Sensory Receptors

8th ed 50.1 to 50.4

7th ed 49.1 to 49.4

Physiological basis for all animal activity:

processing sensory information and
generating motor output in response to that
information

This is a continuous cycle

Sensory information can be from external or

internal environment.

Sensory pathway:

Sensory reception
Transduction
Transmission
Perception
Amplification and adaptation

Sensory pathway:

Sensory reception
Transduction
Transmission
Perception
Amplification and adaptation

Sensory reception

1st step of sensory pathway

Sensory receptors: Specialized neurons or
epithelial cells; Single cells or a collection of
cells in organs
Very sensitive

Sensory pathway:

Sensory reception
Transduction
Transmission
Perception
Amplification and adaptation

Sensory transduction:

Conversion of physical, chemical and other

stimuli to change in membrane potential

Receptor potential:

change in membrane potential itself

Sensory pathway:

Sensory reception
Transduction
Transmission
Perception
Amplification and adaptation

Transmission:

Sensory information is transmitted through the

nervous system as nerve impulses or action
potential to the Central Nervous System (CNS).

Some axons can extend directly into the CNS and

some form synapses with dendrites of other neurons

Sensory neurons spontaneously generate action

potential without stimulus at a low rate

Magnitude of receptor potential controls the

rate at which action potentials are generated
(larger receptor potential results in more
frequent action potentials)

Weak
muscle stretch

Muscle

Stretch
receptor
Axon

Membrane
potential (mV)

Dendrites

Strong
muscle stretch

50 Receptor potential

50

70

70
Action potentials

70

70
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (sec)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (sec)

Sensory pathway:

Sensory reception
Transduction
Transmission
Perception
Amplification and adaptation

Perception:

Action potential reach the brain via sensory neurons, generating

perception of a stimulus

All action potentials have the same property, what makes the
perceptions different are the part of the brain they link to.

Sensory pathway:

Sensory reception
Transduction
Transmission
Perception
Amplification and adaptation

Amplification and adaptation:

Strengthening of stimulus energy during

transduction (involves second messengers)

Continued adaptation: decrease in

responsiveness upon prolonged stimulation

Types of sensory receptors:

Mechanoreceptors
Chemoreceptors
Electromagnetic receptors
Thermoreceptors
Pain receptors

Mechanoreceptors:

sense physical deformation caused by

pressure, touch, stretch, motion, sound

Stretch receptors are mechanoreceptors are

dendrites that spiral around small skeletal
muscle fibers

Weak
muscle stretch

Muscle
Dendrites

Stretch
receptor

Membrane
potential (mV)

Axon

50

Receptor potential

70

50
70

Action potentials

70

70
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (sec)

Crayfish stretch receptors have

dendrites embedded in abdominal
muscles. When the abdomen bends,

Strong
muscle stretch

muscles and dendrites stretch, producing a

receptor potential in the stretch receptor. The
receptor potential triggers action potentials

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (sec)
in the axon of the stretch receptor. A stronger
stretch produces a larger receptor potential
and higher frequency of action potentials.

Strong
pressure

Light
touch

Touch
receptors
(light and
deep touch)
are
embedded in
connective
tissue

Epidermis

Dermis

Hypodermis

Nerve

Connective
tissue

Hair

Chemoreceptors:

General receptors: respond to total solute

concentrations
Specific receptors: respond to concentrations
of specific molecules

Electromagnetic
receptors:
Detect various forms
of electromagnetic
energy like visible
light, electricity,
magnetism
Snakes can have very
sensitive infrared
receptors detect
body heat of prey
Animals can use
earths magnetic field
lines to orient
themselves during
migration (magnetite
in body) orientation
mechanism

Eye
Infrared
receptor

This rattlesnake and other pit vipers have a pair of infrared

receptors, one between each eye and nostril. The organs
are sensitive enough to detect the infrared radiation
emitted by a warm mouse a meter away.

Some migrating animals, such as these beluga whales,

apparently sense Earths magnetic field and use the
information, along with other cues, for orientation.

