Math in Greek

2012
ISBN: 978-960-337-110-6
Copyright 2012
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2
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4 .
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() = .
) A = [ij]
ij = ji i = 1,2,..., j = 1,2,..., . ,
1
2
x
5
x2
2
y
y
3
3. , = .
1.1.1.
---. ( ..) -, -, - 80, 20 10 .. .

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.

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80
80
20
20
10
10
( ) :
0 80 100 110
80 0 20 30
.
A=
100 20 0
10
0
110 30 10
4, . ij = ji i = 1, 2,
3, 4 j = 1, 2, 3, 4 = .
17
1.1.2.
= [ij]23, ij = i j, i = 1, 2, j = 1, 2, 3
) .
) AT. ;
) x
x 2 1 x 2 2
=
.
3
x 1 0 x 7
)
a11 = 1 1 = 0 , a12 = 1 2 = 1, a13 = 1 3 = 2 ,
a21 = 2 1 = 1, a22 = 2 2 = 0 , a13 = 2 3 = 1
0 1 2
A=
.
1 0 1
0 1
A = 1 0 .
2 1
, .
)
x 2 1 x 2 2 0 1 2
3
x 1 0 x 7 1 0 1

T
x2=0,
x22=2,
x1=1,
x37=1.
x = 2 .
.
1.1.1.
() ()()
:
1
x
3
5y
3x
2
z2
[0 0 0 0 0]
5y
z2
3
1
0

3
y x 2 + 1 8
1
1
0
0
0
2
[10]
1 0 0
4 2 0

5 6 3
1 0 0
0 2 0

0 0 1
1 0 0
0 2 0
1 0 1
18
1.1.2.
4 4 = [ij], ij = 2i 3j i =
1, 2, 3, 4 j = 1, 2, 3, 4.
, .
1.1.3.
1.1 1,
2, .
..
1 3 .
1.1.
1.1.4. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 12 1, 2,...,12, 1.1. = [ij]44 ,
aij
i j (.. a13 2,
1 3).
1
3
1
5
2
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7
3
6
5
2
1
9
1
11
1.1.5.
x, y,
12
4
10
. 1.1.
0 y(4 x + 1) (3 y 1)(7 x 3)
1
.
2 x 1 8 x 3 =
0
4x2
1
1.1.6. x 2
x 5 x + 6
x 2 4
.
2
1.1.7. x, y,
1
A = 1 x 2
x2 1
x
y2
( x + 1)2 3
x 1
. =3.
1.1.8. 3
a
A [ aij ] x'
y'
y
z .
z'
x
=[ij]
1
ij = (ij + ji ), i = 1, 2, 3 j=1, 2, 3 ,
2
19
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;
1.2 .
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5
5
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6
10
8
2
3
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9
6
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A=
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7
8
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3
2
3
5
2
1
1
1
2

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,
8 + 10
6 + 9
3 + 7
2 + 1
5+5
4+2
2+8
1+5
6 + 5 18

2 + 3 15
=
3 + 1 10

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10
6
10
6
11
5
.
4
. :
, =[ij] B=[ij] ,
, . +, +=[ij+ij] .
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0
1
8 10 5 5 6 5 2
2
1
6 9 4 2 2 3 3
=
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2
6
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(
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20
= [ij] B = [ij] ,
, .
, = [ij ij] .
,
=+().
,
.
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1 4
2 4 6
3 5 7
, B=
= 2 5 ,
A=
4 6 8
8 6 4
3 6
3 5 7 2 4 6 5 9 13
A+ B =
+
=
,
8 6 4 4 6 8 12 12 12
3 5 7 2 4 6 1 1 1
A B = A + ( B) =
+
=
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8 6 4 4 6 8 4 0 4
3 5 7 1 2 3 4 7 10
A + T =
+
=
8 6 4 4 5 6 12 11 10
1 4 3 8 2 4
A = + ( A ) = 2 5 5 6 = 3 1 ,
3 6 7 4 4
2
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.

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1. +=+
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2. +=+=
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3. +(+)=(+)+
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++. , , , , ,
(+ (+))+,
21
((+)+)+, (A+B)+(+,) +((+)+), +(+(+)),

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k (A1, A2,..., Ak, k3 ),
1+2+...+k.

+= =.
+=, +=, =.
=, +=+ , +=.
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5. (+)=+
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( )
1.2.1.
, (15 ) .
13
11
10
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1 , :
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22
13 11
2 1
0 3
A = 10 9 , B = 2 2 , = 3 4 .
8 6
4 4
3 5
) ,
=3+2+,
13 11
2 1 0 3 39 33 4 2 0 3 43 38
X = 3 10 9 + 2 2 2 + 3 4 = 30 27 + 4 4 + 3 4 = 37 35 .
8 6
4 4 3 5 24 18 8 8 3 5 35 31
1 - , 2
-
.
38
X 2 = 35 .

31
43
X1 = 37 ,

35
13 2 0
= 10 2 3 ,
8 4 3
11 1 3
= 9 2 4
6 4 5
( ) ,

13 2 0 11 1 3 13 + 11 2 + 1 0 + 3 24 3 3
+ E = 10 2 3 + 9 2 4 = 10 + 9 2 + 2 3 + 4 = 19 4 7 .
8 4 3 6 4 5 8 + 6 4 + 4 3 + 5 14 8 8

.
,
2. ,
2 8
2 6
2 3
2 2
2 5
2 4
2 2
2 1
2 6 16 10 12

2 2 12 8 4
.
=
2 3 6 4 6
2 1 4 2 2
2 .
:
23
.
, , =[ij] =[ij] .
, , , ,
:
1. (+)=+
2. ()=()
3. (+)=+
4. lA=Al=A
5. = =0 =
1.2.2.
0 3 4
A = 2 2 5 . , 53=2 3.
4 1 1
( , ,
.
).
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(,
) ,
.

1
5 X I3 = 2 X 3 A 5 X 2 X = I3 3 A 3 X = I3 3 A X = ( I3 3 A)
3
:
1 0 0 0 3 4
1 0 0 0
1
1
X = 0 1 0 3 2 2 5 = 0 1 0 + 6

3
3 0 0 1 12
0
0
1
4
1
1

9
6
3
12 1 / 3 9
12

15 = 6 19 / 3 15 .
3 12 3 10 / 3
1.2.1.
1 2 0
1 2 3
4 0
2 3 3
= 2 0 1 , = 2 2 0 , =
, = 3 1 .
0
1
2
3 0 3
0 1 1
2 5
, .
) ,
) ,
) ,
) ,
) ,
) , .
24
1.2.2.
4 3
1 4
2 4
A=
, B=
, =
,
1 2
3 2
5 1
( ) + (), ( + ), + ( + ), ( + ) + , ( )
+ . ;
1.2.3.
1 2 0
1 2 3
1 1 1
A = 2 3 1 , B = 2 2 0 , = 2 2 1
0 1 1
3 0 3
2 2 1
3B,
1
1
A, A + 2 , 2 B , (2 3 A) .
5
4
1.2.4.
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:
DVD
.
20
55
29
90
30
40
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39
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66
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85
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DVD
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400
80
290
90
380
100
250
120
390
90
310
100
25
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1.2.6.
1, 2, 3, 1 2.

1 , ,2 3
1, ,2 3
1
30 40 50
E1 =
20 10 30
36 48 60
E2 =
30 10 32 .
1
( E1 + E2 ) .
2
)
20%,
.
( ) .
1.2.7. , 52=6+3
1 2
A = 1 3 ,
0
1
3 4
B = 2 2 .
4 1
1.2.8. ,
2+3=44 3+2=34+
= [ij] 4 aij = i j , i = 1, 2, 3, 4 j = 1, 2, 3, 4.
3
1 1
3 0 4

1
1
1
B
8
2 4
4 , 6( X B) = 12 X + A 2 B.
1.2.9. A = 2

2
4
3
3 1 2
1
1 1
1.3 .
1.1. ,
8
6
A=
3
5
4
2
1
( ) , , , .
( ),

26
.
:
) 5 ,
6
8 .
) 2 ,
1
3 .
,
( , )
5 2
B = 6 1 .
8 3

1 , :

1

+

1
1

+
1
( )
8 ^ 5 + 5 ^ 6 + 6 ^ 8 = 118
1
1 .
, 1 2
8 ^ 2 + 5 ^ 1 + 6 ^ 3 = 39

1 .

(
) (
) 2, 3 4 .
, :
) 1 : 118 ( ), 39 ( ).
) 2 : 70 ( ), 39 ( ).
) 3 : 51 ( ), 17 ( ).
27
) 4 : 24 ( ), 8 ( ).
:
118
39
70
22
51
17
24
,

118 39
70 22
.
=
51 17
24 8
.
11 1
1 , 12 1
2 ....
:
=[ij] =[ij] ,
, , ij
i
j . , ij = i1 1 j + i 2 2j + i 3 3 j + ... + ijj.
.
j
... ...
... ...
i1 ai 2
... ...
...
...
ai 3
...
... ...
... ...
... ai
... ...
... 1 j
...
2j
... 3 j
... ...
... j
...
... ...
... ... ...

... = ...
ij
... ... ...
...
= ,
(. 1.3).
...
...
...
...
. 1.3
28
1.3.1.
2.

=
,

0 1
E
E=
.
1 0
, .
.
0 1
AE =
=
,
1 0
0 1
EA =
1 0
,
, , .
2
( ).
, , , ( ), :
1. (kA) (k) = (kk) (A)
2. () = ()
3. ( + ) = + , ( + ) = +

4. ==
( )
( )
( )
( ) , (), .
, , , , (()), (()), ()(), (()), (()),
, , , .
k 1, 2, 3,..., k
k, 1 2 3... k. A1=2=3=...=Ak=A, 1 2 3... k = AAA ... A k.

Al=A, A0=I.

Ik=I k.
k,r , :
5. AkAr = Ak+r
6. (Ak)r=Akr
7. ()k=kAk, R.
29
, :
8. (AB)T=BTAT.
,
= , ,
, . , ,
,
:
) . :
1 2 1
2 5 1 7
A = 2 1 1 , B = 7 1 3 4 ,
5 2 1
3 2 1 2
( 3 4),
( 3 4 3 3).
) , . ,
:
1 4
1 2 3
A=
, B = 2 5
4
5
6
3 6
. 2 2 , 3 3
=.
) ,
.
2
1
5 2
A=
, B=
3 2
3 1
,
1
AB =
3
2 5 2 11 4
5 2 1
=
, BA =
2 3 1 9 4
3 1 3
2 11 6
=
.
2 6 4
) , .
,
1 2
5 3
A=
, B=
2 1
3 5
:
1 2 5 3 11 13
5 3 1 2 11 13
, BA =
AB =
=
2 1 3 5 13 11
3 5 2 1 13 11
=.
. . :
30
) A , .
) H =0, =0
=0 , ..
1 1
0 1
A=
B =
0 0
0 1
0 0
AB = BA =
,
0 0
= =. ,
(. = ), ,
,
.
1.3.2.
, ,
(+)2, (+)3.
, =.
(+)2, (+)3.
.
:
( A + B)2 = ( A + B)( A + B) = ( A + B) A + ( A + B) B = A2 + BA + AB + B 2
( A + B)3 = ( A + B)2 ( A + B) = ( A2 + BA + AB + B 2 )( A + B) =
= A3 + A2 B + BA2 + BAB + ABA + AB 2 + B 2 A + B3 .
(.
=), .
=,
( A + B)2 = A2 + BA + AB + B 2 = A2 + AB + AB + B 2 = A2 + 2 AB + B 2

.
,
BA2 = ( BA) A = ( AB) A = A( BA) = A( AB) = ( AA) B = A2 B,
BAB = ( BA) B = ( AB) B = A( BB) = AB 2
ABA = A( BA) = A( AB) = ( AA) B = A2 B
B 2 A = ( BA) A = ( AB) A = A( BA) = A( AB) = ( AA) B = A2 B
31
( A + B)3 = A3 + A2 B + BA2 + BAB + ABA + AB 2 + B 2 A + B3 =

= A3 + A2 B + A2 B + AB 2 + A2 B + AB 2 + AB 2 + B3 =
= A3 + 3 AB 2 + 3 AB 2 + B3
.
(+)2, (+)3
==.
( A + I )2 = A2 + 2 AI + I 2 = A2 + 2 A + I .
( A + I )3 = A3 + 3 A2 I + 3 AI 2 + I = A3 + 3 A2 + 3 A + I .
1.3.3.
n- (n )
a11 0 ... 0
0 a
... 0
22
A=
... ... ...
0 0 a
0
n-
,
n
a11
0 ... 0
n
0 a22 ... 0
n
A =
.
... ... ...
n
0
0 0 a
.
. n=1
. n=k,
k
a11
0 ... 0
k
0 a22 ... 0
k
A =
.
... ... ...
k
0
0 0 a

k +1
a11
0
k +1
a22
0
...
...
0
0
n=k+1, Ak+1
0
...
0
...
k +1
0 a
...
32
k
a11
0 ... 0
k
0 a22 ... 0
k +1
k
A = A A=
... ... ...

k
0
0 0 a
a11 0 ... 0
0 a
... 0
22
... ... ...
0 0 a
0
:
k +1
a11
0
...
0
k +1
a22
...
0
k +1 0
A =
.
...
...
...
k +1
0
a
0
0

,
.
.
1 2 0
1 2 3
4 0
2 3 3
, = 3 1 .
1.3.1. A = 2 0 1 , B = 2 2 0 , =
0 1 2
3 0 3
0 1 1
2 5
, , , , , , , ,
, .
1 2 1
2 5 1 7
3 6 0 6
1.3.2. A = 2 1 3 , = 2 1 3 4 , = 1 2 4 5 .
5 2 3
3 2 1 2
4 3 2 3
) , , , .
) , .
) ();
3 2 0
1 0
2 1 2
.
1.3.3. A = 1 0 2 , B = 0 1 , =
1 2 1
0 1 3
2 0
: + 2 + 3, 32 2, , 2 3:
1.3.4. M 1 2, 1, 2 3.
1, 2, 3 .
1 2 3
1 2
1 1, 5 2, 5 1
A 1
2
3 2
1, 5 2
4 3
10 16 1
B 15 17 2
13 14 3
33
) .
)
2 1, 3 2 5
3 ;
1.3.5. : . .

1
2
3
60
30
10
75
60
70
20
50
15
40
,
.
1.3.6. .
1 0 0 0 1 2 0
1 0 0 = 2 2 2
0 1 0 0 2 0 2 3
1.3.7. = [x y z], B = [ ] =. x2+y2+z2;
x y
1
1.3.8. A =
B =
, ,,x,y,R y0,
y x

AB=BA a=1.
x y
1.3.9.
A=
A1(x+w)A+(xwyz)I2=.
z w
3 1
2
1.3.10.
A=
, A +5A 1
2.

0
1.3.11. A A = 0 2+2+2=1, A3=A.

0
1.3.12.
, (+)2=2+2
.
1.3.13.
, (+3)(2+)=(2+)(+3) .
34
1.3.14.
,
= = .
4 3 3
0 1 1
1.3.15.
A = 3 2 3 B = 2 1 2 .
3 3 2
2 2 3
A2=B2=I3, AB+BA=2I3, (AB)2=O. : A2=B2, A=B A=B;
1.4 .
a a0 ,
1
a a1, aa1=a1a=1. :
, AB=BA=I;.
AB BA
. :
. AB=BA=I,
.
, .
, , A1. :
AA1=A1A=I.
,
1 2
5 2
A=
, B=
3 5
3 1
1 2 5 2 1 0
AB =
=
= I2
3 5 3 1 0 1
5 2 1 2 1 0
BA =
=
= I2 .
3 1 3 5 0 1
, .
,
.
.
, AB=I BA=I, A,B
, .
, , :
35
, ,

AX=B X=A1B XA=B X=BA1.
(1.4.1)
:
) AX=B, , A1 B = A1(AX )=(A1 A)X = IX = X .
1
1
) X=A1B, , AX = A(A B) = (AA )B = IB = B .
.
,
(. AB=O), , .
AB=O , ,
. , , :
AB = O A1 AB = A1O IB = O B = O .
, 2 .
.

) O A =
, , D = 0.

) A =
, ,

A1 =
1
.
D
(1.4.2)
A =
2. ,
x
X =
= ,
z

x y 1 0
x + z y + 1 0
z = 0 1 x + z y + = 0 1
x, y, z,
x + z = 1
x + z = 0
(1)
y + = 0

y + = 1
(2).
, (1) (2) . D =
:
) D 0, (x, z) x = z =
, D
D
=
(1), (y, ) y =
D
D

(2).
36

D
X =

D
A1 =
1
.

D

D D
X =
(

D
D
D 0) = = .
) D =0, (1) (2) ,
. :
0 = 0 0 0, (1)
(2) .
= = = = 0, .
,
1 2
A =
, D=1523=56=10
3 5
5 2 5 2
1 5 2
A1 =
= (1)
=
.
1 3 1
3 1 3 1
1 2
, A =
, D=1623=66=0.
3 6
1.4.1.
, ,

()1=11.
.
()(11)= (11)()= . ,

( AB)( B 1 A1 ) = (( AB) B 1 ) A1 = ( A( BB 1 )) A1 = ( AI ) A1 = AA1 = I ,

( B 1 A1 ) ( AB) = (( B 1 A1) A) B = ( B 1( A1 A)) B = ( B 1 I ) B = B 1 B = I .
1.4.2.
0 1 1
4 3 3
A = 3 2 3 , B = 2 1 2 .
2 2 3
3 3 2
37
) 2, 2.
) .
) = =.
.
0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0
A = 3 2 3 3 2 3 = 0 1 0 = I3
2 2 3 2 2 3 0 0 1
2
4 3 3 4 3 3 1 0 0
B = 2 1 2 2 1 2 = 0 1 0 = I3
3 3 2 3 3 2 0 0 1
) 2=2=3 ==3 ==3

1= 1=.
) 1=, :
0 1 1 4 3 3 5 4 4
5 4 4
AX = B X = A B X = AB = 3 2 3 2 1 2 = 1 2 1 X = 1 2 1 .
2 2 3 3 3 2 5 5 4
5 5 4
1
0 1 1 4 3 3 5 4 4
5 4 4
3 2 3 2 1 2 = 1 2 1 X = 1 2 1 .
2 2 3 3 3 2 5 5 4
5 5 4
, 1=, :
4 3 3 0 1 1 3 4 4
BY = A X = B A X = BA = 2 1 2 3 2 3 = 1 0 1 .
3 3 2 2 2 3 5 5 6
1
1.4.1.
, ,
2.
1 2

6 3
6 3
A1 =
, A2 =
, A3 =
, A4 =
.
4 3

4 2
4 2
4 7
1 0
1.4.2. A =
B =
.
3 5
2 1
) .
) 1=.
) 1=.
38
1.4.3.
, .
1 1
1 2 3
0
1
) A = 4 1 1 , B = 3 2 11
3
1 1 1
3
1 7
1
1
) A =
1
1 1 1
1 2 3
,
2 1 3
3 3 1
2 1 2
1 1 2
) A = 1 1 0 , B = 1 2 2
2 0 1
2 2 3
15 / 8 1 / 4 1 / 4 3 / 8
1 / 4 1 / 2 1 / 2 1 / 4
B=
1 / 4 1 / 2 1 / 2 1 / 4
3 / 8 1 / 4 1 / 4 1 / 8
1 3 x
1.4.4. A = 0 1
0 0
9x2
6x .
1
1 3 x
) B = 0 1
0 0
1 6 36
) 0 1 12 .
0 0 1
9x2
6 x .
1
3 4
1 2
1.4.5. A =
B =
.
2 3
0 1
) .
) (AB)1 .
1.4.6.
x,y,z , A,B
3 .
2 1 1
A = 1 2 1 ,
1 1 1
x
B = y
3
0 1
x 3 .
1 z
1.5 .

A=[aij] , B=[ij] .
.
A = B aij = ij (i = 1, 2,..., j = 1, 2,..., )

,
.
a11 0
0 a
22
... ...
0
0
... 0
... 0
... ...
0 a
39
1
0
I = I = 0
...
0
0
1
0
...
0
...
...
...
...
0 ...
0
0
1
...
0
0
0
1
,
.
ij = ji
i = 1, 2, ..., j = 1, 2, ..., = A.
A + B = [ aij + ij ]
A=[aij] =[ij] ,
:
,
,
R.
A=[aij]
=[ij] .
A B = [ aij ij ]
A = [ aij ]
AB = [ ij ] ,
ij = a i1 1 j + a i 2 2 j +... + a i j
1=1=
2

A=
D = 0

A1 =
1.6 .
,
, .
1.
A=[aij] + .
2.
(2 + 2) = , = .
3.
A 3( ) = , =.
4.
, 34, .
5.
0 0 0
0 1 0 .
0 0 0
40
6.
2=, = =.
7.
=
, =.
8.
=5, , , ,
.
9.
()2=, , A = I.
10.
, ,
()2=22.
3 2
11.

2 1
12.
3 2
.
2
1
= , ,
.
13. = .
14.
,
=, =1.
15.
, ,
.
.
1.
, ,
, :
) , 1
2.
3.
4.
) 1,
1

2
1
:
0
) 1, 1
a1

a2
1
)
2
a1
a1
)
) a
1
2
, 410, :
a1
)
2
) . ) . ) . ) .
a2 3a + 3
0
0
0
0
a2 a + 1
:

2
0
0
a 4a + 4
) = 1.
) = 2.
) = 0.
) .
41
5.
= =, :
) =
6.
) =
) =
) =
x0 . ' x :
1 1
1
) A
) xA
) xA1
) A
x
x
,, , :
7.
) ( + ) = + .
) ( ) = ().
) ( + ) = + .
) .
1 4

:
2 8
8.
3 2
)
.
2
1
3 2
)
.
1
2
) .
3 2
.
)
1
2
9.
1 0 0
4 2 0 :
6 5 3
) . ) . ) . ) .
10.
2
0

0
5 4 0
3 5 2
:
0
1 3
0 0 0
) . ) . ) . ) .
11.
1 0 0
4 2 0 :
6 5 3
) . ) . ) . ) .
, , , :
12.
) + ( + ) = ( + ) + .
) + = + .
) ( ) = ( ) + .
) .
42
13.
, , :
) 5(A+B)=5A+B
) = =0 =
) =
) (+)2=2+2+2
1.7 .
1.7.1. x12 + x22 + ... + x2 =[x1,x2,...,x].
1.7.2. :
)
.
) .
) .
1.7.3. . :
) .
) .
1.7.4. , . :
) .
) + .
1.7.5.
=. , . :
) .
) + .
, , ... .
, . , , ,
. Cramer
, .
2.1 .
2.2 .
2.3 I .
2.4
.
2.5 .
2.6 .
2.7
.
2.8 .
2.9 .
lx im
2.10 .
2.11 .
x0
44
2.1 .
A x1, x2
11 x1 + 12 x2 = 1
21 x1 + 22 x2 = 2 .
()

11 x1 + 12 x2 1
= .
21 x1 + 22 x2 2
11 12
(, 22 A =
21 22
x
) 21 X = 1 ( x2
).
11 12 x1 1
= AX = B
21 22 x2 2
(2.1.1)

B = 1 .
2
,
22 12, :
1122 x1 12 22 x2
2112 x1 22 12 x2
22 1

12 2
(1122 2112 ) x1
22 1 12 2 .
(2.1.2)
,
D=112221120
x1
x1 =
22 1 12 2

= 22 1 12 2 .
1122 2112
D
(2.1.3)
x2

(11a22 2112 ) x2
11 2 21 1
(2.1.4)
, D 0,

x2 =
11 2 21 1
21 1
= 11 2
.
1122 2112
D
(2.1.5)
D = 11 21 21 22 ,
45
12
A = 11
2 ( 21 22
11 12
.
2 2 )
21 22
:
2
11 12
A=
.
21 22
,
a11 a12
A=
= a11a22 a21a12 .
a21 a22
(2.1.6)
:
4 3
4 3
|
A
|
=
= 4( 2) 5( 3) = 7 ,
A =
5 2
5 2
1 0
1 0
| I| =
I =
= 1 0 = 1
0 1
0 1
0 0
0 0
O =
O=
=00=0 .
0 0
0 0
(2.1.3), (2.1.5) . ,
D
D
Dxxx1 112222 221212
11
11 1212
22 2222
,,
D
Dxxx2
22
111122 212111
1111 11
2121 22
, D 0 ,
11 1
12
1212
DD
DxDx x
x
x1x1x1 111 1 2 2 2 222222, , ,
D
DDD
11
1111
12
1212
212121 222222
x 2x x2 2
DDxD
Dx x
11
1111 1
11
212121 2 2 2
D
DD
D
11
1111
12
1212
212121 222222
2 x222
(2.1.7)
( Cramer).
Dx1, Dx2 D =
x1, x2 .
() (2.1.2), (2.1.4),

D ^ x1 = Dx1, D ^ x2 = Dx2

:
46
11 x1 + 12 x2 = 1
12

D = 11
21 22
21 x1 + 22 x2 = 2 .
.
D 0
1111
12
12
12
12
D
DD
D
D
xxxxx
2222 22
2222
22
11111
,, ,,
xx1x1x11
D
D
D
D
D
11
11
11
11 12
12
12
12
21
2121
22
2222
21
22
11
11
11
11 1
111
D
D
D
D
x
x
x
x
Dx22222 21
2121
21
2
222
xx2x2x22
.
D
DD
D
11
11
11
11 12
12
12
12
21
2121
22
2222
21
22
(2.1.8)

D = 0 Dx 0 Dx 0, 1
2
.
D = Dx = Dx = 0, ,
1
11 = 21 = 12 = 22 = 0 1 0 2 0,
.
2 3 ,
3 3 .
a11 a12 a13
A = a21 a22 a23 .
a31 a32 a33
11
22
23
32
33
12
21 23
31
33
+ 13
21 22
31
32
11 12
21 22
31 32
13
23 .
33
3
a11 a12
A = a21 a22
a31 a32
a13
a23 .
a33
, :
a11 a12
A = a21 a22
a31 a32
a13
a22
a23 = a11
a32
a33
a23
a21 a23
a21 a22
a12
+ a13
.
a33
a31 a33
a31 a32
47
, , ()
. ()
ij 2 ,
ij. (1)i+j.
2 ,
A = a11(a22 a33 a32 a23 ) a12 (a21a33 a31a23 ) + a13 (a21a32 a31a22 )

A = a21(a12 a33 a32 a13 ) + a22 (a11a33 a31a13 ) a23 (a11a32 a31a12 )
= a21
a12
a32
a13
a11 a13
a11 a12
+ a22
a23
.
a33
a31 a33
a31 a32
.
,
A
a11
22
a23
a32
a33
a21
a12
a13
32
a33
a31
a12
13
22
a23
.
, () ,
.

1+1
(1)1+ 2
+ + (1)
+ = (1)2+1 (1)2+ 2

+ + (1)3+1 (1)3+ 2
(1)1+3
(1)2+3 .
(1)3+3
1 2 1
A = 3 2 5 ,
2 0 0
,
, :
A =2
2 1
1 1
1 2
0
+ 0
= 2 (10 + 2) 0 (5 3) + 0 (2 + 6) = 16.
2 5
3 5
3 2
, , .
48
33
11
21
31
12
22
32
13
23
33
11 (22 33 32 23 ) 12 (2133 3123 ) 13 (2132 3122 )
112233 123123 132132 113223 122133 133122
,
Sarrus. (+)
() + + +
D11 D12 D13 D11 D12

(. 2.1).
D 21 D 22 D 23 D 21 D 22

,
D 31 D 32 D 33 D 31 D 32
( Sarrus

. 2.1.
Sarrus.
).
2.1.1.
2
3
2
A = 1
2
1 .
2
2 1
) =2 .
) .
.
0 2 3
) =2 A = 1 0 1
2 2 1
0 2 3
0 1
2 3
2 3
A = 1 0 1 =0
1
+2
=
2 1
2 1
0 1
2 2 1
= [ 2 (1) 3 (2)] + 2[ 2 1 0 3] = 4 + 4 = 0.
)
49
2
2
3
2
1
1
1
1 2
A= 1
2
1 = ( 2 )
2
+3
=
2 1
2 1
2 2
2
2 1
= (2 )[(2 ) (1 ) (2) 1] 2[1 (1 ) 1 2] + 3[(1 (2) 2 (1 )] =
= 3 + 5 2 2 8.
=2, , .
2.1.2.
B(x2 , y2)
, , xOy (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3) , (. 2.1)

1 x3
1
( ) 1 x2
2
1 x1
(x3 , y3)
y3
y2 .
y1
(x1 , y1)
x
. 2.1.
, , , ,
Ox, 2.1,

,
B(x2 , y2)
() = () + () ().
(x3 , y3)
, (. 2.1)
( ABE)
2
A=y1, BE=y2, =x2x1 :
1
( ABE) ( y1 y2 ) ( x2 x1 ) .
2

( )
1

( y2 y3 ) ( x3 x2 )
2
2
( )

1
( y1 y3 ) ( x3 x1 ).
2
2
(x1 , y1)
O
. 2.1.
B(x2 , y2)
y2
,
1
1
( AB ) ( y1 y2 ) ( x2 x1 ) ( y2 y3 ) ( x3 x2 )
2
2
1
( y1 y3 ) ( x3 x1 )
2
y1
O
(x1 , y1)
(x2 - x1)
. 2.1.
50

1
1
( AB ) ( y1 x2 y1 x3 y2 x3 y2 x1 y3 x2 y3 x1 ) y1 ( x2 x3 ) y2 ( x3 x1 ) y3 ( x1 x2 ).
2
2
1 x3
1 x2
1 x1
1 x3
y3
1 x2
y2 y3
1 x1
y1
1 x2
1 x1
y2
y3
y2 3
y1
1 x3
1 x1
y1
1 x3
y3 ( x1 x2 ) y2 ( x1 x3 ) y1 ( x2 x3 )
1 x2
1 x3
1
( AB ) 1 x2
2
1 x1
y3
y2 .
y1
, , , ,
(..
, ... ), , ,
. ,
.
(4,5), (5,2) (1,2)
1
( AB ) =
2
1 4 5
1 5 2
1 1 2
1
= 12 = 6 .
2
2.1.1. (2.1.8).
)
2x + 3y = 5
3x + 2 y = 5
2x + 3y = 5
3x + 6 y = 3
2x 5y =1
4 x + 10 y = 2
2.1.2.
, 2 .
)
1 0 5
2 2 4
3 0 1
) 1
0
1 0 5
) 0 2 0
3 0 4
0
1
9 3 2
) 6 2 4
0 0 1
1 0
) 1 1
1 1 0
51
2.1.3.
x 1
x 1
x 1
x =0
3
x
3
x
x
=0
)
5x 2x + 3
x2
x 1
x 3
x +1 1
x +1 2 = 0
x
3
x2
x2
1 = x
x2
x 1
1 1
2.1.4. ,
, , (1,5), (2,3), (2,1) . 2.1.2,
.
2.1.5.
a
a2 2 2 = (a )( )( a) .
1 1
1
2.1.6.
a 1 1
1 1 1
1 a 1 = a 1 a 1 .
1 1 a
1 1 a
2.1.7.
, 0.
a
x y
x y
z ,
x
y
z
a+ x + y
a
z , x y
+ z x y
z , a+ x + y
z
x
y
+z .
z
2.1.8. , .

x y z ,
k m n
k m n
x y z
1 1
2.1.9. A = 1 1 .
1 1
) =2 .
52
) .
)
1 1
1 1
1
1.
2.2 .
,
a11 a12
A = a21 a22
a31 a32
a13
a23
a33
3, ,
A = a21
a12
a32
a13
a11 a13
a11 a12
+ a22
a23
,
a33
a31 a33
a31 a32
A = a11
a22
a32
a23
a21 a23
a21 a22
a12
+ a13
,
a33
a31 a33
a31 a32
A = a11
a22
a32
a23
a12
a21
a33
a32
a13
a12
+ a31
a33
a22
a13
.
a23
, , ij 2 Mij
, ij.
ij mij =Mij.
, + ,
(1)i+j. (1)i+j mij ij cij,
cij = (1)i + j mij = (1)i + j M ij .
,
A = a21c21 + a22 c22 + a23c23 ,

A = a11c11 + a12 c12 + a13c13 ,
(2.2.1)
A = a11c11 + a21c21 + a31c31 .

,

A = a31c31 + a32 c32 + a33c33 ,

A = a12 c12 + a22 c22 + a32 c32 ,
(2.2.2)
53
A = a13c13 + a23c23 + a33c33 .

3
( 33 ) 2 .
, , A = [ij] .
3 1 (
).
A = [ij] .

11 12 1
21 22 2
1 2
= 11c11+12c12++1c1 cij = (1)i+j mij= (1)i+jMij Mij 1 ,
ij.
3 , mij =Mij
ij cij = (1)i+j mij ij.
11c11+12c12++1c1, ,
1 .
3 ,

1. :

11 12
21 22
A=

1 2
1
2
.

A = ai1ci1 + ai 2 ci 2 + + ai ci ,
A = a1 j c1 j + a2 j c2 j + + aj cj
i j 1,2,,.
i ,
, j .
, ,
.
, , = 0.
54
2.2.1.
a
xa
a
a
a
a
0 a x
0
x
a
a
a
0
a
x
=0
.
.
2 (
)
a
a
a
x a 0 a x
a
0
x
a
a
0
= (1)2+1( x a) M 21 + (1)2+3 (a x ) M 23 = ( x a)( M 21 + M 23 )
a
x
a a a
M 21 = 0 x a ,
a a
a a a
M 23 = a 0 a .
a a
21 1 23 2
,
a
M 21 = 0a
M 21 = a0
a
a
M 23 = aa
M 23 = aa
a
a
xa
ax
a
a
0a
a0
a
x
aa = (1)1+1 a x
1+1 a
xa = (1) a a
x
a
a
aa = (1)1+ 2 a a
1+ 2 a
xa = (1) a a
a x
a
a
+ (1)1+3 a a
a
x + (1)1+3 a x
x
x
a
= a( x 2 a2 ) + a(a2 ax ) = ax( x a),
aa = a( x 2 a2 ) + a(a2 ax ) = ax( x a),
a
a
a
+ (1)3+ 2 a a
a
x + (1)3+ 2 a a
x
a
a
= a(ax a2 ) = a2 ( x a).
a
a = a(ax a2 ) = a2 ( x a).
a

a
a
x
x a 0 a x
a
x
0
a
a
0
a
0
= ( x a)[ ax( x a) a2 ( x a)] = a( x a)2 ( x + a)
a
x
, a(xa)2(x+a) x=a x=a.
55
2.2.2.

11
0
, A =

1122.
12 1
22 2
11 0
21 22
, A =

1 2

0
0
, .
.
33
11 0
A = 21 22
31 32
0 .
( 2.2.1) :
A = 11
A = 11
22
32
33
22
32
33
+0
21
31
33
+0
21
22
31
32
= 11 (22 33 0 32 ) = 11 22 32 .
, .
2.2.3.
12
11 + a11
+
22
21 21
: A =
1 + 1 2
:
11 12
22
|A|= 21
1 2
12
1 11
22
2 21
+

1 2
1
2
.

1
2

56
.
1
A=
11 + a11
21 + 21
12 1
22 2
1 + 1

2 v
) c11 + (21 + 21
) c21 + + (1 + 1 c1 )
= (11 + 11
ci1 (1)i 1 mi1 (1)i 1 Mi1 i1, i = 1, 2, ... .
a11
11
cc11c1111aa21
a21
21
cc21
AAA(((11
1111 cc11c1111
cc21
c2121 ...
cc11)1))((a(a11
c2121...aaa111ccc11)1))
21
21
21
111c

11
12 1
21 22 2

1 2
1 ,
11
21
12
22
1
2

1 .
.
2.2.1.
a 1 2 3
0 5 6
4
7
a 1
0 0
0 0 8 9 ,
0 0 0 10
0 0 0 0
2 3
8
4
9
3 1
8 0
0 0 0 0 ,
0 0 0 10
0 5 6 7
2 a
0
4
9
0 0 0 0 .
0 0 0 10
6 5 0 7
;
2.2.2.
1
1
1
1
0
2
2
2
0
0
3
3
0
0
,
0
4
1
1
1
1
0
2
2
2
0
0
0
3
0
0
,
0
4
4
1
1
1
0
3
2
2
0
0
2
3
0
0
,
0
1
1
0
0
11
2
0
111 22 3
1111 222 33
0
0
.
0
4
57
2.2.3.
x 1
x2 +1
x2
x2 +1
x 3
x2 1
x2 +1
x4
x 4
x 1
x +1 x 5
x +1
x2 +1
x+2
x +3
x +1
x2 1
=0 .
x2 +1 x + 4
2.2.4.
1
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
0
0
3
2
1
0
0
4
3
2
1
0
5
4
3 ,
2
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
,
1
1
1 1 1 1 1
0 111 1 1 1
0 0 0 111 1 .
0 0 0 111 1
0 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1
,
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 1
2.2.5.
y
w
z
p 1
q 1 0 y
=
r 1 w
s 1 z
p 1
p 1
q 1 y
+
r 1 0 w
s 1 0 z
q 1
r 1
s 1
2.2.3,
.
2.2.6.
y
w
z
p 1
q 1 0 y
=
r 1 0 w
s 1 0 z
p 1
q 1 y
+
r 1 0 w
s 1 0 z
p 1
p 1
p 1
q 1 0 y
+
r 1 0 w
s 1 z
q 1
r 1
s 1
q 1 0 y
+
r 1 w
s 1 0 z
2.2.3,
.
2.2.7. 2.2.2 .
11 12
21 22
31 32
41 0
13
23
0
0
14 0

0 0
,
0 0

0 41
23
32
33
42
43
14
24
.
34
44
58
2.3 I .
, , , ,
.
2,
(2.1.6). ,
,
, .
,
.
2.2.2 :
D1
,
.
,
x2
x3
0 2 ex
0 0
x2 1
0 0
0 0
0
0
4
0
x4
x
1
= 1 2 3 4 5 = 120.
4
x +2
xe x
5
D1 :
D2
,
,
11
0
#
0
"
22 "
#
0
#
1122 " .
"
D3 1, = 1.
, :
D4
( ) ,
.
, , .
D5
( ) , .
D6
( ) ,
.
59

( ).
D7
(
) ,
=.
D8

( ) ( ) ,
= .
D9
(
) '
( ) ( )
, =.
, ,
' .
D10
,
=.
D11

, =.
= 2=2 ,
Ak = Ak , k = 2, 3,...
D12

, = .
D10, D11, D12
=2. ,

A=
,

a
AT =
,

x y
B=
A = , B = x yz
z
x y x + z y +
a
AB =
A =
=
.
z x + z y +

) AT = a = a = A ,
) A = ( )( ) ( )( ) = 2 ( ) = 2 A ,
) AB = (ax + z)( y + ) (ay + )( x + z) = axy + ax + zy + z
yx yz x z = (x x ) (yz zy)
= ( )x ( ) yz = ( )( x yz) = A B .
,
.
60
2.3.1.
1 3 5
A = 2 4 6 9 7 10
, .
.
(2)
1
3
5
0 2 4
9
7 10
D9 ,
1 3 5
1
A= 2 4 6 = 0
9 7 10
9
3
2
7
5
4 .
10
, (9)
1
3
5
A = 0 2 4 .
0 20 35
(10)

1
3 5
A = 0 2 4
0
0 5
, D1
,
1
0
0
3 5
2 4 = 1 (2) 5 = 10 .
0 5
= 10.
2.3.2.
0,1,2 3 (x)=0
x 1
A( x ) =
x2 1 1
x3 1 1
26
x 4 1 1 15 80
61
x=0, x=1, x=2 x=3,

1
1
A(0) =
1
1
1 1 2
1 3 8
, A(1) =
1 7 26
1 15 80
0 1
0 1
0 1
1
3
7
2
0 1 1 2
8
0 1 3 8
, A(2) =
, A(3) =
26
0 1 7 26
0 1 15 80
0 1 15 80
0
0
0
0
1 1 2
1 3 8
1 7 26
1 15 80
. A(0) [ 2
1 (1)], ,
D6 A(0)=0. , 0 A(x)=0.
A(1) , (
D4 ) A(1)=0. , 1 A(x)=0. ,
A(2),A(3) , ( D5 ) A(2)=0 A(3)=0. 2 3 A(x)=0.
2.3.3.

x
5
A = 5
5
5
5 5 5 5
x 5 5 5
5 x 5 5
5 5 x 5
5 5 5 x
(.
).
.
, , 1

x + 20
x + 20
x + 20
x + 20
x + 20
5
x
5
5
5
5
5
x
5
5
5
5
5
x
5
5
5
5
5
x
D9 ,
x 5 5 5 5
5 x 5 5 5
x + 20 5 5 5 5
x + 20 x 5 5 5
A = 5 5 x 5 5 = x + 20 5 x 5 5 .
5 5 5 x 5
x + 20 5 5 x 5
5 5 5 5 x
x + 20 5 5 5 x
62
D8,
x + 20 5 5 5 5
x + 20 x 5 5 5
1 5 5 5 5
1 x 5 5 5
A = x + 20 5 x 5 5 = ( x + 20) 1 5 x 5 5 .
x + 20 5 5 x 5
1 5 5 x 5
x + 20 5 5 5 x
1 5 5 5 x
(1) , ,

1 5 5 5 5
1 x 5 5 5
1
0
5
x 5
5
0
5
0
5
0
0
0
0
x 5
0
0
0
x 5
0
0
0
x 5
A = ( x + 20) 1 5 x 5 5 = ( x + 20) 0
1 5 5 x 5
0
1 5 5 5 x
0
, D1
,
1
0
0
0
0
5
x 5
5
0
x 5
0
0
0
0
0
5
0
0
x 5
0
5
0
0 = 1 ( x 5)4 = ( x 5)4 .
0
x 5
= (x5)4.
2.3.4.
, xOy (x1, y1), (x2, y2), ,

,
1 x
1 x1
1 x2
y
y1 = 0 .
y2
(2.3.1)
1
1
x1
x2
y1
1 y1
1 x1
x
+ y
=0
y2
1 y2
1 x2
x+y= =
1 y1
1 y2
1 x1
1 x2
x1
y1
x2
y2
63
, (2.3.1) . , (2.3.1) x=x1, y=y1 x=x2, y=y2,

1 x1
1 x1
1 x2
1 x2
1 x1
1 x2
y1
y1 = 0 ,
y2
y2
y1 = 0
y2
( D5). , ,

y
1 x
1 x
y1 = 0 .
1
1 x2 y2
, (1,2) (2,1)
1 x y
1 1 2 = 0 1 1 2 x 1 2 + y 1 1 = 0 x + y = 3 .
2 1
1 1
1 2
1 2 1
2.3.5.
1+ x
1+ y
1+ w
1+ z
p
q
r
s
1
x
1
y
=
1
w
1
z
p
q
r
s
1
1
1
1
.
.
2.2.3,
1+ x
1+ y
1+ w
1+ z
p
q
r
s
1
1 x
1
1 y
=
1
1 w
1
1 z
p
q
r
s
1
x
1
y
+
1
w
1
z
p
q
r
s
1
1
1
1
( ),
1+ x
1+ y
1+ w
1+ z
p
q
r
s
1
x
1
y
=
1
w
1
z
p
q
r
s
1
1
.
1
1
64
2.3.1. 1 (0,0)
(5, 4). 2 (3, 1) (4,5).
) 2.3.4,

1 x + 1 y = 1 , 2 x + 2 y = 2
) (2.1.8),
.
2.3.2. 2.2.2
D7 ( ).
2.3.3.
D12 D5 ( , D6)
.
1 2 3 4
0 1 0 1 ,
1 0 1 0
5 10 15 20
1
1
2
3
1 2
3 4
4 2 3 1
5 6 6 2 ,
3 3 6 3
1 1 9 1
x
2x
2.3.4.
2
x
2
2
1 1 2 2
1
3
3 4 4 4
1
2
3 4 5
2 2 2
1 1
2
2 3 3 3
1
2
3 4 5
2x
2
= 0 x = ( + ).
x
2.3.5. (.
)
=1.
1 1 1
1 1 ,
1 1
1 1
1 1 ,
1 1
1 1
1 1 1 ,
1 1
1
1
1 1
1
1 .
1
2.3.6. 1, 2 3
x 1
( x 1)
1 2
2
1 4 =0 .
1 8
( x 1)
2.3.7. ,,
.
A4 B3 T , ( AT )3 ( B 4 )T T , A3 B 4 , (3 A) B 2 ( 2 T ), 6 B 2 BT , T B3 A4 , B3 A4 , B 2 (6 ) AT
65
2.3.8. , , = 1, = 2, = 3,

AB , AT B , A3 B 2 , 3 AB 2 T , 3B 2 A .
2.3.9. :
) =
) 2=
) 3=
2.3.10.
x 2
A = 1
1
1
x2
1
1
1
x 2
(.
).
2.3.11. )
,
x x 2 1
A = a a2 1 .
2
1
)
x
x2 1
1
2
1
4
1 + 3
1
2
x2 1
9
4
x2 1
1 =3 3 9 1 .
1
4 16 1
2.3.12.
a3
8a3
27 a3
64a3
a2
a
1
4a2
2a
1
9a2
3a
1
16a2
= 12a6 .
4a
1
2.3.13. ,
, .
0
1 1 1 1
2 3 4
2
3 4 2 , 2 2 3 3 , 1
2 2 2 2
4 2 3
6
1 2 3 4 2
1 1 2 2
3 4 5 6
2 3 2 1
5 4 3 2
2 1 1 0
2.3.14. xOy (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3), .

2.3.4,
66
1 x1
1 x2
1 x3
y1
y2 = 0.
y3
2.3.15. ) ,

1 +
1+

1+

1 +

1++++.
) 4,
2
1
2 3 4
3
2
3 3 4
A=
2
2 4 4
2 3 5
2
3 4 5
4 4 5
.
3 5 5
3 4 6
.
2.3.16. ) ,
1 1
1
1
1 1+ x
1
1
= xyz .
1
1 1+ y
1
1
1
1 1+ z
) 4,
1
1
1 1 1
1
1
2 1 1
A=
1
1 3 1
1 1 4
1
1 1 1
4 1 1
.
1 3 1
1 1 2
.
2.3.17. D13 , .
11
00
00
11
11
11
00 00 11 11
11
11 00 11 22
00
00 11 11 33,,
00
11 11 11 44
00
22 33 44 55
00
11 22
22 00
00 22
00 33
00 44
22 33
00 11
00 00
44 00
55 66
00
66
55
88
33 11

11 11

00 33
,,
00 44
00 55

11 66
11 22
22 00
44 22
55 00
66 00
22 33
00 11
33 44
44 55
00 66
77
00
00
00
33
11
55
66
22
88
67
2.4 .
3
a11 a12
A = a21 a22
a31 a32
a13
a23
a33
mij = ij aij cji = (1)i+j mji =

(1)i+jij aij i = 1, 2, 3 j = 1, 2, 3. C
,
c11 c12 c13
C = c21 c22 c23 .
c31 c32 c33
CT (i, j) cji = (1)i+j mji = (1)i+jij,
c11 c21 c31

T
C = c12 c22 c32 .
(2.4.1)
c13 c23 c33

( ).
( ),
CT=A Iv.
.
, C = [cij] cij = (1)i+j mij =
(1)i+jij ij i = 1, 2,..., j = 1, 2,...,
CT C,
. :
) A CT = A Iv.
) A 0.

1
A1 =
CT
(2.4.2)
A

D11 D3 : AA1= A A1= I= 1.
:
,

1
A1 =
.
(2.4.3)
A

68
, =2

=
.

(), A= 0.
, (2.4.2)

T
C=
, C =
.

A1 =
1 T
1
.
C =

A
A
(1.4.2), 1
.
2.4.1.
3 1 0
A = 2 4 1 .
0 1 3
.
,
3 1 0
A = 2 4 1 = 3(12 1) 1(6 0) = 27 0 .
0 1 3
mij = ij ij
cij = (1)i + j mij = (1)i + j M ij
i = 1, 2, 3 j = 1, 2, 3
c11 (1)11
4 1
1 3
12 1 11, c12
(1)1 2
2 1
0 3
(6 0) 6, c13
(1)13
2 4
0 1
2 0 2,
c21 = (1)2+1
1 0
3 0
3 1
= (3 0) = 3, c22 = (1)2+ 2
= 9 0 = 9, c23 = (1)2+3
= (3 0) = 3,
4 3
0 3
0 1
c31 = (1)3+1
1 0
3 0
3 1
= 1 0 = 1, c32 = (1)3+ 2
= (3 0) = 3, c33 = (1)3+3
= 12 2 = 10,
4 1
2 1
2 4
69
11 6 2
C = 3 9 3 ,
1 3 10
T
11 6 2
11 3 1
T
C = 3 9 3 = 6 9 3 .
1 3 10
2 3 10
, (2.4.2)
11 3 1 11 / 27 3 / 27 1 / 27
1 T 1
A =
C =
6 9 3 = 6 / 27 9 / 27 3 / 27 .
A
27
2 3 10 2 / 27 3 / 27 10 / 27
1
2.4.2.

a11 0
A = 0 a22
0
0
3, ( ).
0
0 ,
a33
D2 , , A = 11 22 33.
11, 22, 33 , A= 11 22 33 =
0, . 11 22 33 0, (. 11,
22, 33 ) A= 11 22 33 0
(2.4.2).
11, 22, 33
m11 =
a22
a33
m22 =
a11
a33
m33 =
a11 0
0 a22
D2
m11 = a22 a33 ,
m22 = a11a33 ,
m33 = a11a22 .

( ), C=[cij]

0
0
a22 a33
0 .
C= 0
a11a33
0
0
a11a22
70
, , (2.4.2)
a22 a33
1 T
1
1
0
A =
C =
C =
A
A
a11a22 a33
0
1
0
a11a33
0
0
0
a11a22
0
0
1 / a11
1 / a22
0 .
A = 0
0
0
1 / a33
1
. , 11 22 ... 0,
a11 0
0 a
22
A=
... ...
0
0

... 0
... 0
... ...
0 a
0
1 / a11
0
1 / a22
A1 =
...
...
0
0
0
0
.
...
0 1 / a
...
...
...
(2.4.4)
11=22=33=...=a=1
1 0 0 ... 0
0 1 0 ... 0
I = 0 0 1 ... 0
... ... ... ... 0

0 0 0 ... 1
I 1 = I .
2.4.3.
, A= 2, = 4,
.
A1 B, AB 1 , ( AT B)1 A1 , ( A3 )1 BT A2 B 1 , ( AT BT )1 AB 2 .
.
(2.4.4) D10, D11 (. 2.3),
71
A1 B = A1 B =
1
1
B = 4 = 2,
A
2
AB 1 = A B 1 = A
1
1 1
= 2 = ,
B
4 2
( AT B)1 A1 = ( AT B)1 A1 =
3 1
(A ) B A B
T 1
3 1
= (A )
( A B ) AB = ( A B)
T
1
T
A B
B A B
AB =
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
= T
=
A
A B A 16
A B A
1
AT BT
B A
1
1
= 3 B A
= 3
=
B
A
A B 2
1
AB =
2
AB
AT BT
AB
=
= B = 4.
A B
2.4.1. . ,
,
2 2 6 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 3 3
,
,
.
1 1 3 1 1 1 3 1 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 4 1 1 1 4 1 2 3 4
2.4.2.
2 4 1
1 1 1 ,
3 9 1
1
1
2 4 8 1
3 9 27 1
,
1 1 1 1

4 16 64 1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
,
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
.
1
2.4.3. ,, A=== 2,
.
A1 B T , ( AT B 1 )1 , A3 BT 1 , A1 B 1 1 , B 2 1 A1 .
2.4.4. ,
1 = 2.
2.4.5. ,
1.
2.4.6. x , .
1
x 1 1 x 1 1 x 1
1 x 1 , 1 1 1 , 1 x
1 .

1 1 x 1 1 x 1 1
x
72
2.5 .
2, , , ..
.
.
.
2.5 Ohm (),
mper () volt (V).
8
+
38 V _
I1
I3
I2
10
_ +
40 V
. 2.5.
Kirchhoff 1, 2, 3,
I1 I2 + I3 = 0
8 I1 + 10 I2 = 38

10 I2 + 5 I3 = 40
(2.5.1)

4 , , , .
1, 2, 3, , .
1 20 , 40 , 120 , 20 . 2 40 , 60 , 40 60 . , 3 60 ,
60 , 40 , 40 .
400 , 500 , 520
380 ,
1, 2, 3,
.
II, x1,x2,x3
1, 2, 3
, .
x1 1 20 x1 , x2
2 40 x2 x3 3 60 x3 . , :
20x1+40x2+60x3
73
400 , ( )
20x1+40x2+60x3=400.
(2.5.2)
, 500, 520, 380 , , ,

40 x1 + 60 x2 + 60 x3 = 500
120 x1 + 40 x2 + 40 x3 = 520
(2.5.3)
20 x1 + 60 x2 + 40 x3 = 380.
(2.5.2), (2.5.3)
.
, a1x1+a2x2+a3x3+...+ax=, a1, a2, a3,...,
a, x1, x2, x3,..., x, ,
. - (1, 2, 3,..., ),
.
:
x1 = 1, x2 = 2, x3 = 3,..., x = .
, (2, 3, 4) 20 x1 + 40 x2 +
60x3=400, 202+403+604=400.
, x1, x2, x3, (2.5.2)
(2.5.3). x1, x2, x3 4
20 x1 + 40 x2 + 60 x3 = 400
40 x1 + 60 x2 + 60 x3 = 500
120 x1 + 40 x2 + 40 x3 = 520
(2.5.4)
20 x1 + 60 x2 + 40 x3 = 380.
43. , (2.5.1)
33 I1,I2,I3.
,
, :
11 x1 + 12 x2 + ... + 1 x = 1
21 x1 + 22 x2 + ... + 2 x = 2
..................................

1 x1 + 2 x2 + ... + x = .
(2.5.5)
74
ij,i=1,2,3,..., j = 1, 2, 3,...
, 1,2,...,
. aii (. 11,22,33 ...)
. - .
, .
(2.5.1)
I1 I2 + I3 = 0
8 I1 + 10 I2 + 0 I3 = 38
0 I1 + 10 I2 + 5 I3 = 40
(1,3,2).
, . ,
.
. , :
2x + y = 4
3 x y = 1
( )
()
3x + y=5
3 x + 2 y = 7
x + y = 1
, (1,2).
()().
,
. , . :

()
()

( )
1,2,..., ,
11 x1 + 12 x2 + ... + 1 x = 0
21 x1 + 22 x2 + ... + 2 x = 0
.........................
1 x1 + 2 x2 + ... + x = 0
75
.
- (0,0,0,,0) , . ,
( ), ,
.

. ,
, (2.5.4)

20 x1
40 x1
120 x1
20 x1
+ 40 x2 + 60 x3 400

+ 60 x2 + 60 x3 500
=
.
+ 40 x2 + 40 x3 520

+ 60 x2 + 40 x3 380
,
20
40
A=
120
20
40
60
40
60
60
60
,
40
40
x1
X = x2 ,
x3
400
500
B=
520
380
41 (2.5.6) ,
20
40
AX =
120
20
(2.5.6)
20 x1
40 60
x
1
60 60 40 x1
x2 =
40 40 120 x1
x3
60 40 20 x
1
20
40
120
20
40
60
40
60
+ 40 x2 + 60 x3
+ 60 x2 + 60 x3
+ 40 x2 + 40 x3
+ 60 x2 + 40 x3
400
60
x
1
60 500
x2 =
40 520
x3
40 380
= . , (2.5.1) =
I1
1 1 1
0
A = 8 10 0 , X = I2 , B = 38 .
I3
0 10 5
40
, (2.5.1)
(2.5.6)
76

=,
11 12 ... 1 x1 1
... 2 x2 2
21 22
= .

... ...

1 2 ... x
(2.5.7)
11 12 ... 1
22 ... 2
21
A=

1 2 ...

x1
x
2
X = ,
...

x
1

2
B=
...

() () .
, , .
. , , Gauss,

.
2.7 , Cramer, ,
, (.
).
, .
.

. ,
. (

) :
) .
,
, .
) . . , (
). ,
.
77
) .
. ( ).
, (), ,
, .
(2.5.1), , 1 3
I1 =
38 10 I2
,
8
I3 =
40 10 I2
5
'
38 10 I2
40 10 I2
I2 +
= 0.
8
5
2=3
I1 =
38 10 3
= 1,
8
I3 =
40 10 3
=2.
5
1=1, 2=3, 3=2.
2.5.1.

2 x1 x2 + x3 = 3
x1 x2 x3 = 1
.
x1 3 x2 + 2 x3 = 7 .
x1 (
, ),
x1=1+x2+x3

x2 + 3 x3 = 5
2(1 + x2 + x3 ) x2 + x3 = 3

2 x2 + 3 x3 = 8.
(1 + x2 + x3 ) 3 x2 + 2 x3 = 7
x2 x2=53x3
2(53x3)+3x3=8.
9x3=18 x3=2,
78
x2=53x3=532=1,
x1=1+x2+x3=1+(1)+2=0.
(x1,x2,x3)=(0,1,2).
2.5.2.

x1 x2 + x4 = 3
2 x1 + x2 x3 = 2
3 x2 + x3 x4 = 3
x1, x1=x2x4+3 ( x1)

2( x2 x4 + 3) + x2 x3 = 2
3 x2 x3 2 x4 = 4

3 x2 + x3 x4 = 3
3 x2 + x3 x4 = 3.
, x3, x3=3x22x4+4
3x2+(3x22x4+4)x4=3 6x23x4=1.
, . , x4=
R
3 x 1 3 1
=
x2 = 4
,
6
6
x3 = 3
3 1
21 3 7
2 + 4 =
=
,
6
6
2
x1 = x2 x4 + 3 =
3 1
17 3
+3=
.
6
6

17 3 3 1 7
( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) =
,
,
, , R .
6
2
6
2.5.3.

x1 + x2 + x3 = 6
x1 x2 + 2 x3 = 5
x1 + 5 x2 2 x3 = 1
x1 + 2 x2 x3 = 10
79
x1, x1=x2x3+6

( x2 x3 + 6) x2 + 2 x3 = 5
( x2 x3 + 6) + 5 x2 2 x3 = 1
2 x2 + x3 = 1
4 x2 3 x3 = 5
( x2 x3 + 6) + 2 x2 x3 = 10
x2 2 x3 = 4.
, x3, x3=2x21

4 x2 3 (2 x2 1) = 5
x2 2 (2 x2 1) = 4
2 x2 = 8
3 x2 = 2.
x2=4, .
.
.
2.5.1. 1000 kg, ,

, , .
. .
,
, 2.5 2.5.
) x,y,z ,
x,y,z.
) , .
B
A
B
10 cm
120 cm
20 cm
.
2.5.
10 cm
B
50 cm
120 cm
20 cm
A
20 cm
30 cm
20 cm
30 cm
50 cm
. 2.5.
80
2.5.2.
(. 2.5)
(1,0)
y = ax2 + x + .

(x,y)=(2,8), (5,20).
20
15
10
5
2.5.3. (2.5.5)
.
1 1 x1 3
2
1 1 1 x = 1 ,
2
1 3 2 x3 7
1
1
10
. 2.5.
1 1
0
x1
1 1 0
x = ,
1 1 2 0
x
1 1 3 0
x1
1 1 1 2 2
2 1 1 1 x2 = 1 ,
x
3 1 1 0 3 4
x4
1
1
1
0
2 x1 0
=
2 x2 0

2
0
x1
x1
1 1 1 2
2 1 1 1 x2 = 2 x
2 .
x3
x3
3 1 1 0
x4
2.5.4. AX=B,
, .
) x1 2 x2 3 x3
3 x1 5 x2 6 x3
x1 2 x2 8 x3
9
) x + y + z = 5
1
x y+z=2
3
x 3 = 0
x += 0
3 x + y + 3 z = 12
3 x 2 = 0
x y+ z =6
) x + 2 y + 3 z = 7
) 5 x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 = 0
) 2 x + 3 y + 4 + 5 z = 6
x + 4 y + 9z = 3
2 x1 + 3 x2 + 3 x3 = 2
x + y =1
x 4 y + 3z = 0
2 x1 + 5 x2 + 2 x3 = 3
y+=2
x + 7 y + 3z = 4
2 x1 + 3 x2 + 2 x3 = 1
y+ z =3
x+ y+z=4
2.5.5. .
) x + y + z = 5
) x y z 10
) x + 2 y + z = 7
) x + y + 3 z = 6
x y+z=2
x y 3
x + 3 y + 9 z = 13
x + 2y + z = 4
3 x + y + 3 z = 12
y5
x y+z=0
2x + y + z = 4
yz6
x+ y+z=4
x + y + 2z = 4
x+ y+ z =3
81
2.5.6. 120 m. 40 m ,
.
) x,y,z ,
x,y,z.
) , .
2.5.7. , ,
, . , .
2 , 1 3 .
3 2 , , 4 4 . ,
90 , 30 70 , .
)
x,y,z , , ,
x,y,z.
) , , , .
2.5.8. II , . 1 , 4 3 ,
2 , 3 1 .
15 , 35 20
,
) x,y
II , ,
.
)
x, y .
2.6 .

,
. , , '
. , ....
' ,
,
.
,
.
,
' :
82
1. i j (
i j
i j)
2.
i ( i)

(0)
i i
3.
i ( i)

j '
(0).
i i+j
,
( ).
,
, , . ,

,
. , .
(2.5.4) II 2.5.
i i,
20,
( , ). ,

1
i i , i = 1, 2, 3, 4
20
:
x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 = 20
2 x1 + 3 x2 + 3 x3 = 25

(1)
6 x1 + 2 x2 + 2 x3 = 26
x1 + 3 x2 + 2 x3 = 19.

, 1 (1) 2
2 (1). 2 x1 .
,
:
2 2+(2) 1
x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 = 20
x2 3 x3 = 15
6 x1 + 2 x2 + 2 x3 = 26
x1 + 3 x2 + 2 x3 = 19.
(2)
, 1 (2) 6
83
3 [ 3 3+(6) 1]. 3
x1 :
x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 = 20
x2 3 x3 = 15

(3)
10 x2 16 x3 = 94
x1 + 3 x2 + 2 x3 = 19.

1 (3) 1
4 [ 4 4+(1) 1]. x1
4 , :
x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 = 20
x2 3 x3 = 15
10 x2 16 x3 = 94
x2 x3 = 1.
(4)
(4) x1 .
x2 .
3 3+(10) 2 :
x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 = 20
x2 3 x3 = 15
14 x3 = 56
(5)
x2 x3 = 1.
4 4+1 2 :
x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 = 20
x2 3 x3 = 15

(6)
14 x3 = 56
4 x3 = 16

' , x1

x2 .
5 4 + ( 144 )3 , :
x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 =
20
x2 3 x3 = 15
14 x3 = 56
0 x3 = 0.
(7)
84
, ( ), (, :
0x1+0x2+...+0x=0, ).
, (7) ,
x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 = 20
x2 3 x3 = 15
(8)
14 x3 = 56.

x3=4 x3=4
(8), x2=3. x2=3 x3=4
(8), x1=2.
(8) (2.5.3), (2.5.3) (2,3,4),
x1=2, x2=3 x3=4.
,
, :
1: , i j, ,
x1 . - .
2: x1 , i i+j.
3: ,
1 2 1 1 .
2, 3, 4, , 2 ,
.
, , :
) N , ( ,
i i),
) N 1 ( i j i i).
, (2.5.3) ( (4) ) :
2 (1)2 (4), x2 1,
:
x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 = 20
x2 + 3 x3 = 15

(5)
10
x
16
x
=
94
2
3
x2 x3 = 1.
85
' 3 3 +10 ^ 2 :
x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 = 20
x2 + 3 x3 = 15
14
x
=
56
x2 x3 = 1
(6)
x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 = 20
x2 + 3 x3 = 15
14 x3 = 56
4 x3 = 16.
(7)

, 4 4 + (1) 2, :
x3 1 33
( 141 )33, :
x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 = 20
x2 + 3 x3 = 15
x3 =
4
4 x3 = 16.
(8)
, 4 4 + 43 :
x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 = 20
x2 + 3 x3 = 15
x3 = 4
0x3 = 0.
(9)
2.6.1.
x1 x2 x4 3
2 x1 x2 x3 2 ( ,
3 x2 x3 x4 3
2.5.1 ).
.
x1 x2 x4 3
2 2 + (2) 1, 3 x2 x3 2 x4 4
3 x2 x3 x4 3.
86
1
x2 1, 2 2 ,
3

x1 x2 + x4 = 3
1
2
4
x2 x3 x4 =
3
3
3
3 x + x x = 3.
3
4
2
x1 x2 + x4 = 3
1
2
4
3 3 32 x2 x3 x4 = .
3
3
3
2 x3 + x4 = 7
x4 = , R 2 x3 = 7 x3 =
7
.
2
1 7 2
4 7 + 4 8 3 1
=
H x2 =
.
+ =
3 2 3
3
6
6
, x2,x3
3 1
18 + 3 1 6 17 3
=
=
.
6
6
6

x1 = 3 + x2 x4 = 3 +
17 3 3 1 7
( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) =
,
,
, , R .
6
2
6
2.6.2.
x1 3 x2 + 2 x3 + x4 = 1
3 x1 8 x2 + 2 x3 + 5 x4 = 11
6 x1 5 x2 + 2 x3 4 x4 = 4
x2 4 x3 + 2 x4 = 5
2 2 31
x1 3 x2 + 2 x3 + x4 = 1
x2 4 x3 + 2 x4 = 8
6 x1 5 x2 + 2 x3 4 x4 = 4
x2 4 x3 + 2 x4 = 5.
87
3 3 +(6)1
x1 3 x2 + 2 x3 + x4
x2 4 x3 + 2 x4
13 x2 10 x3 10 x4
x2 4 x3 + 2 x4
=1
=8
= 10
= 5.
x2 1,
3 3 +( 13)2
x1 3 x2 + 2 x3 + x4
x2 4 x3 + 2 x4
42 x3 36 x4
x2 4 x3 + 2 x4
=1
=8
= 114
= 5.
4 4 + (1)2
x1 3 x2 + 2 x3 + x4 = 1
x2 4 x3 + 2 x4 = 8
42 x3 36 x4 = 114
0 x3 + 0 x4 = 3
x3, x4, .
,
0x1+0x2+...+0x= 0,
. .
.
2.6.1. .
x1 +2 x2
) x1 2 x2
2 x +4 x
2
1
x3
+ x3
2 x3
x 2y + z = 0
2 x y + 5 z = 3
)

4 x 5 y + 7 z = 3
3 x + y + 2 z = 1
+5 x4
3 x4
+6 x4
+6 x5
2 x5
+3 x5
= 1
= 2
= 3
2 x1 3 x2 + x3 = 5
) x1 + x2 x3 = 3
x1 3 x2 + 2 x3 = 7
x1 + x2 + x3 = 6
x1 x2 + 2 x3 = 5
) x1 + 5 x2 x3 = 1
x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 = 3
x1 + 4 x2 3 x3 = 2
88
2.6.2. .
y + 2z = 5
) x + z = 8
= 4
x + y
x1 x2 + x4 = 3
) 2 x1 + x2 x3 = 2
3 x2 + x3 x4 = 3
x3 x4 = 1
6 x3 + 5 x4 = 2
)

x1 3 x2 + 2 x3 + x4 = 12
x2 4 x3 + 2 x4 = 4
x2 4 x3 + 2 x4
x1 3 x2 + 2 x3 + x4
8 x2 + 2 x3 + 5 x4
)
6 x1 5 x2 + 2 x3 4 x4
x3 8 x4
=8
=1
= 11
=4
= 17
2.7 .
, . ,
(. 1.4.1)
= =1.
(2.7.1)
( ).
11 x1 + 12 x2 + ... + 1 x = 1
21 x1 + 22 x2 + ... + 2 x = 2
.....................................
()
1 x1 + 2 x2 + ... + x = .
2.5, ()
(. 2.5.5 =)
11 12 ... 1 x1 1
22 ... 2 x2 2
21
.
#
# % # # #

1 2 ... x
=,
11 12 ... 1
... 2
21 22
A=
,

1 2 ...
x1
x
2
X = ,
...

x
1

2
B=
...

, ()
() .
() . ,
89
(2.7.1),
=1.
A 0.
(2.4.2).
,
. ,
. ,
.
2.7.1.

3 x1 + x2 = 0
3 x1 + x2 = 1
) 2 x1 + 4 x2 + x3 = 0
) 2 x1 + 4 x2 + x3 = 1
x2 + 3 x3 = 1
x2 + 3 x3 = 1
3 x1 + x2 = 1
) 2 x1 + 4 x2 + x3 = 0
x2 + 3 x3 = 1.
) =,
3 1 0
A = 2 4 1 ,
0 1 3
B = 1 .
, 2.4.1,

11 / 27 3 / 27 1 / 27
1
6 / 27 9 / 27 3 / 27
1
T
C
A
A
2 / 27 3 / 27 10 / 27

11 / 27 3 / 27 1 / 27 1 1 / 3

X = A1 B = 6 / 27 9 / 27 3 / 27 1 = 0 .
2 / 27 3 / 27 10 / 27 1 1 / 3

x1=1/3, x2=0, x3=1/3.
) =1,

0
B1 = 0 .

1
90
11 / 27 3 / 27 1 / 27 0 1 / 27
X = A B1 = 6 / 27 9 / 27 3 / 27 0 = 3 / 37 .
2 / 27 3 / 27 10 / 27 1 10 / 27
1
) AX=B2,
1
B2 = 0

0
11 / 27 3 / 27 1 / 27 1 11 / 27

X = A1 B2 = 6 / 27 9 / 27 3 / 27 0 = 6 / 27
2 / 27 3 / 27 10 / 27 0 2 / 27

A
x1, x2, x3
11 x1 + 12 x2 + 13 x3 = 1
21 x1 + 22 x2 + a23 x3 = 2
31 x1 + 32 x2 + a33 x3 = 3
=1,
a11 a12
A = a21 a22
a31 a32
a13
a23
a33
. (2.4.2), ,

c11 c21 c31 1

1
1
c
X = A1 B =
CT B =
c22 c32 2
12
A
A
c13 c23 c33

3

c11 1 + c21 2 + c31 3
x1
c
c 1
c
1 11 21 31 1
c
c
c
=
+
+
,
x2 =
12
22
32
2
12
1
22
2
32
3
A c
13 c23 c33 3
x3
c13 1 + c23 2 + c33 3
cij = (1)i + j mij = (1)i + j M ij ij i = 1, 2, 3
j = 1, 2, 3. ,
x1
c11 1 c21 2 c31 3

,
A
x2
c12 1 c22 2 c32 3

,
A
x3
c13 1 c23 2 c33 3

.
A
91
x1
c11 = (1)1+1 M22 =
22
32
23
,
33
1
x1 =
c21 = (1)2+1 M21 =
22
32
23
12
2
33
32
12
32
13
,
33
13
12
+ 3
33
22
c31 = (1)3+1 M31 =
13
23
12
22
13
23
2
3
13
23
33
12
22
32
1 ,
x1
1
2
3
11
21
31
12 13
22 23
32 33
12 13
22 23
32 33
Dx
D
1
Dxx11 = 2
3
a12
a22
a32
a13
a23
a33
D
x1 . x2, x3,
Dx
Dx
3
2
x2
, x3
D
D
DDx xx
2 22
1111 11
1313
2121 2 2 2323, ,
3131 3 3 3333
D
DDxxx
333
1111
1212 11
2121 2222 2 2, ,
3131 3232 3 3
D
x2 x3
.
(
92
). , . '
Cramer1.
Cramer.
= .
) 0, (x1,x2,...,x)
x1 =
Dx
x2 =
Dx
,..., x =
Dx
,
(2.7.2)
D
D
D

D Dxi , i = 1, 2, 3, ...,
D i xi .
) = 0, .
1
= 0,
= Gauss.
, 2.1, Cramer
2 2 (. 2.1.8).
Cramer, ,
' ,
. , , Gauss
Cramer. Cramer
.
2.7.2.

x + 2 y + 3z = 5
) x y z = 0
4 x + 5 y + 6 z = 11
.
x + 2 y + 3z = 1
) x y z = 0
4 x + 5 y + 6 z = 0
) D = 1 1 1 = 6 0
4 5 6
1. C. MacLaurin 1729.
, Cramer, ,
5 , ' 5 5 .
(1750).
93
Dx = 0 1 1 = 6,
11 5 6
D y = 1 0 1 = 6, Dz = 1 1 0 = 12 .
4 11 6
4 5 11
Cramer,
D D y Dz
( x , y, z) = x ,
,
= (2, 3, 2) .
D D D
(2, 3, 2).
) , D=60.
, .
1 2 3
Dx = 0 1 1 = 1,
0 5 6
1 1 3
1 2 1
D y = 1 0 1 = 10, Dz = 1 1 0 = 9
4 0 6
4 5 0
Cramer,
D D y Dz
1
10 9
( x , y, z) = x ,
,
= ( , , ).
6
6 6
D D D
2.7.3.
2 x
+y
z = 2
2
z = 2
x + y
+ y + 2 z = 2.
x
2
D
1 1
1
1
1
2 ( 4 1) 1( 2 1) 1(1 2 )
2 ( 2 1)( 2 1)
2 ( 1)( 1)( 2 1)
1 2
D 0 2 ( 2 1)( 2 1) 0 2 ( 1)( 1) 0 0 1 1.

2
Dx
2 2
2
Dy
1 1
1
2( 4 1) 2( 2 1) 2(1 2 ) 2( 2 1)( 2 1)
1 2
2 2 1
1 2 1
2 2 ( 2 1) 2( 2 1) 2(1 1) 2( 2 1)( 2 1)
1 2 2
2
Dz
2
2
1
1 1
2 2 ( 2 1) 2(1 1) 2(1 2 ) 2( 2 1)( 2 1).
2 2 1
1 2 1
Dy
94
1 2
2 2 ( 2 1) 2( 2 1) 2(1 1) 2( 2 1)( 2 1)
1 2 2
2
2
2
1
1 1
Dz
2 2 ( 2 1) 2(1 1) 2(1 2 ) 2( 2 1)( 2 1).
D 0,1,1,
:
) 0 1 1 D 0
x=
Dy
Dx
2( 2 1)( 2 + 1)
2
2( 2 1)( 2 + 1)
2
y
= 2 2
=
=
=
= 2 ,
2
2 ,
2 2
2
D ( 1)( + 1)
D ( 1)( + 1)
z=
Dz
2( 2 1)( 2 + 1)
2
= 2 2
= 2.
2
D ( 1)( + 1)
1 1 1
2 , 2 , 2 .
y z = 2
z = 2 .
) = 0, x
x + y
= 2
y z = 2
x z = 2
y z = 4,
) = 1,
x + y z = 2
x + y z = 2
x = z
x + y z = 2

.
x + y z = 2
=
=
2
y
4
y
2
.
+
+
=
x
y
z
2
x + y + z = 2
, (k, 2, k), kR.

