I

I NTR OD U CT IO N
1. DefinitIon of the subject

'THEORY of plasticity' is t he na me given to the ma the matical st udy of

stress and st rai n in pleeticelly deformed solids, especially metals. Thi s
follows the well-established precedent set by the ' theory of elasticity' .
which deals with methods of calculating stress and strain in elastically
deformed solids , a nd not , ee a literal interpretati on suggeete, wit h t he
physical expl&nation of elasticity . The relation of plastic and elast ic
properties of metals to crysta.l st ruct ure an d cohesive forces belongs to
th e subject now known a.s ' metal physics' .
The theory of pla.sticity takes &8 ita eterting-pclnt certain experimental
observat ions of t he macroscopic behaviour of e plaat ic solid in uniform.
states of combined stress. Th e task of the t heory is twofold : first , to
construct explicit relations between stress a nd st rain agree ing with t he
observations as closely and as universally as need be ; and second, to
develop mathematical tec hniques for calculating non-uniform distributions of stress and st ra in in bodies permanent ly disto rted in any way.
At the present t ime metals are th e only plastic solids for which there is
enough data to werrent the const ruct ion of a general th eory. For t his
reason the th eory is related specifically to th e properties of metals,
th ough it may a pply to ot her poten tially plastic materials (e.g, ice, clay,
or rock ).
By contras t with many ot her plastic solids the most striking attribute
of a metal is its capacity for cold -work . At ordin ary temperatures, and
under favourable a pplied stresses , a dimensional change of twe ntyfold
can easily be obtained with a du ctile metal, for exa mple by compressing
or sheari ng a cylinder of copper. More severe stra ins are enforced locally
when a metal billet is ext ruded or pierced. Th e th eory of plasticity is,
th erefore, especially concerned with tec hnological forming processes
such as t he rolling of strip, extrusion of rods an d t ubes, drawing of wire,
and deep-drawing of sheet . The purpose of t he analysis is to dete rmine
th e extem el loed e, th e power consumption, and th e non-uniform strain
and hardening d ue to the cold-work ing. I ntense pleene stra ins are also
produ ced locally in man y standard. mechanical testa of metals, for instance indentation by a conical die, the bending of a notched ba r, or th e
exte nsion of a ten sile spec imen paat t he necking point . A rR.tional account

INT RO DUC T ION

II. 1

of the physica l significa nce of these testa requires a kn owledge of the

state of stress and th e extent of the plasti c zone.
At the other extreme. where the eubjecta of elasticit y and plasticity
meet , a typical application is to predict t he critical loading which just
C&UJl('S a structural member to yield pleetlcel ly at ita weekeet point.
Between t hese extremes come problems where t he plastic and elastic
Itrains are of a similar order of magnitude, &8 in 8. bea m partly ove rstrained by bend ing or t wisting, or in a pressure vessel strengthened by
an initial permanent expansion.

2. Historical outline
The ecientific st udy of the plasticity of metals may justly be regarded
&8 beginning in 1864. In that year Tresca published a preliminary
a ccount of experiments on punching and extrusion. which led him to
state that a metal yielded plastically when the maximum shear st ress
attained a crit ical valu e. Crite ria for the yielding of plastic solids,
ma inly soils, had been proposed before , for example by Coulomb (1773),
and had been applied by Poncelet (1840) an d Rankine (1853) to problems
euch as the calculation of earth-press ure on retaining walls; there ap pears,
however, to have been no earlier im portant investigation for metals.
Treece's yield criterion was a pplied by Saint-Venan t to determine
the stresses in a partly plastic cylinder subjected to torsion or bending
(1870) en d in a completely plastic tube expanded by internal pressure
(1872) (the first step to wards the solution for a pa rtly plastic tube was
taken hy Turner in 1909). SaintVenant also set up a system of five
eq uations governing the stresses and strains in tw o-dimensional 80w,
end, recognizing that t here is no one-one relation between st ress an d
total plastic strain, postulated that t he di rect ions of the ma ximum shea r
strain-rale coincided a t each moment with t he directions of the max imum
shear stress. In 187l Levy , ad opt ing Selnt -Venenr 'e conception of a n
ideal plastic mate rial, pro posed three -dimensional relations between
stress and rate of plestic strain.
There seems to ha ve been no further significant ad vance until the
close of the century when Guest inv esti gated the yielding of hollow
tubes under com bined ax ial te nsion a nd in ternal pressure, and obtained
results broadly in agree ment with t he maximu m shea rstress criterion.
During the next decad e ma ny similar experi mente were perfonned,
mainly in En gland, wit h slightly differing conclusions. Variou s yield
criteria were suggested, b ut for many metals, &8 later ILJ1d more acc urate
work was to show, t he most satisfa.ctory was that ad VlLJ10ed by von :Milles

1. 2)

HI ST ORI CAL OU TLINE

(1913) on the basis of pu rely mathematical coe elderetione : it wee inter preted by Hencky some yean afte rwards as implying that yielding
occurred when t he elast ic shear -strain energy reac hed a critical val ue.
Von Mises also ind ependently proposed equations similar to Levy's.
Between the two wars t he subject wee actively developed by Germa n
writers. In 1920 and 1921 Prandtl showed that the t wo-dimensiona l
plastic problem is hyperbolic, an d calculated the loads needed to indent
a pla ne surface and a truncated wedge by a ft80t d ie. Parallel expe riments by Nadai were in a ccord with these calc ulations, but it has been
shown recently that Prend rl'a work is defecti ve in certain respects.
The general theory underlying Prandtl'a apecial eolutione wee supplied
in 1923 by Hen cky, who also discovered simple geometrical properties
of t he field of slip-lines in a state of plane plastic strain . It W80S BOrne
time, however , before the equat ions governing the variation of the
velocity of 80w along slip-lines were obtained (Gelringer, 1930) and even
longer before t he correct approa ch to the solution of plan e problems was
clarified (1945-9). I n 1923 Nadai in vestigated, both theoretically and
expe rimentally, t he plastic zones in a t wisted prismatic ba r of a rbitrary
conto ur. Th e effect ive application of plastic theory to technological
processes began in 1925 when von K arman a nalysed , by an elementary
method, the state of stress in rolling. In the following year Siebel, and
BOOn a fte rwards Sachs, put forward similar theories for wire-d rawing.
It W80S not until 1926, when Lode measured the deformation of t ubes
of various metals under combined tension and internal pressure, that the
Levy-Miees stress-strain rela tions were shown to be vali d to a tint
epproximetion . However, Lode's resu lts indicated certain div ergences,
and these were afterwards confirmed by the more controlled experiments of Taylor and Quinney (1931). Th e theory W80S now generalized
in t wo important di rections : first by Reuse (1930) who made allowance
for the elastic compo nent of strain, following an earlier suggestion by
Pr andtl ; second by Schmid t (1932) and Odquist (1933) who showed, in
slight ly different ways, how work -hardening could be brought within
the framework of the Levy-Mi ses equations. The first generalization
was broadly confirmed by experiments of Hohenemser (1931-2), and
t he second by invcstigations of Schmidt. Thus, by 1932,0. theory had
been const ruc ted, reproducing the main plastic and elastic properties
of an isot ropic metal at ordinary te mpe ratures , and substantially in
accord with observation. However, from t hen until the early 1940' ,
little progress was made in the solution of special problems. F urther
gene ralizat ions were formulated (for example, by von Miaes in 1928 and

4.

I NTR OD U CT ION

(1. 2

by Melan in 1938), but mathematical expediency an d lack of accurate

da ta combined to render th em, for the time being, academic.
Meanwhile a rival th eory proposed by Hencky in 1924 was favoured
for its analytic convenience in problems where th e plastic strain was
small, despite its conflict with experience in establishing a one-one relation between stress and st rain. Th is th eory was given prominence by
N'adai in his book on plasticity (1931), and was a fte rwa rds exte nsively
employed by th e Russian school (1935 onwa rds ). Hencky'e equa tions
lead to approximately correct results only for certain load ing-pa th s, but
many writers have a pplied them with out discrim ina tion .
Th e wa r stimulated research in E ngland an d America, through pro blems such as t he calculation of the stresses in eutofretteged gu n-barrels
an d of t he forces resisting a shot penetrating armour pla te. Since then
the subject has been intensively st udied in many count ries, and the
edvsncea made are such t hat the present book is largely a n account of
the work of the five yea rs 1945-9.

3. P hy sical background
During the construction of th e t heory freq uent reference is made to
th e plastic properties of metal single crystals a nd polycrystalline aggre gates. It is ass umed t hat the reader has & general knowledge of t hese, an d
only & brief resume ofthe relevant properties is given here. For broader
and more detailed accounts, presented from ot her stand points, specia list
works on metal physics should be consulted. t
(i) S ingle cryata18. In a freshly grown metal crystal, isolated from
extern al disturba nces a nd of th e highest purity , t he atoms are disposed
in equili brium und er th eir mutual forces in a regular t hree-dimensiona l
array , with a periodic structure cha racteristic of th e metal. Most of th e
well-known metals ha ve &. lattice structure which is eit her face-centred
cubic (copper, aluminium, lead , silver, gold ), body-cen tred cubic (alpha
iron, van adium, tungsten, and the alkali metals), or hexagona l closepacked (zinc, mag nesium, cadmium). According to current t heory , th e
cohesive forces binding th e atoms t ogether are such t hat a. perfect metal
crys ta l could sustain, with only slight displacements of th e atoms from
th eir normal positi ons, very much greater applied stresses th an an actu a l
t C. S . Ba rrett, S f,.ud ure 01 M ttal4 (McG ra wH ill Boo k Co.. 1943 ) ; w. Do~. An
/ nt rodw:t i01l to I~ Ph ll.~. 01 M tt aU ond A/wy. (J oh n Wiley &; Son., In e., New York.
19471; A . H , Cott re ll. Th rord k al S I"" ct" rol .U aall u"(JiI (Ed wII.rd Arn old'" Co. Lo ndo n.
1(48 ); C. F . Elam, D i.,orIKm 01 M rJ<Jl C"iI.wu (Cla rendo n P..... O&ford, 193.5); W . Hume_
Rothe ry , Alomic Th w'1l 10,. Sludl!nU oj M ttalluryy (I ratit ute of Me te.\8. London, 1(4 6) '
E . Sc:h mid and W . BoM , K ri.lallpkul iziltil (J llliua Sp ring1M'. Bor1in, 193.5); F . 5eit.s, T~
P1IV. iu oj M etaU l)leG r. .... H ilI Book Co., 1943).

