during adventure activities.
It is easy to become overwhelmed with the amount
of information that is available. Start slowly with information that is immediately important and relevant to
current programs. Read information, access websites,
and talk to people who know about the disability in
which you are interested, as well as people who have
the specific disability themselves. The more information
gathered on a topic, the more specific questions will
arise and hopefully be answered, and the more generalizable the information will be to other disability groups.
This stage (See Figure 1, Step 3) also includes gathering information from the participants themselves,
including medical information and a pre-program interview. The medical information sheet should be a general, non-discriminatory form that is used with all students. Examples can be seen in several of the books
included in the written resource section of the model
(e.g., Schleien et al., 1993; Weber & Zeller, 1990) and can
be obtained from wilderness medical organizations such
as SOLO (www.solo.com) and Wilderness Medical
Associates (www.wildmed.com). An interview should
be conducted with able or disabled participants in order
to develop a mutual understanding of expectations and
to estimate the participant's ability level. Questions that
will help develop a picture of how s/he will fit into the
program might include: specifics about the disability,
management of symptoms, how long the participant has
had the disability, previous experience doing adventure
activities, and activities in which the participant is regularly involved. At this point, it is imperative for both
student and instructor to understand the importance of
teamwork; the instructor is usually the expert in the
adventure program, the participant is usually the expert
in his/her disability. The team of instructor and participant will work together to make the experience as successful and positive as possible.
169
Developing Adaptations
The next step in the Model of Inclusive Facilitation
(See Figure 1, Step 4) involves developing adaptations,
or making changes in the standard components of an
activity or program. In designing programs for people
with disabilities, several types of adaptations may be
possible: equipment adaptations, procedural adaptations, skill sequence adaptations, environmental modifications, and program modifications (Schleien et al.,
1993). An example of an equipment adaptation is the
use of a folding lightweight fabric seat (e.g., Crazy Creek
Chair) to provide back support in canoeing or kayaking.
A procedural adaptation may involve having a participant wear a Type I Personal Flotation Device (PFD)
rather than the customary Type III PFD for more flotation in the front. An example of an adaptation of skill
sequence is having a participant enter a kayak on land,
then launching it into the water. Starting a kayaking
course on a dock instead of a sandy beach that is difficult to access in wheelchairs is an example of adapting
the environment in which the program takes place.
Learning how to paddle in a swimming pool before
kayaking in the ocean is an example of a program modification or adaptation. Based on the participant interview and community contacts, the facilitator may have
a good idea of the general type of adaptations that may
be necessary in the adventure program. The following
general guidelines ensure that all persons are participating in the program in as typical a manner as possible,
and that the perceived differences between people with
and without disabilities are reduced:
the group. Care should be taken to make sure that adaptations are needed and are as unobtrusive as possible.
3. Adapt for functionality. It is not necessary to purchase expensive specialized equipment to adapt gear.
Most adaptations can be designed with simple materials
such as duct tape and closed cell foam. The idea is to
use what is readily available so people can develop similar adaptations on their own if needed. By having several ideas in mind, the instructor/participant team can
decide what option may work best. Experimentation
with ideas will most likely result in creative and useful
adaptations (Aronson, n.d.; Schleien et a l , 1993; Weber
& Zeller, 1990).
Adaptations bridge the gap between the abilities of
the participant and the demands of the activity and are
an important step in the Model of Inclusive Facilitation.
Generally, it is important to try out any adaptations in a
controlled environment before using them extensively.
Practicing the activity with the adaptations ensures that
the adaptations work as desired, and allows the opportunity to solve problems that may arise. Experimenting
in a safe, controlled environment will give both the participant and facilitator confidence in the equipment and
the program model. The most important piece involved
in implementing any adaptations is the facilitator's attitude that success involves collaboration between
him/herself and the participant with a disability.
Implementing the Program
1. Adapt on an individual basis. Each person is different. People who have the same disability will be very
different in their abilities to accomplish a specific task.
In order to adapt for each specific individual, begin by
analyzing the skills involved in the program, then analyze the participant's ability to perform the skills by discussing the program with him/her. Work as a team; the
facilitator is knowledgeable about the program and
equipment, and the individual with a disability is
knowledgeable about his or her abilities. Together, discuss the implications of the activities and what modifications might be needed.
The next stage in the Model of Inclusive Facilitation