) = 1, ()
(k, 2, k), kR.
2.7.1. .
3 x1 + 2 x2 = 1

)
x1 + x2 = 0
3 x1 + 2 x2 = 0
)

x1 + x2 = 1
3 x1 + 2 x2 = 1
)
x1 + x2 = 1
95
=5
3 x1 + 2 x2
x2 2 x3 = 2
)
x2 + x3 = 3
=1
3 x1 + 2 x2
x2 2 x3 = 1
)
x2 + x3 = 1
x1 + 2 x2 x3 = 1
) x1 + x2 2 x3 = 2
2 x1 x2 + x3 = 3
x1 + 2 x2 x3 = 1
) x1 + x2 2 x3 = 3
2 x1 x2 + x3 = 2
x1 + 2 x2 x3 = 2
) x1 + x2 2 x3 = 1
2 x1 x2 + x3 = 3
x1 + 2 x2 x3 = 2
) x1 + x2 2 x3 = 3
2 x1 x2 + x3 = 1
x1 + 2 x2 x3 = 3
) x1 + x2 2 x3 = 2
2 x1 x2 + x3 = 1
x1 + 2 x2 x3 = 3
) x1 + x2 2 x3 = 1
2 x1 x2 + x3 = 2
1
4
1
2
1 3
2.7.2. A = 1 1 2 A =
4
2 1 1
1
4
.
1
4
1
4
3
3

4
1
4
1

4
2.7.3. Cramer.
x+ y + z =3
) x + 2 y + 2 z = 1
4 x + 3 y + 4 z = 5
1
1
x + 6 y + 6 z =1
1
1
) x + 2 y + z = 1
6
6
1
1
6 x + 6 y + 3z = 1
x+ y + z =6
= 1
) x y
yz
= 1
x + 2y + 3 z = 6
) x 2 y 4 z = 1
7 x 10 y 21z = 0
x+ y+ z =3
) x + 2 y + 4 z = 7
x + 3 y + 9 z = 13
2.7.4. Cramer
.
1
=
x+ y+z
) 2 x + 2 y + z = 2 + 1
= 1
x + y + z
x + 2 y + 2 z = 1
) 2 x + 2 y z = 0
2
=1
x + y + z
x + 2y z =
) 3 x y + 2 z = 0
7 x + 7 y 2 z =
96
x + y + z = 1
) x + y + z = 1
x + y + z = 1
x + 2 y + 2 z + 2 = 1
2 x + y + 2 z + 2 = 1
)
2 x + 2 y + z + 2 = 1
2 x + 2 y + 2 z + = 1
2.8 .
2.5,
, AX=O
11 x1 + 12 x2 + ... + 1 x = 0
21 x1 + 22 x2 + ... + 2 x = 0
.........................
1 x1 + 2 x2 + ... + x = 0.
- (0,0,0,,0) ,
.
, ,
.
( = ),
Cramer (2.7.2). , D = 0, Dx1 = Dx2 =
... = Dx = 0 ( ),
. D = = 0,
( ).
= ,
) 0
) ( ) = 0.
2.8.1.
R
Cramer.
x y 2 z 0
x 2 y z 0
2 x y z 0.
97
1
1
1 2
2 1 (2 1) (1 2 ) 2 (1 (2 )2 ) 8 3 6 2
1
1. ,
2
1
1 ( 2
1
) = = 1 .
2
1
= x+y+z=0 x=yz
2
(k m, k, m) k, m R .
D 0 8 3 6 2 0 2(2 1)2 ( 1) 0
=1
x + y 2z = 0 x + y 2z = 0
x + y 2z = 0
y = z
x 2 y + z = 0 3 y + 3z = 0 3 y + 3z = 0
x = z ,
2 x + y + z = 0
y
z
z
3
3
0
0
0
=
=
(k,k,k) kR.
2.8.1. ,
.
( 2 3) x
+y
+z = 0
x +( 2 3) y
+z = 0
)
x
+ y +( 2 3) z = 0
x +y + z = 0
) x + y +2 z = 0
2
x + y +4 z = 0
x +
y + z = 0
) ( + 1) x + ( + 1) y + z = 0
( + 1) x +
2 y +2 z = 0
x + y + z = 0
) (1 / ) x +3 y +2 z = 0
2
(1 / ) x +9 y +4 z = 0
2.8.2. .
98
x y
x 2 y
x y
0
0
0
0
0
x y
x y
x y
x y
x y
3 x 3 y
1
1
1
2.8.3. R Cramer.
x + y +z = 0
2
) x + 4 y + z = 0
4
x +16 y + z = 0
x + y +z = 0
y +
= 0
( + 1) x +
= 0 )
( 1) y
= 0
) 2 x + y
2
y +( 1) = 0
= 0
4 x + y
2.8.4.
Cramer.
x
+y + z
+ y +3 z
x
2
2
x + y +9 z
,R
=
=
0
0
= 0.
2.9 .

a11 a12
A=
a21 a22 .
.
A=
a11 a12
= a11a22 a21a12
a21 a22

( ) ( ).
= 0
=, = , =
= , k = 2, 3,...
A1 =
1
( 0)
A
1 T
A1 =
C C = [cij], cij = (1)i+j Mij
A
0.
ij.
99
11 x1 + 12 x2 + ... + 1 x = 1
21 x1 + 22 x2 + ... + 2 x = 2
..................................
1 x1 + 2 x2 + ... + x =

, =
.
11 12 ... 1
1
x1
22 ... 2
x2
21
2
A=
, X=
, B=

1 2 ...
x

:
( ).
Cramer ( ).
= .
x1
Dx
x2
Dx
,..., x
Dx
,
, .
2.10 .
,
, .
1.
11 12
A =
, = 11 12 21 22.
21 22
2.
3.
1,

.
4.
5.
1,

.
6.
, .
7.
3 = , = 1.
100
8.
' : i

.
.
9.
' : i
j.
.
. 10. -
= , .
x y = 0
.
11.
x + y = 0
12. , .
13. - (0,0,,0) .
14. .
1.
0
2 0
0 :
A = 3 1
2 0 1 / 2
) = 0
2.
3.
) = 1
) = 6
) = 1/2
) 2 = 12
) 2 =
22 , :
) 2 = 4
) 2 = 2
, = 3, = 4
) =12
) = 34
) = 43
) = 7
( )
, :
4.
) += 0
) =
) =
) B =
1
A
101
5.

)
( ) , :
) += 0
) =
) =
) B =
1
A
x, y, z ;
6.
7.
) x 3 y + 2 z = 1
9.
) x 3 y + 2 z = 0 )
( );
) = 2
8.
) x y 3 + 2 z = 1
) =
) =
x + y = 1
,

+
=
x
y
1
) = 0
) = 1
) = 1
) .
) 0, 1, 1
;
) 1 2+53
) 1 1+52
) 152
) 1(1/5) 2
= 0 CT
, :
) A CT = I.
1 T
1
10. ) A = A C .
1
.
) A1 =
A
) .
11.
T = , :
) =
) =
) =
) =
= . = 0, :
) .
12. ) .
) .
) .
102
4 4 :
) 4 .
13. ) .
) .
) .
2.11 .
2.11.1. 4x3y+23=0, 3x2y+5=0, 4x2y+1=0,
R.
) ,
.
)

.
2.11.2. 0
A4=A.
2.11.3.
AT= A .
2.11.4. 0
ATA3AT=AAT.
2.11.5. , P
B=P1AP.
) =P1().
) .
2.11.6. ,
= 0. .
)
=P 1AP .
) .
1
2 2 1
1 3 1 ,

1 1 2
0
2
0
0
3
0
0
,
0
2
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
.
0
2.11.7. .
0
0
) A =
0
0
0
4
8
0 1
2 3

5 6
9 10
0 0 0 0 x
0 0 0 y a
) A = 0 0 z k
0 w m b
u n c s
,
0
0
0
0
0
0
A=

0 a 1,2
a1 a 2
0
a1
a2, 1
a2
a2, 1
a3

a 1, 1 a 1,
a , 1
a
0
0
0
a 1,3
a 3
103
2.11.8. )
,
( )
a
a
a
a a + a
a
1
a
a
a + a2
a
a
a
a
a
a
a + a 1
a
a
a
a + a
(12 ... ).
) 5,
5
5
A 5
5
5
5
4
5
5
5
5
5
3
5
5
5
5
5
2
5
5 2
5 2
5 = 2

5 2
1 2
2
4
2
2
2
2
2
5
2
2
2
2
2
6
2
2
2
2 .
2
7
.
(: . ).
2.11.9.

x a a
a x a
a a x
A=

a a a
a a a
a a
a a
a a

x a
a x
=(x+(1)a) (xa)1.
2.11.10.
104
( x + a)2
x 2 + a2
ax
( y + )
y +
z +
w 2 + 2
( z + )
(w + )2
=0.
(: 2
).
2.11.11. , , xOy (x1, y1), (x2,
y2), (x3, y3) . 2.3.14,
1 x1 y1
1 x2 y2 = 0.
1 x3 y3

x 2 + y2
x12 + y12
x1
y1 1
x22 + y22
x2
y2 1
x32 + y32
x3
y3 1
1
=0
.
) (x1, y1), (x2, y2),
(x3, y3).
) (1,1), (3,4) (4,2).
.
.
, fungor, , , Leibniz 1673. 1755, Euler
, ,
: ,
, .
, .
x , x
, x.
,
.
, Bolzano
.
3.1 . .
3.2 , .
3.3 .
3.4 . .
3.5 ' x0R.

.
3.6 + . .
3.7 .
lx im
3.8 Bolzano .
3.9 .
3.10 .
3.11 .
x0
106
3.1 . .
. ,
, . ,
, ' . :
) (...)
. , x ... 19%,
... y = 0,19x.
) . ,
x,
y = x2.
, y, , x. ,
, x,
y. x.
, :
' (R), f, xA y y = f(x).
f
(domain) f D(f).
f, (range) f R(f),
R(f) = {f(x)|x D(f)}.
,
x, y,
. , , . ,
,
( ).
, , R, <, , (, ) = {x R| <x<}, [, ]={x R| x }, [, )={xR| x< }
(, ]={x R| < x }. , , .
, R,
(. 3.1):
(, + x R x }
[, + x R x }
(_ x R x < }
(_ x R x }
. 3.1.
.
107
R (,+). R,
(, +),
. , ,
1 .
f,
= D( f) x.
x , .
y, x = D( f), f
x f(x).
f :
f : AR
y=f(x), xA,
x y
f BD( f).

f ( B) = { y y = f ( x ) x B} = { f ( x ) x B}.
f f( A).
, f,
:
a)
) , f(x), x ( x
f(x)).
:
) A = [0, +), x f(x) = 0,19 x.
:
f : [0, ) R
y=0,19x, x[0,+).
x 0,19 x
) A= [0,+), x
f(x) =x2.
, f f(x). f
x (. R),
f(x) . , , :
f:[3,+)R f ( x ) = x 3
:
f f ( x ) = x 3
:
f ( x ) = x 3 y = x 3 .
, x30 x3
A=[3,+).
1. , ( ) R,
, ( , + ) .
108
3.1.1.
' .
, ( ) 33, 1
15.
) f, o o
xm.
) 198 m;
.
) , xm ,
x
+ 1 15 .
33
o f x

x
15
y = 15 + 1 = x + 15
33 33
x
15
f ( x ) = 15 + 1 = x + 15 .
33 33
) x = 198 m :
198
y = f (198) = 15
+ 1 = 15 (6 + 1) = 105 ( ).
33
3.1.2.
(). , ,
1
x f f ( x ) = x 3 x 2 + 30 x .
9
)
1 ..,
7 ..;
) 10 .. 1 ..;
.
) 7 x = 0
f(0) = 0 ( , , ).
1 . 137=6 ,
1
f (6) = 63 62 + 30 6 = 168
9
( , . 16.800 ).
) 10 .. 1 .. f(6)f(3) 10:00
3 1 6 .
1
1
f (6) f (3) = [ 6 3 6 2 + 30 6] [ 3 3 3 2 + 30 3] = 168 90 = 78
9
9
( , . 7.800 ).
109
3.1.3.
.
) f ( x ) = 9 x 2 16
) f ( x ) =
x2 5x + 6
x 1
) f x,
9 x 2 16 , xR 9x2160. :
9 x 2 16 0 9 x 2 16 x 2
16
4
4
4
x x x
9
3
3
3

4
4
A = (, ] [ , +) .
3
3
) H f , , , x25x+60 x10.
x25x+6 2 3, x25x+60 , , , x2 x3.
, f
A=(,1) (1,2][3,+).
3.1.4.
x , , f
f(x)=x43x2+100x+80.
) 3 .
) f(0).
.
) 3 f x = 3,
f(x)=34332+1003+80=434.
) x = 0
f(0)=04302+1000+80=80.
f(0)=80.
, .
, , ...
, , , x . , ' ,
,
( )
. , x
0, 1, 2, ( ) f
A=[(0,+).
110
y
1,2
1,1
1
0,9
0,8
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
_ 10
_8
_6
_4
_2
_ 0,1
_ 0,2
10
. 3.1.
.
f xy .
M(x, y) y = f(x), M(x,f(x)),
xA, f Cf (. 3.1)1.
f () y = f(x)
Cf . , y = f(x)
f.

' , , , ,
, x = a , x a ...
, f , xA y = f(x)R , f
x. , f,
3.1.
y
, 4 3.1 () () Cf
,

.
Cf
x
f,
O
A
Cf . , x0
. 3.1.
1. Cf R2 ={(x,f(x))xD(f)] , f. , f. , , () Cf f .
111
f, x = x0
Cf (. 3.1).
, f f(A) Cf.
f, y =
Cf Cf (. 3.1).
, :
) Cf x (. Cf )
(. 3.1).
) Cf y (. Cf )
4
8
6
2
4
1
2
_1
_ 0,5
0,5
1,5
2
2
()
10
()
1
0,5
_1
0,5
_ 0,5
0,5
10
15
_ 0,5
_ 0,5
_1
_1
()
()
. 3.1.
y
x=x0
x0
y=
. 3.1.
Cf
. 3.1.
. 3.1.
112
y
10
8
6
f(A)
Cf
2
_4
. 3.1.
_3
_2
_1
. 3.1.
(. 3.1).
, f ( x ) = 9 x 2 16
3.1,
4
4
A = (, ] [ , +) .
3
3
( 3.1.3), =[0,+).
3.1.5.
3 x 1 x < 1
f f ( x ) =
6 x 7 x 1.
) f.
) x f(x)>5.
.
) f R, y=f(x) x. x<1
Cf y=3x1 3
(1,4) Cf . x1 Cf
y=6x7 6 (1, 1),
Cf.
3.1, .
10
8
6
4
2
_4
_3
_2
_1
1
_2
_4
. 3.1.
113
) y = 5 Cf A(x1, 5) B(x1, 5).

: 3x11=5 6x27=5, x1=2 x2=2. x
5 Cf y=5. , x(,2)(2,+).
3.1.6.
f f(x) = x2 + x + , ,, R.
) , (1, 2) Cf ;
) , Cf y'y (0, 3);
) f
() ().
.
) (1, 2) f, f(x) = x2 + x + ,
f(1)=2, 1++=2 +=1.
) Cf y'y (0,3) f(0) =3,
= 3.
) ,
f f(x)=x22x+3.
+ = 1
= 2
= 3 = 3
3.1.1. f, g h
2 x 2 , x < 0
,
f ( x) =
,
x
x
0
x , x< 0
g( x) =
x , x 0.
) f(1), f(0), f(1) f.

) g(1), g(0), g(1), g(1/2), g(1/2) g. ;
3.1.2. f g f(x)=x2+2 g(x)=5x4.

) f g.
)
f(1), f(0), f(1), f(1/2), f(1/2) f g(0), g(4/5),
g(4) g.
) x f(x)=g(x).
3.1.3. .
) f(x)=2x35x2+3
) f ( x ) =
1
1
1

+
+ 2
x x 1 x 4
) f ( x ) =
x2 3x + 7
( x 1)( x + 7)
) f ( x ) =
x4
x2 + 9
3.1.4. .
) f ( x ) =
3 x
) f ( x ) = x 2 9 + x 2 16
114
) f ( x ) =
x2 + 2

x2
) f ( x ) =
x2 3x + 2
x2
3.1.5. t=0 .
( m), t sec, f,
1
f ( t) = (9t 2 + 144) .
4
) 3 sec;
) ;
) ;
) 27 m;
3.1.6.
(oC) ,
(oF) : 32 5/9.
) f oF oC.
)
oC 10, 0, 10 40 oF.
3.1.7.
, 2 m 3 m
3.1. ,
x m , ,
.
) V(x) x.
) V(1), V(2/10), V(3/10).
) ;
2m
3m
. 3.1.
3.1.8.
3.1 .
3.1.9.

.
2 x 1
) f(x)=x29x+20
) f(x)=(3x1)5
) f ( x ) = 2
x +1
3.1.10.
f, g f(x)=e2x+1 g(x)=3ex1. .
3.1.11. .
) f(x)=2x3
2x + 1, 0<x 2
) f ( x ) =
x>2
x ,
xd0
2 x,
) f ( x ) 5x , 0<x d 1
x !1
2 x 3,
x 2 ,
) f ( x ) =
4 x 1,
x <3
x 3
=ae x
115
y
_3
_2
()
()
()
y
y
3
2
1
_1
_2
_1
()
x
()
()
. 3.1.
y
10
y
6
y= x
y=ax
y=ax
2
_2
_2
()
. 3.1.
()
3.1.12.
,
(. 3.1).
3.2 , .
4 x5 + 8 x
g(x)=4x,
x4 + 2
. , xR, :
f g f ( x ) =
f ( x) =
4 x 5 + 8 x 4 x( x 4 + 2)
=
= 4 x = g ( x ).
x4 + 2
x2 + 2
f g . :
f g
f(x)=g(x) xA. f=g.
116
y
f, g , ,
f(x)=g(x) (.
3.2). f g
.

x
O
(, , ,
). ,
. 3.2.
,
, . x
f f(x)=5x2+4x+1, x
g g(x)=5x+7. , x
:
f ( x ) + g ( x ) = (5 x 2 + 4 x + 1) + (5 x + 7) = 5 x 2 + 9 x + 8.
h , h(x) = f(x) +
g(x), xA. f g
f + g. .
, f g , :
) f+g f g : (f+g)(x)=f(x)+g(x), xA.
) fg f g : (fg)(x)=f(x)g(x), xA.
) cf c f : (cf)(x)=cf(x), xA.
) fg f g : (fg)(x)=f(x)g(x), xA.
f
f ( x)

( x) =
, x A f g : f ( x ) = f ( x ) , x A g(x)0.
)
g( x)
g( x)
g
g
. f f (
), f (x)=(f(x)).
f/g f
g g(x) , :
{xxA g(x)0}.
, , ,
.
3.2.1.
x ( )
10x+100 ,
117
x 15x .
) f x
.
) g x .
) N f g .
) x ,
x .
.
) , x (
) f(x)=10x+100.
) T x g(x)=15x.
) H f g
3.2.
500
) x
g

400
f
x
300
.
200
h=gf x.
:
100
h(x)=g(x)f(x)=15x(10x+100)=5x100
3.2. Ch
x (20, 0),
,
20 .
(20, 0)
3.2.
3.2
.
10
f ( x ), f ( x ) 0
g( x) =
f ( x ), f ( x ) < 0
) g=f+c ( c ),
30
40
. 3.2.
500
400
300
200
h=g _ f
100
3.2.2.

f, Cf .
:
) g=f,
g(x)=f(x).
) g=f, :
20
_ 100
10
20
30
40
_ 100
. 3.2.
500
400
300
200
h=g _ f
100
10
_ 100
20
. 3.2.
30
40
118
g(x)=f(x)+c.
) g=fc( c ),
g(x)=f(x)c.
y
Cf
) Cf Cf xx (.
3.2).
) Cf Cf , f(x)
0, Cf f(x)<0 (.
3.2).
) g g(x)=f(x)+c,
c>0 Cf c
(. 3.2).
) g g(x)=f(x)c,
c>0 Cf c
(. 3.2).
y
C_ f
. 3.2.
y
Cf
C f
. 3.2.
y
y
Cf+c
Cf
Cf
c
Cf_ c
. 3.2.
. 3.2.
. , f
3.2, A
B (. f , x
), B
(. , x )
. f
[, ] [, ]
[, ].
y
f()
f()
f()
O
f()
. 3.2.
119
, f:AR
( ). :
) f , x1, x2
x1<x2 f(x1)<f(x2) (. 3.2).
)
f , x1, x2
x1 < x2 f(x1) f(x2) (. 3.2).
) f , x1, x2
x1<x2 f(x1)>f(x2) (. 3.2).
) f , x1, x2
x1 < x2 f(x1) f(x2) (. 3.2).
, f(x)=x2 (0,+),
0x1<x2 x12 x22 , f(x1)<f(x2).
(,0], x1<x20 0x2<x1, 0 x22 x12 , f(x1)>f(x2).
f ' ,
. , f , .
1
0,8
f(x2)
0,6
f(x1)
0,4
x1
x2
0,2
0,5
1,5
. 3.2.
. 3.2.
f(x1)
f(x2)
2
1
x2
x1
. 3.2.
_2
_1
1
_1
. 3.2.
120

.
,
y
1
f(x)=x
f(x)=x, x[0,2]

3.2,
[0, 2 ] [ 32 , 2],
3/2
/2
_1
. 3.2.
[ 2 , 32 ]
.
3.2
:
) ()
f .
) ()
g .
f y
f(x)=y x .
:
f:AR 1, x1, x2A x1x2 f(x1) f(x2). , f
x1, x2A :
f(x1)=f(x2) x1= x2.
:
) f(x) = x+, 0 ,
f(x1)=f(x2), (. 3.2)
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 .
) f(x)=5x2 , f(x)=f(x)=5x2
x (.. f(2)=f(2)=20 22) (. 3.2).
f:AR , x1, x2 x1 x2, f(x1) f(x2). ,

(
).
, , .
f:AR x1, x2 A
x1 x2. x1<x2, x1>x2. , f , f(x1)< f(x2), f(x1) f(x2). , x1 > x2 f(x1)> f(x2),
1. 11.
121
f(x1) f(x2). , x1 x2, f(x1) f(x2) f

. .
, , , .
3.2.
1
0,5
2
_ 1,5
_1
_ 0,5
0,5
_3
1,5
_2
_1
_2
_ 0,5
_4
_6
_1
()
()
. 3.2.
y
f(x2)
f(x1)
f(x2)
f(x1)
x2
x1
y=x+, >0
x1
x2
y=x+, <0
. 3.2.
20
y 120
100
10
80
_2
60
_1
1
40
20
_5
_4
_3
_2
_1
_ 10
1
. 3.2.
. 3.2.
122
3.2.3.
.
x+2

) f(x) = x.
) f(x) = (x1) (x3)
) f ( x ) =
x +1
.
) f(1)=f(3)=0, 13. f .
) f A=R{1}. x1,x2A f(x1) = f(x2), :
f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 )
x1 + 2 x2 + 2
=
( x1 + 2)( x2 + 1) = ( x2 + 2)( x1 + 1)
x1 + 1 x2 + 1
x1 x2 + x1 + 2 x2 + 2 = x2 x1 + x2 + 2 x1 + 2 x2 = x1 .
) (x + 2) = x x. , f(0) = f (2) = 0,
0 2, f .
3.2.4.
.
x+2
, x 1
2
) f ( x ) = x + 1
) f(x) = 5x 7
0, x = 1
.

=
f ( x2 ) f ( x1 )
, x1x2.
x2 x1
f ( x2 ) f ( x1 )
>0
x2 x1
x1x2 ' , f .
,
f ( x2 ) f ( x1 )
=
<0
x2 x1
x1 x2, ' , f .
) x1,x2R x1 x2 :
f ( x2 ) f ( x1 ) = (5 x22 7) (5 x12 7) = 5 x22 5 x12
f ( x2 ) f ( x1 ) 5 x22 5 x12 5( x2 x1 )( x2 + x1 )
=
=
= 5( x2 + x1 ) .
x2 x1
x2 x1
x2 x1
123
:
x10 x20 ( x1x2), =5(x2+x1)>0. f
1=[0,+).
x10 x20 ( x1x2), =5(x2+x1)<0. f
2=(, 0].
) x1, x2, =R{1} x1x2 :
f ( x2 ) f ( x1 ) =
x2 + 2 x1 + 2 ( x2 + 2)( x1 + 1) ( x1 + 2)( x2 + 1)
x1 x2
=
==
x2 + 1 x1 + 1
( x2 + 1)( x1 + 1)
( x2 + 1)( x1 + 1)
=
f ( x2 ) f ( x1 )
1
=
.
x2 x1
( x1 + 1)( x2 + 1)
x1>1 x2>1, (x1+1) (x2+1)>0, <0. f

1=(1,).
x1<1 x2<1 (x1+1) (x2+1)>0, <0. f
2=(,1).
x1>1 x2<1 ( ),
(x1+1) (x2+1)<0, >0. f
A=R.

. f(x)=x2, g(x)=x3 h(x)=x (
R),
:
) f(x)=(x)2 =x2=f(x), x.
y 25
20
15
10
5
) g(x)=(x)3 =x3 =g(x), x.

) h(x+2)=(x+2)=(x)=h(x), x.

, .
:
_5
_4
_3
_2
_1
. 3.2.

f(x)=x2.
) f:AR , xA xA
f(x)=f(x).
) f:AR , xA xA
f(x)=f(x).
) f:AR ,
xA x+TA f(x+T)=f(x).
:
)
( y'y) (. 3.2).
124
y 120
100
80
60
40
20
_5
_4
_3
_2
_1_
20
_ 40
_ 60
_ 80
_ 100
_ 120
_ 10 _ 8
. 3.2.
f(x) = x3 .
_6 _4
1
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
_2
_ 0,2
_ 0,4
_ 0,6
_ 0,8
_1
10
. 3.2.
f(x) = x.
) (. 3.2).
) ( ) (. 3.2).
3.2.5.
.
) f(x) = x4+3x2+2 ) f ( x ) =
1
+ 3x
x
) f(x) = x2+2x.
) f = R. x A x A.
:
f ( x ) = ( x )4 + 3( x )2 + 2 = x 4 + 3 x 2 + 2 = f ( x )
f .
) f A=R*=R{0}. x A
x A . :
1
1
f ( x ) =
+ 3( x ) = + 3 x = f ( x )
x
x
f .
) f = R. x A x A.
:
2
2
f ( x ) = ( x )2 + 2( x ) = x 2 2 x , f ( x ) = ( x + 2 x ) = x 2 x
f(x)=f(x) x (.. f(1)=13=f(1)),
f(x)=f(x) x (.. f(1)=13=f(1)).
f .
.
3.2.1.
f=g.
125
fg, R, f(x)=g(x).
) f ( x ) = x 2 , g ( x ) = ( x )2
x + 3 , x < 0
(
)
=
f
x
)
,
x0
x + 3 ,
) f ( x ) = x 2 , g ( x ) = x
g( x) =
x +3
) f ( x ) =
x
x
+ 3 , g( x) = + 3
x
x
3.2.2.
f(x)=x2, g(x)=x+2. h=f+g

.
3.2.3. f, g
3, x <x 0< 0
5x5x 3,
f ( fx() x=) =
g ( x )
2 2
x x+ 2+ ,2 , x x 0 0
x0
2 x+3,
2
3 x x 2 , x t 0
h=f+g.
3.2.4.

f
, 3f + 2 g .
f + g , f g , fg ,
g
1
) f ( x ) = x, g ( x ) =
) f ( x ) = x 3, g ( x ) = x + 3
x
1
) f(x)=x+2, g(x)=x2
) f ( x ) = x 2 1, g ( x ) =
x 1
3.2.5. (. 3.2) f
g=f
g=f.
3
4
2,5
3
2
2,5
24
_2
_1
_2
_1
2
_2
1,5
2
1
1,5
0,5
1
_ 24
0,5
_4
10
10
4
5
42
_1
_1
2
_2
_1
_1
_2
4
_4
6
_6
5
_5
_
_ 105
. 3.2.
_ 10
126
300
300
200
300
200 f 300
3.2.6.
g 3.2.
_ 0,4
_ 0,2
_ 0,4
_ 0,2
_ 0,4
_ 0,4
_ 0,2
_ 0,2
f
f
f
f
300
200
100
300
200
100
200
100
_ 100
100
f
f
f
0,2
_ 100
200
_ 100
__ 200
300
100
_ 200
__
300
200
_
300
_ 1
300
1
0,5
1
0,51
f
f
f
0,2
0,4
0,2
0,2
0,4
0,4
_5
_5
_ 0,2
_ 0,4
_ 0,2
_ 0,4
_ 0,4
_ 0,2
_ 0,2
5
5
_5
_5
_
5
_4
_2
_6
_4
_2
_6
_6
_4
_4
_2
_2
4
43
3.2.7.
4
32
4
3
21
3
2
1
2
_1
1
1
_2
1
_
_ 21
_
_ 12
_2
3
2
3
32
1
2
21
1
1
_1
_1
_1
_1
_6
_4
_2
2
2
4
4
6
6
_6
_6
_6
_4
_4
_4
_2
_2
_2
f
f
f
1
1,5
0,2
0,4
0,2
0,4
0,2
0,2
0,4
0,4
g
g
g
g
5
5
5
5
3
3
2
3
32
1
2
21
1
1
_1
_1
_1
_1
2
2
4
4
6
6
34
0,5
g
g
g
g
f
f
f2
g
g
g
0,81
1
0,61
0,8
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,4
0,2
0,2
_5
_1
_ 13
_ 100
200
_ 100
__ 200
300
100
_ 200
__
300
200
_
300
_ 1
300
_ 0,5
_
_ 0,51
_ 0,5
_1
_6
g
g
g
0,5
0,5
_ 0,5
_5
_ 0,4
0,4
300
200
100
300
200
100
200
100
_ 100
100
2,5
0,5
1,5
2,5
0,5
0,5
1
1
1,5
1,5
2
2
2,5
2,5
3
3 .
3.2.
4
23
4
3
12
3
2
1
2
_1
1
1
_
21
g
0,5
0,5
0,5
0,5
1
1
_
_1
_ 12
_
2
.
_2
g1,5
g
1,5
g
1,5
1,5
2,5
2,5
2
2
2,5
2,5
3
3

x+2
2
) f(x) = x
) f(x)=x5+x2+15
) f(x)=(x5)(x7)+1 ) f ( x ) =
x +1
3.2.8.
.
2x + 3
) f(x)=8x3+x+1
) f ( x ) =
) f(x)=(x2)2 +4x
) f(x)=3x5
2x + 5
127
3.2.9. .
1
2
) f ( x ) = + 3 x
) f(x) = 3x3 + 2x2 x
) f(x) = x6 +3x4x+2x
x
x
) f ( x ) = + 1
) f(x)=x3.
) f(x) = 2x3 + 2xx
x
3.2.10. (. 3.2) ,
; ;
__ 1
_ 11
__ 0,5
_ 0,5
0,5
__ 4
_ 44
2,5
2,5
2,5
22
2
1,5
1,5
1,5
0,5
0,5
0,5
__ 6
_ 66
11
1
__ 2
_ 22
__ 4
_ 44
__
2
_2
2
__
0,5
_ 0,5
__ 1
0,5
_ 11
__ 1,5
1,5
_ 1,5
0,6
0,6
0,6
0,4
0,4
0,4
0,2
0,2
0,2
__ 3
_ 33
__ 2
_ 22
__ 1
_ 11
__
2
_2
2
__
1
_1
1
__ 2
_2
2
__
4
_ 44
11
1
33
3
22
2
44
4
22
2
22
2
__ 2
_ 22
44
4
__ 1
_ 11
11
1
__
2
_ 22
_4
_4
_
4
22
2
0,4
0,4
0,4
44
4
22
2
__
3
_3
3
66
6
0,8
0,8
0,8
__ 2
_ 22
__ 4
_ 44
__ 6
_ 66
1,5
1,5
1,51
1
1
0,5
0,5
0,5
44
4
22
2
11
1
66
6
44
4
22
2
__ 2
_ 22
__ 4
_4
4
33
3
11
1
0,8
0,8
0,8
0,6
0,6
0,6
0,4
0,4
0,4
0,2
0,2
0,2
0,2
0,2
0,2
11
1
22
2
33
3
__ 3
_ 33
. 4..
__ 2
_ 22
__ 1
_ 11
__ 0,2
_ 0,2
0,2
__
0,4
_ 0,4
0,4
11
1
22
2
33
3
128
3.2.11. :
)
f c, d
c > 0, cf + d .
)
f , c < 0, cf + d .
3.2.12. :
) f, g ( )
, f + g ( )
.
) f ' g
, f g .
)
f, g ' f(x) > 0
g(x) >0 x , fg .
) f, g ' f(x) >0
g(x) >0 x , fg .
3.2.13. :
) f:AR g:AR , f+g f g .
) f:AR g:AR , f g
.
)
f:AR g:AR , f g .
3.3 .

.
) f(x) = x + , 0.
A=R f(A)=R.
xx, yy A( , 0) B(0, ) . >0 f(x)
(. 3.3), <0 (. 3.3).

) f(x) = x2, 0. ( yy) A=R.
B(0, )
B(0, )
(_ ,0)
(_ ,0)
>0
>0
. 3.3.
B(0, )
B(0, )
(_ ,0)
<0
. 3.3.
<0
x
(_ ,0)
>0
. 3.3.
129
>0, f(x) (,0]

[0,+). f(A)=[0,+). f(x) = x2 >0 3.3.
< 0, f(x) (,0]
[0,+). f(A)= [,0). f(x) = x2 <0 3.3.
) f(x) = x3, 0. (
) A= R
f(A)= R.
>0, f(x) (. 3.3), <0
(. 3.3).
) f ( x )
, z0.
0 A =
x
= R* = R {0} f(A) = R* = R {0}.
. >0 f(x)
(,0) (0,+) (
), <0 (,0) (0,+)
( ). 3.3
f(x) = /x >0, 3.3 <0.
y
>0
<0
<0
. 3.3.
. 3.3.
<0
>0
. 3.3.
>0
>0
<0
<0
. 3.3.
. 3.3.
130
) : , . f(x) = x
= R f(A)=[1,1].
T = 2,
(. 3.3).
f(x) = x.
x
/2
3/2
f(x) = x A=R
f(A)=[1,1]. T = 2,
(. 3.3).
f(x) = x.
x
/2
3/2
f(x) = x R,
+ , Z f(A) = R. T = ,
2
( , + ), Z (. 3.3).
2
2
x
/4
/4
) a: f(x)= ax, 0<a 1. f(x)=ax,

0< a1 = R f(A)=(0,+). 0<a<1, f(x) (. 3.3), . a > 1 f(x)
(. 3.3) .
.
Euler e .
) a: f(x)=log a x, 0<a1.
f(x)=log a x, 0<a1 A=(0,+) f(A)=R. 0<a<1,
f(x) (. 3.3), a>1 (. 3.3). H Euler e
lnx .
, , :
) logx=y y=x
) log =1 log 1=0
) log(x1x2)= logx1+logx2
) logx=logx
) logx=x, x=exln logx=x

x
) log 1 = log x1 log x2
x2
) >1, logx1< logx2 x1<x2,

0<<1, logx1< logx2 x1>x2.
131
y
_
2
3
2
_1
_
2
_1
. 3.3.
3
2
. 3.3.
y
y
_
2
3
2
y=log a x, 0<a<1
x
y=x, 0<<1
(0, 1)
(0, 1)
. 3.3.
y=x, >1
x
. 3.3.
. 3.3.
y
y=log a x, 0<a<1
y=log a x, a>1
. 3.3.
. 3.3.
3.3.1.
2 x + e 2, x < 1
x
f ( x) =
x
x 1.
e ,
a x, a>1 f.
) y=log

) Cf x y.
) f
y=2x+(e2) (,1) -
132
y = e x [1,+ ). 3.3.
) Cf x y = 0
x. x 1 y = ex > 0, x y = 0
, x<1. 2x+e2=0,
2e
,
x=
2
,
2e
< 1.
2
Cf y x=0, f(0)=y
2e
, 0) (0,e2).
y=e2 . Cf A(
2
3.3.2.
f
f ( x) =
1 .
x 3
(. 3.3)
1
f1( x ) =
x

1
f2 ( x ) = = f1( x ) .
x
3.2.2, Cf Cf f(x)0 (.
), Cf, f(x)<0 (.
). , 3.2.2, Cf Cf
xx ( x<0).
(. 3.3)
f2 ( x ) =
1
.
x
20
15
10
y=
_1
. 3.3.
1
x
. 3.3.
y=
1
x
133
x
,
f ( x) =
1
= f2 ( x 3) ,
x 3
h , f2 ( . 3.3) ( . 3.3).
y
y=
1
x
y=
1
x
1
y= _
x 3
. 3.3.
. 3.3.
.
1
y=
3.3.1.

y= _ .
x
x 3
) f ( x ) =
x2 4
) f(x)=ex3
) f(x)=ln(x3)+2
) f(x)=lnx
x2 4
x ;
3.3.2. .
0<x e
2
2 x , x < 1
) f ( x ) =

x 3 + 1, x 1
ln x ,
) f ( x ) =
2
( x / e) ,
e x + 1,
x0
) f ( x ) = 3x + 2, 0<x 1
x >1
5,
xd0
x 1,
) f ( x ) x , 0<x d
x!
1,
x>e
3.3.3. f, g
.
) f(x)=2ex 3 g(x)=3ex+2
) f(x)=ex g(x)=ex
1
) f(x)=lnx g ( x ) = ln 2
) f(x)=2x g(x)=x2
x
3.3.4.
f, g , f+g
134
.
5x ,
f ( x) = x 3 ,
3
x ,
x<0
x <1
x+3,
.
0 x < 2 g ( x ) =
3
x 3 , x 1
x2
3.4 . .
15 y + 1 , y
( ).
,
:
g ( y) = 15 y + 1 , y>0.
(3.4.1)

f(x)=20e0,01 x, x0, x 20e0,01x [ f(0)=20 ].
t,
: x y=20e0,01x (3.4.1),
:
z 15 y 1 15 20e 0,01 x 1 ,
x,
h( x ) 15 20e 0,01 x 1.
y=20e0,01x = f(x) ,
h( x ) 15 20e 0,01 x 1 15 y 1
(3.4.1) h( x ) 15 20e 0,01 x 1 15 y 1
g ( y)
g ( f ( x )) .
3.4.
z = g(y) = g( f(x))
x
y = 20e 0,01x = f(x)
z = h(x) = 15 20e 0,01x + 1 = g(f(x))
H x g(f(x)) f g gf. , g(f(x))

gf, f(x) g.
(. 3.4):
f, g , . x
f(x), gf (gf)(x)=g(f(x)) f g.
135
, gf
, f, x f(x)
g,
A1 = { x A f ( x ) B}
(. 3.4). f(A)B= f g, f(A)B .

. , f, g, h h(gf),
(hg)f
h(gf)=(hg)f.
:
f, g h hgf ( hgf)(x)=h(g(f(x))).
.
f(A)
gf
f(x)
g
f
x
y = f(x)
z = g( f(x))
g(f(x))
gf
A1
. 3.4.
. 3.4.
3.4.1.
,
. f(t)=5+3t, t .
.
.
r,
E=g(r)=r2.
,
t
r=f(t)=5+3t.
, t
f g,
( g D f )( t)
g ( f ( t))
g (5 3t) (5 3t)2
25 30t 9 t 2.
136
3.4.2.
f g f(x)=x+1 g(x)=x2+1. gf
fg.
.
f g R, fg gf
R. fg :
( f g )( x ) = f ( g ( x )) = g ( x ) + 1 = ( x 2 + 1) + 1 = x 2 + 2 ,
gf :
( g f )( x ) = g ( f ( x )) = [ f ( x )]2 + 1 = ( x + 1)2 + 1 = x 2 + 2 x + 2 .
, fg gf ( R),
(fg)(x)=(gf)(x) x,
gf fg,
.
3.4.3.
f g f ( x ) = x 2 g(x)=x2+2. gf
fg.
.
f A=[2,+). g g(x)=x2+2
, =R. gf A1={xA:f(x)B}=[2,+)
= xA1 :
( g f )( x ) = g ( f ( x )) = g ( x 2 ) = ( x 2 )2 + 2 = ( x 2) + 2 = x .
H fg
A2={xB:g(x)A}= {xR:x2+20}= R

( fog)
g )( x ) = f ( g ( x )) = f ( x 2 + 2) = ( x 2 + 2) 2 = x 2 = x .
(f
gf fg ,
gf fg. :
(fg)(x)=(gf)(x)=x
x , .
( cm)
x ( sec) f(x)=3x+5.
6 min.
x (0x600), sec
137
cm
. 3.4.1 . , (x = 0)
5 cm , x=5sec 20 cm,
1805 cm .
. 305 cm ,
100 sec. ( , ),
sec
, ,
f, f1. f1(y) ( sec)
.
f1 3.4.1 ,
, 3.4.2.
f f1 , , , . x=20sec y=65cm :
f(20)=65 f1(65)=20.
f f1 .
. f
t , 0x600
f1. f y
, , 5x1805
f1.
f, f1
.
. (Alan Shepard, 1961), 186 km ,
. 15 min. 3.4 y ( km),
3.4.1

.
x
( sec)
0
1
2
5
10
20
30
100
500
600
f(x)
( cm)
5
8
11
20
35
65
95
305
1505
1805
3.4.2
X
.
y
( sec)
5
8
11
20
35
65
95
305
1505
1805
f 1(y)
( sec)
0
1
2
5
10
20
30
100
500
600
y(km)
186
160
x1
x2
. 3.4.
15
x(min)
138
x . f(x)
. , f
160 km.
:
160 km .
y x,
f .
, , ,
. , 3.2,
. :
f:Af(A) ,
:
f1:f(A)A,
y f (y f(A))
x, y=f(x). f1 f.
, f x y,
f1, , y x,
f(x)=y f1(y)=x.
,

f1(f(x))=x, xA, f(f1(y))=y, yf(A).
g(f(x))=x, f(g(y))=y f, g , f1=g g1=f.
, (x,y) f
(y,x) f1. C 1 (, ), =f() (,
f
).
Cf y = x (. 3.4).
:
y

(.
y = x).
, f(x)=ex.
(. . 3.3 a=e)
11 R (0,+).
f1 f. (. 3.4),
M(,)
Cf
y=x
M(,)
Cf _1
y=x
. 3.4.
139
(0,+), R y(0,+)
x ex=y. ex=y x=lny :
f1(y)=x=lny.
x
y, f:Af(A) f1(x),
xf(A) ( f1(y), yf(A) ). ,
f(x) =ex
f1(x)=lnx.
( 3.4 f, f1 ).
, : f(f1(y))=y, yf(A), f1(f(x))=x,
xA lnex=x, xR elnx=x, x(0,+).
20
2,5
15
10
1,5
f
y=x
f 1
1
_5
0,5
_2
_ 1,5
_1
_ 0,5
10
15
20
_5
0,5
_ 10
. 3.4.
. 3.4.
3.4.4.
f ( x ) = 2 x 1
.
.
3
2,5
2
f,
1
2x10, x . 2

1
f ( x ) = 2 x 1 A = [ , + ) .
2
,
x1,x2A f(x1)=f(x2)
2 x1 1 = 2 x2 1
x1=x2. ,
f(A)=[0,+) (. 3.4).
1,5
1
0,5
0
0,5
. 3.4.

f ( x) = 2 x 1 .
140
, f f1:f(A)A 1
yf(A)=[0,+) f1(y)=xA, f(x)=y. x
2
1 2
2
y = f ( x ) y = 2 x 1 y = 2 x 1 x = ( y + 1)
2
1
f 1( y) = x = ( y 2 + 1) ,
2

1 2
1
f ( y) = ( y + 1) , y[0,+).
2
, f
1
f1:[0,+)A f 1( x ) = ( x 2 + 1) .
2
3.4 f1,
3.4 f, f1 . , , f
f1 y=x.
8
3
2,5
y=x
2
1,5
f 1
1
2
0,5
0
0,5
1,5
2,5
. 3.4.

1
f ( x ) = ( x 2 + 1) .
2
1
3
0
. 3.4.
f, f1.
3.4.5.
) f g ,
gf .
) h(x)=5e2x3+2 .
.
) x1, x2 gf gf (x1)=(gf) (x2).

g(f(x1))=g(f(x2)) g
f(x1)=f(x2).
141
, f , x1=x2.
(gf) (x1)=(gf) (x2) x1= x2 gf .
) h(x)=5e2x3+2 f1(x)=2x3, f2(x)=ex
f3(x)=5x+2 ( 3.3
R). ( ) (), h .
h y=h(x) x.
h( x ) = y 5e 2 x 3 + 2 = y e 2 x 3 =
y2
y2
2 x 3 = ln
,
5
5
1 y2 3
+ , y>2.
y>2 x = ln
2
4
2
,
1 y2 3
f 1( y) = x = ln
+ , y>2
2
4
2
f
1 x2 3
+ , x>2.
f 1( x ) = ln
2
4
2
3.4.1.
1 4 lt 100 km. lt
1,1 .
) f .
)
g o
.
)

.
3.4.2.
, , 3 x + 2 x
. ()
f(t)=ae 0,05t, t0, f(t) t .
10.000 .
) a.
) g
.
) h
.
1. .
142
) h .
3.4.3. .
) f(x)=ln(e3x+2)
) f(x)=ln(x2+1)
) f(x)=ln(3x)
) f ( x )
) f ( x ) = ln( x 2 + 2)
) f ( x ) = ln x 2 + 2
( x 3 1) 2
) f(x) = 32(5x)2
) f(x)=(x3+1)
3.4.4. ff fff :
) f(x)=x
) f(x)=2x
) f(x)=x/2
) f(x)=x+2
) f(x)=x2
) f ( x ) = x 2 x + 1 ,0x1
3.4.5. fg gf .
x ) f(x)=x
= x 2 , 2, g ( x ) = x 2
) f(x)=x2, g(x)=x3 f ()
) f(x)=2x2+3, g(x)=x+2
3.4.6. fg gf :
) f(x)=ex, g(x)=lnx
f ()
x )f(x)=x
= x 2 , 2 , g( x) = x
) f(x)=ex, g(x)=ln(1/x)
3.4.7.
f , (fg)(x)=x22x+3, g
g(x)=x1.
3
2x +1
3.4.8. f ( x ) = 1 +
, g( x) =
.
x 1
x2
:
) f(f(x))=x x1
) g(g(x))=x x2.
3.4.9.
f(x)=ax+1 g(x)=x+3 fg =
gf f(f(1))=1. .
3.4.10.
C ( ) x ( )
f f(x)=3+5x. f1
f1(y).
3.4.11.

.
2e x + 2
2
) f(x)=5x+2
) f(x)=ln(1x )
) f ( x ) = x
3e + 1
) f(x)=x21
) f(x)=5ln(3e2x+1)
) f ( x ) = ln x 2 + 4
2x
, g(x)=ln(x2).
x 1
) f, g.
) h= gf.
) f, g, h .
) h1=g1f1.
3.4.12. f, g f ( x ) =
3.4.13.
(. 3.4) .
.
143
1
0,8
0,5
0,6
_1
_ 0,5
0,5
0,4
_ 0,5
0,2
_1
_1
_ 0,8
()
_ 0,6
_ 0,4
_ 0,2
()
1
0,8
0,5
0,6
_1
0,4
_ 0,5
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
_1
()
_ 0,5
0,2
0,5
0,2
0,4
0,6
()
0,8
_ 0,2
0,8
_ 0,4
0,6
_ 0,6
0,4
_ 0,8
0,2
_1
0,2
0,4
0,6
()
()
. 3.4.
0,8
144
3.4.14. (. 3.4) .

.
3
2,5
2,5
1,5
1,5
0,5
0,5
_1
0,5
1,5
2,5
3
2
_1
1
_3
_2
_1
_ 0,5
_1
_1
_2
_3
_3
_2
_1
_3
_2
_1
_1
_1
_2
_2
_3
_3
4
3
0,5
_ 1,5
_1
_ 0,5
2
0,5
1,5
_ 0,5
_1
_1
_2
. 3.4.
0,5
1,5
2,5
145
3.5 ' x0 R. .

. ,
, . ,

, .
:
2 + x 3 ,
x<0
f ( x ) = 0,
(3.5.1)

x =0
x
, x >0 ,
1 1 + x
3.5.
f x 0,
3.5.1.
2
1
_1
_2
_1
_2
_3
_4
_
. 3.5.
(4.5.1).
3.5.1
f.
x 0
x
0
0,3
1,973000
x
f(x)
0,2
1,992000
0,15
1,996630
0,1
1,999000
0,01
1,999999
x 0
0
x
x
f(x)
0
?
0,0001
2,0004998
0,001
2,0004999
0,01
2,0049876
0,1
2,0488088
0
?
146
3.5.1
:
) x, xx, 0 (x <0),
f(x) 2.
) x 0 (x>0), f(x)
2.
, x 1.
, (. 3.5) ( 3.5 )
3.5.2, x, xx, 1 , 1, f(x)
f 1. ,
( 1) x, f(x)
1.
2
1,5
1
0,5
_ 1,2
_1
_ 0,8
_ 0,6
_ 0,5
_1
_ 1,5
. 3.5.
3.5.2
f.
x 1 1 x 1
x
1,1
1,01
1,001
1,0001 1 0,9999 0,999
0,99
0,9
f(x)
0,6690
0,9697
0,9970
0,9997
1,0297
1,2710
1,0003
1,0030
f ,
x. , , ,
:
) f ' (,x0).
l1, x x0 (x<x0),
f x0 l1 1 (. 3.5)
1. lim limes .
147
lim f ( x ) A1
xo x
o
( : f(x), x
x0 , l1).
) f '
(x0, ). l2, x x0 (x> x0), f x0 l2 (. 3.5)
C
2
1
lim f ( x ) = 2
x x +
. 3.5.
( : f(x), x
x0 , l2).
) f,
(, x0) (x0, ).
l, x
x0 (
x0), f x x0 l
(. 3.5)
lim f ( x ) A
xo x
x0
y
C
( : f(x), x
O
x0, l f(x) x0 l).
, f (3.5.1),

lim f ( x ) 2, lim f ( x ) 2, lim f ( x ) 1.
x o0
x o0
x0
. 3.5.
x o1

f x0, ' (a, x0),
f x0,
' (x0 , ). , x0,
x0, ' (a, x0) (x0 , ).
, ,
f x0, .
:
f,
(, x0)(x0 , ). f x x0
, .
:
lim f(x)= l , , lim+ f(x)= lim f(x)= l.
x x0
x x
x x
f (a, x0),
(x0 , ), x x0
( x<x0). lim f(x) lim f(x). ,
x x
x x
0
0
148
f ' (x0 , ) (a, x0), x x0 ( x > x0).

, lim f(x) lim+ f(x).
x x0
x x
0
, lim f(x)=, x x0
:
) x0 [. 3.5() ()].
) x0 [. 3.5()].
) f x0, f(x0) x0,
[. 3.5()] [. 3.5()].
y
= f(x0)
f(x0)
O
x0
x0
()
()
x
()
. 3.5.
, f x0, ( ). , , (, x0)
(x0 , ), f
x0 ( )1.
(
x0) ,
.
,
f ( x)
2x 6

x 3
x0=1, (0,1)(1,2) ,
( x<3 2x6<0)
f ( x) =
(2 x 6)
= 2 .
x 3
, lim f ( x ) = 2 ( x 1,
x 1
2).
1. , , f x0 (a, x0) (x0, ), f x (a, x0) (x0, ).
149
y
3.5.1.
y=x _ 2
f
x2 5x + 6
.
x 3
f ( )
x0 = 3.
f ( x) =
1
O
f = (,3)(3,+)
x 3
. 3.5.
( x 2)( x 3)
= x2 .
f ( x) =
x 3
f, x 3 3.5
. x xx (
) 3, 1.
x 3 3 x 3
2,9
2,99
2,999
2,9999 3
3,0001
3,001
3,01
3,1
f(x) 0,9
0,99
0,999
0,9999
1,0001
1,001
1,01
1,1
f
x0 = 3, .
.
.
L1. lim f ( x ) A lim ( f ( x ) A) 0
xo x
xo x
L2. lim f ( x ) A lim f ( x0 h) A

xo x
h o0
L3. lim f ( x ) A lim f ( x )

xo x
xo x
lim f ( x ) A
xo x
0
L4. ) lim f ( x ) ! 0, f(x)>0 1

xo x
x0
x0 (. 3.5).

) lim f ( x ) 0 , f(x)<0 x0.

xo x
. 3.5.
1. x0 x0 > 0 o ,
xD( f ) |xx0 | f(x)>0.
150
, x0
, , x0 .
L5. f,g f(x)g(x) x0
x0, lim f ( x ) d lim g ( x ) .
xo x
xo x
l1, lim
L6. f
f ( x )f =
d
g ( x )g ( x )=
limg(
f ( x )x
g ( x ))lim lim
( x )lim

0
xo x
xo x xo x
xo x xo x
0
= l2 l1, l2 R f+g x0
:
lim ( f ( x ) g ( x )) lim f ( x ) lim g ( x ) = l1 + l2
xo x
xo x
xo x
( ).
L7. f x0 c ,
cf x0 :
lim (cf ( x )) c lim f ( x ) .
xo x
xo x
L8. f
l1, lim
f ( x )f =
g ( x )g ( x ) =
limg (
f ( xx)0,
g ( x ))lim lim
(dx )lim
xo x
xo x xo x
xo xx o x
0
= l2 l1, l2 R f g x0 :
lim ( f ( x ) g ( x ))
xo x
lim f ( x ) lim g ( x )
xo x
xo x
( ).
l1, lim
L9. f
f ( x )f =
d
g ( x )g( x ) =
limg(
f ( x )x0, g
( x ))lim lim
( x )lim
xo x
xo x xo x
0
xo x xo x
0
l2 l2 0, f/g x0
:
lim f ( x )
f ( x ) x o x0
l
1 .
lim
x o x g( x)
lim g ( x ) l2
0
xo x
L10. f x0, w f x0 :
lim f ( x ) .
lim f ( x )
xo x
xo x
L11. f x0 f(x)0
x0, f x0 ( ) :
lim [ f ( x )] lim f ( x ) .
xo x
x o x
L12. f, g, h. h(x)f(x)g(x) x0
lim h( x ) lim g ( x ) A ,
xo x
xo x
lim f ( x ) A .
xo x
151
(
,
f , x0,
h g
, x x0, ,
3.5, f .

.
x0
. 3.5
3.5.2.
lim f(x) = 1 lim g(x) = 7 :
x x0
x x0
lim [3 f ( x ) 5 g ( x )]
) xlim
x
x o x0
0
3 f ( x) 5 g( x)

x o x0 [ f ( x ) ( g ( x ))2 ]3
0
lim [ f ( x ) ( g ( x ))2 ]3
) xlim
x
) xlim
lim
x
x o x0
0
) L6 L7
:
lim [3 f ( x) 5 g ( x)]
x o x0
3 lim f ( x) 5 lim g ( x)
x o x0
x o x0
3 (1) 5(7)
38.
) L6, L7 L11
:
lim [ f ( x ) + ( g ( x ))2 ]3 = [ lim [ f ( x ) + ( g ( x ))2 ]]3 = [ lim f ( x) + lim ( g ( x)) 2 ]3 =
x x0
x x0
x x0
x x0
= [ lim f ( x ) + ( lim g ( x ))2 ]3 = [ 1 + ( 7)2 ]3 = 483.

x x0
x x0
)
lim [3 f ( x ) + g ( x )] = 10,
x x0
lim [ f ( x ) + ( g ( x ))2 ]3 = 8 0
x x0
L9 :
lim (3 f ( x ) + 5 g ( x ))
x x0
3 f ( x) + 5 g( x)
38
lim
=
= 3.
2
3
2
3
x x0 [ f ( x ) + ( g ( x )) ]
lim [ f ( x ) + ( g ( x )) ]
48
x x0
L1L13, , . 3.3.
152
1. lim x = x0 ( f(x) = x, x
x x
0
),
lim
lim x
x0 .
xx
oxx0

0
2. f(x)=c, x , lim f ( x )
xo x
lim c c (
xo x
, x0).
3. lim x x00,
xxo
oxx0
00
4. lim
x 0
lim x x00
lim
o
xxx
oxxx0
00
x
= 1 (. 3.5)
x
x 1
= 0 (. 3.5)
x 0
x
5. lim
P ( x ) n x n n1 x n1 ... 1 x 0 .

:
lim
lim
lim
lim
lim(((nnnxxxnnn nnn111xxxnnn111"
"
"000))) lim
lim
lim(((nnnxxxnnn))) lim
lim(((nnn111xxxnnn111)))"
"
" lim
lim
lim 000
lim PPP(((xxx))) lim
lim
xxxo
o
xo
xxxx0
xxxo
o
oxxx0
000
xxxo
o
oxxx0
000
xxxo
o
oxxx0
000
1
nnnlim
lim
xxx xnnn
lim
xxxnnn111xn"
"
""
lim
lim
lim
000
lim
lim

lim
n111lim
n lim
nlim
1 lim
xxxo
xo
o
xxxxx o x
xxo
x
o
o
xx xx o x
o
xo
o
xxx
xx0xxx o x
0
0
nnn
000
000
000
xxxo
o
oxxx0
000
000
nnn
1
x0xnn0n0n1111x0n"
"
""
000 PP0P(((xx0x0P0))()x 0 ).
0nnnxx0x00nx0nnn
n11x
1
P(x) : lim P(x) = P(x0).

x x0
,
lim (5 x 3 2 x 2 + 3 x + 10) = 5(1)3 2(1)2 + 3(1) + 10 = 0 .
x 1
0,8
0,5
0,6
0,4
_5
0,2
_6
_4
_2
_ 0,2
_ 0,4
. 3.5.
x
.
f ( x )
x
5
_ 0,5
_1
. 3.5..
x 1 .
f ( x )

x
153

R( x ) =
P( x)
,
Q( x )
(x), Q(x) x ( x).

x0R Q(x0)0. :
lim P ( x )
P ( x00 )
P ( x ) x x0
.
=
=
lim R( x ) = lim
x x0
x x0 Q( x )
lim Q( x ) Q( x00 )
x x0
:
R( x ) =
P( x)
Q( x )
P ( x ) P ( x0 )
=
,. Q(x0)0.
x x0 Q( x )
Q( x0 )
lim R( x ) = lim
x x0
5 x 3 2 x 2 + 3 x + 13 5(1)3 2(1)2 + 3(1) + 13 3

lim
=
= = 1.
x 1
3
x2 + 2
(1)2 + 2
3.5.3.
.
) lim x 2 3
x o0
x
) lim ( x 3 + 1)
x 1
) lim[( x 1)2 x 2 1 ]
x o2
) x0
x5 5
x 1 x 2 + 1
) lim

x 5x + 4

x 4
x4
2
) lim
2 x x 2 + 12
x 2
x2
) lim
11 2 2 2 2
1
2 2 11
2 2

d dx x x x . ,
1 , x x 3 3 x x
3
xx
x 3x 3
x
1
x
lim2 x 2 3 x20,
x o0
x
lim( x 2 ) = lim x 2 = 0 ,
x 0
x 0
,
1
lim x 2 3 0 .
x o0
x
) P(x)=x3+1
lim ( x 3 + 1) = lim P ( x ) = P (1) = 13 + 1 = 2 .
x 1
x 1
154
) R( x ) =
x 5 5 P( x)
Q(1)=12+1=20
=
2
x + 1 Q( x )
x5 5
15 5
4
lim
(
)
(
)
=
R
x
=
R
1
=
= 2.
2
x 1 x 2 + 1 x 1
3
1 +1
lim
)
lim[( x + 1)2 x 2 3 ] = lim( x + 1)2 lim x 2 3 = [ lim( x + 1)]2 lim( x 2 3) = 32 22 3 = 9

x 2
x 2
x 2
x 2
x 2
) lim( x 4) = 0, L9.
x 2
x=4 ,
f ( x) =
x2 5x + 4
, x4
x4
. , x4, :
x 2 5 x + 4 ( x 4)( x 1)
=
= x 1 .
x4
x4
f ( x) =
, lim f ( x ) = lim( x 1) = 3
x 4
x 4
) x=2 . :
2 x + x 2 + 12 :
f ( x) =
2 x x 2 + 12 (2 x x 2 + 12 )(2 x + x 2 + 12 )
(2 x )2 ( x 2 + 12 )2
=
=
x2
( x 2)(2 x + x 2 + 12 )
( x 2)(2 x + x 2 + 12 )
4 x 2 ( x 2 + 12)
( x 2)(2 x + x 2 + 12 )
3( x + 2)
3 x 2 12
( x 2)(2 x + x 2 + 12 )
3( x 2)( x + 2)
( x 2)(2 x + x 2 + 12 )
2 x + x 2 + 12
,
lim f ( x ) = lim
x 2
x 2
3( x + 2)
2 x + x + 12
2
3 lim( x + 2)
x 2
lim(2 x + x + 12 )
2
3 4
3
= .
4 + 16 2
x 2
3.5.4.
x 2 2, x<2
, , x0=2 f f ( x ) = 8
3 + 1, x 2.
x
x < 2 lim f ( x ) = lim ( x 2 2) = 22 2 = 2,

x 2
x 2
x > 2 lim f ( x ) = lim (

x 2+
x 2+
8
8
+ 1) = 3 + 1 = 2 .
3
2
x
155
lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = 2 , lim f ( x ) = 2 .

x 2
x 2
x 2
3.5.5.
3
x 25, x<3
f f ( x ) =
x 3a , x 3.
) f x0 = 3
) f x0 = 3
) , f
x0 = 3.
.
) x<3 lim f ( x )
lim ( x 3 25) 33 25 2.
x o3
x o3
lim ( x 3a) 3 3a.
) x>3 lim f ( x )
x o3
x o3
) f x0 = 3, :
lim f ( x )
lim f ( x )
x o3
1
, 33=2 = .
3
x o3
3.5.1.
3.5
f. ( )
:
) lim f ( x )
) lim f ( x ), lim f ( x ), lim f ( x )
x o4
x o2
) lim f ( x )
x o2
y
3
4
x o2
) lim f ( x ), lim f ( x ), lim f ( x )
x 0
x o2
x o2
x o2
_4
_2
2 3
) lim [ f ( x ) + ( g ( x )) ] = [ lim [ f ( x ) + ( g ( x )) ]] = [ lim f ( x) + lim ( g ( x)) ] =

2 3
x x0
x x0
x x0
3.5.2. f f ( x ) =
x
0,9
0,99
x x0
0,999
1,001
1,01
( )
lim f ( x ),
. 3.5.
3x 3
. :
2x 2
f(x)
x o1
lim f ( x )
x o1
lim f ( x ).
x o1
1,1
156
3.5.3. N
lim f ( x ) f(x0), , xo x
(. 3.5).
y
y
y
y
y
y
3
3
3
_2
_2
_2
y=f(x)
y=f(x)
y=f(x)
O
O
O
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
x0=2 x0=4
x0=2 x0=4
x0=4
x0=2()
()
()
y
y
y
y=__ 2
y=_ 2
y= 2
4
4
4
2
2
2
x
x
x
x0=0 x0=2
x0=0 x0=2
x0=2
x0=0 ()
()
()
y
y
y
y=f(x)
y=f(x)
y=f(x)
8
8
8
O
O
O
y=2
y=2
y=2
y=f(x)
y=f(x)
y=f(x)
10
10
10
4
4
4
5
5
5
O
O
O
4
4
4
8
8
8
x0=4 x0=8
x0=4 x0=8
x0=4 x0=8
()
()
()
. 3.5.
3.5.4.
f f ( x ) =
:
x
f(x)
5,1
5,01
O
O
O
x
x
x
x
x
x
x0=5, x0=10 x0=15
x0=5, x0=10 x0=15
x0=5, x0=10 x0=15
()
()
()
5
5
5
10
10
10
15
15
15
x 2 + 3 x 10 .
x +5
5,001
4,999
4,99
4,9
( ) f(x) x0=5.
x 2, x 0
x =0
3.5.5. f f ( x ) = 0 ,
2
x 2 , x ! 0.
) 3.5
f(x) x0=0.
)
, .
_2
. 3.5.
157
3.5.6. f, , lim f ( x ) , x0 .
xo x
) f ( x ) =
x 5x + 4
, x0=2
x2 4
4
) f ( x ) = 5 x +
) f ( x ) =
2
2 x ,
) f ( x ) =
2 x + 3,
( x )2
, x0=0
x
2 + x 3 ,
) f ( x ) =
8 2 x ,
x >3
x <3
x4 5x2 + 4
, x0=2
x2 4
, x0=3
x2
,
) f ( x ) = 4
1 + 1 ,
2 x
x0
, x0=0
x >0
x2
, x0 = 2
x>2
3.5.7. f lim f ( x ) 4 . x0 .
xo x
1
) g ( x ) =
( f ( x ))2 + 1
) g ( x ) =
f ( x) 1
( f ( x ))3 61
) g(x)=5(f(x))24
) g ( x ) =
) g(x)=(f(x)3) (f(x)10)100
) g ( x ) =
3 f ( x) 1
( f ( x ))2 + 1
f ( x) 1
f ( x) 1
3.5.8. lim f ( x ) 1 lim g ( x ) 2 x0 .

xo x
xo x
) h( x ) =
f ( x) + g( x)
) h( x ) =
) h( x ) =
( f ( x )) + ( g ( x ))
2
f ( x) + g( x)
) h(x)=(2f(x)+g(x))10
x,
2
3.5.9. f ( x ) x 1,
7 x ,
x0
0 d x d 3 . , , :
x ! 3.
) lim f ( x )
x o0

) lim f ( x )
x o0

) lim f ( x )
) lim f ( x )
x o3

) lim f ( x )
) lim f ( x )
x 3
x 0
x 1
) lim f ( x )
x o3
) lim f ( x )
x 4
3.5.10. N a x0=1
3 x 2 a, x < 1
f ( x) = 1
x 1.
3 ,
x
158
3.5.11. :
5
2
2
) lim(3 x 4 x + 2 x + 1)
) lim(2 x 3 x + 1)
x 4
x 1

5
2
3x 4 x + 2 x + 1
3x2 2 x 1
) lim
) lim

2
x 1
x +1
x o1
x 1

3.5.12. :
2 x

) lim
x o0 x (1 x )

x
x 0 x

3.5.13. :
) lim
4 x
4 x
3.5.14. :
) lim
x 4
2 x 1
x 0
x

x x
) lim
x 0
x

x2 x 2
x 1
x +1
) lim
) lim
) lim
x
) lim 3
x 0 x + 2 x
1 1 + x3
) lim
x 0
3x3

) lim
x4 1
x 1 x 3 1

x o3
( h 1)2 1
h 0
h2 + 1
) lim
x(x 1)
x 0
x2
) lim
x + x2
x 0
x
) lim
3x5 4 x 2 + 2 x + 1
x 1
x2 +1
) lim
) lim
x 1
x 1
x 5x + 4
2
x
x 0 1 1 + x
) lim
2 x2 + 3x + 1
x 1
1 x2
) lim
x x 1

x 3 2
( x + 2)2 4
x 0
x
) lim

3.6 + . .
f, x ,
( ) .
(+ ).
.
. ' 1 2.
1
0 C , . ,
x , , f
f ( x) =
2x2 +1
,
x2 +1
(3.6.1)

x0.
, ,
(x) .
,
. , x ,
y=f(x) 2.
159
x
x
10
20
f(x)
1,96
1,99
50
100
y=2
1,9999 1,9996 1,9999
3.6, f,
x ,
y =2 . ,
y =2
f +. : f +
2 : f + 2 :
lim f ( x) 2 .
2x2+1
x2 +1
f(x)=
1
. 3.6.
y=
(. 3.6):
f , x
, f
+ lim f ( x) .. -
f(x)
. 3.6.
y=
f +.

+,
(,+).
(3.6.1)
,
xR.
f , x,
A=R xR
2( x ) + 1 2 x + 1
f ( x ) =
= 2
= f ( x) .
x +1
( x )2 + 1
2
y
y=2
f(x)=
_3
_x
_2
2x2+1
x2 +1
_1
. 3.6.
, x 10, 20, 50, 100,.,

2 (. 3.6).
f
2 f 2 :
lim f ( x ) = 2 .
x
y=2
f .
(. 3.6):
y
O
f(x)
y=
. 3.6.
160
f ,
x ( ), f :
lim f ( x)=.
y= f .
,
(,).
f1, f2, f3, :
1
1
1
,
f1( x ) = , f2 ( x ) = 2 , f3 ( x ) =
x
x
x
3.6.
3.6.1
x , .
o:
1
1
1
= 0.
lim = 0, lim 2 = 0, lim
x + x
x + x
x+ x
:
1
0,
x x
lim
1
0 .
x x 2
lim
:
r , :
1
) lim r =0
x+ x
1
) lim r =0, x r .
x x
1000
10
800
600
40
400
20
200
100
80
60
0,1
0,2
0,3
f1
0,4
0,5
0,1
0,2
0,3
f2
. 3.6.
0,4
0,5
0,1
0,2
0,3
f3
0,4
0,5
161
,
1
lim
0,
x of x 2 / 3
3.6.1
lim
x5
x of
0,
lim
x of
1
x1/ 2
f1
:
f4(x)=x2, f5(x)=x3,
f2
f6(x)= x

3.6.
,
f7(x)=x2,
x
1
x
1
x2
1
x
0.
f8(x)=x3,
f3
102
103
104
106
102 103 104 106

104 106 108 1012
10 103/2 102 103
f9(x)= x ,
3.6.
3.6 3.6.2, 3.6.3,
, x (x+):
) f4, f5, f6 ,
) f7, f8, f9 .
f4, f5, f6 + +, f7, f8, f9 + , :
30
7. _ 108
6. _ 108
5. _ 108
4. _ 108
3. _ 108
2. _ 108
1. _ 108
800.000
600.000
400.000
200.000
200
400
600
25
20
15
10
5
800
200
f4
400
600
800
200
f5
400
600
800
f6
. 3.6.
200
400
600
800
_ 200.000
_ 400.000
_ 600.000
_ 800.000
200
_ 1. _ 108
_ 2. _ 108
_ 3. _ 108
_ 4. _ 108
_ 5. _ 108
_ 6. _ 108
_ 7. _ 108
f7
400
600
200
800
400
600
_5
_ 10
_ 15
_ 20
_ 25
_ 30
f8
f9
. 3.6.
3.6.2
3.6.3
102
103
104
106
102
103
104
f4
x2
104
106
108
1012
f5
x3
106
109
1012
f6
10
103
102
106
f7
x2
104
106
108 1012
1018
f8
x3
106
109 1012 1018
103
f9
10 103 102 103
800
162
lim x 2=+,
lim x = +
lim
x +
xof
lim x3=+
xof
xof
lim (x
3)= lim
lim ( x ) = .
x +
xof
xof
lim (x
2)=
xof
, 3.6.4, 3.6.5 3.6, , x (x):

) f4, f8 ,
) f5, f7 .
f4, f8 +,
f5, f7 , :
lim x 2=+, lim x 3=
xof
xof
lim (x
2)=, lim (x
3)=+,
xof
xof
.
3.5 +
.
x :
3.6.4
3.6.5
102
103
104
106
f4
x2
104
106
108
1012
f5
x3
106
109 1012 1018
_ 100
_ 80
_ 60
_ 100
_ 80
_ 60
f4
_ 40
_ 20
_ 40
_ 20
_ 80
_ 60
_ 40
_ 100
_ 80
_ 60
_ 40
f5
f5
102
103
104
f7
x2
104
106
108 1012
f8
x3
106
109
1012
10 000
1._ 106
108 000
800
1._ 000
106
68 000
600
800 000
000
46 000
400 000
000
600
24 000
000
200 000
000
400
2 000
f4
_ 100
_ 20
_
_ 20 200 000
__ 400 000
200 000
__ 600 000
400 000
__ 800 000
600 000
_ 80
_ 60
_ 40
_ 20 200 000
_ 100
_ 80
_ 60
_ 40
_ 20
_ 100
_ 80
_ 60
_ 40
_ 20
_ 100
_ 80
_ 60
_ 40
_ 20
f8
f8
_ 2 000
_ 4 000
2
__ 6 000
4 000
_ 8 000
6
__800
1._000
106
_ 1._ 106
_ 100
f7
. 3.6.
f7
_ _1 0 000
8 000
_ 1 0 000
106
1018
163
n , :
+ , n
lim x n =
x
, n .
+ 3.3
:
>1, (. 3.6) :
lim x 0 ,
lim x ,
lim log x
lim log x ,
x 0
0<<1, (. 3.6) :
lim x ,
lim x 0 ,
lim log x
lim log x ,
x 0

, = e > 1 :
x
lim e x 0,
a=1/e<1 :
lim e x , lim ln x ,
lim ln x ,
x 0
lim e x ,
lim e x 0 .
y
y=x
y=x
0<<1
y=log x
O
y=log x
>1
. 3.6.
. 3.6.
3.6.1.
)limlim
(5
x(5 x 7x7x3).
3)
)
)xlim
) )xlim
(lim
5 (x53 x(53 7x3x37
x73)x3) 3)
x
x
)
xx7
x37)x3) 3)
lim
(xlim
5
(x53 x(357
))xlim
x
x

6 x622 x22 42 4
) )limlim6 x36 x364x 4 4
xx362x
)xlim
lim
24
) )xlim
x3244 4
364
x
x6
x
x
)
lim
x x 4x3 4 4
) )limlim
3 3 x 4
x
x
x
x
4x7 7
6 x633x
x34x
) )limlim6 x63x633x3x7x7 7
3xx6333x
x36 x3x1x 1 7
)xlim
lim
) )xlim
x6
x
)
lim
3
x3 x33 xx33xx17x71 1
) )xlim
lim
x
x x1x1 1
x
x
3 x33 x33x
3 3
) )limlim
(5 x(533 x3373x7x3) 3)
)xlim
) )xlim
(lim
5 (x5 x(57xx37
x73)x3) 3)
x
x
x
)
xx7
x37)x3) 3)
) )
lim
lim
(xlim
5
(x53 x(357
)
x
x

3 x322 x22 62x6x9 9
) )limlim3 x33x336xx6
x69x9 9
6xx3263x
x23365xx23x65xx916x91 9
)xlim
lim
) )xlim
3
x6
x
)
lim
x6 x65xx35
x15x1 1
) )xlim
lim
x
xx5
x15x1 1
x
x
6 x633x3635
6 x63 x3 x3x7 7
))limlim6 x63x63xx7x7 7
3xx6333x
x36 x3x1x1 7
)xlim
lim
) )xlim
x6
x
)
lim
3
x3 x33 xx33xx17x71 1
))xlim
lim
x
x x1x1 1
x
x
3 x33 x33x
6 x62 x2 4 4
) )limlim6 x362 x362 4x2 4 4
2
xx362x
)xlim
lim
) )xlim
x32644x
4x344444
x6
x
x
lim
)
x
x
) )limlim
3 x3 4
x
x
x
x33xx
24
32 x22 642x6x9 9
))limlim3 x33x336xx6
x69x9 9
xlim
6xx3263x
x23365xx23x65xx916x91 9
lim
))x)
lim
)
3
x6
x
)
lim
x6 x65xx35
x15x1 1
))xlim
lim
x
xx5
x15x1 1
x
x
6 x63 x365
164
) x0 f(x)=5x3+7x3 :
7
3
f ( x ) 5 x 3 1 2 3 ,
5x
5x
7
3
lim 1 2 3 1 0 0 1
x
5x
5x
lim (5 x 3 )
lim f ( x) lim (5 x 3 ) .
x
7
3
) lim 1 2 3 1 0 0 1 , lim (5 x 3 )
x
x
5x
5x
lim f ( x) lim (5 x 3 ) .
.
P(x)
P ( x ) x n x n1 " ,
0,
lim P ( x ) lim ( x n )
x of
x of
lim P ( x ) lim ( x n ) .
x of
x of
P( x)
1
1
1
1
x n ( ... n ) lim ( ... n ) ,
x
x
x
x
x of
) x0 f ( x )
1
1
lim ( ... n ) .
x
x
x of
6x2 4

x3 4
4
6 x 2 1 2
2 1
6x 4
6x 6x 6x2 ,
f ( x) 3
x 4
x3 1 4
x 3 1 3
x3
x
2
4
lim 1 2
2
6 x x 6 x 1 0 1
lim
4
4 1 0
x
1 3
lim 1 3
x
x
x
1
6x2
.
x
x x 3
)
lim f ( x) 0 lim
6x2
6
lim 0
x x 3
x x
lim
165
4
lim 1 2
2
x
6 x 1 0 1
6x
lim
4
4 1 0
x
1 3
lim 1 3
x
x
x
1
6x2
6
lim 0
3
x x
x x
lim
6x2
lim f ( x) 0 lim 3 .
x
x x
3x2 6 x 9
) x0 f ( x ) 3

6x 5x 2
2 3
1 2
3x 2 6 x 9
3x 2
x x
3,
f ( x) 3
6 x 5x 1 1 5 1 6 x
6 x 2 6 x3

2 3
1 2
3x 2
1
x x
lim
1 lim
lim
0
3
5
1
x
x 6 x
x 2 x
1 2 3
6x
6x
3x2
.
x 6 x 3
lim f ( x ) 0 lim
x
2 3
2
3x3
1
x
x
lim
1 lim 3 lim
0
5
1
x
x 6 x
x 2 x
1 2 3
6x
6x
1
3x 2
0.
x 6 x 3
lim f ( x) lim
x
) x0 f ( x )
6 x3 x 7

3x3 x 1
1
7
1
7
6 x 3 1 3 3
3
3 1
3
x
6 x3 x 7
6
6x
6x
6x ,
f ( x) 3
6x
3
1
1
1
1
3 x x 1 3 x 3 1
3 3x 1 2 3
2
3x
3x
3x
3x
1
7
3
3
6x
6 x 1
lim
1
1
x
1 2 3
3x
3x
1
6 x3
lim 2 2
x 3 x 3
x
lim
6 x3
.
x 3 x 3
lim f ( x ) 2 lim
x
6 x3 .
x 3 x 3
) () lim f ( x ) 2 lim
x
166
.
:
R( x )
lim R( x )
x of
P( x )
x n x n1
,
Q( x ) x m x m1
lim x n m
x of
n<m lim R( x )
x of
0, 0 , n 0 , m 0
lim R( x )
x of
lim x n m .
x of
lim R( x ) 0, n=m :
x of
lim R( x )
x of
lim R( x )
x of
.
, n > m + .
3.6.2.
, ( ). t
,
f(t)=7040e0,5t
(. 3.6). :
) ,
)
) .
.
) ( t=0)
f(0)=7040e0,50=7040=30.
) 6
f (6) 70 40e 0,56 70 40 e3 68 .
70
) t
(t).
60
lim ( f ) t = lim= (7040e0,5t)=70400=70,
t+
t+
()
f(t) 70.
y=70
f (. 3.6)
70 .
50
40
30
20
10
0
. 3.6.
10
167
3.6.3.
y = x + Cf f
+
lim [ f ( x ) ( x )] 0 ,
x of
f ,
lim [ f ( x ) ( x )] 0 1.
x of
f ( x)
x 4e x 3
.
20 2e x 3
x
1 Cf .
20
x
) y
2 Cf +.
20
.
x
) , y
1 20
Cf , :
) y
lim f ( x ) ( 1) 0 .
x
20
x
6e x
60
lim f ( x ) ( 1) lim
0.
x
x
20
x 2e 3 2 0 3
x
) , y
2 Cf +,
20

lim f ( x) ( 2) 0 .
x
20
6
lim f ( x) ( 2) lim x
0.
x
20
x 2e 3
3.6, x +, f

x
y
2,
20
x ,
f,
x
y
1 .
20
2
1,5
1
0,5
_6
_4
_2
_ 0,5
_1
. 3.6.
1. , =0 . 0, y=x+
.
168
, f ,
x ,
( ) . f
, x ' x0.
x 1
, f f ( x )
,
x 1
x(,1)(1,+). 3.6.6 , x
1.
3.6.6
f.
x 1 1 x 1
x
f(x)
0,9
19
0,99
199
0,999
1999
0,9999
19999
1
?
1,0001
20001
1,001
2001
1,01
201
1,1
21
3.6.6,
3.6 : x 1,
f . ,
x, f(x) f
. , 3.6.6
:
) x 1 0,001 (. 1<x<1,001),
f(x) f 2001 [.
f(x)>2001].
) x 1 0,0001 (. 1<x<1, 0001),
f(x) f 20001 (.
f(x) > 20001) ... f 1 ,
+ :
lim f ( x ) f .
x o1
3.6.5 ,
x 1,
f

M(>0). f 1 , :
lim f ( x ) f .
x o1
3.6 x 1, x =1,
xx.
x = 1
f f.
y
M
y=1
x+1
f(x)= _
x 1
_1
x=1
_M
. 3.6.
169
xoR :
) lim ( x ) f
xo x
) lim f ( x ) f
xo x
lim (f x()x ) f
) lim
f
x ox x
xo
0
0
lim ff ((xx)) f
) lim
) lim f ( x ) f
) lim f ( x ) f
f
oxx
xo x
xo x
xxo
0

0
00
3.6 ( x0 =1).
f ()(),
10
4
2
2
1
_ 0,5
x0
0,5
_2
_ 0,5
_4
) lim f ( x ) f
xo x
2,5
1
_ 0,5
x0
0,5
_1
x0
0,5
_2
1,5
2,5
_2
_4
_3
_6
_8
_4
_ 10
_5
) lim f ( x ) f
xo x
lim f ( x ) f
) lim
x oxx
xo
0
0
10
8
_ 0,5
6
4
_2
x0
0,5
1,5
_4
_2
oxx
xxo
0
_ 0,5
1,5
) lim f ( x ) f
_ 0,5
x0
0,5
_1
_6
0,5
x0
1,5
_8
_ 10
) lim f ( x ) f
) lim f ( x ) f
xo x
xo x
. 3.6.
170
x = x0 f
f.
()() x x0,
) ( ) f x0,
' (, x0),
) ( ) f x0,
(x0 , ),
) ( ) x0, x0, (, x0 ) (x0 , ).
( ) ,
, ( ) f x x0
, :
.
) lim f ( x ) f lim f ( x ) f lim( fx() x ) ff
xo x
oxx
xxo
0
oxx
xxo
0
) lim f ( x ) f lim ff((xx)) f

.
f lim( fx() x ) ff
xo x
oxx
xxo
oxx
xxo
00
00
:
M1 ) lim f ( x ) f , f(x) (f(x)>0) x0.
xo x
)
lim f ( x ) f , f(x) (f(x)<0) x0.
xo x
M2 ) lim f ( x ) f , lim ( f ( x )) f .
xo x
xo x
) lim f ( x ) f , lim ( f ( x )) f .
xo x
xo x
M3 lim f ( x ) f , lim
xo x
xo x
1
f ( x)
0 .
1
f.
xo x f ( x)
xo x
0
0
1
) lim f ( x ) 0 f(x)<0 x0, lim
f .
x
o
x
xo x
f
x
(
)
0
0
M4 ) lim f ( x ) 0 f(x)>0 x0, lim

M5 lim f ( x ) f , lim f ( x )
xo x
xo x
M6 lim f ( x ) f , lim
xo x
xo x
f.
f ( x)
f ( ).
:
n , :
1
1
1
lim
= + , lim
lim+
lim
= + , lim
=
lim
2 n 1
2
n
2
n
1
x x ( x x )
xx
xx0 ( x x )
xx
xx0 ( x x0 )
0
0
0
0
0
+
171
1
1
1 1
1 1
= +
=2 +
= +
, , limlim
,limlim4 =4 +
, lim 3 f lim 3 f ,
2
x o0 x
x o0 x
x x0
x x2
x0 x
( x2 (x2) 2)
1 .
0 f ( x ) = 3
x

, .
:
)
) x0R + .
f
1
1
g
2
f+g
1 + 2
+
+
0
0
+
+
+
+
f
1
g
2
+
+
0
0
1
1
2 0
1>0
1>0
+
0
+
2 >0
2 >0
0,(g(x)>0
0,(g(x)<0
+
0
f ^ g
1 2
+, 1 >0
, 1 <0
f
g
1/2
0
+
,
, f g. .
172
,
:
(+)+() 0()
. fg=f+(g),
:
(+)(+) ()().
f
1
, = f ,
g
g
0 rf
,
.
0 rf
, 1
1
f ( x ) = 2 + a ( ) g ( x ) = 2 ,
x
x
:
1
1
lim g ( x ) = lim 2 = + .
lim f ( x ) = lim 2 + a = ,
x
0
0
x 0
x 0 x
x
1
1
f ( x ) + g ( x ) = 2 + a + 2 = a lim( f ( x ) + g ( x )) = lim a = a
x 0
x 0
x
x
() .
:
1
1
) f ( x ) = 2 + 1 g ( x ) = 2 , :
x
x
lim f ( x ) = , lim g ( x ) = + lim( f ( x ) + g ( x )) = 1
x 0
x 0
) f ( x ) =
x 0
1
1
+ 2 g ( x ) = 2 , :
2
x
x
lim f ( x ) = , lim g ( x ) = + lim( f ( x ) + g ( x )) = 2

x 0
x 0
) f ( x ) =
x 0
1
1
g ( x ) = 2 , :
2
x
x
lim f ( x ) = , lim g ( x ) = + lim( f ( x ) + g ( x )) = 0 ..

x 0
x 0
x 0
3.6.4.
.
2x2 2x +1
x 5 x 4 10 x 3 + 25 x 2
) lim
( x 2) x + 3
+
x 1
x 1
) lim
f ( x) =
) lim
x o2
2x2 2x +1
x 4 10 x 3 + 25 x 2
2 x2 3x 1
2 x2 3x 1
)

lim
x o 2 ( x 2)3
( x 2)3
173

f ( x) =
2x2 2x +1
2x2 2x +1
2x2 2x +1 1
.
=
=
x 4 10 x 3 + 25 x 2 x 2 ( x 2 10 x + 25)
x2
( x 5)2

2 x 2 2 x + 1 2 52 2 5 + 1 41
=
=
> 0,
x 5
25
x2
52
lim
lim( x 5)2 = 0, ( x 5)2 > 0 ,

x 5
lim f ( x ) = +.
x 5
) lim ( x 2) x 3
x o1
lim
x 1+
1
= + ( x>1 (x1)3>0),
3
+
x 1 ( x 1)
2 lim
( x 2) x + 3
= .
x 1
) lim( x 2) = 0 x2>0 x>2, lim

x o2
x 2
lim (2 x 2 3 x 1)
x o2
lim
x o2
2 x2 3x 1
( x 2)3
1
( x 2)3
f .
lim(2 x 2 3 x 1) 3 , x o2
2

f .
lim
(
2
x
3
x
1
)
x o2 ( x 2)3
) lim( x 2) = 0 x2<0 x<2,

x 2
lim
x o2
1
( x 2)3
lim (2 x 2 3 x 1)
x o 2
f .
lim(2 x 2 3 x 1) 3,
x o2
:
lim
x o2
2 x2 3x 1
( x 2)3
lim
(2 x 2 3 x 1) f .
3
x o 2 ( x 2)
3.6.5.
5000 ,
20 .
) (x) x .
) :
K ( x)
.
K ( x) =
x
lim K ( x ) lim K ( x ). ;
x +
x o0
174
) K(x).
.
) (x) x K(x)=20x+5000, x0.