1.3)

PHY S I CAL BACK GR O UN D

crys tal is observed to do. Thus, in a freshly prepared crys tal, sensit ive
measurements show that elastic (or reversible) deformation ha.s ceased
a fte r a macf'08COP~ shear stra in of order 10- 4, whereas & perfect crystal
should be capable of an elastic shea r st rain of order 10- 1 The discrepa ncy
is attributed to faul ts or disturbances in th e lattice stru cture, formed.
d uring growth or introduced by subsequent handling. It is th ought
that the faul ts are separated by distencea of the order of 1,000 a tomic
spacings , and t hat each extends over a volume containing perhaps
100-1 ,000 atoms. Certeln of the fa ults are considered.to be ofa kind t ha t
' weaken' the crystal, and are kno wn &8 'dislocat ions' . .Math emat ical
studies of conjectural atomic arrangements in a dislocation indicate
that a very small applied stress would cause it to move (&8 a geometrical
entity) through an otherwise pe rfect crystal. The resultant effect of t he
passage of a dislocation is a relative displacement of th e parts of t he
crystal bordering its path by a n a mou nt equa l to one or two atomic
spaci ngs. In t his way t he movement t hroug h the crystal of many dislocations prod uces an overall st rain with out affect ing the main lattice
structure ; t he substantial preservation of the st ructure during plastic
deformation is confirmed by X -ray examination. Th at t he strain
is plast ic a nd irre versib le is attributed to th e ' tra pping' of th e dlelocations at other fa ults which are not mobile und er the external stresses.
Additional dislocations are th ought to be created or liberated d uring the
deformation, but despite t his a continually increasing stress is usually
needed to enforce plastic stra in (st ra in-ha rdening); th e movement of
free dislocations is progressively impeded by th e local disordering of th e
lattice at poin ts where t rapped dislocations accumulate. The increase
in potential energy of the deformed crystal is only a sma ll fraction (of
orde r one-te nt h) of the work done by th e a pplied stress; the remain der
appears as vibra tional energy of th e atom s in or near moving dislocations
(whose speed must be close to t hat of sound) and is ult imately dissipa ted
as heat throughout th e crystal.
If the exte rna l temperature is suffi ciently grea t , th e activ ation energy
needed to move existing dislocations may also be pr ovided by thermal
agitation ; the effect ofthe applied stress is main ly to give direction to t he
resultant flow (t ransient creep ). If th e stress is removed , and th e crystal
is held at & sufficiently high te mperature for a certain period, thermal
fluctuations assist th e atoms over th eir potential barriers towards th e
original regular array, which is th e configuration of'greetest stability.
Ultimately the imperfecti ons created d uring th e pre vious deformation
are removed, and the crystal is said to have been 'enneelod',

_'.1&

11

INTRO D UCT ION

[1.3

In the theory of plasticity t he st rain is regarded as mecroecopicslly

uniform, bu t on a microscopic scale it is known that th e plastic distortion is largely confined to narrow bands (slip-lines) which extend
through t he crystal and are presumab ly created by the passage , along
closely grouped planes , of large numbers of disloca tions, many of which
become t rapped or mutually locked . These bands are perhaps some
100 atoms thi ck, and the planes to which t hey are perellel ere known as
elip-, or gllde-, planes; th ey are often the crystallographic planes most
densely packed wit h atoms. The average spacing of the slip-bends
depends on the amount and rate of st rain, and on t he metal, but is
normally of the order of 10,000 atomic distances. The lat tice between
t he slip-bands is still virtually perfect and only distorted elastically ; t he
strain there is greater t han the overall strain at th e elastic limit since
t he app lied stress has increased because of t he hardening ; moreover,
since t he slip-bands extend over only a small proportion of t he total
volume, even after quite large strains, the elastic moduli of the crystal
as a whole are litt le affected by the plastic deformati on.
When a crystal in the form of a wire is stretched under tension the
erose-section becomes elliptical. Macroscopically, the deformation may
be described by saying that the crysta l has unde rgone a shear in a certain
direction over a certain set of parallel slip-planes, together with a rotation
bringing t hese planes more nearly parallel to the axis of the wire. Only
a limited number of active slip-directions have ever been observed . In
face-centred cubic meta ls at ordinary temperatures t here are apparently
only four possible slip-planes (the octahedral planes), in each of which
t here are th ree possible slip-directions (lying in the cubic planes); slip
occurs in 8. body-centred cubic metal in many more ways, but in a hexagonal meta l only over the basal planes and along the digonal axes.
The ten sion needed to deform th e wire plastically varies greatly wit h t he
orientation of the crystal t o t he a xis, but it is found that a slip-direction
is acti vated only when a certain critical value (the yield stress) is attained
by the component of shear stress actin g over the slip-plane and in the
slip-direction ; this is of order 100 gm .jmm.! in an annealed crysta l at
ordinary temperat ures. The yield stress is approximately t he same for
all the different slip-directi ons in a crystal in a given sta te , and is independent of the type of test (for exa mpIe, whether tension or compression).
For ordinary st rainra tes and for temperatures where creep is negligible,
t he yield stress is a funct ion main ly of the amount of previous plastic
distortion. I n particular , th e same relatio nship is obtained bet ween
shea r stress and shear strain irrespective of which set of slip-planes is

I . 3]

PHYSICAL BA CKGROUND

operating, a nd, if the app lied streSs is subsequently changed so th at

another set of planes is operated, th e new shear-hardening curve is a
continuation of the previo us one. It eppeere, th erefore, t hat the disordering of the lattice affects all planes equally whether or not t hey are
active ; this phenomenon is known as laten t hardening. When agr&d.ually
increasing stress is applied to a crystal (either in its original state or
plastically deformed), it is observed t hat the active slip-planes are t hose
on which the critical value of t he shear stress is first attained. Doub le
slip begins when the rotation of the crystal brings another set of planes
into the position where the corresponding shear stress is equal to t he
current yield value; several sets can be operated. simultaneously under
combined stresses.
(ti) Polycry8talliru aggregate. A metal , in its genera lly used form , is a
compact aggregate of crystal grains with varying shapes and orientations, each gra in having grown from a separate nucleu s in the melt . The
meta l may be considered macroscopica lly isotropic when th e orientations
are randomly distributed and when the ave rage dimensions of t he individual crystals are small compared with t he dimensions of the whole
specimen (for example, 10-3_10- 1 em. compared with 1-1 00 em.).
Nevertheless, the properties of en aggregate are not elweye simply
statistical a verages of the properties of a single crystal, taken over all
orientations. While this is approximately true of properties which
depend main ly on the bulk structure, such &8 t he coefficient of t hermal
expansion or the elastic moduli, it is not necessarily true of plastic
phenomena.
.
Theory and"experiment suggest that the t ransition from one orientation to another in neighbouring grains takes place thro ugh a layer only a
few atoms thick. In th is transition zone, or gra in boundary, the atoms
take up equilibrium posit ions which are a compromise between the
normal positions in each of the two lattices. These atoms have a higher
free energy t han atoms within the grains, and are consequently main
agents of viscous flow and intercrystalline fracture at high temperatures.
They are also thought to be potential sources of dislocations, but at t he
same time hindrances to the passage of others, in greater or lesser degree.
Being the centre of a stress concentration extending over many atoms, a
dislocation arriving at a boundary can activate slip on a skew plane in a
neighbouring crystal, and t his should be easier when many elip-plenee
of near orientation are a vailable, &8 in face-cent red or body-centred
cubic metals. Indeed, t he shear-hardening curve of a polycrystalline
cubic metal docs not exceed the mean curve for single crystals of arb itrary

I NT R OD UCT I O N

[I. 3

orientation by more than & fa.ctor of t wo or three. Where. &8 in & hexagonal metal, only one set of slip-plenee can be ecnveted, th e polycrystal
is &8 much &8 one hundred times &8 hard as a single crys tal, despite the
intervention of other and more fav ourable mechan isms oC plasti c
deformation (such &8 twinning). Th e existe nce of such mechanisms in
hexagonal metals perm its the grains to ma intain contac t (though not
th eir absolute identities, since grai n boundaries a re unlikely to comprise
the same atom s throughou t a. process of plastic distortion). Contact
could not be preserved only by slipping over the basal plan es in each
grain, since a (uniform) plasti c strai n generally req uires the simultaneous
operation cf five independent sets of plenes if it is to be produ ced by alip
atone. Suffic ient sets are, on th e other hand, available in cubic metals,
and in th ese it is probable that the macroscopic stra in in each crystal
resembles th&t of th e aggregate as a whole.
If. then, the specimen is subjected to a large distort ion of one kind (for
instance, monotoni c compression) the same cryetellogrephie directions
in each grain are gradually rotated to wards a common a xis. A preferred
orientation is thereby crea ted, and th e specimen becomes increa.singly
anisotropic. When a plastically deformed specimen is unloaded, resid ual
etreeees on a microscopic scale rem ain, d ue mainl y to th e different states
of stress existing in t he va riously oriented crys tals before unloadin g.
If a differen t loadi ng is now a pplied such residual stresses must influen ce
th e plasti c yielding. For example, if the previous st rain W 8.8 a uniform
extension and th e specimen is then reloaded in compression in the oppo site direction, it is observed th at yieldin g (of th e specimen &8 a whole)
occurs at a much redu ced st ress. This is known as th e Bauschinger
effect , and in 80 far &8 it is ab sent from single crystals of pure metals
it is attributable to a particular kind of residual stress du e to the
grai n bound aries.