(See Figure 1, Step 5) entails bringing together the skills
developed in the previous steps of the model and implementing the program. At this point, facilitators may realize that their teaching and group management skills
transfer easily to inclusive groups. Once adaptations are
in place, instructing a person with a disability is usually similar to instructing a non-disabled participant. An
effective facilitator recognizes that each person in the
group has the ability to contribute to the overall success
of the program by focusing on the abilities of group
members, rather than disabilities. This approach sets the
tone of the program, and allows for creative problem
solving among all the group members.
2. Adapt only as necessary. As much as possible,

standard equipment should be used for activities and
adaptations made only as needed. The more extensive
an adaptation, the more it may adversely affect the basic
nature of the activity. The more complicated the adaptation, the more likely something will go wrong. The
equipment may be changed so much that the individual
is unable to use it in the manner it is supposed to be
used. Extensive adaptations also stand out and make it
known that the individual is "different" from the rest of
Implementing programs includes not only physical

integration (e.g., adapting equipment so that an individual with a disability can participate in a program), but
also social integration or the development of mutually
beneficial relationships between people with and without disabilities (Lais, 1987). This can be accomplished
through setting group guidelines, modeling appropriate
behavior, and developing symbiotic relationships
among participants. Developing guidelines involves the
group discussing how members will treat each other
170
during the program (Schoel, Prouty, & Radcliffe, 1988).

This discussion is an appropriate place for each participant to express goals, expectations, needs, and fears for
the upcoming program. The facilitator sets the expectation that, by working together, the group will be able to
overcome any individual difficulties and be able to
reach group and personal goals. The group guidelines
should be reviewed periodically during the program to
ensure that participants are comfortable with them and
are working towards accomplishing them.
Some able-bodied participants may not have experience being around individuals with disabilities, and
may not know how to communicate or interact with
them. The facilitator's role at this point is to model
respect for each individual in the group and appropriate communication and interaction techniques. The
initial discussion of individual needs will set the stage
for behavior guidelines, but it is through role modeling
by the facilitator that participants will see appropriate
behavior in action, and will transfer this knowledge to
their own actions. Any issues that arise concerning attitudes or actions can be seen by the facilitator as an
opportunity to educate group members in the process
of inclusion.
Developing symbiotic relationships involves teaming individuals with differing abilities to accomplish
goals and tasks (McAvoy & Lais, 1999). An example
might be teaming an individual who has balance difficulties with someone who uses a wheelchair. This relationship allows for stability for the person walking and
extra momentum when necessary for the person in the
wheelchair. Symbiotic relationships infer that each
party in the relationship contributes to the accomplishment of the goal or task and is considered an equal member of the relationship. Through creative problem solving the group can find solutions to issues that arise during the program.
Evaluating the Process

Through evaluation of the process outlined in the
model (See Figure 1, Step 6), the facilitator identifies
areas that were strengths in implementing the program
and areas that need additional attention. The evaluation
is done on both an informal and formal basis. Informal

evaluation occurs throughout the program as facilitators
interact with participants and observe their responses to
particular aspects of the program. Reflection on these
responses, and discussion with group members and
other facilitators, can reinforce effective program elements and generate ideas for improvement. Through
more formal evaluation, each step in the process is
reviewed with the goal of finding specific information
that will better enable the practitioner to facilitate
clients with disabilities. For example, it might be found
that more community resources are needed for assistance in understanding the implications of specific disabilities in outdoor environments. It is through these
evaluation methods that the facilitator begins to build a
stronger base of knowledge, skill, and attitude concerning the inclusion of individuals with disabilities into
adventure programming.
Conclusion
At this point, facilitators should feel comfortable
and competent including people with disabilities in
adventure programs. They will have the knowledge of
where to go for resources, how to ask for help when
needed, and how to work together with an individual
who has a disability in order to make programs successful. Inclusion presents a unique challenge and opportunity for adventure educators. By working through the
Model of Inclusive Facilitation, practitioners will be
able to successfully instruct a more diverse grouping of
people. The techniques used by the facilitators will
enable each individual, regardless of ability level, to utilize his or her unique skills and abilities. The techniques
will also offer opportunities for all individuals to begin
to appreciate and value diversity. In diverse groups,
members may find that they have much in common
with each other. Stereotypes may be confronted, discomfort eased, and distance between individuals
reduced (Anderson, Schleien , McAvoy, Lais, &
Seligman, 1997; McAvoy, Schatz, Stutz, Schleien, &
Lais, 1989). The end result will be an atmosphere where
differences are honored and embraced as opportunities
to learn about others and ourselves.
171
References
Aronson, J. (n.d.). Accessing the wilderness: River trips for adventurous people with special needs. (Available from Jumping Mouse
Camp, Inc., 215 N. Bonito St., Flagstaff, AZ 86001).
McCormick, B. P. (n.d.). People with disabilities: National Survey

of recreation and the environment summary. The National Center on
Accessibility. Available: http://www.indiana.edu/~nca/research/nsre.htm
Anderson, L, Schleien, S., McAvoy, L, Lais, G., & Seligman, D.