)
K ( x ) 20 x + 5000
5000
K ( x) =
=
= 20 +
x
x
x
5000
5000
500
= 20 .
) = lim 20 + lim
= 0 , : lim K ( x ) = lim ( 20 +
lim
x +
x +
x +
x + x
x
x + x
y = 20 (x) +.
, ,
, .
0 :
400
5000
lim K ( x ) lim (20
) f .
x o0
x o0
x
x = 0 300

(x). , , - 300
.
) y = 20 x = 0 100

100
300
300
400
500

. 3.6.
3.6.
.
3.6.1. :
2
1 4
5
2
) lim 3 + 5
) lim 2 3 + 4
x +
x
x x
x
x
3
) lim ( x + 2 x 7)
x
x 4 3x3 + x 4
x +
x3 3x + 4
) lim
3
) lim ( x + 2 x 7)
x +
2 x 3
x x 4 + 3
2 x3
x + x 2 + 5

) lim
2 x3 + x 1
x + 3 x 3 2 x 2 + 2

) lim
) lim
) lim
x 3 27
x x 3 + 27
) lim ( x 2 + 9 x )
x +
3.6.2. + .
1
3x2 + 1
1 2x
(
)
f
x
=
)
) lim
) f ( x ) =
2
x + 2 x + 3
2+ x
3 + 5x
175
3.6.3.

. 1000 x
1200
, P ( x ) = 600 +
.
x +3
) 6 .
) 800 .
) ;
3.6.4.
x
, ( ) :
2000 x 2
1000 x 4
S2 ( x ) = 4
S1( x ) = 2
2 x + 200
2 x + 400
.
)
5000 ;
) ,
;
3.6.5. :
) lim e
2 x +3
) lim
x of
x2
e x 1
) lim ln( x 2 + 2)
x +
2
3
) lim
) lim
x of
x 3
x+ 2

3.6.6. f, 3.6.
f ( x ) lim + f(x), lim f(x), lim + f(x),
) N
( ) lim+ f(x), lim f(x), lim f(x),
x 1
x 1
x 1
x 1
x 1
x 1
lim f(x), lim f(x).
) lim e 2 x
3 x
x+
)
, , + , f.
3.6.7. f, 3.6.
f ( x ) lim + f(x), lim f(x), lim f(x),
f ( x)
) N ( ) lim+ f(x), lim f(x), lim f(x),
x 2
x 2
x 2
x 2
x 2
x 2
lim f(x), lim f(x).
x
x+
4
3
5
2
1
_4
_2
_1
_4
_2
_1
_2
_5
_3
. 3.6.
. 3.6.
176
) , , + , f.
3.6.8. 10.000 ,
200 .
)
K(x) ' x
.
)
;
) K(x).
3.6.9. :
3
6

) lim
) lim

x o1
x o2 2 x 4
1 x
1
x2

) lim 2
) lim

11
6
x
o
x o2 x 4
x

(
6
)

) lim ln(x 2 )
x 0
) lim
1
+ 3)40
1

) lim
x o6 ( x 6)11

) lim
x 3 ( x
1

ln x
x o0

3.6.10.
x=x0.
1
1 3x2
1 3x
1
, x0 = 2 ) f ( x ) =
) f ( x ) =
) f ( x ) =
, x0 = 1, x0 = 1
, x0 =
4
2+ x
3 + 6x
2
1 x

3.6.11. ( ) f x0 .
) f ( x ) =
x +3
, x0=0
x + 3x2
3
) f ( x ) =
1
, x0=0
x
) f ( x ) =
x x
, x0=0
xx
3.7 .
f .
, , . , ,
. .
,

.
, 3.7.
() () xo
, () . ,
() x0, ()
() xo.
, f ' x0
, (x0, f(x0)). ,
f .

177
y
f(x0)
f(x0)
f(x0)
x0
x0
()
x0
()
()
. 3.7.
'
, f,
1
x + 2 , x ( , 2) ( 2, 2) ( 2, 4) ( 4, 6)
f ( x ) = 1, x = 4
1, x [6, +)
f 3.7 () ,
2, 2, 4, 6.
f , :
x0
4
2
lim f(x)
x x0
1/2
f(x0)
1/2
y
1
1/2
1/2
1/4
1/6
_6
_4
_2
_1
2
_1
. 3.7.
:
) 2, 2 Cf , f
.
) x0 = 4, Cf , f lim f ( x ) f (4) .
) x0 = 6, Cf , f. x 4
, ,
4, 0, 8,
lim f(x)=f(x0).
x x0
, -
178
. :
f x0 ,
lim f(x)
x x0
lim f(x) = f(x0)1.
x x0
, f f(x)=x32 x0=1,
lim f ( x ) = lim( x 3 2) = 13 2 = 1 = f (1) .
x 1
x 1
, f x0
, 2:
) lim f(x).
x x0
) lim f(x) lim f(x) = f(x0).

x x0
x x0
:
x 2 1,
f ( x)
3 2 x ,
x d1
x !1
x2 1
,
g( x) x 1
0,
x z1
x 1
1,
lim f ( x ) = lim( x 2 1) = 0,
x 1
x 1
lim f ( x ) = lim(3 2 x ) = 1
x 1+
x 1
( f 1)
( x 1)( x + 1)
= lim( x + 1) = 2 , g(1)=0
x 1
x 1
x 1
lim g ( x ) = lim
x 1
[ g 1, lim g ( x ) = g (1) ].
x 1
, ,

.
f g x0,
f+g, f ( R), fg,
f ( g(x )0)
f,
0
g
f ( f(x0)0)
x0.
1. f x0 ( ) :
> 0 > 0 , x |x x0|< |f (x) f (x0)|<.
2. x0 ( ). x0 , (x0 , x0+ ), >0, , (x0 , x0+ ) D(f) = {x0}, f
x0. , , .
179
, f g x0 :
lim f(x)=f(x0)
x x0
lim g(x)=g(x0).
x x0
, L6 (. . 3.5), f g x0, f + g x0
lim (f(x)+g(x))= lim f(x)+ lim g(x)=f(x0)+g(x0)=(f+g)(x0),
x x0
x x0
x x0
f + g x0.
.
,
, :
f x0 g f(x0), gf x0.
' , .

( ). :
f :
)
=(,), ,
x0 .
)
=[,], ,
x0 (, )
lim f ( x ) = f (a) lim f ( x )
x a+
xo
f ( )
f .
, f f(x)=x32 ,
x0R
lim (x32)=x032=f(x0).
x x0
x 2 ,
f ( x) =
0,
0 x <1
x =1
[0,1], (
lim f ( x ) = 1 0 = f (1)).
x 1
,
,
. :
180
f g ' = (, ),
,
f+g,
cf ( cR),
fg,
f ( g(x)0),
g
.
f,
f ( f(x)0),
:
f = (, ), g f(), gf .

. :
) , xR (. . 3.5)
lim P(x) = P(x0).
x x0
) , xR Q(x0)0 (. . 3.5)
lim PP((xx))
P ( x0 )
PP((xx)) x x0
lim
==
=
lim
.
xx
xx00 Q
Q((xx)) lim Q( x ) Q( x0 )
0
xx
xx00
) x x , x0R (.
3 . 3.5)
lim x = x0 lim x = x0.
x x0
x x0
f, g f(x) = x g(x)=log x 0<1 .

f(x) = ex, f(x) =10x, g(x) =lnx, g(x)=logx.
x
x
g
( x=
) =xx==
g(x)
x
x
( R) .

h(x) = (x3 + 2x + 1) g(x) = x f(x)=x3+2x+1.
,
( ), .
f(x) = x =
g, h x = x0, g(x0) 0 h(x0) = 0,

g
f =
h
lim f(x)=+ lim f(x)=,
x x0
x x0
f x = x0.
181
, g, h
(, x0] [x0, ).
3.7.1.
, f :
1 3
x , x 2
f ( x) = 2
22 x 3, x > 2.
f x> 2 , x <2 .
x 0 = 2 , :
lim f ( x ) = f (2) = 4a .
x 2

1
lim f ( x ) = lim ( ax 3 ) = 4a , lim+ f ( x ) = lim ( 2a2 x 3) = 4a2 3 .
x 2
2
x 2
x 2
x 2+

1
4a2 3 = 4a 4a2 + 4a 3 = 0 = = 3 .
2
2
3.7.2.
f f ( x ) =
x+2
.
x( x + 3)
f A=(,3)(3,0)(0,+)
g(x)=x+2 h(x)=x(x+3) ( R, ).
,
h(0)=0(0+1)=0, g(0)=0+2=20,
f x = 0.
h(3)=3(3+3)=0, g(3)=3+2=10,
f x=3.
3.7.
10
5
_1
_4
_3
_2
1
_5
_ 10
. 3.7.
182
3.7.1. 3.7 . ,
.
y
y
3
2
2
1
1
10
x
_1
_1
()
()
. 3.7.
3.7.2. x0 .
x2 +1
,
x +3
) f ( x ) =
x0 = 3 0
1 x ,
) f ( x ) = 0,
x0 = 1 x 2 2 x + 1,
x 3

x = 3
x2 2x 8
,
) f ( x ) = x 4
x0 = 4 6
x4
x=4
x 2 6,
=
f
x
(
)
)
x0 = 3 6 + x ,
x <1
x =1
x >1
x <3
x 3
3.7.3. .
2 x 1,
) f ( x ) =
8 x,
x <3
x 3
x 1, x<1
) f ( x ) =
ln x , x 1
x<0
x,
2
) f ( x ) = x , 0 x 1
3
x >1
x ,

ln x ,
) f ( x ) =
2 x + 2,
2 x 2 + 1,
) f ( x ) = x 1
,
x 1
2 x
x0
,
f
x
(
)
)
x
1 x , x t 0
x 1
x >1
xe
x<e

3.7.4. , f R.
ax10 1, x 1
+
x
3
,
x
3
) f ( x ) = 2
) f ( x ) = 1
, x <1
x 2, x > 3
2
x +3
3.7.5. .
) f(x)=(x)
) f(x)=ln(x2+x+1)+ex
) f(x)=ex
1
) f ( x ) 2
e x 1
) f(x)=ln(x2+4)
) f(x)=ln(ln(ex+x))
183
3.7.6. .
) f ( x ) =
x +3

( x 1)( x + 4)
) f ( x ) =
x4 +1
( x 3)( x 2 4)
3.8 Bolzano .
.
3.8, f
[,], f()< 0 f ()> 0. (, f())
B(, f()) f (
f), x'x
x0. f(x0)=0, x0 (, )
y
f(x)=0 (,).
3.8,
f ()
(, f())
f x'x
.
Cf x'x.
x
O
,
f()>0 f()<0,
f ()
Bolzano.
(, f ())
, :
. 3.8
Bolzano.
f, [, ]. f() f()< 0, ,
, x0 (, ) , f(x)=0,
f(x) = 0
(, ).
f
Bolzano, f ,
, f() f( ) < 0
(. 3.8).
, (
) f f()f()>0 f (, ).
:
) f(x)=x22
Bolzano [1,2] ,
f(1) f(2)=(1)2=2<0.
f(x) = 0 -
(, f())
f()
f()
x0
x0
x0
(, f ())
. 3.8
y
(, f())
f()
O
f()
(, f ())
. 3.8
184
[1,2] ( x0 = 2 ). ,
Bolzano [2,2], , , f(2)
f(2)=22=4>0., f(x) = 0 [2,2], xx`11 = 2 , x2 = 2 .
) f(x)=x3x Bolzano [2,2]
, f(2)f(2)=(10)6=60<0. Bolzano
f(x) = 0 [2,2]. , [2,2], x1=1, x2=0, x3=1.
Bolzano f ' , x,
x. :
, , .
f f(x)0,
x f(x)>0 x [. 3.8()] f(x)<0 x [. 3.8()].
f
, f
(. 3.8).
f x. , :
1. f.
2. ,
f().
3. f() > 0, f . f()<0,
f .
y
f(x)>0
O
O
x
f(x)<0
()
()
. 3.8.
y
+
_
+
1
+
_
. 3.8.
5
_
185
3.8.1.
f(x) = x x [0,2].
.
f(x)=0 [0,2].
5
x=
.
4
4
, f
x x = 0 x = x x = 1 x =
5
5
0, 4 , 4 , 4 4 , 2 ,
f .
f .
f .

0, 4
5
,
4 4
, 2
4
f ()
1
3
<0
2 2
1
3

<0
2 2
11
6
, 0, , , 2 (f(x)<0),
4 4
5 (f(x)>0).
,
4 4
3.8.2.

ex
x3
+
= 0 (1,2).
x 2 x 1
f(x)=(x1)ex+(x2)x3 :
2
f (1) = + 3 > 0 , f(0)=1<0 f(2)=e2>0.
e
f . f
[1,0] f(1) f(0) < 0, Bolzano , ,
x0(1,0) , f(x0)=0.
, x01,0
186
f ( x0 ) 0 ( x0 1)e
0 ( x 2) x 3
0
0
( x 1)e 0 ( x0 2) x03
0 0
( x0 1)( x0 2)

0
x0 2
x03
x0 2
0 ,
(1,0).
, f [0,2] f(0) f(2) < 0, (0,2).
f,
[,], f() < f(). f() f(),
f() < < f() (. 3.8).
g(x)=f(x), x[,], Bolzano. g
[,] f [, ], g()g() < 0, g()=f() <0
g()=f() >0.
, olzano x0 (, ) ,
g(x0)=f(x0)=0 f(x0)=.
y
olzano . f()
(, f())
:
.
f, '
[, ]. f [,
] f() f() ,
f() f() , x0 (, ) ,
f(x0) = .
f()
O
(, f ())
x0
. 3.8.
y
f()

, ' , f
()
f() f( ) .
, , f()
f(), y = f x0.
3.8
y = f
. ,
f [, ], ,
3.8,
.
(. 3.8):
(, f())
y=
f ()
O
(, f ())
x0
. 3.8.
y
f()
y=
f ()
O
. 3.8.
187
f()
f .
f '
, f ()
( ) (
).
:
A f ' (,
) , (, ) [. 3.8()],
lim f ( x) lim f ( x ) .
x
, , f (, ),
y
y (, ) [. 3.8(].
f [, ], [, )
(, ] (
,
).
x
O
O
,
f (
,

f, , ),
()
()
.
y
yy
()
y
()
y
()
()
()
()
()
y
y
O
O
O
O
xx
O O
O x2
()
. 3.8.
x2
() ()
()
x O
x
()
x2 x
()
x O
()
. 3.8.
188
, f(x) = lnx, x(0, e), , (, 1) [. 3.8()],
lim f ( x ) f lim f ( x ) ln e 1.
x o0
x oe
f 1(x) = e x f,
(, 1) (0, e) [. 3.8()].
, f
[, ] , {f(x)| x[, ]} f(), f() (. [ f(), f()] f [f(), f()] f
).
1
2,5
0,5
f 1 (x) = e x, x (_ ,1)
_
0,5
1,5
2,5
1,5
_ 0,5
_1
f(x) = lnx, x (0,e)
0,5
_ 1,5
_2
_3
()
_2
_1
()
. 3.8.
f ' [, ]
, {f(x)| x[, ]}
f(), f().
( ).
f [, ], x1, x2 [, ] f( x1) f ( x) f (x2) x[, ].
, f x1
( f( x1) f( x) x[, ]), x2
( f( x) f(x2) x[, ]). .
f
[, ] [m, M], m .
3.8.3.

f ( x ) ln x e x , x [1, 3] g ( x )
1 1
, x (0, 2].
x 2
189
f ( ) (. 3.2.11).

lim f ( x ) = lim+ (ln x + e x ) = lim(ln x + e x ) = ln1 + e1 = 0 + e = e
x 1+
x 1
x 1
lim f ( x ) = lim (ln x + e x ) = lim(ln x + e x ) = ln 3 + e3
x 3
x 3
x 3
f [e,ln3+e3].
g ( ) .
x
0 0
x
1 1 x
1 1
1 1 1 1
lim
,
lim
1
lim
(
)
lim
=
f
x
+lim
+ = + .
1 +
+ = +
= = = =
= + , x 0lim
x 0x
x 0
x 0 + x 2
x20 2 2 2
0x x
x
1 1 x
1 1 x
1 1 3
1
1
lim f ( x ) = lim + = lim + = lim + lim = + =
x 2
x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x x 2 2
2 4 4
3
f [ , + ] .
4
3.8.1. f .
) f(x) =x + 2 x 3, =[0, ]
) f(x) =x + x x +1, =[0, ]
) f ( x )
x 3 3 x 2, [2, 0]
x
x
x
) f ( x ) 4 3 2 2, [0, 1]
) f ( x )
x 5 2 x 2 2, [1, 0]
) f ( x )
x 3 3 x 2, [2, 0]
3.8.2. f(x)=x33x2+3
[1,0], [0,2] [2,3].
3.8.3. :
x3 + 1 x 2 + 1
e 2 x ln( x / 2) 1
+
=0
)
)

0
x+2 x2
x2
x2
x 2
x2
x3 1
0
x2
(2,2).
3.8.4.
f x
.
) f(x)=x316x
) f(x)=x42x2+1
) f ( x ) = ( x 1)( x 4 16)
) f(x)=x44x2+3
) f(x)=(x21)(x24)
) f(x)=x32x2x+2
3.8.5.
f x
[0,2].
) f(x)=x+x
) f(x)=2x+2x
) f(x)=x+x
x
) f ( x ) 2 1
) f(x)=22x1
) f(x)=22x1
2
190
3.8.6. .
) f(x)=ex, (1,1]
) f(x)=3x+2, (2,2)
) f(x)=2lnx+1, [1,e2]
) f ( x ) = x , (1,4]
) f(x)=ex+1, (,0)
) f(x)=2x+1 x [0, /3)
) f(x)=2ex3, (1,+)
) f(x)=2x+1 x [/2, )
) f ( x ) =
1
, (1,10]
x3
3.9 .
f=g.
xA
f(x)=g(x).
(f+g)(x)=f(x)+g(x), xA
(fg)(x)=f(x)g(x), xA
- (cf)(x)= cf(x), xA
.
(fg)(x)=f(x)g(x), xA
f
f ( x)
A
( )( x ) =
, x
A g(x) 0.
g
g( x)
f .
f .
f(x1)<f(x2) x1, x2 x1<x2

f(x1)>f(x2) x1, x2 x1<x2.
f:A R.
( 11).
x1, x2 A : x1 x2,
f(x1)f(x2) f(x1)=f(x2), x1=x2.
f:A R.
x A xA
f(x)=f(x).
f:A R.
x A xA
f(x)=f(x).
f:A R xA x+TA
.
f(x+T)=f(x).
f:A R g:B R.
(gf)(x)=g(f(x))
xA, f(x)
A y f1:f(A)A - f (yf(A)) x
y=f(x).
f.
f1(y)=x f(x)=y

x0R.
lim ( f ( x ) + g ( x )) = lim f ( x ) + lim g ( x )
x x0
x x0
x x0
lim (cf ( x )) = c lim f ( x )
x x0
x x0
lim ( f ( x ) g ( x )) = lim f ( x ) lim g ( x )
x x0
x x0
x x0
lim f ( x )
f ( x ) x x0
lim
( lim g ( x ) 0)
=
x x0 g ( x )
x x0
lim g ( x )
x x
lim ( f ( x ) + g ( x )) = lim f ( x ) + lim g ( x )
x x0
x x0
x x0
lim (cf ( x )) = c lim f ( x )
x x0
191
x x0
lim ( f ( x ) g ( x )) = lim f ( x ) lim g ( x )
x x0
x x0
x x0
lim f ( x )
f ( x ) x x0
lim
( lim g ( x ) 0)
=
x x0 g ( x )
x x0
lim g ( x )
x x0

x0R.
lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x )
x x0
x x0
lim [ f ( x )] = lim f ( x )
x x0
x x0
g(x)f(x)h(x) x0
.
lim h( x ) = lim g ( x ) = , lim f ( x ) =
x x0
x x0
x x0
lim P(x)=P(x0)

P(x) x0.
P( x)
R( x ) =
Q( x )
x0 ( Q(x ) 0):
0
x x0
PP((xx)) PP((xx00))
xxo
oxx000Q
Q((xx)) QQ((xx00))
lim
limRR((xx)) lim
lim
lim
xxo
xx0x00
xo
lim x =x0
x x0
lim x =x0
x x0
x0.
ax
x
=a
= 1 , lim
x 0 x
x 0 x
lim
f +.
y=, lim f ( x ) = .
f .
y=, lim f ( x ) = .
x +
x

P(x)=xn+xn1 +...+, 0, + .
x orf
x orf

R( x )
P( x)
Q( x )
x n x n1 "

' x m ' x m1 " '
x orf
x orf
+ ( 0, 0).
f.
x0 .
x = x0,
lim+ f(x), lim f(x), +
x x
x x
0
0
lim f(x)=f(x0)
x x0
192
(, ). f (, ).
f x0 (, )

[, ].
lim f ( x ) = f (), lim f ( x ) f ( )
x +
xo
f g
x0, x0
.
f+g, cf ( cR), fg, f

f
( g(x0)0),
g
f ( f(x0)0).
f
=(, ),
g f(), g f
.
.
.
.
f(x)=ax.
g(x)=logax, 0<1.
Bolzano.
f [,] f() ^ f() < 0,

, , x0 (,) ,
f(x0)=0.
f [,] f()f() ,
f() f( ) ,
x0(a,) , f(x0)=.
3.10 .
,
, .
y
1.
3.10
O
. 3.10.
2.
f f(x) = x3. h = f f h(x) = x6.
3.
R y = a Cf.
193
x2 + 5
. lim f ( x ) = 5 / 2 .
x +
x2 + 2
4.
f ( x ) =
5.
f, g f(x) g(x) x0
x0, lim f ( x ) d lim g ( x ) .
xo x
xo x
x 1 . f 0.
x 1
6.
f ( x )
7.
f(x) = ln x g(x) = ex, ( f g )(x) = x.
8.
f ( x ) =
9.
1
1
1
lim x 3
= (lim x ) lim 3
= 0 lim 3
= 0.
x 0 x + 2 x
x 0
x 0 x + 2 x
x 0 x + 2 x
1
, lim f ( x ) f , f 4.
x o4
( x 4)3
2
2
f ( x) = 0 .
10. 4 f ( x ) 2 , x(1,+), xlim
+
x
x
f(x)= lim f(x), f x0.

11. f xlim
x+
x x
12.
13.
lim f ( x )
xo x
0 , lim f ( x ) 0 .
xo x
lim f ( x ) l , lim g ( x ) m , l,m R x0 f(x) < g(x),

xo x
xo x
l m.
(1 3 x )5
.
14. lim
x + x 3 + 1
.
f ( x ) = lim g(x)=+
f ( x ) = , lim (f(x)+g(x))=0
f ( x ) =
f(x)=
15. lim
x 0
x 0
x 0
f,
16. 3.10. f
x1 = 0 x2 = 1.
. 3.10
17.
f ' = [, ],
, x0 (, ).
18.
f, ' [, ]. f() f () < 0,

, , x0 (, ), , f(x0)=0.
19.
' , , .
194
20.
f ,
f .
21.
f [1,1] f(1) = 4, f(1) = 2, x0(1,1) , f(x0)=e.
22.
f R ,
f(x3) = f(x) 0.
23. olzano .
24.
f (,),
.

f ( x ) =
1.
2.
3.
4.
) R
) R {1,1}}
) R {1}
) R {2}
f, g ,h f(x)=3x, g(x)=x33, h(x)=3(x31). :

) h = f g
) h = g f
) f = h g
) g = h f
f f(x) = x 2 . h = f f f :
) h(x) = x8
) h(x) = x
) h(x) = x2
) h(x) = x6
1
lim
x of x
) +
, , :
)
) 0
10
5.
x2 2
:
x2 +1
) 1
f(x)=x +x 1000. :
) lim f ( x ) =
) lim f ( x ) = +
x
) lim f ( x ) = 0
) lim f ( x ) = 0
) lim f ( x ) = 0
) lim f ( x ) = 0
) lim f ( x ) = 5 / 2
) lim f ( x ) = 5 / 2
x 0
6.
f(x)=e , :
) lim f ( x ) =
x
) lim f ( x ) = +
f f ( x ) =
7.
) lim f ( x ) = 5 / 2
x +
f ( x ) =
8.
) lim f ( x ) = 1
x 0
x 0
x2 + 5
. :
x2 + 2
) lim f ( x ) = 5 / 2
x
x 0
x 1
(x / 2)
. :
x
) lim f ( x ) = 2
x 0
) lim f ( x ) =
x 0
1
2
) lim f ( x ) = 0
x 0
195
2x 4
x0 = 0 :
5( x 2)
f ( x )
9.
) 2
10.
5
2
5
2
) 2
>10, , x0, :
lim f ( x ) =
x 0
) f(x) > 0
) f(x) < 0
) f(x) = 0
) f(x) = x0
lim f(x)=1 lim g(x)=1, lim [3f(x)2g(x)] :

11.
x x0
x x0
x x0
) 5
) 1
) 2
) 5
lim f ( x ) = 1, y = 1 :
x +
12.
13.
) Cf .
) f .
) f +.
) .
f(x)=lnx10, x>0. :
) lim f ( x ) 10
) lim f ( x ) f .
x o0
) lim f ( x ) f .
x o0
14.
x o0
) lim f ( x ) = 0 .
x 1
P(x) P(x)=x+1x1+...+0, 0,
:
) lim P ( x ) = 0
) lim P ( x ) lim ( x )
) lim P ( x )
) lim P ( x )
x of
x of
x of
x o0
lim f(x)=+ :
x x0
) f(x) (f(x) > 0) x0.

15.
) f(x) (f(x) < 0) x0.

) lim (f(x))=+.
x x0
) lim
xo x
1
f ( x)
f .
lim f(x)=0 f(x) < 0 x0, :

x x0
16.
) lim
xo x
17.
1
f ( x)
f
) lim

xo x
1
f ( x)
f
) lim

xo x
1
f ( x)
) lim
xo x
1
f ( x)
f
f , x1, x2
x1<x2 :
) f(x1) < f(x2),
) f(x1) > f(x2),
) f(x1) = f(x2),
) f(x1) < f(x2) f(x1) > f(x2).
196
f x0 g f(x0), :
18.
19.
) g f x0.
) g + f x0.
) f g o x0.
) g f o x0.
f R, . f(x2) = f(x):
) 0.
) R.
) 0 1.
) .
3.11 .
3.11.1. f f(x)=6x3+ax22x+.
) , , (2, 25) (1,0) Cf.
) f .
) .
) x, f(x)>0.
) o f;
3.11.2.
,
5/3.
) y ,
x.
) lt 10 lt;
)
f(x)=1005x, x lt
.
, 3 lt .
3.11.3.
, .
, t, ( min) t
t2
f2 ( t) = 15 + .
C, f1 f2 f1( t) = 30
10
50
)
.
)

;
) ;
) ;
)
P
10C.
100
3.11.4.
3.11
f(t),
t .
100%
. t2
50
t1
t2 t3
. 3.11
t4
197
, .
t4
.
)
( ) lim f ( t) , lim f ( t), lim f ( t) .
tot
tot
tot
) f ;
) lim f ( t) ;
tot
2
3.11.5.
f (,x0) (x0,), lim f ( x ) lim f ( x ) 6 5.
xo x
xo x
, lim f ( x ).
xo x
3.11.6.
x ,
f(x) , : f(x)=+(1ex), x0
(, , ).
) ;
)

;
3.11.7.
.
, 40 ,
8 kg 30 , 8 .
) x kg
.
) 8 kg;
3.11.8.
x2 4
x2 9
x2 +1
(
)
(
)
(
)
f
x
=
f
x
=
f
x
=

)
)
)
x2 5x + 6
x2 5x + 6
x2 5x + 6
3.11.9. f g 4x23x+2f(x)x23x+2 xR
2 + x3 f ( x) 1 +
1

x , lim f ( x ) = lim g ( x ) .
2
x 0
x 0
2 x
8 8
3.11.10.
f f(x)=(x2)(x25x2+1)
f ( x)
,
h( x ) x 1
x 5,
x z1
x 1.
) f xx, yy.
) N , h .
) f g.
3.11.11. , ' y
x .
y = f(x)
:
) , f(0) = 0.
198
) x 0, .
)
, , lim f ( x ) = 0 .
x +
) y 83, 1
57%, 4 h 18%.
f
f ( x) =
12 x
, x0
15 x + 5 x + 1
2
.
1
.
x2
) f.
) : lim ( f ( x ) x( x + 1)) lim ( f ( x ) x( x + 1)) .
3.11.12. f ( x ) = x 2 + x
x +
) : lim ( x 2)( f ( x ) x( x + 1)) lim ( x 2)( f ( x ) x( x + 1)) .

x +
3.11.13.
(x, f (x))
(x, g (x)) , f g
f ( x) =
x3 + 2
,
x2 + 2
g( x) =
x4 +1
,
x+2
x 0.
,
1 2 (1x2).
3.11.14. x , :
50 x 2
, x 0.
5 x 2 + 50
f(x) x.
) .
) lim f ( x ) lim f ( x ) .
x 0
x +
50 x 3
) f ( x ) = 10 + 2
, x0
5 x + 50
x ; .
f ( x ) = 10 +
, , , ..
, ,
,
... 17 ,
, . Newton
(16421727) Leibniz (16461716),
.
(
)
.
4.1 .
4.2 . .
4.3
.
4.4 .
4.5 L Hospital.
4.6 .
4.7 .
4.8 .
lx im
4.9 .
4.10 .
x0
200
4.1 .
, . : . f
x0 , f(x) f(x0),
x x0 . Cf (. 4.1), A (x0, f(x0)) (x,f(x)) , x x0.
h=xx00 (
x=x0+h),
f ( x ) f ( x 0 ) f ( x 0 + h) f ( x 0 )
=
x x0
h
f
f ( , f ). To
x x0 (, h0 f x0.
:
f A (x0, f(x0)) Cf.
f ( x ) f ( x0 )
lim
, f xo x
x x0
0
x0 . f x0 f(x0) , :
f ( x0 ) = lim
x x0
f ( x ) f ( x0 )
f ( x 0 + h) f ( x 0 )
= lim
.
h0
x x0
h
( 3),
, , .
xx0=x f(x0+h)f(x0)=f(x0),
:
f c( x0 )
f ( x0 ) .

x o0 x
lim
Cf
B(x0+h, f(x0+h))
f(x0+h) _ f(x0)
A
A(x0 , f(x0))
O
x0
. 4.1.
x0+h
x0
. 4.1.
201
x0 f '(x0) Lagrange, Leibniz, , x0 :

df ( x0 )
df ( x )
dx
dx
x=x
, , .
,
. '
f ' (x0, f(x0))
(' ) ,
B(x, f(x)), f, (. 4.1).
f x0, Cf A(x0,f(x0))
, A(x0,f(x0)) f(x0). :
f x0, Cf A(x0,f(x0))
yf(x0)= f(x0)(xx0).
Cf A(x0,f(x0))
Cf f x0 f x0. A ( )
2
Cf A(x0,f(x0)) , = f(x0).
, f ( x ) =
x2
x0=1 :
2
(1 + h)2 1
f ( x0 + h) f ( x0 ) f (1 + h) f (1)
2h + h 2
h
2
2
=
=
=
=1+
h
h
h
2h
2

lim
h 0
f ( x 0 + h) f ( x 0 )
h
= lim(1 + ) = 1 .
h 0
h
2
f x0=1
f(1)=1. , f x0=1
1= ,
4
Cf A(x0,f(x0))
= = 45 (. 4.1). 4
Cf (1, f(1)),
y f (1) = f (1)( x 1) y
1
1
= 1 ( x 1) y = x .
2
2
Cf
y
4
3
2
1
_1
45o
1
_1
. 4.1.
202
x0 = 1

x 2 + 2,
f ( x) =
3 x ,
x 1

x< 1.
(4.1.1)
x > 1, x =1 + h, h > 0 :
f (1 + h) f (1) [(1 + h)2 + 2] 3 2h + h 2
=
=
=2+h,
h
h
h

lim
h o1
f (1 h) f (1)
h
lim (2 h) 2 .
h o1
x < 1, x =1 + h, h < 0 :
lim
h1

lim
h o1
f (1 h) f (1)
3(1 h) 3
lim
3.
h
1
h
h
f (1 h) f (1)
h
3z 2
lim
h o1
f (1 h) f (1)

h
f x0=1.
4 , x0 f,
:
f x0,
f ( x0 ) lim
h0
f ( x0 h) f ( x0 )
,
h
f ( x0 ) lim
h0
f ( x0 h) f ( x0 )
h
.
f(x0), f+(x0) f x0
.
x0 ( f), (x0, f(x0) .
f, ' x0. xx0
:
f ( x ) f ( x0 )
f ( x ) f ( x0 ) =
( x x0 )
x x0

ff((xx)) ff((xx00))
ffc(c(xx00),), lim
lim
lim
lim((xxxx00)) 00,
xo
xxx0
xx
xxo
o
ox0x
xxxx00
00
00

lim ( f ( x ) f ( x0 ))
x0
xo
f c( x0 ) 0 0.
203
,
lim
lim ff((xx))
xxo
oxx0
00
lim
lim [(
[( ff((xx)) ff((xx00))
)) ff((xx00)]
)] lim
lim (( ff((xx)) ff((xx00))
)) lim
lim ff((xx00)) 00 ff((xx00)) ff((xx00).).
xxo
oxx0
xxo
oxx0
00
xx
o
oxx0
00
00
f x0. :
f ' x0,
.
, f
x0, x0.
x0=0 ' . ,
(4.1.1), x0=1,
.
f ( x ) = x . f 0,
, h>0 :
lim
h o0
f ( x 0 h) f ( x 0 )
h
lim
h o0
h 0
h
lim
h o0

Cf, (0, 0),
B(x,f(x)), x >0 Cf.
4.1, f,
x . ,
(0, 0) , yy.
, Cf,
(0, 0)
x=0.
:
1
h
f .
y= x
B(x, f (x))
O
y
. 4.1.
f x0 :
) lim
h 0
f ( x 0 + h) f ( x 0 )
= +
h
( ),
) lim
f ( x 0 h) f ( x 0 )
h
f lim
f ( x 0 h) f ( x 0 )
h
f ,
) lim
f ( x 0 h) f ( x 0 )
h
f lim
f ( x 0 h) f ( x 0 )
h
f ,
h o0
h o0
h o0
h o0
Cf A(x0,f(x0)) ()
x=x0.
204
f ( x ) f ( x0 )
lim
lim
x x0
0
f ,
xxo
o xx0
f + (. 4.1).
f ( x ) f ( x0 )
lim
f ,
limx
xxo
o x0

x
x
0
0
f .
x0
. 4.1.
4.1.1.
xd0
x 5,
f f ( x )
, R.
2
x !0
x 5,
) f x0=0 .
) f x0=0;
.
) f x0=0, lim f ( x ) = f (0).

x 0
lim f ( x )
x o0
lim (x 5)
lim(x 5) lim x 5 5
x o0
x o0
x o0
lim f ( x )
x o0
lim ( x 2 5)
x o0
lim( x 2 5) 5 ,
x o0
lim f ( x ) = 5
x 0
f(0)=0+5=5 R, lim f ( x ) = f (0).

x 0
x0=0 R.
) h0 :
lim
h o0
f (0 h) f (0)
h
lim
h o0
[ (0 h) 5] 5
h
lim
h o0
h
h
,
lim
h o0
f (0 h) f (0)
h
lim
h o0
( h 2 5) 5
h
lim
h o0
h2
h
lim h 0.
h o0
f x0=0, = 0.
, f x0=0 R,
=0 .
205
4.1.1. x0 :
) f(x)=x2+2, x0=4
3
) f ( x ) = , x0 = 1
x
) f(x)=3x+2, x0=1
) f(x)=3x2+2, x0=0
) f(x)=2, x0=1
) f(x)=x, x0=0
4.1.2. N x0
.
4 x 2
) f ( x ) =
2
2 x
x 1
x >1
3 x 2
) f ( x ) =
2
2 x
, x0=1
) f ( x )
x 1 , x0=1
) f ( x ) = x , x0=1
) f ( x )
x 1 x 1 , x0=1
) f ( x )
x 1
x >1
, x0=1
x 1 x 1 , x0=0.
, Cf
A(x0,f(x0)).
4.1.3. f f(x)=3x+2x2.
) f x0 R.
)
f x0 =1
A(1,5).
x 2 x d 1

f
(
x
)
4.1.4.
x x ! 1.
, f x0 =1.
4.1.5. f x0 :
lim
x
o x0
f ( x)
x x0
a R .
f x0 f(x0)=a.
4.1.6. f x2+2x+1f(x)5x2+2x+1, xR.
) f(0)=1 x(x+2)f(x)f(0)x(5x2+2) x R.
) f x0=0.
) Cf x0=0.
4.1.7.
g x0=0, f(x)=x2g(x)
f(0)=g(0). f(x) = x2 + x3 x
x0=0 f(0)=1.
4.2 . .
f(x)=x2 ( R) x0. f(x0)
x0 , h0 :
206
f ( x0 + h) f ( x0 ) ( x0 + h)2 x02 ( x02 + 2 x0 h + h 2 ) x02 2 x0 h + h 2

=
=
=
= 2 x0 + h
h
h
h
h
,
lim
h 0
f ( x 0 + h) f ( x 0 )
= lim(2 x0 + h) = 2 x0 .
h 0
h
f(x0)=2x0.
f(x0)=2x0 x0, ,
x0 f(x0)=2x0 , , x
2x. f f. , f(0)=20 x' , .. f(1)=21=2, f(0)=20=0, f(2)=2(2)=4 ..
, f, x0,
. f: x f(x)
f f :
dy
df
.
y
dx
dx
df ( x )
f(x)
.
dx
, . f , f,
f :
f
d2 y
d2 f
f(x).
dx 2
dx 2
f () f f ,

c
f ( )
f ( 1) , t 3 .
( )
d f
( x)
dx
()
d y
.
dx
.
,
3
.
. 4.2.1, .
4.2.1
.
c
()
f~
x1
1 , x0
x
1
x2
x , x0
1
2 x
, x >0
ex
lnx , x>0
ex
1
x
207
.
f(x)=x, 0, 1. x0
, xx0 :
f ( x ) f ( x0 ) x x0 ( x x0 )( x 1 + x 2 x0 + + x0 1 )
=
=
= x 1 + x 2 x0 + + x0 1 ,
x x0
x x0
x x0
lim
lim
o
oxx0
xx
00
f ( x ) f ( x00)
x x00
lim ( x 11 x 22 x00 " x0011) x0011 x0011 " x0011 x0011.
lim
o
oxx0
xx
00
, x f, R, (x)=x1. .
f ( x ) = x , x>0
1
f ( x ) =
. , x0 , h0 :
2 x
x + h x0 ( x0 + h x0 )( x0 + h + x0 )
f ( x 0 + h) f ( x 0 )
= 0
=
h
h
h ( x0 + h + x0 )
=
,
lim
h 0
x0 + h x0
=
h ( x0 + h + x0 )
1
.
x0 + h + x0
f ( x 0 + h) f ( x 0 )
1
1
= lim
=
.
h 0 x + h + x
h
2 x0
0
0
, 4.1, f ( x ) = x
0, .
f(x) = x. x0R h0 :
f ( x 0 h) f ( x 0 )
h
( x0 h) x0
h
x0 h x0 h x0
h
x0
(h 1)
h
x0
h
h
(. 3, 4, 5 . 3.5)
h
h 1
= 1 , lim
= 0,
h 0 h
h 0
h
lim
:
lim
h o0
f ( x 0 h) f ( x 0 )
h
x0 0 x0 1 x0 .
(x)' = x x R.
4.2.1.
A(x0,f(x0)) f(x)=lnx,
:
) H
Cf A(x0,f(x0))
45.
208
) H 1/4.
) . N
.
.
f ( x ) = (ln x ) =
1
,
x
1
( x x0 ) .
x0
) , Cf A(x0,f(x0))
, = f(x0). =/4, :
Cf A(x0,f(x0)) y ln x0 =
f c( x0 )
1
1
4
x0
1 x0 1
(1,f(1))= (1,0)
1
y ln1 = ( x 1) y = x 1 .
1
) Cf A(x0,f(x0)) f(x0).
:
1
1 1
f ( x0 ) =
= x0 = 4
x0 4
4

1
x
y ln 4 = ( x 4) y = + (ln 4 1) .
4
4
) O(0,0),
0 ln x0 =
1
(0 x0 ) ln x0 = 1 x0 = e .
x0
, A(e,1)
1
x
y ln e = ( x e) y = .
e
e
,
, ,
.
,

.
f, g x0,
f+g, cf cR, fg, f/g x0 :
1. (f+g)(x0)= f(x0)+ g(x0)
209
2. (cf)(x0)= cf(x0)
3. (fg)(x0)= f(x0)g(x0)+f(x)g(x0)
f
f ( x0 ) g ( x0 ) f ( x0 ) g ( x0 )
, ( g(x0)0).
4. ( x0 ) =
[ g ( x0 )]2
g

( f ( x ) + g ( x )) = f ( x ) + g ( x ) , (cf ( x )) = cf ( x )
f ( x ) f ( x ) g ( x ) f ( x ) g ( x )
( f ( x ) g ( x )) = f ( x ) g ( x ) + f ( x ) g ( x ) ,
.
=
[ g ( x )]2
g( x)
14 .
, 1 xx0, :
( f + g )( x ) ( f + g )( x0 ) f ( x ) + g ( x ) f ( x0 ) g ( x0 ) f ( x ) f ( x0 ) g ( x ) g ( x0 )
=
=
+
x x0
x x0
x x0
x x0
, f, g x0, :
lim f ( x ) f ( x0 )
x x0
f c( x0 ),
x x0
lim g ( x ) g ( x0 )
x x0
x x0
g c( x0 ).
, x0 f+g, :
((ff gg))cc((xx00))
ff((xx)) ff((xx00)) lim gg((xx)) gg((xx00))

lim
ffcc((xx00)) ggcc((xx00).).
lim
lim
lim
lim
xxx0
xxxo
o
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

0
0
0
0
00
00
xxxo
oxxx0
14, :
2
) f ( x ) = x + 2 x ,
x > 0 , :
f ( x ) = ( x 2 ) + (2 x ) = 2 x + 2
) f ( x ) = xe x x 3 , x R , :
1
2 x
= 2x +
1
,
x
x>0 .
f ( x ) = ( xe x x 3 ) = ( xe x ) ( x 3 ) = x e x + x (e x ) 3 x 2 = e x + xe x 3 x 2 .

f ( x ) x , x z +
g( x)
x , x z , Z .
c
x
f c( x ) (x )c
(x )cx x(x )c

2 x
x x x(x )
2 x
2 x 2 x
2 x
1
2 x
x x x(x )
2 x
2 x 2 x
1 2 x
2
x
2 x 2 x
2 x
1
2 x
210
c
x
g c( x ) (x )c
(x )cx x(x )c
2 x
-( 2 x 2 x )
2 x
(-x )x xx
2 x
2 x 2 x
2 x
1
=
2 x
(1 2 x ).
4.2.2.
, ,
x (rad) .
4.2.2
.
f~
1
1 2 x
2
x
x

1
2 x
(1 2 x )
1 . , f1, f2, ..., fk,

, :
( f1 + f2 + + fk )( x ) = f1( x ) + f2( x ) + + fk ( x ) .
, 3
. , , :
( f ( x ) g ( x )h( x ))c [( f ( x ) g ( x )) h( x )]c
( f ( x ) g ( x ))c h( x ) ( f ( x ) g ( x )) hc( x )
= [ f ( x ) g ( x ) + f ( x ) g ( x )]h( x ) + f ( x ) g ( x )h( x )
= f ( x ) g ( x )h( x ) + f ( x ) g ( x )h( x ) + f ( x ) g ( x )h( x ) .
:
2
x
2
x
x
) (x x e 2 x )c (x )c ( x )c (e )c (2 x )c x 2 x e 2
4
x
4
x
4
x
4 x
) ( x e ln x ) = ( x )e ln x + x (e ) ln x + x e (ln x ) =
1
= 3 x 3e x ln x + x 4 e x ln x + x 4 e x , x > 0 .
x
4.2.2.
.
ex
x2 4
) f ( x ) =
, x 3
) f ( x ) =
) g ( x )
x +3
1+ x
.
) :
x x
ln x
, x1
x 1
211
f ( x ) =
( x 2 4)( x + 3) ( x 2 4)( x + 3) 2 x( x + 3) ( x 2 4) 1 x 2 + 6 x + 4
=
=
.
( x + 3)2
( x + 3)2
( x + 3)2
) :
1
e x (1 + x ) e x
(e )(1 + x ) e (1 + x )
2 x
f ( x ) =
=
2
2
(1 + x )
(1 + x )
x
= e x 2 x + 2 x 1
.
2 x (1 + x )2
) :
c
(ln x )c( x 1) ( x 1)c ln x
ln x
g c( x ) ( x x )c

( x )cx x (x )c
( x 1)2
x 1
x 1
ln x
x + 2 xx x 1 x ln x
1
.
x + x x + x
=
=
+
2
2 x
2 x
( x 1)
x( x 1)2
4.2.3.
f f(x)=x42x312x2+1. x
) f(x)=0
) f(x)>0
) f(x)<0
.
f ( x ) = ( x 4 ) (2 x 3 ) (12 x 2 ) + (1) = 4 x 3 6 x 2 24 x

f ( x ) = (4 x 3 6 x 2 24 x ) = (4 x 3 ) (6 x 2 ) (24 x ) = 12 x 2 12 x 24 = 12( x 2 x 2) .
:
) f cc( x ) 0 x 2 x 2 0 x
2 x
1.
) f ( x ) > 0 x (, 1) (2, +) .
) f ( x ) < 0 x (1, 2) .
h(x)=2x. 2x=xx, 3 :
hc( x ) ( 2 x )c (x x )c (x )cx x(x )c x x x x ,

h(x)=(2x)=2xx. h(x) = 2x 2x, (x2)=2x.
h(x) = 2x = (x)2 f(x)=x2 g(x) = x (. h=fg),
f(x)=2x, g(x)=x, h h
:
hc( x ) 2x x [ 2 g ( x )] g c( x ) f c( g ( x )) g c( x ) .
( ) , :
212
(gf)(x)=
g ' f g(),
fg :
(fg)(x)=f(g(x))g(x).
dy dy . du
=
dx du dx
gf
x
g(x)=u
f(u)=y
M Leibniz, u=g(x)
y=f(u),
dy
du
dy dy du
f(u)=
g(x)=
=
(.
du
dx
dx du dx
. 4.2.
dy dy du
=
4.2).
dx du dx
, ( ).
4.2.1 4.2.2
4.2.3,
(g ).
4.2.3
.
f
f'
(g(x))
(g(x))1 g(x)
(g(x))
g ( x )
2 g( x)
g ( x )
2 ( g ( x ))
g ( x )
2
( g ( x ))
(g(x))
e g(x)
(g(x))g(x)
e g(x)g(x)
(g(x))
ln(g(x)), g(x)>0
(g(x))g(x)
g ( x )
g( x)
(g(x))
g ( x ) , g(x)>0
4.2.4.
:
4
3
2 x 1
) h( x ) =
) h(x)=ex +2x
x +1
.
) f g
) h(x)=ln(x4+2x2+2)
f(x)=x4 g ( x ) =
2 x 1
x +1
. , h(x)=[g(x)]4=f(g(x))
4.2.3 h(x)=4(g(x))3g(x).
213
g ( x ) =
(2 x 1)( x + 1) (2 x 1)( x + 1) 2( x + 1) (2 x 1)
3
,
=
=
2
2
( x + 1)
( x + 1)
( x + 1)2
3
3
12(2 x 1)3
2 x 1
.
h( x ) = 4
( x + 1)5
x + 1 ( x + 1)2
) h(x)=ex +2x =eg(x) g(x)=x3+2x.

3
(eg(x))= eg(x)g(x)=ex +2x (x3+2x)=(3x2+2)ex +2x.

) u=x4+2x2+2 y=h(x)=ln(x4+2x2+2)=lnu

dy dy du
=
y =
dx du dx
1
1
1
4 x( x 2 1)
4
2
3
h( x ) = y = (ln u) u = u = 4
(
x
+
2
x
+
2
)
=
(
x
x
)

4
4
.
u
x + 2x2 + 2
x4 2x2 2
x4 2x2 2
4.2.5.
:
) f(x)=ax, xR, 0<a1
) f(x)=x, x > 0 aR*
) f(x)=lnx, xR*
) , x>0, x=elnx, f(x)= ea^lnx = eg(x), g(x) = alnx. ,

11
ffc(c(xx)) eegg( (xx) )ggc(c(xx)) eeaalnlnxx((aaln
lnxx))c c eeaalnlnxxaa
xx
11
xxaaaa
ax
axaa11
xx
(xa)=axa1 aR*(x>0),
4.2.1.
) f(x)=ax=exlna=eg(x) g(x)=xlna :
f(x)=eg(x)g(x)=exlna (xlna)' =exlna ^ lna = ax lna,

(ax)=axlna xR, 0<a1
(ln x )c (ln x )c
) x>0,
1
x
1
.
x
x<0
ln x

lim
xo x
ln( x ) ln( g ( x )) g(x)=x

f ( x ) f ( x0 )
x x0
, xR*, (ln x )c
1.

x
f c( x0 ),
lim ( x .x0 ) 0
xo x
214
4.2.1. f x0.
1
1
) f(x)=x5, x0=1
) f(x)=lnx, x0 =
) f ( x ) = , x0=3
x
2
) f ( x ) = x , x0=4
) f(x)=ex, x0=0
) f(x) = 3x, x0 =
4.2.2.
(. 4.2).
(
).
y
f(x)=2
f(x)=2x
f(x)=x 2
x
x
O
()
()
()
y
y
_2
x+2, _ 2 x 0
1,
0x
f(x)=
x+8 , 3< x 4
()
2
1
x, x>0
f(x)= x, x0
()
_O
1
2, 0 x 1
f (x)= 1, 1 x
, 2< x 4
()
. 4.2.
4.2.3.
f f(x)=x4. x f :
) .
) .
) 24.
4.2.4.
f f(x)=x3. Cf ,
A(1,1) B(1,1).
4.2.5. f f(x)=x10. :
(1 + h)10 1
,
h 0
h
lim
(1 + h)10 1
,
h 0
h
lim
(2 + h)10 210
.
h 0
h
lim
4.2.6. N , , :
x 3 , xxx133,, xx11
f ( x )) ff((xx))

x , x t 1xx,, xxtt11
x ,
) f ( x ) ff(2(xx))
x ,
e x ,
f ( x ) ff((xx))
ln x ,
e x , xdeex0x,, xxdd00
f ( x ) ff((xx))
f ( x)
! 0xx,, xx !!00
x , x
xdee1xx,, xxdd11
x!ln
ln1xx,, xx !!11
x0x,, xx00
x
x 2 ,
f ( x ) )ff((xx))
22
xxxt ,0, xxtt00
2 x ,
xxx122,, xx11
xt221xx,, xxtt11
e x , xdeex0x,, xxdd00

ff((xx))
x !11,0, xx !!00
1,
x 3, x 3x, 1xx13 , x 1
f ( x )f ( x) f ( x )
x, x ,t 1x t 1x , x t 1
e x , e xx, d 1x de1x , x d 1
f ( x )f ( x) f ( x )
)
, xx ,! 1x!ln1 x , x ! 1
ln x ln
, xx, 0x
0x ,
x
f ( x )f ( x) f ( x )
2
2
2
x , x , x t 0x xt 0,
x 0 x 2, x 2x, 1xx12 ,
f ( x )f ( x) f ( x )
x t 0 2 x, 2 xx, t 1xt21x ,
e x , e xx, d 0xde0x , x d 0 e x , e xx, d 0xde0x , x d 0

f ( x )f ( x))f ( x )
) f ( x )f ( x) f ( x )
!
!
!
!
!
!
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
,
,
0
0
,
0
1
,
1
,
0
1
0
,
0

x 1
x t 1215
4.2.7. N :
1 6 1 5 1 2
) f ( x ) = x + x + x + 1
) f(x)=(x101)(x92)
6
5
2

) f ( x ) =
x5 x 4 x3
+ x2
4
3
2

) f(t)=(t2+1)(t2+3)
4.2.8. N .
x2 x+2
x+2 x2
1
) f ( r ) = r 3 + 3
r
) g ( x ) =
) f ( x ) =
x +1
+
x 1
x 1
x +1
) f(t)=2t2+t2 ( )
4.2.9. N :
5
) f ( x ) = 3 x + 5 ln x 3 x
2
) x x + 6 x
) f ( x ) 2x 3x ln 3
) x 2 x + ( x 2 + 1) x
4.2.10. N .
x ex
3
f
(
x
)
=
f
(
x
)
x
x

)
)

ln x
x x + x
x x
) f ( x ) = x
) f ( x ) =
1 + x x
e

4.2.11.
f
f(x)=2x+x3, xx /4.
f f(x) = (x ) (x ) (x ) ,, 4.2.12.
. x,,, :
f c( x )
f ( x)
1
1
1

.
x x x
f(x)=5x2
4.2.13.
24 x + 1
A(1,1), .
g( x) =
5x
4.2.14.
f(x)=x39x+3,
y=10x5.
4.2.15. P(x) , P=1 P()(0)=2 =1,2,3.
4.2.16.
h(x)=g(x)e2g(x). g(1)=1 g(1)=1,
h 1.
4.2.17.
f(x) = x+x, , ,
f(x)+2f(x)=0 xR.
4.2.18.
f(x) = eax, aR, f(x)7f(x)10f(x)=0
xR.
216
4.2.19. N
A(0,f(0))
f f ( x ) ( x 3 ) .
3
4.2.20. N :
) f(x)=(x3+2x2+x)8
) f(x)=(x63x2+1)15
) f(x)=x55x
1
) f ( x )
) f ( x ) 3 x
) f(x)=(x3+2x+1)

1 x2
4.2.21. N .
) f(x)=ln(2x+3)+e2x1
) f(x)=xex
) f ( x ) (ln x ) x x 2 4
) f ( x ) x 2 (2 x ) 2 x
4.2.22. N .
) f(x)=(3x)1/4+(5x)1/3
) f(x)=5x+2x
) f(x)=(3x4+4x3)2
) f(x)=25x3
4.2.23. N :
1
) f ( x ) (3 x )1/ 4 (5 x )1/ 3 ) f ( x ) = ln x
x

1
5x
x
) f ( x ) = (ln x ) , x>1
) f ( x ) = ln e + 2
x +1
) f ( x ) =
1
1 + x 2
4
3 x +1
)
) f ( x ) = ln( x + 2
2
4.3 .
'
(...).

.
4.2, f ,
. :
, f(x)=0, f
(' ); ' ,
, , ....
( ).
.
f [, ]
(,) , , (,) , :
f c()
f ( ) f () .

4.3,
(, f()) Cf , ,
(, f()) B (, f()) ( ).
AB
f ( ) f () .

217
:
f ( ) f ()

4.3.
f f() = f(), f'() = 0, (, f()) Cf
x. Rolle
4.3 4.3.
f c()
Rolle.
f [, ] (,). f() = f(), ,
, (,) ,
f'() = 0.
, :
f(x)=x39x2+8x+1, x[0,8].
Rolle , f [0,8], f
(0, 8) f(x)=3x218x+8 f(0)=f(8)=1,
(0,8) , f'() = 0, 3218+8=0. , 3x218x+8=0,
1 =
18 2 57
18 + 2 57
= 0, 48 2 =
= 5, 52
6
6
( f'() = 0).
y
f ()
f ()
f (a)
B
y
(,f())
Cf
(,f())
(,f())
A
(,f())
. 4.3.
. 4.3.
y
f(1)=0
f()=0
f()=f()
f ()=f()
O
f(2)=0
. 4.3.
. 4.3.
218
4.3.1.
f(x)=x, x[,].
) ... f [,].
) .
) xx x.
.
) f(x) = x [,]. f (,)

f '(x) = x. ....
) ..., (,) ,
:

f ( ) f ()
.
f c()
=

d 1 (,) :

d1

d 1 d .

) x=0, ( ). x>0,
() =0, =x :
x 0 x 0 x x .
, x<0, () =x, =0
:
0 x 0 x x x x x .
x.
f,
x f(x)=0. x1,x2 x1<x2 ... ( f ,
(x1,x2), [x1,x2] )
(x1,x2) , :
f c()
f ( x2 ) f ( x1 ) .

x2 x1
f'(x) = 0, , f'() = 0
:
f ( x2 ) f ( x1 )
= 0 f ( x2 ) = f ( x1 ) .
x2 x1
, f x1, x2 . , f
.
x1,x2 x1,>x2.
219
, :
f . f
f'(x) = 0 x , f
.
f, g ,
x f '(x) = g '(x). fg,
, x ,
( f g )( x ) = f ( x ) g ( x ) = 0
, , fg . , c , x f (x) g (x)=c.
:
f, g . f, g
f '(x) = g '(x) x ,
c , x :
f (x) = g (x)+c.
, f
x. , ' 3.8, f
. f '(x) > 0
x x1, x2 x1<x2. , f
... [x1,x2], (x1,x2) , :
f c()
f ( x2 ) f ( x1 )

x2 x1
f ( x2 ) f ( x1 )
f c()( x2 x1 ) ! 0
( f '() > 0 x1x2>0). f(x1) f(x2)>0 f (x1) < f(x2) f

. x f(x)<0
, f .
,
y

' .
f >0
f,
.
f'(x) >0 x ,
f (. 4.3).
. 4.3.
220
f'(x) <0 x ,
f (. 4.3).
y
f <0

f ' ' ( ) .
f '(x) 0
f ( ) . , f'(x) 0 f (
) .
. 4.3.
4.3.2.
f f'(x) =2f(x) xR.

f ( x)
) g ( x ) = 2 x R.
e
) f, f(0)=3.
.
) xR :
2x
2x
( f ( x ) 2 f ( x ))
f ( x ) f ( x )e f ( x )2e
g ( x) = 2 x =
=
2x 2
(e )
e2 x
e
f f '(x)=2 f (x), g '(x)=0 xR. ,

g R.
) g , cR , g (x)=c xR , ,
f ( x)
= c xR.
e2 x
f (x)=ce2x xR. f(0)=3, ce20 =3, c=3 f (x)=3e2x xR.
4.3.3.
N , f(x)=x39x2+24x+1
(, ) .
.
f f ( x ) = 3 x 2 18 x + 24 = 3( x 2 6 x + 8) = 3( x 2)( x 4)) .
f :
x
f(x)
2
0
4
0
+
+
221
E, f:
) (,2], (,2] f(x)>0
(,2).
) [2,4], [2,4] f(x)<0 (2,4).
) [4,+), [4,+) f(x)>0
(4,+).
f f (,2], [2,4] [4,+)
.
x
f '(x)
2
+
0
f(2) =1
f(x)
4
0
+
+
f(4) = 125
4.3.4.
f(x)=3lnx+2x10, x>0.
) f .
) .
) 3lnx+2x10=0 (0, +) R.
) f (0,+) f ( x ) =
3
+ 2 . x
3
+ 2 > 0 x(0,+)
x
f (0,+).
)
lim f ( x ) = lim (3 ln x + 2 x 10) = + ,
f ( x ) =
x +
x +
lim f ( x )
x o0
lim (3 ln x 2 x 10) f ,
x o0
0
+
f(x)
f(x)
) f R = (, +) , (. . 3.8), f(x)=0
x0. E f (0,+), .
222
, , f(x)=c, cR.
f [, ],
(,) f (,), f(x)=c, c f() f(),
(,) .
4.3.1. f(x)=3x4x3+2x23x+1.
) N
f Rolle
[0,1].
) N
l2x33x2+4x3=0 , ,
(0,1).
4.3.2.
,
, ,
f ( ) f ()
.
(,) f c()

2
) f ( x ) = , [1, 3]
) f(x)=xx2, [1,1]
) f(x)=x, [2,2]
x

x + 1, x 1
, [1,1]
) f ( x ) = x , [1, 9]
) f ( x ) = 2
3 x x , x > 1
4.3.3.
f, [,], f() = 0
mf(x)M x (, ) (m, M ).
()mf() ().
4.3.4.
<, f(x)=ex ... [,] < . , < :
e <
e e
< e .
4.3.5. f(x)=2x49x2+4x+2.
) f(x)=0 , , (1,0) , , (0,1) , , (1,2).
)
8x318x+4=0 , , (1,1).
4.3.6. f f(x)=3f(x) xR.
f ( x)
xR.
e3 x
) f, f(0)=1.
) g ( x ) =
4.3.7.
f, g R. f, g
223
f(x)=2g(x), g(x)=2f(x) x.
) f(x)+4f(x)=0 g(x)+4g(x)=0 xR.
) h h(x)=(f(x))2+(g(x))2 ' R.
) f(x) = 2x, g(x) = 2x,
. '
;
2
x<0
x ,
2
4.3.8. f g f ( x ) = 3 +
g ( x ) =
x
1 + 2 , x > 0.
x
) f(x)=g(x) x0.
) fg .
f f(x)2 xR. f(x)=2x

4.3.9.
.

4.3.10. N
(, ) .
1
) f(x)=x33x+5
) f ( x ) = x
) f(x)=x5+3x3+12x1
x
1 x 3 ,
x d1
2

) f(x)=x33x2+3x2
) f ( x )
) f ( x ) x 9
2
2 x 1, x ! 1
4.3.11.
.
x2
x
3
x
f
(
x
)
=
)
) f(x)=lnx +e
) f(x)=2e 3+ln(x+2)
e x
1
3
5
) f ( x ) =
) f ( x ) x x , x [0, ] ) f(x)=3x+5x+7x
2
16 x 2
4.3.12. f(x)=x33x2+6x+3 g(x)=ex+2x52.
) o f, g .
) .
) x3=3x26x3 ex+2x5=2 .
4.4 .
H , . :
) .
) , ,
.
) ,
, .

( ).
f, 4.4.
224
x=x1
x1 ( , M1 (x1,f(x1)) ,
x x1). f
x=x1.
:
f, ,
A = ( , + ), >0 ,
f(x)f() x A .
, f() f.
4.4 M3(x3,f(x3)) . , x x3,
. f
x3 ( ), f(x3) f.
, x= x2
x2 ( , M2 (x2,f(x2))
, x x2).
f M2 (x2,f(x2)).
:
f, , A, = ( , + ), >0, ,
:
f(x)f () x A .
, f() f.
f(x)f () xA, f A
, f() f. f 4.4, () M4(x4,f(x4)).
f ,
f .
f . , ,
,
.
. f 4.4. f
x1 x5. x4, x6 (
x1) , x3, x7 ( x5)
.
, x5, x6, ,
225
y
f(x3)
1(x1, f(x1))
f(x1)
x1 x2
O x3
f(x2)
2
f(x4)
x1
3(x3, f(x3))
x2
x4
x6
x5
x7
4
x3
x4
. 4.4.
. 4.4.
xx, :
f c( x5 ) 0 f c( x6 ) 0.
, x2 ,
f(x2)=0. x3,x4 , f .
, f
:
) ( )
) , f ( ),
.
() f.
( ) ,
Fermat.
Fermat.
f ' x0
f(x0), : f(x0)=0.
, f, f
, .
.
, x2=0 4.4 f(x2)=0, x2
.
, . ,
.
f 4.4 x3 :
) f ' (,x3], , f(x)f(x3)
x(, x3],
) f ' [x3, ), , f(x)f(x3)
x [x3, ).
226
' f(x)f(x3) x = (, ) ( f
x3). x5.
, f x4 :
) H f (,x4] f(x)f(x4)
x (, x4].
) H f [x4, ), f(x)f(x4)
x [x4, ).
, x =(, ) f(x)f(x4), f x4. x6.
( ):
f , (,) x 0[, )
f.
)
f(x)>0 <x<x0 f(x)<0 x0 < x < , f x0 (. 4.4).
)
f(x)<0 <x<x0 f(x)<0 x0 < x < , f x0 (. 4.4).
y
y
f <0
f >0
f <0
f >0
f(x0)
f(x0)
O
x0
x0
. 4.4.
. 4.4.

, f ,
f . f
.
, f(x)=x33x+2 (. 4.4), R. f
f(x)=3x23. :
f c( x ) 0 3 x 2 3 0 x 1 x
1 ,
f :
f c( x ) ! 0 3( x 1)( x 1) ! 0 x 1 x ! 1
f c( x ) 0 3( x 1)( x 1) 0 1 x 1.
f (,1] [1,1],
f(1)=4 . f [1,1]
[1,+], f(1)=0 (. 4.4).
227
y
4
f(x)=x3 _ 3x+2
2
O
_1
. 4.4.
. 4.4.
4.4.1.
4.4.1
x
f(x)
f(x)
1
1
+ 0 0
4

x0=1
+
+
0

x0=1
f x0 ( f ).
, (. 4.4):
2 x 3 ,
x 1

f ( x)
2( x 2)2 , x t 1
2
x 1
6 x ,

R R{1} : f c( x )
4( x 2), x ! 1
x0=1 f. , f(x)>0 x<1 f(x)<0
1<x<2, f x0=1
,
,
( ) , .
' , f x0 x0 .
.
f ' x0
, f(x)=0.
)
f(x0) f(x0)<0, f
x0.
) f(x0) f(x0)>0, f
x0.
228
f(x0)=0
f(x0)=0,
x0 ( ).
, f(x) = 2x
(. 4.4) R. f R :
f c( x ) 22x ,
f cc( x ) 4 2 x.
x , .
Z.
x x=,
,
f(x)=0
2
f()=42=4<0, , f 0, , 2,... .
,
f cc( ) 4 2( ) 4 4 ! 0,
2
2
3
, ... .
f ,
2
2
, ,
3.8, f
[,], x1, x2 [a, ] :
f ( x1 ) f ( x ) f ( x2 ) x [a, ].
, , f ()
() [a, ]. , f (a, ), :
) f.
) f , .
) f f.
, f(x)=x44x3+4x21, R f(x)=4x(x23x+2)=4x(x1) (x2) x = 0, x = 1, x = 2.
:
3
) [ 1, ] , (. 4.4) f 2
3
7
, f(1)=8, ,
f(1)=8, f(0)=1, f(1)=0, f ( ) =
2
16
3
7
f (1) = 8, f (0) = 1, f (1) = 0, f ( ) = , f(0)=1.
2
16
8
6
1
4
_4
_2
4
2
_1
. 4.4.
0,5
_
0,5
. 4.4.
1,5
229
1 5
) [ , ] ,
2 2
(. 4.4) f
1
7
5
9
f ( ) = , f (1) = 0, f (2) = 1 , f ( ) =
,
2
16
2 16
5
9
, , f ( ) =
2 16
1
7
f ( ) = , f (1) = 0, f (2) = 1, f (4) = 63 ,
2
16
1
0,5
0,5
1,5
2,5
_ 0,5
_1
. 4.4.
f(2)=1.
4.4.1.
x.