4. The stress -strain cu rve

Th e stre ss-strain curve of a polycrystalline metal under any simple
loading hee th e shape shown diagrammatically in t he figure. Th e three
most usual types of test are the te nsion of a rod , t he compression of a
short cylindrical block, and th e twisti ng of a thin-walled t ube. If special
precautions are observed (for example, with regard to axi&lity of loadin g,
efficiency of lubrication, and isot ropy of material). t he macroscopic strain
can be mad e effectively uniform except where an inst ability occurs.
The result of 811ch l\ test is represented by plotting t he mean etresa u
(tensile. ccmpreeelve or shear) . acting over th e current cross-sect iona l

I. 4)

TH E ST R ES S ST R AIN CU R V E

area, against some meas ure of th e total strai n. If th e length of a tensile

specimen is increased from 10 to I th e am ount of deformati on is customarily measured eith er &8 ( = In(lllo) (called logarithmic or na tural
stra in) or as e = (1 - 10 )/10 (engineering or conven tional st rain) ; it is
evident t hat ( = In(l + e). (and e are approximately identica l when
t he cha nge in length is smell, as in th e elastic range, but ( becomes
progressively less than e as the stra in increases. If the height of a compression specimen is reduced from to ", the t wo analogous measures of
th e deformation a re defined to be ( = In(" 01" ) and e = (1o- h)/ho; here,
however, ( = In{l j(l- eH. A8 th e height of t he specime n approaches

"0

,
p

zero, ( - + 00 but e -+ 1. I n torsion t he only commonly used measure i8

t he engineering shear strain " = ril, where r is th e tube radius and (J
is th e twist in radians per unit length . It is shown later how th e stressstrain curves from different tests of th e same materi al can be correlated
on the basis of a un iverMll definition of stra in.
The main cha;acteristi cs of a stress-strain curve will now be recepituIeted, logarith mic st rain being meant in th c case of tension or compression. Wh en a gradually increa sing load is applied, t he specimen
tin t deforms elastically and regain s its original dimensions if t he load is
removed. The stress at which the strain ceases to be pr oportional to t he
app lied stress is kno wn as th e pr oportional limit (P in the figure); its
va lue depe nds somewhat on the sensit ivity of the measuri ng apparatus.
The elastic ra nge generally extends beyond t he proportional limit , and
the stress at which an appreciable permanent de formation is observ ed
is known as the yield stress (Y in the figure) ; t he loca tion of t his point.
too , depends partly on the apparatus, since th e transition from elsatic to
fully plastic behaviour is not immediate owing to th e successive yielding
of the crystal grains. I n most metals th e stress must be cont inua.lIy
ra ised. to enforce further plastic st rain, but l\ progretl8ively smaller Increment ofstre8A is normally needed to produce iIo given increment of st rain.

10

INTRODUCTION

[I. ,

In ot her words, the rate of st rain- hardening falls steadily and th e curve
bends over more a nd more. An actual stress-strain curve for an nealed
copper is shown in Fig. 5 on p. 28; curves for any one metal pre pared in
different ways may vary by some 10 per cent. There is evidence to show
th at at very la rge strains (up to the point of fract ure) the rate of hardening approaches a sma ll constant value (perhaps zero), due possibly to
spon taneous reorde ring of th e heavily distorted lattice.
If, following a certain plastic deforma tion, th e stress is red uced from
its current value at S the change in length is at first elastic . However ,
owing to t he differen t orientat ions of th e grains th e residual stresses are
not uniformly distributed and , in a few grains, may act 80 as to produce
&. very small plastic st rain before the external stress is entirely removed
(at 0 '). 00' is the strain repre sentin g the permanent change of sha pe.
On reloading t here is agai n an interval of elastic stra in, with a new
pr oporti onal limit P', followed by an interva l of sma ll plast ic strain (the
width of th e hysteresis loop is greatly exaggerated in th e diagram ).
As the stress is brought near to its original value, the curve bends sharp ly
over near Y' and t he part Y'S' becomes virtually a cont inuation of YS.
I ndeed, if t he stress had been increased continuously from S the same
curve SS' would have been described (wit hin norm al expe rimental
error); the state of the specimen at Y' after unloading and reloading
differs from what it would have been (had t he st ress increased con tinuously) only by t he additional disorderi ng of th e lattice during th e
hysteresis loop SO' Y' , and thi s is quickly overs hado wed by further
deformation. S, and similarly any point on the curve, can t herefore be
regarded, for pr acti cal pu rposes , ee the yield st ress of the specimen
strained by the amount 0 0 '. The etress-eteein curve O'Y'S ' for such a
pre-st rained met al is dist inguished from t he curve for t he an nealed metal
by a higher yield stress a nd a more rapid subsequent bend.
In a few metals, such as a nnealed mild steel and certain alloys of
aluminium, th e stress falls abr uptly after the yield stress Y. This is t hen
known as th e upper yield-point , and th e stress which is needed to enforce
further plastic deformation is known as the lower yield-point. In a tensile
test on an nealed mild steel a several per cent . cha nge in length occurs
with out a significant increase in stress a bove t he lower yield-point . Th e
fall in stress is observed to coincide with the propagati on of a Ladera'
band across th e specimen. This is a lamellar zone of plastic distortion,
inclined. at a bout 45 to the axis , and in which the macroscopic strain
appears to be a simple shear; th e remainder of t he specimen is still only
st ra ined elastically. During t he lower yield point extension ot her bands

1.4)

TH E STRES S . STRA IN CU R VE

11

usually appear . Th e deformat ion does not become uniform , nor does the
stress-strain curve begin to rise, un til th e bands have spread th rough
th e whole specimen. Pre-strained mild steel does not show t he yieldpoint dro p unless it has been rested for a certain time (strain-ageing).
It seems that t he phenomenon is caused by solute atom s, of carbon or
some impurity , which a rrang e th emselves interstitially in th e lattice
under therma l activation in such a way t hat t he normal yielding of t he
solvent metal is retarded . t The fall in stress at t he yield-point is attri buted to the freeing of dislocations, which a re then able to travel th rough
th e lat tice in the ord inar y way under th e lower yield-point stress. Since
t he first Ludera' band is initiated at a point where there is a local concent ra.tion of stress of unkn own magnitu de (due to a slight geometrical
or st ruct ural non -uniformity ), t he upper yield-point va ries greatly with
t he conditions of the test. Th e lower yield-point is, on th e other hand ,
fairly reprodu cible and in annealed mild steel is abo ut 10-12 tn ./in. (in tension), while th e upper yield-po int may exceed this by 20 or
30 per cent. in a suitably designed test at normal temperat ures and rates
of strain.
In a compression test th e applied load steadily increases durin g plastic
deformat ion since both t he st ress and th e cross-sect ional area increase .
If Ao is the init ial area and A is th e area when t he height is h, th en
A h = A oho for constant volume (neglecting t he small elastic change).
The load is th erefore
L = oA = oA oho/h = oAo/( l -e).

The grap h of load aga inst st ra in has an upward inflexion and rises
without limit as the cylinder is reduced to a t hin disk. In a tensile test
the load is
which reac hes a maximum and t hen decreases when th e rate of diminution of area out weighs t he rate of hardening. The maximu m load is
given by dL = 0, or
udA +A do = O.
Combining t his with
we obtain

l dA +A dl

0,

dA
dodl
d,
= - = - = d = -.
A
0
I
l+ e

- -

t A. H . Cottrell, R epo rt or Br iat.ol Conference ' , Phy . S oc. (1948), 30, h u propoll8d &
poqible mechenism depending on t he t endency of ecluee atom" to clu atcr round dia.
lo<:atiOn8 .