(1997). Creating positive change through an integrated outdoor adventure program. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 31 (4), 214-229.
Miles, J.C., & Priest, S. (Eds.). (1999). Adventure programming.

State College, PA: Venture.
Ellmo, W., & Graser, J. (1995). Adapted adventure activities: A

rehabilitation model for adventure programming and group initiatives.
Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt.
Paciorek, M.J., & Jones, A.J. (1989). Sports and recreation for the
disabled. Indianapolis, IN: Benchmark Press.
Havens, M.S. (1992). Bridges to accessibility. Dubuque, Iowa:

Kendall Hunt.
Paige, H., & Carpenter, M. (1986). Just maybe, that isn't what it
means to be disabled: Two perspectives on professionalism, values,
and ethics. Proceedings of the Association for Experiential Education,
61-68.
Interactions with people who have disabilities, (n.d.). Available:

http://www.indiana.edu/~nca/education/distance-education/interactions.htm
Schleien, J.S., McAvoy, L.H., Lais, G.J., & Rynders, J.E. (1993).
Integrated outdoor education and adventure programs. Champaign, IL:
Sagamore.
Lais, G. J. (1987). Toward fullest participation: Suggested leadership techniques for integrated adventure programming. Bradford
Papers Annual, 2, 55-64.
Schoel, J., Prouty, D., & Radcliffe, P. (1988). Islands of healing: A

guide to adventure based counseling. Hamilton, MA: Project
Adventure.
Language is a powerful tool. (n.d.). Available: http://www.indiana.edu/~nca/education/distance-education/language.htm
Sugerman, D. (1993). The impact of the Americans with

Disabilities Act on adventure education programs. The Journal of
Experiential Education, 76(1), 28-30.
Lovdokken, J. (1993). The Americans with Disabilities Act and outdoor recreation: Is your program complying? Outdoor Network
Newsletter, 5(1); 1,6.
Weber, ., & Zeller, J. (1990). Canoeing and kayaking for persons

with physical disabilities. Newington, VA: American Canoe Association.
McAvoy, L, & Lais, G. (1999). Programs that include persons with

disabilities. In J. C. Miles, & S. Priest (Eds.), Adventure programming
(pp. 403-414). State College, PA: Venture.
McAvoy, L.H., Schatz, E.C., Stutz, M.E., Schleien, S.J., & Lais,
G.J. (1989). Integrated wilderness adventure: Effects of personal and
lifestyle traits of persons with and without disabilities. Therapeutic
Recreation Journal, 23 (3), 51-64.
172
Integrating
Outdoor/Environmental
Education into the
Special Education Curriculum
How and why to integrate outdoor!environmental
education into the special education curriculum
By Ruth A . W i l s on
utdoor educationa term

not appearing often in the
special education literature, yet a concept warranting serious attention by educators
working with children with special
needs. Outlined in the following pages
are arguments for integrating outdoor/
environmental education into the special education curriculum and suggestions for how this might be accomplished. Presented first, however, is a
brief discussion about the definition
and philosophy of outdoor education,
with some commentary regarding the
similarities between outdoor education and special education.
Definition and Parallels
One definition was proposed by the

Council on Outdoor Education (1989):
''Outdoor education is education in,
about, and for the out of doors'7 (p. 31).
According to this definition, outdoor
education is both a place and a topic.
The place is the out-of-doors and is
meant to include far more than a
1-week camping experience for a particular group of children. Outdoor edu-
cation, as defined by the Council,

should also include many simple excursions to a wide variety of settings
in the out-of-doors, such as a stream,
a meadow, a farm, a city park, or even
a crack in the wall of the school or the
thicket at the edge of the playground.
With the place of outdoor education
being the out-of-doors, the method of
instruction lends itself to a variety of
direct learning experiences. A similar
hands-on, direct learning approach
serves as the foundation for many special education curricula. Typical learning activities suggested in curricula for
students with special needs include
outings into the communitywith
trips and planned activities in such
places as the supermarket, restaurants,
bowling alleys, various job sites, and
so forth. Additionally, the development of self-help skills is often emphasized in special education programsas
is the fostering of interests and skills
for leisure activities. The development
of such skills is best accomplished
through hands-on involvement on the
part of the students and can be accomplished in an outdoor setting.
Outdoor education is also about the
out-of-doors, that is, its topic is the out-
doors itself. Some may think, therefore,