24 m2 ,
.
y
x
y ,
:
=2xy+2xy+2x2=4xy+2x2.
24 m2, E=24,
4 xy + 2 x 2 = 24 4 xy = 24 2 x 2 y =
24 2 x 2
.
4x
:
2
V=(xy)x = x
24 2 x 2 1
= (12 x x 3 ) .
4x
2
E :
1
f ( x ) = (12 x x 3 ),
2
x >0
1
2
f ( x ) = (12 3 x ) . f(x)=0
2
x=2. f f 4.4.2
4.4.2.
x
0
2
+
f(2)=0 f 2, f x=2
+
0
f' (x)
, :
f(x)
1
f (2) = (12 2 23 ) = 8.
2
230
,
(8 m3) :
24 2 22
x = 2m y =
m
=2m
42
( , ).
f(x)=x3, g ( x ) = x [0,+),
4.4.
1
>0
(0,+) f(x)=3x2>0 g ( x ) =
2 x
x>0. [0,+) 0. 4.4
. , f ,
f ,
g , g
. , x
, f(x) Cf , f [0,+), g(x)
Cg , g [0,+).
f [0,+)
g [0,+).
:
f , '
. f :
) , f' .
) , f ' .
, f ' , ,
Cf , (
) .
f ' , ,
Cf , (
) .
y
f(x)=x3
g(x)= x
O
x
. 4.4.
231
4.4.

1

,
.
'
, , ,
.
f ' , . f :
) , f(x)>0 .
) , f(x)<0 .
, f(x)=x3, R,
4.4. f(x)=3x2>0 xR*, f
R. f(x)=6x>0 x>0 f(x)=6x<0 x<0. , f
(,0], [0,+).
f x0=0
O(0,0) y=0, . Cf
x0.
:
f (, ) x0. (x0, f(x0))
f :
) H f (a, x0) (x0, )
) Cf (x0, f(x0)).
y
y
y=x3
_
Cf
+
. 4.4.
. 4.4.
1. , ,
, . , ,
. f(x) = x + (
) . , /
/
( f(x) = x + ).
232
f(x)=x3 , O(0,0) f, f(0)=0.

( ):
(x0, f(x0)) f,
f(x0)=0 f x0.

:
) , f
) , f.
1 3
4 x ,
, f ( x ) =
( x 2)2 2,
x2
x>2,
4.4.
3 2
x ,
f ( x ) = 4
2( x 2),
x<2
3
x ,
f ( x ) = 2
2,
x>2
x<2
x > 2.
f(x)=0 0, 2 f.
f 4.4.3.
, 0 2. 0 2 f . (2,2) Cf .
O(0,0) f, A(2,2) .
, f x0
Cf (x0, f(x0)) (. x0),
(x0, f(x0)) f .
y
4.4.3
x
2
_2
f(x)
fx)
. 5.4.
4.4.2.
f(x)=x39x248x+100.
+
+
233
f R :
f(x)= 3x218x48 f(x)= 6x18.
: f(x)=0 3x218x48=0 x=2 x=8 f(x)=0 6x18=0 x=3.
,
(/) 4.4.4 f.
x=2 f(2)=152 x=8 f(8)=348. (3, f(3)),
(3, 98). 4.4 f.
200
4.4.4
x
f
f
2
0
8
0
+
+
+
_5
10
15
_ 200
_ 10
_ 400
. 4.4.
H . ,
:
) f.
) f .
) f f ( ) .
) f
f.
)
f , f .
)
( , ..).
) f
f .
4.4.3.
f f(x)=ex.
) f xR.
234
) Cf
A(0,1).
) ex0x0+1,
x0R.
.
y
f(x)=e x
e x0
x0+1
) f f(x)=e
y=x+1
R. , R, f(x)=ex
f(x)=ex. f(x)=ex>0 xR, f , R.
x0
x
O
) f(0)=e0=1,
. 4.4.
Cf A(0,1) y1=1(x0), y=x+1 (.
4.4).
) f R,
, (x0, f(x0)). , x0 R :
:
f(x0)y0=x0+1
e 0 x0 +1.
x
4.4.1. ( ) .
) f(x)=2x43x312x2+5
) f(x)=2x34x22x+3
) f(x)=x23x+5
ln x 1
) f ( x ) =
x
) f(x)=2(x24)5
) f(x)=xe2x
4.4.2. .
) f(x)=2x3+4x+1
x
) f(x)=2 +3 +4
) f(x)=ex +lnx1
2 x
) f(x)=x e +3e
) f ( x ) = x (1 + x )
) f(x)=x+3x
4.4.3.
f,
f(x)=3(x24) (x2)2 (x4)2.
4.4.4. f(x)=2x3+3x212x+6
x2(2x+3)=12x6.
4.4.4.
40 cm
.
4.4.6.
,
:
) N
3 cm
( ) 2 cm.
) T
294 cm2.
x
y (. 4.4).
. 4.4.
235
) x
1176
E( x ) = 6 x +
+ 318 .
x
)
x,y ,
.
4.4.7.
,
4.4. 1m,

;
4.4.8.
,
(' )
y=3x2. '
A(2,3).
4.4.9.
2 m
, 4
, 4.4. x , , .
. 4.4.
x
2m
2m
. 4.4.
4.4.10.
'
y
. ,
,
4.4, , .
y
20 , x
30 . . 4.4.
1000 , x y , .
4.4.11. f
f(x)=(x2)(x1)2(x+1). N ,
.
4.4.12. N f .
1
) f ( x ) = 2 x
) f(x)=1+9x+x2
) f(x)=x2ex/2
x
2
3
2
) f(x) = 2x
) f(x) = ex /2
) f(x)=x 5x +x+1
x
) f ( x ) = 2
) f(x) = xex
) f(x) = x3 | x |
x +1
236
4.4.13. f f(x)=x(x1).
f , .
4.4.14. f(x)=x45x2+4.
4.5 L Hospital.
f1 f2 :
f1( x ) =
ln x
e x 1
f2 ( x ) =
,
1
x
1+
x
A1= (,0)(0,+) A2=(0,+) .

x 0,
e x 1
,
x 0
x
lim f1( x ) = lim

x 0
lim f2 ( x )
x o0
lim
x o0
ln x
,
1
1
x
,
f1
lim(e x 1) = e 0 1 = 1 1 = 0 lim x = 0
x 0
f2,
x 0
1
lim (1 ) f .
x o0
x o0
x
0
.

0
+

L Hospital , .
lim ln x
f
K L Hospital.
, x0 f, g
{x0}. g(x)0 {x0},
f c( x )
( ) ' :
lim
x o x g c( x )
0
) lim f ( x ) 0 lim g ( x ) 0
xo x
xo x
) lim f ( x ) f lim g ( x ) f .
xo x
xo x
lim
xo x
f ( x)
:
g( x)
f ( x)
f c( x )
lim
lim
.
xo x g( x)
x o x g c( x )
0
0
237
x x0+ , x x0 , x+
x, ( ).
0
e x 1
f ( x)
= lim
T lim
:
x 0
x 0 g ( x )
0
x
f ( x ) (e x 1) e x
=
=
= ex .
( x)
1
g ( x)
f ( x )
= lim e x = e 0 = 1,
x 0 g ( x )
x 0
lim
L Hospital
f ( x)
f ( x )
= lim
= 1.
x 0 g ( x )
x 0 g ( x )
lim
, :
lim
x o0
1
lim x
1
x o0
2
x
(ln x )c
c
1
1

lim ( x )
x o0
lim
x o0
f ( x)
g( x)
lim
x o0
f c( x )
g c( x )
lim( x ) 0
x o0
0.
, L Hospital
, .
,
e5 x
f ( x)
, f ( x ) = e5 x , g ( x ) = x 3
= lim
3
x + x
x + g ( x )
lim

lim f ( x ) = lim g ( x ) = + , lim f '( x )
x +
x +
x of
lim g '( x ) f, lim f ''( x )
x of
x of
lim g ''( x ) f
x of
e5 x
5e 5 x
25e5 x
125e5 x
=
=
=
= + .
lim
lim
lim
x + x 3
x + 3 x 2
x + 6 x
x +
6
lim
L Hospital
0 ^ (), () (), ,
.
lim ( x ln x 2 ) , (+)(+) ( lim x = +
x +
x +
lim ln x 2 = +) :
x +
(
x)
x ln x 2 = x 2 ln x = x(1 2
ln x
)
x
238
11
ln x
(ln x )
= lim
= lim xx = 00
lim
x + x
x + ( x )
x + 11

lim (1 2
x +
ln x
) =1
x
ln x
) = + .
x +
x +
x
, (f(x))g(x) 00, 0, 1. , L Hospital
(f(x))g(x)=eg(x)ln(f(x)).
lim x x 00
lim ( x ln x 2 ) = lim x(1 2
x o0
lim xxln x0. lim x

xx=exlnx lim
xxo
o00
x o0
0 lim ln x
x o0
f
0()

ln x
.
x ln x =
1
x
1
lim ln x f lim
f :
x o0 x
x o0
1
c
ln x
(ln x )
lim x ln x lim
lim
lim x
lim ( x ) 0
1
1
1 x o0
x o0
x o0
x o0
x o0
( )c
2
x
x
x
lim x x
x o0
lim e x ln x
x o0
lim ( x ln x )
e xo0
e 0 1 .
4.5.1.
f f ( x ) =
ln(x 1)
.
x2
A=(1,2)(2,+).
Cf 1, 2 +.
) x=1 :
lim ln(x 1) f lim ( x 2) 1
x o1
x o1
ln(x 1)
f .
x o1
x2
x=1 f.
) x=2 :
lim( x 2) = 0
lim ln(x 1) = ln1 = 0
lim
x 2
x 2
239
L Hospital :
1
( x 1)
ln(x 1)
(ln(x 1))
1
lim
= lim
= lim x 1
= lim
= 1.
x 2 x 2
x 2 ( x 2)
x 2
x 2 x 1
1
x=1 f.
ln(x 1)
) f +. lim
x + x 2
:
1
(ln(x 1))
lim ( x 2) = + lim
lim ln(x 1) = + ,
= lim x 1 = 0 .
x +
x +
x + ( x 2)
x + 1
ln(x 1)
lim
=0.
x + x 2
y=0 f.
4.5.1. .
x
x2
lim
lim
) x + x
) x + e x
e
2x
) lim
x 0 ln( 2 x + 1)
1 x
x 0
x2
) lim
) lim
x o0
1 x

x x
e3 x
lim
) x + x
2
ex
1 e x
lim
) x 0 x
) xlim
of
) xlim
o0
x

x
4.5.2. :
( x 4 ln x )
) xlim
+
2
( x ln(1 + ))
) xlim
+
x
1 2
(1 ) x
) xlim
of
x
( x 3 ln x )
) xlim
+
) lim
ln x 3
lim
) x + x 5
ln x
) xlim
+ e x
1
1
lim( 2 2 )
) x 0 x
x
x 4 ln x 2
) lim
x 0
x 5e x
) xlim
+
x100 e x
) xlim
+
(3 + 2 x )1/ x
) xlim
+
xe x 2 ln(1 + x )
x 0
x2
4.5.3. :
x2 3x + 2
lim
) x 1 x 2 2 x + 1
) lim
x 0
ln( x + 1)
e x 1
) xlim
2
( x 2)
x2 5x + 6
ln( x 2)
) xlim
2 x 4 x + 3
) lim
x 0
ln( x + 1)
x2 3x
e x 1 1
lim
) x 1 x 2 2 x + 1
240
4.5.4.
.
ln x 2
x2
ln x
) f ( x ) = x
) f ( x ) = 2
) f ( x ) =
( x 1)( x 2)
x
3
4.6 .
(), t=0
xx (. 4.6). (
) S(t) t (.
).
H S t
.
, t=0 , t0
M0 h, t=t0+h,
(. 4.6). [t0,t]
S=S(t)S(t0)
S=S(t)S(t0) t=tt0=h , :
S S( t) S( t0 ) S( t0 + h) S( t0 ) .
=
=
t
t t0
h
O
x
x
S(t)
. 4.6.
M0
S
M
x
S(t0)
S(t)
. 4.6.
t t0 (t t0 h0),
t0. ,
t t0
S( t + h) S( t0 )
lim 0
= S( t0 ) ,
h 0
h
t0 (t0).
.
, , S/t [t0,t],
S( t0 ) = lim(S( t0 + h) S( t0 )) / h ,
h 0
t0 ( t0). , .
, S(t)=2t2+10t ,
t1=1, t2=2 t3=3 ( S(t)=4t+10)
SSSc(c(1(11)))= 444111+10
444 222+10
444333+310
= 222.
10
10
10= 666,,, SSSc(c(1(2)2))=
10= 22,2,,SSS(c1c(()33)=)
10
( , , t0
S( t) S( t0 )
> 0 ,
t t0
241
S( t) S( t0 )
< 0,
(t0)0, , , t0
t t0
(t0)0).
:t(t)=S(t). ,
( t) ( t0 ) ( t0 + h) ( t0 )
=
t t0
h
t t0 (t t0 h 0) , t0.
( t0 + h) ( t0 )
= ( t0 ) = S( t0 )
h 0
h
lim
t0. ,
t0 (t) () t0.
:
S(t) t,
t (t)=S(t) a(t)=(t)=S(t) .
,
1
S( t) s0 0 t a t 2 ,
2
s0, 0, a ,
1
( t) = S( t) = ( s0 + 0 t + a t 2 ) = 0 + a t a( t) c( t) ( 0 a t)c a ,
2
( ).

y x.
:
x,y y=f(x), f ,
df ( x )
f(x0)=

dx x x0
y x x=x0.
:
) A y x y=f(x)=x3,
x=x0 f(x0)=3x02. 1 ( ) 312=3,
2, ( 322=12).
) A Q(t) -
242
t,
t0 ( , t0),
Q(t0).
) A J(t)
t,
t0, J(t0).

. , x .
x K(x) x
E(x).
:
) T x
P ( x ) = E( x ) K ( x ) .
) T x
K ( x)
.
x
x0 x (
x ),
K ( x) =
P ( x ) P ( x0 ) P ( x0 + h) P ( x0 )
=
, h=xx0
x x0
h
x0 x .
x x0 ( h0), ( )
x0. :
P ( x 0 + h) P ( x 0 )
= P ( x0 ),
lim
h 0
h
x0.
x0 K(x0), E(x0) .
:
K ( x ) K ( x ) x K ( x )
P ( x ) = E( x ) K ( x ) K ( x ) =
=
x2
x
:
P ( x ) = 0 E( x ) K ( x ) = 0 E( x ) = K ( x )
K ( x ) = 0 K ( x ) x K ( x ) = 0 K ( x ) =
K ( x)
K ( x ) = K ( x ) .
x
, , :
) .
)
.
243
y
4.6.1.
(. 4.6).
40 ./h,
50 ./h.
)

.
)
D(t)
3 .
D(t)
y(t)
x(t)
. 4.6.
) 40 50 ./h,

1
S( t) s0 0 t a t 2
2
s0=0, a=0 0=40, 50 . : x(t)=40t, y(t)=50t.
) t :
D( t) = [ x( t)]2 + [ y( t)]2
D(t) t :
Dc( t)
[ x( t)]2 [ y( t)]2
1
2 [ x( t)] + [ y( t)]
2
1
2 [ x( t)]2 [ y( t)]2
(2 x( t) x ( t) + 2 y( t) y( t) ) =
2
[ x(t)]
[ y( t)]2
x( t) x ( t) + y( t) y( t)
[ x( t)] + [ y( t)]
2
t0=3 x(t0)=40, x(t0)=40t0=403=120, y(t0)=50,

y(t0)=50t0=503=150, :
D( t0 ) =
x( t0 ) x ( t0 ) + y( t0 ) y( t0 )
[ x( t0 )] + [ y( t0 )]
2
120 40 + 150 50
120 + 150
2
12300
= 64, 03 .
36900
64 ./h.
4.6.2.

t ,
f ( t) = 2 e
t
100
t0.
t,
1/10
t0=0.
244
f ( t) = (2 e
t
100 ) =
2e
t
100
t
1
1
) = 2 e 100 (
) = e 100 .
100
100
50

t0 =0 :
0
1 100
1
= .
f (0) = e
50
50
1
t , f ( t) = f (0) ,
10
t
1
1 1
1
t
1
e 100 = e 100 =
= ln = ln10 t = 100 ln10 = 230, 26 .
50
10 50
10
100
10
4.6.3.
- t
3T ( t)
E( t) = 2 out
4Tin ( t)
Tin=Tin(t) Tout= Tout(t) (0C). Tin 6oC/min , E(t)
[. E(t)=E t], Tout
.
.
3T ( t)
E( t) = 2 out
Tout(t) E(t)=E
4Tin ( t)
t, :
E( t ) = 2
3Tout ( t)
3T ( t)
4(2 E)
Tin ( t) .
out = 2 E Tout ( t) =
4Tin ( t)
4Tin ( t)
3
,
( t) =
Tout
Tin ( t) =
4(2 E)
Tin ( t)
3
dTin ( t)
= 6o C / min
dt
dT ( t) 4(2 E)
( t) = out =
Tout
6 = 8(2 E) o C / min .
dt
3
4.6.1.
' , t
9
S( t) = 3t 3 t 2 + 2t + 1 . t
2
. ;
245
4.6.2.
-
t S(t)=32t.
) t.
) , .
;
4.6.3.
'
S(t)=s0t, t s0, .
) t.
) y.
) , 0, .
4.6.4.
f g f(t)=2e3g(t)+1. g(1)=0 g(1)=1,
f t=1.
4.6.5.

3cm2/min.
5cm (
d E = d2).
4.6.6.
R(t)
R(t) =3t2+5t+1. ,
' t=10sec.
4.6.7.
10 cm3/sec.
R(t) ,
4 3
5 cm ( r E
r ).
3
4.6.8. . , , , t ,
V(t)=10(20t)3.
) 3
5 .
) N .
) 1
.
4.6.9. T
o , K(x), , E(x), x :
K(x)=x380x2+2400x+1 E(x)=300x,
. x ,
.
4.6.10.
. K(x),
, x :
2
K ( x ) = 200 + 80 x x , x [0, 200] ,
3
246
x
2
E( x ) = 70 x + x .
2
) K(10) .
) N 5 ( ).
) E(10) .
) P(10), P(x) x .
)
,
.
4.6.11.
. N(t)
t (min) N(t)=104(100t)2.
) [0, 1] min
[0, 10] min.
) 10 .
) .
4.6.12.
10 m
5 m. , z
t ( cm) z(t)=0,2t2. V t0=5 sec.
4.7 M .
, . r h
V=hr2.
,
A={(r,h): rR hR} V(r,h)=hr2,
r h . ,
r=1 m h=2 m,
:
V (1, 2) 2 12 V (1, 2) 2 m3.
.
,
.
:
A R2,
A ^( x , y) : x R y R` R 2.
247
, (x,y) z f A.
z f(x,y) (z=f(x,y)) ,
x,y .
z=f(x,y)R (x,y)A.
V(r, h)=
hr 2, V,
r, h.

, ....

, OM M(x,y,z)
O(0,0,0) -
z
(OM)= (x_ 0)2+(y_ 0)2+(z_ 0)2 =
= x 2 +y 2 +z 2
M(x, y, z)
y
O(0,0,0)
xyz (. 4.7).
OM = x 2 + y 2 + z 2
. 4.7.
f ( x , y, z) = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 .
f (1,2,3) M(1,2,3)
O(0,0,0) :
f (1, 2, 3) = 12 + 22 + 32 = 14 , (OM ) = 14 .
25
4.7.1.
20
15
10
f ( x , y) = x 2 + y .
5
.
;
.
_4
_2
. 4.7.
(x,y) f .

x2+y0 yx2.
(4.7.1)
A y=x2 (4.7.1)

y=x2 (. 4.7).
248
f ,
:
z = f ( x , y) = x 2 + y 0
(x,y) yx2 , z0 ( )
(x,y) yx2, :
z = x2 + y x2 + y = z2
( , .. x=0, y=z2).

z = f ( x , y) = 50 x 2 y 2 xy.
(4.7.2)
y
x
dz d
d
=
f ( x , y) = (50 x 2 y 2 xy) = 0 2 x y = 2 x y.
dx dx
dx
d
f ( x , y) z=f(x,y) x
dx
y f x. ,
f x, :

w
wf ( x , y)
f x ( x , y)
f ( x , y)
wx
wx
f
z
.
fx
x
x
, (4.7.2) :
f ( x , y) = 2 x y .
(4.7.3)
x

, , x (x0,y0).
f ( x , y) = 2 x y (x0,y0)=(1,2) 212=4.
x
:
f ( x , y)
= 4
x
x =1, y = 2
f ( x , y)
= 4 .
x
(1, 2)
, f x (x0,y0)
w
wf ( x , y)
f ( x0 , y0 ) f x ( x0 , y0 )
wx ( x
wx
,y )
0
wz
wx ( x
.
0
,y )
0
249
,
(
, 4.1)
f f((xx, ,yy00))f f((xx00, ,, ,yy00))
f f((xx hh, ,yy00))f f((xx00, ,yy00)) .
ww
lim
lim
lim
lim 00
f f((xx00, ,yy00)) lim
x xo
oxx0
hhoo
00
wwxx
xxxx00
hh
00
, f y, :
w
wf ( x , y)
f ( x , y)
wy
wy
f y ( x , y)
f
z
fy
.
y
y
(4.7.2) :
f ( x , y) = (50 x 2 y 2 xy) = 0 0 2 y x = 2 y x ,
y
y
f y (x0,y0)=(2,3), :
f ( x , y)
= (50 x 2 y 2 xy)
= 2 y x ( 2, 3) = 2 3 2 = 8 .
y
y
( 2, 3)
( 2, 3)
,
n. ,
.
(. . 4.2).
,
( ),
, . ,
(4.7.3) x y :

f ( x , y) = (2 x y) = 1 , f ( x , y) = (2 x y) = 2 .
x x
y x
x
y

2
2 f ( x , y)
f ( x , y) =
yx
yx
2
2 f ( x , y)
.
f
(
x
,
y
)
=
x 2
x 2
:

2
f ( x , y) = f ( x , y) = (2 y x ) = 1 ,
xy
x y
y

2
f ( x , y) = f ( x , y) = (2 y x ) = 2 .
2
y y
y
x
250
4.7.2.

f(x,y)=ex y.
.
f
y . :
x
w
w x
w x
f ( x , y)
(e y)
(e ) y e x y .
wx
wx
wx
f
x ,
y
w
w x
w
f ( x , y)
(e y) e x
( y) e x y .
wy
wy
wy
4.7.3.
f
: f ( x , y) = e x ln( x 2 + y 2 + 1) .
y
x
. :
1
f ( x , y) (e x ln( x 2 y 2 1)) e x
( x 2 y 2 1)
( ln( x 2 y 2 1)) e x 2
2
y
y
y
x y 1 y
ex
ex
1
2 y ex
y
y
0
2
0
2
(
)
x 2 y2 1
x 2 y2 1
1 x 2 y2
4.7.4.
R1, R2, R3, ,

Ro :
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
.
R R1 R2 R3
R
.
R1
R
) ;
R1
.
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
)
, R R1 R2 R3
Ro
R =
R1 R2 R3
R2 R3 + R1 R2 + R1 R3
251
R2, R3 R1 :
wR
wwwRRR
1
wwRR11
w
R1
R1
R2 R3 ww
R
1
R1 R2 R2 R3 R1 R3
RR22RR33 wwR
1
wRR11 RR11RR22 RR22RR33 RR11RR33

w
w
w ( R1 ) ( R1 R2 R2 R3 R1 R3 ) R1 ww ( R1 R2 R2 R3 R1 R3 )
w
wR ( R1 ) ( R1 R2 R2 R3 R1 R3 ) R1 wR ( R1 R2 R2 R3 R1 R3 )
R2 R3 wwRR11( R1 ) ( R1 R2 R2 R3 R1 R3 ) R1 wwRR11( 2R1 R2 R2 R3 R1 R3 )
( R1 R2 R2 R3 R1 R13 )2
RR22RR33 1

((RR11RR22 RR22RR33 RR11RR33))2

1 ( R R R R R R ) R ( R 0 R )
R2 R3 11((RR11RR22 RR22RR33 RR11RR33))RR11((RR222 00 RR33))
1 2 (R
2 R3 R
1 3
3
R11 R3 )222
RR22RR33
1 2 2 R3

R
R
R
R
R
R
(
)
( R11R22 R22R33 R11R33)
R1 R2 R2 R3 R1 R3 R1 R2 R1 R3
R2 R3
R2RR3
R2 R3 RR1RR2 RR2RR3 RR1RR3 RR1RR2 2RR1RR3 R2 R3
R
2
RR22RR33 1 2 ( R12R23 R21R33 R11R32 )22 1 3 RR22RR33 ( R1 R2 R22 R33 R1 R3 )22 .

R
R
(
R
R

R
R
)
(
R
R

R
R

R
R
)
( R11R22 R22R33 R11R33)
( R11R22 R22R33 R11R33)
R
R2 2 R32
.
=
R1 ( R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R1 R3 )2
(4.7.4)
) , 4.6, . , ,

( ),
.
R
, ,
R1
Ro R1, R2 R3 .
Ro R1 R1 = 1 Ohm
R2 = 2 Ohm, (4.7.4) :
R
R
12 22
4
=
=
.
2
R1 ( R1 + 2 + 2 R1 )
R1 (3 R1 + 2)2
R1 1 Ohm , Ro
4/(31+2)2=4/25 ( R2 R3
R2=1 Ohm R2 =2 Ohm).
4.7.1. , xOy
M0(x0,y0). MM0 M(x,y)
M0(x0,y0).
;
252
4.7.2. x, y, z (. 4.7).
.
) ,
.
)
,
z
y
.
) 5m3 x
, . 4.7.
.
2
) 10m
,
x y.
4.7.3. :
) f ( x , y) = xy
) f ( x , y) = xy
) f ( x , y, z) e x sin( y z)
) f ( x , y) = x 2 + y 2 2
) f ( x , y) = e x 1
) f ( x , y) =
1
x + y2
2
4.7.4. .
) f ( x , y) = x 2 + y 2
) f ( x , y) = y e x
) f ( x , y) = 4
2
2
) f ( x , y) = ln( x + y )
) f ( x , y) = e x sin y
5
) f ( x , y) = ( xy)
4.7.4.
f f
.
,
y z
2
2
) f ( x , y, z) = x + y + 2 z
x
) f ( x , y, z) = y z e
x
) f ( x , y, z) = e sin( y z)
2
2
2
) f ( x , y, z) = ln( x + y + z )
z
) f ( x , y) = ( xy)
5
) f ( x , y, z) = ( x y z)
f

z
f ( x , y, z) = ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )1/ 2 .
4.7.6.
4.7.7. , , x
t , w( x , t) = cos(5t 2 x ) e 0,2 x .
w w
,

.
t x
4.7.8.
V
V V V
E =
,
,
y
z
x
V ( x , y, z) = x 2 + y 2 2 z 2
V V V
,
,
)
.
x x z
253
) E (1, 1, 1).
4.7.9. , W

V 2
W ( P , V , , , g ) P V
,
2g
, V
, , g
.
wW wW wW
,
,
)
.
wP wV w
)
W (. ) g
, ;
(
). ; .
4.7.10. x, y r, :
x=rcos y=rsin.

wx wy wy wx

wr w wr w
r.
4.7.11. f ( x , y) =
x
1
x 2 y 2
2
f
f
+ y 2 x = 2 x( x + y 3 ) .
x
y
3 2
3
2
4
4.7.12. f ( x , y) = 3 x y + 2 xy + x + y .
f(f x(,xy, )y) f(f x(,xy, )y)

)
.
,,
xx
yy
)
2 f ( x , y)
,
x 2
2 f ( x , y)
,
y 2
2 f ( x , y)
,
yx
2 f ( x , y)
.
xy
2 f ( x , y) 2 f ( x , y)
=
yx
xy
(. x
y),
) x y
2 f ( x , y)
2 f ( x , y)
.
x 2
y 2
4.8 .
f
x0.
f ( x0 ) = lim
x x0
f ( x ) f ( x0 )
f ( x 0 + h) f ( x 0 )
= lim
h 0
x x0
h
254
f
x0.
Cf A(x0,f(x0)) (x0
f).
.
fc ( x0 )
lim
h o0
f ( x 0 h) f ( x 0 )
h
f ( x 0 h) f ( x 0 )
fc ( x0 ) lim
h o0
h
yf(x0)= f(x0)(xx0)
' x0,
x0. To .
( f + g )( x ) = f ( x ) + g ( x )
( f g ).
(.M.T.)
Rolle.
(cf )( x ) = cf ( x )
( f g )( x ) = f ( x ) g ( x ) + f ( x ) g ( x )
f
f ( x ) g ( x ) f ( x ) g ( x )
(g(x)0)
( x) =
[ g ( x )]2
g
( f g )( x ) = f ( g ( x )) g ( x )
f
[, ] (, ),
, , (, ) :
f c()
f ( ) f ()
(.M.T.)

f()=f(), f( )=0 (
Rolle)
f f .
.
f, g f g c R, :

f(x)=g(x)+c, x
.
) f'(x) > 0 (f '(x) 0) x

, f () .
)
f '(x) < 0 (f'(x) 0) x
, f () .
f (x) f (x0) x A
f, , ( ).
x0 A .
f (x) f (x0) x A
f, , x0 A . ( ).
255
Fermat.
f ' x0 f(x0),
f(x0)=0.
) ( ).
) , f f
( ), .
(
f).
) f'(x) > 0 < x< x0 f'(x) < 0 x0 < x< ,

f x0.
f o (, ).
) f'(x) < 0 < x< x0 f '(x) > 0 x0 < x< ,
f x0.
.
) f'(x0) = 0 f ''(x0) < 0, f

x0.
) f '(x0) = 0 f ''(x0) > 0, f
x0.
f .
f ' (f ''(x0) > 0

).
f .
f' (f''(x0) < 0

).
A(x0, f(x0)) f.
H f '' x0
Cf A(x0, f(x0)).
lim f ( x ) 0 lim g ( x ) 0
xo x
L Hospital.
M z = f(x,y)
x.
M z = f(x,y)
y.
xo x
lim f ( x ) rf lim g ( x ) rf
xo x
xo x
f c( x )
lim

x o x g c( x )
0
f ( x)
f c( x )
lim
lim

xo x g( x)
x o x g c( x )
0
0
w
wf ( x , y)
fx ( x , y)
f ( x , y)
wx
wx
w
wf ( x , y)
f ( x , y)
f y ( x , y)
wy
wy
4.9 .
, , .
1.
f f(0) = 0, f'(0) =1, Cf

(0,0) y=0.
256
2.
f x0 f x0.
3.
x0 f

x0. f x0, f(x0)=0.
4.
f f.
5.
f
x0 , Cf o A(x0, f(x0))
xx.
6.
f'(x) = (x 3)2 (x + 1) xR, f'( 1) f.
7.
f(x) = 23x, f'(x) = 3 ^ 23x.
8.
f'(x) = (x3 1)3, f 0 .
9.
f [, ] f() > f(), x0 (, )

, f'(x0) >0.
f [, ]
10. (, ) , , (, )
f'() =0.
11.
f'(x) > 0 < x< x0 f'(x) < 0

x0 < x< , f x0.
12.
f'(x0) = 0 f''(x0) < 0, f x0.
13.
f(x) = x g(x) = x , f, g :

[(f(x))2+(g(x))2]= 0.
14. f(x) = x3, x (f(2x))' = f(2x).
15. A f(x) = x, g(x) = x f'= f g'' = g.
16.
f lim
h o0
f(x0)=.
f ( x0 h) f ( x0 )
h
A 1 lim
h o0
f ( x 0 h) f ( x 0 )
h
A 1,
17. f(x) = x11 + x9 + x7 + 1 (1, 0).
f [, ],
(, ) f'(x)0 x (,), f()=f().
f ,
19. , , ,
.
20. .
18.
21.
f '
f.
257
f, g x0, f / g
x0 :
22.
ff '
ff((xx00))
, ( g(x0)0).
((xx00))==
gg ((xx00))
gg
g ' f
23. g(), fg
(fg)(x)=f(x)g(x).
f f'(x) = 5f(x) x R.
f ( x)
24.
g ( x ) = 5 x g(x)=0 x R .
e
25.
S(t) = 5 + t t3,
.
26.
f(x, y) = 2x + 3y x
f y, x,y.
f ( x , y) f ( x , y)
.
y
x
2 f ( x , y) 2 f ( x , y)
.
=
28. f(x,y)=x y +2,
yx
xy
27. f(x,y)=xy f ( x , y) =
2 3
.
1.
f 0 f(0) = 0, Cf A(x0,f(x0)) :
) y=x
) y=x+f'(0)
) y=xf'(0)
) y=f'(0)
2.
f(x) = x :
) x
) x1
) x1
) ( 1) x
3.
f(x) = ln x :
1
) 2
) ex
) ln x
x
) 1
x
4.
f(x) = 2x :
) f '(x) = 2x
) f'(x) = 2x
) f'(x) = 2x x
) f'(x) = 2x
5.
;
1

) (ex)=ex1
) (xa)=axa1
) (ln x )c
x
6.
f ' x0
f(x0), :
) f(x0)<0
) f(x0)>0
) f(x0)=0
) f(x0)=1
) (ax)'= ax
258
7.
8.
;
) f(x)=ex
) f(x)=x3
) f(x)=x4
) f(x)=3x
f(x)=|x|:
) E x0 = 0, :
) E x0=0.
) E x0=0, .
) E R.
f [, ], (, )
f(x)>0 x(, ). f()=0 f()=10, f(x)=5:
9.
) (, ).
) (, ).
) (, ).
) (, ).
f :
) f.
10. ) f.
) f.
) f.
f (1,1) f(0) =1.
f(x)=0 x(1,1), :
) f(x)=0 x(1,1).
11. ) f(x)=1 x(1,1).
) f(x)>1 x(1,1).
) f(x)<0 x(1,1).
O :
) .
12. ) .
) .
) .
f f'(x) = (x 1) (x + 1), :
) f (,1].
13. ) f (,+1].
) f [1,+1].
) f (,1].
259
S(t) t, t :
) (t)=S(t) a(t)=(t) .
14. ) (t)=S(t) a(t)=S(t) .
) (t)=S(t) a(t)=(t) .
) (t)=S(t) a(t)=(t) .
f f'(x) =(x 1)3 + (x 2)5, :
) f R.
15. ) f .
) f .
) f R.
4.10 .
4.10.1. P(t) ( ) , t , :
P ( t) = 10 + 6
e ( t 3)
.
1 + 2e ( t 3)
) P(0);
) .
) ;
4.10.2.
'
t
(t)=(t2)2(t3), 0t4.
) t.
) .
) .
) .
ln x
, x z 0.
x
) f .
) .
1
) lnx= 2 x .
4.10.3. f ( x )
) lnx=x .
1
x2
f ( x ) = 3 2e 2
4.10.4.
.
) f .
) f, .
) f.
) f(x)=a, a>3 .
260
)
f(x)=2 2 .
.
4.10.5. f(x)=x3(2x)3.
) f .
) f .
f .
) f, .
) f.
) f(x)=a, a>1, .
) f(x)=a, a<1, .
x
+1.
2
) f .
) f, .
) f.
) 2lnxx+2=ln2 .
4.10.6. f ( x ) = ln x
4.10.7. f f(x)=ax+2x, xR 0<a1.

) f(x).
) Fermat , f
x0=0, a 1/2.
4.10.8. , R f f(x) =x4+x3+x2+x+1 x1=0, x2=1 x3=2.
f
.
1
f ( x )f(x)=xe
= xe x , x, g ( x ) = x 2 e x.
4.10.9.
2
) f(x)= f(x)+ex, g(x)= f(x)+g(x).
) - f
f()(x)=(x+)ex.
) - g.
I
4.10.10. P P ( I ) =
, I0,
+ I
, . H
.
) .
) .
) .
) P(I)/[1P(I)]2 .
4.10.11. , () (), p (0<p<1),
lp.
, ' ,

261
f ( p) = p (1 p) .

) p=/.
) (p=1/2) 10 ,
;
4.10.12. (. 4.10)
10 m 0,2 m.
h ,
, 1 m/min.
h 0, 2
) x( t) =
s( t) .
0, 2
)
h,
.
4.10.13.
x km/h :
x3
f ( x ) = a(50 x 2 ), 0 x 150 ,
3
a .
)
f xR.
) x(0x150) .
4.10.14.
2 m .
0,2m/sec (. 4.10).
) x(t)=2(t)(t).
x ( t)
x ( t) .
) y( t) =
y( t )
)
1m.
)

1 m.
)

0,5 m.
4.10.15.
AB=10m

20 m/min. t, (t)
(. 4.10).
)
h(t)
(t).
0,2 m
O
x(t)
. 4.10.
y(t)
2m
(t)
x(t)
. 4.10.
h(t)
(t)
10 m
. 4.10.
262
) (t)=22(t).
) (t) 10 m .
) (t) 20m.
4.10.16.
f, ' x1<x2
.
x1 + x2
)
... x1 ,
, 2
1 , :
x x
f 1 2 f ( x1 )
2
.
f c(1 ) 2
x2 x1
x1 + x2
, x2 )
...
2
2 , :
x x
f ( x2 ) f 1 2
2 .
f c(2 ) 2
x2 x1
) :
x + x f ( x1 ) + f ( x2 ) .
f 1 2 <
2
2
263

( )
5:
6:

7:
8: Laplace
lx im
x0
MI
16 2 .
,

. ,
1 ( , ) .
16 Gerolamo
Cardano, Euler
.
, , ,
, , ...
5.1 .
5.2 .
5.3 .
5.4 .
5.5 .
5.6 De Moivre.
5.7 .
5.8 .
lx im
5.9 .
5.10 .
x0
266
5.1 .
, = 2 4 x2 + x + = 0,
0, , .
,
x26x+10=0,
=4,
( x 2 6 x + 9) + 1 = 0 ( x 3)2 = 1
, y=x3,
y2=1. y . , .
y2=1, . , ,
C.
R ' , R.
R x2=1 .
i ( ) i,
i2=1 (i)2=1.
,
C, :
) a+ i a, R*=R{0} (
).
) a+0 i aR aR
) i, R* ( ).
( )
z = a + i a, R.
Re(z), Im(z).
, C, a R
z = +0i
( m(z) = 0),
i, R*
z = 0 +i
( Re(z) = 0).
z1 = + i z2 = + i = = ,
z1 = z2 Re( z1 ) = Re( z2 ) Im( z1 ) = Im( z2 ) .
, z = +i = 0
= 0,
a + i = 0 a = 0 = 0
267
:
) A z1=3+4i, z2=34i, z3=3+4i, z4=34i,
,
( ).
) z = ( 2) + (3 5)i = 2
= 5/3.

a + x a, R. , a + i + i
, :
: (a + i) + ( + i) = (a + ) + ( + ) i
: (a + i) ( + i) = (a ) + ( ) i
, , . ,
(7 3i) + (2 + 8i) = (7 + 2) + (3 + 8)i = 9 + 5i ,
5i + (6 2i) = (0 + 6) + (5 2) i = 6 + 3i .
(a + i) + (0 + 0 i) = (0 + 0 i) + ( a + i) = a + i ,

0+0i=0. ,
(a + i) + (( a) + ( ) i) = (a a) + ( ) i = 0 + 0 i = 0 ,
, z = + i () + ()i = i,
z.
, ,
. z1 = + i
z2 = + i , z1 = z2, z1 z2. , ,
z1 z2 ( = = 0,
).
A 5.1.1.
, z1 = ( + 5) + 4i
z2 = (2 3) + ( + )i .
.
z1,z2 ,
Re( z1 ) = Re( z2 ) a + 5 = 2a 3 a + = 2 2 = 6
a+ =4
Im( z1 ) = Im( z2 )
a+ = 4
a + = 4.
= 3 = 1. z1=z2=1+4i.
268
A 5.1.2.
a 2
= = ,
2 3
z1=2(a+)+(a)i z2=5a+2i .
, , R 0
a 2
= = = k ,
2 3
a
= k a = 2k,
2
= k = 3k
3
2
2
=k= .
2
2
z1 = 2(a + ) + ( a) i = 2(2 k + 3k ) + (3k 2 k ) i = 10 k + k i = 10 k + 2i,
k
k
z2 = 5a + 2i = 5 2 k + 2i = 10 k + 2i
.
5.1.1. , , z1=(a+4)+(a+1)i
z2=(2a4)+(a+3)i :
) , ) ,
) .
5.1.2. , .
) (10 + 3 5) + (20 4 )i = 0
) (a 3) + 3i = 1 + ( 1) i
) ( ) + (a + ) i = 7 5i
) (a2 2 ) + (a + ) i = 9 + 3i
5.1.3. a+i .
) (10a i 3 5i) (20a i 4 3i) 0
) (9 + 4i) + (5 7 i)
) (2 7 3 3i) + (3 7 2 3i)
) (4 + 3i) (6 4i) + (2 7 i)
5.1.4. x, y, zR (x+y)(xy)i=5z+zi, 2xy=z.

5.1.5. z=(k5)+(4)i, k, . k,
:
) z=i
) z=3
) zR Re(z)=2
) Re(z) = 2 Im(z) = 4
a
= = ,
3 4 5
z1 = 3( ) + 4( a)i, z2 = a + i, z3 = a + 2( a)i .
5.1.6. , , ,R
5.1.7.
z1=1+2i, z2=2+3i, z3=3+4i. o z
:
) z+z3=z1+z2
) z+ Re(z3)=z1+z2
) z+z3= Re(z1+z2) Im(z1+z2)
269
5.2 .
,
, . z = + i M(, ) 1 (. 5.2).
z M(, ) M(z)
+ i. ,
Gauss. .
5.2 z=3+2i.
H O(0,0) M(, ), z = a + i,
(. 5.2) ( ) z,
z = a + i = a2 + 2 .
, z=3+2i
z = (3)2 + 22 = 9 + 4 = 13.

. RLC,

z = R + i L
,
C
1
, Re(z) = R Im( z) = L
C
L
C. :
1
z = R + L
M(, ) (z)
. 5.2.
y
_ 3 + 2i
.
H , .
z = + i
OM .
_3
. 5.2.
y
OM = a2 + 2 = z ,
OM
z.

M(a, )
z=+i
. 5.2.
1. , Jean
Robert Argand (1806).
270

. OM1 , OM 2
M1(z1), M2(z2) .
z1+z2 OM
OM1 OM 2 (. 5.2).
, OM
M1(z1
z2)

OM 2 = OM 2
M2(z2) OM1 M1(z1).
5.2 ,
z1 z2

M 2 M1 .
, M1(z1) M2(z2) , z1+z2, z1z2
OM1, OM2, 5.2 5.2.
z1 z2 ,
, M1(z1) M2(z2) .
OMM2 5.2 , :
( M 2 M ) (OM 2 ) < (OM ) < ( M 2 M ) + (OM 2 )

M 2 M = OM1 ,
M(z1+z2)
M1(z1)
M2(z2)
. 5.2.
y
M1(z1 )
O
x
M(z1 _ z2 )
M2 (_ z2 )
. 5.2.
z1 z2 < z1 + z2 < z1 + z2 .
M(z1 + z2)
, M1(z1) M2(z2)
OM1 OM 2 , (. 5.2)
z1 z2 < z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 ,
M2(z2 )
M2(z2)
M1(z1)
, M1(z1) M2(z2)
OM1 OM 2 (. 5.2),

z1 z2 = z1 + z2 < z1 + z2 .
. 5.2.
y
M1(z1)
, z1 z2
,
M(z1 _ z2)
z1 z2 = z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 .
O
,
z1 z2 z1 + z2 z1 + z2

M2(z2)
. 5.2.
271
.
5.2

JJJJG
OM' M 2 M1 .
:
M(z1 + z2)
M2(z2)
M1(z1)
1 2, z1, z2 ,
z1 z2.
x
M(z1 _ z2)
M2 (_ z2)
, z0 = x0 + y0i,
K(x0, y0)
r, :
. 5.2
y
z1 _ z2
z z0 = r
K(x0,y0) r.
M1(z1)
O
, ( ) K(x0,y0) r (.
5.2),
x
M(z1 _ z2)
z z0 r x y i x0 y0 i r
( x x0 ) ( y y0 ) i r
M2(z2)
. 5.2.
y
( x x0 )2 ( y y0 )2 r ( x x0 )2 ( y y0 )2 r 2 .

O(0,0), x0 = y0 = 0,
x2+y2=r2 z=r.
K(x0 , y0 )
M(x, y)
E
z
z>r z=r,
. 5.2.
z z<r
z=r.
5.2.1.
z=(x1)+(y1)i z=5. (x, y)

K(1,1) r=5.
272
z = 5 ( x 1) + ( y 1)i = 5 ( x + yi) (1 + i) = 5 w (1 + i) = 5 ,
w=x+y i. , (x, y)
K(1,1) ( z0=1+i) r=5.
( x 1) + ( y 1)i = 5 ( x 1)2 + ( y 1)2 = 5 ( x 1)2 + ( y 1)2 = 52 .
5.2.2.
z, z + 4 = z + 2 2i .
y
(x, y)
B(_ 2, 2)
z + 4 = z + 2 2i z (4) = z (2 + 2i) .
A(4,0), B(2,2) 4 + 0i, 2 + 2i,
(x, y) z=x+yi, 5.2.
z (4 + 0i)
(), z (2 + 2i) ().
z (4 + 0i) = z (2 + 2i) ,
A(_ 4, 0)
. 5.2.
(AM) = (MB). , A(4,0), B(2,2)

, .
, M(x, y) (AM)=(MB),
z (4 + 0i) = z (2 + 2i) .
.
z1, z2 z1 z2, z
z z1 = z z2 ,

z1 z2.
5.2.3.
(z) z z 4 + 2i < 3. , (z) z

z 8 2i < 4. :
)
273
)
.
) , (z) ,
z (4 2i) < 3 ,
z (8 + 2i) < 4 .
(8, 2)
2
O
4
_2
(4, _ 2)
(4, 2), (8, 2) 42i, 8+2i .

z
. 5.2.
z (4 2i) < 3

K(4,2) r=3,

z (8 + 2i) < 4
(8,2)
r=4. , z
z (4 2i) < 3
z (8 + 2i) < 4 5.2.
) , M(z) ,
z (4 2i) < 3 ,
(8, 2)
2
O
4
_2
(4, _ 2)
. 5.2.
z (8 + 2i) 4 .
z
K(42) r=3,
z (8 + 2i) 4 ( )
(8,2) r = 4. , z
5.2.
.
5.2.1. .
) 3+4i
) 34i
) 3+4i
) 34i
) 2 3 13 i
) 2 3 + 13 i
) 13 + 2 3 i
) 13 + 2 3 i
) (4 + 3i) (5 + 4i) + (2 + 3i)
5.2.2. z1=x1+y1i, z2=x2+y2i.

.
1
1
) ( z1 + z2 )
) (2 z1 + z2 )
) 2(z1+z2)
2
3
274
5.2.3. z , :
) z=16
) z + 3 = 1 / 2
) z 2 + i = 1
) z i = z 1
5.2.4. z1=4+3i, z2=5+2i z=x+yi x, y .

z,
z 2 z1 = z 3 z2 .
x, y.
5.2.5. z1=32i, z2=1+i z=x+yi, x, y .
z,
z z2 = z1 + z2 .
x, y.
5.2.6. z=x+yi ( x, y ) z=3 w,
w=z+5. w
.
5.2.7. z, :
) z 1 + 3i 5
) z z 1 + 3i
) z 1 + 3i 5 z z 1 + 3i .
) z 1 + 3i < 5 z 1 + 3i 3 .
) z z 1 + 3i z 1 + 3i z + 1 + 3i .
) z 1 + 3i 3 z z 1 + 3i .
5.2.8.
z1=1+i, z2=1+5i, z3=5+5i, z=x+yi. o
z = x + yi, z1, z2, z3,

z z1 = z z2 = z z3 .
x,y.
5.2.9. z1=5+3i z2 , z2=8.
,
z1 + z2 .
5.2.10. , ( )
z0=7+9i. ,
z1=2+3i,
z2=32i.
) ( ).
)

;
5.2.11.
t :
z1 = t + i t, z2 = t i t, z3 = t + i t z4 = t i t.
) t, 4 -
275
1.
) 1 3 2
4.
) 1 2 3
4.
) t, 1 2, 2 4, 4 3, 3
1 .
5.2.12. z1=1+i, z2=i, z3=1, z=x+yi, x, y .
x, y, z z1 = 3 z z2 = z z3 .
5.3 .

+ x , R, x x2=1. , z1 = + i, z2 = + i,
(a + i)( + i) = a ( + i)+ i ( + i) = a + a i+ i+(i) ( i) =

= i i i 2
( + i) ( + i) = ( ) + ( + ) i .
i i ( ) ( ) i ,
(5i) (3+4i)=5(3+4i)i(3+4i)=15+20i 3i 4i2 = (15+4) + (20 3)i = 19+17i.

3+4i 34i, . :
(3 + 4i)(3 4i) = 3(3 4i) + 4i(3 4i) = 9 12i + 12i 16i 2 = 25 .
, .
+ i i
. , z = + i, , z , z = i. , 7+5i 75i, 8i 8i, 3 3.
z = + i .
(z ) = a i = a + i = z
z + z = (a + i) + (a i) = 2a = 2Re ( z ) ,
z z = (a + i) (a i) = 2 i = 2 i Im ( z)
zz
(a i)(a i) (a a ( )) (a ( ) a) i a2 2
z .
, 1.
1. A , , z, z z , z + z , (z z )/i ,
.
276
( z ) = z ,
Im( z) =
Re ( z) =
zz
,
2i
z+z
2
z = a2 + 2 = z z .
_ z = _ a+i
:
z z = z .
z z = z .
x
z = a_ i
_ z = _ a_ i
5.3
z
z = a+i
. 5.3.
z= z = z = z .
.
, z = + i, z = () + ()i
z = ( )2 + ()2 = 2+2 = z
.
z1 z2 :
z1 z2 z1 z2
z1 z2 z1 z2
, z1 = + i, z2 = + i, :
z1 + z2 = ( + ) + ( + )i, z1 z2 = ( ) + ( )i
:
z1 z2 ( ) ( ) i ( i) ( i) z1 z2
z1 z2 ( ) ( ) i ( i) ( i) z1 z2
, .
. z1 = + i z2 = + i
z2 0, z=x+yi, zz2=z1. z
1 . zz2=z1 z2 , :
z2
2
zz2 z2 = z1 z2 z z2 = z1 z2 ( x + y i)( 2 + 2 ) = (a + i)( i)
x( 2 + 2 ) + iy( 2 + 2 ) = (a + ) + ( a) i ,
x(2 + 2) = + y(2 + 2) =
277
x=
+

.
2
2 y = 2
+
+ 2
+ i +

= 2
+ 2
i.
2
+ i +
+ 2
z
1 . z2
,
z1 z2 (a + i)( i) (a + ) + ( a) i a +
a
i.i
=
=
= 2
+ 2
2
2
2
z2 z2 ( + i)( i)
+
+
+ 2
,
2 + 3 i (2 + 3 i)(5 + 2 i) 10 + 4 i + 15 i + 6 i 2 4 + 19 i 4 19
=
=
=
=
+
i.
5 2 i (5 2 i)(5 + 2 i)
29
29 29
52 + 2 2
.
, z1 = z, z 2 = zz, z 3 = z 2 z , , 2
z = z 1 z.
z 0
1
.
z
i.
z0=1 z =
i1=i,
i2=1,
i3=i2i=i,
i4=i3i=i2=1,
i5=i4i=i,
i6=i5i=ii=1,
i7=i6i=i,
i8=i7i=(i)i=1 ..
i 4 1, 1, i, i . , i , , 4 + , 0 < 4 (
4), :
i v = i 4+ = i 4 i = (i4) ^ i = i, 0 < 4.
, , i
1
i
4
4 1
4 2
= 0, 1, 2, .
4 3
i38 = i 49+ 2 = i 49 i 2 = (i 4 )9 i 2 = 1(1) = 1 .

, , z1 z2 :
278
z1z1 zz22 = z1 z2
z1 z1
( z2 0)
=
z2 z2
( z ) = ( z ) , N.
, , z1z1 zz22 = z1 z2 . z1 = + i z2 = + i,
z1 z2 = (a + i)( + i) = (a ) + ( + )i = (a ) (a + )i
z1 z2 = (a i)( i) = (a ) (a + )i .

z1z1 zz22 = z1 z2 .
z=z1/z2. zz2=z1 ,
z
z
, z1 = zz2 = z z2 , 1 = z = 1 .
z2
z2
.
, , z1,z2,...,z,
z1 z2 z = z1 z2 z .
5.3.1.
z RLC z 2 = z , R=Re(z) 1 hm.

.
z 2 = z ,
2
z 2 = z ( z 2)( z 2) = z z ( z 2)( z 2) = z z 2 z 2 z + 4 = 0 .
,
z + z = 2 2Re( z) = 2 Re( z) = 1 .
5.3.2.
z, z2=3+4i.
.
z=x+yi x,y ,
( x + yi)2 = 3 + 4i x 2 + 2 xyi + y 2 i 2 = 3 + 4i x 2 y 2 + 2 xyi = 3 + 4i .

279
2
2
x 2 y 2 = 3 x y = 3
.
2
2 xy = 4
y=
x
y = 2 / x x4 3x2 4 = 0,
x = 2 3 4 = 0. = 4 = 1. ,
, = x2 0. , x2 = 4, x = 2 x = 2.
2
x = 2 y =
2
2
= 1, x = 2 y = = 1 . , z=z1=2+i z=z2=2i.
x
x
z1=2+i z2=2i 3+4i. , +i z=x+yi,

z2=+i.
5.3.3.
z (z)=0, P()
, P ( z) = 0 .
.
P ( z) = a z + a 1 z 1 + ... + a1 z + a0 = 0 ,
0, 1, 2,..., R. P(z) = 0
z + 1 z 1 + ... + 1 z + 0 = 0

P ( z) = 0 a z + a 1 z 1 + + a1 z + a0 = 0 a ( z ) + a 1( z )-1 + + a1 z + a0 = 0 .

( z ) = 0.
:
, .
5.3.4.
z z z = 4i ( z z ) . (z) .
.
z=x+yi x, y , z = x y i ,
zz = x 2 + y 2 z z = 2 y i .
280
y
4i(z z) x 2 y 2
zz
4i( 2y i) x 2 y 2
8 y i2
x 2 y 2 8 y 0 x 2 ( y 4)2
(x, y)
42 .
, M(x,y)=M(z) K(0,4) r=4 (. 5.3).
K(0, 4)
. 5.3.
5.3.1. + i (3+5i)(52i), (1 + 3 i)(1 3 i)

(1+i)(1+2i)(1+3i).
5.3.2. + i (1i)2(1+i)2, 3i(i3)2, (1i)47i .
2 + 3i
2 + 5i
3i
.
, z2 =
, z3 =
3i
4+i
i7
z z2 z2 z
5.3.4. z1=3+i, z2=12i, 1 , 12 , 1 , 12 .
z2 z2 z2 z2
5.3.3. + i z1 =
5.3.5. z, 2 i z z z = 7 + 4i .
5.3.6. z1 = k + 15 i, z2 = 5 + i k, R. k
, z1 = 5 z2 .
5.3.7. z, z z + ( z z ) = 5 + 2 i .
5.3.8. z1 = 5i, z2 = 1 + 2i.
1 1 1 1
5.3.9. i+i2+i3+i4, + 2 + 3 + 4 i5+i10+i15+i20.
i i
i
i
2 3i
(7 i 5)(4 2i)
5.3.10. +i z1 =
, z2 =
.
(2 + 3i)(3 4i)
(8 + 5i)(3 2i)
5.3.11. z=x+yi u = ( z 1)( z i) , x=y+1.
1
3
i
2 2
) z2,z3,z4 1z+z2.
) 1z+z2z3+z4 z5+z6=1.
5.3.12. z =
5.3.13. z=x+yi x,yR, :

) z(2+3i)=4+i,
) (z+1)(2i)=34i.
5.3.14. z z+16=4z+1, z=4.
5.3.15. z 2zi=iz+2, z=1.
x
iy
4
+
=
5.3.16. x, y,
.
2 i 2 + i 1 2i
281
5.3.17. z = a2 + 1 + a i , R.
w=z2 , , .
5.3.18. z=x+yi, x, y w
i (i + z)
w =
z i . :
iz
) w =
2x
1 x2 y2
+
i.
x 2 + ( y 1)2
x 2 + ( y 1)2
) w , z (0, 0)
1.
) z , w (0, 0)
1.
5.4 .
z = + i M(, ) z . Ox,
, , (. 5.4)
= , = , = 2 + 2 .
,
+ i = + i = ( + i ) .
z = + i. , :
y
z = + i ,
, z
z=(+i),
M(, )
= z
= z = 2 + 2 , = =.
= =
z. , [0,2).
Arg z.
2,
1. , (, )
z.
, z = 3 + i
(. 5.4),
. 5.4.
z= _ 3+i
_ 3
z = ( 3) + 1 = 4 = 2 .
2
1. .
. 5.4.
5
6
2
282

3 = 2
1=2,
3
2
1
.
2
Argz=5/6, =2+5/6 z. ,
z = 3 + i
z
2 5 +i 5 .
6
6
,
( ). ,
z=0.
,
:
2, :
z1 = 1(1 + i 1) z2 = 2(2 + i 2),
z1 = z2 1 = 2 12=2,

, ,
z=zw, zw C. 5.7.
5.4.1
, :

0 < <Arg
Arg
3
z <z < z< >Arg
z <0 < Arg z <
) Arg z =
) zz >< 43
63 3
2
6
6
6
< Arg z <

6
3
) z < 4 < Arg z <

6
3
)
) z < 4 0 < Arg z <
) z < 3
< Arg z < z > 3 0 < Arg z <

6
3
6
) Arg( z 1 2 i) =
< Arg z <

6
3
2
) z 5.4
/6=30 , .
) z 5.4
, /6 = 30
/3=60 , .
283
) z, z<4,
(0,0) r=4. z,
< Arg z < 6

3
, 5.4 /6=30 /3=60 .

5.4.
) z, z<4
(0,0) r=4. z
Arg z 0 Arg z
6
3
2
5.4 /6=30
,
5.4 /3=60
. , 5.4.
) z, z>4
O(0,0) r=4. z
Arg z 0 Arg z
6
3
2
5.4 /6=30
' 5.4 /3=60 .

5.4.
y
/3
/3
/6
/6
x
. 5.4.
/6
. 5.4.
y
. 5.4.
y
/3
/3
/6
/6
O
. 5.4.
. 5.4.
284
)
z,
5.4.
) M(z), A(z0) z, z0 (. 5.4).
:

OM + MA = OA

AM = OM OA ., z z0 5.4 (
). , z0=1+2i, z12i=zz0 /3
5.4, x
/3, .
y
(z)
z _ z0
z
/3
/6
O
z0
3
. 5.4.
A (z0)
. 5.4.
/3
A(1, 2)
z0 = 1+2i
1
. 5.4.
5.4.2.
) z1 = 3 + i z2 = 3 i .
) +i z,
z = 2 Arg( z) =
.
3
4
) z1 = 3 + i z1 = ( 3 )2 + 12 = 2 .
z1 = 3 + i (+i),
=
=/6. ,
1
3
= ,
2
2
z1 = 3 + i = 2 + i .
6
6
, z2 = 3 i =(+i), iz2=2 ,
3
1
=
= ,
2
2

11
.
6
285
11
11
z2 = 3 i = 2
+ i
.
6
6
) z=(+i)

3
3
2
2
z = ( + i ) = 2
+ i = 2
+i
= 1 + i .
4
4
2
2
,
7i
5.4.1. z =
. z
3 4i
x.
5.4.2. .
) z1=8i
) z2=5
) z3=1+i
) z4 = 2 3 + 2i
5.4.3. +i .
) z1=3(2+i2)
11
11
) z3 = 5
+ i
6
6
5.4.4.
z=22i;

) z = 2 + i
) z = 2 2 + i
4
4
4
4
3
3
) z = 2 + i
4
4
5.4.5. , :
3
3
+ i
) z = 2 2
4
4
) z=3 Arg z=
4
) Arg z=
3

2
3
2
Arg z <
2
3
) Arg(z5)=
3

4
5.4.6. N z,
t 5.4, 5.4 5.4.
t
(1, 0) x
/4
O
. 5.4.
(_ 3, 6)
(_ 2, 0)
/3
O
. 5.4.
. 5.4.
286
5.4.7. ( )
1(z1), z1=3+3i. 2(z2),

z2 = 2 + i .
3
3
.
5.4.8. ( ' )
(z), z=1+3i. ,
(z), z=4+2i. () .
5.4.9. z1,z2 ,
1 1 1
z = + . z1=3+4i z2=1+i,
z z1 z2
.
2
.
5.4.10. z
11 i
) z z=x+yi, x, yR.
) z.
) z (2,0)
r = 2 .
z 3i
.
5.4.11. z, w, w =
1+ i
) w=22i, z.
) w = 2 2 , z
.
) z = x + yi x, yR, :
x + y 3
x + y 3
, Im (w) =
2
2
) z Arg(w) = .
4
Re(w) =
5.5 .
(, ,
) , o
. , 5.2

z1 z2 z1 + z2 z1 + z2
, , .
z1,z2
287
z1 z2 = z1 z2 ,
z
z1
= 1 ( z2 0).
z2
z2
,
2
z1 z2 = z1 z2 z1 z2 = z1 z2 ( z1 z2 )( z1 z2 ) = z1 z1 z2 z2 z1 z2 z1 z
2
= z1 z2 z1 z2 = z1 z2 ( z1 z2 )( z1 z2 ) = z1 z1 z2 z2 z1 z2 z1 z2 = z1 z1 z2 z2
.

z1 =
z1
z
z2 = 1 z2 .
z2
z2
, z1 z2 z = z1 z2 z z1 = z2 = ... = z = z z = z .
, z z = z ,
z
z
=
=1 .
z
z

5.4.
( ).
z1 = 1 (1 + i 1), z2 = 2 (2 + i 2)
,
z1 ^ z2 = 12 [ (1+2)+i(1+2)]
z1
z2
U1
[(1 2 ) i (1 2 )], 2 0.
U2

z1
2 i z2
3
3
4 i .
6
6
z1 z2 = 8 + + i + = 8 + i = 8i ,
2
2
3 6
3 6
z1 2
3 1

1
= + i = + i =
+i .
z2 4
6
6 4
4
3 6
3 6 2

:
) ,
288
M(z1 z2)
M1(z1 )
y
_
M1(z1)
M2(z2)
M(iz)
M(z)
M2(z2 )
1 2
M(z1/z2 )
. 5.5.
.
1 2
. 5.5.
.
. 5.5.
(
).
) () () , :
Arg (z1 z2) = Arg z1 + Arg z2, Arg (z1 / z2) = Arg z1 Arg z2 .
, z1 = 1 (1 + i 1)
z2 = 2 (2 + i 2) z1
2 (. 5.5).
, z1 z2 z1
2 (. 5.5).
i=(/2)+i(/2) 1 /2, iz z /2 z,
z i z 1 /2 (. 5.5).
:
z i M(z) /2, i2=1
M(z) , i3=i M(z) 3/2.
5.5.1.
1 + + i
(2+1),
1 + i
. z100.
z =
w=1++i z =
w
z=1.
w
1. , .
289
z z =
w w2
=
:
w ww
(1 i )2
(1 i )(1 i )
(1 )2 2 2i (1 )

(1 )2 2
1 + 2 + 2 2 + 2i (1 + ) 2 2 + 2 + 2i (1 + )
=
=
2 + 2
1 + 2 + 2 + 2
(1 )( i )
i .
1
z . z100
z100 = z
100
= 1100 = 1 .
5.5.1.
2
1+ i 1 i
(1 + i)2 , (1 i)2 ,
,
1 i 1+ i
a+ i

, , a i
2+20.
5.5.2. z1=1+i z2 = 1 3 i ,

z z2 z
z1 z2 , 1 , 1 , 12 .
z2 z2 z2
5.5.3.
z z = 1 /3.

1 z
z1 =
.
1+ z
1

5.5.4.
z = + i .
z
1
1
z + , z .
z
z
5.5.5.
z =1+ i
[0,] .
2
5.5.6. z=x+yi,
z
1
=
z 3 2
290
+ i
z22 =
= 11+i,
+i z1/z2 ,
5.5.7. z1 = 3 +i
,

.
12
12
5.6 De Moivre.
z z = ( + i ).
5.5 :
z2
UU [( ) i ( )] U 2 ( 2 i 2) .
z3
z z2
[ U ( i )] [ U 2 (2 i 2)]
U 3 [( 2) i ( 2)] U 3 (3 i 3)
... , ( ) De Moivre
( ).
De Moivre
:
[ U ( i )]
U [( ) i ( )] .
De Moivre (.
). De Moivre, (1+i)40.
1+i :
1 i
1+i
,
(1 i)40 2 i
4
4
40
2 i
4
4
40
40
( 2)40
i
4
4
220 [(10 ) i (10)] 220 (1 i 0) 220
2048.
5.6.1.
( 3 i)3
.
( 3 + i)5
z1 = 3 + i , 5.4.2
:
z1 = 3 + i = 2 + i
6
6

5
5
( 3 + i)5 = z13 = 25
+ i .
6
6
291
, z2 = 3 i ,
11
11
z2 = 3 i = 2
+ i
6
6
33
33
z23 = ( 3 i)3 = 23
+ i
.
6
6
, :
33
33
23
+ i
( 3 i)
6
6
28
28
=
= 22
+ i
=
5
5
5
6
6
( 3 + i)
5
2
+ i
6
6
1
2
2
3
= 4
+ i
= 2 + 2i 3 .
= 4 + i
3
3
2
2
3
5.6.2.
z=1+i.
) N z10.
) z2,z3,...,z11.
.
) z=1+i z = 12 + 12 = 2 .
z=1+i ( +i ),
=
=/4. ,
1
2
1
2
=
=
,
=
2
2
2
2
z = 2 + i
4
4
De Moivre
10
10
10

10
+ i
z10 = 2 + i = 2
= 32 i.
4
4
4
4

) z :
2
2
3
3
3
3
z 2 = 22
+ i
+ i
= 2i, z = 2
= 2 + 2i
4
4
4
4
4
4
11
11
11
z 4 = 24
+ i
+ i
= 4,... z = 32 2
= 32 32 i.
4
4
4
4
292
z2,z3,...,z11 z 5.6.
, , (. 5.6).
. ,
, [. 3.6()] .. .
, 5.6().
z11
z10
z9
z4
z3 z2
z
z8
z5
z6
()
()
. 5.6.
z7
. 5.6.
.
5.6.1. +i
z1
1
,
(1 i)5
100
1+ i 3
z4 =
,
2
i
6
6
16

z2 i ,
4
4
z3
9 i 9
100
100
2+ 2 +i 2
1 i 3
z5 =
, z6 =
2+ 2 i 2
2
1+ i
z7 =
2008
5.6.2. +i
5
5
5

i .
[2(10 i 10 )] , i , 3
3
3
4
4
5.6.3. z
( i)10
.
( i )5
600
600
5.6.4. z1 = 3 + i z2 = 3 i , z1600 + z2600 z1 z2 .
293
3
, z3 (1z)8.
2
3
1
3
i = 1.
5.6.6. +
2
2
5.6.5. z = 1 i
5.6.7. z1 = 3 + i z2 = 3 i , 12
12
z1 + z2 , . z1 + z2 .
5.6.8. ( +i )3 +i:
) De Moivre.
)
.
3=423, 3=343.
5.7 .
5.3.2 z z2=3+4i z1=2+i z2=2i. , z=x+yi,
z2 = +i + i.
:
z w,
>1, z= w.
, ,
w,
.
w= ( + i ) ,

2
2
, =0, 1, 2,..., 1.
i
(5.7.1)
.
z, =0,1,..., 1 ,
(0,0) r U ( z U
=0,1,..., 1). , , z0,z1,z2,...,z1 ' ,
, z0 /.
i .
A wa== 3 i
(=3) , .
w = ( 3 )2 + (1)2 = 4 = 2 =

7
. ,
6
7
7
w 2
i
6
6
1
3
, = ,
2
2
294
, wa = 3 i

7
7
+ 2
+ 2
3
6
6
z = 2
+ i
, = 0, 1, 2
3
3

7
7
19
19
31
31
i , z1 3 2
i
i
z0 3 2
, z2 3 2
.
18
18
18
18
18
18
,
(0,0) 3 w 3 2 .
5.7.1.
z=1. ,
1, z1, z12 , z13 ,..., z1 1
2
2
.
i
0,
(1)1.
z1
z=1, (5.7.1), w = 1(0 + i0),

0 + 2
0 + 2
z = 1
+ i
, =0,1,2,..., 1,
2
2
i
, 0,1, 2,..., 1.
=1
z1 =

2
2
+ i
2
2
2
2
+ i
=
+ i
,
z = z1 ,
=0,1,2,...,1.

z0 = 1,
z1 = z1 ,
z2 = z12 , ... , z 1 = z1 1 .

z0z0++zz11 +
= 1 + z1 + z12 + + z1 1
+ zz22 ++...+
+ zz1
1 ==
295
2
1, z1 , z1 ,..., z1
1=1 =z11,
( z ) 1 1 1
=
= 0.
z0 + z1 + z2 + + z 1 = 1 + z1 + z12 + + z1 1 = 1 1
z1 1
z1 1
,
z0 z1 z2 z 1 = 1 z1 z12 z13 z1 1
z11+ 2+3+ +( 1)
2
2
=
+ i
z0 z1 z2 " z 1
( 1)
2
( 1)
z1 2
2( 1)
2( 1)
+ i
,
2
2
[ ( 1)] i ( ( 1)] ( i ) 1 (1) 1 .
z=1 .
,
2
r = 1. =
.
, z3 = 1
:
2
2
z =
+ i
, =0,1,2.
3
3
y
B
2
r=1. =
,
3
5.7.
2/3
z3=1
A
x
z31=0 (z1)(z2+z+1)=0 z 1 = 0
z2+z+1=0 z=1 z2+z+1=0
, z3=1
(. 1),
3=1, 2++1=0.
. 5.7
,
3
z = 3 i z3+3z2+3z+2=0
, z=1 ,
. :
P(z) = 0, , z+1z1 +...+1z +0=0 0,1,...,C, 0
.
296
w P(z)=0, P(z)=zw.
z1,z2,...,z P(z) ( ),

P(z)=(zz1) (zz2) (zz).

C. C

.
z2+z+=0, ,,R 0.
2

2 4

z
+
=0z+
2 = 0,
2
2
2 4
4
=24 z2+z+. ,
) > 0 , , z1

, z2
2

.
2
.
2
)
<0, ( >0).
) =0 , , z =
i
i
i
z
+
+
=0z+
z +
= 0.

2 2
2
2
2
2
,
z1
i
,
2
z2
i
.
2
5 , (z) = 0,
P(z)=z5+2z4z2.
2, .
1,2. z=1 P(1)=0, 1 .
Horner z =1,
1
2
1
0
3
0
3
1 2
3 2
0
2

P ( z) = z 5 + 2 z 4 z 2 = ( z 1)( z 4 + 3 z 3 + 3 z 2 + 3 z + 2) .
,
P(z) ( 1 )
P ( z) = z 5 + 2 z 4 z 2 = ( z 1)( z 4 + az 3 + z 2 + z + )
297
,,,
z.
z 4 + 3 z 3 + 3 z 2 + 3 z + 2 , z=1 Horner
3
1
3
2
3
1
2
2
0
z 4 + 3 z 3 + 3 z 2 + 3 z + 2 = ( z + 1)( z 3 + 2 z 2 + z + 2) .
z=2 Horner
1
2
1
2
2
2 0 2
0
1
0
1
z 3 + 2 z 2 + z + 2 = ( z + 2)( z 2 + 1) .
, P ( z) = z 5 + 2 z 4 z 2

P ( z) = ( z 1)( z + 1)( z + 2)( z 2 + 1) = ( z 1)( z + 1)( z + 2)( z i)( z + i)
1,1,2,i,i.
, z2+z+=0, (,,R, 0) <0
.
, (. . 5.3.3):
+i (0) , i .
' :
K , ,
.
P(z)=z5+2z4z2 1,1,2,i,i

<0, P(z)=(z1)(z+1)(z+2)(z2+1).
:
, .
298
5.7.2.
(x), , P(1)=2
(x) = 0 2 1+i.
.
1+i, 1i.
, 3 2, 1i, 1+i
P ( x ) = a( x 2)( x (1 i))( x (1 + i)),
a R* .
P ( x ) a( x 2)( x 2 x(1 i) x(1 i) (12 i2 ))
a( x 2)( x 2 2 x 2) a( x 3 4 x 2 6 x 4) .
P(1)=2,
(13 4 12 + 6 1 4) = 2 = 2 = 2
P ( x ) = 2( x 3 4 x 2 + 6 x 4) = 2 x 3 8 x 2 + 12 x 8 .
5.7.1. .
) z4=16
) z9z5+z41=0
4
) z =
2i
1 i
5.7.2. .
) z4=i
3
) z =
(1 i)

2
8
8
+ i
) z 4 = 16
5
5
4
) z =
1+ i 3

2
) z6=64
4
) z =
1 i 3
2
5.7.3. z = ( +i ) z
) z .
) z9( z )5=1.
3
5 1
+
= .
5.7.4. z7=1, +
7
7
7 2
5.7.5. , 1,
(1 + 2) (1 + 2).
5.7.6. .
( z 2 1)2 z 3 z 0 , z 23 z16 1 0 .
5.7.7. 1. w , w1:
) w2w+1=0.
299
) (1+w+w2) (1+ww2).
) w, w, ww .
5.7.8. :
) z 2 2 z = 0
) z34z=0.
;
5.7.9. :
) (1i)z+2i z =5+3i
) z37z2+16z10=0
) z33z2+3z28=0
) z4=4(z2+z+1)+z
) z +4+8i = 2 z +1+2i
2
2
) z = z
) z22z+2=0
) ( z 1)3 (1 i)( z + 1)3 = 0
5.7.10. z 4 ( z + 1)2 + z 2 + 2 z 3 + z 2 + ( z + 1)2 = 0 .

5.7.11.
z3+3z2+3z+9=0
.
5.7.12. 1+i z3z2+2a=0, R
1 .
5.7.13. z=3+2i z35 z2+7z+13=0,
,R. ==1 .
5.7.14. P(x)=x6x3+1
.
5.7.15. P(z)=(z+1)6k+1z6k+11 k .
) P(z).
) (z) z2 +z+1.
5.7.16.
z2+6z+18= 0. z1, z2
, w =
z12 + z22 2i
+i, , R.
z1 z2 + 3i
5.7.17. 3+i z38z2+az+=0.