"
Thus, th e load is

I N T R O D UCT I ON
&

THE ST R ES S . ST RA IN C U R VE

(I)

to be th e saturation stress in a metal where th e act ual ra te of hardening

becomes vanishingly small. Similarly, a = a when e = O. but the value
ofa giving best fit over a certain et rain-renge does not necessarily coincide
with t he initial yield stress ; the fonnula feile, of course, for very small or
purely elastic stra ins.

maximum when
de

-=
a.
d.

ar

(I . ..

do
d~

- l+e

(2)

I t follows from t he last eq uation that the ma xim um load corresponds

to the point of contact of the tangent to the (at t ) curve {rom the point
- Ion the t axi e. A normal te nsile tes t becomes unstable when th e load
reac hes its maxi mum ; t he specimen 'necks' locally while t he remainder
of th e specimen recovers elastically under the decreasing load. Since
the deformation and distrib ution of stress i.e t hen non -uniform , the tes t
does not provide a direct measure of th e tensile etrese-et rein curve e.fter
necking. However, a correct ion can be made for th is effect if t he geometry of the neck is measured during t he test (see Chapter X , Section 6).
Alternatively , etreee -etraln behaviour at large strains ca n be found by a
compresaion teet provided that barrelling ia avoided by adequate lubri cation ; even 80, a small correction for th e effect of friction at the ends may
be neceeeery (Chapter X, Sectio n 7).
Severa l empirical form ulae have been pro posed for fit ting et rese-et eeln
curves. An ea rly one, du e to Ludwik.f is t he power law

a+ W .

(3)

where a, b, c are a rbitrary constants. Wh en (3) ls fitted to data for an

a nnealed metal up to a. strain of order 0,2, th e tendency is to underestima te the a ctu al streee where ( is small and to overe stimate where (
is large, since a. power law docs not fall away sufficiently rapidly . In
many metals (particularly high carbon and alloy steele} th e (a, e] curve
has an approximately constant slope at very large strains. Th e curve
for such a. metal, when hea vily pre -st rained , is closely represented by
a = a +b( (c = I ). I n some metals a more successful formula for modera te strains is
a = a+(b -a)( l-e -<f),

(4)

where e denotes t he exponential constant . This was proposed independen tly by Voce and Palm .f Although a -+ b 8 S f -+ co. b is unlikely
l P . Lud,..ik. EklMnk dtf' technologiden M u ha" ik (Be rlin. 1900 ).
I C. W . M..::Oregor. T imNhe"ko Annit~r.ra'll Volum41 (Ne... York. MaemilJ an. 1938 )1
Mm . 6 ( 1039 ), A-1M ; P roe, Am. Soc . T e... MGt. 40 (1 040 ). 60 8; J_ m.
FIlJrJ.:lin 1...,. 13 8 (1944), III . See aleo P . W . Bridgman, Ioc. ei~.
t E . Voce. J _m . b wt. .\IU4~. 74 ( 1948).1l31 ; _ al .e d iioeuMiorl. o n p . 160 . J . H .
Palm .4P7" i.ed Sc in't ific RUMrf h . A- 2 (1 949). 198. A _
" ha t 'l.Itular re la t ion ....
propced by M. Re mer. P N>C . 6th I nt . Congo .4P7' .\led!.. ( Paria ). 1940e .

Jou m . App .

13

n. n

TH E CRITER ION OF Y IE LD I NG

2. The criter ion of yielding

II

FOUNDATIONS OF THE THEORY

1. The ideal plastic body
WITH present knowledge th e element of t ime cannot be adequately
Incorporated in & mathematical account of th e plasticity of metals. The
theory to be described is valid only at te mperatures for which recovery.
creep. and th ermal phenomena generally. can be neglected. The absence
of a high-tem perature theory is due pa rtly to insufficient data, but more
to the circu mstance t hat th e stress need ed to enforce plastic ftow at &
given temperature ill not a single-valued fun ction of th e rate of strain
and the t otal distortion (as measured con venticnel ly j.t Prelimin ary
attempts to include thermal effects within th e framework of th e lowtemperature theory have always assumed a fictitious equation of state .:
Another class of phenomena which is secondary in meny epplicetlona,
and which will be disregarded here, arises from non-uniformity on ..
microscopi c scale. Th e prin cipal exa mples are th e Beu schinger effect
and the hysteresis loop in unloading and reloadi ng: these are du e, as
we have seen, to differential hardening of th e va riously oriented crys tals
during stra ining. The neglect of t hese phenomena in th e t heory does not
prevent t he inclusion of anisotropy due to preferred orientation, in which
local uniformity can. in prin ciple, be preserved (plast ic anisotropy is
t reated in Chap. XII ). It is true that anisotropy and th e Bauschinger
effect are generally found together, but they arise from differen t causes
and the Beu schinger effect can be removed by a mild annealing while
th e preferred orientation is retained .
Siu effects are also neglected ; th ey may be due to grain size, inclusions,
or the difficulty of nuclea.tion of a slip process.ll In the following eecrione
other properties will be asc ribed to the ideal plastic body.
t E . Orow. n. Wue 01SeOllt;.,.d Jron aOld Seal Ju' . Febru.ry 1947; J . E . Dom, A. Gold be rg, T. E . Ti etz. MdaU TtehOlology. Tech. Pub. 2445, ( 11148 ).
% P . Ludwik , E~OIte lkr uchnologihen M :hani fr:. (J uliWi Spr~ er, Berlin . 1909 ).
J . H . H ollomon. M daU Thnoiovy, Tech. P ub. 2304. Septe mbe r 1948 ; Traow. A m . J,....
M i .. . lold . E,.,. 171 (194 7). 53:1. J . H . H ollomon and C. Zener, J oo,", . App. Plll4 . 17
( 11148).82. 1 . H . H ollomon and J . D . Lubahn. P Ay" R nl. 70 ( 11146). 775. J . D. Lu bahn.
J OOVf&. App. Med&,. 14 (111481. A- 299.
t O. ~h., Zriu. Vu. dfld. 1.., . 7 1 (19:!7). UH ; G. Sac lul and H . Shoji. Ze ;U. PAy"
4S (111271. 716. See .l8o C. F . Elam. DiMorti01lol Mr.UJl Crylf<)u , p . 90 (Od ord . C1arendon
P reM o 1934 ).

II W . L. B ragg, N at.. re, 149 (19 42 ).6 11 ; E . Oru..... n. J . F . Nye, and W . J . C.irruo,
Minitt ry or Supply, Annampnt R p.... ffh Depertrmo nt . Th eoretiQ.I&-rch Re port I6/t5.

"

(i) General conridtralion.t. It is supposed t hat if an element of t he

ideal solid is pfeeti cally deformed . a nd then unloaded, it will recover
elastically and in such a way that th e change of st rain depends linearly on
th e change of stress. U nless the previous working has been severe the
macroscopic elast ic behaviour of a metal can only be slightly affected by
distortions of the lattice. During unloading, elastic recov ery is limited
by th e plastic yielding of favourably oriented grains, bu.t :h.ere is evidence
to show that the elast ic modulus, calcu lated from th e initial slope of the
unloading curve, remai ns invariant . t The elastic constants of th e ideal
solid are t herefore assumed to retain t he eame va lues provided they are
defined with respect to th e CUJTent shape of the element. Moreover. it is
suppos ed that an element recovers ita original sha pe when rel~ed
along th e same path to the initial state of stress, and that there IS no
hysteresis loop. The reload ing may. however, be carried out with ot her
combinations of stress, each of which will eventually produce a further
plastic strain if all the components of stress are inc~ monoto~caU!.
For example, if a th in cylindrica.l t ube hee been uniformly st ramed m
tension and th en partly unloaded, we may inquire what torque must be
add ed to cause a further permanent distortion. A law defining the limit
of elasticity under an y possible combin ation of st resses is known as a,
crite rion of yielding. The concept of a yield crite rion is not , of course,
restricted merely to loading directly from the a.n nealed state, as is somet imes th ought.
It is supposed , for th e presen t , that th e material is isotro pic. Since
plasti c yielding can th en depend only on the magn itudes of the three
principa l applied stresses, and not on their directions, any yield crite rion
is expressible in the form
/ (JJ"J, ) = 0,
(1)
where J1, J,. and J, are t he first three invariants of the stress tensor O'f/'
They are defined in te rms of th e prin cipal components of stress 0'1' d., O'J,
by th e relations
J I = 1+ (.1, + 0', ;
J, = - (010', + 0".0". +0, 0"1);
J3 = 10"10', . (2)
The prin cipal stresses are t he roots of th e cubic equat ion
),'-JI),I _ J,)' - J, =

o.

The stress may be specified either by the t hree prin cipal components or
by the th ree te nsor invariants . However, alth ough any funct ion of the
t J . V. H o....rd and S. L . Smith, PrtX . Roy. Soc. A,I07 (l1l211), 113 : R . W . l4eto.and
D. J . McAdam, J,., Nat. A dt>. C"""m. A "..,., Tech. Note 1100, March U141.

FOUN DA T IO NS OF THE TH E OR Y

[II. 2

invariants can be expressed in terms of th e prin cipal stresses, it is not

true t hat a ny fun ction of'the principal stresses is a possible yield cri te rion;
only fun ctions symmet rical in the three principal stresses are permissible.