that outdoor education might be equated with a scientific study of the natural
environment and may be less than
appropriate for many students with
special needs. Typically, the primary
learning needs of students in special
education focus more on the development of independent living skills than
on gaining a scientific understanding
of the natural world.
The topic of outdoor education, however, is not limited to a scientific study
of the natural environment. Studying
about the out-of-doors also involves examining the many cultural, aesthetic,
and recreational aspects of the natural
environment. Studying about the outof-doors also includes an investigation
into the "interrelationship of the human being and the natural resources
upon which societies depend, with the
goal of stewardship in mind" (Council
on Outdoor Education, 1989, p. 31).
This orientation is important and appropriate for all students, whether in
regular education or special education.
The "goal of stewardship" indicates
that education in the out-of-doors is
meant to go beyond both recreation
and study. The goal of outdoor educa-
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i.
s
tion is sometimes referred to as environmental education, where the emphasis is on the development of caring
for the natural environment (BurrusBammel & Bammel, 1990).
Historically, the goal of stewardship
was not always emphasized in outdoor
education programs. Some such programs were devoted more to recreation
and/or adventure and were centered on
the development of knowledge and
skills for camping, rock climbing,
canoeing, hiking in wilderness areas,
and so forth. Although many outdoor
education programs still emphasize
such sports and/or leisure activities,
there is an increasing trend in wilderness experience programs and other
outdoor education activities to also
stress ecology and conservationa

major goal of outdoor education.
So what is the link, one might ask,
between stewardship and special education? Researchers and theorists who
study the psychological aspects of nature offer some interesting ideas, suggesting that a close relationship exists
between understanding and caring for
one's natural environment and understanding and caring for oneself and
others (Campbell & Moyers, 1988; Partridge, 1984). As many children with
special needs experience low selfconcept, poor social skills, and learned
helplessness (Ernst, 1990), fostering
an attitude of stewardship toward the
environment may be one way of helping them develop more positive self-
concept, improved relationships with

their peers, and a more internal locus
of control (Burrus-Bammel Si Bammel,
1990; Long, 1986).
Crompton and Sellar (1981), in a
review of the empirical literature on
outdoor education, have discussed the
impact of outdoor education experiences in the affective domain. Their
findings suggest that research is "generally supportive of claims that outdoor education experiences facilitate
positive affective development" (p. 28).
Specific affective areas enhanced by
outdoor education experiences include
self-concept (Burrus-Bammel Si Bammel, 1990; Long, 1986), internal locus
of control (Long, 1986), peer socialization (Burrus-Bammel Si Bammel, 1990),
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racial integration (Acuff, 1976; Crompton & Sellar, 1981; Staley, 1983),
teacher-student relationships (Sharp,
1968), and attitude toward school
(Hammerman & Hammerman, 1973).
Although one of the goals of outdoor
education is to develop a caring attitude toward the natural environment,
an important corollary seems to be the
development of caring for self and
others. One might conclude, then, that
the rationale behind outdoor education
may have much to offer special education.
Arguments for
Integrating Outdoor
Education Into the Special
Education Curriculum
A first step in building an argument

for integrating outdoor/environmental
education into the special education
curriculum might be to look at the

goals of each of these two disciplines.
Goals and objectives in special education tend to focus on the needs of the
whole child, versus focusing exclusively on academic skills. Social, emotional, self-help, and independence goals
and objectives are frequently included
in a student's Individualized Education
Plan (IBP), as are goals dealing with the
development of appropriate personal
and interactional behaviors. Outdoor
Resources for O u t d o o r / E n v i r o n m e n t a l Education