) =22, = 20.
) z38z2+22z20 z26z+10.
) .
5.8 .
i.
z = + i.

z = + i.

z1 = + i, z2 = + i
i2=(i)2=1
Re(z)=a, Im(z)=
z = a2 + 2
= =
300
( + i) + ( + i) = ( + ) + ( + )i
( i) ( i) ( ) ( )i
( + i) ( + i) = ( ) + ( + )i
+ i +
=
+
i
+ i 2 + 2 2 + 2
z
.
(z )
2 Re( z ), z z
2 i Im(z)
z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 , z1 z2 = z1 z2
.
z1 z2
i.
z, zz
a i a i
z
z1 z2 , 1
z2
z1
, ( z ) ( z ) ,
z2
1
i
i 4 i
1
i
, 0, 0<4.
0
1
2
3
z z z z , zz z , z1 z2 z1 z2 ,
z1 z1
, z2 0
z2 z2
z1 z2 z1 + z2 z1 + z2
zz0=r
z0=x0+iy0.
(x0, y0) r.
z z1 = z z2 .

z1 z2.
z= (+i) =z,
z = + i.
z,
z1 = 1(1 +i 1), z2 = 2(2 +i 2)

.
z1 z2 = 1 2 [(1 + 2) + i (1+2)
z1
z2
U1
[( 1 2 ) i ( 1 2 )], U 2 z 0
U2
/2 (
z i.
).
301
3/2 (
z i3=i.
).
z = ( +i ), z = [()+i ()]
De Moivre.

w=( +i ).
2
2 , =0,1,2,...,1
i
- + i ( 0), i
.
.

z+1z1+...+ 1z+0=0
P(z)=0, . 0,1,...,C, 0,
.
5.9 .
,
, .
1.
z , z + z = 0 .
2.
z1,z2 z12 + z22 = 0 ,

z1=z2=0.
3.
z z 2 = z .
4.
z z 2 = z 2.
5.
z=(2+3i)20+(23i)20 .
6.
z + z = 0 , Re(z)=2.
7.
z =
8.
z3+z2+=0 ,,R 0

.
9.
z + z = 0

.
10.
z z = 2i

.
11.
z , z/i

.
2
+ i , z200 1.
4
4
302
12.
z z = z = z = z .
13.
.N
z ( z ) = ( z ) , N
14.
15.
,
.
(z)=0

1i, (z) z22z+2.
16.
1(1 + i 1) = 2(2 + i 2), 1 = 2 1 = 2.
17.
De Moivre [( + i )] = [() + i ()]

.
18.
z i
M(z) /2.
19.
z i3 = i
M(z) 3/2.
20.
, z+1z1+...
...+ 1z+0=0 0,1,...,C, 0, -
.
21.
z40=1024 ,

.
40
22.
z10 = 310 ,
(0,0) r = 3.
23.
z 3 = 7 + i 25 , (0,0)
r= 2 .
24.
3

1 + i, i i.
.
1.
2.
3.
4.
z = +i , :
) = 0 = 0
) = 0
) = 0 = 0
) = 0
z = i, :
1
= z
) z2 = i
) z2 = z
z
z i2 = 1
:
) /2
)
) 3/2
) 3/4
) z2 = 1
z (z1). 1+z+z2 :
) 0
) 1
) 3
) 1
303
5.
6.
7.
4 :
) z=2i
) z=2
) z=2+i
) z=2
z = 3 + 2 :
) z = 2 3
) z = 3 + 2
) z = 3 2
) z = 3 2
z , :
) zz = 1
) z + z = 0
) z z = 0
) zz = 0
z2+3z+4=0 :
8.
) . ) .
) .
9.
) .
z1, z2 1, 2 .
z1
:
z2
) 1+2
) 12
) 1
) 12
2
z1, z2 1, 2 .
z1z2 :
10.
) 1+2
) 12
) 1
) 21
2
P(z)=0 i,
11. P(z) :
) z22z+2
) z2+2
) z2+i
) z2+1
OA
OB
z,
,
JJJG
JJJG
iz, O i2z O
iz. :
JJJG
12.
) O z . ) .
) A, B, , . )
.
z1=1, z2=i, z3=1, z4=i :
13. ) 1. ) yy.
) 2. ) xx.
z w, 14. >1, :
) w = z
) z = w
) z = wi
) z = w
= ( + i ) :
15. ) .
) .
) .
) 2 .
304
5.10 .
z z
5.10.1. z z0 , 2 + 2 .
z z
2 + iz
5.10.2. z, w, w =
1 iz
, wR, z .
z + z
5.10.3. z z z = z = 1 . u =
1 + zz
.
5.10.4. (1+i)4(1i)4, .
5.10.5. (+i)2008=(i)2008 , .
5.10.6. z1=7+8i z2=45i.
z = z1 z2 z
z4.
z 4i
, z2 , 5.10.7. z. u =
z2
M(z)
.
5.10.8.
z=x+yi, zz 2( z + z ) = 0 .
M(x,y)
.
5.10.9. z=x+yi. u=2iz+1+i u = 4 , M(x,y)
.
2
5.10.10. z1 z2 z1 + z2 + z1 z2 = 2 z1 + 2 z2 .
2
, i + z + i z
z z=3.
5.10.11. T
z
T ()
, >0
1
R i L
z R,L,C .
rad/sec.
1
1
z
1
) h()
.
L
, ! 0, T ()
R 1 i h()
R
C
) h.
)
1+ih()
5.10.12. O RLC
i
z1 R i L z2 R
, R, , L, C .
C
) z , z1 z2
1 1 1
. = +
.
) z , . z z1 z2
5
. , ,
.
. , ,
.
.
17
. ,
.

. (
) ,
.
, ...
6.1 .
6.2 .
6.3 .
6.4
.
6.5 .
6.6 . .
6.7 .
6.8 .
6.9 .
lx im
x0
306
6.1 .

. , f
F, F(x)=f(x) .
:
) S(t) t, (t)
, 4, S(t) = '(t).
) P(t) t,
, 4, f(t)=P(t)
P(t).
) N(t) t,
f(t)=N(t) .
f
F, F(x)=f(x) . H F
f.
:
f ' . f F
:
F(x)=f(x), x .
, f F, .
1
, F ( x) = x 4 f(x)=x3 R,
4
1
1
( x 4 ) = x 3. , cR ( x 4 + c) = x 3 , 4
4
1 4
G ( x) = x + c = F ( x) + c , cR, f R.
4
:
f . F f
, :
) G(x)=F(x)+c, cR, f

) f G(x)=F(x)+c,
cR.
, F f, F(x)+c, cR,
f, (F(x)+c)= F(x)=f(x).
, G f, x F(x)=f(x) G(x)=f(x),
:
G(x)=F(x), x.
307
, 4.3, cR ,
G(x)=F(x)+c, x .
f f f ( x) dx (
x x). , F f :
f ( x)dx
F ( x) c , cR.
, (ex)=ex (ln | x |) =
dx
ex c
1
, :
x
1
x dx
ln x c .
, c
.
4.2.1, 4.2.2 4.2.5 6.1.1.
6.1.1
.
adx
1
x dx
x dx
ax c (
a
( a RR) )
e dx
x
ex c
ln | x | c
xdx
x c
x 1
c ( a z 1)
a 1
xdx
x c
dx
x dx
2
x
a dx
x c
x c
ax
c
ln a
6.1.1 , x
. .
, :
xD 1
D
x
dx
c
D 1
c
x D 1
' (D 1) x D
0 x D .
c
1

1
D
D

6.1.1.
N f ,
A(2,4) Cf (x, f(x)) x xR.
.
Cf (x, f(x) f(x). , f(x)=x, :
308
x2
+c .
2
22
+ c = 4 c = 2,
f A(2,4) f(2)=4,
2
x2

f ( x) =
+ 2.
2
f ( x) = xdx =
, F f
, F(x)=f(x), x, :
f ( x)dx
F ( x ) c , cR.
, f(x)=F(x),
F c( x)dx
F ( x ) c .
:
f, ' , :
f c( x)dx
f ( x) c , cR.
A F , G f, g ' R,
:
( F G ) c( x ) F c( x ) G c ( x ) f ( x ) g ( x )
(O F )c( x) O F c( x) O f ( x)
x . F +G f+g F, R,
f .
:
f g , ( ) f, R f + g.
:
f ( x)dx f ( x)dx, R .
) ( f ( x) g ( x))dx f ( x)dx g ( x)dx.
:
9
5 x dx
(4e
5 x 9 dx
5x)dx
x10
c
10
x10
c ,
2
4 e x dx 5 dx
4e x 5x +
c.
309
4.2.3
. , :
c g c( x)
c
g c( x)

2 g ( x)
g ( x)
g ( x)
2 g ( x)
g c( x)
dx
g ( x)
g ( x)
2 g ( x) c , cR.
, 4.2.2, 6.1.2.
6.1.2
.
g c( x)
[ g ( x)]
dx
g c( x)
g ( x) dx
1
c
g ( x)
g c( x)dx
eg ( x) c
( g ( x)) g c( x)dx
ln | g ( x) | c
a
( g ( x)) g c( x)dx
g ( x)
( g ( x ))a1
c ( a z 1)
1
( g ( x)) g c( x)dx
( g ( x)) c
( g ( x)) c
, 3x 2 ( x 3 + 1) 4 d x
g(x)=x3+1, g(x)=3x2
3x
( x 1) d x
4
g c( x)( g ( x)) dx
( g ( x)) 41
4 1
( g ( x)) 5
5
( x 3 1) 5
.
5
6.1.2.
m/min t
(t)=t2(2t+3)+5. t = 0 3 m
, t=2 min.
.
4, u(t) = s'(t) S(t) . :

S (t ) = t 2 (2t + 3) + 5 = 2t 3 + 3t 2 + 5

Sc(t)dt (2t
:
3t 2 5)dt
2t dt 3t
3
S (t ) =
dt 5dt 2 t 3 dt 3 t 2 dt 5dt 2
1 4 3
t + t + 5t + c
2
t4
t3
3 5t c.
4
3
310
S(0)=3, 0+c=3, c=3,

S (t ) =
1 4 3
t + t + 5t + 3 .
2
t=2min
t=2. :
1 4
S(2)
m.
S( t )
2 23 5 2 3 29m
2
6.1.3.
N :
)
3x 5
x 2 4 x 3 dx ,
2x 2 5x 1
x 2 4 x 3 dx .
3x 5
3x 5
R{1,3} f ( x)

( x 1)( x 3)
x 4x + 3
( x1
x3) :
3x 5
a
E

.
( x 1)( x 3) x 1 x 3
) f ( x) =
, , ,

3x 5 D ( x 3) E ( x 1) 3 x 5 (D E ) x (3D E ) .
xR{1,3} :
D E 3
3D E 5
= 1, = 2. :
3x 5
( x 1)( x 3)
1
2

x 1 x 3
:
3x 5
( x 1)( x 3) dx x 1 x 3 dx x 1 dx 2 x 3 dx .

g c( x)
g ( x) dx
ln | g ( x) | c
6.1.2 g(x)=x1 g(x)=x3 ,

3x 5
( x 1)( x 3) dx
ln | x 1 | 2 ln | x 3 | c
ln(| x 1 | ( x 3) 2 ) c .
311
) 2x25x+1 x24x+3,
2 x 2 5 x + 1 = 2( x 2 4 x + 3) + (3x 5)
:
:
2 x 2 5x 1
x 2 4 x 3 dx
2 x 2 5x + 1
3x 5
= 2+ 2
2
x 4x + 3
x 4x + 3
2dx x
3x 5
dx
4x 3
2 x ln(| x 1 | ( x 3) 2 ) c .

,
(.. ,
).
6.1.1.
N(t), , N(t)=et .
.
6.1.2.
(t) t, (t)= t.
S(t) t
S(t)=a(t), a(t) .
6.1.3.
.
) F(x)=x23x+2
) F(x)=ex2
) F(x)=e2x+1
) F(x)=ex+2
) F(x)=x(x3)
) F(x)=e2x
) F(x)=e2x2e
) F(x)=e2x(e+e2x)
) F(x)=x2+3x2
6.1.4. .
3
)
) (( 44 xx 3
2
2
xx

xx)) dx
dx
99
39
29
)
) (( xx 99
4
4 xx 39
3
3 xx 29 ))dx
dx
)
)
)
)
2
x 22
xx 2 dx
x
e
5
5e xx 33 dx
x2
4 xx11 )dx
)

) ((33xx22x
24 x 1)xdx
1
) )
(3 (3 4 4 ) dx) dx
3 2

x
x
2
2
2
2
dx
xx dx
x 22 3x 2
2x 2 3 x 2 dx
)
) x x 3xx223x2 2dx
) )
x 2xx 2 dxdx
6.1.5. :
f ( x)
x x
,
ex
g ( x)
) f(x)=g(x) xR.
)
x x
dx .
ex
dx
xx xx dx
xx
3
3
)
) x 9 dx
dx
x 9
)
)
3
3
2
2
x 22 x
2 x 2 x dx
)
) x x xx33 x dx
) )
x 3 xx 3dxdx
x .

ex
312
x 3
.
x 6x + 8
+
) , , f ( x ) =
.
x2 x4
x 3
dx
) f ( x )dx = 2
x 6x + 8
6.1.6. f f ( x ) =
6.1.7. , 6.1.2.
2
6
) 2 x( x + 3) dx
4 x3 + 3
dx
dx
) 4
x + 3x + 2
) x e
x
x
) e e dx
x
x
10
) (2e + 1)(2e + x ) dx
x
dx
x
dx
ex
dx
(2 + e x )3
2x
x 2 + 1 dx
1
dx
dx
x ln x
f, f(x)
6.1.8.
xR, f(0)=f(0)=1 f(1)=4.
f ,
6.1.9. N
A(1,4) Cf (x,f(x)) 3x2+2x+1
xR.
E(x), 0x1000 x ,
6.1.10.
x
E( x ) = 500 , x
2
10. 200 ,
.
.
m/min2 t
6.1.11.
a(t)=et+2t1. t=0 3 m
1m/min.
) t.
) t.
) t=2 min.
' ,
6.1.12.
:
t2
f ( t) = 0,1 + 0, 3t
,
60
f(t) t .
2 3 ( f f(0)=0).
2
, 6te3t , t
6.1.13.
. T0=37oC,
t.
6.1.14. :
313
x2 4x + 3
dx
dx
) 2
x 4x
9 x2 + 3x 1
dx
) 2
9 x + 3x 2
x2 3x + 2
dx
)
x2 4
x x2 + 2
5e 2
dx
)
x 1
x2 3x + 1
dx
)
x2 9
2x
dx
x +9
2
6.2 .
f, g ' ,
( 3 . 3.2) :
( f ( x ) g ( x )) = f ( x ) g ( x ) + f ( x ) g ( x ) , x.
f ( x) g ( x)dx = ( f ( x) g( x))dx f ( x) g( x)dx = f ( x) g( x) f ( x) g( x)dx + c ,
( f ( x) g ( x))dx = f ( x) g( x)dx + c .
c (
) ,
.
f ( x) g ( x)dx = f ( x) g ( x) f ( x) g( x)dx

, f(x) x,
.
, xe 2 x dx , e2x
c
12 e 2 x ', :
xexe
22xx
dx
dx
11
22xx '
xx22ee
11
11 22xx 11 22xx
11
dx xx ee22xx ((xx))cc ee22xxdx
dx
xe
xe ee dx
dx
dx
22
22
22
22
xe
2x
dx =
1 2x 1 2x
xe e + c .
2
4

x
P( x)e dx , P( x)( x)dx , P( x)( x)dx , P( x)ln( x)dx ,
P(x) x ,

x
x )exxdx.
dx
(ax)e dx, ((ax)e

.
314
6.2.1.
N :
) x 3 xdx
2
) ( x + 2 x + 1)ln xdx
2
x
) ( x + x )e dx
) (ex)=ex, :
(x
+ x )e x dx = ( x 2 + x )(e x )dx = ( x 2 + x )e x ( x 2 + x )e x dx == ( x 2 + x )e x (2 x + 1)e x dx .
(2 x + 1)e
dx = (2 x + 1)(e x )dx = (2 x + 1)e x (2 x + 1)e x dx =

= (2 x + 1)e x (2 x + 1)e x dx = (2 x + 1)e x 2e x dx = (2 x + 1)e x 2e x + c
(x
+ x )e x dx = ( x 2 + x )e x ((2 x + 1)e x 2e x + c) = ( x 2 x + 1)e x + c 1 .
. ,
c
.
) x2+2x+1 ( 13 x 3 + x 2 + x ) :
(x
+ 2 x + 1)ln xdx = ( 13 x 3 + x 2 + x ) ln xdx = ( 13 x 3 + x 2 + x )ln x ( 13 x 3 + x 2 + x )(ln x )dx
( 13
x + x + x )(ln x )dx =
3
1
3
x3 + x 2 + x
x
dx = ( 13 x 2 + x + 1)dx =
2
3
2
( x + 2 x + 1)ln xdx = ( 13 x + x + x)ln x (
x3 x 2
+
+ x+c
9
2
x3 x 2
+
+ x + c)
9
2
) 3x ( 13 3x )c :
1
x3xdx = 3 x(3x)dx = 3 x3x + 3 3xdx = 3 x3x + 9 3x + c .

6.2.2.
xdx
N e 2 x 4(4x)dx.
.
xdx
I= e 2 x 4(4x)dx
I
( 12 e
2x
)c(4 x )dx
1 2x
e (4 x ) 4 e 2 x (4 x )dx
1
1
= e 2 x (4 x ) 2 e 2 x (4 x )dx = e 2 x (4 x ) (e 2 x )(4 x )dx =
2
2
315
1 2x
e (4 x ) e 2 x (4 x ) e 2 x ((4 x )) dx =
1
= e 2 x (4 x ) e 2 x (4 x ) 4 e 2 x (4 x )dx .
2
:
1
= e 2 x (4 x ) e 2 x (4 x ) 4
2

1 1
= e 2 x (4 x ) e 2 x (4 x ) .
5 2
, :
2x
(4x )dx
1 2x
1
e (4 x ) e 2 x (4 x ) c , cR.
10
5
f ( g ( x )) g ( x )dx f F.
f, F F=f, F(g(x))=(Fg)(x)
( F ( g ( x ))) = F ( g ( x )) g ( x ) = f ( g ( x )) g ( x ) ,

f ( g ( x)) g ( x)dx = F ( g( x)) g ( x)dx = ( F( g( x)))dx = F( g( x)) + c

u=g(x)
f ( g ( x)) g ( x)dx = F(u) + c = f (u)du .

,
.
f ( g ( x)) g ( x)dx = f (u)du ,
u=g(x) du=g(x)dx.
, (3 x 2 2) (x 3 2 x 1)dx
dx 3
2
3
u=x +2x+1, du = ( x + 2 x + 1)dx = (3 x + 2)dx
(3 x
2) (x 3 2 x 1) dx
(u)du
u c ( x 3 2 x 1) c .

3
(g (x)) g ( x)dx = (g ( x)) + c 6.1.2 g(x)=x +2x+1.
316
6.2.3.
N :
3
2
19
2
) x( x + )dx
) x( x 2)( x 3 x + 1) dx =
3
.
(1 / x )
dx
x2
, du = ( x 2 + )dx = 2 xdx :
3
3
1
1
1
2
2
x( x + 3 )dx = 2 udu = 2 u + c = 2 ( x + 3 ) + c .
) u = x 2 +
) u = x 3 3 x 2 + 1 , du = ( x 3 3 x 2 + 1)dx = 3 x( x 2)dx ,
:
1 19
1 u20
1
3
2
19
x
(
x
2
)(
x
3
x
+
1
)
dx
=
u
du
=
+ c = ( x 3 3 x 2 + 1)20 + c .
3
3 20
60
1
1
1
) u = , du = ( )dx = 2 dx , :
x
x
x
(1 / x )
x 2 dx = udu + c = u + c = (1 / x) + c .
.
6.2.1. N .
2 2 x
) x e dx
2
3 x
) ( x + x + 1)e dx
11
) x ln xdx
) e 3 x 2 xdx
6.2.2. N .
2
) 3d
) u5udu
2
) (2t + 3t)ln tdt
6.2.3. N .
x3
2
2
9
dx .
(
x
2
x
+
3
)
(
x
1
)
dx
) x x 2 + 1dx
) x5x dx
)
)
4
1+ x
x+2
2
2
dx
) e d
) x 9 x dx
te t dt
) 2
5
)
( x + 4 x)
6.2.4. N .
)
ln x
dx
x3
3
2 x
) x e dx
e
dx
(e + 2)ln(e x + 2)
) e
2 x +1
(3 x )dx
1

x dx
)
x2
x
dx
)
x
317
) e 2 x (5 x )dx
) x 5 e x dx
3
x 2 + 1 x 2 + 1 dx
6.2.5. N :
( ) + ( + ) = 2 ,
( ) + ( + ) = 2 ,
( ) ( + ) = 2 .
) (20x )(10x )dx
) x (3x )dx
) (3x )(5x )dx
6.3 .
f [,], ,
f(x)0 x[,]. E()
f, x x = a, x =
:
) [,] , x =
,
=x0<x1<x2<...<x=. [,].
) [x1,x], =1,2,..., . 1,
2,..., .
x f(). (. 6.3) :
f ( ) x
) (),
E1 E2 ... E
f (1 ) x f (2 ) x " f ( ) x,
R=[f(1)+... +f()]x.
,
, R
y

.
R, ( x=()/
, . )
.
f()
f(2)

f(1)
f , :
f ( x)dx
f
.

Riemann, (6.3.1)
(6.3.1)
y=f(x)
f()
=x0 1 x1 2 x2 ... x_1 x ... x_1 x=

_
x=
. 6.3.
318
y
Riemann Riemann.
Leibniz.
.

4,
f .

f ( x )dx x
x_1
. 6.3.
, , f ( x )dx , f ( t)dt , f (u)du
( f ( x )dx
6.1, ).
f [,] ,
, [x1,x], =1,2,..., , ,
(
3.8).
(. 6.3):
f ( ) d f ( ) d f ( )
E f ( ) x x f() :
f ( ) x d f ( ) x d f ( ) x f ( ) x d E d f ( ) x
( E
f, x x = x = .
:

f (1 ) x f (2 ) x " f ( ) x , S
f ( 1 ) x f ( 2 ) x " f ( ) x
(6.3.2)
sRS, s()S.
, (
x=()/ ), s, S
. R
( sRS) E() ,
f, x x = , x = ( s()S).
f ,
R.
6.3,
f [, ].
f [, ] :
f(x) 0 x [, ], E()
f ( x)dx t 0 .
319
, f [, ],
f ( x)dx ,
f ( x)dx > 0.
,
[, ] (6.3.1), (6.3.2),
sRS. , s, R, S , ( x=()/ ).
f . ,
,
f ( x)dx
xx
xx (. 6.3 6.3)1.
f ( x )dx
< ( [, ]).
= >, :
f ( x)dx
y
0
f ( x)dx
f ( x )dx , >.
s
O
f()
R
1
. . .
. 6.3.
. . .
y=f(x)
y
O =x0 1 x1
x2
. 6.3.
+
x_1
x= x
. 6.3.
1. , .. [, ]. ,
.
320

,

( ).
f f(x)0
x , , , << (. 6.3).
, 1 2 ,
()= (1)+(2).
E( )
f ( x)dx,
f ( x)dx, E(2 ) f ( x)dx,
E(1 )
Cf
. 6.3.
f ( x)dx f ( x)dx f ( x)dx .
, , ( )
f. :
f , , , :
f ( x)dx f ( x)dx f ( x)dx .

, .
f, g [, ] R. :
)
)
f ( x)dx
f ( x )dx
[ f ( x ) g ( x )]dx
f ( x )dx g ( x )dx
, f (f(x)0 x [a, ])
f ( x )dx
a
E() t 0 . f, g , f(x)g(x)
x [, ], :
g ( x)dx f ( x)dx a ( g ( x) f ( x))dx t 0 ,

:
f ( x)dx d g ( x)dx .
, :
f, g [, ],
f(x)g(x) x [a, ]. :
321
f [,], x [a, ]
f ( x ) d f ( x ) d f ( x ) . :
a ( f ( x) )dx d a f ( x)dx d a
f ( x ) dx
a f ( x)dx d a
f ( x ) dx d f ( x )dx d
f ( x ) dx
f ( x ) dx .
, :
f [a, ] 1:
a f ( x)dx d a
f ( x ) dx.
6.3.1.
f ( x )dx
2, f ( x )dx 1
1
)
)
1 g ( x)dx
4 .
1 [3 f ( x) 2 g ( x)]dx .
3 f ( x ) 2 g ( x ) dx t 2.
2 f ( x)dx.
) :
2
1 [3 f ( x) 2 g ( x)]dx 1 3 f ( x)dx 1 (2) g ( x)dx 3 1

2
f ( x )dx 2 g ( x )dx 3 2 (2) 4 2 .

1
) :
[3 f ( x ) 2 g ( x )]dx d 3 f ( x ) 2 g ( x ) dx ,
) :
2 f ( x)dx 2 f ( x)dx 1
3 f ( x ) 2 g ( x ) dx t 2
2.
f ( x ) dx f ( x )dx f ( x )dx 1 2 1 .
1
5
11 11
55
6.3.1.

1 555 ln
6.3.1.

ln
x222dx
dx 33511 ln
ln11 dx
dx 55 55 ln
lnxdx
xdx...
5
6.3.1.
x
1
2
2
x
11 ln
55ln
11 ln
3
5
1.
ln
x
dx

ln
dx
ln
xdx
.

3
3
5
5
6.3.1.
6.3.1.

ln
x
x
dx
dx

ln
dx
dx
ln
xdx
xdx
..
x
1
5 11 x
1 505 xx
11
0
2
2
6.3.2.

22 xdx
xdx 0 (1
(1
22 xx))dx
dx 00...
6.3.2.
000
6.3.2.
2
2 2 0
2
2.
xdx

(1

x
)
dx
0
.

6.3.2.
6.3.2.
xdx
xdx

(1
(1

x
x
)
)
dx
dx
00 ..
10100
001010

10
10
6.3.3.
10
dx 55,, 10
dx 22
10
dx 13
13,
,
10 6.3.3.
dx
1010ff((xx))dx
10 ff((xx))dx
3103 ffff((((xx10xx))))dx
88 ff((xx))dx
3. 6.3.3.
f 6.3.3.
( x )dx
5 , 11 ff((fxx())xdx
)dx 55 2,,,
f ( x )2dx
13,
6.3.3.

dx
dx
2

dx 13
13,,
,
1
11 3
33 33 8
88
88
88

f
(
x
)
dx
,
f
(
x
)
dx
,
f
(
x
)
dx
.
3
8 33 f ( x ) dx8, 88 f ( x ) dx , 88 f ( x ) dx .

f
(
x
)
dx
,
dx,, 11 ff((xx))dx

((xx,))dx
dx
((xx.))dx
dx..
f(11x )ffdx
,, f(33x )ffdx
4.
1
3 11
1 33
11
10
55
88
10
6.3.4.

f
(
x
)
dx

2
,
f
(
x
)
dx
2

f
(
dx 44

5 6.3.4. 55 f 8( x ) dx 2 , 88 f ( x10
)dx 2 10
10 f ( xx))dx
55 ff((xx))dx
88 f

f6.3.4.
( x )dx
2 ,22 ff((xfx)()dx
x )dx 222,,
f ( x )22dx
4

6.3.4.

dx
dx

f((xx))dx
dx 44

2
8
22 5
55
88
10
5
88
10
5
1.

+ ,

dx
dx
dx ..2 ,
8
10 88 ff((xx))dx

,,5 10
ff((xx))1dx
,2510
ff((1xx))+
dx
10
5
2
2
2 + ... + 1 + 2 +

f (...x+
)dx
,dx ,, f2( xff)((dx
.dx
,, 10 ff((xx))dx
, . f (2 xff)((dx
1 +

xx))dx
xx))dx
dx ..
2
2 22
10 22
10
10

..

xdx
xdx (1
(1
xdx
xx))
dx
dx 0(1
0 ..
6.3.2.
6.3.2.
xdx

xx))dx
dx 00 ..
00
(1

..

10
10
11
00
10
10
10 10
10
10
10
10
10
10
ff6.3.3.
((xx))dx
dx 55
dx 5522,,
ff((xx))ffdx
((xx))dx
dx
13
13,
,
6.3.3.
,, 33 fff(((xxx)))dx
dx
22

dx 13
13,
,
88 dx
ff((xx))dx
11
33
88
33
88
88
33
88
88
33
11

dx,, ff((xx))dx
322

fdx
f((,xx, ))dx
dx
,,ff((xx))dx
fdx
f((.xx. ))dx
dx,, ff((xx))dx
dx..
11 ff((xx))dx
33
11
11
55
55 88
10
10
88
10
10
..
ff(6.3.4.
(xx6.3.4.
))dx
dx
22,, ff(f(fx(x()x)xdx
))dx
dx 22 ,,,
ff((xx))dx
f((xx))dx
dx
44

6.3.4.

22

ff((xx))dx
dx 44

55 dx
88 fdx

22
22
55
88
88
10
10
55
10
10
55

dx ,, ff((xx))ffdx
dx
dx
dx ,, ff((xx))dx

((xx,),,)dx
dx
((xx).).dx
dx ..
22 ff((xx))dx
1010,, ff((xx))ffdx
22
6.3.5.
0 f ( x)dx
1
88
22
22
10
10

2, -
0 g ( x)dx
. 3
3
3
f ( x )dx
3 ) 2
3 ) (33) g ( x ) dx
3 ) (32 f ( x ) 3 g ( x )) dx
3
3( 2 f 3( x0) 3 3 g ( x )) dx
) 32 f)
(3x )0dx 2 f ( x )dx ) 3(3)
)3 g 0( x )(dx
(3x))gdx
( x)dx )
))gdx
(xx))
))
dx
) )
f
(
x

)
dx

)
)
(

3
)
(
g

(
3
x
)
g
dx
)
)
(2 )
f)
((x2)0f0(((3x22)gff(((xx3x))
(x33))
gg(dx
dx
0 2 f ( x2)dx
0
0
)
)
0
0
0 0
0 )
0
0 0
0
0
3
)dx
)
0 ) (02 f ( x ) g ( x ))
0 3 0f ( x ) dx
3 2 g3 ( x ) dx
)
0
3
)
)
3 2 3 g ( x3) dx
0
0 f ( x0) dx
) 0(2 )
f 0( x3) (g2(fx())x )dx g ( x ))0dx) 0f ( x )3dx g3 ( x ))
3 )
dx )
)0dx
( x)dx
)
)
) )
2)3f( xg)( x))gdx
( x ))
dx 0 f ( x0)dx
3 3)
3f ( x)3dx
f(3x)fdx
2(x
2g (x )2gdx
( 0x)gdx
3 ( 2 f ((x
3 3 g ( x3) dx
0
f
(
x
)
dx

g
(
x
)
dx

3
3
3
3
0
0
3 f ( x)dx
f( x)dx0 g ( x )gdx
( x)dx
3 3
0 0
0

6.3.6. f,
R.

3
.
2
f ( x )dx f ( x )dx
5
10
f ( x )dx f ( x )dx
f ( x )dx
1 f ( x)dx 1 f ( x)dx
3 f ( x)dx 3 f ( x)dx 1
f ( x)dx
f ( x )dx
6.3.7. N :
5
5 ( x
5 ( x
1)dx t 0
1 ln xdx t 0
5 x 9)dx t 0
1/ 2 ln xdx d 0
2 3
2 2
1 x dx t 1 x
1 3
1 2
0 x dx d 0 x
dx t xdx
1
dx d xdx
0
6.4 .
, ,
, ( , , ).

, .
f
( ). F :

F( x)
f (t)dt, x .
(6.4.1)
( ) F
f, :
F(x)=f(x), x
(6.4.2)
[ (6.4.1), (6.4.2)]

f ( t)dt
f ( x ), x .
(6.4.3)
323
(6.4.3) g(x), f g,
:
c
g( x)
'
(
(6.4.4)
f
t
)
dt
ff((gg((xx)))) ggc(c(xx)).

x
x
x f

(6.4.2),

F
(
x
)

(6.4.2),

F ( x )F ( xf)( tf)dt
( t)dt

f
f

(6.4.2),

f (t
)dt

f[,].

(6.4.2),

f ( t)dt ,,
:
[ ,[],.
F0(
F)( )F ( f)( tf)(dtt),
F (aF)(a)F
(af)(tf)(dtt)dtf (0t
0
dt
[].
, ] .
)
dt
f (,
t)dt ,
f (at)dta
F ( ) F ( a) .
f(tf)dt
( t)dt
F ( )F( F)(a)F.(().
f ( t)dt
a) .

, ,
f ( t)dt ,
F f [, ].
.
f [, ]. G
f [, ], :
f (t)dt G( ) G()
, G f [, ], F ( x )
f (t)dt -
f [, ], cR , G(x)=F(x)+c.
x = x = :
G() F () c
G( ) F ( ) c
f (t)dt
f (t)dt c
c c G(),
f (t)dt c f (t)dt
G( ) c.
G( ) G().
G()G() [G( x )] , :
f ( x)dx
[G( x )] G( x ) = f ( x )dx .

6.4.1 ( c), 6.1.1.
6.4.1
( ) .
f(x)
x, 1
1
x
ex
1
2 x
1
2 x
x +1
+1
ln x
ex
x
ln
324
,
6.2 ( ) , , .
)
)
f ( x) g c( x)dx
[ f ( x ) g ( x )] f c( x ) g ( x )dx
g ( )
f ( g ( x)) g c( x)dx g () f (u)du u=g(x), du=g(x)dx.
6.4.1.
N cR
c dx
c( ) .
f(x)=c [, ] F(x)=cx. :
c dx [cx] c c c( ) .
6.4.2.
:
2
2 x + 2x 3
9 2
31
dx ,
) x dx ,
dx xdx , ) 1
3
1 x

x
x 3 dx
) 6.1.1
:
9
31
x3
9 2
93 33
dx = [ln x ]13 = ln 3 ln1 = ln 3 ,
,
x
dx

243

9
234
3
1 x
3 3 3 3
xdx
[ x ]
( ) (1) (1) 0 .
)
2
2
2
2
21
x2 + 2x 3
3
dx = ( x + 2 )dx == xdx + 2 1dx 3
dx =
1
1
1
1 x
x
x
2
x2
1
1
= + 2[ x]12 3[ln x]12 = 2 3 + 1 3 ln 2 = ln 2 .
2
2
2 1
)
3 x , x d 3

x 3
x 3, x t 3
:
4
x 3 dx
1 (3 x)dx 3 ( x 3)dx
9 5
x2 x2
3
x

3 x = 2 2 + 4 2 = 5 .
2 1 2
325
6.4.3.
)
)
x
xdx

x)xdx
0
0
3 ln x
3
3
2
2
)
))
0 x 90 xx dx9 x dx ) 2 x dx
) :
I
0 x(x)cdx [ xx] 0 ( x)cxdx [ xx] 0 xdx
[ xx]0 [x]0 ( 0 0) ( 0) 1.

1
) u=9x2, du=2xdx, xdx = du . x=0 u1=9 x=3
2
u2=0. :
1
1 2
1
1
u ( ) du [ u3/ 2 ]90 (0 93 ) (27) 9.
2
3 3
3
3
1
) u=lnx, du = (ln x ) = dx , u1=ln2 u2=ln3. :
x
3
0 x
9 x 2 dx
3 ln x
ln 3
u2
udu

0
2 ln 2
1
dx
(ln 3)2 (ln 2)2 .

2
6.4.1. f(x)=xex F(x)=xexex.

) F f.
)
2
xe x dx ,
xe x dx ,
xe x dx ,
1 xe
dx.
6.4.2. f(x) = xx:

) f.
) :
/2
6.4.3.
/2
0 (x xx)dx, / 2 (x xx)dx .
(x xx )dx ,
f ( x ) = ln( x + x 2 + 1) .
) f.
)
1
1
1+ x
dx ,
1
1+ x
dx ,
1
1+ x2
dx .
326
6.4.4. :
1 x
e dx
0

/2
(2x 3x )dx

x
1 e dx
2
2
1
x
+
) 1
dx
x
25
dx
2
) 1
1
x dx
x
6.4.5. :
x
6.4.6.
x 2
0t
1 t 2 dt

) F ( x )
) F ( x )
(t 2 )
dt
x
t

) F ( x )
e t dt
2
x 3 2 x 5 xR, f(2).
f ( t)dt
6.4.7. F ( x ) e x e x f ( t)dt.
2
6.4.8. :
2 2222 1 11 2 22
12 2 dxdxdx
22x x
)

)
)
)
dx
122 23233233dx
2xxx112122
)

)
12
1111
x
x

x
dx
)

)
x
dx
x
x
2
3
x
x
) 111x x2 2x2 x3 3x3dx

1 xx x xx x
1 11 11 2 2
11( x (22x
2 23x 3
11dx
))dx
)

x1)dx

))
)dx
)
dx
12
)

))
)1dx
)dx
222((21((x22x2xx2((2xx23333xx3xx3xx11)11)dx
)

2
2 2222
1
1 1 1
22x x1
)
)

)
dx
dx
02xxx1111
)
11x112dx
dx
2
dx
)
0
0
dx
dx
))
00000xxx111xxxx2222dx
)
)

xx22 2
0
2
x

6.4.9. :
333
2
3(3x32(22x
2 29
)
)
))dx
)
)9)dx

3 (3x( 2x
)
)9dx
)
9dx
dx
29
)
xx2(x
03
00(0(
)
9)dx
)9dx
)
)dx
0
) 00( x0 9

0 222
2 23
42 x
4 4x

3xx33xxx22
222dx
dx
444x4x2 2x
23
)

)
dx
)
4

x
3
x

x
3
x
2dx
)
4
)
dx
)
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)
)
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)

1
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x
2
2 22 2
2 22 22
3 33 33
2
33x)(
))dx
dx
)
)(

2( 2
))
(2222x((x22xxx33
3)()(
x222xx233
3xx33xxx11)
1)3)311dx
)

)(

22
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3dx
)
(
x

)
)dx
dx
222(22(222x(x2x33)()(3x)(x x33xx3x1)1)1dx
)))

1( x
x )dx

x 2 1 dx
2
3 3333 2 2
111 dx
22 2 1 1
332
)
)
)

21111
)
dx
11232xx22x222xx
11313x3133dx
)
dx
3

)
dx
1
dx
))
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)

dx
1
x x
x
20
2020
2020 3 33 33
20
)
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))dx
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2 x(23

20
)
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)

20
3 3333
1
1 1
2
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)

)
dx
)
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)
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2 xx 1x
)

dx

2
dx
))
dx
22222xx xxxxxxx1x111111dx
)
)
2
xxx11 1
x 2 5 x 6 dx
6.4.10. :
1
1x 11x 1x 1
1 31 43 1 434 4 4
1 )
1x 1
1x 1xdx
1 x3)
1( xx43 1(x1
1 dx dx) )
) )
)
)
x4)34
(dx
x14)4dx
1)44 dx
2
2
2
dx

) )
dx

dx

0
0 x2)
0x
)
x
(
x

1
)
dx

)
x
(
x

1
)
dx
)
x
(
x

1
) dx
1

1

1

x

x

2
6
x
2
6
x

2
6
20 2
0 x 0x2
0
0
0
x2x26x2 26x 6 1 1 1
2
1
1
1
1 2 11x 2 1 x 2 1
1
11
1
1x2 x
2 x12 1
2 xe
1 xe
1 x)
1 xx2 xe
1 )
1x x11 x1dx
1dx dx)
)
(dx
x122)55dx
1)55 dx
) )
( x122x(x1122)x55
)

)
)
11xdx
1 dx
x 2 1 dx
)
3
3
3
) )
)
dx dx
x
(
x

1
)
dx

)
xedx
x
(
x

1
)
dx
)
)
x
(
x

1
) dx
1 xe
0
dx

) )
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)
0
1 xe
0
1
dx

0
)
0 x3)
0x3
0 0 0
x32x32x 2
3 x0
1 1 1
0 x 0x3
xx332x32x 2

6.4.11. :
2
x 332
/2
33222
x x)
33 / 2
3 2 (
22
xdx33
2xx
32x 2 3xdx
)
//22
3

x )
/
2
3 2
xx22 dx
)
x
xdx

)
x dx
/
2
33
)
3
x
3 x
2
3
)
)
)
2
)
xdx
)
dx
3
)
1
)
dx
2
2
)
)
xdx

)
dx

2 )
2
00 )
) )
xdx

)
dx

1
x

x
(
)
6
xdx

)
dx
xdx

dx

2 2 xxx22 xx xx 1 ((xx12 (x61621xx(())x2x62 x)266xdxx))22 dxdx

0 0 00
111
1
22
1 11
1
22 1 11
1

1
2
2
33//

2
11 1
2
x
ln
xdx

)
2
2
12 ee 1 xx2x2dx
x/ x
)
xln
ln
xdx
xln
) )
)
dx

3/ 3/ 33/xx
x
ln
xdx

)
1
x
xdx

)
x

)
dx
x
ln
xdx

)
)
e
dx
x
)
)
1
)
)
e
e
dx

dx
xdx
x
xdx

)
x dx
1
)
) )
dx dx
1 x
22
1
221 211 22 e
)
1
)
22// )
dx
1
x
1
1

dx

2/ 2/ xxx222//x 2 xx22
x x xx
2
5
2
1
2
x 2
22 x2x 2x
x
2 x ) dx
11 x444e1xxx554dx
22 x ( e2xxx22
dx
)
22
)
)
11x 544 xx55
22x2
xdx
dx xdx
)
x
e
dx
)
x
(
e

2
x
)

)
x
22 dx
dx
)
1
)
x
e
dx

)
x
(
e

2
x
)
dx

)
)
00 x )
11 x ()
e
dx

)
e

2
x
)
dx

) )
)
)
)
x
e
dx

)
x
(
e

2
x
)
dx

)
x
e
dx

x
(
e

2
x
)
dx

1
9

x
2
2
1 1 11

x 11 x99 xx22 dx
1 99
1 x9
0 0 00

6.4.12. :
1
12
12
t t
1 te
1tt2tedt
)
)
) )
t012tetedtdt t2 dtdt
) )
0 te)
0 tedt
2
2
2
2
2
0 xe
2x
dx
5
5
1 2 x/2
0x
2
2
dx

0 (2 x
3 x 1)e x dx.
327
6.4.13. f ( x ) =
x
x2 + 2x + 3
g ( x ) =
.
x +1
x +1
) , f :
f ( x)
.
x 1
1
) f ( x )dx .
0
) , , , g :
.
g ( x ) x

x 1
)
0 g ( x)dx .
6.4.14. f, g f ( x ) =
1
x 1
.
, g( x) = 2
x 4
x 5x + 6
2
) , , f :
f ( x) =
+
.
x2 x+2
)
3 f ( x)dx .
) , , , g :
g( x) =
+
.
x 2 x 3
)
6.4.15.
4 g ( x)dx.
2 x 2 ,
f ( x)
3
6 x ,
1 d x 0
0 d x d 2,
f 0
2
1 f ( x)dx .
6.5 .
, ,
,
() /
y
Cf
.
6.3
, () ,
(f(x)0
x[, ]) [,], x = ,
x = x, (. 6.5)
x
O
E( )
f ( x)dx.
. 6.5.
328
, f(x)=x2, x=1, x=1 xx :

1
1 x
dx
x3
13 (1)3

3
3 1
2
.
3
f [,],
(f(x)0 x[, ]) f (
) f x
= a, x = xx (. 6.5). , xx
, :
E(c)
E( )
f ( x )dx.
( f ( x ))dx
f, g, [, ],
f(x)g(x)0 x[, ]. () ,
f, g x = a x = ,
6.5 .
:
E( )
f ( x )dx g ( x )dx
( f ( x) g ( x))dx.
f, g, [, ], f(x)g(x) x[, ].
f(x)g(x) [, ], 6.5,
, f, g x =
x = 1 2, :
E() E(1 ) E(2 )
( f ( x ) g ( x ))dx ( g ( x ) f ( x ))dx.
:
E( )
f ( x ) g ( x ) dx ,
() ,
f, g
x = x = .
y
y
Cg
Cf
Cg
Cf
O
. 6.5.
Cf
C_ f
. 6.5.
. 6.5.
329
6.5.1.
f(x)=x3+x2, x=2, x=1 xx.

.
xx
f(x)=0. x3+x2=0 x2(x+1)=0 x=0 x=1.
f(x)=x3+x2 [2,1] f(x)0 x[2,1] f(x)0
x[1,1] (. 6.5).
, :
1
1
x 4 x3
x 4 x3
1
1 3
25 .
2
3
2
E() ( x x )dx ( x x )dx

2
1
3 2 4
3 1 12
4
6.5.2.
,
N
f(x)=x2, g(x)=3x x=1, x=2.
.

f(x)g(x) [1,2]. :
g( x) x 2
f ( x)
3 x x 2 3 x 0 x( x 3) 0 x
0 x 3.
[1,2].
f(x)g(x) [1,2] 6.5.1 (. 6.5).
6.5.1
x
f(x) g(x)
1
4
0
+ 0
2
2
x[1,0] f(x)g(x) x[0,2] f(x)g(x).

,
E( )
1 3 x x
dx
1( x
3 x )dx (3 x x )dx
0
_ 1,5
_1
_ 0,5
_1
_2
. 6.5.
31
.
6
1
_2
x3
x 2 x3
x2
3 3
2 1 2
3 0
3
4
0,5
2
_1
_ 0,5
0,5
_3
_2
_4
_4
. 6.5.
1,5
330
6.5.1. f, x = , x = , xx, :
1
) f(x)=ex, =1, =1
) f(x)=x2, =1, =3
) f ( x ) = , =1, =e
x
1
) f ( x ) = , =1, =e
) f ( x ) = x , =0, =4
) f(x)=x(x+2), =0, =3.
x

6.5.2.
f(x)=6x2 3x xx.

6.5.3.
f(x)=x3 + 1, g(x)=x2 + 1.

6.5.4.
f(x)=x2 2x+1 g(x)=x3 x2 x+1 x =2, x =3.

6.5.5. N
f(x) = 2x, g(x) = 2x x=0 x = 2.
6.5.6. , 6.5.
C1:y=4x2+24x C2:y=5x2+30x.
20 /m2,
.
f(x)=5x2.
6.5.7.
)
Cf (1,5).
)
Cf,
xx.
6.5.8. 6.5 . N ,
.
6.5.9. N

2
x 2, x 1

f ( x)
2 x 1, x t 1
x=0, x=3 x.
0,8
C2
5
4
0,6
C1
0,4
2
1
. 6.5.
0,2
1
x
0,2
0,4
0,6
. 6.5.
0,8
331
6.5.10. N
6.5.
6.5.11. f(x)=lnx.
) f
x=1 x=e.
) , Cf .
) Cf, x
Cf A(e,1).
6.5.12.
6.5.
) f,
) .
y=4 x
y=x
y
y=4
y=2 x
_1
15
. 6.5.
. 6.5.
6.6 . .
, ,
, .
f [,] , x = , x = xx (. 6.6). A
xx ,
(. 6.6).
Vf ( ):
Vf
( f ( x ))2 dx
y
y
Cf
. 6.6.
. 6.6.
332
yy Vf
, f (
) [,].
f ( )
Vf
f ( )
( f 1( y))2 dy
, :
f ( x ) = 2 x , 0x4
Cf x=0, x=4 xx (. 6.6).
xx, 6.6,
( ..).
:
4
x2
4
4
2
V f (2 x ) dx 4 xdx 4 = 32 .
0
0
2 0
f,
g x = x = f(x)g(x)0 x [, ],
:
Vf ,g
[( f ( x ))2 ( g ( x ))2 ]dx.
, (. 6.6):
1
g ( x )
x
f ( x)
x .

1
0
x
x[1,2], :
x
Vf ,g
2
1
1
[( x ) ]dx
x
2
1
x 2 dx
x
2
1
x2 1

2 x 1
.
y
A(4, 4)
y=2 x
g(x)= x
1
f(x)= x
. 6.6.
. 6.6.
. 6.6.
333
6.6.1.
6.6 xx, =() R. ,

, R.
.
(0,0) (, R) =R/.
:
f ( x)
R
x , 0 d x d .
E, o Vf
xx, :
Vf
R2
2
R
x dx
0
2
x dx
0
R2
2
x3

3 0
R 2 3
2 3
1 2
R .
3
6.6.2.
, , R.
.
2
2
f ( x ) = R x , 0xR,
x=0 x=R xx (. 6.6).

xx,
Vf
( R x
2
( R x )dx
) dx
x3
R2 x
3 0
( R 3
R3
)
3
2 3
R .
3
R ,
4 3
V 2V f
R .
3
y
R
y= x
y= R2 _ x2
x
_R
. 6.6.
. 6.6.
334
, Cf
[,]. '
y=f(x) (
[,]) lf (, ) lf (.
6.6).
f [,]
. y=f(x)
( ):
lf
A
O
. 6.6.
1 ( f c( x ))2 dx.
lf
6.6.3.
1 x
x
f ( x ) = (e + e ) .
2
y=f(x) 0 1.
.
f :
1
1
f ( x ) = (e x + e x ) = (e x e x )
2
2

l f 1 ( f c( x ))2 dx ,
= 0, = 1
lf
1
1 (e x e x ) dx
2
1 x
(e e x )2 dx
4
1 1 x
(e e x ) dx
0
2
1
1 (e 2 x e 2 x 2) dx
4
1 x1
[ e ]0 [ e x ]10
2
1 2x
(e e 2 x 2) dx
4
1
(e e 1 ).
2
3
2,5
6.6.1.

xx y=3x2
x=1 xx yy
(. 6.6).
6.6.2.

xx
2
1,5
1
0,5
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
y=3x2
. 6.6.
0,8
335
y=2x x = 0, x = /4 xx
(. 6.6).
6.6.3.
xx
f(x) = x2 g(x) = 3x.
6.6.4.

xx y = 2 x + 1 x=1, x=3
xx (. 6.6).
6.6.5.

xx y=3x2 x=1, x=3
xx.
6.6.6.

( x ) = x ,
xx, ff(x)
g(x)=1 x = 0 x = /3 (. 6.6).
6.6.7.
x'x,
f(x) = 2x2 g(x) = 3x3.
xx,
6.6.8. N
f(x) =xex
x=0 x=5 (. 6.6).
3
2,5
0,8
2
0,6
1,5
0,4
0,2
0,5
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
0,5
y=2x
1,5
2,5
y= 2 x+1
. 6.6.
. 6.6.
0,4
1
0,3
0,8
0,6
0,2
0,4
0,1
0,2
0
0,5
f(x)= x , g(x)=1
. 6.6.
1,5
f(x)=xe - x
. 6.6.
10
336
6.6.9.
f ( x ) = 3 x 2 . , y = f(x)
[0,27].
6.6.10.
f(x)=ex/2+ex/2. ,
y=f(x) [1,1].
1
6.6.11.
f ( x ) = (e rx + e rx ) , r
2r
.
)
1+( f (x))2= r 2 f 2(x).
)
rf(x).
) y=f(x) [,]
:
1
r
r
r
r
)]
l f = [([(e
e r ++e era ))(e
(e r++eera)].
2r
6.7 .
f .
F
F(x)=f(x), x.
f ( x)dx
f .
F ( x ) c, c R
F f.
.
) f ( x )dx = f ( x )dx , R
) ( f ( x ) + g ( x ))dx = f ( x )dx + g ( x )dx
.
.
O f .
f ( x) g ( x)dx = f ( x) g ( x) f ( x) g( x)dx
f ( g ( x)) g ( x)dx = f (u)du , u=g(x)
du=g(x)dx.
f ( x)dx
G f [, ].
) f ( x )dx
G( ) G() [G( x )]
) f ( x )dx
f ( x)dx f ( x)dx
f ( x )dx
) [ f ( x ) g ( x )]dx
f ( x)dx g ( x )dx
) f(x)0 x [a,] f ( x )dx t 0 .
337
) f(x)g(x) x [a,]
f ( x )dx d g ( x )dx .
a f ( x)dx d a
f ( x ) dx
f (t)dt
G f [, ].
f (ft()tdt)dt ' FFc(cx()x) f (f x()x)

F( x)
xx
f (t)dt
G( ) G()
aa
f ( x) g c( x)dx
[ f ( x ) g ( x )] f c( x ) g ( x )dx
g ( )
f ( g ( x)) g c( x)dx g () f (u)du

u = g(x), du=g(x)dx.
f [, ],
(a, ) ,
f ( )

f,
x=, x= xx.
E
f, g,
x=, x= xx.
V
f, g, f(x)g(x)0
x[,], x = x = .
y = f(x)
.
E( )
f ( x)dx
E( )
V
Cf, x= ,
x= xx.
a f ( x)dx
f ( x ) g ( x ) dx
( f ( x ))2 dx
Vf
[( f ( x ))2 ( g ( x ))2 ]dx
Vf , g
lf
1 ( f c( x ))2 dx
338
6.8 .
,
, .
1
1 x
1 dx

0.
1.
2.
ln xdx xlnxx+ c.
3.
4.
f(x)=g(x) x[2,2] f(1)=g(1)+1, x[2,2]

A
g(x)=f(x)1.
2 ln x
dx ln2x+ c.
x
5.
0 f (t)dt , f
F ( x )
6.8. F(2)=4.
. 6.8.
6.
7.

f
f ( x)dx = xf ( x) xf ( x)dx .

f,g [, ]. f(x)g(x)
x[, ],
f, g [, ].

f(x)g(x) x[, ].
9.
8.
f ( x)dx
f ( x)dx d g ( x)dx ,
0 , f(x)=0 x[, ].
f, g [, ], :
10.
11.
12.
f ( x) g ( x)dx f ( x)dx g ( x)dx.
a
( x 4 2 x )dx d
a
( x 4 2 x x10 e x )dx, >0.
f [, ], [,], :
f c( x) xdx
[ f ( x ) x ]
f ( x )dx.
339
13.
f . F f
, G(x)=F(x)+ex f.
14.
f
, x0, x1 :
x
f(x1)= f(x0)+ 1 f c( x )dx .
15.
16.
17.
f, ' , :
f ( x)dx = f ( x) c , cR.
f ( x)dx
0 , f() = 0 (, ).

f(x) g(x) [, ],
f, g x =
x = E()
f ( x )dx g ( x )dx E()
g ( x )dx f ( x )dx .
f(x)= _ x2
_1
18.

1
6.8 1 f ( x )dx
E( ).
_1
. 6.8.
y
19.
6.8
0
f ( x)dx 0 f ( x)dx .
. 6.8.
20.
21.
dx
( x 2 2 x )dx
0
f(x)=x22x x.
f [, ] .
y=f(x) :
lf
1 f c( x ) dx .
1.
To
) ln(lx)+c
1
dx :
1 x
) ln(xl)+c
) ln 1 x c
) ln x c
340
2.
f(x) = x f(0) = 1, f() :

) 1
) 2
) 0
) 1
y
3.
f 6.8. A 1, 2, 3 3,1,2 ,
) 4
A
4.
5.
6.
f ( x )dx :
) 6
0 (4 f ( x) 3)dx
) f =
3
4
) 1
) 2
. 6.8.
0 f [0,2] :
) f =
3
8
) f =
4
3
) f=3
f(x) = c x[,] :
) ( +)/2
) c
) +
F, G f , :
) F G .
) F' = G G' = F.
) F' ^ G .
) F G f g.
A f, g f(x)=g(x) x[0,1] f(0)=g(0)+1, :
7.
8.
0 ( f ( x) g ( x))dx
1 .
) f(x)=g(x)1 x[0,1].
) f(x)g(x) x[0,1].
) f(x)g(x) x[0,1].
f(x)=x2x, x[0,1] x :
)
( x 2 x ) dx
0(x x
) dx
) 1
F f [, ], :
9.
)
)
)
10.
f ( x)dx
f ( x)dx F () F ( )
) f ( x )dx f ( x )dx f ( x )dx
) f ( x )dx F( ) F ()
) f ( x )dx F () F ( )

)
dx f ( x )dx
) f ( x )dx f ( x )dx f ( x )dx ) f ( x )dx z f ( tx))dt
, ,, , :
)
F () F ( )

f( )
dx z
ff ((xx))dx
ff ((tx))dtdx f ( x)dx
)
)
)
dx z f (ft)(dt

t)dt
ff( x)dx
f( a)
)
)
dx f ( xf)(dx
t)dt

ff((xx))dx
f ( a)
)
f ( )
f ( x)dx f ( x)dx
)
)
)
))
)
f ( t)dt 0 )
f ( t)dt 0
f( )
f ( )
f ( x)dx z f(af)(tf)(dtt)dt
f ( x)dx f (af)( xf)(dxt)dt
f ( x)dx f ( x)dx
f ( t)dt 0

f ( t)dt 0
)
f ( x)dx f ( x)dx
f ( t)dt
341
) f ( x )dx f ( x )dx f ( t)dt )

) f ( x )dx f ( tx))dt
dx f (f u( t))du
dt

, , , , :
f ( x)dx f (t)dt f (u)du
) ( f ( x)D g ( x ))dx f ( x )dx g ( x )dx
)
)) f ( x )dx
)) f ( x )dx f ( t)dt f (u)du )
f(tf)(dtx) dx
f ( x )dx g ( x )dx )

) ( f ( x ) D g ( x ))
( f ( x )Dgg((xx))))dx
f((xx))dx
dx
g ( x )dx
dx
)
dx
f

)
( x )dx
f ( tf)
(dtx )dx
dx
) f,gff
) f[,
( x )]
dx R,
f ( :
x )dx
)
)) ff((xx))dx
dx f ( tx))dtdx f (fu()t)du
dt )
))
11.

)
)
)
12.
)
)
)
)

))
))dx
dx
ff((xx))dx
D gg((xx))
dx gg((xx))dx
dx )
( f ( x)
f ( x ) dx

f ( x )dx
))
ff ((xx))dx

dx f ( x )dx
(

g
(
x
))
f ( x )dx g ( x )dx )
f ( x )dx
g ( x))dx
f (x)dx
(ff ( x) dx
g ( x)dx
(ff ( x)dx g ( x)) dx f (x)dxf ( x)dx g ( x)dx
)
(
f
(
x
)

g
(
x
))
dx
f
(
x
)
dx

g
(
x
)
dx

)
(
f
(
x
)

g
(
x
))
dx
f
(
x
)
dx

) f ( x )dx f (x)dx
g ( x)dx
f,

x=, x= xx
)
( x ))
E() ( f ( xf) (x )gdx
dx f ( x )dx g ( x )dx
13.
) f(x)0 x [, ].
) () f.
) f(x)0 x [, ].
) f(x)0 x[, ].
1 2
2
) V x dx x 2 dx
0
1
Vf y
1 2
2 2
1 2 6.8)
2 2
(.
1
) V x dx x dx
x dx x dx
) )
V V x20dx
0
1
1

xx
:
0
14.)
)) V
11
) V 2 (x x 2xdx
x 22dx
2
dx x 2 dx
) )V
00
1
0 )dx
)
)) V
21
(xx2 dx
x2 )dx
00
) )) V
2
2 2 x 2 dx
(
x

x
dx V f
1 ))
V0f
2
6)
)
V
V x 2 dx
)
V
xdx

1 2
6

2 2
4 2
6 xdx
)
V

)
V
x
dx

) xx
V f (. 6.8)
xdx

V ff
x dx
)
:
1
2
22 2
6 4
4 4 2
)
)2 V
) V f V f xdx
)Vx 2 dx
15. )
f
)
xdx x dx
2
f
2 2 2
2 2
4 6
44 2
x )
dx V f) V
) )
)
2 f
xdxx 2dx
) VVf f 2 2 2 xdx
2
2
2
6 2
4
6 2
)
V
x dx
) V f) 2 Vxdx

x
dx

f
2
2 f
2
( x xx22dx
)dx
1
. 6.8.
y
B
y=x
4
2
A
2
. 6.8.
6 2
2 x dx
6.9 .
)
Vf
6.9.1.
, (
) A( t) = 0, 09 t .
480 ,
.
.
342
6.9.2. F ( x )
x t
e 2 tdt
0
G( x )
) F(x)+G(x)=ex1, F ( x ) G( x )
) F(x) G(x).
)

6.9.3.
/2
e t 2 tdt,
x t
0 e
tdt , xR.
1 x
[ e ( 2 x 2 x ) 1] .
5
/2
/3
e t 2 tdt .
(u + 1)(u + 3) du . -
:
x
dx
)
x(x 2)
xe x
(e x 2 1)(e x 2 2) dx
( x 2 2)( x 2 4) dx
6.9.4. f(x)=x410x2+2 g(x)=3x212x+2.

) f(x)=g(x) 4 ,0, 1 3.
) h(x)=f(x)g(x).
) N
f g.
6.9.5. f(x)=x2x2.
a
) f ( x )dx .
1
) ,
1 f ( x)dx .
6.9.6.
' xx xx x ,
F(x) (. 6.9).
x=a x = (
[, ])
Wf
F( x)dx.
)
x cm
, k F(x) = x,
. 2Newton
1 cm , 5 cm.
) x cm F(x) = /x2, . ,

. ,
3 cm
1 cm.
F
x
. 6.9

.
, .
. ,
. ,
. ,
.
7.1 .
7.2
.
7.3 .
7.4 .
Bernoulli.
7.5 .
7.6 .
7.7 .
7.8 .
lx im
7.9 .
x0
344
7.1 .
, , ,
.
, ,
.
.
m, F
(. 7.1).

d 2 x ( t)
+ 2 x ( t) = 0
2
dt
(7.1.1)
F
x(t)
x(t)+2x(t)=0, x(t)
t >0 .

M
m
. 7.1
dx( t)
= kt
dt
(7.1.2)

x(t)+kt=0 x(t) t k .
(7.1.1), (7.1.2), x(t)
t
x ( t) =
dx( t)
d 2 x ( t)
x ( t) =
.
dt
dt 2
, y=y(x) y=y(x)
x :
y =
dy
dy( x )
, ( y( x ) =
)
dx
dx
x :
d 2 y( x )
d2 y
) ...,
y = 2 ,( y ( x ) =
dx 2
dx
, , .
x(t)
, t.
.
,
.
:
u u
+
= 0,
x y
u=u(x,y)
(7.1.3)
u u

,
x y
345
u=u(x,y) x y .
.

dy
+ 2 xy = e x ,
dx
dy
+ xy = 0,
dx
d2 y
dy
5 + 6 y = 0,
2
dx
dx
w w w
+
+
= 0,
x y z
y=y(x) w=w(x,y,z).
.
x, y=y(x) y, y,...,y(n1), y (n) y x.
:

F x , y, yc, ycc,!, y( n1) , y( n)
0,
n t 1,
dy d 2 y
d ( n1) y d ( n) y
F x , y, , 2 ,, ( n1) , n = 0,
dx dx
dx
dx
n 1,
y( x ) ,
(7.1.4)
y = y( x ).
(7.1.5)
F .
, .

.
,
d2 y
dy
+ 3x
+ x2 y + 3x 1 = 0
2
dx
dx
, y3y+y+1=0
....
. ,
.
y=e2x
y5y+6y=0, y=e2x :
y 5 y + 6 y = (e 2 x ) 5(e 2 x ) + 6 e 2 x = 4e 2 x 10e 2 x + 6 e 2 x = 0 .
y=x2 y2x=0.
y=x2 :
y 2 x = ( x 2 ) 2 x = 2 x 2 x = 0 .
346
:
y: R (7.1.4) :
) y n-
) y (7.1.4) x A, :
F x , y( x ), yc( x ), ycc( x ),!, y( n1) ( x ), y( n) ( x )
0, x A.
A y: R (, ), [, ],
(, ], [, ) , R (a,+), [a,+), (,), [,), (, +).
: ;
y=x1/2, x(0,+), :
dy
= x 1/ 2 .
dx
y( x ) = 2 x + c , cR
c , :
dy
1
= (2 x + c) = 2
= x 1/ 2.
dx
2 x
,
cR.
(7.1.6)
y( x ) = 2 x + c , c R

. (7.1.4)
n1 .

( ). ,
( ) ....
(7.1.6) cR, .
c=1 :
y( x ) = 2 x + 1 .
, y(1)=2, (7.1.6) :
y(1) = 2 2 = 2 1 + c c = 0 .
,
y( x ) = 2 x .
:

y = (x, c1, ..., cn)
dy
= x 1/ 2 y(1)=2
dx
(7.1.7)
n c1, ..., cn (7.1.4), :
347
) (c1, ..., cn) Rn (7.1.7)

, , (7.1.4)
) (xo, yo, y1, ..., yn1)
F, (c1, ..., cn) , y y(xo) = yo,..., y(n1) (xo) = yn1.
,
, .
7.1.1
y+4y=0.
) .
) y=2x+2x .
) y=c12x+c22x c1, c2R.
)
y(0)=1 y = 1 .
4
) ( y), 2.
) y=2x+2x x :
yc 2 2 x 2 2 x , ycc 4 2 x 4 2 x
4( 2 x 4 2 x ) 4 y.
A .
) y=c12x+c22x x :
y=4c12x4c22x.
y y :
y + 4 y = 4c1 2 x 4c2 2 x + 4(c1 2 x + c2 2 x ) =
= 4c1 2 x 4c2 2 x + 4c1 2 x + 4c2 2 x = 0.
, y=c12x+c22x
c1, c2R.
) y(0)=1 y=c12x+c22x :
y(0) 1 c1 0 c2 0 1 c1 1 c2 0 1 c1 1.
y = 1 c1, =1,
4
:
2
2
y = 1 c1 + c2 = 1 1
+ c2
= 1 c2 = 2 1.
2
2
4
4
4
348
, y = 2 x + ( 2 1) 2 x .
7.1.2.
y=xx xy=y+x2+y2.
.
y=xx ={xR:x0}.
y=xx x :
x
yc ( xx )c x cx x(x )c x
,
2 x
:
x
x2
.
xy = x x +
=
x
x
+
2 x
2 x
y=xx :
x2
y + x + y = xx + x + x x = xx + x (1 + x ) = xx +
.
2 x
2
y=xx
.
7.1.3.
, P(t)
t. q
(
).
) P=P(t) P(t)=ec+qt, cR
.
) P(t) t=10 sec
P(0).
) A t=1 sec 100,
.
.
dP
) P(t) P ( t) =
. ,
dt
dP
,
= qP , q .
dt
c+qt
P(t)=e , cR, , :
349
dP
= (e c + qt ) = e c (e qt ) = e c q e qt = qe c + qt = qP .
dt
) ()
P ( t) = e c + qt = e c e qt = P0 e qt ,
P0=ec.
t=0, :
P (0) = P0 e q0 P (0) = P0 .
t=10sec P (10) = P0 e q10 P (10) = P0 e10 q ,
P0=ec .
) P(1)=100, :
P (1) = 100 P0 e q = 100 P0 =
100
= 100e q .
q
e
7.1.1. :
) y+2xy=ex
)
d2 y
dy
5 + 6y = 0
2
dx
dx

) y(4)+4y+3y=x
)
d 4 y d 3 y d 2 y dy
+
+
+ + y =1
dx 4 dx 3 dx 2 dx
7.1.2. .
) y=x2+c, y=2x
) y=cx2, xy=2y
) y2=e2x+c, yy=e2x
y2
1
2
y/x
=
) y=e3x+ex, y4y+3y=0,
) y =
,
y=2xy

)
y=ce
,
y
xy x 2
1 x2
2
2
2
2
) y =x cx, 2xyy=x +y
7.1.3. y=2xy, y>0.
) .
2
) y = 4e x .
2
) y = c ex , cR .
) y(2) =1.
7.1.4. y=c1exx+c2ex x
y+2y+2y=0. y(0) = 0
y'() = 0.
7.1.5. ' xx
(t) t. S(t) , S(t)= (t).
) t.
)
t=7sec,
(. t=0).
) , S(1)=10.
350
7.2 .
, , ..
y = f(x),
y' = f'(x) x. (7.1.4)
n=1, :
dy
(7.2.1)
F ( x , y, yc) 0, F x , y, . 0
dx

, , 7.1, , .
, (7.2.1)
dy
,
dy
dx
= f ( x , y),
(7.2.2)
dx

f(x,y) .

y( x ) =

2y
,
x
x 0 .
(7.2.3)
y=cx2
(7.2.4)

y y', (7.2.3),
cR. (7.2.3) :
y=(cx2)=2cx,
y (7.2.3)
2 y 2c x 2
=
= 2c x .
x
x
,
y x .

y( x ) =

1 y2
.
xy
(7.2.5)
y,
xy=lny+c,
(7.2.6)

(7.2.5) cR,
y x. , x,
:
1
1 y2
1 y2
.
xy + y = xy =
y =
y
y
xy
y x. (7.2.6)
.
351
,
. :

dy
= f ( x ) g ((y),
x ),
dx
x y.
dy
P ( x ) M ( y) + Q( x ) N ( y) = 0
(7.2.7)
dx

.
N(y)0, P(x)0, (7.2.7) :
M ( y) dy
Q( x )
M ( y)
Q( x )
=
dy =
dx ,
N ( y) dx
P( x)
N ( y)
P( x)
x y (
). ,
, :
M ( y)
Q( x )
N ( y) dy = P( x) dx + c ,
cR.
(7.2.8)
y = N(y)=0, y =
(7.2.7).
7.2.3.
y=x1/2, x(0,+).
.
, :
dy
= x 1/ 2 dy = x 1/ 2 dx .
dx
dy = x
1/ 2
dx y = 2 x + c, c R.
7.2.4.
e y
.
dy
( x + x 3 ) = 0.
dx
:
e y dy = ( x + x 3 ) dx.
352
:
x2 x4
x2 x4
+
+ c y = ln( +
+ c) , cR.
2
4
2
4
x2 x4
y( x ) = ln( +
+ c) , cR.
2
4
y
y
3
e dy = ( x + x ) dx e =
7.2.5.
.
dy
dx
yc( x )
k(a y)( y), y(0)=0,

, , k >>0, k>0.
(7.2.9)
:
dy
(a y)( y)
kdx
:
dy
(a y)( y) k dx c.
(7.2.10)

, :
1
1
1
1
1
(7.2.11)

(a y)( y ) a a y a y

(7.2.11) (7.2.10) :
1
a
(a y) dy + a ( y) dy = kx + c
1
1
ln a y
ln y
a
a
kx c1 ,
ya
e kx ( a ) e c ( a ) .
y
y, (7.2.9) :
a c e( a ) kx
,
1 c e( a ) kx
(7.2.12)

c=ec1(a). (ay)(y)=0, y=a, y= [
(7.2.9)], .
, y(0)=0, (7.2.12) :
a c e( a ) k 0
a
y(0) 0 0
c

( a ) k 0
1 ce
y( x )
353
c (7.2.12) y( x )
a [1 e( a ) kx ]
.
ae( a ) kx
7.2.6.
DVD player home cinema

y = y(x), x . y = y(x)
player.
) y = y(x).
) .
)
home cinema Hi-End
DVD, 2599 , .
.
) DVD player , dy
= y( x ) .
y=y(x)
dx
)
dy
= dx.
y
:
dy
= dx ln y = x + c e ln y = e x + c e ln y = e c e x y = c e x ,
y
ec=c. y(x)=cex, cR.

) home cinema DVD player,
2599 , ' y(0)=2599.
, :
y(0) = 2599 2599 = c e 0 c = 2599.
y(x)=2599ex , player,
(x=1) :
y(1) = 2599 e 1 = 2599 / e 956 .
7.2.1. :
) y+6xy=0, y()=5
) eyy=(x+x3), y(0)=1
) y=logx, y(e)=0
7.2.2.

.
) y=xex, y(1)=3
) y=logx, y(e)=0
) y=2sinxcosx, y(0)=1
) y=2x2, y(0)=1
354
7.2.3. :
y
x +1
,
) y = 3
) y = 2 ,
x
y +3

) y=2x
) y=x3y2
) y =
x2y y
,
y +1
) xy=2y
7.2.4.

.
) y=xex, y(1)=3
) y=logx, y(e)=0
) y=2sinxcosx, y(0)=1
) y=2x2, y(0)=1
x y (4 y)
, y(0)=y0>0.
1+ x
) y=y(x) .
) .
) lim y( x ) .
7.2.5. y( x ) =
x +
7.2.6.
o ,
t, y=y(t)
. 7 , .
7.3 .
,
.
f(x,y)=x2+xy, (x,y)IR2 f(x, y) 0. , :
f ( x , y) ( x )2 ( x )( y)
2 x 2 2 x y
2 ( x 2 x y)
2 f ( x , y) .
f ( x , y) 2 f ( x , y), z 0 . .
:
f(x, y) m 0
f ( x , y) m f ( x , y).

(7.3.1)
x 2 + y 2 sin(x/y) 1 0 .
:
,
P ( x , y) + Q( x , y)
dy
= 0,
dx
(7.3.2)

P(x,y), Q(x,y)
x y.
355
z=y/x z=x/y.
(7.3.2)
. .
7.3.1.

x2y2+2xyy=0
(7.3.3)
.
.
(7.3.3) :
x 2 y 2 + 2 xy
dy
=0
dx
(7.3.4)

(7.3.2), P(x,y)=x2y2 Q(x,y)=2xy. (7.3.1), P(x,y) Q(x,y)
. , :
P ( x , y)
2 ( x 2 y 2 )
2 P ( x , y) Q( x , y)
2 Q( x , y).
P(x,y) Q(x,y) ,
z=y/x :
z=

y
dy y
dz
dy
dz dz
dy
dz
y = z x z == z
x +y =
x zx
= z +x x+ x .
=z+x
x
dx x
dx
dx
dx dx
dx
dx
(7.3.5)
(7.3.5) (7.3.4) :
x2 z2 x2 + 2 x z x ( x
dz
dz
+ z ) = 0 x 2 (1 z 2 ) + 2 x 2 z x + 2 x 2 z 2 = 0
dx
dx
x 2 (1 + z 2 ) dx + 2 x 3 z dz = 0 (1 + z 2 ) dx + 2 x z dz = 0,
.
2 x zdz = (1 + z 2 ) dx

, :
z
1 1
z
1
dz =
dx ,
2
2x
1+ z
1 + z 2 dz = 2 x dx log(1 + z
(7.3.6)
) = log x + c
c
log(1 + z 2 ) = log x + log c (c = log c) 1 + z 2 = , c R .
x
, z=y/x, (7.3.3.) x2+y2=cx, c R , y=y(x). , :
356
c c c
x 2 x + + y2 = 0 ,
2 2 2
(x_ 2c) +y =(2c) , cR

2
2 c
x + y = , cR .
2
2
x

K(c/2,0) c/2, c R (.
7.3).
. 7.3
7.3.2.
dy
x + y x = 0 dx
.
.
, (7.3.2)
P(x,y)=xy, Q(x,y)=x

P ( x , y) ( x ) ( y)
( x y)
P ( x , y) , Q( x , y) ( x )
( x )
Q( x , y) .
P(x,y) Q(x,y)
, z=y/x y=zx,
(7.3.5). , :
dy
dz
dz
1
x + z x x z + x = 0 x + zx zx x 2
= 0 x = x2
dz = dx .
dx
dx
dx
x

:
1
dz = x dx z = ln x + c z = ln x + ln c z = ln c x ,
cR
c=lnc. z=y/x, y=x lncx, c R.
7.3.1. , ,
.
x
2
y
3
2
2
y
) h( x , y) = x + y sin ) k( x , y) = xy + x
) f ( x , y) = y + xy ) g ( x , y) = x + y x e
x
7.3.2. .
y2

) y =
x
x
y
x
) 2 xy e x 2 + y 2 sin y = 0
y
) y =
x2 + y
x3
357
7.3.3.
.
dy 1 2 y
x+ y
= +
) ( x 2 2 y 2 )dx + xydy = 0 )

) xy = y + 2 xe y / x
) y =
dx 3 3 x
xy
7.3.4. .
) y =
x 2 + y2
, y(1)=2
xy
) 2 x y y + x 2 3 y 2 = 0 , y(2)=1
) y = 1 +
y
x + xy
, y(2)=3
7.3.5.

.
2
2
) 2 xyy = x + 2 y
) x 2 y 3 xy 2 y 2 = 0
7.3.6. :
dy
dx
) ( x + y) dx ( x y) dy = 0
ax y
F
,
x y
. , x=zh, y=wk,
h,k,
z, w.
:
)
dy x + y + 4
=

dx x y 6
) y =
x + y +1
2x + 4 y + 3
7.4 . Bernoulli.
.
,
y=y(x). , y=3y+6

(7.4.1)
y3y=6
. (7.4.1)
Q( x ) = e
3 dx
= e 3 x ,
( ) :
d
yc e 3 x 3 y e 3 x 6 e 3 x
y e 3 x 6 e 3 x .
dx
x,
:
d
3 x
3 x
3 x
3 x
dx y e dx 6e dx y e 2 e c, c R.
d
3 x
3 x
3 x
3 x
dx y e dx 6e dx y e 2 e c, c R.
,
. :
358

y(x) +p(x)y= f(x),
(7.4.2)

p(x), f(x) ' R. f(x)=0, .
,
y( x ) + p( x ) y + q( x ) y = r( x ) ,
p(x), q(x) r(x) x.