The function! is char acteristic of the state of th e element immediate ly

before unloading, and hence depends on the whole mechanical and heat
treatment of the metal since it was last in t he fully annealed condition.
It will later be necessary to settle th e precise manner in which /varies
with th e amount of pre-strain, but for t he moment this question is left
open.
An immediate sim plification of ( I) ca n be ac hieved by using the expe rimental fact that t he yielding of a metal is, to a first app roximation,
unaffected by a moderate hydrostati c pressure or te nsion, either applied
alone or superposed on some state of combined etreea.] Supposing this
to be st rictly true for the ideal plastic body , it follows that yielding
depends only on th e prin cipal components (a~, a;, a;) of th e deviatoric,
or red uced, stress tensor
aq = a,j- aSU'

(4)

+ ' '+ ' ') = I(at"+al"+a ")

"
s = Iaijafj'l
J 'a = a 't a "las = 1( a "t + aa
"+as" J = I'a(j alk" ak('
J ',=

("
at a, at a s aSat

THE CR I TER IO N O F YIE LD IN G

17

of yielding. Since J; changes sign when th e etreeeea are reversed, it

follows th at J must be an even function of J;.
(ii) A geometrical repruentation oj strUB. It is helpful to introduce
here a geometri cal representa ti on of stress. F or present purposes a atete
of stress is completely specified by t he va lues of th e t hree principal
components , so that any stress-sta te may be represented by a bound
vector in a three-dimensional space where th e principal stress es are t aken
&8 Cartesian ccordinates .t In Fig. 1 OS is the vector (al .at,aa). while

I4H >,-Yitld locus (

Yitld

5UrflCt

(3)~

where a = laii is th e hydrostatic component of t he st ress. The principal

components are not independent , since a~ + a; + a; is identi cally zero.
The yield criterion now reduces t o th e form
where

11. 2]

(6)

A further restriction must be imposed in view of the suppositio n that th e

ideal plasti c body does not show a Bauschinger effect , so that th e magnitude of th e yield stress is th e same in te nsion and compression. This,
as we have seen, is true of metal single crystals where reversing the
applied stress only changes t he sense of th e constituent shears and not
the operati ve glide-planes; the same is true of a polycrystal after internal
stresses du e to the different ial crystal orientations have been removed
by ann ealing. More generally, when an element is unloaded from a.
plastic stress state ail and then reloaded to the state - atl' keeping t he
ratios of th e stress components constant t hroughout, it is assumed that
the element is deformed only elastically and is finally again on th e point
t M. Polany i a nd E. Schmid. Z eit.!. P hlle. 16 (1923). 336. P . W . Bridgman. M da l.
TWlnoICW . Tec h . P ub . 1782 ( 1944); Tra..... Am. 1M . M i". Md . Eng. 16:l (1945) . 1569;
R ev. M od. Phye, 17 ( 194.5 ). 3; Joum. A.pp . Ph y . 17 (1946 ). 20 1 ; T ra.... A.m. S oe. M et. 40
(1948).246.
.
: See Ap pendiX I for an e"l'lanation ofteneor notatio n and the.wnma h on COll\'en ti on .

,,
FlO . I . Geometric al repreflentation of a plaetie etete o f etreN in
(0',.0',,0'. ) space. where a" 0'1 ' a. are t he p rincipal ecmponente,
A y ield criterion . wh ich iA independen t o f the hydrostati e com po ne nt o f 8t re98, iA re p rese nted by a. c urve C in t he plane n
whose e qu ation is 0',+0'.+0'. '" O.

OP is the vecto r representing t hedeviato ric stress (a~ , a;, a; ). OP always

lies in the plane n whose equa tion is at +a.+aa = O. while PS. repre senting th e hydr ostatic component (a , a, a) of t he stress, hee direction
cosines (1/ ..,13,1 /..,13,1 1..,13 ) and is perpendicular to n. Now th e yield
criterion (4), for a particular state of th e met al, can be regarded as a
surface in this space. Since th e yielding is independent of th e hydrostatic component of stress, it is evident th at t his surface is a right
cylinder with generators perpendicular to n and cutting it in some curve
0 -. It is sufficient to discuss possible forms of the curve C, and to consider
only stress-states whose hyd rostatic component is zero. In Fig. 2 IT
is the plane of th e paper ; th e yield locus C and the orthogonal project ions
of th e axes of reference are shown. The locus may be convex or concave
to th e origin, but obviously not so that a rad ius cuts it twice.
t B . P . H aigh . Engi~n"g. 109 ( 1920), Hi8; H . M. W estergaard, J oum. F"" .. Hi ..
1""'.189 (19 20), 627 . See a lao W . M. B a ld win , Jr. M uau T t.eA..ology. T ech. Pub. 1980.
(19.-6) ; W . W. 8oko! o\lIky. DoklM" Akad. N a,, } S .S.s.R . 61 ( 1948), 223.

18

[II. 2

FO UNDATIONS OF T HE TH E O R Y

Now if (al ' at. at) is 8. plas t ic state, 80 also is (0' 1' at. a,), since the element
ia isotropic. T he locu s is t herefore symmetrical about L L', and simila rly
about M M ' and N N ' Th is is equivalent to saying that the yield criterion
i.e a functi on of t he tensor invariants. If, for any point on the locus, 8.
radius is drawn t hroug h t he origin (representing unloading with COJl8tan t
stress rat i08), it must meet the locus aga in at the sa me distance from t he
origin,since there is no Bauschingereffect.
Hence, the locus is symmetrical, not only
about the diameters LL', 1/J/', NN' , but
- 0;
also about the three diameters orthogonal
to t hem (sho wn dashed in F ig. 2). I n ot he r
words t he shape of the locu s in each of the
twelve 30 eegmente , marked off by the

six diameters, is the same (a part from

~ reflections). It is only necessary. th ere H'
\
fore, to consider stress states whose
_C'j
vectors lie in a single one of th e twelve
segments. For example, in an ex perimenFIG. 2. Cene~ ap~l o ray~ld tal determination of th e yield criterion
loeUll ror an lllOlrop~ meLlI ~'h ~h
'
doe-. DOl abo.. a BaU8Chinger e fll!lCl . it is sufficient to apply only th ose stress
systems whose stress vectors lie in a
selected segment. This may be otherwise expressed in terms of a parameter fI introduced by Lode r]
~ ~

20'J -0'1 -0'.

0'1 0'1

(6)

It can be shown by simple geometry th at

~ ~ -43 1&n 9,
(7)
where 8 defines t he positio n of a stress vector OP, as in Fig.
The
yield locus can be completely determined by applying stress systems
such that 8 covers th e range from 0 to 30, fI varying from to - 1.
When fI = 0, 0'1 = 1(0'1+0'1); t he state of stress is t hen a pure shear
1(0"1- 0"1,0'1- 0"1, 0), together with a hyd rostatic stress j(al +a.). When
p. = - I , 0'1 = 0'1; th e state of st ress is a uniaxial stress (0"1-0'., 0 ,0)
toget her with a hyd rostati c stress 0'2' Thus t he ex tre me values p. = 0,
- I , correspond respectively to pure shear and pure te nsion (or compree-

2.t

Lode. Z ,U. Phy . 34 ( 1926), 913; 811M) Z,it, . atll1. M al ia . M u ll. 5 (192 :1). 142 .
u {~, rl al'lll the Cart.Ni&n coo rd ina tee. o r P with "",peet to the d ...he<J lin.. , _ 0
and the line ON. then
a- _ (".-".){-.'2;
y _ (2"" - ... - ,,. )/....6.
Since I/o _ - 3(,,; + ,,; )/(,,; - ,,; . .... obtain fro":,~ ";,"; - (~~+ '\I3)'(Lln 1 - "3 ).
From thia equa tion the retioto
can be fo_._
t~ direction or O f' i. (iven .
W.

t ''';''';

~ , I) (CL-C'. )

Jt->

i ~-~ (C"'~ ~\')

n .2]

TH E CR I TE R ION OF YIELD ING

19

sian ), while the intermedia te range may be covered by combined.torsion

a nd tension of a th in-walled t ube. ]f 0" is the tensile stress end T th e sheer
stress acti ng over a plane t ransverse to the t ube axis , th e prin cipal stresses
.re
0'1 = l a + U a l + T1)l,
01 = jO'- (1al +.,. I)l,
aJ = O.
fI is therefore equal to _0'/(0"1+4.,.1)1.
Anot her convenient method of covering th e ra nge is to stress a t hin
cylindrical t ube under combined tensile load L and internal pressure P .
Here the mean radial st ress component
is negligible and th e state of st ress is
effectively biaxial, namely a circumferential stress 0'1 = P a/t and an axial
I
I
stress 0'1 = L/2mll, where t is t he wall
.....
I
...'
<,
I
......
thickness and a is the t ube radius. p. is
... ~ I .... ....
, "',
then equaJ to L /7rlJIP - l , and 80 L /Tf'(J'P
....... I .....
/
II
' ......
....
must be varied between + 1 and O. The
state of stress corresponding to the tint r('
I
limit may be realized in a tube with
I
closed ends under internal pressu re,
Fl O. 3. Yteld loci co~ to
while the second limit corresponds to a. the criteria.of von Mi_ (circle I and
Ttek'& (regu1&r hexagon).
tube stressed. only by internal pressure
with its ends free to contract .
(iii) Tke yWd mUM oj Truro and tI01I .Mi, u . Experimtnlal ~vUknce .
The first investigation of a yield criterion e ppeera to be the long series of
experiments by Treece (1864), in which he measured the loads required
to extrude metal s through dies of various shapes. Th e distribution of
stress in the plastic region was of course far from uniform, and Treece's
a.ttempts to analyse it were very crude. However , he concluded'[ that
yielding occurred when t he max imum shear stress reached a certain
value. In thi s he was probably influenced by a slightly more general
law for the failure of soils, suggested many years earlier by Coulomb.f
Treaca's yield criterion is
a l - O's = constant,
(8)
where 0'1 ~ 0"1 ~ as. It may alternatively be writte n in te rms of the
invariants J;, J;. but t he result is complicated and not very useful. The
yield locus in th e plane diagram is a regular hexagon (Fig. 3).

.,

a.