Publications:
Sharing Nature with Children by J. Cornell, 1979, Nevada City, CA: Dawn Publications. A book of nature awareness
games, coded for different age levels and group sizes; also coded for different moods, concepts, and attitudes.
Sharing the Joy of Nature by J. Cornell, 1989, Nevada City, CA: Dawn Publications. A sequel to Sharing Nature
with Children. Outlines a four-stage Flow Learning Process, with a variety of activities for each of the four
different stages.
Humanizing Environmental Education: A Guide for Leading Nature and Human Nature Activities by C. E. Knapp and
J. Goodman, 1981, Martinsville, I N : American Camping Association. A wealth of easy-to-use activities for developing appreciation of nature, other students, and oneself. Designed for elementary and high school students.
Hands-On Nature by J. Lingelback, 1987, Woodstock, VT: Vermont Institute of Natural Science. A book of ideas
and suggested nature activities for children in kindergarten through sixth grade.
Outdoor Education: A Manual for Teaching in Nature's Classroom by M . Link, 1981, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall. A variety of activities and ideas designed to help the reader become a successful outdoor educator.
Fostering a Sense of Wonder During the Early Childhood Years by R. A. Wilson, 1993, Columbus, O H : Greydon
Press. A curriculum guide designed to infuse environmental education into all aspects of an early childhood
education program.
Curriculum on Biological Diversity, available from the National Parks and Conservation Association, 1015 31st Street,
N W , Washington, DC 20007. A curriculum on diversity in the natural world for fourth through sixth grades.
Naturescope, available from the National Wildlife Federation, 1412 16th Street, N W , Washington, DC 20036. A
periodical designed to improve the teaching of natural sciences. Hands-on activities and worksheets for students
in the elementary grades are provided. Each issue focuses on a specific topic (e.g., trees, water).
Art Lessons That Teach Children About Their Natural Environment by R. L. Peck, 1973, West Nyack, NY: Parker.
Ideas on how to foster an appreciation of nature through a variety of art activities.
Project Learning Tree (2 vols.), available from the American Forest Institute, Inc., 1250 Connecticut Avenue, N W ,
Suite 320, Washington, DC 20036. Supplementary Activity Guide for Grades K-6 and Supplementary Activity
Guide for Grades 7-12. An interdisciplinary approach to environmental education, using trees as vehicles to
begin the exploration of natural resources and our relationship to them.
Project WILD, available from Project WILD, Salina Star Route, Boulder, CO 80302. Conservation education
activities for elementary and secondary educators.
Hug-a-Tree: And Other Things to Do Outdoors with Young Children by R. E. Rockwell, E. A. Sherwood, and R. W .
Williams, 1983, Mt. Rainer, M D : Gryphon House, Inc. A collection of ideas for working with young children in
the out-of-doors.
Institutes:
Institute for Earth Education, P.O. Box 288, Warrenville, IL 60555. A nonprofit, grass-roots association made up of
an international network of individuals and member organizations. The primary work of the institute is to support
the design, development, and dissemination of specific education programs that focus on Planet Earth as our
home. The Institute for Earth Education develops and distributes educational materials and sponsors a variety
of awareness and training programs.
North American Association for Environmental Education (NAAEE), P.O. Box 400, Troy, O H 45373. The largest,
most respected association of environmental education professionals in the world. NAAEE publishes research,
conducts conferences and workshops, produces materials for teaching environmental issues, and provides a
forum for the exchange of ideas and information among members.
158 INTERVENTION IN SCHOOL AND CLINIC
education objectives closely match

this orientation (Hammerman & Hammerman, 1973; Henderson, 1990;
Miles, 1986-87). Outdoor education espouses a holistic approach to learning
(Bunting, 1989) and focuses on the
proper balance among all domains of
learning (Knapp, 1989).
The stated philosophy of the outdoor
education field has a holistic orientation (Hammerman & Hammerman,
1973), and impact studies attest to its
effectiveness in contributing to the development of the whole child (Crompton & Sellar, 1981). Thus, one argument supporting integrating outdoor/
environmental education into the special education curriculum is based on
the similarity of goals and objectives
of these two different disciplines.
A second argument for integrating
outdoor/environmental education into
the special education curriculum centers on the motivational aspects of outdoor education. Many students with
special learning needs find the traditional school setting a less-thanpositive place to be. Such students tend
to develop negative attitudes toward
school and are at greater risk than
other students for dropping out before
completing high school (Bender, 1985;
Margalit & Zak, 1984). Research suggests that outdoor education experiences can foster positive attitudes
toward school and school personnel
(Shaw, 1975). Outdoor education experiences have also had a positive impact on improving school attendance
(Crompton & Sellar, 1981; Hammerman Si Hammerman, 1973; Wasylyshyn, 1988).
A third argument for integrating outdoor/environmental education into the
special education curriculum rests on
the potential of the outdoor setting for
providing meaningful learning experiences in any area of studythus being
appropriate for the individualized learning needs of the special education student, as the Council on Outdoor Education stated (1989, p. 31):
Anything may be taughtmathematics, biology, geology, communication, history, political sciences,
art, physical skills, or endurance....
Soil, water, animals, and plants
make up the basic areas of study, but
students may learn and practice the
outdoor activities people pursue during leisure time.
The outdoor education setting, then, is