(7.4.2). ,
Euler,
Q( x ) = e
p( x ) dx
(7.4.3)
x (. y). (7.4.2)
:
p( x ) dx
p( x ) dx
p( x ) dx
p( x ) dx
p( x ) dx
y e
+ p( x ) e
y = f ( x) e
y e
= f ( x) e
y e p( x ) dx dx = f ( x ) e p( x ) dx dx + c y e p( x ) dx = f ( x ) e p( x ) dx dx + c .
:
H (7.4.2) :
p( x ) dx
p( x ) dx
y( x ) = e
f ( x) e
dx + c , c R .
(7.4.4)
:
) A f(x)=0 ( ) y(x) + p(x)y=0,
:
p( x ) dx
y( x ) = c e
.
) p(x), f(x) , (7.4.2) 7.2.
) p(x)=0, y=f(x), , :
y = f ( x ) ydy = f ( x ) dx y = f ( x ) dx + c, c R.
7.4.1.
y+3y=e2x.
359
, (7.4.2) p(x)=3
f(x)=e2x. (7.4.4) :
3 dx
3 dx
y( x ) = e 3 x e5 x dx + c .
y( x ) = e e 2 x e dx + c y( x ) = e 3 x e 2 x e3 x dx + c
, :
1
1
y( x ) = e 3 x e5 x + c y( x ) = e 2 x + c e 3 x , c R.
5
5
7.4.2.
dy 1
+ y = 3 x , x0.
x0
dx x
p(x)=1/x f(x)=3x :
1
p( x ) dx
x dx
Q( x ) = e
=e
= e ln x =x.
, (7.4.4) :
1
1
y( x ) = e ln x 3 x e ln x dx + c y( x ) = 3 x x dx + c y( x ) = 3 x 2 dx + c ,
x
x
:
c
y( x ) = x 2 + ,
x
cR .
1
y = xy 2 , x
(7.4.2) y2 . (
) Bernoulli.
:
y +
y( x ) + p( x ) y = f ( x ) y m , m 0,1
(7.4.5)
p(x), f(x) x,
Bernoulli.
m=0, Bernoulli , m=1
. m ( m0,1)
z=ylm [
, z(x)]. .
360
7.4.5.
:
y +
3
y = x 2 y2 , x > 0
x
(7.4.6)
.
(7.4.6) Bernoulli
3
m=2 p( x ) = , f ( x ) = x 2 .
x
y0,
z = y1 2 z = y 1,
z=y2y
3 1
3
y = x 2 z z = x 2 .
x
x
. :
y 2 y
y( x ) =
1
, c ln x 0, x > 0
x (c ln x )
3
cR . y(x)=0, x>0
(7.4.6), .
7.4.1. y3y=6.
) .
) .
7.4.2. () .
3
4
4
3
) y y = x
) y + y = sin x
) y + y = x
x
x
7.4.3. .
3
) y + 2 xy = 2 x ,
) yc y sin x ,
y(0) = 1
y( ) 1
) y xy = x
) y + xy = x , y(0) = 4
2
y = 4, y(2) = 100
) y +
10 + 2 y
7.4.4. y+yexy2=0.
6
7.4.5. y + y = 3 y 3 ,
x
y(1) =
1
.
8
361
7.5 .

. :
n

n ( x ) y( n) ( x ) + n1( x ) y( n1) ( x ) + ... + 1( x ) y( x ) + 0 ( x ) y( x ) = f ( x ),
(7.5.1)
f(x) i (x), i=0,1,2,...,n

x.
f(x)=0, (7.5.1) , f(x)0
.
i, i = 0, 1, 2,..., ,

n y( n) ( x ) + n1 y( n1) ( x ) + ... + 2 y( x ) + 1 y ( x ) + 0 y( x ) = f ( x )
.
2

y( x ) + p y( x ) + q y( x ) = 0
(7.5.2)

p, q . ,
.
(7.5.2) y(x)=ex. :
yc( x )
e x ycc( x )
2 e x ,
(7.5.2), 2 e x + p e x + q e x = 0 e x ( 2 + p + q) = 0,
2 + p + q = 0 .
(7.5.3)

(7.5.2). 0 (7.5.3), y(x) = e0x
(7.5.2). , ,
y+3y4y=0 2+34=0 1=1 2 = 4,
y1(x) = e1x = ex y2 (x) = e2x = e4x .
, n
y( n) ( x ) n1 y( n1) ( x ) ... 2 ycc( x ) 1 yc( x ) 0 y( x ) 0 ,

n + n1 n1 + ... + 1 + 0 = 0 .
.. y( 4) 3 y + 2 y y = 0 4 3 3 + 2 2 1 ==00,
d5 x
d3 x
dx
+5
7 x = 0 5 3 3 + 5 7 = 0 ....
3
5
3
dt
dt
dt
362

(7.5.1). ,
.
, ,
.
:
(7.5.2) (7.5.3).
=p24q (7.5.3) 1,2 .
yo
(7.5.2) :
)
>0, 12 ( (7.5.3)
), e1 x e2 x (7.5.2) :

y = c1 e1x + c2 e2 x
(7.5.4)
) = 0, 1 = 2 = ( (7.5.3)
), ex x ex (7.5.2)
:
y = c1 e x + c2 x e x = (c1 + c2 x ) e x .

(7.5.5)
) < 0, (7.5.3)
, 1 = a + i, 2 = a i , e( a i ) x e( a i ) x

(7.5.2) :
y
d1 e( a i ) x d2 e( a i ) x ,
y e ax (c1 x c2 x ).
(7.5.6)

.
7.5.1.
y + 3 y + 2 y = 0 .
.
2 + 3 + 2 = 0 .
, 1 = 2, 2 = 1 , (7.5.4),
y = c1 e 2 x + c2 e x .
7.5.2.
) y4y+4y=0.
363
) y(0)=y'(0)=1.
.
) 24+4=0 1= 2==2,
yo=c1e2x+ c2xe2x, c1,c2R.
) , , :
= 2c1 e 2 x + 2c2 x e 2 x + c2 e 2 x = e 2 x (2c1 + 2 xc2 + c2 ) .
y
y(0)=y(0)=1 :
(0) = 1 2c1 + c2 = 1 .
y (0) = 1 c1 + c2 = 1 , y
, c1=0, c2=1 y=xe2x.
7.5.3.
y+4y+5y=0.
.
2+4+5=0, = p24q=4245=4<0
, 1 = 2 + i, 2 = 2 i .
(7.5.6), y e 2 x (c1 x c2 x ) .
(7.5.6), c1 = A ,
c2 = A (7.5.6) o o
y e ax ( A x A x )
Ae ax ( x x )
Ae ax ( x )
( ( + ) = + ).
x , y Ae x ( x ) ,
> 0 , < 0 .
,
7.1 .
.
7.5.4.
m,
F
(. 7.5).
.
F
x(t)
M
m
. 7.5
F=ma, a
F. , Hooke,
364
F=kx, k>0 , x M
O ( F x
). a=a(t)
x=x(t) ,
d2 x
a= 2 .
dt
:
k x
d2 x
d2 x k
x
dt 2
dt 2 m
d2 x
2 x 0 x cc 2 x
dt 2
0 ,
k
k
=
=().
2+2=0,
m
m
2 + 2 = 0 2 = 2 = i , , 1 = 0 + i, 2 = 0 i .
, (7.5.6), x e 0 x (c1 t c2 t).
c1 = A , c2 = A , x(t) = A(t+), 0.

O, .
2
=
,
, :
y( x ) + p y( x ) + q y( x ) = f ( x ),

p, q f(x) .
,
(7.5.7)
y 2 y + y = e ,
(7.5.8)

p=2, q=1 f(x)=e3x. (7.5.8),
y2y+y=0, 22+1=0 ( ,
=1),
3x
y = c1 e x + c2 x e x , c1 , c2 R.
(7.5.8)

(7.5.8)
1
y = e3 x ,
4
1
3
9
y = e3 x , y = e3 x y = e3 x
4
4
4
9
3
1
y 2 y + y = e3 x e3 x 2 e3 x + e3 x = e3 x e3 x = e3 x ,
4
4
4
.
y2y+y=0 ,
365
1
y = y + y = c1 e x + c2 x e x + e3 x ,
4
(7.5.8).
, :
y
(7.5.7) :
y=yo+ y,
yo
y( x ) + p y( x ) + q y( x ) = 0
y (7.5.7) (
).
, (7.5.7),
. , :
y;
, . ,
.
7.5.5.

(7.5.9)
y5y+6y=x1,
y5y+6y=0, 25+6=0 1=2, 2=3.

yo =c1e2x+ c2e3x.
(7.5.9). f(x)=x1 y = x + . y' = , y'' = 0
(7.5.9) :
0 5 + 6 x + 6 = x 1 6x + (6 5) = x 1.
x 6=1 65=1,
:
1
1
= , = .
6
36
1
1
x
. ,
6
36
(7.5.9)
(7.5.9) y =
y = y + y = c1 e 2 x + c2 e3 x +
1
1
x
.
6
36
366
(7.5.7)
f , y=P(x),
P(x) f.
(7.5.7)
f . f :
y (7.5.7) :
) f(x) Pn(x) n x. :
q0,
y
an x n an1 x n1 ... a1 x a0
q=0,
y
x (an x n an1 x n1 ... a1 x a0 ),
ai ,i=0,1,2,3,...,n .
) f(x)=kex, k, .
y=ex,
.
) f(x)=k1x+k2x, k1,k2 .
y=x+Bx, ,
.
(7.5.7)
(), () (). , f
() (), f(x)=exPn(x),
y
e x (an x n an1 x n1 ... a1 x a0 )
ai, i = 0, 1, 2, 3,..., . f (), () () (, ), :
f ( x ) e x Pn ( x )x
f ( x ) e x Pn ( x )x ,
e x x (an x n an1 x n1 ... a1 x a0 ) e x x ( n x n n1 x n1 ... 1 x 0 )
e x x (an x n an1 x n1 ... a1 x a0 ) e x x ( n x n n1 x n1 ... 1 x 0 )
ai,i, i = 0, 1, 2, 3,..., n .

f
.
.
367
7.5.6.
yyy=4xe2x.
.
f () (), , f(x)=exP1(x),
P1(x)=4x =2.
y=e2x (x+), A,B .
y = e 2 x (2 Ax + A + 2 B),
y = e 2 x (4 Ax + 4 A + 4 B)
:
e 2 x (4 Ax + 4 A + 4 B) e 2 x (2 Ax + A + 2 B) e 2 x ( Ax + B) = 4 xe 2 x
e 2 x ( Ax + 3 A + B) = e 2 x 4 x Ax + 3 A + B = 4 x + 0 .
A=4 3+=0=12
y=e2x (4x12).
yyy=0,
21=0. 1 =

1 5
c1 e
1 5
c2 e
1+ 5
1 5
,
, 2 =
5
5
.

1 5
y y
c1 e
1 5
c2 e
e 2 x (4 x 12) .
7.5.7.
yy2y=2x.
.
, , yo=c1ex+c2e2x.
f(x)=2x y=2x+B2x.
:
y = 2 A 2 x 2 B 2 x ,
y = 4 A 2 x 2 B 2 x
(4 A 2 x 4 B 2 x ) (2 A 2 x 2 B 2 x ) 2( A 2 x B 2 x ) 2 x
( 6 A 2 B) 2 x (6 B 2 A) 2 x 1 2 x 0 2 x .
6A+2B=1 2A6B=0,
:
3
1
B =
A=
.
20
20
368
y =
3
1
2 x + 2 x :
20
20
3
1
y = y + y = c1 e x + c2 e 2 x 2 x + 2 x .
20
20
7.5.1. .
) 2xy+x2y(x)y=2
) yy2y=0
) y2y=0
) yy+xy+y=x3
) 4y+4y+y=0
) 2y+4xy=x+1
;
7.5.2. f(x)=ex g(x)=5ex
y2y+y=0. y=c1ex+c25ex, c1,c2R
.
7.5.3. :
) y6y=0
) y7y=0
) y+2y+5y=0
) y2yy=0
) y+10y+21y=0
7.5.4.
) y3y+4y=0
d2 I
dI
+ 20 + 200 I = 0 .
2
dt
dt
7.5.5. f(x)=x2+4x+6
y2y+y=x2, .
7.5.6. y= d1e(+i)x + d2e(i)x (7.5.2)
, y=eax (c1 x + c2 x).
7.5.7. .
) y + y = 0, y(2) = y(2) = 1
) y y 2 y = 0, y(0) = 2, y(0) = 1
) y 5 y + 4 y = 0, y(0) = 5, y(0) = 8
) y + 4 y = 0, y(0) = 0, y(0) = 2
7.5.8. :
) y y 2 y = e3 x
) y 2 y = 4 x 2 e x
2
) y y 2 y = 4 x 2
) y 3 y + 2 y = 2x
) y 7 y + y = e 2 x (3 x 5)
) y 3 y + 2 y = 8 x 1
7.5.9. .
) y 3 y + 2 y = 2x , y(1)=0, y(1)=1
x
) y + 8 y + 15 y = e ( x + 3) , y(0)=y(0)=0
) y + y = x 3 x + 1 , y(2)=3, y(2)=0
) y 2 y + y =
ex
, y(1)=0, y(1)=1
x
369
7.6 .
, , , , . -,
.
, .
7.6.1 .

. , ' ,
.

dR
= k R,
(7.6.1)
dt

k<0. (7.6.1) o

dR
dR
= k dt
= k dt ln R = k t + c R( t) = c e kt , ,
(7.6.2)
R
R

c=ec . (.
t=0 ), c (7.6.2)
R(0) = ce k0 c = R(0) .
, c R(0). k .
7.6.1.
14, ,
. , -14
(
). -14
-14, 5730 .
77,7%
.
.
, (7.6.1) R(t)=cekt, c=R(0) . , -14 5730

, R(5730)=0,5R(0) :
ln 0, 5
0, 5 R(0) = R(0) e5730 k ln 0, 5 = 5730 k k =
.
5730
370
77,7%
, t R(t)=0,777R(0). :
ln 0, 777
ln 0, 777
t=
2086.
0, 777 R(0) = R(0) e k t 0, 777 = e k t t =
ln 0, 5
k
5730
2086 .
7.6.2 .
, ,

. ,
.
.
7.6.2.
' 2 c ' 200 c. 30 min

16 c. 88 c,
.
.
=(t) ,
d

. , dt

d
(200 ) ,
dt
( ).
:
d
dt
(200 )
d
200
dt
d
200
dt ln(200 )
t c.
:
t
1
( ln(200 ) c).
(7.6.3)
t=0 2oC, t=30

1
16oC, (7.6.3) 0 = ( ln(200 2) c) c = ln198
1
ln198 ln184
30
( ln(200 16) c) 30 c ln184
.
30
371
c, (7.6.3)

ln198 ln112
t = 30
233 min .
ln198 ln184
7.6.3 .

. ,
.

.
7.6.3.
)

3000 , 3 .
. .
) ;
; .
.
) x=x(t) t. ,
dx
1
= 4 x (3000 x ),
(7.6.4)
dt 10

. (7.6.4) (
)
3000
x ( t) =
.
1 + c e 0,3 t
x(0)=3, c, :
3000
x(0) = 3
= 3 c = 999 .
1 + c e0
3000
x ( t) =

1 + 999 e 0,3 t
(7.6.5)

(7.6.5)
t = 2, :
3000
x(2) =
x(2) 5 .
1 + 999 e 0,6 t
) , 3000 ,
x(t)=3000,
3000
3000 =
e 0,3 t = 0 .
0,3 t
1 + 999 e
372
t. t+,
. , , .
7.6.1. ,
:
dN
k N,
dt
N = N(t) k . 50 mg , 10%
, :
) M t.
) T 4 .
) T 50% .
7.6.2. .
100 mg,
5% . :
) M t.
) T 10% .
7.6.3. . 300 , 2
10%. :
) T t.
) o .
7.6.4. 0o F , 100o F.
10 min 25o F. :
) T 50o F.
) T 20 min.
7.6.5.
50F 150o F.
10 min 75o F, ,
100o F.
7.6.6. 50 F 150 F.
10 min 75 F, ,
100 F.
7.6.7. 190 F, 72 F. 150 F.
:
) T 5 min.
) T 100 F.
7.6.8. ' 500 5
373
.
, N(t)

,
dN
= k N (500 N ) , k .
dt
7.7 .
n.
x, y=y(x)
y x, :
F x , y, yc, ycc,!, y( n1) , y( n)
0, n t 1
' .
,
, .
dy
+ Q( x ) N ( y) = 0
dx
P ( x ) M ( y)
f(x,y),
m.
f(x,y)=mf(x,y) 0
y(x)+p(x)y=f(x),
p(x), f(x) .
P ( x , y) + Q( x , y)
dy
= 0,
dx
. P(x,y) Q(x,y)
x y.
Euler
y(x)+p(x)y=f(x).

y(x)+p(x)y=f(x).
Bernoulli.
Q( x ) = e
p( x ) dx
p( x ) dx
p( x ) dx
y( x ) = e
f ( x) e
dx + c , c R

y( x ) + p( x ) y = f ( x ) y m , m 0,1
p(x), f(x) .
374
n.
n y( n) ( x ) + n1 y( n1) ( x ) + ... + 12yy(x( )x )++0 y( x ) = f ( x )
y(x)+py(x)+qy(x)=0, (p,q )
y(x)+py(x)+qy(x)=0.
2+p+q=0
n.
n + n1 n1 + ... + 1 + 0 = 0
) yo = c1e1x + c1e2x > 0
yo ) yo = (c1 + c2 x) ex = 0
) yo = eax(c1x+ c2x) <0

y(x)+py(x)+qy(x)=0
p, q .
(=p24q 2+p+q=0)
y=y0+y
- y0

y(x)+py(x)+qy(x)=0
y(x)+py(x)+qy(x)=f(x).
y
y(x)+py(x)+qy(x)=f(x)

) y=anxn+...+a1x+a0, q0
y(x)+py(x)+qy(x)=Pn(x)
) y=x(anxn+...+a1x+a0 ), q=0
Pn(x) n x.

y(x)+py(x)+qy(x)=kex.

y(x)+py(x)+qy(x)=k1x+ k2x.
y=ex
y= x+B x
7.8 .
,
, .
1.
2.
3.
H y+3xy+4y=x2, .
dy
= x 2 .
dx
dy
= x 2 .
H
dx
H
375
w w
+
= 0, w = w( x , y) .
x y
4.
5.
y(x)=2ex+xex y+2y+y=0.
6.
y(x)=1 y+2y+y=x.
7.
y = 2x y+4y=0.
8.
y = 2x y+4y=0.
9.
y = 2x + c, cR y+4y=0.
10.
y(x)=2e3x y+y=0, y(3)=2.
11.
1 F(x,y,y)=0.
12.
y = (x, c),
c R.
13.

F(x,y,c)=0.
14.

F(x,y,c1,c2)=0, c1,c2 c R.
15.
H exdxydy=0 .
16.
17.
H f(x,y)=x4+2y4 4.
18.
x4 + 2 y
4.
H f ( x , y) =
xy 3
19.
dy
2 xy
= 2 2 .
dx x y
20.
dy
2 xy
x
= 2 2 z = .
dx x y
y
21.
H y+3y=x .
22.
H y
23.
y(x)=c1ex + c2e2x yy2y=0.
dy x 4 + 2 y 4
.
=
dx
x y3
3
y = x 4 y1/ 3 .
x
376
24.
ypy+qy=0 p24q<0 y=c1ex+c2xex.
25.
y+py+qy=0 p24q<0
y=eax(c1x+c2x).
26.
y+py+qy=0 p24q=0 y= c1ex+c2ex,

c1,c2R.
.
dy
= y 2 :
dx
1
) y =
) y = x
) y=x+1
x

dy

= 2 x y 1 :
dx

1.
2.
( x 2 + c)2
4

c
1
) y = + c
) y = 2
x
x

dy 2
y = x 4 , x > 0 :

dx x
) (x + c)2

3.
) y = x2
) 1 +
x5
x5
x ( x 5 + c)2
( x 5 + c)2
+ c x2 + 2x
+ c x2
) +
)
)
3
3
5
4
4

2
(1+x )y+2xy=1, y(0)=1 :
4
x +1
x +1
) y = 2
) y = x + 3
) y = 2
) y = 2
+c
x
x +1
x +1

) 1 +
4.
3
y = x 2 y 2 , x > 0 :
x
1
2
1
1
) y = 5 (c 2 ln x )
) y = 3 (c 2 ln x )
x
x

Bernoulli y +
5.
6.
) y = x 3 ln x + c
) y =
1
(c ln x )1
3
x

H f(x,y)=x3+xy2ex/y :
) 3
) 2
) 1
H y =
7.
1
2
3
) y = x ln x + 2cx ) y = 2 ln x + c
x

x2 + y 2
:
xy
2
2
3
) y = x ln x + 2cx
y =
8.
) 4
2
2
2
) y = 2 x ln x 2cx
x +y
, y(1)=2 :
xy
2
2
2
) y = 2 x ln x + 4 x
2
2
) y = + 2 x ln x + 4 x
) y 2 + x = 3 x 2 ln x + 4 x 2
2
2
2
2
) y + x = x + x ln x + 3 x
377
y =
9.
) y
x 2 y5
+ x=c
2
5

) y 3
x 2 y5
+ x=c
2
5

) ln( xy)
x +1
:
y4 + 1
x+ y
ln( x y) = c
) e
y =
10.
) y=x+3
x 2 y8
+ x=c
2
8
) y=(x+3)2
1
y2
, x > 0 (1, ) :
3
x
) y=(3+lnx)1
) y=x+(3lnx)1
y6y+25y=0 :
11.
3x
3x
) y = c1 e 4 x + c2 e 4 x
3x
) y e (c1 4x c2 3x )
3x
3x
) y = c1 x e 4 x + c2 x e 4 x
3x
3x
) y = e 4 x + 2c2 e 4 x
y6y+25y=64ex.
:
12.
13.
3x
3x
x
) y = c1 e 4 x + c2 e 4 x + 4e
3x
3x
x
) y = c1 e 5x + c2 e 5x + 4e
) y e 2 x (c1 4 x c2 e3 x 4 x ) 2e x
) y e3 x (c1 4 x c2 e3 x 4 x ) 2e x
y=9x2+2x1 :
2
2
) y = + 1
) y = + 1
x
x

) y =
14.
x 2 x3 3x 4
+ +
2
3
4
) y =
yy2y=4x2 :
x
3x
2
) y = y0 + y = c1e + c2 e 2 x + 3 x 3
) y = y0 + y = c1e
2x + 2x 3
Bernoulli y +
15.
x 2 x3 3x 4
+ +
+ c x, c R
2
3
4
) y=t2+c
x
2x
2
) y = y0 + y = c1e + c2 e 2 x + 2 x 3
2x
2
) y = y0 + y = c2 e 2 x + 2 x 3
6
y = 3 y 4 / 3 , t > 0 . H :
t
) y
1
, c t 2 t z 0, t ! 0
3
( c t t)
) y
t2
, c t 2 t z 0, t ! 0
2
3
( c t t)

) y=(t2+c)1, t2+c0

378
7.9 .
7.9.1. , :
) y(6)+4y2y+5y8=x
) y3yy+xy=0
n
d2 y
3
) 2 = y + 2
dx
d2 y
) 2
dx
3/ 2
=1+ x y
7.9.2. :
dy
= 2 x y
)
) y'=yx
dx

1
) 2 x
dy
= 1 y2
dx
dy
( x 1) y 5
=
)
dx x 2 (2 y 3 y)
dy
= (64 xy) 3
)
dx

7.9.3. c1 c2, y(x)=c1x+c2x
y 0, y 0 .
4
6
7.9.4. y+4y=0,
y(0) = 0 y'(0) = 1.
7.9.5. :
) y 2 x y = 0,
) y + y = 2,
y(0) = 1
y(0) = 0
) x y + 2 y = 4 x 2 ,
y(1) = 4
1
y = 0, y(0) = 2
x2

x
y
+
y
=
e
,
y
(
0
)
=
1
)

3
) y 2 y = x , y(0) =
4
) y
7.9.6. :
3 x
) y + 3 y = 2 x e
) y +
3 x
) x y + ( x 2) y = 3 x e
2x 3
y = 4 x3
x

) y5y=ex
7.9.7. :
)
dy
= y ex ,
dx
x+ y
) y = e ,
y(0) = 2 e

y(0) = 1
) yy=x, y(0)=2
y
) ( y + e ) y = 1,
y(1) = 1
7.9.8. :
) y+y=xy3
) y+y=y1
7.9.9. :
dy
= y e x , y(0) = 2 e
)
) yy=x, y(0)=2
dx

2
) x ( x + 1) y y = 2 x ( x + 1)
379
7.9.10. , ,
.
x2 + 2 y2
yx
) f ( x , y) =

) g ( x , y) =
xy
x
) h( x , y) =
y
x + xy
) k( x , y) =
x 4 + 3x 2 y2 + y4
x3 y
7.9.11.
.
yx
x + 2y
) y =

) y =
x
x
) y c
y 2 2x

xy
) y(y2x2)=2xy
7.9.12.
y +
1
x
y=
.
x
x
) y=y(x).
) x0, lim y( x ) .
x 0
7.9.13. .
) y+6y'+9y=0
) y + y +
1
y =0
4
) y 20 y + 64 y = 0
) y + y + 2 y = 0
d2 y
dy
5 +7y = 0
)
2
dy
dy
d2 y
dy
18 + 81 y = 0
)
2
dy
dy
7.9.14.
d2 I
4 I = t2et .
2
dt
7.9.15. yy2y=0, y(0)=a, y(0)=2.
) .
)
a, y=y(t) t+,
lim y( t) = 0 .
t +
7.9.16. y+3y+2y=0, y(0)=1, y(0)=1.

7.9.17. :
) y2y+y=x21
) y2y+y=3e2x
) y2y+y=xex
) y2y+y=3ex
) y2y+y=4x
y y
)
=3
y
7.9.18. y = p(x) y2 +q(x) y + r(x) = 0, p(x), q(x), r(x) ' , Riccati.

Riccati
y' ex y2 + 3y 3ex = 0.
380
) y1(x) = ex .
1
) y(x) = ex +
:
u( x )
u' u + ex = 0.
) ().
) :
y( x ) = e x +
2
2ce + e x
x
7.9.19. ,
0F . 20min 40 F 40min
20 F. .
7.9.20.
dT
+ k T = 0, T = T ( t) ,
dt
k . 100 F,
t = 0 0 F. 20 min
50 F, :
) 20 F.
) 10 min.
7.9.21.
RC 3002t( Volt), 150 hm 1/600 Farad.
5 Coulomb
)
q =q(t) t.
)
t = /2.
7.9.22.
RL 4t ( Volt), 100
Ohm L=4 Henry.
L
, I=I(t) t.
7.9.23.
RCL (. 7.9), 200 (100t) Volt, 5 Ohm, L = 0,05 enry
0,0004 Farad, .

, t.
E(t)
. 7.9.
LAPLACE

, ,
. , Laplace.
Laplace
, , .
Laplace,
.
8.1 O Laplace.
8.2 Laplace.
8.3 Laplace.
8.4 .
8.5 .
8.6 .
lx im
x0
382
8.1 Laplace.
6 f ( x ) dx f
a
' [, ], , R. ,
f , . , :
f
f f ( x) dx
f ( x ) dx
f
f f ( x) dx .
, . , f:[a,+)R
( G f),
G( x ) = f(x)dx
f ( x ) dx
:
f
f ( x ) dx
f ( x) dx
t of
lim
f
f ( x ) dx

f(x)dx
lim G( t) G(a) .
t of
f
f
f
f ( x ) dx
t of t
f ( x ) dx
f
lim
a
G(a) lim G( t)
f ( x ) dx
f ( x ) dx
t of
f
a
f ( x ) dx
lim G( t) lim G( s).
t of
s of
,
. ,
.
.
8.1.1
:
f 4 x
f 1
)
)
e dx
dx .
0
3
x 1
.
) f:[0,+)R f(x)=e4x , :
f 4 x
e
0
dx
lim
of
4 x
e
0
dx
e 4 1
lim
of
4
1
.
4
1 .
x 1
f [3,+)
1
1
f
dx

lim
dx.
f
(
x
)
dx
3
3 x 1
of 3 x 1
) f:[3,+)R f ( x ) =
383
1
dx
x 1
ln( 1) ln 2
lim ln( 1) = + . , .
+
,
,
Laplace f. , :
Laplace f:[0,+)R F

F ( s) L{ f ( x )}
f sx
(8.1.1)
f ( x ) dx .
F,
sR, (8.1.1).
s,
(8.1.1), x.
(8.1.1) sR,
f(x) Laplace.
8.1.2
Laplace f(x)=eax, x0.

.
(8.1.1), Laplace f(x)=eax, x0,

f sx
F ( s) L{ f ( x )}
t ( a s ) x
e
0
f ( x ) dx
f sx ax
0
t
dx
e( a s ) x
a s 0
e dx
f ( a s ) x
dx .
e( a s ) t
1

as as
as<0s>a :
t of
lim
t ( a s ) x
e
0
dx
e( a s ) t
1
lim

t of a s
as
F ( s) = L{ f ( x )} =
1
,
sa
0
1
as
1
.
sa
s>a .
Laplace , 8.1.1. 8.1.5 -
384
Laplace x
x, Laplace f(x)=1
Laplace f(x)=eax a=0. ,
Laplace f(x)=xn, (. 8.1.6).
Laplace,
.
L1.
Laplace. L{f1(x)}=F1(s), L{f2(x)}=F2(s)
c1 c2R , Laplace c1f1(x)+ c2f2(x) c1F1(s)+ c2F2(s). :
L {c1 f1( x ) + c2 f2 ( x )} = c1 L { f1( x )} + c2 L{ f2 ( x )} = c1 F1( s) + c2 F2 ( s) .
L2. Laplace. L{f(x)}=F(s), aR
, :
L {e ax f ( x )} = F ( s a) .

Laplace 8.1.2.
L3. L{f(x)}=F(s) Laplace f,
n, :
dn
L { x n f ( x )} = (1)n n ( F ( s)) .
ds
L4. Laplace f. f, , .
, Laplace
f :
L{ f ( x )} = s L{ f ( x )} f (0)
L{ f ( x )} = s 2 L{ f ( x )} s f (0) f (0) .
8.1.1
f(x)
L{ f ( x )} F ( s)
1
,
sa
e ax
xn
(x)
(x)
n!
s n+1
1
,
s
f s x
e
0
f ( x ) dx
s>0
s ! a (a ! 0)
8.1.2
f(x)
s > 0 (n )
, s!0
2
s 2
s
, s!0
2
s 2
L{ f ( x )} F ( s)
f s x
f ( x ) dx
e ax (x)
, s! a
( s a)2 2
e ax(x)
, s! a
( s a)2 2
385
8.1.3
Laplace f(x)=3+2x2.
.
Laplace
L1 :
^ `
L^ f ( x )` L{3} L{2 x 2 } 3 L{1} 2 L x 2
L^ f ( x )`
3s 2 4
,
s3
1 2
3 2 3
s s
3s 2 4
,
s3
s ! 0.
s ! 0 .
8.1.4
Laplace f(x)=e3x+223x.
.
E L1 L2 :
6 x 1
L^ f ( x )` L{e 3 x } 2 L{ 2 3 x} L{e3 x } 2 L{1 2 3 x} L{e3 x } 2 L 1

2
1
1
s
L{e3 x } L{1} L^6 x`
2
.
s 3 s s 36
1
1
s
L e3 x 2 2 3 x
2
, s ! 3.
s 3 s s 36
)
)
)
)
8.1.1. :
f
f 1
1
f
f 1 f 1
1 f 1
f)
f)1 dxf 14 )
1 dx
dx f 14 dx
) 1 fdx 1) dxf
)
)
)
4
) 2 )
dx
) 3 )
2
)
dx 2 x dx
2 dx33 x 2 dx
xx 3232 dxx )
2 xx 4 2 x 4
3
x2
x 2 f
x a x 2 fx 4 a x
f
f 2 x f 2 x
f
2 x
a x
f.
f
f e 2 .
f.
, ae ! a0x dx , a ! 0
xfdxe,.
.
ee 2x0dx
ee af
0f
aax !dx
x dx 0f e 2 x dx .
. 0 )
dx

.
dxe,.
a !dx
0 , ae !
.
e
dx

f
.
e
dx

.
0 dx , a ! 0
)
0
f
f
0
f
0

1
f
1 1 p
dx
a ,
p !p>1,
1, a !
0
8.1.2. a
a>0.
p 1
xp
f
f x f x
f)
f e x)
)dx f e xx dx
ee x dx
0 e )
0 ) dx
dx 0 e dx
0
0
0
0
0
0
2x
0 )
0 e 2 x)
0 e 22xx dx
dx
ee22xx dx
dx e )
)dx f e dx
f ) f
f
f
f

8.1.3. p,
8.1.4. Laplace :
) f(x)=2x23x+4
) g(x)=2x+3(2 x).
f px px
e e dx.dx
8.1.5. f1(x)=(x) f2(x)=(x).

L{f1(x)}=F1(s), L{f2(x)}=F2(s) Laplace f1, f2
.
1 s2
) F1( s) = 2 F1( s), s >s >0.0

) L{f(x)}=sL{f(x)}f(0) (. L4)
s
f1(x)=(x) F2 ( s) = F1( s), s >s >0.0
386
) () ()
8.1.1 Laplace :
f(x)=(x) g(x)= (x).
) Laplace :
x
f1(x)=ex(x) f2(x)= e (x).
1
8.1.6. 8.1.1 L {1} = , s >s >0,0 L3, s
:
1!
2!
L { x} = 2 , s > 0 , L { x 2 } = 3 , s > 0 .
s
s
n!
n
, L { x } = n+1 , s > 0 .
s
, Laplace f(x)=[(x+1)ex]2.
8.1.7.
8.1.1 Laplace, Laplace f(x),
8.1.3 F(s).
8.1.3
f(x)
F(s)
1
( s + a)2
xeax
(1 ax)eax
1
( s + a)2
eax et
a
(a z )
( s a)( s )
eaxx
eaxx
(a + x)
(a + x)
( s a)2 2
( s a)2 2
sa a
s2 2
s a a

s2 2
8.2 Laplace.
y= f(x) Laplace F(s) f.
Laplace Laplace. -
387
Laplace
, . Laplace
.
:
f1, f2 , Laplace,
:
L { f1( x )} = L { f2 ( x )} f1( x ) = f2 ( x ) x.
, Laplace F(s)= L{f(x)}
f(x), f(x) . f(x) Laplace F(s) f(x)=L1{F(s)}.
,
Laplace.
:
F(s). Laplace
F(s), f(x), L{f(x)}= F(s).
:

f(x)=L1{F(s)}.
(8.2.1)
n!
, f(x) L{ f ( x )} = n+1 , , 8.1.1
s
L{f(x)}= L{xn}, f(x)=xn=L1{F(s)}.
Laplace,
8.1.1 ,
.
() Laplace , . ( ,
).
8.2.1.
f(x), L{ f ( x )} =
1
.
( s + 1)( s + 2)
1
1
1
.
f ( x ) = L1
= L {F ( s)} , F ( s) =
(
1
)(
2
)
s
+
s
+
(
1
)(
2
)
s
+
s
+
F(s) , :
388
1
( s 1) ( s 2)

.
s 1 s 2
1
as 2a s

,
( s 1) ( s 2)
( s 1)( s 2)
+ = 0 2 + = 1.
F ( s)
= 1 = 1
F ( s) =
1
1
1
=
.
( s + 1) ( s + 2) s + 1 s + 2
8.1.1
L{ f ( x )} = F ( s) =
1
= L{e x },
s +1
1
= L{e 2 x } ,
s+2
1
1
= L{e x } L{e 2 x } = L{e x e 2 x } .

s +1 s + 2
f(x)=exe2x, Laplace F(s) :
x 2 x
1
f ( x ) = L1
= e e .
( s + 1)( s + 2)
Laplace ,
Laplace 8.1.
1. Laplace. F1(s), F2(s)
Laplace f1(x), f2(x), c1, c2R , :
L 1{c1 F1( s) + c2 F2 ( s)} = c1 L1 { F1( s)} + c2 L1{F2 ( s)} = c1 f1( x ) + c2 f2 ( x ) .
2. Laplace. f(x) Laplace F(s) (. L1{F(s)}=f(x))
aR , Laplace F(sa) :
L1{F(sa)}=eax f(x).
8.2.2.
Laplace F ( s) =
2s + 1 .
s + 6 s + 13
2
Laplace F(s), -
389
, '
8.1.1. F(s) (=16<0),

s 2 + 6 s + 13 = s 2 + 2 s 3 + 32 + 4 = ( s + 3)2 + 22 .
, 1
:
2 s + 6 5
5 1
s+3
2
L1 {F ( s)} = L1
= 2 L1
L
2
2
2
2
2
2 .
( s + 3) + 2
( s + 3) + 2 2
( s + 3) + 2
2,
5
L1 {F ( s)} = 2 L1 {F1( s + 3)} L1 {F2 ( s + 3)},
2

s
2
F1( s) 2
L{(2 x )},
F2 ( s) 2
L{(2 x )}.
2
s 2
s 22
:
5
L1 ^ F ( s)` 2 e 3 x (2 x ) e 3 x (2 x ) .
2
, Laplace F(s) 8.1.1. F(s)
, ( Laplace
Laplace) , .
8.2.1. Laplace, :
2
3
s
) F ( s) = 2
) F ( s) =
) F ( s) =
2
( s 1) + 4
s +9
( s 2)2 + 3
) F ( s) =
24

( s 5)5
) F ( s) =
1

s 1
) F ( s) =
s +1
( s + 1)2 + 7
) F ( s) =
s +1
s + 3s + 5
) F ( s) =
1
6
4
s+2 s

8.2.2. Laplace, :
1
12
2
) F ( s) = 2
) F ( s) =
) F ( s) = 2
s 2s + 2
3s + 9
s
) F ( s) =
s+2
s 3s + 4
8.2.3. f(x), L{ f ( x )}
, , , .
1
,
( s )( s )( s )
390
8.2.4. F ( s) =
1
.
( s + 1)( s 2 + 1)
) , , ,
1
s+
=
+ 2
.
2
( s + 1) ( s + 1) s + 1 s + 1
) Laplace f ( x ) = L1
.
2
( s + 1) ( s + 1)
8.3 Laplace.
Laplace
n
. n
:
n y( n) ( x ) + n1 y( n1) ( x ) + ... + 2 y( x ) + 1 y ( x ) + 0 y( x ) = f ( x ) ,
i, i=0,1,2,..., n . ,
, :
y(0) = c0 , y(0) = c1 , y(0) = c2 ,..., y( n1) (0) = cn1 .
, ,
n.
, 7 ,
,
.
Laplace, '
.

Laplace f. '
Laplace .
L4, Laplace :
L{f(x)}=F(s) Laplace f, :
L{ f c( x )} sF ( s) f (0),

(8.3.1)
L{ f cc( x )} s 2 F ( s) s f (0) f c(0),
f
, Laplace .
391
n f(n) f,
f . ,
Laplace n f(n) f :
L { f ( n) ( x )} = s n F ( s) s( n1) f (0) s( n 2) f (0) ... s f ( n 2) (0) f ( n1) (0) .
(8.3.2)

, . :
y2y= e5x, y(0)=3.
Laplace y2y=e5x
L{y2y}=L{e5x} L{y} 2L{y}=L{e5x}. 8.1.1 (8.3.1)
:
1
, s>5
L{ y} = s L{ y( x )} y(0),
L{e5 x } =
s5
:
1
s L{ y( x )} y(0) 2 L{ y( x )} =
, s > 5.
s5
y(0)=3 :
1
s L{ y( x )} 3 2 L{ y( x )} =
,
s5
, Laplace L{y(x)}.
L{y(x)} :
L{ y( x )}( s 2) =
1
1 + 3s 15
3s 14
.
+ 3 L{ y( x )}( s 2) =
L{ y( x )} =
s5
s5
( s 2)( s 5)

Laplace Y ( s) =
3s 14
3s 14
, y( x ) = L1
.
( s 2)( s 5)
( s 2)( s 5)
Y(s) :
Y ( s) =
3s 14
8 1
1 1
=
+
, ( s 2) ( s 5) 3 s 2 3 s 5
Laplace :
3s 14 8 1 1 1 1 1 8 2 x 1 5 x
y( x ) = L1
= L
+ L
= e + e .
3
( s 2)( s 5) 3
( s 2) 3
( s 5) 3
8
1
, y( x ) = e 2 x + e5 x .
3
3

. , :
392
) Laplace .
) 8.1.1 (8.3.1) ( (8.3.2),
)
L{y(x)}=Y(s).
) (), Y(s).
) Laplace L{y(x)}=Y(s)
y(x)=L1{Y(s)}.
,
.
8.3.1.
yy2y=0 y(0)=1, y(0)=5.

.
Laplace :
L{ y y 2 y} = L{0} L{ y} L{ y } 2 L{ y} = L{0} .
(8.3.1) Laplace
y=f(x) y(0)=1,
y(0)=5,
s 2 L{ y( x )} y(0) s y(0) s L{ y( x )} y(0) 2 L{ y( x )} = 0
L{y(x)}=Y(s). :
L{ y( x )} ( s 2 s 2) 5 s 1 = 0 L{ y( x )} =
s+6
.
s s2
2
Laplace,
,
:
2 2x 5 x .
s+6
y( x ) = L1 2
= e + e
3
3
s s 2
.
8.3.1. Laplace.
) y+2y=0, y(0)=1
) y+2y=2, y(0)=1
) y+2y=ex, y(0)=1
) y+2y=0, y(1)=1
) y+5y=0, y(1)=0
) y5y=e5x, y(0)=2
1
8.3.2. y+16y=2(4x), y(0)= , y'(0)=0,
2
Laplace .
393
8.3.3.
dN
= 0, 05 N ,
dt
= (t) (0)=20. L{N(t)}=M(s) M(s) N(t).

8.3.4.
y + 4 y + 8 y = x , y(0) = 1, y(0) = 0
Laplace .
8.4 .
Laplace
f:[0,+)R.
.

Laplace.
Laplace.
n-
Laplace.
F ( s) L{ f ( x )}
f
f
e sx f ( x ) dx
t
f ( x ) dx
lim
t of
f ( x) dx
0
L {c1 f1( x ) + c2 f2 ( x )} = c1 L { f1( x )} + c2 L{ f2 ( x )}

L{eax f(x)}=F(sa) F(s)=L{f(x)}
L { x n f ( x )} = (1)n
dn
( F ( s)),
ds n
- L 1{c F ( s) + c F ( s)} = c L1 { F ( s)} + c L1{F ( s)}

1 1
2 2
1
1
2
2
Laplace.
Laplace.

Laplace.
L 1 {F ( s a)} = e ax f ( x ), a R
L { f1( x )} = L { f2 ( x )} f1( x ) = f2 ( x ), x > 0
L{ f ( x )} = sF ( s) f (0)
Laplace
f L{f(x)}=F(s).
L{ f cc( x )} s 2 F ( s) s f (0) f c(0)

!
( n)
L{ f ( x )} = s n F ( s) s( n1) f (0) s( n 2) f (0)
... s f ( n 2) (0) f ( n1) (0)

Laplace.
) Laplace
.
)
L{y(x)}=Y(s).
)
Y(s).
)
Laplace Y(s).
394
8.5 .
,
, .
f
1.
2.
3.
4.
1
dx
x
f
.
f ( x ) dx
lim
t of
f
0
t
) dx .
ef x( xdx
1 x dx
f .
Laplace f(x)=1, x>0 F

5.
F ( s) L{ f ( x )}
f
e s x f ( x ) dx
sR, .
6.
Laplace f(x)=1, x>0

1
L{1} = , s < 0 .
s
7.
Laplace f:[0,+)R f(x)=e

1
, s >1 .
L{e x } =
s 1
8.
L{ x 4 2e x 2 x} 4 L{ x} 2 L{e x } 2 L{x} .
9.
Laplace F
.
10.
11.
Laplace L 1 {F(s)}=f(x), :
L 1 {F(s 1)} = e x f(x), aR.
F1(s), F2(s) Laplace f1(x), f2(x)
c1, c2 R, :
1
L {c1 F1(s) + c2 F2(s)} = c1 L {F1(s)} + c2 L {F2(s)}.

12.
Laplace f, f ', f "

f(0)=f(0)=0, L{f(x)}=sL{f(x)}.
395
.

1.
2.
3.
) 2

3
4
f
) 1
2
f
1
:
dx

x2
) 0
( xdx
) dx

efsx
:
) s<0
) s=0
) s>0
) s=1
Laplace f(x) = x2 :
2
1
) 2s
) 3
) 3
) s
s
s

Laplace f(x)=xe4x :
4.
1
( s 4)2
105 9 / 2
s
16

1
( s 4)3
3
( s 4)2
1
( s 4)1/ 2

Laplace f(x)=x7/2 :
5.
6.
7.
8.
104 9 / 2 3
s
16

9 / 2
) s
Laplace F ( s) =
) ( 6 x )
) (2 6 x )
) 2 ( 6 x )
) e3x
) 4e3x+ex
) 4e3x ex
104 9 / 2
s
16
1
:
s +6
2
) ( 6 x )
3s + 7
Laplace F ( s) = 2
:
s 2s 3
) 4e3x ex
y5y=e5x, y(0)=0, :
) y(x)=4xe3x
) y(x)=5xe5x
) y(x)=xe5x
) y(x)=2xe5x
8.6 .
8.6.1. , ,
f
(a)= tfa1( xe)dx
tdt, a .
0
)
(a+1)=a(a), a>0.
) (1)=1.
) () ()
(+1)=!. +
+
+
) x 5 e x dx , x 4 e 3 x dx , x 7 e x dx .
2
8.6.2. 8.6.1
n!
Laplace f(x)=xn n L{ x n } = n+1 , s >
s >0.0
s
396
8.6.3. , .
)
+ 3
x dx
2
x 3 dx
xe x dx
2
+
1
dx
) x 2 e x dx
0
1 3x
8.6.4. ,
3
dx
2 x 1
x
e ,
Laplace f ( x ) =
4,
x2
x > 2.
2,
8.6.5. Laplace f ( x ) =
2,
8.6.
x 3
,
x > 3.
8.6.6. Laplace .
1
s+4
s +1
s
) F ( s) =
) F ( s) = 2
) F ( s) = 2
) F ( s) = 2
2
s 2s + 9
s 9
s + 4s + 8
( s 2) + 9
8.6.7.
F ( s)
4
s ( s s 2)
3
,

2 3

s s
s s 2 s 1
[: s 2 s 2 = ( s 2)( s + 1) ], , , , ,
1
).
Laplace F(s), f ( x ) = L 3 2
s ( s s 2)
dI
+ 50 I = 5 , I= I(t) I(0) = 0.
dt
L{I(t)}=J(s) J(s) , , I(t).
f (x)
8.6.8.

8.6.9.
Laplace.
) y"+2y'3y=2x, y(0)=y(0)=0
) y"+y=x, y(0)=0, y(0)=2

) y"+4y+4y=0, y(0)=2, y(0)=2
)
d2 y
dy
8
2
dx
dx
8.6.11.
, Laplace f,
8.6.
_2
. 8.6.
25 y 0, y( ) 0, yc( ) 6
8.6.10. Laplace
y"+4y'+4y=x2,
y(0)=y'(0)=0 (:
8.6.7).
f(x)
6
5
4
3
2
1
1
. 8.6.
397

( )
9:
10:
11:
12:
13:
lx im
x0
,
, ,
. . ,

, .
9.1 .
9.2 .
9.3 .
9.4

.
9.5 .
9.6 .
9.7 .
9.8 .
lx im
x0
400
9.1 .
3 .
, , , f:R(0,+) f(x)=x,
>0 ( 1), . , ,
(. 9.1) , g:(0,+)R g(x)=logx.
>1 0<<1
f(g(x))=logx=x g(f(x))=logx=x.
, .
Euler, e=2,718281828459... lux.

John Napier1. , , . , =10, logx
x,
. , 10,
.
()
(),
2,3026. , ln1,20, log1,20=0,0792,
ln1,20=0,0792 2,3026=0,1824 ( ). , , , 1
,
0,4343.
2,3026

y
g
f
(
4
3),
3
2
, h
.
1
, 1
2
3
4 x
4 3 2 1
, 1
. ,
2
,
3

, 4
,
.
. 9.1.

f(x)= x , >1
, 3,
h(x)=log x.
:
1. John Napier (1550-1617). .
401
log=1, log1=0, logx=x, logx=x,

.
9.1 , .
9.1
.
2 0 12
0
2 =1
log21=0
21=2
log22=1
log24=2
log28=3
2 =4
2 =8
4
log216=4
2 =32
log232=5
26=64
log264=6
2 =16
log2128=7
log2256=8
log2512=9
2 =128
2 =256
2 =512
10
2 =1024
log21024=10
211=2048
log22048=11
12
2 =4096
log24096=12
, log327=3 33=27, log216=4 24=16, log10000=4 104=10000.

9.1.1
64 128
, 9.1. :
64128=2627=26+7=213=8192.

2.
9.1.2
, 64:32
, 9.1. :
64:32=26:25=265=21=2.

2.
402
f(x)=logx
:
) ( f(x)=logx, x>0).
) , ( f(x)=logx ).
) ( f(x)=logx
) (. 9.1).
) , (x1<x2logx1<logx2) .
) x>1 logx>0 0<x<1, logx<0.
9.2 .
.
,
. (characteristic), (mantissa).
9.2.1
log78509=4,89492, 0,89492 4.
250, log250 =2,39794, 102,39794 =250.
250 25 2.500, 2.
101 =10, 102= 100, 103=1000, 102,55630
100 1000 .
1, 10 100,
101 = 10, 102 =100, .
9.2.2

:
log25.000 =4,39794
log25=1,39794
log2.500 =3,39794
log2,5=0,39794
log250 =2,39794
9.2.2, 10, , , .
, , 10. :
) , , .
) ,

, . 9.2.1
403
9.2.1
.
567
32,5
2,39
3
2
1

0
1
2
2
1
0
0,275
0,0197
0,00294
1
2
3
9.2.1 ) : ) 1.234, ) 3,12, ) 0,02, ) 21.

) (c) : ) 567, c=5, ) 4.521, c=0, ) 4, c=1, ) 123,
c=3.
.
) : ) 3, ) 0, ) 2, ) 1.
) : ) 567.000, ) 4,521, ) 0,4, ) 0,00123.
,
, ,
. , ,
0,456 1 0,6590, 0,65901 = 0,3410.
log0,456=0,3410.
, .
, , ,
. 9.2.2 , , , 6, 7, 8. , ,
.
9.2.2
.
6.780
678
67,8
6,78
0,678
0,0678
0,00678
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
0,8312
0,8312
0,8312
0,8312
0,8312
0,8312
0,8312
3,8312
2,8312
1,8312
0,8312
0,83121=0,1688
0,83122=1,1688
0,83123=2,1688
404
9.2.3 0 100. ,
55 log55=1,74036. 550,
2, log55=1,74036. ,
. , , .
9.2.3
.
x
log(x)
log(x)
log(x)
log(x)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
0,000000
0,301030
0,477121
0,602060
0,698970
0,778151
0,845098
0,903090
0,954243
1,000000
1,041393
1,079181
1,113943
1,146128
1,176091
1,204120
1,230449
1,255273
1,278754
1,301030
1,322219
1,342423
1,361728
1,380211
1,397940
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
1,414973
1,431364
1,447158
1,462398
1,477121
1,491362
1,505150
1,518514
1,531479
1,544068
1,556303
1,568202
1,579784
1,591065
1,602060
1,612784
1,623249
1,633468
1,643453
1,653213
1,662758
1,672098
1,681241
1,690196
1,698970
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
1,707570
1,716003
1,724276
1,732394
1,740363
1,748188
1,755875
1,763428
1,770852
1,778151
1,785330
1,792392
1,799341
1,806180
1,812913
1,819544
1,826075
1,832509
1,838849
1,845098
1,851258
1,857332
1,863323
1,869232
1,875061
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
1,880814
1,886491
1,892095
1,897627
1,903090
1,908485
1,913814
1,919078
1,924279
1,929419
1,934498
1,939519
1,944483
1,949390
1,954243
1,959041
1,963788
1,968483
1,973128
1,977724
1,982271
1,986772
1,991226
1,995635
2,000000
9.3 .
, , .
3,
, , , . ,
9.3.
405
9.3
.
/
/
/
1
11
log(xy)=logx+logy
1
log(xy)=logx+logy
log(xy)=logx+logy
log(xy)=logx+logy
log(xy)=logx+logy
4
44
2
22
x
log
log
2log
log
log
xx
xxx log
loglog
xx=xlog
x log
5
55
1
k
1
11 log
x
log
kk x
x
log
log
logxxk x log x
x kk log
log
3
k
k
6
66
3
33
/
/ /
/
x
log
x yy
xx
log
log
x
log
log
log
log
log
4 log y
xx
log
y log x log y
y
y
y
1
y 1
11
log
log
log
log
log
log yy log y
5 log y
y
y
y
log
log xxx
log x
log
log
x
log
x
log x
log x log
6

log
log
log
, logx1=logx2x1=x2, x1, x2R+ .

(6), ,
, .
xR+, ,>0, ,1 loglog=1 logx=loglogx.
log
, .
9.4 .
, , , .
9.4.1 : =
7
.
2 5
6
, ,
. ,
3
3
7
7
,
,
log
A
=log
6
6
2 5
2 5
log A = log 3 7 log 2 6 5 log A = log 3 7 log 2 log 6 5

1
1
1
1
log A = log 7 3 log 2 log 5 6 log A = log 7 log 2 log5.
3
6
. , log7=0,8451,
log2=0,3010 log5=0,69897. log =0,136, log 0,731=0,136. log =log 0,731,
=0,731.
406
9.5 .

x .
9.5.1
2
: 2x=32, 4x +2x6=16, (5x+1)3x=1.

.
x=, R*+, 1.
1 : . =k, x=k,
x=k.
2 : , , .
logx=log ' x log=log
x
log
.
log
f(x) =, R*+, 1, f(x) x.

1 : . =k, f(x)=k,
f(x)=k.
2 : , , .
.
f(x)= , logf(x)=log, f(x) log=log,
f ( x)
log
.
log
f(x)=g(x), R*+, 1, f(x) g(x) x.

f(x)=g(x).
f(x)=g(x), ,R*+, 1, f(x) g(x) x.
1 : . .
2 : . ,
:
logf(x)=logg(x), f(x)log=g(x)log, f(x)=g(x)log
f(x)=g(x), ,R*+, 1, f(x) g(x) x.
407
x=y y y
, y=x>0 xR.
f(x)=g(x), ,R*+, 1, 1, f(x) g(x) x.
x
=y, y
y , x>0 x>0 xR.
x=x, ,R*+, 1, 1, =1.

1
, y y
y , x>0 x>0 xR.
x=y x
f(x)g(x)=1, f(x) g(x) x f(x)>0.

:
) f(x)=1,
) g(x)=0 f(x)>0,
) f(x)=1 g(x) .
9.5.2
: 3x=6521. 38=6521.
3x=38x=8.
9.5.3
: 2,27x=5,42.
x 1
log2,27x=log5,42xlog2,27=log5,42 3x 1 2 1 = 5 x 1 1 + 4 3 x 1 5 =5 x 1 9 3 = 27
3
25
3
5 x 1 125
5 25
9.5.4
2
: 5x 7x+12=1.
2
5x 7x+12=50x27x+12=0x=3 x=4.
9.5.5
2
: 2x +8x=22x.
x2+8x=2xx2+6x=0x(x+6)=0x=0 x=6.
408
9.5.6
: 3x +x=91+x3x +x=(32)1+x.
2
3x +x=32+2xx2+x=2+2xx2x2=0x=1 x=2.
9.5.7
: 22x+292x+2=0.
2x2292x+2=04(2x)292x+2=0. 2x=y, : 4y29y+2=0.

=49
97
1
y1,2 =
y1 = 2 >0 y2 = >0.
8
4
1
2x=22x=21x=1 2x= 2x=22x=2.
4
9.5.8
: 23x13x2=5x2+45x3.
23x13x131=5x151+45x152.
3
x 1
1
3 x 1 27
1 4
3
x 1
x 1 5
x 1 9

+
3
=5
=
2
=
5
x 1
3
25
125
3
5
5 25
5
x 1
3
= .
5
3
y= >0, : yx1=y3x1=3x=4.
5
9.6 .

x x.
, ,
.
,
:
) logx= x=10,
) logx=log x= >0,
) logf(x)=log f(x)= >0,
) logf(x)=logg(x) f(x)=g(x) g(x)>0.
9.6.1
x: ) logx=4 ) log(x+3)=log2.
409
) log=xx=, : logx=4x=104 x =
) log(x+3)=log2. x+3>0x>3.
1
1
x=
x =0,0001.
4
10
10000
1
: log(x+3)=log2 log(x+3)=log21x+3=21x+3= x= >3,

2
2
.
9.7 .
.
(0,1)(1,+)
(0,1)(1,+)
f(x)=x
f(x)=logx
<x<+
0<x<+
0<y<+
<y<+
, (0,1)
, (1,+)
xy=x+y,
log(xy)=logx+logy,
x
x y ,
y
x
log log x log y,
y
(x)y=xy,
logx=xlog,
xx=()x
logx=x,
x

x
logx=x.
.
/
/
/
/
/
/ /
11
,,
1
log(xy)=logx+logy,
, 44
1 log(xy)=logx+logy
log(xy)=logx+logy
log(xy)=logx+logy
22
x
xx
log
2 x=xlog
log=xlog
=xlog
log
=xlog log
55
33
1
k
1
xx k x 1 log x
k log
log k3 xx
log log
3 log
k
k
66
xx
x y
log
log
log
log xxlog
log
log
4 y
y log x log y
y
y
1
1 log y 1
loglog
log y
y log y
5 log
y
y
log
log x
log xx
log xx
log log x
6 log
log
log
410
.
y=xy=0=1
y=xy=
x=exln
1
x
y=lnx x=ey
y=logx x=x=eyln
y=exy=e0=1
1
ln ln x
x
1
log log x
x
log x
log x
log
.
/
=, ,R+, 1.
f(x)=, ,R+, 1, f(x) x.
f(x)=g(x), ,R+, 1, f(x) g(x) x.
f(x)=g(x), ,R+, 1, f(x) g(x) x.
f(x)=g(x), ,R+, 1, f(x) g(x) x.
f(x)=g(x), ,R+, 1, 1, f(x) g(x) x.
x=x, ,R+, 1, 1 =1.
f(x)g(x)=1, f(x) g(x) x f(x)>0.
9.8 .
9.8.1. :
11
) 5x=625,
) 2x= ,
) 22x+11=8x,
13
9.8.2. :
2
) 4x +2x6=16, ) 32x6=1,
) 63x+4=100,
) 3x24=52x,
) 5x+1+85x=325.
) 82x9=2x.
9.8.3. :
) 4x+1+32x=1, ) 9x+332x=84x+22x, ) 29x+312x242x=0,
) 2x52x=4.
9.8.4. (x2+x+1)x 6x=1.

9.8.5. :
) 73x+2+4x+2=73x+4+4x+3,
) 2logx+25logx=12,
) 9x+13x+2=81(27x+93x1).
9.8.6. : log(8x+2)=log3+log(x23).
1
9.8.7. : logx+log x +10 =2+log x .+10
2
9.8.8. : log(4x)=log33+log(x25).
10

,
, .
10.1 .
10.2
.
10.3 .
10.4 .
10.5 .
10.6 .
lx im
x0
412
10.1 .
AB
,
, , ,,
. , () , = , , , =
= .
(. 10.1) :
. 10.1.
: =
: , , (
) , ( ).
, . :
:
1
1
1
, =
, =
.

, , .
,
(. 10.1), x (, )
= 2 2 , , 2 = 2 + 2.
413
10.1
y
(, )
. 10.1.
sin
cos
tan
cot
sec
csc
10.1.
: . , . ,
.
90 (
2
).
, 10.1, ,
= 90 , , :
:
= = = (90 ),
= = = (90 )
= = = (90 ),
= = = (90 )
= = = (90 ),
= = = (90 ).
10.1.1
25 25 = 0,4226, 25 = 0,9063 25 = 0,4666,
65.
.
: , ,
, :
1
1
1
1
2,3663, 25 =
1,1034,
25 =
0,4226
0,9063
25
25
25 , =
1
1
0,4666
25
2,1430.
414
25 65 (25+65=90), :
65 = 25 0,9063,
65 = 250,4226,
65 = 25 2,1430,
65 = 25 0,4666,
65 = 25 2,3663,
75 = 25 1,1034.
10.2 .
,
.
10.2.1 .
, , .
1
, 1, 60=1, 1=
(1). , 60
1
1, 60= 1 , 1=
(1). , 17 , 2
60
14 , 17 2 14.
,
.
.
(rad).
.
:
1
180
, 2 360 , 1
.
180
10.2.1 8 12 15 .
.
, :
81215 = 8+12+15= 8+12+
15
= 8+12+0,25 = 8+12,25 =
60
12, 25
8+0,204 8,204.
60
= 8+
10.2.2 42,14 , .
.
, :
42,14 = 42 + 0,14 1
= 42 + 0,14 60 = 42 + 8 + 0,4
= 42 + 8 + 0,4 1 = 42 + 8 + 0,4 60
= 42 + 8 + 24 = 42 8 24.
415
, Windows (. 10.2).
dms, --.
,
--, Inv + dms.
. 10.2.
10.2.2 30, 45 60.

(. 10.2.) 1
45. :
2 = 12 + 12, 2 = 2, = 2 .
:
1
45 =
= 1 =
45 = = 2 =
2
0, 7071
22 0, 7071
2
1
2
2 0, 7071
45 =
= 1=
45
= = 2 =2 0, 7071
2
2
2
45 = =
1
2
45 = =
= 2
45
B
1
45 =
= 1
1
45
. 10.2.
2 2 (. 10.2).
45 =
= 1. ,
2 ,
,
1
. :
45 = = 1 2 .
2 + 2 = 2.
30
2 + 12 = 22
2
2
2 + 1 = 4
60
2 = 3
B
1 1
= 3
. 10.2.
30
60 :
1
=
0, 5 , 60
= = 0, 8660
3 ,
130 =
3
30 =
30
, 2 =
= 0, 5 , 60
0, 8660,
=
060
, 8660
=
=
2
2
2
2
1
3
3
=30
=
= 0, 5 ,
=
30 =
0, 8660,
, 60
1
3 =
0, 8660
30 = = 2 0, 8660
=
= 0, 5 , 2
, 60
2
2
2
1
3
=
=
1, 7321 ,
130 =3
, 60
3
0, 5774
30 =
=
=
1, 7321
3 =
0, 5774
, 1
3 , 60
3
1
3
2 2 3
2 2
= 3 1, 7321,
1
3 1
=
3
31 , =
=030
=
= 0, 5 ,
==
0, 8660
30 =
60
,
=
0, 560
=
, 8660
,
,
1
7321
=
2 2
2

2
1
416
3
1 ,
3
3
1 =
3 1 =
3
0, 5774
60,
=
=
=
=3
1, 7321 ,
0
5774
,=
60
= =
30
,
=0, 57741,, 7321
1
3
3
3
=3 =
1 60 =
3 , 3
1 1, 7321,
=
30
= 0, 5774
1
3
3
2 2 3
2 2 32 2
2 2 3
3 =
2 22 3 2 3
= 1=
,1547
1,=
1547
=
, 60
1547
30 =30
,1547
, 3
60
= 1,=
=1 ,== 3 1, 1,1547 ,
3 = , 160
= 3 =30
3
3
3
33 0, 5774
3 =3
2 3 2 33
=
,
=
=
1,1547,
= =
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
30
,
60
30 = = 1 2 ,30
60= = 1 2 , 60 = = 1 2
2 2 3
=
, 45
1,1547
= =
10.2
30,
3
3
60.
10.2.
30 =
30
45
60
30
45
60
1
2
2
2
3
2
3
3
3
2
2
2
1
2
2 3
3
3
3
2 3
3
10.2.3 300m (. 10.2).

,
, , 30.
. (
.)
.
.
, 30.
30 :
h

30 =
, h = 30030,
300

h = 300 3 h 173.21.
3
,
173,21 m.
10.2.4 100ft,
120ft. (.
10.2).
h
30o
300 m
. 10.2.
417
.
(100ft, ), (120ft, ) .

. :
120
1, 2.
100
( ) 1,2
:
39,794297943.

100 ft
120 ft
, 40 .
. 10.2.
10.2.3 .
. , ,
,
.
.
2 x 2 x 1,
x
1
,
x
x
1
,
x x
1
,
x
1 2 x 2 x ,
x
1
,
x x
1 2 x 2 x.
, ,
. ,
.
.
(x)=x,
(x)=x,
(x)=x,
(x)=x,
(+x)=x,
(+x)=x,
(+x)=x, (x)=x,
(x)=x,
(+x)=x, (x)=x,
(x)=x,
(2+x)=x, (2+x)=x, (2+x)=x, (2+x)=x,

(2x)=x, (2x)=x,
(2x)=x, (2x)=x.
.
(+x)=+,
()=,
(+x)=,
()=+,
418

( ) ,
( ) 1 ,
1

( ) ,
( ) 1 ,
1
1
( ) 1 ,
( ) ,

1
( ) 1 .
( ) .

10.2.5 15 .
.
15 : 15 = 45 30, :
33
11
45 30
33 = 33 33..
15 (45 30 )
=
1 45 30
33 33+ 33
11+1
1
33
10.3 .
,
.
,
.
10.3.1 .
(. 10.3) ,,

180 , , , ,
:
.
++=180,
10.3.2 .
, , , .
, 10.3.

,
. ,
.
, . ,
.
10.3.3 .
(. 10.3). -
. 10.3.
. 10.3.
419
10.3
.
.
( , , . .)
.
( = = , ).
420
, h. , :

h
h .
, :
h
h .
, h = h = , :
= ,
,
.
, :
.

, :
1. .
:
, , . ,
.
: ,
, 0
180.
,
( , . . 10.3).
.
10.3.1 (. 10.3), =4,56, =43 =57. .

.
,
.
, :
=180(43+57)=180100= 80.
4,56
57
43
. 10.3.
421
4, 56
4, 56 80o
6, 58.
E
80o 43
43
4, 56
4, 56 57
5, 61.

57 43
43
10.3.2 , AWACS
S.O.S. , . 10.3 ,
, . ,
. ;
.
x ,
. :
=180(115+27)=180142=38.
, x:
500
500 115
x
x

115 38
38
736.
, 736 km,
.
10.3.4 .
( )
(. 10.3).
, h. , :
2=h2+2 h2 = 2 2.
x
y
(10.3.1)
115o
: = + ,
2=(+)2=2+2+2.
(10.3.2)
2=h2+2,
(10.3.1) (10.3.2), :
2
27 o
500 km
. 10.3.
= + + +2= + +2.
(10.3.3)

=, (10.3.3)
= .
= .
. 10.3.
422
, 2=2+22. , 2= 2+22.
,
:
2. .
:

2=2+22,
2=2+22,
2=2+22.

,
( , . . 10.3).
10.3.3 (. 10.3), =32, =48

=125,2. .
.
, , :
2=2+22
2=322+48223248125,2
2=1024+23043072(0,576)
2=1024+2304+1769,472=5097,472=71,369 71.
32
125,2o
48
. 10.3.
, ,
. , ,
.
, ,
, .
, .
2=2+22
322=712+48227148
1024=5041+230468166321=6816=0,9273
=21,9722.
, 180(125,2+22)180147,232,8.
10.3.4 (. 10.3), =3,5, =4,7 =2,8.

.
.
() ,

.
, . ,
.
4,7
2,8
3,5
. 10.3.
423
2=2+22
4,72=3,52+2,8223,52,8
22,09=12,25+7,8419,6 2=19,6
=0,10204 =95,856654 95,86.
, :
2=2+22
3,52=4,72+2,8224,72,8
12,25=22,09+7,8426,32 17,18=26,32
=0,652735 =49,25182951 49,25.
, :
180(+)180(95,86+49,25)180145,11.
10.3.5 .
AB (. 10.3), , , A,B,, , :
: =+
. 10.3.
=
2
( )( ) ,
( )
=
,
2
( )( )( ),
2=++ .
10.4 .
10.4.1 .
, (bearing) . ,
.
,
,
.
, , 0- 90
424
( ), (. 10.4).
0 360 (.
10.4). ,
, :
0: (N)
90: (E)
180: (S)
270: (W).
10.4.2 .
,
(d) 600
. .
10.4 , , . , .
d. ,
.
N
S
: N W
S
: N E
S
: S W
S
: SE
. 10.4.
N 0
N 0
52
W
270
E
90
W
270
N 0
130
E
90
N 0
W
270
E
90
210
W
270
345
E
90
d
Z
S 180
: 52
S 180
: 130
S 180
: 210
. 10.4.
S 180
: 345
. 10.4.
10.4.1 (. 10.4). 25
( ), N15oW. 20
N32. 2 , d ;
.
1 , 2
425
. , 1 50 , 2 40 .
10.4 1=50 2=40 ,
. , 4 10.3
, d=12. 1,2,
1+2 :
1+2=180(32+15)=18047=133.

:
2 1
50 40
1 50 40 2 1
1 10 133
2
2

2 1 50 40
2
50 40
2
2
90
2
2 1 10
1 10
1
1
66, 5 2
1, 7216 2
0,19128 2
10, 82873
2
90
2
90
2
2
1, 2 :
1 2 21, 65746
1 56 2 77 .
1 + 2 133
, :
1 1 2
d
50
50 47
d
d 37, 526 .
2
77 47
77
10.4.2 5,1km (. 10.4). , 7,2km .

N6510. ,
;
.
, 6510.
=906510=2450.
50
15
32 40
. 10.4.
15
32
5,1 km
6510
. 10.4.
7,2 km
. 10.4.
426
(24 50)
7, 2
5,1
0, 41998
7, 2 0, 41998
5,1
0, 59291 0, 593.
=36o21 =180o36o21=143o39. ,
=36o21. : =180o(24o50+36o21)= 180o61o11=118o49.
, :
(118 49)
5,1 0, 8762
0, 41998
(24 50)
0, 8762
5,1
0, 41998
10, 64 km.
,

, 10,64km.
I:
I:
10.5
.
I:
.

= =

==
= =
=
== =
= =
cos
= ===
==
cos
=== =
=
cos
=
=
cos
==
=
=
= =
tan
== ==
=
tan
== =
==
=
tan
tan
=
=
== =
=
=
=
cot

= =
=
=
= =
cot
= =
=
cotcot
== =
==
=
sec
=== =

sec
=
=
==
=
=
=
secsec

== =
=
=
csc
=
=
=
csc
= =
==
==
csccsc
= =
1
1
1
= 1 , = 1 , = 1
= , = , =
1
1 1
1= 1
=
= ,
=
,
=
,
=
180

1 = 180
1 =
180
1 =
2 = 360
2 = 360
2
= 360
1 =
1 = 180
1 = 180
180
sin
sin
sin
sin

= = = ( 90 )
= = = ( 90 )
427
= = = ( 90 )
.
= = = (90 )
= = = ( 90 )
= = = ( 90 )
1
x
x
= = == =
, ( 90 )
x x
1
x
x
= = == =
, ( 90 )
x
x
= = = ( 90 )
= = = ( 90 )
2
2
x+
= =x=1,
= ( 90 )
1
x
x = =
,
x=
x = ( 90 )
=
1
x
x =
=
,
x = ( 90 )
=x=
1
x =
,
x
1
(x)=x,
x
=
,
x
(x)=x,
x =
1
,
x
1+2x=2x,
x =
1+2x=2x.
(x)=x,
(x)=x,
(+x)=x,
(x)=x,
(+x)=x,
(+x)=x,
(x)=x,
(+x)=x,
(x)=x,
(x)=x,
(2+x)=x,
(2+x)=x,
(2+x)=x,
(2+x)=+x,
(2x)=x,
(2x)=x,
(2x)=x,
(2x)=x.
(+)=+
( )

,
1

,
1
(+)=+
( )
()=
( )
1
,
x
()=+
( )
1
,

1
.

()
428
2=2+22,
2=2+22.
2=2+22,
=+
( )( ) ,
=
2
) = ( )( ) , = ( ) ,
2 (
, )( )( ),
=
(2
2
2
.
..

. ( , ,
. .)
()
429
10.6 .
10.6.1 ,
:

) 843
) 6353
) 751036
) 654

) 493846
) 155
) 553
) 194723
10.6.2 , , :

) 18,7
) 38.022
) 72,81

) 22.3232
) 83.025
) 11,75

) 47.8268
) 0,9
10.6.3 65 :

650,9063, 650,4226, 652,1445,

650,4663, 652,3662, 651,1034.

25.
150 ft
o
20
. 10.6.
10.6.4 20 ,
150ft (.
10.6);
10.6.5
12m.
, 70,
(. 10.6).
10.6.6 , 120ft
,
15. ;
70o
12 m
. 10.6.
430
10.6.7
,

20
40 , 75ft
(. 10.6).
10.6.8
.
50
20ft ,
;
20o
40o
75 ft
. 10.6.
10.6.9
60ft.
40ft,
40.
;
35 ft
10.6.10
35ft 20ft (.
10.6);
20 ft
10.6.11
12km .
, N63o20E.
(. 10.6);
10.6.12 V .
, ,
. , VB 54o.

VP
. VP
VB
. , ,
VP d (. 10.6).

)

2cm, VP;

)
VP
3,93cm, ;

) d
VP.
. 10.6.
12 km
6320
. 10.6.
A
d
V
P
. 10.6.
431
) VP d.
10.6.13
, ,

,
. Shasta 14.162ft.
, .
87o53.
, , ft (. 10.6);
10.6.14
, , ,
30ft.
, , 10ft
. ,
40ft (. 10.6).
10.6.15 :

) x

2
) (4530),
) 27 16 +27 16 ,
= 87o53
) 165 .
R14.162 ft
10.6.16 ,
5 3
2.
2 ,
6 2
10.6.17 :

) = 38, =21, =24,

) =36,5, =24, =34,

) =2345, =2345, =124,67.
10.6.18
, 295 .
,
, 45
045. 255.

(. 10.6);
. 10.6.
10 ft
40 ft
. 10.6.
10.6.19 . 150
km/h 320o.
200 km/h 200.
3
;
10.6.20
14ft, 10ft
255
295
45
. 10.6.
45 mi
432
80. : ) . 16ft
) .
10.6.21 d (. 10.6):
10.6.22 , 5000 ft,
35 25. , 105
60.
(. 10.6);
105
d
11 in.
50
12 in.
. 10.6.
60
25
5000 ft
x
y
15 in.
35
. 10.6.
11

.
.
, .

. , .
11.1 .
11.2 .
11.3 .
11.4 .
11.5 .
lx im
x0
434
11.1 .

.
, ,
,
.
:
. .
, , , , .
, , . , .
11.1.1 .
, :
R3 R2, ,
.
,
.
JJJG
(. 11.1).
()
()
. 11.1.
, .
G
G
GG
, , , , ,...,u,v,....
JJJG
,
JJJG
JJJG , .
JJJG
1, .
JJJG
JJJ

G
.
JJJG

JJJG
JJJG (),
() //() (. 11.1).
()
. 11.1.
,
JJJG
JJG
JJJG JJG
. , = .
R3 ( R2)
. . ,
435
R3 ( R2),
R3 ( R2).
11.1.2 .
JJG
, O I, 1
JJG
x.
G
i xx. x
x, x x (. 11.1).

JJGG
JJJJ
G , xx

//
x
(
OM
)
i ,
JJJJG JJJJ
G
JJJJG
G
G
(OM ) =x, OM (OM ) x (. 11.1).
xx , x (x).
x
M(x)
. 11.1.
11.1.3 .
G

G
Gxx yy
G
G G
j
i
i
j =1. j , i
, . xx
yy .

Oxy (. 11.1).
Oxy (. 11.1). yy, xx M1, xx, yy M2.
x M1 xx y M2 yy,
x y . o
. , ,
(x,y)
.
G
,
JJJJJG (. G11.1)
JJJJJG
, ( K1 K 2 ) 1 , ( 1 2 ) 2 y
M(x,y)
M2
j
x
j
x
i
y
. 11.1.
x
O
i
y
. 11.1.
M1
436
G
G
=(1,2).
11.1
G
JJJG JJJG JJG JJJJJG JJJJJG
:
= + = 1 2 + 1 2 .
JJJJJG
JJJJJG
1 2 1 2
JJJG
x y.
JJJJJG
JJJJJG
JJJJJG
G
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 i
JJJJJ
JJJJJGG
GG
1122
121 jj .
JJJG
y
B
r2
r1
j
x
x
O
B = 1 i+2 j = 1 i+2 j.
K1
i
y
11.1.4 .
K2
. 11.1.
, . , :
xyz
G,
G
G G
G
G G
G G
i , j k, i = j = k = 1 , i , j k
. xx , yy
zz (. 11.1).
JJJG
JJJG xyz (. 11.1). JJJJG

OM
yz, xOz, xOy
, , . yz, xOz,
JJJG
xOy
. (O )=

JJJJG
JJJG
JJJG
OM , (O)= (O )=
.
JJJG
JJJJG
JJJJG
, , OM , OM =(,,)
JJJG
=(,,). : = i , = j , = k, :
= i+ j+ k = i+ j+ k .
z
r2
r1
k
i
. 11.1.
437
=(x1,y1,z1) R3 ,
G

(0,0,0) (x1,y1,z1) (. 11.1).
G

(x1,y1,z1).