--

"'"

t H. T~a . c_pt.u RtndruAcad.Sd .PfJrU. 59 ( 1864 ). 764 ; 8nd M (1867) . 809 ; M i ... .
SfJv. Acad. Sci, Pa,.~. 18 (lS68). 733 ; and;tO (18 72). 76 and 281 . See 800 J . Bouesineaq.
Comptu Rmd.... Acad . Sri. Pa,.i. , I 66 .nd 167 ( 1918), fOl_\'eral articleadealing ..ith the
theory of T~ . up8rimenLl.
: C. 0\. Coulomb, .Him. Mallo. d Ploy 7 (1773). 343.

20

FO UNDA T IONS OF THE THEORY

[11.2

Most of th e various yield criteria that have been suggested for metals
are now only of historic inte rest , since th ey conflict with later expertmenta in predi cting that a hydrostatic stress alway, influences yielding .
Th e two simplest which do not have this fau lt are th e crite rion of Treece,
just described , and th e criterion due to von Misest (1913 ). Von Mises
suggested th at yielding occurred when J; reached a criti cal valu e, or , in
oth er words, that th e function/in (4) did Dot involve J;. H is criterion
can be written in the alternative forms
2J'.1

= 0'1'1+ 0'1"+"
aJ =

2'-'
e-, }
(al-0'1)1+(O'I - O'a)I+(O',-O'1)1 = 6.1:1.
(O'z -0'..)I+(a..-0'.)I+(O"- O'.:I') 1+6(~+ "'" + ~IY) = 6kl

or
or

"

O'(J O'lJ

(9)

k is a parameter depending on t he amount of pre-strain. A physieal interpretation of von !-lises' la w was suggested by Henckyt (1924). who

pointed out th at (9) implies that yielding begins when th e (recoverable)

elastic energy of distort ion reaches a critical value. Thus a hydrostatic
pressure does not ca use yielding since it prod uces only elast ic energy of
compression in an isot rop ic metal. In some a nisotropi c metals , however,
a hyd rostatic pressure does produ ce elast ic disto rt ion, but presum ably
no yielding if it is of modera te a mount . For th is reaso n alone Heneky'e
interpretation does not seem to have a general physical significa nce. In
fact , of cou rse. several interpretations of (9) are possible. For example,
as Nadai has proposed, (9) implies t hat yielding begins when th e shea r
st ress actin g over the octahedral planes reaches a certain value. The
octahed ral planes are th ose having the same relation to the axes of
pr incipal st ress as th e faces of an octahedron have to its cubic exee,
The octahedral shear stress has t he value "'Ik at th e yield-point. Von
l\Iises' crite rion was anticipated, to some extent, by Huber ] (1904) in a
papertt in Polish which did not attra ct general attention until nea rly
t wenty years later. H uber distinguished two cases depending on whether
the hyd rostatic compone nt of th e stress was a tension or a compression. If th e latter, he proposed that yieldingU was determined by the
elast ic energy of distortion; if t he former , by th e total elast ic energy
(as suggested universally by Beltram i and Haigh). Von Misea a nd
Yon M...... , G6Uift{/ff NfJC1l~" , miIth .phy . Kla"e, (1013), 1182.
H encky, Zeit. lm g. Math. Md . (1024).323.
I A . Nadai, J oum. .App . PAy. 8 (l( 37). 205 .
m Apparentl y a IM) b y Clerk M.lI "",lI ; I~tter to W . ThortUl(ln , IS Dee . liM .
tt M".T . Huber, CuuopiMnrJ ktch"iuM. 1A~'lI.ll (I D<H: I, 81.
H h .. not clear whethe r Huber wu thinking of p lutio yield in, o r b rittle rupt u re .
" E . Beltl'ami. R.nd. llll. Lomb. I S ( IS 811) 704 ' 8 . P . Maish. BriI. .A... R.".".,., Sec t ion
O. 1919.
'
,

t R.

t H.

H . 2]

TH E CR I T E R I ON OF YI ELD IN G

21

gchlel cher'[ independently generalized (9) by repla cing k by an arbitrary

function of (O'I +O'I +O'a) ' Th is criterion could be used for materials
whose yielding is influenced by the hyd rostatic component of stress; it
includes the laws of Hu ber and Beltram i as particular cases.
By setting 0'1 = -O'I ' O'J = 0, in (9), k may be identified with t he maxi mum shear stress in yielding in a state of pure shear, which may, for
eu mple, be obtai ned by twist i.ng a th in cylindrical t ube. The yield
stress Y in unia xial tension is th en "'3k. &8 may be seen on substit ut ing
0'1 = Y , 0'1 = 0', = O. Thus th e Mises crite rion pred icts t hat th e ma ximum shear stress in pure tors ion is greater by a factor 2/ "'3, or about
IHi5. than t hat in pure te nsion. Tresca 'a criterion, on t he other hand,
predicts that th ey are equa l. Th is is th e most significant difference
between t he two criteria, and the one most easily tested by experiment.
A general comparison is best made in terms of t he respect ive yield loci
in the plane diagram. It has been mentioned t hat the Treece locus is a
bexegon, while it is obvious fro m th e first relation in (9) t hat the Mises
locus is a circle of redi ue "'2k or "'I Y. By suitably choosing t he values of
k: and th e constant in (8), t he two criteria ca n be made to agree with each
other an d with experiment for a single state of stress . Th is may be
selected arbitrarily ; it is conventional to make th e circle pass through
the comers of t he hexagon by ta king the constant in (8) to be Y, th e yield
st ress in simple tension . The loci th en differ most for a state of pure shear,
where th e Aofises criterion gives a yield stress 2/"'3 tim es that given by
the Treece criterion. For most mctals vonl'tliscs' law fits t he data more
closely than Treece 's, but it frequ ently happens th a t Tre ece's is simpler
to use in theoretical applications. ]f th e latter is adopted, a greater
overall accuracy can be obtained by taking t he constant in (8) as mY .
where m is an empiric ally assigned number lyin g between 1 and 1155.
The maximum error in the st ress components for a given strt-" atak
(specified by a cer tain value of fl) is t hen never more than 8 per cent.t
However, th e comparison of t he distributions of stre ss in a body. corresponding to t he two yield criteria. is made at a given point 0/ the body ,
and the discrepancy t here can be very mu ch greater since the stress
states are generally not identical. On th e other hand, when t he stress
~tates in t he particula r application cover only a limited arc of t he circle,
It may be possible to choose m so th at th e error is nowhere more than
I or 2 per cent.
. .t F . Schleicher. Z~ iU . " fig . M alA. M d . 5 (19211), 4i8 ; 6 ( 1926). 199 ; R . y on M_ ,
IbId . ft (1926) , 109 (dioK:.,.ion or pape r b y Sc hleiche r) .
: It ... frequmt ly RtatA'lol l t hAt the error ill onl y I&. t h an U per Cf'nt.. ... automati<:a1ly
booing taken ... un ity .
IoUT.II
o

" The yield criterion of von Mlsee halt been shown to be in excellent
F OUNDA.T I O NS O F TH E THE ORY

[II. 2

agreement with experim ent for many d uctile metals, for example coppe r,
nickel, alu minium, iro n, cold-worked mild steel, medium carbon and
alloy steele. The influence of the intermedi ate principal stress on yield ing , an d the correepcndlng failure of Tresca' e criterion. was first clearly
shown in the work of Lode] (1925), who stressed. tubes of iron, copper ,

Trt SUI I/JW

-4

-,
2

CoM'"
.r

X Al umi nium
o MIld Stul

s:
v

Flo. 4. E zperimentaJ. re.oul~ o( T.ykwand QuinDey from com bined toraion and
ten.sion t.esu, Mch met&! being workhardened to the II&me . tate for all teeta.
The Mu.e. Ia. M o"+3r' _ yo. _ hile t he T reeeala_ M r' + ",~_ }"t, ...here
- ten&ile au-, T _ shear -u-. y _ ~ yield -U-.

and nickel, under combined tension and internal press ure. The subata ntial accuracy of t he Mises law was afterwards demonstrated by the
work of Taylor a nd Quinney: (1931), Leeeelle and MacGregor (1940),
and Da visll(1945). Asan example, t he res ults of Taylor a nd Quinney a re
given in Fig. 4. Bet ter ag reement could occasionally be obtained by
adding a small correc tion te rm in J;, but in view of other d ifferences
between the ideal plastic body and a real metal , it would hardly be worthwhile in practical applications.
Fo r the up per yield-point of annea led mild stee l Tresca 'slaw appea rs
t W . Lode. Zei~. Il"'l' M alA. 1J ed . 5 ( 192.5 ). 142 ; Zeit.. Phy . 36 (1926). 913; For.
d .. " g.JatWiten flu Vereinu de1lUcher l1ige" ~re , 303 (l921 ).
: G. r . Taylor and H . Quinn ey. Phil. Tra .... Hoy. S oc. A, l 30 ( 1931), 323 .
I J . M. t - II. and C. W. M~nlgQr. Jov", . FroMli" 1_. 130 11&40}, 163.
E . A. Da vy , T ro.... A..... Soc . ltd . E"9. 61 ( 19401, 61' ; 65 1I Df03 ). A-181. See aJ.o
Miller and Edward8,Jov",. ..4 .... Pelr. 1_ . ( 1939). 483 ; )Iaria. and 8 tanley. JotInIo. A ....
Jr eld. Soc., Weld. Ru. S ..ppl. 19 (l9401. 1'8.