Cold

Heat

Thermoreceptors:

Detect heat and cold

Located in skin and
anterior hypothalamus
Mammals have many
thermoreceptors each
for a specific
temperature range
Nerve

Connective
tissue

Hair

Capsaicin triggers the same thermoreceptors

as high temperature
Menthol triggers the same receptors as cold
(<28oC)

Pain

Pain receptors
(nociceptors):

Stimulated by
things that are
harmful high
temperature, high
pressure, noxious
chemicals,
inflammations

Defensive function
Nerve

Connective
tissue

Hair

Sensing gravity and sound in invertebrates:

Hair of different stiffness and length vibrate at

different frequencies and pick up sound
waves and vibrations

Statocyts:
organ with
ciliated receptor
cells surrounding
a chamber
containing
statoliths in
invertebrates
sense gravity

Ciliated
receptor cells

Cilia

Statolith

Sensory
nerve fibers

Tympanic
membrane
1 mm

Tympanic membrane stretched over their

ear help sense vibrations

Sensing gravity and sound in humans:

Human ear: sensory organ for hearing and

equilibrium

Our organ for hearing hair cells are

mechanoreceptors because they respond to
vibrations

Moving air pressure is converted to fluid

pressure

Ear structure:

Outer ear:
pinna, auditory
canal, tympanic
membrane
(separates
outer and
middle ear)

Middle ear: three small

bones malleus (hammer),
incus (anvil) and stapes
(stirrup) transmit
vibrations from tympanic
membrane to the oval
window.
Eustachian tube connects
middle ear to the pharynx
and equalizes pressure
Inner ear: consists of
fluid filled chambers
including semicircular
canals (equilibrium) and
cochlea (hearing)

Moving air travels through the air canal and causes

the tympanic membrane to vibrate
Three bones of the middle ear transmit the
vibrations to the oval window, a membrane on the
cochlear surface
That causes pressure waves in the fluid inside the
cochlea

The cochlea:
Upper vestibular canal and inner tympanic
canal filled with perilymph; middle cochlear
duct filled with endolymph

Organ of Corti:
Floor of the cochlear duct is the
basilar membrane
Organ of corti is located on the
basilar membrane, with hair cells
which has hair projecting into the
cochlear duct.
Many of the hairs are attached to the
overhanging tectorial membrane.
Sound waves cause the basilar
membrane to vibrate. This results in
displacement and bending of the
hair cells within the bundle.
This activates the
mechanoreceptors, changes the hair
cell membrane potential (sensory
transduction) which generates action
potential in the sensory neuron.

Cochlea

Stapes
Vestibular
canal
Oval
window

Perilymph
Apex

Base

Round
window

Tympanic
canal

Axons of
sensory
neurons

Basilar
membrane

Equilibrium:

In the vestibule behind the oval window are

urticle, saccule and three semicircular canals

Three semicircular canals arranged in three spatial

planes detect angular movements of the head
The hair cells form a cluster. They have a
gelatinous capula.
Fluid in the semicircular canals pushes against the
capula deflecting the hairs, stimulates the neurons
Semicircular canals

Ampulla
Flow
of endolymph
Flow
of endolymph
Vestibular nerve
Cupula
Hairs
Hair
cell

Vestibule
Utricle
Saccule

Nerve fibers
Body movement

Utricle (oriented horizontally),

saccule (oriented vertically) tell
the brian which way is up and the
position of the body and
acceleration

Sheet of hair cells project into a

gelatinous capula embedded with
otoliths (ear stones). Movement
of the head causes otoliths to in
different directions against the
hair protruding from the hair
cells. This movement is detected
by the sensory neurons

Dizziness: false sensation of

angular motion

http://www.dizziness-andbalance.com/disorders/bppv/otoliths.html

Hearing and equilibrium in fish:

Vibrations in the water conducted by

skeleton to inner ear canals, move otoliths
which stimulate hair cells

Swim bladder: air filled, responds to sound

Lateral line sense organ

Lateral line sense

organ:

Water flows through

the system
Bends hair cells;
generates receptor
potential
Nerve carries action
potential to the brain
Helps them sense
water currents,
moving objects, low
frequency sounds

Lateral line

Lateral line canal

Scale
Neuromast
Epidermis

Segmental muscles of body wall

Opening of
lateral line canal

Lateral nerve
Cupula

Sensory
hairs
Supporting
cell
Nerve fiber

Hair cell

Vision
Light
Photoreceptors
Planarians: Ocelli or eye
spots in the head region
Light stimulates
photoreceptors
Brain compares rate of
action potential coming
form the two ocelli
Photoreceptor
Brain directs the body to
turn until sensation form
both ocelli are equal and
minimal
Visual pigment
Animal can move to
shade, under a rock away
Ocellus
from predators