R3 ( R2), G
=(x1,y1,z1) (.
G
G
=(x1,y1)), =(x1,y1,z1) (. =(x1,y1)).
=(x1 ,y1,z1)
. 11.1.
:
G
G
, , ,
(. 11.1).
R3.
11.1.5 .
R3 R2
:
G
G
=(x1,y1,z1) =(x2,y2,z2) R3 R,
:
) :
G G JJJJJG
+ = + =(x1+x2, y1+y2, z1+z2).
)
:
G JJG
= =(x1,y1,z1,).
)
:
G G
=x
= 1x2+y1y2+z1z2.
G
G
G R3 0 =(0,0,0). R3
G
G
G G
+ = 0 .
11.1 G G
G
.
R2. , R2 , =(x1,y1)
G
=(x2,y2), :
G G JJJJJG
) + = + =(x1,y1)+(x2,y2)=(x1+x2, y1+y2).
G JJG
) = =(x1,y1)=(x1,y1), R.
G G
z
= 1x2+y1y2.
) =x
1
z
1
3
>1
()
<<0
<
()
. 11.1.
0<<1
()
438

. G
, =(x1,y1,z1)R3, :
2
2

x1
+ y12 +z
(11.1.1)
G =
1

G
G
G
=(x
,y
z
)
,
:
.
,
1
1,
1
G
=(x
, :
,
=(x
=(x
,y11,,y
z1,)z:
, :
.
.
,
,
1,y
1,z1)
1,):
=(x
.
,
1,y11,2z
1)1,
G
2
2G
2
=(x
,y
)R
,
:
2
2G G 2
=
x
+
y
+
z
(1)
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
G
1 (1)
1
1
2y y++
2
+ y
+
z1=
=
x2 x(1)
++
(1)
1
G
1z1 z1 z1 (1)
=
Gx1 1+1y1 1+
G G = (x1 ,y1 ) G :2
G
=
(x
,y )
=
(x
= 1(x,y1),y
)
:
: = x1 + y12
(11.1.2)
1 )
1
:
1 1 G = (x1 ,y
2 1
2
G
G
2
2
=
x
+
y
(2)
2
2
2
2
G (2)
JJJG
1
1
2y y (2)
+ y
==
1
1y1+
1 (2)
1 (2)
=
x1x2 1+x+
(x1,y1,z1) (x2,y2,z2) ,
JJJG
JJJG

=(x2x1, y2y1, z2z1). d JJJ
G
JJJ
JJJ
G
G JJJ
G
JJJ
G
,y
,z
)
(x
,y
,z
)
(x
1
1
1
2
2
2
,z1
)
(x
(x1,y
,z2,z,z),21):
(x
,z
,z) 2
)
,
,
(x
(x
JJJ
G2(x
2,z
11,y
1,y
1,y
22,y
,y
(x
,y
,z22,y
(x
1JJJ
1)11
2)22
JJG 1
JJJ
G
G
Gy z
=(x2x1,dy2
y1,
z2z1).

2
2
=(x
x1, JJJ
y2
2 d y
=(x
x,y,2y
y
y
zz2z
z12).z
2
1,=(x
2z
1).
JJJ
(11.1.3)
2x
1).
1).
d
( x
x
y1
)
+(
z
=(x
zJJJ
= GA B d=d
2x
12, 1y21y
1,2 1,
21,
2
1 ) +(
2
2 z1 )
JJJ
G
JJJ
G
G
G

, :
JJJ

, :
, :
, :
JJJG
JJJG
JJJG , :
2
2
2
JJJ
JJJ
G G ,
,y
)
(x
,y
),
(x
=(x2x1, y2y1), JJJ

G
2
2
2
d
=
=
(
x

x
)
+(
y

y
)
+(
z

z
)
(3)
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
2)
= d( x=

x
+(
y2(x
z2y+(
y2zy
)2
d2 =
d
=
==
( yx12)
x 2+(
)x1 )+(
y2)y11)(3)
+(
z2 zz2 2z
z )1 (3)(3)2 1
1 )
=
z+(
2 2 x
1 )1 +(
2
1 )1 +(
2
1 )1 1 (3)
JJJ
G
d( x
1y2

:
JJJG
JJJ
G ,y ), JJJ
GG JJJ
JJJ
G
G
JJJ
JJJ
G G =(x2x1, y2y1)
JJJ
JJJ
G
(x
,y
)
(x
1
1
2
2
,,
(x1,y1)
(x
=(x
x1, y2
y=(x
x, y, y
,
,
(x
(x
)
)
(x
(x
,y22,y),
=(x
y y) 1
)
2,y,y
2),,y
2
1)=(x
1
2),
22x
(x
(x
(11.1.4)
1,y11)11
2,y22),
12, 1y21y2 12)1
y 12)x
d
A
B :
( x2
x1 )2 +(
y2
=
=
d
:
:
d
JJJ
G :

2
JJJ
JJJ
G dG d
JJJ
G
2
2
=
=
(
x

x
)
+(
y
y1 )2
(4)
2
2
2
2
2
1
2 (4)
2)
2)
= d( x=

x
)
+(
y

y
)
(4)
d2 =
d
=
=
=
(
x
(
x

x
x
)
+(
+(
y
y

y
y
)
(4)
1 =
1 y2
2
1
( x2 2 2
x121 )1
+(
y21 )1
(4) :

:
:
:
G
G
G
3
G GG
R3 3
RR:
,
GG GGG,GG,G1.
R :
3 ,, ,
G
3 3R
,, 1.
, 1.
R
:
1.
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,,
,
R
R
:
:
1.
R R :
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2
) =
G G G 2 G1.GGGG GG 2G 2G 2 G G = G 2
1.
=
=
)
= G G
=
=
1.1.
G G G G G2.GGGG GG GGGG G G = G
2.
=
=
)
+)=
G G +G G G G
=
=
(
2.2.
G G G GG3.GG GG GG GG GG GG GGGGG G(
G+)=
GG G +
G
3.
( +)= (+
+)=
(
(
+)=
+
+
+

=
)
GG G ( ) G G
+)=
()=
3.3.
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G G G G=GG ()= ( )
GG GG )
4.
G G
)
=
=
()=
(
(
) G
()=
0 (
)
=0
4.4.4. = ()=
(
=
()=
)
GG =0 G G
G =0
G G
G5.GGGGG G
G G GGGGGG GGt 0 G
G
G
=0 .
G
5.
t 0
=0
. =0
0

=0
=0
=0
5.5.
=0
t t
0 0t
=0
=0
. . .
:
:
:
G G
G G
GG GG G 2. 3 ,,
R3, :
3
G
3 3R
3:
2.
,,
R
,
:
2.
2.
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,,
R
,
,
:
2. ,,
R ,R
:
,
, :
,
G
G
G G G d G (
G G G G G GGGG G1.
G
G
( Cauchy Schwarz),
)
G
1.d1. 1.
(
Schwarz),
Cauchy
(
(
Cauchy
Cauchy
Schwarz),
Schwarz),
d dd
(
Cauchy
Schwarz),
G
G
G
2
2
G
G
G
2G 2
G G 2 2 2 + 2 (
2G G
2 2G)
G G 2 G GGG2 G 2G 2.
G G2 +
G G 2G)
G+
()
),
2 2 =
G
2 2
+2.
2.+
=
2
+
(
2. +
+
+
++
=
22+
++ (
(
(
)
)
+
=
2=
)
G
G
G G G GG G G G 3.GG G G)G GGGr d G (
()
).
r 3.
3.d3.
(
)
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r
ddd)
(
(
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r(
r
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:
:
:
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1.

,
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1.
1.
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G
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G G
G

G
G
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G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
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G
:
(
)
.
G
G
G
( :
):
:
z (
((
)
)
z z z
((
(
)
. .
G
G
. )
(
)
.)
)
G ,
G G G G GG
G GG GGG GGG G G GG=G G GG G z 0 ,
G
G
2.
2.

2. 2.
,
=
z=
z z0 z
0, ,0,
=
0,
G,
G G ,
G G G
G
G
G
= ..
=
=
. . .
=
10.1.6

.
G
10.1.6
10.1.6
.. G
10.1.6
3 G .
G G G
G G
G
(x
,y
31,z1) (x23,y32,z2) R ,
G
1
3 R

(x
,y
(x,y121,y,z)121,z)
R ,y
, 22,y
(x
(x
(x
(x
,z ,z)
1,z
1)
12)
2)
G
(x
(x
RR
, ,
G
1,y11,z
1
2,y22,z
2)22
G
G(.
.
10)
G
. .
(.
10)
.
.
(.
(.
10)
10)
(. 10)
439
11.1.6 .
G (x1,y1,z1) (x2,y2,z2) R ,
(. 11.1) ,
:
G
G
G G
G G
G G
G G
G G
G
G
( ) ( 1)
.
. 11.1.
1
G
=(x,y,z), :
x1 x2
y y2
z z2
, y 1
z 1
1.
1
1
1
(11.1.5)
11.1.1

, (x1,y1,z1) (x2,y2,z2) R3,
G
G
. (11.1.5) = 1,
:
x x
y y
z z
x 1 2 , y 1 2 z 1 2 .
2
2
2
10.1.7

10.1.7
G
G
G
,
,...,
11.1.7
.
10.1.7
1
2
R

10.1.7 .
GG G
G G G
G
3G
G G G
G

R ,
,
1
1 +
+...+
,
1,
2 ,...,
2,,
R,
2 12
1 ,2 ,...,G
.
GR3R, 3
,
1 1 + 2 2 +...+ ,
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
3
G G
G
G
G ,,2,,
G
1R,
+ 2
1, .2. ,,R,

1 ,
1
2 +...+

2 ,...,
1
2 ,...,
1
,2 ,..., .
1 +
2 21+...+
R,
, R
1,2
,,
G
G
G
G
G
G
G10.1.7G1
G G1,
, ,..., .
,...,
+...+ ,
.
2,,R,
1 ,2
.
1 ,2 ,...,
G G
G 1 2 3
.
G G ,
G
3
1 ,2 G,...,
R3
R , .
G
G

1 ,
3
R
,
1,2,,
2 ,...,

,
,...,
G
G
G
G
1 ,,
2
G
G
G
,
R,
:
G
G
G
G
1
2
G
G
G
3
+...+
,
,,
R,
1 2
,
,

1,2,,
+ 2
0 .
1 1
2 2
,...,
R,
. G
R

1
,
2 +...+
1=
2

:

G 11
1,G2,,R,
1+
2 2G+...+ = 0 .
G,
G
G
G ,
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
,
,...,
.
1 1 +
2 2 +...+
= 0 .
.
1
,2
,...,
1
R,
,
:
,
1,
,
,...,
2 1
1 +
2 2 +...+
.
2,,
10.1.7
.
1
2

= 0
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
3
G .
G
G
G
G
G
G
,
,...,
3
,
,...,
1 ,
2 ,...,
+...+ =
0 .
1 ,
2

.
R , ,

.
-
1 ,2 ,...,
1
2

G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G :
1,2,,
G
R,
11 ==
+ 2 2 +.
1 G,1.
,
G
1=
=0.
2 1,...,
+ G22
+...+
,G
1
,2
,,.
R,
3 1=
1
1 +
0 2,==
G
2
=
G
G
2 2 +...+ G
=
G
10.1.7
.
G
G
G
G
G
G
1 G1 +G2 2 +...+
= 0 .
G
,
,...,
G
G
G
=
==
=0.
1
2
2 ,
3
1 ,2 ,...,
.

11 +
2 R
G 1
,2
,...,
==
=0.
G
2 +...+
G= 0 ,
G
1
.
G
,
1 ,2 ,...,
1=2G
G G ,
G
3
G G
G
G
G
1 G,
,
G
G 3G
G
,...,
3,
1 ,2 ,...,
2 ,...,
1
2
G
G
1 ,
,
,...,
==
=0.
1=
,
,...,
=
==
=0.
2
2 ,...,
G
1 , 2
1
2
G
G
G
1
2
+...+
,
,,
R,
G
G
G
1 2
G G 1 1G 2
2
G G
3

,
,...,

G ,

=
0
,
,,
1.
1
2

G
G G R
1
1+
2 2 +...+
1 ,
.
2 ,...,
8.:
2 ,...,
1,2,,
R,

G G8.
,
,...,
.
G
G
G
G
G
G
1
2
G ,...,
G
G 2
8. .
,
)G
R3
.
=
==
1
=0.
0.1.7
11
,
G
G
G
3 G
=
0
.
2+ 2 2 +...+
8.
G
G
G
G
G
G
1
3 1 ,32 3,..., R
3
G
G

R
,

.
G1 ,
,...,
1 ,2G,...,
3
2
.
.
G G1 G,23,...,
)
, G
R

,

G
G G
GG
G
R,
:
,
R
,
,...,
.
1,
2,,
G
3
1,,2

G
,
,...,
.
+
+...+
,
,,
R,
.
12 G2
.

G G
G
1G
,
1 1
G R
.
,G

G G.
G G 2 G2 .
0G,
G G
3 G
+18.
G )
1 + 2 2 +...+ = 0 ,
,22,,
1
1 1
2 +...+
=0 .
R,
R
1
2, ,...,
,
.
)
,
,
.
G
G
G
.
0
,
G
G
G
G
G
G
==
=0.
1=
3
G
G
G
G
3 G
2
,
,...,
3
3
G
R

,.
,
R

,
3)
).
G G 1,
)
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12,G, 2
,...,
3
.

)

G G.
G
G
G 31 ,2 ,...,
G G GG
3R , G
G

1
+
2
2
+...+
0

,...,
.
G
G
G
=
.
, 0 ,, ,2.
,
1:
,
,
, 1
1
,
,
2,,
R,
.
1 ,2 ,...,
GR
G
G
G
.
.
=2
==
1R,
=0.
, :
+...+
01,. 2,,
=.
.
1 1 + G
G G G G3,3 G , G R3 ,
G G G
G 2 2
8.
)
G
G
G
1,,2G ,...,
, G
RR
0 )
.
=
1 ,
,

2 ,...,
G
G
G R3
.
)

,
G G .
G
1 ,
,2 ,...,
G
G
G G .
1 ,2 ,...,

.
G

11 + G2 2 +...+
=
0,
.
0,
G
G
G
8.

11 + 2 2 +...+ = 0 ,
G
=2
==

=0.G
.
3
G 1 G
G
G
R
,
,

G 3 G
=2==
=0.
1
,
,...,
1
2
3 , , R3

,
G
G G
G ).
G G
G
0,
,
,...,
1
2
1 ,2 ,..., .
G G .
G
.
1 ,28.,...,
.
G
G G
440
:
G
G
) R3, G G
.
= R.
G
G G
) , , ,
G
G
G
G
. , = + , ,

.
R (.
11.1).
G G
G
G
3G G
G
G
G
2

,
,...,
1
2
R ,,
=(x1,y1)
=(x
,y
)
2
2
G
G
G
G
2 +...+
,
1,
2,,,
R,
G G
G
, . :
.
, .
G G
G
3
G
G
G
3

1 ,2
,...,
R ,
.
1 ,
G x1
2 ,..., R G
y1
(11.1.6)
/
/
=0 .
1,
R,
:
,
,
2,,

1,2,,R,
x
y
G
2
2
G
G

2 2 +...+ = 0 .
G G GG G
G
R3
1 ,2 ,...,
G G
G G G
1,2
,...,
= 0 .
G
G
G
G G
,2,,R,G
. 1
+...+
=
0
,
1 1
.
1=2==
=0.
G
G
G
1

,2 ,..., ,
R3
G G
G
G
G
G G

.
1
+
2 2 +...+
1 ,
2 ,...,

1
= 0 ,
G
3
R .
=0.
8.
G
G
G
G
G,
3
3
j
=(1,0,0),
=(0,1,0)
=(0,0,1),

k
i
,
R ,
3
G
R , :
G .
G G G G
G
G
G 0G,
i j = j k = k i = 0 i = j = k = 1,
.
G G G
3
3
G
G G
G
,
, ,
R

R ,
=(x1,
,y1,z1)

i , j k (.
,
G
G
G
G
G
.

= x i + y j +
z k. 0 ,
11.1),
1
G
R3 ,
z
z1
k
j
=
i
y1
y
x1
. 11.1.
. 11.1.
11.1.8 .
G
G
R3,
:
G JG
D
= G JG , [0 ,].
(11.1.7)

G
441
z
. 11.1.
()
. 11.1.
()
. 11.1.
G
G
G
G G
(. 11.1). ( , ).
:
G
G

) R3 (. 11.1),
G G
( )
A .
G
G
G
G
) , = , R (
), (11.1.7) :
G2
G JG
G G
G G

= G JG = G
G = G2= G2 = .
>0, =1, =0 [. 11.1()]. <0, =1, = [. 11.()].

(11.1.1),
(11.1.2) (11.1.7), :
G
G
x1 x2 + y1 y2
) =(x1,y1) =(x2,y2), :

(11.1.8)
=
x12 + y12 x22 + y22
G
G
) =(x1,y1,z1) =(x2,y2,z2), :
x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z2
x + y12 + z12 x22 + y22 + z22
2
1
(11.1.9)
11.1.9 .
G
R3 1, 2, 3 , G
G G =(x,y,z)
i , j k (. 11.1).
z
x
G , 2
G G
i
G G
i
G G
j
G G
j
x
G , 2
y
G,
G G
i
G G
i
G G
j
G G
j
G G
k
G G
k
x
G , 2
y
G,
G G
j
G G
j
G G
k
G G
k
y
G,
z
G,
z
G,
(x,y,z)
z
G,

G
.
G G
k
G G
k
j
i
2
y
(x,y)
. 11.1.
442
: 2+2+2=1, :
x2
y2
z2
2 + 2 + 2 = G 2 G 2 G 2
1.
11.1.10 .
G G
G
-G
,
R3.
G
G
G
G G

G = + ,
G
G
(.
11.1).
G
G G
G
G
G
G= . , ,.
,
G G G
G G G G
G G
( ) ( ) .
G G
G
G G
G
G G
=0, , ( ). :
G G
G
G G G
, = G 2 +. :
G G
G
G2
. 11.1.
G G

G G

G G

G2 .
(11.1.10)

G
G
G
G . :
G G
G
(11.1.11)

G
G
G G G
G G G
: , : ( ) .
11.1.1 G(x,y)
(x1,y1), (x2,y2) (x3,y3),
G (. 11.1).
, 11.1.1, :
x x3 y2 y3
M 2
,
.
2
2
. 11.1.

JJJJG , G
AM =2. (11.1.5), :
x
x2 x3
y y
y1 2 2 3
2 , y
2 , x x1 x2 x3 , y y1 y2 y3 ,
1 2
1 2
3
3
x1 2
x x x y y y
G 1 2 3 , 1 2 3 .
3
3
11.1.2 G , , (2,5) (1,1).
443
.
, G(0,0). (x,y) , :
2 1 x
5 1 y
, x=1 y= 6. (1, 6).
0 =
3
3
G
G
11.1.3 =(9,6,3) =(3,2,1) .
0=
G
G
G
G
G
,
=(9,6,3)=3(3,2,1)=3 . =3 =
G
.
G
11.1.4 G =(5,5)
G
=(2,1) =(3,4).
JG
G G G
G G G GG G G G
G
G
G
= 1//=
2
= 1 2 ,
2 , :
1 2 // . 1
G
G
G
1 (5,5)=(2,1)+(3,4)(5,5)=(23, 4)
23=5 4=5.
=3
JG
G
G
G
=7. 1 7 =(14,7) 2 3 =(9,12).
G
G
G
11.1.5 =(1,1), =(2,5) =(4,7).

) .
G
G
G

) .
.
) (11.1.6), ,
1 1
G G
1 5 1 2 3 0 , , .
2 5
G
1 1
G
G G
1 7 1 4 3 0 , , .
4 7
.
G
G
G
) G , G
G
,R, .
G
G
G
, (4,7)=(1,1)+(2,5)(4,7)=(,)+(2,5).
4 2
,
, =2 =1.
G
G G
7 5
2 .
11.1.6 x, (3x+1, 2) (1, 45x)

10. yy,
.
.
10, :
2
2
= 10 [1 (3 x + 1)] + [(4 5 x ) 2] = 10 (3 x )2 + (2 5 x )2 = 10
9 x 2 + 4 20 x + 25 x 2 = 100 34 x 2 20 x 96 = 0 x = 2 x =
24
17
444
, x x=2. , (7, 2) (1,6).

JJJG
JJJ
yy,
G (0,y) , . :
2
2
2
2
49
49+ yy2244yy+44=11+ yy22+12
12yy+36
36
16
16yy=16
16
yy=11.
((0077))2 +((yy22))2 = ((00+11))2 +((yy+66))2
(0,1).
G
G G G G
11.1.7 i j k , .
.
G
G
=(1,1, 1) = 3 , :
x
x +y +z
2
1
, =
3
y
x +y +z
2
1
, =
3
z
x +y +z
2
1
.
3
G
G
11.1.8 =(3,2,1) =(2,1,4) .
.
G G

, =(3,2,1)(2,1,4)=32+(2)1+1(4)=624=0.
G
G
G G

, , A .
G
G
11.1.9 =(1,01) =(1,1,0). .
.
(11.1.9),
1 1 + 1 0 + 0 1
1
1
=
= . .
3
1+1+ 0 1+ 0 +1
2 2 2
x12 + y12 + z12 x22 + y22 + z22
G
G JG
G
11.1.10 , . =3 =4, 3
:
JG JG JG JG JG JG JG JGJG2 JG 2JG JG 2 JG JGJG JG JG JG

,,)
)2
, ) 2
. 2. .
, )
), 2,)
) 2,)2.)
x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z2
G JG G G
1
3 4
6,
) (11.1.7),
3
2
JG JG 2
JG JG
JG JG
JG JG
G2
G JG G 2
) , 2
( 2 ) 2 2 2 4 4

) 2 + =
4 9 4 6 16 76,
2
2 + = 76.
G
G
G

11.1.11
, :
G
G
G
G

) =(2,1) =(1,3), ) =(1,1,1) =(2,2,3).
.
(11.1.10) :

(2, 1) (1, 3)
2 (1) + (1) 3
) = 2 =
(2, 1) =
(2, 1) = (2,1),
2
5
22 + (1)2
G G
G G (1,1,1) (2, 2, 3)
1 (2) 1 2 1 3
)
(1,1,1)
(1,1,1) (1,1,1).
G 2
2
3
2
2
2
1 1 1
445
G
G
11.1.12
=(5,5) =(2,1)
G
=(3,4).
G
G
G
1 , 1 A ,
.
JJG
G JG
G
G
G G
G G G G G
G
G GJJ
G GGG GA G0, , G
G GG G =(1,2).
G G 0 ,G,
GG GG G =(1,2).
1
A
,
,
1
=(1,2).
,
,
0
=(1,2).
=(1,2).
=(1,2).
1
1 A0
1
1
1
1
1 1 1 1
1
1
1 1 1
G
GJJG JG
JJG G
JJJJ
GG1 G11 G1 JJGJJGJJG 1JJJG 1 JJ1G GJJ1G JGJJG JG JGJJG JJ
JJ
G
JJ
G
J
G
JJ
G
G
JJ
G
G
G
G
G
G
,
, ,
, A
0,,
1 2
1 ee 1
=(4,3).

1
1
1
,

JJ1G,
JG
11GG,(4,3).
A,
1 =(1,2).
,
1 ,
1 A 1 (4,3).
,
A
(4,3).
A
A
(4,3).
1 (4,3).
1 (4,3).
GG1
GG1GGG
JJG
G G1GG1 1 GG1G G1 GG1G1GG G1GG GJJGJJ
GGG GJJ
GGGGG GGJJ
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
11 ee
1
2eeee2
,ee
eeee
2
.
12
,
1
ee//
.1ee.(4,3).
.
1
1
2ee
1

2
1211
G
.

.
1 ,1,
1
111
1ee
2//eeee
21ee.2 21
1 ee
2 ee 1
.
ee
ee
11 .
1 ,
1
1 1
21
11ee
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
JJG
G
JJGG
JJGGG G GG GGGJJG JJGJJGJJGG
JJ
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G

2 ee 1
.
12
1 (5,5)=(1,2)+(4,3)(5,5)=(
2
1 ee

11
112
1, (5,5)=(1,2)+(4,3)(5,5)=(4,2+3).
1
1
111,
1
1 ,
1
2 2
1
1
1 ,
G2 G JJ1GG1
JJ
G G1 G1 2JJ
JJ
G
G
JJ
G
JJ
G
G
G
G
G
G
5,5)=(1,2)+(4,3)(5,5)=(4,2+3).
21
,
:
2+
1 1
(5,5)=(1,2)+(4,3)(5,5)=(4,2+3).
: 4=5
2+3=5,

4=5
=1
1 1
1 (5,5)=(1,2)+(4,3)(5,5)=(4,2+3).
1
11
11
,
1
(5,5)=(1,2)+(4,3)(5,5)=(4,2+3).
1
(5,5)=(1,2)+(4,3)(5,5)=(4,2+3).
1
1 (5,5)=(1,2)+(4,3)(5,5)=(4,2+3).
=1
=1.
=1.
(5,5)=(1,2)+(4,3)(5,5)=(4,2+3).
4=5

:

2+3=5,
4=5
2+3=5,

:
4=5
2+3=5,
:
4=5
2+3=5,
2+3=5,
G
G
G
G 4=5
G
G :
G 4=5
G
G2+3=5,
=(1)(1,2)=(1,2)
:
1
2 =(1

:
=(1)(4,3)=(4,3).
=(1)(1,2)=(1,2)
ee
ee
ee
ee
.
=1
=1.
:
4=5
2+3=5,1
=1.
=1
=1
=1
=1.
=1.
=1.
2
1=1
1
1
2
1
G
G
G
GG G G 1
G
G
G
G G G
21=(1)(4,3)=(4,3).
=(1)(1,2)=(1,2)
=(1)(1,2)=(1,2)
G=(4,7)
:
:
2 =(1)(4,3)=(4,3).
: 1 =(1)(1,2)=(1,2)
11.1.13

1

1
1 =(1)(1,2)=(1,2)
2 =(1)(4,3)=(4,3).
2,
=(1)(1,2)=(1,2)
=(1)(4,3)=(4,3).
:
:
2 =(1)(4,3)=(4,3).
2 =(1)(4,3)=(4,3).
G1
G =(1)(1,2)=(1,2)
2
=(1)(4,3)=(4,3).
: 1 =(1)(1,2)=(1,2)
=(1,2)
(. 11.1).
.
G
G
G G

1=(2,1),
ee 1
J
G
G
G
JG 0. , , :
G
G
(4,7)=(1,2)+(2,1). :
G G
2ee 1 .
. 11.1.
2 4
, =2 =3.
2 72
G G G GG
G
G
G
G
G
G
11 2 , 0 ,
,

1 ,
1 A
,
2
G
G
G
G
JJG
JJG JG
JJG
(6,3). , A (4,3).
1 (2,4) 2 ,
1
1
1
G G
G G
G G G
1 2 1 ee 1 2 ee 1 .
11.2 .
JJG
G
G
G
1 1 2 1 ,
JJG
G
G

R3 1 1 1 (5,5)=(1,2)+(4,3)(5,5)=(4,2+3).
, :
: 4=5 2+3=5,
=1 =1.
G
G

G

: 1 =(1)(1,2)=(1,2) 2 =(1)(4,3)=(4,3).
G
G
G G G
=
, =
(. 11.2)
:
)
G
G G
G
G G
k
, ( A
A ).).
j
) G, G
G G
G
, =
G G G
i
, ,

G G G
i, j , k ..
G G G G G
. 11.2.
) u ,
G G
, 0.
.
3
R ,
R,

R3
446 :
,
R3
:
,
,
:
R,
G G
,
) G,
,
G
G
G

11 + 2 2 +...+ G = 0 ,
= = 0.
G
,
)

,
,
=
G
G
G
G

11 +
2
2 +...+
= 0 , =0 = =0.
(.
11.2)
G

G
G
G G
G .
u

,
E , :
,
. 11.2.
J
G
J
G

.
,

E u .
G
0 ,
,

,
,
G

.
0,
,

:
JJGG
JJGG G
G
) u u
GG u ( G r GG)
GG G GG GG
)
u ( Gr ) Guu rr uu G
G G G G
G G
\
) u u ( u ),, R.

:
G
GG G
G
3
=(x1,y1,z1) =(x2,yJG2,z2) R i, j , k ,
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
x1i y1 j z1k x2 i y2 j z2 k .
G
G
:
G JG
u
y1
y2
z1 G x1
i
z2
x2
z1 G x1
j
z2
x2
y1 G
k.
y2
,
, :
G G G
i
j k
G JG
u x1 y1 z1 .
x 2 y2 z 2
G
G
11.2.1 =(2,1,3) =(1,0,4).
.

1 3 2 3 2 1

= 2 1 3 =
i
j+
k = 4i 5 j + 1k =(4,5,1).
0 4
1 4
1 0
1 0 4
447
11.2.2 (1,2), (3,4), (4,7).

.
JJJG
JJJG
JJJG
, =(31,42)=(2,2)

JJJG
=(41,72)=(3,9). , ,
JJJG JJJG
. ,
1
: ( )
( ).
2
G G G
i
j k
JJJG JJJG
G
G
G
2 0G 2 0G 2 2 G
i
j
k 0i 0 j 24 k (0, 0, 24)
u 2 2 0
9 0
3 0
3 9
3 9 0
( z = 0).
JJJG JJJG
1
1
u
0 0 (24)2 24 ( )
( )
24 12.
2
2
11.3 .
11.1 11.2 ( ) ( ) .
, :
, , R3,
, , , G
G JG
u :
G JG G
GGG
( ) ( u ) .

:
G
G
G
3
(x
,y
,z
),
(x
,y
,z
1 1 1
2 2 2), (x3,y3,z3) R
GG G
i, j , k , :

y z1
x z1
x y1
( ) = x3 1
y3 1
+ z3 1
.
y2 z 2
x 2 z2
x 2 y2
:
R3, =(x1,y1,z1),
G , ,
G
=(x2,y2,z2) =(x3,y3,z3), , , :
x1 y1 z1
G JG G
GGG
( ) ( u ) x2 y2 z2 .
x3
y3
z3
,
, , , , .
11.3.1 .
, , . -
448
GG G
i, j , k , , (. 11.3).
,
,
G G
E u
G
G JG
, u
G
. :
G JG G
G G G
GGG
V u ( u ) ( ).
. 11.3.
, , , ,
G
G JG
u , G 2
G JG
, u .
2
11.3.2 .
, ,
:
) , , , (
).
x1 y1 z1
GGG
( ) x2 y2 z2 0.
x3
y3 z3
G G G G G G
GGG
) , , : ( ) ( u ) ( u ).

) R , , , : ( ) = ( ) = ( ) = ( ).
.
G
G
G
11.3.1 =(2,1,1), =(1,1,1) =(1,2,1) .
.
GGG
: ( )
2 1
1 1
1
1
1
1 1
1
2
1 1
1
1
1
9 0.
449
11.4 .

+ = + = ( x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 )
z

= = ( x1 , y1 , z1 )
1
3
3
>1
<<0
0<<1
x2 , y1 y2 , z1 z2 )y
( x1
( x1 x2 , y1 y2 , z1 z2 )
<
x
:
:
d
:
( x , y , z )

1( x11, y11, z1)

= x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z2
x1 x2 y1 y2 z1 z2
G 22 x1 x222 y12y2 2 z1z2
( x1, y1, z1)
= xx11 +y2y11 +z2z11
x1 y1 z12
( x1, y1, z1)
2
2
G x1 y212 22 (x1, y1)
= xx11 +yy11
( x1, y1)
d = AB = ( x2 x1 )2 +( y2 y1 )2 +( z2 z1 )2 ,
(x1,y1,z1) (x2,y2,z2)
d = AB = ( x2 x1 )2 +( y2 y 1 )2 , (x1,y1) (x2,y2)
2
=
Cauchy Schwarz

=

( + ) = +

= ( ) = ( )

0 = 0 = 0
d ( x2 x1) ( y2 y1) ,
(x1,y1) (x2,y2)
2

450

( )
( ) ( )

0 0 0

x1 x2
y y2
z z2
, y 1
, z 1
1
1
1
1 , 2 ,..., R3 , 1,2,...,R, ,
:

11 + 2 2 + ... + = 0.
1 , 2 ,..., ,
.

11 + 2 2 + ... + = 0., 1=2=...==0.
G G
, R3
,
. , = , R.
0 , .
x y1

/ / 1
=0
x 2 y2
, , R3 , .
G G

, G R3 , = 0.
G
0 ,
.

= [0, ]

x1 x2 + y1 y2
x12 + y12 x22 + y22
=
G
G
=(x1,y1), =(x2,y2)
x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z2
x12 + y12 + z12 x22 + y22 + z22

G
G
=(x1,y1,z1), =(x2,y2,z2)

= 2
451
z

i
x
= 1 = =
i

j
y
= 2 = =
k
z
= 3 = =
(x,y,z)
j
i
2
y
(x,y)

= = , 0

E =
JG G
G JG
u u
G G G G G G G
u ( r ) u r u
G G G G
G G
u u ( u ), R
y1
=
y2
y1
k , = x1
y2
x2
G
G
=(x1,y1,z1), =(x2,y2,z2)
z1 x1
i
z2
x2
z1 x1
j+
z2
x2

( )=( )
y1
y2
z1 ,
z2
452
x1

= ( ) = x2
y1
y2
z1
z2
x3
y3
z3
V = = ( ) = ( )
1. , , :
x1
( ) = x2
y1
y2
z1
z2 = 0
x3
y3
z3
2. , , :

( ) = ( ) = ( ).
3. R , , , :

( ) = ( ) = ( ) = ( ) .
11.5 .
G
G
11.5.1 =(2,1). ,
G
G
.
G
G

G
11.5.2 =(2,1) =(3,1), u , 2 u = .
G
G
11.5.3
G u =(6,5) =(1,2)
=(2,3).
11.5.4 =(3,4,1).
11.5.5 A(2,5) B(10,3). :

) xx , .

) (): y=1 , .
19
11.5.6 A(4,13), B(10,1) G 4, , G 3
. .
453
G
G
G
11.5.7 u =(2,6) v =(2,1) w=(3,1).
G
G JG
G
G
G G G
G G
G
11.5.8 i 2 k , 2i j k i 2 j 2 k , :
GGGGJGJGJGJG
GGGGJGJGJGJGGGGG
GGGGJGJGJGJG GGGG GGGG JGJGJGJGGGGG
)
)

)
)
u
)
u
u
,))
)
(u(u
)
)
)
u
u
u
,,)
, ,)
)
((((u
u
u
)))),,,),)
))
((((u
u
u
))u)u)u
u
,,)
,)
u
u
((uuu
u
)).).). .
11.5.9 (4,4,3), (2,4,3) (8,6,6) , .
11.5.10 (4,4,3), (2,4,3), (8,6,6) (1,2,3) , .

G G
11.5.11 , :
JG
JG
JG JG
JG JG
JG JG
JG
JG

) 2 , 4 5 ) 2 5 10 2 5 2 51.. 2 , 5
JG JG JG JG JG JG
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11.5.
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1. 1.
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5
.
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3 3 3 JGJG GG
22
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11.5.13

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11.5.15 =(2,x) =(3,2),
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11.5.16
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1. 2 ,
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iii. (, JG) . G=(10,6,2).
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1. 21., GG

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11.5.18
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.
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44 4 G44 G
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+
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2,
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11.5.19
:
1).

,
+
=(1,
G
G
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G
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11.5.20
=2=
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1 = 12
). = 1
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),
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1
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4
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11.5.21
G G ,
G
G
2 + , 2 .
G G G B(1,2) (1,6). xx,

11.5.22
G G G

+ ++
+,
()=().
G
G G GG G G G G G
G
G G

G G
)(=
11.5.23
G
, ==
(
,
)
=1= 1, (, ) .
2=
=,=2
2,, 2
), =
,( ), =
G+,=
32
) 4=
+ 4++
4
G G GG G G G
G G
G G
)(=
11.5.24
) =
==23,, 2, =2

=3 (
3,
,1=
1
)= =
:
), =
,( ), =
=
=
6
4 4
G G

) , .

) u = 3 = 2 3 + .
2

= .
11.5.25
2,
+ + = 6.
454
G
11.5.26
u =(23,14)

GG G G
G GG,
G
=(5,4) =(16,4).
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G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
GG
GG
GGG
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, ,,
( ( ,(,
==1
2=22
11.5.27
==2 323,
(
(,
,) )=
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==
2, , =
1 =
464
: G
G
G
2 2

G
G
G

) . , ) 2 + 2 , ) ( +) , ) + , ) (2 +3 ) (4 5 ).
G
G
G
11.5.28 =(1,2,3), =(2,3,5) =(1,1,2), .
12

, .
,
(, , , ), .
12.1 .
12.2 .
12.3 .
12.4 ().
12.5 .
12.6 .
12.7 .
12.8 .
12.9 .
12.10 .
12.11 .
12.12 .
12.13 .
lx im
12.14 .
12.15 .
x0
456
12.1 .
A R2 f: AR . C{(x,y)A:
f(x,y)=0} xy. f , C ,
C . , , ,
.
, {(x,y) R2:x2+y21=0} [. 12.1()], , . , {(x,y)R2:2x+3y+6=0} [(. 12.1()], .
1,5
2 x3y6=0
x 2 y 2 1=0
0,5
1
0
0
1,5
1 0,5
0,5
1,5
0
6 5 4 3 2 1
1
0,5
1
()
()
1,5
. 12.1.
3
4
12.2 .
() u,
u0. , () (. 12.2), :

r = ro + MO M ,
r ro
, o. MO M u

, : MO M = t u , tR, r = rO + u, tR.
()
u, u0, :

(12.2.1)

r = rO + t u , t R .
1 2 ()

, () (. 12.2), r = r1 + M1 M M1 M2 = r2 r1 , r , r1

r = r1 + M1 M
r2 , 1 2 .

M1 M2, M1 M = t M1 M2 , tR. r = r1 + M1 M r = r1 + t (r2 r1 ),
tR.
() 1 2 r1 r2
, :
G G
G G
r r1 t ( r2 r1 ), t R .
(12.2.2)

G
r1=(x,y), ro =(xo,yo) u=(,), (12.2.1), :

r = rO + t u ( x , y) = ( xO , yO ) + t ( , ) ( x , y ) = ( x O + t , y O + t ).
457
y
y
o
ro
r1
r2
r
. 12.2.
. 12.2.
x xO t
y yO t
(12.2.3)
()
u .
, r1 =(x1,y1) r2 =(x2,y2), (12.2.2) :

r = r1 + t ( r2 r1 ) ( x , y) = ( x1 , y1 ) + t ( x2 x1 , y2 y1 ) ( x , y) = ( x1 + t ( x 2 x1 ), y1 + t ( y2 y1 ) ) .
, (), (x1,y1) (x2,y2), :

x x1 t ( x2 x1 )
(12.2.4)

, t R .
y y1 t ( y2 y1 )
(12.2.3) t, :
x xO
x xO
y yO

y yO
0.
, (12.2.4) t, :
x x1
x2 x1
x
y y1
x1
y2 y1
x2
y 1
y1 1
0.
y2 1
, (), :
) (xo,yo) u=(,), u0 :

x xO
x xO
y yO
) (x1,y1) (x2,y2) :
x x1
x2 x1
x
y y1
x1
y2 y1
x2
y yO
y 1
y1 1
0.
0.
(12.2.5)
(12.2.6)
y2 1
1(x1,y1), 2(x2,y2) 3(x3,y3)
458
, :
x
x1
y 1
y1 1
x2
y2 1
0.
12.3 .
() (xo,yo)
u (, ) :
x xO y yO
,
=
(12.3.1)
G
(xxo)(yyo) r =(x,y), ro =(xo,yo)
G
G
G G G
n =(,) ( r ro ) n 0 .
(12.3.1) :
xy+yoxo=0.
x+By+=0
(12.3.2)
(12.3.2),
G
, n =(, )
(, ). , (xo,yo) (12.3.2),
xo+Byo+=0, =(xo+Byo). (12.3.2) :

(xxo)+B(yyo)=0
G
r =(x,y) ro =(xo,yo), :
G G G

( r ro ) n 0
(12.3.3)
(12.3.4)
G
(12.3.3) n =(, ) (, ).
, G x+By+=0 :
) =(,)
G
) n =(,).
12.3.1 .
(12.3.2) :
=0, 0 0, (12.3.2) :
x , .
x= yy
.
0 ==0, (12.3.2) x=0 yy.
=0, 0 0, (12.3.2) :
x
0 x
x , .
x= xx
.
0 ==0, (12.3.2) y=0 xx.
y
0 y =
459
0, 0 =0, (12.3.2) :
x y x , .
(0,0) (. 12.3).
0, 0 0, (12.3.2) :
x y 0 y
x
y

y
x y

1,

, .
y=x, >0
x
y=x, <0
. 12.3.
12.3.1
x=4 x=4 (. 12.3).

y
x=4
x=4
. 12.3.
12.3.2
y=2 y = 2 (. 12.3).
y
y=2
x
. 12.3.
x
y=2
460
12.4 ().
x'x.
:
H xx
() ()
xx (. 12.4).
y
. 12.4
:
) ()//xx, =0.
) , 0<.
( ) ()
, z , () xx, :
2
=.
:
z ,
) () yy, =
2
.
) ()//xx, =0, .
(x1,y1)
B(x2,y2), x1x2 :
y2 y1
.
x2 x1
, ,
( 1//yy, 2//yy). ( ).
, , ,
1 2, 1
0 ( (1)//yy (2)//xx
). ( ).
12=1.
461
(): Ax+By+=0, 0, , .
12.5 .
.
) (x0,y0) .
(. 12.5), (12.2.5) :
0
(12.5.1)

yyo=(xxo).
) (x1,y1) B(x2,y2).
, x1x2, (. 12.5)
yyo=(xxo) :
y2 y1
y2 y1
y y1
( x x1 ) y y2
( x x2 ).
x2 x1
x2 x1
y2 y1

x2 x1
) (x0,y0) x.
(x0,y0) (. 12.5) (
) ,
xo :

x=x0
y
(12.5.2)
(x,y)
(x2 , y2)
(x0 , y0)
(x0 , y)
(x0 , y0)
(x1 , y1)
. 12.5.
x0
. 12.5.
. 12.5.
12.6 .
.
1) .
(1) (2), (1):A1x+B1y+1=0
(2):A2x+B2y+2=0. (1) (2) 22. () :
) () .
22 , 2,
. :
Dz0
1 1
2 2
z 0 1 2 2 1 z 0.
462
:
x
Dx
y
D
Dy
D
, Dx
1
2
Dy
A1
1
A2
2
, .
) () .
22 , D=0 Dx Dy
. :
A1 B1 1
.
A2 B2 2
(1) (2) .
) () .
22 , D=Dx=Dy=0, :
A1
A2
B1
B2
1
.
2
(1) (2) .
2) .
:
(1):A1x+B1y+1=0, (2):A2x+B2y+2=0, (3): A3x+B3y+3=0.
32.
,
,
. :
A2 1 1
A2 2 2 0.
A3 3 3
3) .
, .
:
, [. 12.6(, )] [. 12.6()].

, , .
463
1
2
1
()
()
()
. 12.6.
1.
(1): A1x+B1y+1=0 (2): A2x+B2y+2=0, ,

A1x+B1y+1+(A2x+B2y+2)=0, R
(12.6.1)
(1) (2) ,
(12.6.1).
:
) =0 (12.6.1) (1):A1x+B1y+1=0 .
) (12.6.1) (1):A1x+B1y+1=0 .
) (1) (2) , (12.6.1) (1) (2).
, (1), (2) (12.6.1) :
1
2
, 2 2 1
,
1
2
1 2
(1)//(2) 1=2,
= 2
1
2

1
1
2
2
1 2 .
1 2
1 = 2 = , (12.6.1) (1) (2).

)
2
, 1 0 (12.6.1) :
1
1(A1x+B1y+1)+2(A2x+B2y+2)=0
4) .
xOy (): Ax+By+=0.
() .
464
x+By+>0 , , x+By+<0
.
( ) , : (xo ,yo) x+By+>0,
, .
12.6.1
y

():4x5y20=0.
, (0,0), ().
40+5020=20<0.
(I) , 12.6, (I)
.
(,0)
(0,)
. 12.6.
5) .
() , Ax+By+=0 M(x,y)
(. 12.6).
d 0 : d=
Axo + Byo +
2 + 2
6) .
, , .
A(x1,y1), B(x2,y2), (x3,y3), (. 12.6).
:
1 x2 x1 y2 y1
( AB ) =
.
2 x3 x1 y3 y1
(x3 , y3)
0(x0 , y0)
(x2 , y2)
n=(A, B)
1(x1, y1)
x
. 12.6.
(x1 , y1)
. 12.6.
465
12.7 .
,
(. 11.1.3), .
,
. ,
:
, ( )
.
r=()
= (. 12.7). r
( r0 0<2) =(r,) (r,).
r
.
(r, )
r
. 12.7.
, r,
(r,).

x .
(. 12.7),
0. :
xx
22
xx +yy22
x r
22
22
rr = xx + yy ,,
. .
yy
y r
xx22+yy22
(x,y) (r,)
y
r
12.7.1 .
r ()
r (),
[ ()].
(h,),
(r,) (. 12.7). ( )
2
=, :
( )
. 12.7.
( ) h
h r ( ).
( ) r
(), ,
: h=r(), h
.
(r, )
(h,)
. 12.7.
466
12.7.1
(1,2) u = (1,3).
.
r = rO + t u = (1,2)+t(1,3), tR.
,
x 1 t
, t R.
y 2 3t
12.7.2 (3,4)
= (1,2).
.
:
.
x xO y yO
x 3 y 4
1
2
12.7.3 1(2,3) 2(4,5).

.
x x1
y y1
x2
y 3
x 2 y 3
x2
, :
y 3.
x2 x1 y2 y1
4 (2) 5 3
6
2
3
12.7.4 (,), (+, ) (+2, 2) .

.
6 (,), (+, ) (+2,

2) :
1
1
1

1
1
( )
2 1
2 1
2 2
2 2 1
=(2+)+(+2)+(+)(2)(+2)()=0.

, .
12.7.5 () (1,3), (6,9) (3,0).

.
=(3 (6), 9) = (9, 9), (). () :

x 1 y 3
, x+y+2=0.
9
9
3
12.7.6 ()
5
yy (0,2).
3
() y=x+, y x 2.
5
467
12.7.7 x 3 + y 2 2 = 0 x 6 3 y + 3 = 0 ..
.
3
6
3
6
:
2 =
. =:
= 1 =
3
2
3
2
3 6
= 1.
1 2 =
2 3
.
12.7.8 , (1):2x+3y4=0
(2):x+9y+=0 : ) ) .
.
) 12.4, (1) (2) , , 1=2. :

2 3
, =6 R.
9
)
, (1) (2) : 12=1. :
1
A
2 2
A
2 .
3 3
2
2
27
1 2 1 1
R.
1,
3 9
27
2
12.7.9 3x4y+5=0 x+2y1=0.
, A(2,3).
.
(2,3) , . ,
1, 3x4y+5+(x+2y1)=0.
, :
1
3243+5+(2+231)=0612+5+(2+61)=01+7=0 .
7
, :
1
1
2
1
3 x 4 y 5 ( x 2 y 1) 0 3 x 4 y 5 x y
7
7
7
7
22
26
34
x
y
0 11 x 13 y 17 0.
7
7
7
12.7.10 (1,2) (): 4x3y5=0.
(. 12.6 12.6.5) :
d( , ) =
Axo + Byo +
+
2
4 1 + 3 2 5
4 +3
2
5
25
5
= 1.
5
12.7.11
468
(1):A1x+B1y+1=0 (2):A2x+B2y+2=0.
.

(1) (2), (x,y), .
(1) (2)
(. 12.7). (1) (2)
(1) (2) :
(x,y) (1). :
M ( 1 ) d( M , 1 ) = d( M , 2 )
= d( M , 2 )

A1 x + B1 y + 1
A1 + B1
2
A2 x + B2 y + 2
A2 + B2
2
A1 x + B1 y + 1
A1 + B1
2
A1 x + B1 y + 1
A1 + B1
2
A2 x + B2 y + 2
A2 2 + B2 2
A2 x + B2 y + 2
A2 + B2
2
A1 x + B1 y + 1
A1 + B1
2
.
,
(1) (2).
.
2
12.7.12
(5, ) (. 12.7).
3
(r,) (), :
()=r. :
() 5
1
() 5 () 2, 5.
3
2
. 12.7.
: r=2,5.
(r, )
12.7.14
(2,3)
12 (. 12.7).
(2,3)
: ():y3=(x2). x=0, y=32,
yy (0,32). , () xx y=0,
x=23 =0, -
. 12.7.
(5, )
3
(r,) (),
: ()=r()
r()+5=0. .
12.7.13
5 (.
12.7).

(r,)
. 12.7.
A2 x +
A2
469
. 0, () xx
2 3
, 0 .

, :
10
8
6
1
2 1 3 )() 12 1 ( 2 3 )(3 2 ) 12
(
) 121
() 12 ()(
) 12
)(3 2 ) 12
( (
2 4
2
2 2

M(2, 3)
1
1 2 3
1
1
2

3
212
2
39 0 2 3 3 .
(
) )(12
)
(
)
12
(
)
(3
2
)
(

2 )(3
2
) 12
(
2
)
12
(

(2
3)
24
4
12
2
2 2(2 3) 24
2 4 12 9 0 2 3 2 .
2
2

3
2
2
3
3)
12
24
0
2 .3 .
24(2
4 2 12
9 40
2 93
4
6
8
6 4 2
0 2
2

2
2

()
. 12.7.
:
3
x y
() : y 3 ( x 2) 2 y 6 3 x 6 1.
2
4 6
3
x y
() : y 3 ( x 2) 2 y 6 3 x 6 1.
y
2
2
4 6
10
6
4
d( A, 1) =

Axo + Byo +
A +B
2
Axo + Byo +
A2 + B 2
1 0 + (1) 4 + 1
1 + (1)
2
3
2
1 0 + (1) 4 + 1
12 + (1)2
3 2
.
2
x
6
3 2
.
2
. 12.7.
9 2 18
= .
=
4
4
() 1, () ():y=x1
(1,4) 2,
() y4=1(x1), ():y=x+5. -
12.7.16 (1,4)
:y=x1 (. 12.7).

. :
3 2
= d 2 =
2
(2).
(2), x=0, y=4. (0,4)
(2).
d (1):
d( A, 1) =
12.7.15 ,
(1): x
y+1= 0 (2):xy+4=0 (. 12.7).

x
10
1
1
1
2
. 12.7.
M
5
6
x
7
470
():y=x1,
():y=x+5. : 2y=4, y=2 x=3. ,
(3,2).
(), . (,).
4
1
2 , =5 =0. (5,0).
:
3
2
2
12.8 .

. , 3 ..
. 2000 ,
,
.
1600, Kepler
. 80 , Newton
.
,
. , . .

, (. 12.8).
12.8, , . , ,
, ,
. , . ,
, .
,
.
. 12.8.
471
12.9 .
, :
,
.
, .
12.9.1 .
xy (xo ,yo)
R. M(x,y) //y //x (.
12.9), (=90) : ()2+()2=()2,
, : (xxo)2+(yyo)2=R2.
(xo,yo) R :
(xxo)2+(yyo)2=R2.
(. 12.9), xo=0 yo=0,
: x2+y2=R2.
y
y
(x,y)
R
R
(x0 , y0)
(0,0)
(x,y)
x
. 12.9.
. 12.9.
12.9.2 .
, .
2.
x2+y2+Ax+By+=0. ,
2+24>0,

K , R =
2 2
A2 + B2 4
.
2
.
:
x 2 2 x xo xo 2 y 2 2 y yo yo 2 R 2 ,
x 2 y 2 (2 xo ) x (2 yo ) y ( xo 2 yo 2 R 2 ) 0.
472
:
x2+y2+Ax+By+=0, A=2xo, B=2yo xo 2 yo 2 R2 .
, x2+y2+Ax+By+=0 ,
2
A2 2
B2 A2 B2
x
0.
4
4 4
4
A2+B24>0, :
2
2
A
B
x + + y + =
2
2
A2 + B2 4
.

K , R=
2 2
A2 + B2 4
.
2
:
) A2+B24=0, x2+y2+Ax+By+=0 ,

, .
2 2
) A2+B24<0, x2+y2+Ax+By+=0 , (x,y), .
12.9.3 .
KM (. 12.9)
x, :
x xo = KA = R y y o = = R ,
y
(x,y)
x=xo+R y=yo+R.
R
(x0 , y0)
,
(x,y) (xo,yo) R,
:
x xo R
, 0 2.
(12.9.1)
y yo R

,
xo=0 yo=0, (12.9.1)
x=R y=R.
. 12.9.
(r,)
R
(r0 ,0)
12.9.4 .
,
R (ro,o) (. 12.9). (r,)
, (. 10)
, :
r0
0
x
. 12.9.
473
R2
r 2 r 2 2r r ( ).
, (ro,o) R :
r 2 r 2 2r r ( ) R 2 .
(12.9.2)
:
) (R,0), =R (12.9.2) :
=2R.
) (R, ), (12.9.2) : =2R.

2
12.9.5 .
(xo,yo) R (xxo)2+
+(yyo)2=R2 ()

(x1,y1) (. 12.9).
(x,y)
(),
, .

, =(xx
=(x1xo, y1yo) :
1, yy
1)

= 0 ( x x1 ) ( x1 xo ) + ( y y1 )( y1 yo ) = 0
[( x xo ) ( x1 xo )] ( x1 xo ) + [( y yo ) ( y1 yo )] ( y1 yo ) = 0
( x xo )( x1 xo ) + ( y yo )( y1 yo ) = ( x1 xo )2 + ( y1 yo )2
( x xo )( x1 xo ) + ( y yo )( y1 yo ) = ( x1 xo )2 + ( y1 yo )2
( x xo )( x1 xo ) + ( y yo )( y1 yo ) = R 2 .
(x1,y1) ,
(x1xo)2+(y1yo)2=R2. ,
(xo, yo) R, (x1, y1) , :
(xxo)(x1xo)+(yyo)(y1yo)=R2.
(x,y)
(x1 , y1)
y
(x0 , y0)
(12.9.3)
,
xo=0 yo=0, (12.9.3) xx1+(yy1)=R2.
. 12.9.
12.9.1
(2,3) R=5.
.
(x2)2+(y3)2=52, , x2+y24x6y12=0.
12.9.2
: x2+y24x6y10=0.
.
4 6
= 4, = 6, = 10, K , = (2,3)
2 2
4 2 + (6)2 4(10)
16 + 36 + 40
93
R=
=
=
= 23 .
2
2
2
12.9.3 (1,2), (5,4), (10, 5),
474
.
.
x2+y2+Ax+By+=0. , . :
+=5
5 +4+=41
10+5+=125.
= 18, = 6, =25, x2+y218x+6y+25=0,

K , K(9,3) R =
2 2
A2 + B2 4
= 65 .
2
12.9.4 C:x2+y22x4y18=0 (2,3).

C (. 12.9).
.

, 1,2 .
2 2

B(x,y) (). , , = 0 .

=(x2,
=0
y3) (1,1)(x2, y3)=0

=(21,32)=(1,1)
(x2)+(y3)=0 x+y5=0.

: x+y5=0.
12.9.5. , (): 2xy+1=0 (2,5) x+y=9 (. 12.9).
.
(), ,
2xy+1=0. 2xy+1=0 =2, ()
1
1
. , () : y 5 ( x 2), ,
2
2
():x+2y12=0. ,
x+y=9, x+2y=12. , (6,3)
xy=9
xy=1
(2,3)
(x,y)
(2,5)
(1,2)
. 12.9.
. 12.9.
475
.
():2xy+1=0. :
R = d( K , ) =
Axo + Byo +
A +B
2
2 6 1 3 + 1
2 +1
2
, : ( x 6)2 + ( y 3)2 = 2 5
10
= 2 5.
5
= 20.
12.10 .
,
, :
,
, ,
d(,) (. 12.10).
d(,) . 2 2.
,
d(M,E)+d(M,E)=2.
:
:
) d(,)<d(M,E)+d(M,E), 2<2, <.
) =0, ,
.
12.10.1 .
C .
Oxy x y ,
(,0), (,0) 2 (. 12.10). :
x 2 y2
2 1, =
222.2 .
2
Oxy x
y (. 12.10), C E(0,),
y
2
: x=
(0,)
. 12.10.
2
: x=
(x,y)
(,0) (,0)
d(,)=2
d(,)(,)=2
x
(0,)
. 12.10.
. 12.10.
476
(0,) 2, :
x 2 y2
1, =
222.2 .
2 2
:
) x y
(. 12.10) :
x 2 y2
1, =
222.2 .
(12.10.1)
2 2
. 12.10.
) x y (. 12.10) :

x 2 y2
1, =
22 2. 2 .
2 2
(12.10.2)
:
,
:
) (2) x2,
xx.
) (2) y2,
yy.
12.10.2 .
(12.10.1) (12.10.2) ,
, :
) xx yy .
) A, A, ,
.
) 2,
2.
) (0,0) .
) ,
, . 2d(M,N)2.
.
x 2 y2
12.10, C : 2 + 2 =
,
:
1
) A(,0), A(,0), (0,) (0,)

.
) x=, x=, y= y=.
2
2
) () : x
( ) : x

.
x 2 y2
12.10, C: 2 2 1,
) A(0,), A(0,), (,0) (,0)

.
477
) x=, x= , y= y=.
2
2
( ) : y

) () : y
12.10.3 .
, , .
,
, .
, :
C .
1.
2
, , = 2 2., :
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
=
1 = 1 .
,
2
:
:
(. 12.10).
) , 1 .
) , 0
) , , (. 12.10).
12.10.4 .
x 2 y2
1
2 2
(x,y), (. 12.10). C (x,y),
yy=(xx).

,
x2 y2
2 2 1
y y ( x x )
o
o
y , x.
, ,
. 12.10.
y
(x , y)
. 12.10.
478
, 0.
2 x
=0 2 :
y
xx
yy
x2 y2
2 x
y yo 2 ( x xo ) 2 2 2 2 1.
y
(x,y), , ,
x2 y2
: 2 2 1.
x 2 y2
2 2 1 (x,y)
:
xx yy

(12.10.3)
2 1.
2

x 2 y2
1 (x,y) :
2 2
xx yy

(12.10.4)
1.
2 2
12.10.5 .
, , ,
.
:
, , (. 12.10).
. 12.10.
12.11 .
.

, , d(,) (. 12.11).
d(,) .
2 2.
,
d(M,E)d(M,E)=2.
()=2
()()=2
. 12.11.
: d(M,E)d(M,E)<d(EE), 2<2, <.
479
12.11.1 .
. Oxy x y ,
(,0), (,0), 2 (. 12.11). :
x 2 y2
2 1, =
222.2 .
2
(12.11.1)
:
) xx (,0) (,0).
.
) 2.
xy y x (. 12.11), ,
(0,), (0,) 2, :
y2 x 2
1, =
222. 2 .
2 2
(12.11.2)
=,
:
(x,y)
(,0)
(,0) x
x2y2=2 y2x2=2.
. 12.11.
: , +
.
2.
y
(0,)
12.11.2 .
) C xx yy
(. 12.11). , ,
, ,
. .
) yy .
)
x= x=, (. 12.11).
, ,
(0,)
. 12.11.
y
3
4
x2
y2
x2
1 x 2 2 x 2 2 0 x x .
2
2
2
x=
x2
1 2 1 x 2 2 x 2 2 0 x x .
x 2 y2
1 , = 2 2 , :
2 2
2
x=
. 12.11.
480
x 2 y2
2 2 1
y2 x 2
2 2 1 .
yy, (0,) (0,),

xx. , ,
y= y=.
12.11.3 .
. 12.11 12.11,
. .
:
)
x 2 y2
1 , (. 12.11)
2 2
y2 x 2
) 2 2 1 , (. 12.11)
x , y x .
(12.11.3)
x , y x .
(12.11.4)
: : , ,
y.
y
(0,)
y
y=
y=
y= x
y= x
(0,)
. 12.11.
. 12.11.
12.11.4 .
, , . :

.
1.
2
,, = 2 + 2 , :
481
y
2
2
2 + 2 , 2 1 ,
2
= 1 .

2
:
)
,
(. 12.11).
) 1,
, , 0.
, , .
) = = 2 .
. 12.11.
0 (x0 , y0)
12.11.5 .
x
y
2 1 2
(xo,yo) (. 12.11), :
. 12.11.
xx yy
(12.11.5)
2 1.
2

2
2
y
x
2 2 1 ,
(xo,yo) :
yy xx
1.
2 2

(12.11.6)
12.11.6 .
. , .
. 12.11.

, E (. 12.11).
()
12.12 .
C()
, , .
()=()
,
, (. 12.12).

, .
E()
. 12.12.
482
,
.
, ,
d(M,E)=d(M,).
12.12.1 .
. Oxy
x
p
(. 12.12). , E , 0 2
p
() : x , y2=2px.
2
p , (. 12.12 12.12) p
.
Oxy,
p
y (. 12.12), 0,
p
2
(): y x2=2py.
2
Oxy:
p
p
) E , 0 () : x , (. 12.12) : y2=2px.
2
2
y
p
, 0
2
: x=
(x, y)
(x, y)
p<0
p>0
p
, 0
2
p
2
()
p>0
0,
()
: x=
p
2
()
. 12.12.
x 2=2py
: y=
p
2
x
0,
x
p
: y=
2
x 2=2py
p<0
()
. 12.12.
(12.12.1)
483
p
p
) 0, (): y , (. 12.12) x2=2py.
2
2
(12.12.2)
12.12.2 .
y2=2px (. 12.12), :
) xx.
) p x, ( x0) ,
yy, p>0, yy, p<0.
) .
x2=2py (. 12.12), :
) yy.
) p>0, xx, p<0 xx.
) .
: , .
12.12.3 .
y2=2px (xo,yo) (. 12.12)
:
(12.12.3)

yyo=p(x+xo)
x2=2py (xo,yo) :
xxo=p(y+yo)
(12.12.4)
12.12.4 .

.

,
, (. 12.12).
y
y
0 (x0 , y0)
0 (x0 , y0)
N(x0 ,0) 1 2
p
,0
. 12.12.
. 12.12.
484
12.13 .
,

[. 12.13 (), (), ()].
p=(EB), (r,) . M,
:
r
( ME)
.
( M ) p r
:
:
r
, p r .
p r
, :
r
r

.
p r
r p

, [. 12.13()].
, , :

r
, p r .
p r
, r, :
p
p
r
.
1
1
:
) , 0<<1.
) , =1.
) , >1.
r
(r, )
(r, )
r
E
()
(r, )
r
()
. 12.13.
(r, )
()
485
, , .
,

.
3
0, , ,
.
2
2
( , ).
,
Kepler, Kepler ,
.
.
12.13.1 , 1, 2 x ,
:

) =5, =3,

) (3,0) (3,0) (5,0),

) 8 6,
3

) 6 = ,
5
3

) 8 = ,
5

) 10, 6
.
x2 y2
1.
25 9
) =5, =3
x 2 y2
1. 2=222=16. , :
2 2
x2 y2
1.
25 16
) 8, 2=8, =4 6,
2=6 =3. 2=222=16192=7 :
) =5 =3,
x2 y2
1.
25 7
) 6, 2=6, =3
3
3
= , = =5. 2=222=2592=16. ,
5
5
:
x2 y2
1.
25 16
3
)
8, 2=8, =4.
5
= 1 2 (. 12.10.3), :
2
16
9
16 16
1 2 2 1
2
2 16.
2
25
25
486
x2 y2
1.
25 16
) 6, 2=6, =3. ,
2
2
10 () : x
() : x
, :
2
2
10
10 2 30.
, :
, 2=222=3092=21. , :
x 2 y2
1.
30 21
12.13.2

x2+2y2=2 :
) y=2x+1.
) y=2x.
) M(2,0).
.
() x2+2y2=2 M(x1,y1) xx1+2yy1=2

x
1 . :
2 y1
) y=2x+1, :
x1
2 x1 4 y1 .
2 y1
M(x1,y1) , : x12 2 y12 2 , x1=4y1,
:
1
1
(4 y1 )2 2 y12 2 18 y12 2 y12 y1 .
9
3
4 1
4 1
, x1 , y1 , x1 , y1 , .
3 3
3 3
, , y=2x+1,
:
4
2
4
2
x + y = 2 x y = 2 .
3
3
3
3
x
) () y=2x, 1 2 1 ,
2 y1
x1=y1. , M(x1,y1) , ,
2
2
x12 + 2 x12 = 2 x12 = x1 =
= y1.
3
3
2 2
2
2
, ( x1 , y1 ) =
,
( x1 , y1 ) = ,
.
3
3 3
3
, , y=2x, :
2
2
2
2
x + 2 y = 2
x 2 y = 2.
3
3
3
3
) () M(2,0),
487
. , 2x1+20y1=2x1=1. M(x1,y1) , :
2
1
1
.
x12 + 2 y12 = 2 1 + 2 y12 = 2 y12 = y1 =
y1 =
2
2
2

2
2
) ( x1 , y1 ) = (1,
).
2
2
, M(2,0),
x+ 2 y=2 x 2 y=2.
, ( x1 , y1 ) = (1,
x 2 y2
1 . ,
52 32
y=x1 (.12.13).
12.13.3
.
x 2 y2
1 =5 =3. 2=222=2592=16
52 32
=4, (4,0) (4,0).
xx :
x 2 y2
1, 2+2=42=16.
2 2
y=x1,
y x 1
2
y2
x
2 2 1
. , , :
x 2 ( x 1)2
1 2 x 2 2 ( x 1)2 2 2 ( 2 2 ) x 2 22 x 2 ( 2 1) 0.
2
2
,
=0, 220 44+42(2+1)(22)=0, 2(2+1)
(22)=0.
2(2+1)(22)=0 2+4+2222=0 2+12=0 22=1.
2 2 16
, 2 2 1 ,

2 17
2
.
2 15
4
2
, :
x 2 y2
2 x 2 2 y2
1.
17 15
17
15
2
2
12.13.4 ,
. 12.13.
488
: 16y225x2=400 (. 12.13).
.
400, :
y2 x 2
1.
25 16
=5 =4 2=2+2 2=25+16 2=41 = 41,

(0, 41) (0, 41). :
41
5
= =

, y x x y x x.
5
4
4
12
12.13.5 r 2
.
9 252
, .

r r = x 2 + y 2
r2 =
12
x2 + y2 =
2
9 25
12
9 25
x 2 + y 2
y
y
y
, = =
x
r
x2 + y2 =
x2 + y2
12
9 25
y
x + y2
. :
9 x 2 16 y 2 = 144.
x 2 y2
1.
16 9
12.13.6 , (0,0),
xx y=x+2 (. 12.13).
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
. 12.13.
8 10 12 14
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
. 12.13.
489
.
y2=2px.
:
y x 2
.
2
y 2 px
(x+2)2=2px x24x+4=2px x2(2p+4)x+4=0. =[(2p+4)2]414=4p2+16p=4p(p+4).

y=x+2, . =0
4p(p+4)=0 p=4, .
y2=8x.
12.14 .
.
()
(xo,yo)
G
G G
u =(,), u z 0
y
o
ro
()
G
r
G
G
rO u, t R.
()
x
y
xO t
, t R.
yO t
()
x xO
y yO
() 1(x1, y1) 2(x2, y2) G

G
r1 r2
y
1
r1
r2
r
()
G G
G G
r = r1 +t ( r2 r1 ) , t R .
490
x = x1 +t ( x 2 x1 )
, t R.
y = y1 +t ( y2 y1 )
()
x
x1
x2
()
y 1
y1 1 0
y2 1
Ax+By+=0, +0
( )
()
(x1,y1) B(x2,y2), x1x2
y2 y1
x2 x1
1 = 2
12=1
y
(x,y)
(xo,yo)

yy0=(xx0)
(x0 , y0)
y
y
(x1,y1)
B(x2,y2)
y y2
y2 y1
( x x2 )
x2 x1
(x2 , y2)
(x1 , y1)
y
y
(x0 , y)
(xo,yo)

x=x0
(x0 , y0)
x
y
x0
yy
A(0,)
y=x+
(0, )
491
y
xOy yOx
1
y=x
y=x
o
135
y=x y=x
45o
(xo,yo)
xx
(x0, y0)
y0
y=y0
x
M(,0)
(0,)
x y

1

(0, )
(,0)
(r, )
(h,)
(),
,
h=r()
(1) (2), (1):A1x+B1y+1=0 (2):A2x+B2y+2=0,
D0

(x,y)
(1) (2)
1 1
2 2
0 1 2 2 1 0
D
Dx
y y ,
D
D
A 1
1
Dx 1
D y 1
A2 2
2 2
x
D=0 Dx Dy
.
A1 B1 1
A2 B2 2
492
D=Dx=Dy=0
A1 B1 1
A2 B2 2
(1) (2)

(1):A1x+B1y+1=0, (2):A2x+B2y+2=0,
(3):A3x+B3y+3=0
A2
A2
A3
d=
( AB ) =
1
2
3
1
2 0
3
Axo + Byo +
A2 + B 2
1 x2 x1
2 x3 x1
y2 y1
.
y3 y1
(x,y)
R

(xo,yo) R
(x0 , y0)
(xxo)2+(yyo)2=R2

(0,0) R
R
(0,0)
x2+y2=R2

x2+y2+Ax+By+=0
(x,y)
x
A2+B24>0,

K ,
2 2
R
2 2 4
2
493
y
(x,y)
R

(x,y) (xo,yo)
Rx=xo+R Ry=yo+R, 02.
(x0 , y0)
A
x
B
(r,)

R2
R
(r0 ,0)
r 2 r 2 2 r r ( )
r0
0
x
(x,y)
(x1 , y1)
y
(xo,yo)
R, (x1,y1)
(xxo) (x1xo)+(yyo)(y1yo)=R2
(x0 , y0)
(0,0)
R, (x1,y1)
xx1+yy1=R2
x
E y E, E(,,0) (,0)
2
x
y
2
2
2
: x=
(,0) (,0)
x2 y2

2 2
: x=
(x,y)
1, =
222.2
x
E y
E, E(0,) (0,)
(0,)
222.2
1, =
(0,)
494
y
2
2
x y 1 o(xo, yo)
2 2
xx yy
1
2 2
(x , y)
xx yy
1
2 2
x
y
2 1 o(xo, yo)
2
x
E y
E, E(,0) (,0)
x2 y2

2 2
(x,y)
(,0)
(,0) x
1, =
222 2
y
(0,)
x
E y
E, E(0,) (0, )
y2 x2

2 2
1, =
222 2
(0,)
y
x 2 y2
2 2
y
x, y x
y= x
y= x
y
x2 y2
2 2
Mo(xo,yo)
xx yy
2 1
2
0 (x0 , y0)
495
y
(0,)
y=
y2 x2
2 2
y
x, y x
y=
(0,)
y2 x2
2 2
Mo(xo,yo)
yy xx
2
2
p
p
E , 0 () : x y2=2px
2
2
y
p>0
p
, 0
2
: x=
(x, y)
(x, y)
p<0
p
, 0
2
p
2
: x=
p
2
p
p
E 0, (): y x2=2py
2
2
p>0
x 2=2py
0,
x
p
: y=
2
: y=
p
2
x
0,
x 2=2py
p<0
496
y

y2=2px Mo(xo,yo)
yyo=p(x+xo)
0 (x0 , y0)

x2=2py Mo(xo,yo)

r
p r
(r, )
r
E
xxo=p(y+yo)
(r, )
, ,
:
r
r
p r
(r, )
r
(r, )
12.15 .
12.15.1 (), xx :
2

) = , ) = , ) =.
3
3
12.15.2 xx (),
:

) (6, 2) (3, 7)

) (1, 3)
(2, 4)
12.15.3 (2, 3), (6, 1) (10, 1) .
12.15.4 (7, 5), (6, 7) (2, 3). .
12.15.5 (3, 2) :
497
) (2, 5).
) (0, 3).
12.15.6 , :
3x+4y11 =0 2x3y+21=0 :

) x+2y+1=0.

) 3xy+5=0.

) .

) xx.

) yy.
12.15.7 (): 2x3y12=0
12.
12.15.8 (1):(+2)x+y+31=0 (2):(1)x+y+5=0.
, (1)//(2).
12.15.9 (1): (+1)x+(+2)y=0 (2): x(3+2)y+7=0.
, (1) (2) .
2
12.15.10 ():2xy+1=0 (2): x+2y+3=0
(2, 1) ,
.
12.15.11 (1, 0) (3, 6) (4, ).
.
12.15.12

(1, 4) (1, 5).

) .
) .
) .
)
.
)

.
12.15.13 x+y=1. (2,3)

().
12.15.14 1, 2 1(t1, t+2) 2 (3t, 3t1)
t (t>0).

) , .

) t .

) t=3.
12.15.15
(1, 0)
3x+y+6=0 3x+y12=0.
12.15.16 y=x x2+y24x+1=0. :

) ,

)

) .
12.15.17 x2+y2=4
x+y=0.
498
12.15.18 (4, 5)
(3,3).
12.15.19

(0, 0) :
) x p=5.
) x (1,4).
) y (2,2).
) y (0, 4).
) (2,0) : x2=0.
) x y = 4x+1.
12.15.20 6 4
xx
.
12.15.21 :
x2
+y2=1,
) 4x2+9y2=36,
) 9x2+25y2=225.
4
12.15.22 (1, 2), (3,2) (1, 4). :

) .

) .

) .

) .
12.15.23
1 (1,1), 2 (2,2) 3 (3,1) . :

) .

) .

) .
12.15.24 2x3y+20=0
3x+5y27=0 x+7y16=0.
.
12.15.25 (1,2) x3y+1=0 y1=0 . .
12.15.26 (, ) (,
). (0, 0) (0< ).
2
12.15.27 , (2,6) (1, 2+), R.

) ;

) , .

) ;
12.15.28 xy, . t
(2t40, t30), t0.

) ;

) ;

) ; ;
499
12.15.29 C:x2+y2+4y=0 (1,1).

, .
x 2 y2
12.15.30 () C: 2 2 1 1 (x1,y1),
2 y2
() 2 2 .

x 2 y2
1.
2
6
) (1, 3 ) .
) .
) (x0,y0), x02 + y02 =4 ()+()=2 6 (,
).
12.15.31 x2+y2=4

12.15.32 x2+y2=16 C
4
12.15, y x . :
3

) .

) .

) .

) .
12.15.33 .

) x2+2y2=9, ) r=1, ) r2=2.
12.15.34 .
22 2
16
1616
222 .
, r)
, r(35)=9,
)
r(35)=9,

)
, ,)
)
r(35)=9,
)
)r)
)
,,,))
r(35)=9,
)
))
.. .
rr
rr
r)
rr

3
cos
111
55533
111cos

cos
12.15.35 9,3107 .
9,1107 . ,
.
12.15.36 300 (. 12.15).
200 .
S 200 microsec,
y
300 mi
200 mi
. 12.15
. 12.15
500
. 186.000 sec,
0,186 microsec. S T,
. (: ,
2).
12.15.37 .

. r ,
.
,
:

) r = 100.000.000 , = , ) r = 120.000.000 , = .
4
6
13
. .
,
: , , , .
, ,
. , ,
, .
,

. ,
,
.
13.1 .
13.2 .
13.3 .
13.4 Napier.
13.5 .
13.6 .
13.7 .
13.8 .
13.9 .
13.10 .
13.11 .
lx im
x0
502
13.1 .
, , .
, ,
.
.
1) .
,
.
, :
) ,
(.
13.1). : .1 2 3 (3).
) .
) , : .1 2 3 (. 13.1).
: .
) 1, 2 , 3, ,
.
) 1A2 , 2A3 ,..., A1 .
.
) 2A3, 3A1, 1A2 1, 2 , 3, .:
2A3 1, 3A1 2 , 1A2 3.
) .1 2 3 1, 2 , 3,
1, 2 , 3, .
) 2A3 1, 3A1 2 , 1A2 3, 1, 2 , 3
1, 2 , 3 .
2
3
4
2
. 13.1.
. 13.1.
2) .
, , :
) .1 2 3, ( )
.
) , , [. 13.1()].
503
) .1 2 3 , .
) ,
, [. 13.1()].
1
3
3
O
O
2
()
()
. 13.1.
3) (, , ).
(
) R ( ). (,R) (. 13.1).
,
R.
4) .
:
) , .
)
2R (. 13.1).
) (. 13.1).
( ).
5) .

. (. 13.1).
: .
() . :
) <R, .
) =R, , .
) >R, .
) , : R2=2+2 (. 13.1).
. 13.1.
. 13.1.
. 13.1.
()
504
6) (, R).
:
) , (. 13.1).
) , (. 13.1).
: .
, , , R (.
13.1). ,
. .
7) .
:
) .
) , , ( ), (. 13.1).
, ,
.
) ,
R
.
)

(). . 13.1.
.
(. 13.1).
) .
) ,
.
8) .
:
)
.
)
,
.
)

.
9) .