I1. 2J

T HE C R I TER ION O F YI ELDI NO

"

to fit the data better than Mlsee', However, the sit uation is confused
by t he sensitivity of the up per yield-point to the condi tions of testing,
for exa mple. eccentricity of loading, non -uniformity of the specimen,
stress concentration in t he fillets. Morriso n,t in particular, has ad vocated cau tion in accepti ng many of the early obeervet lona on mild steel
contained in t he work of Guestt (1900), Scoble (1906), Seely an d
Putnamll (1919), and Roe an d Ei chingert t (1926). In very careful
experiments with annealed mild stee l Morriso n hee found that the
crite rion of yielding a ppears to vary with the absolute size of t he specimen . It has been suggested by Cook,U an d by Cook and R obertson,
that t he yield stress in mild stee l is somewhat higher when the stress
distribution is not uniform (as in bending, or in a tube ex panded by
pressure). This may be true for metals in general, since t here are theoreti cal reasons for supposing th at a certain minimum volume of plastic
mate rial has to be produ ced before slip can be initiated.
Several attemptalill hav e been made to deriv e t he yield criterion of a
polycrys tal from the observed behaviour of a face-centred cubic single
crystal. No rea lly sa t isfactory t heory, taking account of the mutu al
constraints between t he grains, has yet been proposed .

3. Strain -hardening
(i) Deptndenu of tM gidd locus on llu .strain-/aulory. The yield locus
for a given state of t he metal must depend in some complicated way an
the whole of the previous Pf0CE'88 of plastic deformation since the last
annealing . I t will be supposed that the crystals remain randomly
oriented. 80 that Isotro py is preserved (t he anisotropy developed during
cold work is usually negligible 80 long as t he tota1strain is not too large,
t J . L. M. Morri llOn. Proc. I ..... Met:1t. . E"". 141 '19"') 193 ' _
144, 33.
.."
.

a1lIO di8cuuion in

: J . J . GUl"8t. Phil. M ag. ~ (1 900). GO ; _ . howe ver . Oueet.', rnoet rece nt ooneluaiolUl:
p'oc. 1M . A"lo. Eng. 35 ( 1940). 33.
I W. A. Seu ble. Phil. M ag. 11 ( 190&1. 633.
II . ' . B . Seely and W . J . P utnam . U" iv . I UirwU E"9. Ezp. B uU. 8e riell 116. ( 1919 ).
M. Ros lLJId A. Eichin~r , P eee. 2nd IN . COTIfI. App. M Wi . ZUrich 1192S). 315. See
~80 W. M880n, P roc. 1Mt . Mm . E ng. ' (1909 ),1206 ; A. J . Beeker. Ulliv. Illi~ E"g.
pt . Bull. 85 !l 916). 8
/.:: G. Conk. E"ui"u""g. IU (1931). 343; Phil. Tra .... R oy. Soc. A, 13 0 (193 1). 103 ;
rO('. Roy. Soc . A. 137 ( 1032). 660 ; T ro-... E nginur. and Shipbuikkr. in Sroda lld 8 1
(19371.371.

tt

pit G. Conk .and A. Roberteon , "9'""""9, 91 ( 1911). 183 ; A. Roberteon and G. Cook.

~ ". Roy. /joc_ A. 88 11913), 462. See ..1.0 D. Mork ovin and O. Sidebotham. V"i" .
IU,,,o... E..,. E~. B ldl., 8er... 372. (1947 ); J . A. Pope, E ngil\UP'i"l1. 1M (194'). 2840.
III O. &chs. Ze'~. Yer. dnd. I"g., 71 (1928 ). , 3-4 ; H . L. eo. and D . O . Sa pwitb. Proc.
PA_ . Soc. 9 (1931).1 34 ; U. Deblingw. Znu. M dall h...u. 35 (1943). 182 ; N. K .Snitlw,
Jo,. r" . T et:lI. P" lI" IR ..... i lJfl ). 18 (1948 ). " ' .

"for example less than 30 per cent. red uctio n in rolling).

FOUNDA T IONS OF TH E TH E O RY

[11. 3

In searching for
a mathematical formulation of st rain-hardening we shall introduce a
broad simplification at th e outset. It is eseu med th a t no mat te r by what
st rai n -path a given stress state is reached the final yi eld locus is t he Mme.
Thi s can not be true of a. real metal since the yield locus depends on the
distribution of microscopic inte rn al stresses, and these in t um depe nd
on the strain -history. The latent hardening of non-active glide -planes
in &. single crystal suggests that th e yield locus would be ,. funct ion only
of th e final ap plied stress were it not for additional internel et reesee induced du ring t he previous deforma tion by t he non-uniform orientation
of t he crystal greine. It appears probable, however, that since &. mild
annealing is kno wn to remove the additional internal st resses following a
simple etrain-peth and responsible for the Bau schinger effect , it should
also remove t hese remaining after a complex path. Since we are disregarding th e Beuschinge r effect we must, for consistency, postulate
that th e yield locus for th e ideal body is uniquely dete rmined by t he final
plaatic state of stress . Th e yield loci for t wo stares, reac hed by different
etrein-pethe, then either do not have any point in common, or are entirely
coincident so that t he stares are identical ee regards pleeti c yielding.
Th ere are, of course, man y strain-paths whieh prod uce a given fina l state
of hardening, defined, say, by th e va lue of t he yield steese in te nsion.
For all of t hese t he yield loci are identical, t he yield stresses being eq ual
under any other etresa system. Otherwise expressed , th ere are only a
single infinity of distinct stares, and all can be obtained by , for exa mple,
different a mounts of pure te nsion.
D uring continued deformation th e shape of th e yield locus may change,
a nd it should not be tac itly assumed th at it merely increases in sizeol
Th us, in a n experimental investigation of th e yield crite rion, it would be
wrong to assume th e same relation to be defined by data from combined
etre eeing after different amounts of pre -strain in te nsion, the data being
repr esented non-dimensionally in terms of th e te nsile yield st ress.
Possible changes in sha pe of the yield locus ha ve not been investigated
in detail. Th e experimental data for mild steel, reviewed in th e last
section, suggests that th e yield locus changes over from a hexagon to a
circle with progressive cold-work. t However, for other steele, and for
copper and aluminium , von Miscs' crite rion appears to fit th e da ta
eq ually wcll no matter what th e degree of pre-strain. The loci are then
always circles, expa nding steadily d uring continued loading. This is
t A po.ibJe el[pl&nation h.. befm euggtMrtad b y O. I . Tay lor, PrJ. ROV Soc. A, If!
(lliI3.). I.
.

U . 31

S T R AI N . H A R DEN I N G

26

th e simplest and most attractive hypothesis conceivable for th e ideal

plestic body, an d it will accordi ngly be used in all subsequent eppllceti ona.
It now remains to relate t he radi us oJ2k of th e Mises circle to th e
plastic deformati on since th e laat anneali ng. Th e obvious association,
marked by th e term 'wo rk-hardening' , between the work used to produce plastic glide, and t he hardening created by t he glide , suggests the
hypo th esis that t he degree of ha rdening is a function only of t he total
plastic work , and is otherwise independent of th e eteeln-path. Thi s
does not, of course, imply t hat t he strain energy associated with t he
lattice distortions responsib le for hardening is eq ual to the external
plastic work ; in fact, &8 we saw in Chapter I, only a small fract ion of
the external work appears to be used in permanen tly distorting t he
lattice. Whether t he hypoth esis is sound is for fut ure theoretical
investigation to show, pro bably by conside ra.tions of t he production,
arrangement , and moveme nt of latt ice Imperfecuoce.] At present the
assumption is justified by itA simp licity and approximate e.greement
with observation.
We now state t he hypoth esis mathe matically. Let tUll represent an
infinitesimal increment of stra.in during the continued loadin g of an
clement of ma te rial. d~eJ is measu red with respect to the curre nt configuration, an d is defined by th e eq uation

l[ 8

8 ]

d'il ~ 2 ax,<du.l+ ax,(du,)

(10)

where dUe (I . 1,2,3) is the vector representing th e incremental displacement of a point whose current position-vector is Xc referred to
Cartesian coordlnstee fix-ed in th e element. A part of this strain is
recoverable on removing t he added stress ckrCJ' Th is is the elastic cornponent of the strain, defined by
'
do;}
to do
d fjJ
= 20 + (1-2v)ojJ E'

(II)

t G . I . T aylor, P r. ROIl. Soc. A , I C5 ( lliI3.), 362 end 388, hu ehcwn that the parabolic
type of etl'ellll.et ra in c urve of a {.e.e. c ryltal in th Nl' can be obtained from m it.&bJe
AIIIlump t iomo a bo ut the dietribution or dialocatiomo. In la ter pape" , Joym.lu . MeltW .
6;1 (1938), 307. IUld Ti_fImko ..c""i_.arv Vol.. m~ . p. 21s (Macmillan, N ew Y ork.
1Il3s), he haa ealculated the t.en.iJe . u -.ltrain eurve o f po lY0ryNll ine a1wniniwo in
t.emu of the ebeeeved l hear.ha rd en ing of a lingle oryltal. While the agreement with the
JDNlIured cun'e ia good, the... iIIlittleevidenoe .. to the validi ty o r indfvidualAMUlDptiomo.
for .example oonoeming operat ive glid e.ptane. and the m utual eomotraintl between
gr &lmo. MOlIt da t.a eoncernin8: the macr'l*lOpio behavio u r o r gn.m. in an aggregat.e
re later. to Iwf_ p henomena. to which Taylor', t heo ry ill not ~t to apply. An
e Xl.en4ion of the theory to gen er.l
or .ue. baa no t y&t been made. See a1Io
A. K OchendOrfet', MfJIGlJjorMA"rog,:I (lliI"). 173.