almost unlimited in terms of what the
students might learn from an outdoor
education experience. The setting is
also one that is appropriate for all age
and ability levels and, thus, it is ideally
suited for Individualized Education
Plans.
A fourth, and very strong, justification for integrating outdoor/environmental education into the special
education curriculum has to do with
the importance of environmental education for all students. Educators in
general seem to get so caught up in the
need to "cover the basics" that, at
times, other critical areas of study may
be slighted. For the child, a number
of personal growth and development
areas warrant attention in any school
curriculum,- for the sake of the world
in which we live, there is also the area
of environmental education, which
we cannot afford to neglect (BurrusBammel Si Bammel, 1990; Henderson,
1990; Iozzi, 1989).
Current Practice,
Resources, and
Suggestions
Outdoor/environmental education
tends to receive little or no attention in many educational programs.
Although this is true of both regular
and special education programs, it
is the student with special needs who
is more likely to be excluded from outdoor education experiences (Bialeschki,
1981).
The absence of outdoor/environmental education opportunities for many
students is due, in large part, to the
scarcity of instructional materials and
the lack of teacher training in outdoor/
environmental education (Ham, Rellergert-Taylor, Si Krurnpe, 1987-88; Ham
Si Sewing, 1987-88). The accompanying list of materialsResources for
Outdoor/Environmental Educationis
offered as a first step in providing
teachers with information that may be
helpful to them in providing environmental education opportunities for
their students.
The following suggestions are also
offered as ideas on how to integrate
outdoor/environmental education into
the special education curriculum.
2. Decorate the classroom with things

from nature (e.g., pinecones, pressed
leaves, seashells, twigs, stones, etc.)
and pictures of nature (e.g., mountains, trees, flowers, clouds, snow,
the ocean, etc.)
3. Choose "pro-nature" books to share
with the studentsbooks expressing an appreciation of nature versus
a prejudice against nature. Avoid
books about the "big bad wolf" or
that present certain elements of nature as evil or frightening.
4. Introduce living things (plants and
animals) into the classroom, and
then demonstrate appropriate care
and respect for them.
5. Make Earth Day a special event,
possibly involving the making of
posters, the writing of essays, and/or
planting a garden. B
R u t h A . W i l s o n teaches in the Department of

Special Education at Bowling Green State University in Bowling Green, Ohio. Her speciality area is
early childhood special education. Dr. Wilson is
also the founder and director of Environmental
Education for Preschoolers, an international network of individuals interested in environmental education at the early childhood level. She recently
published Fostering A Sense of Wonder During the
Early Childhood Year, a curriculum guide for early
childhood environmental education. Address: Ruth
Wilson, Dept. of Special Education, Bowling Green
State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403.
References
Acuff, D. S. (1976). The effect of an outdoor education experience on the general and intercultural
anxiety of Anglo and Black sixth graders. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern
California, Los Angeles.
Bender, W. N. (1985). Differences between learning disabled and non-learning disabled children in
temperament and behavior. Learning Disability
Quarterly, 8, 11-18.
Bialeschki, M. D. (1981). Environmental education
needs of special populations. Journal of Environmental Education, 13, 39-44.
Bunting, C. (1989, February). The compatibility of
physical education and outdoor education.
JOPERD, 60(2), 35-39.
Burrus-Bammel, L, & Bammel, G. (1990). Outdoor/environmental educationAn overview for
the wise use of leisure. JOPERD, 61(4), 49-22.
Campbell, J., & Moyers, B. (1988). The power of
myth. New York: Doubleday.
Council on Outdoor Education. (1989, February).
Outdoor educationDefinition and philosophy.
JOPERD, 60(2), 31-34.
1. Start a recycling program in the