:
()
()
. 13.1.
. 13.1.
505
) , , (. 13.1).
) , o
( ), [. 13.1(), ()]. 13.1()
() PP.
) PP,
, P (. 13.1).
10) .

.
:
)
[. 13.1()].
)
(,R) P (PA)
(P) (. 13.1). ,
, ,
PA PB (. 13.1.1).
) , .
)

.
) (,)
() (. 13.1)
PA
.
)
90
. 13.1.
P
()
. 13.1.
()
11) .

,
(. 13.1).

, .
:
)

.
) xPy
. 13.1.
. 13.1.
506
, (.
13.1).
) , (. 13.1).
xPy== B=.
P
x
12) .

,
(. 13.1). ,
, .
. 13.1.
: .
) , , B, B
. 13.1 ,
.
) .
, .
) rad (180o).
. 13.1.
60
13) .
(. 13.1)
.
. 13.1.
, , ..
.
, , ,
, , . , .
,
, , , B .
a ,
, s ,
(.. ). R
( ):
s = R a.
: , , , (rad)
507
(, , ). , .
13.1.1
13.1,
. =a=60o.
14) .
13.1 , 13.1 .
13.1
.
(90).
90.
90.
90.
90.
90.
( )
90.
90
90
()
90
()
90
90
90
()
. 13.1.
.
()
508
15) .
(. 13.1), , . , ,
,
,
. , , .
,
(.
13.1) (. 13.1.2).

,
+=+=+=180 (=2 ),
. 13.1.
+=+=+=180 (=2 ).
:
. , , .
.
. 13.1.
16) .
:
) , , ,
360 (. 13.1), (. 13.1.3):
++<360.
) , , ,
180 540, (. 13.1.4) ,
180<++<540.
) , , ,
:
( )
+ + =
,
R2
() R .
++ ,
2S , . :
( )
2S =
.
R2
: (2S0),
(R), .
.
,
, 2
(. 13.1). :
509
2S =
. (. 13.1.5).
8
() , , 1/8
. :
90
90
90
1
( AB ) 2 S E,
8
2
. 13.1.
=4R , R 2S
( 2S 90 , , ).
) , ,
(. 13.2.4).
) (.
13.2.5).
) ,
.
.
13.1.2
= 120, = 145 = 70 .
2m, .
, .
120
145
70
A
o.,
. .
90
90
90
:
2S =
:
120 145 70
155 31
+
+
2 =
=
.
90
90 90
90 18
2
2
2
1
31 1
31
( AB ) 2 S R 2 10,821m .
2
18 2
9
,
.
.
13.1.1 (,R) P (PA)

(P) (. . 505).
.
13.1, , ,
.
, . PA PB .
P , ,
510
. :
(1) = ( )
(2) = ( )

, , PA PB .
13.1.2
,
(. 508).
.
90. (. 13.1),
, , 90.
, 90 ,
.

.
.
13.1.3 , , ,
360, (. 13.1) (. . 508): ++<360.
.
,
.
, :
=, = = ++= ++. (13.1.1)
, ,
, :
<, < <.

++<++=360.
(13.1.2)
(13.1.1) (13.1.2), ++<360.
13.1.4 , , ,
180 540, , 180<++<540 (. .
508).
.
, :
++<360 (180) + (180)+(180)<360
540(++)<360 180<++
(13.1.3)
, 0<<180, 0<<180 0<< 180,

++<540
(13.1.4)
(13.1.3) (13.1.4) .
13.1.5. , (
511
) (. . 509). :
2S =
.
(. 13.1),
R=1rad. 1/8
, 8 . ,
, , ===

2
2S= . =4R2 R=1rad,

2
=4rad2. , :
( AB )
.
8
4 rad2 rad2 .
8
8
2
( AB ) 2
, : 2 S = .
2
8
1 2
R
13.2 .
, , , , , , ,
R (. 13.2).
x Ay
, B . x y

, , ,
, ,
13.2
, y
.
. 13.2.
. ( )
=+
=+
(13.2.1)
(13.2.2)
=+
(13.2.3)
. ( )

=
=

(13.2.4)
.
= (13.2.5) = (13.2.8)
= (13.2.6) = (13.2.9)
= (13.2.7) = (13.2.10)
512
. ( Gauss)
=+ (13.2.11)
=+ (13.2.12)
=+ (13.2.13)
.
2
( ) ( )
=
2
( )
(13.2.14)
2 = ( ) ( ) ( )
2
( )
(13.2.15)
2S
2S
( )
2
2
2 =

2
S
2 ( ) ( 2 S )
2
2
(13.2.16)
:

( )
,T
2 S
.
2
R2
2
Gauss Delambre.
+

2
2
2 =
2
=
=
(13.2.17) =
(13.2.18)
2
2 +
2 +
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Napier.
+
+
+
2
2
=
2
2
2

2
2
2 =
2
=

+
+
2
2
2
2
2
(13.2.19)
(13.2.20)
.
=
=
=
(13.2.21)
(13.2.22)
(13.2.23)
= (13.2.24)
= (13.2.25)
= (13.2.26)
:
) (13.2.1), (13.2.2), (13.2.3)
, ,
.
) (13.2.4) ,
.
) (13.2.11), (13.2.12), (13.2.13) , ,
, , , . ,
+
+

+
+

+
+

,
,
= ==
,
,
= ==
,
,
= ==
. . .
513
) (13.2.14) (13.2.20) , ,
. ( ..)
) (13.2.21) (13.2.26) , (. 13.2), , .
) (13.2.21) (13.2.26),
=,
:
=.
, , , ,
. .
1 (versine) ,
1
( ver) =1. ,
, 2
(haversine), ( hav) :
=
1
.
2
:
=()() (13.2.27) =()+ (13.2.30)
=()() (13.2.28) =()+ (13.2.31)
=()() (13.2.29) =()+ (13.2.32)
: 1
,
2 0.
2
2
.
13.2.1 , , . =68 =80 16, ==6030,

(. 13.2).
.

=
= .

(13.2.4),
, ,
log = 9,9397
log = 9,9672
+ log = 0,0063
log = 9,9132
. 13.2.
514
=5458 =12502. , >, >, <90, =5458. ,

90 =905458=3502 .
13.2.2 (13.2.5):
=.
.
( 13.2.2).
=+.
=
=()
=2
=(12)
=2.
0<<180, 0, :
=.
13.2.3. ( Gauss), ( 13.2.11).

= +.
.
. :
=+
(180)=(180)(180)+(180)(180)(180)
=()+()
=
=+.
13.2.4 , , , (. 509).
.
:
=. =. =,
=. :
+=+
()+()=0
0+()=0
(1)
()=0.
0, 0 <<180 0 <<180 , (1) :

=0 =. =, 0<, <180.
515
: =. =. =,
=. :
+=+
()+()=0
0+()=0
()=0
(1)
0, 0 <, <180 , (1) :

=0 = =, 0<, <180.
13.2.5
, (. 509).
.
, , : +>.

=+
(1)

(+)=
(2)
(1), (2) :
(1 ) ( ) 1 2 2 1
2
( ) 2 2 ! 0,
2
>0, >0 0, 0<, , <180, :

2
(+)>0 >(+)
(3)
+180, +>, 0<<180.

+<180, (3) : <+.
( x, [0, ]).
13.2.6 (. 13.2), =40

=3848 =2532. ( ) .
.
30, : =()+ (1), =1316.

=x, , :
log+log+log=logx
:
log = log38 48 =9,797

log
= log25 32 =9,6345
log = log40 =9,0682

logx
=8,4997, x=0,0316.
x=0,0316 ()=0,0133, (1) :

=()+x=0,0133, =1314.
516
, :
=( )(),

7734.,
2
=6419 =38 46. :

log() =9,9548
log() =9,7967
log =0,6403
log =0,2030
log =0,5948, =0 22.
13.3 .
13.2. . 1 10 ,
,
.
1.
=90, :
1.() =
1. () =
2.() =
2. () =
3.() =
3. () =
4.() =
4. () =
5.() =
5. () =
.

=
.
() ( 13.2.4) :

90o
1
=
= .
= 90, :

2().
3. () ( 13.2.11) :
= + (=90)
= +90
= +0
=.
() ( 13.2.11) :
=+ (=90)
90=+
0=+
= (0 0)

=
= .

517
() ( 13.2.13) :
=+ (=90)
=90+90
=0+1
=.
5 ().
: .
13.2 .
13.4 Napier.
1 . , Napier ,
.

= 90 (. 13.4).
,
. ,
, , , 90 . ,
, 90 90 ,
13.4().
90
90
90
()
90
90
90
. 13.4.
()
, .
, 90 90
90 .
, Napier :
Napier.
.
Napier.
.
518
Napier 1, 13.4, .
13.4.1
13.4(), 90
, 90 90 .
1 Napier =(90) =.
2 Napier : =(90)(90) =.
: , ,
,
13.4() , .
13.5 .
,
. , ,
, ,
.
,
= ( 1),
(0, 180). , =0,5, (0, 180) , =30 =150. ,
, .
2.
,
, .
.
=90.
[. 13.4()].
2 Napier :

(90)=(90) =.
(13.5.1)
0<< 180, >0, (13.5.1)

.
0

0
(0 ,90 ) (90 ,180 )
(0
,90
)
(0
,180
)
519
180, .
3.
,
, ,
, .
.
.
=90 [. 13.4()].
, , , .
2 Napier :
=(90)(90)=.
(13.5.2)
0 < 1, (13.5.2) :
1 .
(13.5.3)
,
. :
) , . (13.5.3)
, f(x)=x
(0, ), , , .
2
) , .
(13.5.3) , f(x)=x
( , ).
2
4.
.
) , ,
.
) ,
(, ).
4 3.
13.6 .
,
.
( 1).
13.6.1 .
:
1: ,
520
( ) , 13.4().
2 : Napier
, ,
.
3:
.
4: ( 2 4), .
5: , . , ,
.
13.6.2 .
, .
3
, . 4
.
1.
.
=90,
, 0<, <180 .
1: (. 13.6),
, .
2 : .
, 90 90,
Napier :

=(90)(90) = = .
(13.6.1)

.
, ,
Napier :
(90 ) = = =
.
(13.6.2)

.
, 90 ,
Napier :
.
(13.6.3)

(90)=(90) = =
4: , :
=1 (0,90) =2(90,180),
2 4
.
5 : .
, , .
521
90
13.6 90, 90 . Napier,

:
90
90
(90)=(90) =.
. 13.6.
13.6.1
, =90, =96 =97.

13.6.
.
(13.6.1) :
B=
97 0,9925
=
=
=0,998.
96 0,9945
( >90, ), =93,6234 =86,3757.

.
(13.6.2) :

96 0,1045
0, 8573, 30, 9852.

97 0,1219
.
(13.6.3) :
97
96
:
8,1443
9, 5144
0, 856,
31,1296.
(90)=(90) =
0,856=0,9980,8573 0,856=0,856, .
,
, .
13.6.2
, =90, =96 =95.

, , 13.6.
.
(13.6.2) :
=
96 0,1045
=
=
= 1,1984 > 1 , .
95 0, 0872
=96 =95.
522
:
. , , , .
.
, ,
(13.6.1), (13.6.2), (13.6.3),
.
, (13.6.1) : = log()=log()+log(),

(13.6.2) : = log()=log()+log(),

(13.6.3) : = log()=log()+log(),
:
= log()=log()+log().
.
= 97
= 96
=86,5233
= 30,9485
= 31,1304
log () = 9,9968
log () = 0,0024
log () = 9,9992
log () = 0,9141 log () = 0,9108

log () = 9,0192 log () = 9,0216
log () = 9,9333
log () = 9,9324
log () +log() = 9,9992 +9,9333 = 9,9325
( ).
2.
.
, =90, , 0<, <180.
1: (. 13.6),
, .
90
90
90
. 13.6.
2 : .
90 , 90 , Napier :

(90 )=(90) =
=
=
(13.6.4)
.
, 90 90 ,
Napier :
=(90)(90) =
(13.6.5)
.
, 90 90,
Napier :
523
(90)=(90)(90) =
=
=

4:

(13.6.5) :
(13.6.6)
=1(0, 90) =2(90, 180).

( 2) , , =.
5 : .
, .
Napier, :

=(90) =
(13.6.7)

, (13.6.7).
13.6.3
, =90, = 39 =137.
13.6.
.
(13.6.4) :
%
=13739=0,73130,8098=0,5922,
=149,366, 180=30,634.
.
(13.6.5) :
==13739=0,6820,629=0,429.
=25,404 =18025,404=154,596. ( >90, ),
= 154,596.
.
(13.6.6) :
==39137=0,7771(0,9325)=0,7246
1
= 0, 7246
= 1,38
=0,7246
=1,38
180=54,071, =125,929.
:
(13.6.7) : = =.
:
154,596125,929=149,366 0,429( 1,38)=0,5922
0,59202= 0,5922
( ).
524
3.
90
.
,=90,
0<, <180.
1: (. 13.6),
, .
2 : .

.

Napier :
90
90
(90)= =
= =
. 13.6.
(13.6.8)
.
Napier :
= (90 ) = =
(13.6.9)
.
Napier :
= (90 ) = =
= =
(13.6.10)
3: .

Napier :

(90)=(90)(90) =
(13.6.11).
13.6.4
, =90, =37 =121.

13.6.
.
(13.6.8) :
==37121=0,7986(0,515)=0,4113, =114,285.
.
(13.6.9) :
37
121
.
(13.6.10) :
0,7536
0,8572
0,8791, 41 ,319.
525
121
37
1,6643
0,6018
2, 7655, 180
70 ,12
109 ,88.
:
(13.6.11) :
1
1
1
1

0,4113

0,8791 2,7655
0,4113 04113, .
4.
.
, =90,
0<, <180.
1: (. 13.6),
, .
2 : .

.

Napier :
(90 ) (90 )

90
90
90
. 13.6.
(13.6.12)
.
.
Napier :
(90)=(90) =
.
Napier :
(90 )

(13.6.13)
(13.6.14)
5: .

Napier :

(90)=(90) =
(13.6.15)
13.6.5
, =90, =1 =52.
13.6.
.
1o
0,0175
(13.6.12)
0,0284, =1,6267.
52
0,6157
526
.
(13.6.13) :
=152=0,99980,788=0,7878, =38,0157.
.
(13.6.14) :
=152=0,01751,2799=0,0224 =1,2831.
:
(13.6.15) , :

0,7878 0,7887, .
1
1
0,7878 0,0224
0,284
( ).
5.
( ).
, =90,
0<, <180.
1: (. 13.6),
, .
2 : .

.

Napier :
90
90
.
Napier :
(90 ) (90 )
. 13.6.
(90 ) (90 ) (90 )

1

.

(13.6.16)
(13.6.17)
.
Napier :
(90 ) (90 )
(13.6.18)
5: .

Napier :

(90)= =.
90
(13.6.19)
527
13.6.6
, =90, B=4215 =58 2112.

13.6.
.
21,2
15
B= 4215= 42+ =42,25 =5821+ 12 =5821,2 =58+
=58,353.
60
60
60
.
(13.6.16) :

1
1
1
0,6786, 47,2657.
42,25 58,353
0,9083 1,6225 1,4737
.
(13.6.17) :

58,363 0,5247
0,7803, 38,7119.
0,6724
42,25
.
(13.6.18) :

42,25 0,7402
0,8695, 29,5994.
58,353
0,8513
:
(13.6.19) , :
= 0,6786=0,78030,8695 0,6786=0,6785, .
( ).
13.6.7
, =90, =50 =150.

, , 13.6.
.
(13.6.16) :

1
1
1
1
1,4537 1,
50 150
1,1917 ( 0,5773) 0,6879
.
=50 =150.
6.
.
, =90,
0<, <180.
528
, , ,
(0, 90) , , (90, 180).
1: (. 13.6),
, .
2 : .
.
Napier :
= (90 ) = =
.
90
90
90
. 13.6.
(13.6.20)
=1 (0, 90) =1801.
.
Napier :
(90 ) = (90 ) = =
=1 (0, 90) =1801.
.
Napier :
= (90 ) (90 ) = =
(13.6.21)
(13.6.22)

(13.6.22) : =1 (0, 90) =1801.
3: 13.5,
(, , ) .
, : =1 (0, 90) =1801 : =1 (0, 90) =1801.
, : (1,1), (1, 1801), (1801, 1)
(1801, 1801).
(1, 1801) (1801, 1),
.

, (1,1) (1801, 1801).
: =1 (0, 90), =1801,
:
(1,1,1), (1,1,1801), (1801, 1801, 1) (1801, 1801, 1801).
(0, 90), (1, 1, 1)
(1801, 1801, 1801), , (0, 90), ,
(90, 180).

(90, 180), : (1801, 1801, 1), (1,1, 1801).
4 : .

Napier :

=(90)(90) =
(13.6.23)
529
13.6.8
, =90, =30 =80.

, < , , (0, 90).
> (=30, =80), =30 =80.
13.6.9
, =90, =45 =60. (

, (0, 90) <, ).
13.6.
.
(13.6.20) :
45
1
=
=
= 0,5773, =35,265
60
1,732
=18035,265=144,735.
.
(13.6.21) :
=
90
90
90
. 13.6.
60
0,5
=
= 0,7071, =45 =18045=135.
45
0,7071
.
(13.6.22) :
=
45 0,7071
=
= 0,8165, =54,7372 =18054,7372=125,2628.
60
0,8660
:
) =45, =35,265, , (0, 90) <.
= 45, ,
, =54,7372. ,
: =54,7372, =35,265, =45.
) =135, =144,735, , (90, 180) >.
=45, , , =125,2628.
: =125,2628, =144,735, =135.
:
(13.6.23) =.
:
) 35,265=54,7372450,5391=0,81650,70710,5391 0,5773 ( ).
) 144,735=125,26281353,6023=0,81650,7071.
.
530
13.7 .
90 .
,
=90,
=180=18090=90 ( 1).
, , ,
, 13.6.2,
.
13.7.1 , =90, ,
0<, <180.
.
, , : +>.
.
:
=180=18090=90, =180=180=1, =180=180=1.
, (. 13.6). [ , , (.
13.6.2, 3)]. :
.
Napier :
(90)= =.
.
Napier :
= (90 ) =
1

=
= =
.
.
Napier :
= (90 ) =
1

=
= =
.

.
Napier :
(13.7.1)
(90)=(90)(90) =.
(13.7.2)
(13.7.3)
(13.7.4)
: =90, , (
), =180, =180, =180.
531
13.7.1
, =90, =112 =48.

13.6.
.
:
=180=18090=90.
=180=180112=68.
=180=18048=132.
, , =90 =68 =132,
13.6.9. :
: =104,513.
: =73,288.
: =129,857.
, :
=90, =112, =48 ( )
=180=180104,513=75,487.
=180=18073,288=106,712.
=180=180129,857=50,143.
13.8 .
, .
.
,
, .
, . , , ,
13.6.
.
.
1.
.

(. 13.9).
, ,
, 0<, , <180.
1 .
,
, . x -
1 2
. 13.8.
532
z (. 13.8).
, .
:
) (. 13.8).
, =90 (. 13.8)
.
z.
Napier :

(90)=(90)z =z z=.
(13.8.1)
x.
Napier :
x=(90) (90) x=.
(13.8.2)
, (13.8.2) x.
xA.
1.
Napier :

(90 ) = (90 ) (90 1 ) = 1 1 =
1
. (13.8.3)

.
Napier :
x=z(901) x=z1.
, =90 (. 13.8) x z.
2.
Napier :
x = ( z) (90 2 ) x = ( z ) 2 2 =

.
Napier :
( z)
.
x
(90)=x(z) =x(z).
(13.8.4)
(13.8.5)
B.
Napier :

= ( z) = x (90 ) ( z ) = x =
90
90
90 2
2
x
x
.
( z)
90
90
. 13.8.
. 13.8.
(13.8.6)
533
.
Napier :
(90)=(90)(902) =2.
, ,
= 1+2.
) (. 13.8).
, =90 (. 13.8)
z, x 1, .
, , =90 (. 13.8) x z , 2 1.
, : , =180 1
=12.
2
, (. 13.8).
1 2 x
90 2
90
90 1
90
90
. 13.8.
. 13.8.
90 1
1
z
. 13.8.
.
:

=+.
. 13.8.
(13.8.7)
B.
, :

= + =
(13.8.8)
.
:

= + =
. (13.8.9)

3 .
( 13.2.30 13.2.32), .
.

=( )+
(13.8.10)
= x , , :

log +log+log=logx
(13.8.11)
534
(13.8.11) logx x.
( 13.2.4),
( 13.2.27 13.2.29).
13.8.1
=100, =38 =40.

, , (. 13.8).
z.
(13.8.1) :
z= z=4038 z=0,76600,7813 z=0,5985, z=30,1.
x.
(13.8.2) :
x= x=4038 x=0,64280,6157 x=0,3958.
x=23,32 x=156,68.

xA. x=23,32.
1.
(13.8.3) :
1
1
1

1
1
38 40
1
1
0, 788 0,839
1,2104, 1
50,44 .
Napier :
x=z(901) x=z1.
, , =90 (. 13.8) x=23,32 z=10030,1=69,9.
2.
(13.8.4) :
2
( z)
69,9
2
2 6,91, 2 81,77.
x
23,32
.
(13.8.5) :
=x(z) =23,3269,9 =0,920,34
=0,31, = 71,94.
B.
(13.8.6) :

0,43
x
23,32

0,46, 24,70.
0,94
( z)
69,9
535
.
Napier : =2.
, =71,94, =24,7
=1 + 2=50,44+81,77=132,21.
2.
.
, , 0<, , <180.
1 .
, . :
=180, =180 =180
1, .
2
, (. 13.8).
.
:

(13.8.12)
=+
.
, :
= + =
+
.

.
:
+

= + =
.

(13.8.13)
(13.8.14)
3.
.
(. 13.8), , ,
0<, , <180.
, , ,
, 1.
. 13.8.
. 13.8.
536
4.
.
(. 13.8), ,
0<, , < 180.
,
. :

=180

=180

=180
3.
5.
. 13.8.
.
, , ,
0<, , <180.
,
. :
.
= + =
(13.8.15)
(13.8.15) :
B.

(13.8.16)
(13.8.17)
6.
.
(. 13.8), , , 0 <, , <180.
1 .
,
. =180, =180, =180 5.
2 .
, .
.
+
. (13.8.18)

(13.8.18) :
= + =
+
.

(13.8.19)
537
.
=
+
.

(13.8.20)
13.9 .
, .

, . ,
,
( ).
13.9.1 .
, .

(rhumbline) (loxodrome) (. 13.9). ,
,
(. 13.9). .
40o
12
20
140 o
20o
0o
100 o
80
60
40
()
()
. 13.9.
,
.
13.9.2 .
. , , .
180 ,
.
538
,
. ,
, ,
, .
. . , ,
, 13.9.
, .
.

, ,
, (. 13.9). (
).
,
, . , .
:
) , 90 (
).
) , 90 (
), , 90+, .
) D0 ,

( ,
: ,
).
:
) , .
) , ,
.
) , .
,
. 13.9.
. 13.9.
90o
80o
70o
60o
50o
40o
30o
o
40
, ,
. Do

(. 13.9), :
) 90.
) 90,
, 90+, .
) .
, ,
(. 13.8 1),
.
539
20o
10o
0o
o
o
10o 20o 30o 40 50

. 13.9.
(. 13.9):
) (latitude)
, (
). ,
0 90 0 90
( , 0) (North N) (South S)
.
(same names),
(contrary names).
: = 10 15 30 ( ) latitude=101530.
:
(orth) .
.
) (longitude)
( )
. , , 0180 0180 [
, Greenwich, 0 (East E) (West W)
]. (same names),
(contrary names).
: =0101530 ( ) longitude=0101530E.
13.9.1
N , ...
:416,338N, :7123,467W,
:38 37,204N, :913,394W.
540
, (. 13.9),
:
, 90=90416,338=9041,1056=48,8944.
, 90 =903837,204=9038,62=51,38.
, ==913,3947123,467=
=9,223271,3911=62,1679.
.
:
()=()()+()()()=
=48,894451,38+48,894451,3862,1679=
=0,657448940,62415236+0,7534991370,7813026490,466882154=
=0,410348308+0,274858599=0,685206907.
()=46,74811855=46,7481185560=2804,88.
, D0
... : D0=2804,88 ...

:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) 51,38 48,8944 46,7481

( ) ( )
48,8944 46,7481
0,62415236 0,657448894 0,685207143 0,173663682
0,316436932,
0,753499137 0,728348248
0,548809776
71,5524181 71 33,145.
, : =71 33,145.
13.9.2
, (Cape of Good Hope)

:3425,61S, :1825,9090 E Buenos Aires
:363,7610S, :5530,2290W (. 13.9).
.
)
.
, :
, o 90=903425,61'=
= 9034,42683333=55,5732.
541
, 90 =90363,7610'=
= 9036,06268333=53,9374.
, =+=
=1825,9090'+5530,2290'=18,43181666+55,50381666=73,93563332. I
.
:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
55,57316667 53,93731667 55,57316667 73,93563332
. 13.9.
0,565353366 0,588669989 0,824848816 0,808373455 0,276717073

0,332806559 0,184511039 0,517317598
( ) 58,84750734 58,84750734 60 3530,85.
, D0
(Cape of Good Hope) Buenos Aires :
D0=3530,85 ..
.
:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
53,93731667 58,84750734 55,57316667
58,84750734 55,57316667
0,588669989 0,517317598 0,565353366

0,855793493 0,824848816
0,588669989 0,292467245 0,296202744
0,419609915
0,70590025
0,70590025
( ) 65,2 .
, :
=180+()=180+65,2=245,2.
)
.
, :
, 90+ =90+3425,61'=90+34,42683333=
= 124,42683333.
, 90+=90+363,7610'=90+36,06268333=
= 126,06268333.
542
, =+=18 25,9090+55 30,2290=

=18,43181666+55,50381666=73,93563332.
.
:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
124,42683333 126,06268333 124,42683333 126,06268333 73,93563332
0,565353366 ( 0,588669989) 0,824848816 0,808373455 0,276717073
0,332806559 0,184511039 0,517317598
( ) 58,84750734 58,84750734 60 3530,85.
, D0
Buenos Aires :
D0=3530,85 ..

:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
126,06268333 58,84750734 124,42683333
58,84750734 124,42683333
0,588669989 0,517317598 0,565353366

0,855793493 0,824848816
0,588669989 0,292467245 0,296202744
0,419609915
0,70590025
0,70590025
() 114,8.
, :
=360()=360114,8=245,2.
: ,
Buenos Aires,
,
.
Buenos Aires ,
, D0 ,
D0=3530,85 .. .
543
.
:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
124,42683333 58,84750734 126,06268333
58,84750734 126,06268333
0,565353366 0,517317598 ( 0,588669989)

0,855793493 0,808373455
0,565353366 0,304529344 0,260824021
0,377021886,
0,691800743
0,691800743
( ) 112,15.
, Buenos Aires
=112,15.
13.9.3 .
,
, (.. ,
, ..). , . , .
, .
, , (. 13.9)
:
) , 1 . 1 1.
) , 090 270 1
2 .
) 2 .

( 1 2 )

( )
. 13.9.
544
13.9.4 .
, ,
.
.
(. 13.9) ,
() , () ().

,
(. 13.9).
Z
90 o
90
o
Z
90
180o
. 13.9.
:
) , ( ),
, ,
90.
) ( ), (
) . P =90+ ( )
=90 ( ), (
, , ).
) ( ):
. , =90, .
:
) , .
) ,
.
) ,
, , HA .
, , . ,
:
) : (), () ()
() ().
) : (), () ()
545
() ().
) : (), ()
() () .
13.10 .

13.2

Napier
.

Napier
,
, .
.
() ,
, .
() ,
(, ).

.
) .
) .
) .

) .

) ( ).
) .

,
.
) .
) .
) .
) .
) .
) .
13.1
180 .
546
, , ,
.
, , , .
,
.
,
, ,
, .
,
() , ()
().
,
.
13.11 .
13.11.1 : =120, =30 =150,
, .
13.11.2 : = 45, =135 =30,
.
13.11.3 : =60 ==90,
.
13.11.4 , , , ,
, :

=
=
.

13.11.5 =, : = =180 =
=180.
13.11.6 : =+
.
13.11.7
,
90 90 .
547
13.11.8
, =90, :

) =1 =1 ) =0,001 =127.
13.11.9 , =90, =115 =64.
13.11.10 , =90, :

) =78 =29 ) =57 =110.
13.11.11 , =90, =60 =75.
13.11.12 , =90, :

) =139 =118 ) =65 =72.
13.11.13 , =90, :
) =121 =105,

) =53 =141,
) =56 =141.

) =41 =141,

) =149 =64 ,
13.11.14 , =49,3, =128,23 =74,2.
13.11.15 , =98, =122 =47.
13.11.16 , :

) =67,5 =108,25 =47,33,
) =33 =60 =110.

) =103 =62 =53 ,
13.11.17 , :

) =60 =45 =160, ) =132 =130 =127.

) =60 =45 =60,
13.11. 18 : =120, =30 =150,
, .
13.11.19 52S, 50,
23S. , .
13.11.20 (:3838, :914W) o 35. ,
400 ...
13.11.21. ( , , , , )
:

) =60, =30, =120 ) =60, =135, =45.
13.11.22 = 1 22 ,
2

2

2
.
= 2
+
2
2
2
13.11.23 (=90), :

) 2 =(+)+() ) 2=2+222.
13.11.24 = =2 =
=2 .

, 90
45.
13.11.25 , =90, :

) =135 =52 ) =94 =72.
548
13.11.26 , =94, =102 =141.

13.11.27 , =56, =48 =112.
13.11.28 , :

) =96 =68 =87 ) =96 =84 =125.
13.11.29
(: 38 38, : 9
14) (Perth) (:3206S, :11535).

( )
14:
lx im
x0
14
, ... ,
, , ...
(),
( ) . ,
, status,
. ,
2238 .. Yao, , .

, , .
, , ( ),
.

. , , .
14.1 .
14.2
.
14.3 .
14.4 .
14.5 .
lx im
14.6 .
14.7 .
14.8 .
x0
14.9 .
552
14.1 .
, .
R.A. Fisher (1890-1962), :
:
) .
) .
) .
,
. H ,
,
. ,
, , .
,
' .
,
.
(, ..)
, .
. ( ), .
:
) , ,
,
. .
) GPS
, GPS .
GPS ( , GPS
).
) ( ) ( : , ,
), .
.

, .
(, ) . X,Y,Z,....
() .
553
, :
) , , .
18, 19, 20, .
) GPS [0,+).
) W 1, 2, V ,
, .
, : .
, (
)
. - . , W
. ,
( , , , 0), ( , ),
, ...
,
(.. , , ) , ()
(.. ,
, , , ,
).
, ,
(, , ..).
(.. 1, 2, 3, 4 1, 10, 100 , 2, 1, 0, 1, 2,) . , Y V () () .
, ,
( 1, 2,, 6), ,
...
,
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20. , , x1, x2,...,x
t1,t2,..., t, xi. ,
, :
x1= , x2= ,
x3= , x4= ,
x5= ,, x20= ,
=5,
t1= , t2= ,
t3= , t4= ,
t5= .
14.2.1
, ( ) xi, i = 1, 2,..., 20
1, 2, 1, 10, 1, 2, 3, 2, 3, 2, 2, 2, 4, 10, 1, 6, 2, 6, 6, = 6
t1 1, t 2
2, t3
3, t 4
4, t5
6, t6
269
1.278
11.360
12.907
10.
t1, t2 ,..., t ,
v. ti ti .
ti.
, :

1 +2 +...+ = .
(14.2.1)
,
(.. | ).
, 14.2.3 14.2.4.
557
14.2.2
20 .
( )
2000
5000
800
4000
10
1800
2450
2500
950
2100
10
3500
11
1350
12
1500
13
3100
14
2800
10
15
1700
16
1600
17
1950
18
2050
19
3050
20
2150
14.2.3
: .
ti

fi

fi %
|||| |||
0,40
40
||
0,10
10
0,05
|||
0,15
15
|||| |
0,30
30
20
1,00
100
558
14.2.4
: .
ti

fi

fi %
||||
0,20
20
|||| |||
0,40
40
||
0,10
10
0,05
10
|||
0,15
15
10
||
0,10
10
20
1,00
100
14.2.3 14.2.4 vi , fi ti, :

fi
i
,
i 1, 2,..., .
(14.2.2)
, fi , fi% (.
14.2.3 14.2.4). :
) 0fi1 i=1, 2,..., 0i.
) f1+f2+...+f=1.
0i, i=1, 2,..., , :
f1 + f2 + ... + f =
+ + ... +
1 2
+ + ... + = 1 2
= =1.

ti , i , fi ( 14.2.3
14.2.4) .
(ti , i) (ti , fi),
.
, i fi
Ni
Fi, ( )
ti .
t1,t2,...,t, , ti i=1+2+...+i.
, Fi=f1+f2+...+fi, i= 1, 2,..., .
:
1=N1, 2 = 2 1,..., = 1
f1=F1, f2 = F2 F1,..., f = F F1,
559
( )
.
14.2.5 14.2.2.
14.2.5
: M .
ti

fi

Ni

Fi
0,25
0,25
0,40
13
0,65
0,10
15
0,75
0,05
16
0,80
0,15
19
0,95
10
0,05
20
1,00
20
1,00
( )
.
( ) , ( ), .
,
. ,
. ,
, ,
,
.
14.2.6
.
Valid
Frequency
Percent
Cumulative percent
20,0
20,0
40,0
60,0
10,0
70,0
5,0
75,0
15,0
90,0
10
10,0
100,0
Total
20
100,0
560

, . 14.2.6
: .
14.2.1.
14.2.7 .
14.2.7
ti

fi

Ni
0,15
16
1
2
3
4
5

Fi
0,45
18
) .
) :
3,
4,
2 4 ( ).
.
) ( ) :
f2 =
v2
6
6
0,15 = v =
= 40 , N 2 = v1 + v2 16 = v1 + 6 v1 = 10 ,
v
v
0,15
v 10
= 0, 25 ,
N1 = v1 = 10 , f1 = F1 = 1 =
v 40
F3 = f1 + f2 + f3 = F1 + f2 + f3 0, 45 = 0, 25 + 0,15 + f3 f3 = 0, 05 ,
f3 =
v3
v
0, 05 = 3 v3 = 2 ,
v
40
v = v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 + v5 40 = 10 + 6 + 2 + v4 + 18 v4 = 4 .
14.2.8.
) :
f1 + f2 + f3 = F3 = 45% .
f4 + f5 = 0,10 + 0, 45 = 55% 1 F3 = 1 0, 45 = 55% .
f2 + f3 + f4 = 0,15 + 0, 05 + 0,10 = 0, 30 = 30% .
561
14.2.8
ti

fi

Ni

Fi
10
0,25
10
0,25
0,15
16
0,40
0,05
18
0,45
0,10
22
0,55
18
0,45
40
1,00
40
1,00

. ,
,
. ,
.
, .
. ,
, .
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. ,
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.
. 14.2 : E
14.2.1.
, , (. 14.2). ' , ,
ti
. vi
fi, . (ti, vi) (ti , fi) ,
.
(piechart) ,
. , -
562
40
(%)
20
10
30
()
()
. 14.2.
() () :
14.2.2.
8
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
0
1
0
10
12

()
10

()
. 14.2.
() ()
: 14.2.2.
, ( , )
i fi. ,
i ti
i fi, :
i = i
360o
= 360o fi i=1,2,...,.
563
,
, .
14.2
14.2.2.

, , .
, . 14.2 ( )
. , 2003
, 2005 2006
.
6
10
. 14.2.

14.2.2.
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
2000
2002
2004
. 14.2.
2006
2008
2010
564
14.2
'
A .
)

.
)

.
14.2.2.
16
14
12
8
6
2
0
10
12
14
16 17 18
. 14.2.
) ,
vi , i = 1, 2,... ( = 6) (
)
14.2.9.
14.2.9
ti

fi

Ni

Fi
10
16
0,275862
16
0,275862
12
14
0,241379
30
0,517241
14
0,103448
36
0,62069
16
12
0,206897
48
0,827586
17
0,137931
56
0,965517
18
0,034483
58
58
i
, Ni = v1 + v2 +...+vi, Fi = f1 + f2 +...+fi
i=1, 2,..., 6.
) ,

14.2.
fi =
58
56
48
30
16
10
12
14
16 17 18
. 14.2.
14.2.1. 14.2.10 , , .
565
120
.
) ,
.
) 2, 5, 8 10
.
) 2, 5, 8 10 .
) 2 9 .
14.2.10

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
4
7
9
15
16
20
24
10
5
5
3
2
14.2.2.
14.2.11 .
) .
) ,
4.
) , 4
6.
14.2.11
ti

Ni

Fi
0,10
20
5
6

fi
20
0,85
18
14.2.3. 20 '
:
2 3 5 2 4 2 2 3 4 4
2 3 5 4 4 4 4 3 6 2
)
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.
566
) 3 .
) 4 .
14.2.4. 40 :
1
)

.
) 3.
) 2.
14.2.5.
30
:
21 25 26 22 26 24 22 26 24 27
22 26 21 25 24 25 25 25 24 25
24 22 24 23 27 27 23 24 25 24.
)
30 .
) 30 .
)
30 .
14.2.6. :
15
18
25
20
10
15
80
. 14.2.
60
100
120
14.2.7.
14.2 180
, .
) .
) .
)
.
)
' .
567
) .
14.2.8.
' . 40 14.2.12.
) (
).
) .
) .
14.2.12

21
10
40
14.2.9.
14.2.13 ( )
2000 2007.
14.2.13
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
560
550
610
8200
1220
1500
1950
2100
' .
14.2.10.
400
:
:
:
:
:
.
25% .
18.
.
) .
) .
568
14.2.11. 20002010
14.2.14.
) .
) .
)

.
14.2.14
2000
180
720
2001
126
526
2002
256
564
2003
366
362
2004
278
444
2005
412
272
2006
492
264
2007
514
536
2008
686
608
2009
602
232
2010
522
280
14.3 .
, .
, ,
,
. ,
14.2.2, 20
1, 5%
14.3
.
4%
,
3%
,
2%

1%
, .
0%
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
0

.
. 14.3
569
,
() ,
, .
.
, :
) ,
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) ( ),
( ), [,)
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,
. ()
, .

:
1. .
2. ,
.
3. () .
4. ()
.
5.
.
6. ( ).
, 14.3.1, 40 .
14.3.1
40 .
252
255
263
276
265
276
275
279
265
256
264
277
285
277
277
281
277
256
265
277
241
289
265
265
247
258
267
287
265
253
277
292
300
262
270
264
272
273
278
277
min{x1,x2,...,x}
max{x1,x2,...,x}. 14.3.1
300 241 1.
2, (Range - R)
570
.
R = 300 241 = 59.
3, Sturges,
:
= 1 + 3,32 log = 1 + 1,44 ln
. ,
. 14.3.1 =40, :
= 1 + 1,44 ln40 6,31
= 6 .
4 () , .
. , c
R , :
R
c= .
( ),
,
. 14.3.1 = 6 R = 59,
c=
R 59
=
99,83
.83
6
, c=10 (
).
, () . ( )
c, .
c ,
.
240 c=10
, 240 240+10 = 250.
,
() .
:
240, 250, 260, 270, 280, 290, 300.
( )
( ), ( , ],
14.3.2 (5 6). i
i . , i = 1, 2,..., i .
-
571
14.3.2
14.3.1.
1,4
fi %
Ni
Fi %
240 2 50
245
0,8
250 2 60
255
15
20
0,6
260 2 70
265
12
30
20
50
270 2 80
275
14
35
34
85
280 2 90
285
10
38
95
290 3 00
295
40
100
40
100
. '

, ,
,
. 14.3

14.3.1, 14.3.2.

, ,
,
.

,

(. 14.3).
,
, (frequency polygon).

, . 14.3

14.3.1.
, .

3=12
1,2
1
0,4
0,2
0
240 250 260 270 280 290 300
. 14.3.
0,035

f3=0,30
0,030
0,025
0,020
0,015
0,010
0,005
0
240 250 260 270 280 290 300
. 14.3.

.
1,4
1,2
1
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
240 250 260 270 280 290 300
. 14.3.

.
572
, 1
(100%).
, ,
,
( . ,
). 14.3
14.3.1, () .
( )
, .

, .
, , . 14.3

14.3.1. , '
14

12
10
8
,
6
. ,
4

.
2
0

240 250 260 270 280 290 300

-- (stem
and leaf plots). . 14.3.

.
' ,
Fi 1
0,9
.
0,8
--
0,7
0,6

0,5
,
0,4
0,3
.
0,2
0,1

0
.
240 250 260 174 180 186 192

:
. 14.3.
) .
.
) / , -
573
,
.
,
. 25 (
) :
39 45 50 41 46
47 40 47 59 59
50 51 34 35 35
42 43 27 32 34
23 38 39 41 41

:
23 27 32 34 34 35 35 38 39 39 40 41
41 41 42 43 45 46 47 47 50 50 51 59 59
:
)
) , .
, ( 23)
(stem: ) 2 (leaf: ) 3.
:
Stem ( = 10) Leaf ( = 1)
2
, ( 59) :
Stem ( = 10)
Leaf ( = 1)

( ) .
:
Stem ( = 10)
Leaf ( = 1)
3 7
2 4 4 5 5 8 9 9
0 1 1 1 2 3 5 6 7 7
0 0 1 9 9
574

. , 1234 ,
, 1234 1234 1234.
,
,
() 2, 8, 10 5 () .

[20, 30), [30, 40), [40, 50), [50, 60).
.
14.3.1.
50 .
104
109
126
152
130
152
150
158
143
143
130
112
128
154
176
154
154
162
154
112
154
112
125
154
82
178
129
128
201
135
94
116
134
174
127
106
154
184
132
165
205
124
140
128
144
146
156
154
219
217
) 5 .
) , .
) ,
.
14.3.2.
( ) 50 ( )
:
39
137
72
19
18
43
44
34
44
32
49
41
19
29
41
36
80
74
132
44
38
102
25
49
38
92
44
121
95
39
19
40
33
109
124
128
34
33
46
64
36
92
33
43
135
35
69
37
75
87
) .
)
, .
)
.
14.3.3.
400 ' .
[ , )
20 30
3040
4050
5060
6070
7080
20
60
200
70
40
10
575
) ,
.
) .
) , .
) 40
25 55 ;
14.3.4. 20
01000
724
738
647
583
883
999
829
803
782
755
811
756
756
953
738
638
738
592
988
811
) .
)
100,
600 .
) .
14.3.5. 14.3.3 160 ,
180 , .
)
.
)
,
.
14.3.3
i

( mm Hg)
9599
100104
18
12
105109
16
14
110114
24
20
115119
32
32
120124
20
26
125129
14
24
130134
12
22
135139
12
140144
145149
160
180
14.3.6. () -
576
1995 :
)
1995.
)
, , 1995 .
5054
10
5559
10
6064
17
21
6569
36
57
7074
44
61
7579
73
109
8084
117
162
8589
123
195
14.3.7. 14.3.4 .
) .
) .
) .
14.3.4.
[)
fi

Fi %
15
20
59
50
913
85
1317
95
1721
2
1
100 .
14.3.8.
14.3.5.
) 15 ;
) , 35 ,
12,5 ;
) , 35
577
, ;
14.3.5

fi %
[ )
0 5
10
5 10
15
10 15
12
15 20
15
20 25
18
25 30
18
30 35
12
14.4 .
, () . ,
,
.
14.2 14.3.
, . ,
,
, .
,
.
.
, .
.
14.4.1 ( x ) .

.

.
, x1, x2,..., x () , x :
x=
x1 + x2 + ... + x
=
xi
i =1
1
xi .
i =1
578
xi
i =1
x1+x2+...+x.
xi , ,

, .
, ( 40
) 14.3.1
x=
x1 + x2 + ... + x40 252 + 255 + 263 + ... + 277 10800

=
=
= 270 .
40
40
40
,
40 , , 270 ( ).
,
:
t11 t2 2 ... t
1 2 ...
ti i
i 1
1
ti i
i1
i 1
x = ti
i =1
i
= ti fi ,
i =1
t1,t2,...,t 1,2,..., f1,f2,...,f. t1,t2,...,t, x

ti i fi .
, .

14.2.2 :
x=
x1 + x2 + ... + x20 1 + 2 + 1 + 10 + ... + 6 + 2 68

=
=
= 3, 4
20
20
20
, 14.2.4, :
x
t11 t2 2 ... t6 6
1 2 ... 6
1 4 2 8 3 2 4 1 6 3 10 2
20
68
20
3, 4
( ).
i
x
=
t
=

i ti fi
i =1
i =1
, ti .
, 14.3.2,
579
14.3.1 :
x
t11 ... t6 6
1 ... 6
245 2 255 6 265 12 275 14 285 4 195 2

40
10780
40
269, 5 .
14.4.1, .
14.4.1
i
ti
tii
245
490
255
1530
265
12
3180
275
14
3850
285
1140
295
590
= 40
tii = 10780

( x =270) .
,

ti.
( ).
:
1. , x1 = x2 = ...
= x = c, c.
2.
.
3.
, :
( x1 x ) + ( x2 x ) + ... + ( x x ) = ( xi x ) = 0 .
i =1
4.
, c,
c, x1,x2,...,x x ,
y1 = x1 + c, y2 = x2 + c,..., y = x + c y = x + c.
580
5. , , x1,x2,...,x
x , o y1=cx1, y2=cx2, , y=cx
y = cx.
6. n , m1
x1, m2
x2 ... mn
x n . , m=m1+m2+...+mn,
:
x
m1 x1 m2 x2 ... mn x n
m1 m2 ... mn
1 n
mi xi .
mi 1
14.4.2 () .
o
, 50% 50% .
() ,
,
() , .
:
a) , .
b)
1
2 , ,
,
.
2
g) () , 0, , 0 0+1 , .
, = 7 :
90
55
50
75
:
57
80
60,
50
55
57
75
60
:
+1 7 +1 8
0 =
=
= =4
2
2
2
80
90
581
. = 60.
= 8
90
55
50
75
57
:
50
55
60
57
75
80
60
95,
80
90
95,
4 5 ,
8
0 = = = 4 . :
2 2
60 + 75
= 67, 5.
2
(67,5)
.
,
() , .
,
. ,
95 9500, = 8 , 70,25 (
) 1184!
, 50%
50% ,
pa, a=1,2,...,99 %
pa (100 a)% .
p25, p50, p75 , 4 , Q1, Q2, Q3, (. 14.4).
=
50%
Q1
min
25%
25%
Q3
25%
max
25%
. 14.4.
Q2= p50=. , Q1 Q3 ,
, .
= 40 14.3.1,
' .
:
241, 247, 252, 253, 255, 256, 256, 258, 262, 263,
264, 264, 265, 265, 265, 265, 265, 265, 267, 270,
272, 273, 275, 276, 276, 277, 277, 277, 277, 277,
277, 277, 278, 279, 281, 285, 287, 289, 292, 300.
,
582
20 21 , :
270 + 272
= Q2 = p50 =
= 271 .
2
, 20 :
241, 247, 252, 253, 255, 256, 256, 258, 262, 263,
264, 264, 265, 265, 265, 265, 265, 265, 267, 270
, 10 11 . :
263 + 264
Q1 = p25 =
= 263, 5 .
2
, , 20
272, 273, 275, 276, 276, 277, 277, 277, 277, 277,
277, 277, 278, 279, 281, 285, 287, 289, 292, 300
277 + 277
Q3 = p75 =
= 277 .
2
p10 p90
10% 90% v = 40 , 0,0140=4 0,0940=36. p10
, 4 404=36
, 4 5
, :
253 + 255
= 254 .
p10 =
2
, p90 , 36
4036=4 , 36
37 , :
285 + 287
= 286 .
2
(. . 14.3),
,
. ,
, .
(
)
(
).
p90 =
:
) .
583
) , , , .
i Li ( )
, Fi Fi1
' ,
.
) () :
= Li +
0, 5 Fi 1
0, 5 Fi 1
c = Li +
c,
Fi Fi 1
fi
c , (
, c
).
Pa

a/100 0,5
. 14.4,
.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
Fi%
10
0
x
p10 Q1
Q3
p90
. 14.4.
14.4.3 (0).
0 , ' .
:
) (, ,
)
) , , ,
.
14.2.2
8 ( 40%), 14.2.3.
14.2.2
t2=8 8 ( 40%), 14.2.4.
584
c :
) .
) , . i Li
( ) , fi
fi1 fi+1 .
)
M0 () :
D
M0 = Li +
c,
D+E
D= fifi1 E= fifi+1.

14.4 .
,
.
B
fi
fi+1
fi_1
c
Li
M0
. 14.4.
14.4.1.
14.4.2 ( min)
100
. ,
.
25%
.
.

14.4.3. , :
14.4.2
i
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
ti
30
35
45
50
60
75
90
vi
6
14
20
36
10
12
2
585
t11 t2 2 ... t7 7
1 2 ... 7
5050
100
50, 5.
=100 ,
50 51 .
, ,
50 + 50
= 50 min .
50, =
2
,
M0=50min ( 4=36).
25%
, Q1 . /4=100/4=25, 25 26 . ,
21 40 45, Q1=45.
14.4.3
i
ti
vi
ti vi
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
30
35
45
50
60
75
90
6 180
14 490
20 900
36 1800
10 600
12 900
2 180
100 5050
14.4.2.
14.3.2 ( ),
= 40 14.3.1,
.
.
M0 ,
(14), L4=270.
f4=14, f3=12, f5=4, c=10, :
D = fi fi 1 = f4 f3 = 14 12 = 2 , E = fi fi +1 = f4 f5 = 12 4 = 8
M0 = Li +
M0 = L4 +
D
c :
D+E
D
2
10 = 272 .
c = 270 +
2+8
D+E
14.4.1. , ( )
:
) 4 0 2 1 4 3 2 3 3 4 4 111 5 4 7 2
) 20, 0, 7, 2, 7, 1, 90, 4
) 2, 3, 1, 5, 2, 7, 1, 2, 4, 1, 5, 9
14.4.2.
( ) 9 : 3, 5, ,
36, 6, 7, 4, 7, 8 x = 9 .
) 3 .
) .
586
) .
14.4.3.
( )
.
( 100 km) 9, 6, 7, 9, 9, 8, 8, 10, 7, 8, 12.
) .
) .
)
, ( )
;
, ( ) ;
14.4.4. 15 , 8 7
. ( ) 8 :
1350,
1450,
1470,
1370,
1410,
1390,
1430,
1410,
7 :
1390,
1150,
1310,
1510,
1230,
1470,
1390
)
.
)

.
) .
14.4.5.
, .
10 8.
14.4.6.
10
18. :
) 17 20;
) , 16;
) , 16
18;
14.4.7. 40 , 36
. :
) 20 16 ;
) ;
) ;
14.4.8.
10 () 1200,
20 1500 30 .
45 1700,
.
14.4.9. :
5,
3,
6,
9,
8,
1,
17.
587
,
, :
) 7,
5,
8, 11, 10, 3, 19
) 10,
6, 12, 18, 16, 2, 34
) 17, 11, 20, 29, 26, 5, 53
14.4.10.
10 ,
50, 25, 25, 65, 70, 15, 25, 95, 37, 33 ( ).
) , .
) (),
, 19%;
) 3, ,
;
14.4.11.
14.4.4 . :
) .
) .
) .
5 ;
14.4.12. 14.4.5 .
) .
) .
) .
14.4.4
( )
( )
020
2040
4060
6080
80100
8
12
17
6
1
14.4.5

xi
1
2
3
fi
Ni
xii
10
35
=50
14.5 .

. ,
,
() .
, , .
(R),
. , 14.3.1,
588
r=300241=59. ,
,
(
).
Q,
Q1 Q3, :
Q= Q3 Q1
[ (Q3 Q1)/2 , ,
Q ].
Q ,
, 50% . ,
,
. 14.3.1
14.4 Q1=263,5, Q3=277 Q= Q3Q1=277263,5=13,5.
, (),
x . , x1, x2,..., x
() ,
s 2X , , s2 1
1
s 2 = ( x i x )2 .
i =1
,

2
1 2 1
1 2
2
2
2
s = x i ( x ) s = xi xi .
i =1
v i =1
i =1
,
s2 :
s
1
( ti x )2 i ,
i1
1
s = ti2 vi ( x )2 ,
v i =1
s = ( ti x ) fi ,
2
i =1
s =
2
i =1
ti2 fi
(x) ,
2
1
1
s = ti2 vi ti vi
v i =1
v i =1
s =
2
i =1
ti2 fi
ti fi ,
i =1
t1, t2,..., t 1,2,...,

f1, f2,..., f.
,
1. , , 1 , s2 (
).
1.
589
14.5.1
i
t i
ti i
ti 2 i
245
490
120050
255
1530
390150
265
12
3180
842700
275
14
3850
1058750
285
1140
324900
295
590
174050
=40
tii = 10780
tii = 2910600
t1, t2,..., t .
, (
).
, 14.3.1 ( x = 269)
s2 =
1 40
(252 270)2 + (255 270)2 + ... + (277 270)2 6066
2
x
x
(
)
=
=
= 151, 65 .
i
40 i =1
40
40
14.3.2,
14.3.1, 14.5.1. :
1 6
1 6
s = ti2 vi ti vi
v i =1
40 i =1
107802 5390
1
= 134, 75 .
= 2910600
=
40
40
40
:
1. , x1 = x2 = ...
= x = c, .
2.
s2, :
( x1 x )2 + ( x2 x )2 + ... + ( x x )2 = ( xi x )2 = vs 2 .
i =1
3. , c, , x1, x2,..., x s 2X , y1 = x1 + c, y2 = x2 + c,..., y = x + c sY2 = s 2X .
590
4 ,
, x1, x2,..., x
s 2X , y1 = cx1 , y2 = cx2 ..., y = cx
sY2 = c 2 s 2X .
5. n , m1
s12 , m2 s22 , ...
mn sn2 . s2 ( m = m1 + m2 + ... + mm ) :
s2 =
m1s12 + m2 s22 + ... + mn sn2 1 n

= mi si2 .
m1 + m2 + ... + mn
m i =1
s2 ,
. , m, m2, sec, sec2
....
,
(
).
sX s, s = s 2 .
, 14.3.1 s = 151, 65 12, 3 ,
s = 134, 75 11, 6 , 14.3.2.
14.5.1.
14.4.1.
( min) 100
. , ,
.
.
90 30,
:
R=9030=60min.
Q = Q3 Q1
Q1 Q3. 14.4.1
Q1=45. , 3/4=3100/4=75, Q3
75 76 .
, 31 76 50, Q3=50. :
Q = Q3 Q1 = 50 45 = 5.
591
1
1
s = ti2 vi ti vi
v i =1
v i =1
2
,s = s .
1 7 2
1 7
s =
ti vi ti vi
v i =1
100 i =1
ti 2 i
ti
ti i
30
180
5400
2 35
14
490
50502 17725
1
, 25
3 =45
20= 177900
=
272750
100 100
100
4 50
36 1800
17150
14.5.2 :
2
14.5.2
2
7
1
1 7
50502 17725
2
= 177, 25 .
ti vi ti vi =
272750
=
v i =1 100
100 100
i =1
2
, s = 177, 25
2
177, ,25
25==13
13, ,31
31. .
ss== ss2 == 177
40500
90000
60
10
600
36000
75
12
900
67500
90
180
16200
100
5050
272750
14.5.1.
, , 14.4.2.
() ;
14.5.2. :
10, 30, 50, 60, 70, 90, 110
10, 59, 59, 60, 61, 61, 110
10, 11, 22, 60, 98, 109, 110.
) .
)
.
) ;
) .
) ;
14.5.3.
, 0
1.
.
14.5.2. ;
14.5.4. , ,
14.4.7. , , , ,
() ().
14.5.5.
, ,
592
14.4.14.
5 ;
14.5.6.
, ,
14.4.10.
cm ( m);
14.5.7.
,
, , 5, 7, 8 6 2.
14.5.8.
( )
14.5.3.
) .
) 14.5.3
.
)
i
) [ )
02
5
.
24
15
14.5.9.
14.5.4
46
20
50
68
35
. 810
40
:
) .
)
.
14.5.4
) .
) ,
[ )
i
25% .
8
165
162168
)
,
75% .
18
171
168174
)
,
20
177
174180
90% .
7
183
180186
)
3
189
186192
.
)
14.5.5
.
)

.
xi
i
14.5.10.
50 0
4
,
1
16
14.5.5 .
2
20
)
3
?
50
4
?
1,8.
50
)
593
50 .
) .
) .
)

50 .
) 50 .
)
(. 14.5.5).
14.6 .

(), ,
. :
)
.
) , ,
.
) ,
, .
) .
) .
.
,

.

. 1885
Galton (1822-1911) Regression Towards Mediocrity in Hereditary Stature ,
, .
Galton,
.
:
. , ,
(.. , ,
' ) ,
(.. , ). , , (..
, - , ).

594
, ,
14.6.1

,
X
.
=10 .

,
i
xi
yi
X Y,
1
4
225
X.
2
2
156
.
3
10
390
14.6.1 ( 4
14
516
) =10
5
6
267
( )
6
8
330
.
7
10
411
(xi,yi)
8
4
213
,
9
12
450
14.6 .

10
10
402

. , (xi,yi), i = 1, 2,..., 10
, X Y ( ). X
Y, ( ) Y X.
14.6 14.6.1
10 .
, , ,
, . (
) .
500
500
400
400
Y
300
300
200
200
2,5
7,5
10
12,5
X
. 14.6.

14.6.1.
2,5
7,5
10
12,5
. 14.6.

14.6.1 .
595
yi
y = + x.
y=+x
yy, 2
( ) .
1

,
xi
x
x1 x3
. 14.6.
()

X Y. i .

, '
.

, 1805
Legendre, (1752-1833) Gauss, (1777-1855).
' , , ,

i=yixi
(xi,yi) y = + x (. 14.6). ,

12 22 ... 2
AT
i 1
i 1
i2 ( yi xi )2 .
(14.6.1)
, (14.6.1), E . 1 :
i 1
Q xi yi xi yi
i 1
2
Q
Q
Q xi2 xi
i 1
i1
1

, D
y
Q
i 1
1
E x i .
Q
(14.6.2)
i 1
y D E x ()
.

1
1
x = xi ,
y = yi
i =1
i =1
x1,x2,...,x y1,y2,...,y ,
1. , .
596
y E x .
D
,
y E x E x y y
y E x
E ( x x ),
y D E x
( x , y ) .
14.6.1 14.6.2 (14.6.2) :
Q xi yi xi yi
i
1
1
3360 30 80
10
10
10 30960 80 3360
10 776 80 2
i 1
2
2
Q xi xi
i 1
i1
i 1
1
yi E xi
Q
i 1
i 1
30
96 .
14.6.2
i
xi
yi
xi 2
xi yi
225
16
900
156
312
10
390
100
3900
14
516
196
7224
267
36
1602
330
64
2640
10
411
100
4110
213
16
852
12
450
144
5400
10
10
402
100
4020
xi = 80
yi = 3360
xi = 776
xi yi = 30960
E = 30 = 96
:
y D E x
96 30 x
(. 14.6). ' , ( -
597
) (x=0)
:
y 96 30 0 96 .
, y x
(
, yy), (, )
x=0. , = 0,
.

E ,
E y x ,
x1 x2=x1+1 . :
y 2 y1
y 2
y=96,00+30,00*x
500
400
y
300
200
2,5
7,5
10
12,5
. 14.6.

i .
(D E x2 ) (D E x1 ) D E ( x1 1) (D E x1 )
E .
y1 E :
E
. , x ,
y E E > 0 E
E < 0.
, y D E x 96 30 x
14.6.1,
1 (1.000.000 ),
30 (30.000 ).

(coefficient of determination) R2, :
Q
R2
1
Hi2
Q
i 1
(y
i 1
y)
1
(y
i 1
(y
i 1
y i ) 2
y)
,
y i
D E xii, Hi
yi y i i=1,2,...,.
0 1 (0R21) . R2 1
, 0
( ).
598
14.6.3
i
xi
yi
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
4
2
10
14
6
8
10
4
12
10
225
156
390
516
267
330
411
213
450
402
yi y
Hi
yi y i Hi2
( yi y i ) 2
( yi y ) 2
y i
111
180
54
180
69
6
75
123
114
66
12321
32400
2916
32400
4761
36
5625
15129
12996
4356
216
156
396
516
276
336
396
216
456
396
9
0
6
0
9
6
15
3
6
6
81
0
36
0
81
36
225
9
36
36
122940
3360
540
14.6.3.
14.6.1 :
Q
R2
1
H
Q
i 1
(y
i 1
2
i
y)
1
540
3360
0,9956.
(99,6%)

.
14.6.1.
(xi,yi) i=1,2 ... . y = x

,
.
) y = x.
) E .
i
xi
yi
.
1
30
75
2
20
52
3
60
120
4
80
170
5
40
86
6
50
110
7
70
153
8
90
194
) E

599
i2
12 22 ... 2
AT
( yi xi )2 .
i 1
i 1
,
v
f ( )
i2
i 1
( yi xi )2
( y1 x1 )2 ( y2 x2 )2 ... ( yv xv )2
i 1
, 4, f()
f '() = 0.
f ( ) ( y1 x1 )2 ( y2 x2 )2 ... ( yv xv )2
( y12 y22 ... yv2 ) 2 ( x1 y1 x2 y2 ... xv yv ) 2 ( x12 x22 ... xv2 )
:
f c( ) 2( x1 y1 x2 y2 ... xv yv ) 2 ( x12 x22 ... xv2 )
,
v
i 1
i 1
f c( ) 2 xi yi 2 xi2
i 1
i 1
2( xi2 xi yi ) .
f '() = 0 :
v
i =1
xi2
x i yi ) = 0 =
i =1
x i yi
i =1
v
i =1
.
xi2
, E
n
xxi yyi
i =1
i
i 1
n
ii=11
.
2
xxi2
) 14.6.4.
14.6.4
i
xi
30
20
60
80
40
50
70
90
yi
75
52
120
170
86
110
153
194
xi2
900
400
3600
6400
1600
2500
4900
8100
28400
xiyi
2250
1040
7200
13600
3440
5500
10710
17460
61200
61200
28400
2,155 y
E x
2,155 x .
600
14.6.5
14.6.1.
14.6.5
,
1500 gr ().
) .
) ( ) ,
.
) ( ) ,
.
)
;
)

().
)
(). ;
( cm)
( gr)
41
1450
40
1490
38
1400
38
1410
38
1380
32
1100
33
1150
38
1420
30
1000
34
1150
32
1100
39
1450
14.6.2. 14.6.5
, .
) ,
.
) ( ) ,
.
) ( ) ,
.
)
()
' ().
)
,
;
) 40 cm;
40 cm;
38
1400
39
1450
37
1350
39
1450
38
1380
42
1490
39
1480
38
1450
,
14.6.3.
.
14.6.6
( )
10 .
) ( , )

;
14.6.6
60
230
40
161
120
365
160
515
80
263
100
335
100
335
140
464
180
587
70
245
601
) .
)
.
)
.
, ' .
) x, .
) .
)
85 ;
14.6.4. 14.6.3.
) 14.6.1,
y = x ( ),
.
)
14.6.3.
)

85 ;
14.7 .
O ti

i ti.
(i = 1, 2,..., ).
fi ti.
fi
i
, i i= 11,, 22,...,
,...,
) 0fi1 i =1, 2,...,

) f1+f2+...+f=1
i.
i=v1+v2+...+i i = 1, 2,...,
Fi.
Fi=f1+f2+...+fi i = 1, 2,...,
.
.
(,
), .
.
Sturges.
=1+3,32log=1 + 1,44 ln
) .
) .
) .
602
1
xi
i1
(x )
1
ti i
i1
().
o ,
50%
50%
.
pa, a = 1, 2,..., 99.
, a% pa (100a)%
.
Q1, Q2, Q3.
p25, p50, p75.
.
(0).
.
= Li +
0, 5 Fi 1
0, 5 Fi 1
c = Li +
c
Fi Fi 1
fi
.
D
c
D+E
M0 = Li +
D=fifi1 E=fifi+1
) .
) .
) .
(R).

.
s2
1
( x i x )2
i1
1
( ti x )2 i
i1
s2.
1
1
s = xi2 xi
i =1
v i =1
2

1
1 2
= ti vi ti vi
v i =1
v i =1
s = s2
Q xi yi xi yi
i
i 1
2
2
Q xi xi
i 1
i1
i 1
y
Q
i 1
1
E x i
Q
i 1
,
603

() .
y D E x
Q
R2
1
Hi2
Q
i 1
(y
i 1
y)
1
(y
i 1
(y
i 1
y i ) 2
y)
i Hiyi yiy
y i y iD DExEi,x
y i
,2,...,
1,2Q
,...,
ii = i11,2,...,
..Q .
i ,, H
i
14.8 .
,
, .
1.
, .
2.
i
ti i, i=360o i i = 1, 2,..., .
3.
4.
' .
5.
, .
6.
,
.
7.
1 8 8 2 4 6 8 1 888 88
2 4 6 88.
8.
x1, x2, ..., x : s 2 = ( xi x )2.
9.
s2 ,
.
10.
,
.
11.
5 ,
5.
12.
4, 2.
y D E x 13. ,
.
i =1
604
14.
, .
15.
Q1 Q3
16.
, .
17. 0 .
.
fi ti :
1.
2.
) fi = ^ i

) fi =
) fi =
) fi =
1
i
:
) f1+...+f=1
) f1+...+f=0
) 1fi1
) 1fi2.
:
3.
) . ) .
) . )
4.
5.
6.
8 8 2 4 6 8 :
) 0 = 8
) 0 = 2
) 0 = 4
8 8 2 4 6 8 :
) = 3
) = 7
) = 2
) 0 =6.
) = 4.
;
)
;
7.
) )
:
8.
9.
) T .
) T .
) T .
) T .
:
) T 0 1 .
) K .
) T 1.
) A .
605
10.
,
:
) H .
) H .
) T .
) H .
:
11.
12.
) M 1, 2,, 6.
) M 1, 2,, 6.
) M 1, 2,, 6.
) M 0, 1,, 6.

, :
) .
) .
) .
) .
:
) 0 1, 0 R2 1.
13.
) 1, R2 > 1.
) 1 0, 1 R2 0.
) , R2 0.
14.9 .
14.9.1. O
:
s
CV
,
x

. 10%,
. .
) 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
) 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109.
) 130, 140, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190.
14.9.2. 12 , ( ) , , :
: 20 18 20 17 18 17 16 17 16 10
: 18 16 17 15 16 12 16 17 20 22
) , .
)
-
606
.
)

, ,
5 ,
10%. .
14.9.3. T
o 80 11 kg,
26 kg. 8
14 kg, 30% 17 kg, 48
20 kg 15%
23 kg.
) ' .
) 20 kg, . 80
.
) .
) .
) .
) .
14.9.4.

. : 5 (0 ), 25 1 , 15 2 , 5 3 .
) .
) .
) .
) .
) .
) .
14.9.5.
14.9.1 80
. 4 .
) ,
9.9.1
.
( kg)
)
[ )
Fi
.
4555
0,2
)
.
5565
0,5
14.9.6. x1,x2,...,x
() , , gx -
6575
7585
607
- ,
g x x1 x2 " x .
(
) , , ( )
...
)
.
) 1, 3, 5, 10, 15.
) (),
2, 22, 23, 24.
14.9.7. n , .
x1 s12 ,
x2 s22 ...
xn sn2 n- .
) :
x
x1 x2 ... xn
n
1 n
xi .
ni 1
) s2 :
s12 s22 ... sn2
n
) ;
1 n 2
sn .
ni 1
s2
14.9.8. , y = a + x.
) = 5 y1, y2, y3, y4 y5 x1=2, x2=1, x3=0, x4=1 x5=2 , :
a
1
( y1 y 2 y 3 y 4 y 5 ) , E
5
1
(2 y1 y 2 y 4 2 y 5 ).
10
) = 6 y1, y2, y3, y4 y5 x1=2, x2=2, x3=0, x4=0, x5=1 x6=1, , :

a
1
(9 y1 9 y 2 15 y 3 15 y 4 18 y 5 18 y 6 ) , E
84
1
(5 y1 5 y 2 y 3 y 4 4 y 5 4 y 6 ) .
28
14.9.8 14.9.9.

xi
yi
3,5
7,2
10,4
12,6
15,9
608
14.6.10.
yi, i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 :
y1 = a 3 + 1, y2 = a 5+ 2, y3 = a + 3, y4 = a + 5 + 4, y5 = a + 3 + 5.
:
1
1
a
( y1 y 2 y3 y 4 y5 ) , E
(3 y1 5 y 2 5 y 4 3 y5 ).
5
68
14.9.11. ,
' . 20
( ), (
1), ( 2), ( 3)
( 4) . 14.9.2.
X1, X2, X3, X4 Y.
R2.
14.9.2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
82
99
123
231
53
85
37
90
120
313
51
81
181
151
121
88
213
54
111
77
1
5
7,4
6,8
6
8,4
8
8,9
7,7
7,8
6,1
10
8,2
5,8
5,7
6,2
6,6
6,3
8,98
8,86
9,9
2
8
9
10
12
7
8,4
6,6
6,8
7
9,9
5,5
7,6
7,3
7,1
6
5
11
9
9,2
6,1
3
10
11
12
13
4
6
3
9
9,9
13,1
6,4
8,8
9,8
8,7
5,4
4,3
11,1
3,3
10,6
6,1
4
2
3
4
5
1
5
6,6
4,4
2,2
6
7,1
4,1
4
5,1
5,2
3,4
4
2,1
2,4
3

( /)
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.3 I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
2.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
T
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
' x0 R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
610
3.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
3.8 Bolzano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
3.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
3.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
3.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
TETA
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
L Hospital. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

( )

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
De Moivre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
. . . . 293
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
. . . . . . . . 322
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
611
6.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
6.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
7.2 . . . . . 350
7.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
7.4 . Bernoulli. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
7.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
7.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

7.6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

7.6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370

7.6.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
7.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
7.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
7.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378

LAPLACE
8.1 Laplace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
8.2 Laplace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
8.3 Laplace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
8.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
8.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
8.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

( )
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410

10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
612
10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414

10.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414

10.2.2 30, 45 60. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

10.2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
10.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418

10.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418

10.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418

10.3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418

10.3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421

10.3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
10.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423

10.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423

10.4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
10.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
10.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

11.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434

11.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434

11.1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435

11.1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435

11.1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436

11.1.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437

11.1.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439

11.1.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439

11.1.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440

11.1.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441

11.1.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
11.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
11.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447

11.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447

11.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
11.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
11.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452

12.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
12.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
12.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458

12.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
12.4 (). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
12.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
12.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
12.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
613

12.7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
12.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
12.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471

12.9.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471

12.9.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471

12.9.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472

12.9.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472

12.9.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
12.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475

12.10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475

12.10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476

12.10.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477

12.10.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477

12.10.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
12.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478

12.11.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479

12.11.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479

12.11.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

12.11.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

12.11.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481

12.11.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
12.12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481

12.12.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482

12.12.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483

12.12.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483

12.12.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
12.13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
12.14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
12.15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496

13.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
13.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
13.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
13.4 Napier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
13.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
13.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519

13.6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519

13.6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
13.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
13.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
13.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537

13.9.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537

13.9.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537

13.9.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
614

13.9.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
13.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
13.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546

( /)

TATI
14.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
14.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
14.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
14.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577

14.4.1 ( x ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577

14.4.2 () . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580

14.4.3 (0). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
14.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
14.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
14.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
14.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
14.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609

Math in Greek

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Informasi Dokumen

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

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Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

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Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

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Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Math in Greek

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Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

2012

2 : 6000 , 4000 2000

11, 22, 33,...,

... ... ... ... 0

---. ( ..) -, -, - 80, 20 10 .. .

((+)+)+, (A+B)+(+,) +((+)+), +(+(+)),

... ... ...

( A + B)3 = A3 + A2 B + BA2 + BAB + ABA + AB 2 + B 2 A + B3 =

... ... ...

... ... ...

1.3.11. A A = 0 2+2+2=1, A3=A.

AX=B X=A1B XA=B X=BA1.

( AB)( B 1 A1 ) = (( AB) B 1 ) A1 = ( A( BB 1 )) A1 = ( AI ) A1 = AA1 = I ,

) 2=2=3 ==3 ==3

A = B aij = ij (i = 1, 2,..., j = 1, 2,..., )

11 (22 33  32 23 )  12 (2133  3123 )  13 (2132  3122 )

112233 123123 132132 113223 122133 133122

D11 D12 D13 D11 D12

, , xOy (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3) , (. 2.1)

A = a11c11 + a12 c12 + a13c13 ,

A = a11c11 + a21c21 + a31c31 .

A = a12 c12 + a22 c22 + a32 c32 ,

A = a13c13 + a23c23 + a33c33 .

, a(xa)2(x+a) x=a x=a.

ci1 (1)i 1 mi1 (1)i 1 Mi1 i1, i = 1, 2, ... .

x=0, x=1, x=2 x=3,

, xOy (x1, y1), (x2, y2), ,

, (2.3.1) . , (2.3.1) x=x1, y=y1 x=x2, y=y2,

2.3.14.  xOy (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3), .

mij = ij aij cji = (1)i+j mji =

c11 c21 c31

(6  0) 6, c13

... ... ... ... 0

(2.4.4) D10, D11 (. 2.3),

, 500, 520, 380 , , ,

1=1, 2=3, 3=2.

x1, x1=x2x4+3 ( x1)

2.5.1.  1000 kg, ,

c13 c23 c33

c11 1  c21 2  c31 3

c12 1  c22 2  c32 3

c13 1  c23 2  c33 3

c21 = (1)2+1 M21 =

c31 = (1)3+1 M31 =

D 0 2 ( 2  1)( 2  1) 0 2 (  1)(  1) 0 0 1 1.

2 2 ( 2  1)  2(1  1)  2(1  2 ) 2( 2  1)( 2  1).

2 2 ( 2  1)  2(1  1)  2(1  2 ) 2( 2  1)( 2  1).

, (k, 2, k), kR.

3.5  ' x0R.

) y = 5 Cf A(x1, 5) B(x1, 5).

) f(1), f(0), f(1) f.

3.1.2. f g f(x)=x2+2 g(x)=5x4.

f(x1) f(x2). , x1 x2, f(x1) f(x2) f

 x1>1 x2>1, (x1+1) (x2+1)>0, <0. f

) g(x)=(x)3 =x3 =g(x), x.

xx, yy A( , 0) B(0, ) . >0 f(x)

(. 3.3), <0 (. 3.3).

>0, f(x) (,0]

) a: f(x)= ax, 0<a 1. f(x)=ax,

) log =1 log 1=0

) logx=x, x=exln logx=x

)  >1, logx1< logx2 x1<x2,

y = 20e 0,01x = f(x)

z = h(x) = 15 20e 0,01x + 1 = g(f(x))

2 : 6000 , 4000 2000

11 (22 33 32 23 ) 12 (2133 3123 ) 13 (2132 3122 )

2.3.14. xOy (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3), .

(6 0) 6, c13

2.5.1. 1000 kg, ,

c11 1 c21 2 c31 3

c12 1 c22 2 c32 3

c13 1 c23 2 c33 3

D 0 2 ( 2 1)( 2 1) 0 2 ( 1)( 1) 0 0 1 1.

2 2 ( 2 1) 2(1 1) 2(1 2 ) 2( 2 1)( 2 1).

2 2 ( 2 1) 2(1 1) 2(1 2 ) 2( 2 1)( 2 1).

3.5 ' x0R.

x1>1 x2>1, (x1+1) (x2+1)>0, <0. f

) >1, logx1< logx2 x1<x2,

1. , , f x0 (a, x0) (x0, ), f x (a, x0) (x0, ).

L2. lim f ( x ) A lim f ( x0 h) A

L3. lim f ( x ) A lim f ( x )

L4. ) lim f ( x ) ! 0, f(x)>0 1

) lim f ( x ) 0 , f(x)<0 x0.

P ( x ) n x n n1 x n1 ... 1 x 0 .

lim ( x 3a) 3 3a.

) lim f ( x ), lim f ( x ), lim f ( x )

3.5.8. lim f ( x ) 1 lim g ( x ) 2 x0 .

) lim f ( x ) f lim ff((xx)) f

) lim( x 2) = 0 x2>0 x>2, lim

lim f ( x ) f lim f ( x ) ln e 1.