Light shining from

the front is detected

Nerve to
brain
Screening
pigment

Light shining from

behind is blocked
by the screening pigment

Compound eyes:

Very good at detecting movement

Very good at detecting flickering light (6 times
faster than human eye)
Some bees can see in the ultraviolet range of
light

Several thousand omatidia (facets) in every eye

Cornea and crystalline cone form the lens which
focuses light on the rhabdom
Light stimulates the photoreceptors to generate
receptor potential which generates action potential
Cornea
Crystalline Lens
cone

Rhabdom

Axons

2 mm

Photoreceptor

Ommatidium

Vertebrate eye
Single lens system (very different from
invertebrate single eyes)

Eyeball or globe
consists of

Sclera

Choroid

Iris

Sclera: tough white

outer connective Cornea
tissue
Cornea: clear part
of sclera in the
front of the eye
lets light into the
eye, acts as a fixed
lens
Choroid:
pigmented inner
layer: forms iris
(doughnut shaped)
can change size
to regulate the
amount of light
Pupil
coming in

Optic
nerve

Central artery and

vein of the retina
Optic disk
(blind spot)

Retina: innermost
layer with neurons
and
photoreceptors
Aqueous humor:
fluid that fills the
anterior cavity
(blockage of ducts
increases
pressure and
causes glaucoma)
Vitreous humor:
jellylike, fills the
posterior chamber

Retina

Fovea (center
of visual field)

Aqueous
humor

Vitreous humor

Ciliary body
Suspensory
ligament

Lens

Lens: clear disk

of protein

Humans and other

mammals

Front view of lens

and ciliary muscle
Choroid

Lens (rounder)

Retina

spherical ( ciliary
muscles contract,
sensory ligaments relax
near objects)

Ciliary
muscle

Near vision (accommodation)

flatter (ciliary muscles

relax, edge of choroid
moves away from lens,
suspensory ligaments
contract and pull the
lens distant objects)

Suspensory
ligaments

Lens (flatter)

Distance vision

Fishes, squids and octopuses focus by

moving lens forward and backward

Photoreceptors
Rods: sensitive to light, do not distinguish
colors
Cones: detect color, not very sensitive to
light
Nocturnal animals have a higher proportion
of rods

Rods and cones

have stacks of
disks
rhodopsin
(retinal - vitamin
A derivative +
opsin) in the
membrane
get activated
and cause
sensory
transduction

Rod

Outer
segment

Disks

Inside
of disk

Cell body

Synaptic
terminal

Cytosol
Rhodopsin

Retinal
Opsin

Information from the each

eye is carried by the optic
nerve (each with about a
million axons)
Optic nerves meet cross at
the optic chiasm
Information from right visual
field of both eyes goes to the
left side of the brain
Information from the left
visual field of both eyes goes
to the right side of the brain Optic nerve
Synapse with interneurons
which take the information to
the primary visual cortex
Lateral
geniculate
nucleus
Primary
visual cortex

Left
visual
field

Left
eye

Right
visual
field

Right
eye
Optic chiasm

Perception of gustation (taste) and olfaction

(smell)
Insects
In insects taste sensation is located within sensory
hairs called sensilla (on feet and mouthparts)
Olfactory odorants are detected by olfactory hairs

Sensillum

Mammals
In mammals specialized epithelial cells form taste
buds
Tastants detect five perceptions of taste: sweet,
sour, salty, bitter and savory (MSG)
Chemoreceptors generate receptor potential by
triggering a chain of reactions involving different
proteins for different tastes in the receptor cells
Taste pore
Taste
bud

Tongue

Sugar
molecule
Sensory
receptor
cells

Sensory
neuron

Sensory neurons lining the nasal cavity and

extending into the mucus layer get stimulated
by odorants. The stimulus is transmitted
directly to the olfactory bulb of the brain
Brain

potentials
Action

Olfactory bulb
Nasal cavity
Bone

Odorant

Epithelial cell
Odorant
receptors

Chemoreceptor

Plasma
membrane
Odorant

Cilia
Mucus