school or classroom.
(continued on p. 187)
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159
Conclusion
UTILIZING NATURE TO
INFLUENCE OUR TEACHING PRACTICE
Kyleigh D. Pharris
In the first chapter I presented a short narrative describing children collaborating and
discussing the characteristics of the Buffalo Treehopper. It is my hope that after reading the collection of articles presented, the reader has a new understanding of the
meaningful exploration these children were engaged in. These children were outside
in a familiar environment and for a period of time completely and utterly invested in
discovering what this Buffalo Treehopper was and drawing upon their observations
and prior knowledge to identify the insect.
The connection between children and nature is such an incredible and powerful experience that should be cultivated by educators and utilized to assist children in
making broader more complex connections with the world around them. As Taylor
and Kuo emphasized in their article examining different studies in regard to child development and outdoor spaces, There is a great deal of encouraging evidence
linking green space to important developmental outcomes (p. 126). The incorporation of nature in the early childhood setting provides opportunities to enhance developmental domains and connect learning across content areas. When connecting
children to outdoor settings, teachers are providing learning spaces that promote
creative play, which strengthen childrens social, emotional, and cognitive development.
After reading the articles, especially the second article in Part I written by Hammerman, it is my hope that educators understand that by providing outdoor learning encounters that compliment the indoor lessons, they are providing children with multiple
spaces to express their knowledge. Young children thrive on revisiting learning encounters time and time again, because this allows for children to internalize and develop a greater meaning of the content matter in focus. The revisiting process can be
manipulated by teachers to further extend childrens thinking to create more connections and a deeper understanding. This can easily translate learning encounters from
the classroom to outside. The best way to connect the outdoor learning space and
indoor is by complimenting the learning occurring in both settings and encourage
children to explore outside as much as inside.
After reading Part I and gaining an understanding of the evidence and theories behind outdoor education, it is my hope that readers value these perspectives and begin brainstorming different ways to create respectful outdoor playscapes for young
children. The environment is critical in the quality of learning that takes place. When a
classroom is cluttered and disorganized, this can be distracting to young learners.
This same message goes for outdoor learning spaces. It is important for early childhood educators to value the design and aesthetics of an environment prepared for
children, because often times the environment is the third teacher and the set up of a
space can scaffold children into further inquiries.
Within Part II of the article collection, readers were able to digest the many different
ways to structure and design an outdoor playscape to promote and facilitate young
childrens play. It is vital to emphasize the importance of play in the outdoor environment and seeing the value in this approach to learning. The collection of articles surrounding the concept of playscapes are important for teachers to provide a positive
learning space for young children. While understanding that outdoor education can
also occur in urban settings with limited forest areas. When designing an outdoor
space for children in any setting, educators can become advocates for the installation
of playscapes that promote a respectful learning atmosphere for young learners. For
it is the educators whom know the children and developmentally appropriate practice
best to enhance and encourage learning. When teachers become advocates for
young children, they are emphasizing the obligation society has to ensure each child
has equal quality learning opportunities. By advocating for outdoor playscapes educators are doing just that.
While the design of the outdoor playscapes are vital in the outdoor education
process, the big piece in making these spaces encompass developmentally appro-
priate practice for young children, is the integrating of nature in the curriculum. Part III
takes a closer look in how outdoor education can encourage children to become
invested in academics. After reading this section of the article collection, readers will
be able to understand the importance of connecting content areas to provide a more
cohesive learning environment. It is difficult when boxed curriculum is used in
schools, because teachers will teach the math lesson in one part of the day, the science lesson in another, and read to children in a completely different part of the day.
This choppy schedule allows for children to explore mathematics within the math
time, scientific discoveries in science, and literacy development when reading. However, what is lacking is providing children with examples of how all these subject
matters can connect together to make deeper connections about life. For instance,
math is a part of a science discovery because children are counting different spots
on the Buffalo Treehopper, and literacy is involved because children turn to books to
learn more about what previous scientists have discovered about the insect.
When educators utilize the outdoor educational model, they are providing children to
place their educational knowledge into practice and bridge different content areas to
make a synthesized conclusive educational understanding. Following this model of
teaching, educators are expanding upon young childrens understandings of learning
and allowing children to see that they are mathematicians, scientists, historians, and
authors. Through weaving the many curriculum standards together through nature,
teachers allow for children to develop more coherent understandings and assist them
in the development of becoming critical thinkers.
Nature has an extremely powerful role in assisting young children to regulate their
bodies and work in a calm fashion. Nature can be very comforting and relaxing, allowing for children to gain the tools essential to function in the fast paced society that
we live. Although nature is important for all children and development, nature is also
helpful for children with differences to connect to their surroundings. Reading Part IV,
it become evident that nature assists young children with disabilities to connect with
their peers on an entirely different level. In my own experience, once I began incorporating nature and outdoor education in my inclusive kindergarten classroom the
children with differences in my classroom socially connected with their peers. The
children with limited communication skills were able to connect with their peers because they would physically engage the other children in play by running and exam-
ining rocks or sticks. This allowed the typically developing children to see their peers
in a new way and see that they have similar interests.
As Wilson wrote, Outdoor education espouses a holistic approach to learning and
focuses on the proper balance among all domains of learning (p. 159), allowing for
children with special needs to advance developmental skills through play. Outdoor
education is a space that is welcoming of all children and provides children with
equal opportunities to explore and engage in their world and peers.
In regard to making the outdoors accessible for young learners with disabilities, it is
critical for educators to evaluate the different learning areas. Ensuring that all outdoor
spaces are accessible for every child. This can be managed in the playscape design
by educators, but also by maintaining the learning spaces. If a child has limited
physical mobility, how will teachers ensure that roots do not stick above the ground
too much to create an unsafe area? Perhaps teachers will fill in the area with excess
dirt or bark mulch to make the area level and stable for children needing level
ground to run and walk. Perhaps a childs main source of mobility is through the use
of a wheel chair or other device with wheels and bark mulch gets stuck in the
wheels not allowing the child to explore. Teachers can discover a different mode of
ground cover that creates a smoother ride for these children. The beauty about outdoor education is that teachers can adapt and modify the environment as needed to
create a universal design appropriate for all learners.
Drawing this conclusion of the article collection to a close, I am hopeful to inspire
other early childhood educators to welcome the outdoor education approach into
their settings. Learning that these outdoor spaces are filled with learning opportunities
and provide children of all areas of development a nurturing and curious space to
learn. Nature is an interest to many young children, and by welcoming it into our
teaching practices we are assisting children in becoming critical thinkers and explorers. The lessons that occur in outdoor settings are just as valuable as those that occur indoors. This different approach to providing inclusive settings for young children
cannot only facilitate them in becoming life long learners, but also teachers.
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Faber Taylor, A., & Kuo, F. (2006). Is Contact with nature Important for Healthy Child
Development? State of the Evidence. In Children and Their Environments (pp. 124-140).
New York: Cambridge University Press.
Hammerman, D. (1963). A Case for Outdoor Education. The Clearing House: A Journal of
Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 38(1), 54-56. Retrieved October 16, 2015, from
JSTOR.
Acar, H. (2014). Learning Environments for Children in Outdoor Spaces. Procedia - Social and
Behavioral Sciences, 846-853. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.05.147
Kuh, L., Chin Ponte, I., Chau, C., & Valentine, D. (2014). Take It Outside: Rethinking and
Reclaiming Outdoor Play. In Thinking Critically About Environments for Young Children:
Bridging theory and practice (pp. 69-88). New York: Teachers College Press.
Acar, H. (2013). Landscape design for children and their environments in urban context. In
M.zyavuz (Ed.), (in: Advances in Landscape Architecture, Edited by Murat zyavuz),
INTECH, Croatia, 291-324.
Tatarchuk, S., Eick, C. (2011). Outdoor Integration: Looking to nature to accentuate science and
language arts connections. childrenteachingandscience.pbworks.com/f/Science+Article.pdf 35-39.
Fisher-Maltese, C. (2014). Take It Outside: Rethinking and Reclaiming Outdoor Play. In
Thinking Critically About Environments for Young Children: Bridging theory and
practice (pp. 89-107). New York: Teachers College Press.
Sobel, D. (2008). Children and Nature Design Principles. In Childhood and nature design
principles for educators (pp. 19-57). Portland, Me.: Stenhouse.
Sugerman, D. (2001). Inclusive Outdoor Education: Facilitating Groups That Include People
with Disabilities. Journal of Experiential Education, 24(3), 166-172. Retrieved October
16, 2015, from SAGE Journals.
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Curriculum. Intervention in School and Clinic, 29(3), 156-159. Retrieved October 16,
2015, from SAGE Journals.

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Research Anthology

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Kyleigh Pharris

PROMOTING INQUIRING MINDS

BRIDGING THE LEARNING: OUTDOORS AND INDOORS

NATURE PROMOTING INCLUSIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS

WHY CONNECT CHILDREN TO NATURE?

1 For a full report on this pilot project see New

A CASE FOR OUTDOOR EDUCATION

hand observation, independent investigation, analysis of data, and problem solving

W. Harris (ed.), Encyclopedia of Educa-

tional Research (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1960), p. 431.

carry out the curricular aims of the school.

avenue for facilitating, complementing,

Pupils Evaluate Their Own Social Studies Progress

KingstonHigh School, Kingston,Pennsylvania

Television and radio programs of historical or

Oral contributions to social problems discussed

Maps completed: date turned in:

Encircle days you read the daily textbook assignment: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Io 11 12 13 14 15 16

Daily class recitations of textbook reading:

Dates of class absence:

Total days absent during this marking period:

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

Learning Environments for Children in Outdoor Spaces

Types of experience with the nature

Ability of thinking and

There is physical contact

The physical contact with

very important issue.

not knowledgeable enough in terms of environmental attitude (Atasoy ve Ertrk, 2008).

Favoured or important and

Used well, but not favoured

Figure 2. Settings for psychological importance and actual use

Landscape Design for Children

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Natural materials and play potential

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Shopping centers-plazas open spaces and courtyards

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colourful and beautiful schools

5. Examples from the world

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Den Haag, Netherland

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Heft, H., 1988. Affordances of childrens environments: A functional approach to

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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM AND NATURE

Looking to nature to accentuate

PHOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF THE AUTHORS

By Shawna Tatarchuk and Charles Eick

the outdoor classroom as a context for learning through

Our Integrated Format

Comparison of related science- and