Ita_

"where dU;J and da ha ve t he meanings assigned in (3), and E , 0, and vttr.are

F OU NDATI ONS OF TH E T HEOR Y

You ng's mod ulus, modulus of shear, and P oisson's ratio, respectively.
T he external work dW per unit volume done on th e element d uring t he
stra in d~(j is Q'(Jtk(J, of which a part d JY. = (J'ldf~ is recoverable elastic
energy . The re mainder is caned t he plastic work per unit volume, an d
il'l. therefore, by definition

dJt;, =

d W- dlY, = U(j(dfiJ-tkfJ) = a'Jdf~.

(12)

where tUfj = ck(/ - ck ~ i'l called th e plastic strain-increment . dlf" is

essentially positive since plastic dis tortion is an irreversible process, in
th e th ermodynamic sense. Since th e compressibility under etreeeee
ex ceedi ng the elast ic limi t is of the same orde r of mag nit ude &8 the elastic
compressibility, the to tal plastic work per unit volume expe nded during
a certain finite deformation is. with neglect of a te rm of orde r o/E,t

n;. =

Of}

d(~,

( I3)

where th e integral is taken over th e actual st ra.in-path from some initial

state of the metal. Th e hypothesis tha t the rad ius of th e Mises circle
is a fun ction only of ~ may t hen be written &8

a=

+ ...'i{(O'l - OI}I+{ol- o,)I+(ol- ol)l}l

= ...'f{O';Jo; J}f = F(K;.} ,

(14)

where, to follow the accepted convention, a is writte n for Y or ...'31:.

ais variously known &8 the generalized stress, effective st ress, or eq uiva lent stress. The ass umpt ion th at hardening occurs if, and only if, plastja
work is done is evident ly consistent with th e fact th at purely elastic
strains do not produce hardening. T here is, however, one restrictio n
which (14) appeartl to impose on possible plastic st rains. We ha ve
previously seen that the yield crite rion may normally be assumed independent of t he hydrostatic component of st reee. For a similar ra nge 0
pressure (and ten sion) this appears to be true also of t hc plast ic defor mati on and the resulta nt hardening. If we tak e thi s to be a furt her property
of the idea l plast ic body, as we shall, it must for consiste ncy be supposed
th at no plastic work is done by the hyd rostatic component of th e a pplied
eteeee. This implies tha t there is no plastic or irrecoverable change in
volume. Accordi ng to expe riment this is true to a very close epproxit H ere. and e l...,where in the theory o f p1ll.lltie d eformation, alE ill n eg lfleWtd in co m
par illOn ....ith u nity. j u llt all in the theory o f e lut icity. T h Ull. for co ppa r, E ill about
12 x lOll d y ne /em.', ..h ile " will us ually be 1_ than Ii x 10- d yno /c m .".
: More gen.....lIy o ne <'o u ld alJlJUme W _ ~J; , J ; l .... hen th.. y i..ld 10<: W1 ill not .
c ircle. The function . m Wlt be COJUl illwm t ~ith the requiNn>ent that th e 10<:W1 . te&dily
e llpanda with inc reuing IV

27

STRA IN .HARDEN IN G

1I.3J

mation, t and 80 no pra ct ical limitation is placed on the applicability

of (14). Stated otherwise, changes in volume d uri ng plastic deforma tion
are elastic, and for our ideal plast ic body dtl: = o. If th e deviatoric
strain-increment is defined as

we have from (II ) an d (12) :

s, _

wt" -

(1-2')d
E
a, )
(15)

,u'0 = d'
do:' '
tu+
20

and

The increment of plastic work may th en be written

dll'

= of}

(d'

(0-

~:')
20

'(d'

= a'J

tjJ-

~:')
20 .

(ii) Compari8on oj ,trtA8-6train eurou in k!nrion , compreuion, and

kn"non. It is not clear when th e relation (14) was first introduced into
t he literature, but Taylor a nd Quinney: (19 3 1), and Schmidt (1932),
proposed a hypothesis to which (14) reduces when the elastic strainincrement can be neglected. Thi s is permissible except where the stresses
are changing very rapidly with increasing strain, for example where t he
rate of work-hardening is of order E. The function F can be determined
from the stress-strain curve of a cylind rical rod in tension (until neckin g
intervenes). a is t hen just the applied te nsile stress a, while

W. ~ o(~- ; )=

f"ldl_;i

where I is th e current length of the rod, and 10 its initial length. 'Ibue

F(I o,dl _;~).

1

0 =

I,

..t w. E . Aik ins, Jou m . lowe. Mdah, 13 (19 20 ), 38 1; D . H anllOn and M. A . Wheeler,
Ibld . ~ (19311, 229. U.ua.lly t he d ensity fI...,t r i_, as holM and crllCk. are c10800, and
aft.lrvards (al ia. Decreuell o ( 1_ thlUl 0 :1 per cent. were observed eve n aft.et 90 pet
ce nt . ""<iuction by ro lling . The .t-nee o( any polIiti ve ch a nge (or . ing l.. cry....Ia Wl!"gesta
that the d ec rellllMl i.a e au-t by th e ' ope ning.u p ' of pin bo undatiN .., dwo<:ationa
lI<lCumulate t .... ee. TI>e cxperimentli.l di mr u ltieol are .., grMt t h a t probably only the
di~tion of t he change, and not ita magnitude, i. Ilignificant .
: O . I . Tay lor and H . Quinney, PAil. TNf\6. R"1I. S:. A, n O ( ID31). 323.
S R. 8chmid t, l.,.m.,.,dre!liv, 3 (lD3:.? ), 216 .

"
If a is plotted against In(l/l. )-a/E, t he argu ment of F is sim ply the area

[II. 3

FO UNDA T IONS O F TH E THE OR Y

un der this curve up to the ordinate a.

In uniform compression of .. short cylindrical specimen, the applied
pressure
..
p

d (J Pt-:;)

JS

..

JI

./

-!.. ZS
!it
.s

/'

, 1

-'

, U

..

,~ "

..
S
.~

'"

.......-

S TRA IN . H AR D EN I N G

Ttn~ 1(IfI

'II

Ptrn nwsc ' edlJtl .O" '"

ilrt'''

Jl

ComprtSSGl

ZS

Jl

JS

(t(n\.oOl'l }'" ~rccnt.J9C 'eduUoon

In t>C'9"t (CO"'P<1SSO(W'l)

FlO. 6. E sperimeotal data of Lud...ik and Scheu , tho...ing

that. the tenaioo I&ZKI IlOIDp ~n .u-.,t.r&iD eUI'V8I or
annNJed cop per co inc ide when ,he tt~ p lotted againat
fractional red uction in .....,. in t.en8iOD and agaiN' CractioD&1
reduction in he ight in comp..-ion .

where k o and h a re t he initial and current heigh ts. It is evident t hat the
pre ssure p is the same fun ction of lo(ho/h) &8 u is of In(lllo)' In other
words, (14) im plies t hat the te nsile and com pressive stress-st rai n curves
coincide when true stress is plotted against t he so-called logarithmic
strain, but not when plot ted aga inst the con ventiona l or engineering
strains (1- 10) /10 , (lao-la}/la o More generally, it is implied that the curvea
coincide when t1 and p are plotted against t he sa me functions of 1110 and
lao/la, respectively ; for examp le, fractional reduct ion in area (I-loll) in
tension and fractional red uction in height (I -lal h.) in compression. 'I"hU
hee been found to be t rue in loading from t he annealed state (thUl
avoiding any Bauac hinger effect) provided t he eompreeeion plates are

!g

efficiently lub riceted.] An example is shown in Fig. 6 which reproduces

Ludwik an d Scheu 's results for copper. The compa rison of t he tension
and compression curves on the basis of logarithmic strain (sometimes
called also natura) stra in ) was first suggested by Ludwik.f It is apparent
that a compa rison could not be based on the engineering strain (excep t
for small strains) since when this is unity the length of a tension speci men has only been doubled, while t he compression specimen has been
totally flattened.
Consider, as 8. further exa mple, t he twisting of a thin cylindrical t ube.
A line on the tube , originally parallel to t he axis, is distorted into a helix .
IC~ is the angle mad e wit h t he axial direction by the helix, t he work per
unit volume done by the shea r stress T in a. further small t wist cbP is
T d(tan ~ ), since d(tan~) is the relat ive displacement of tw o t ransverse
sections at unit distance ap art. N ow a = -.l3T a nd so
';:IT =

V
S

U. lI]

F[J Td(tan )- ;~l

Thus -.l3T is the same fu nction of (tan~-TIG)I-.l3 &8 u is of 1n(III. l - uIE.

This is confirmed by experiment, both in the ini tial part of t he stressetr&in curve where the eleatic component of strain is not negligible,
and also for a further range of strains where the elastic component may
be disregarded.1I For logarith mic strains greater t han about 0,2, however, the torsion curve faUs increasingly below the tensile curve. Thia
eeeme to be due to an isotropy which is possibly developed to 8. greater
extent in torsion than in tension at corresponding strains, owing to trenaverse planes being directions of maximum shear-strain throughout the
tWisting. It is probable, too, th&t a part of t he divergence may be
attributable to non-uniformity introduced by necking in tension . For
more comp lex strain -paths the state of etreee must be measured experimentally in order to evaluate If,, and to te st t he truth of t he hypo thesis.
~hmidt (loco cit ., p- 27) verified its approximate validi ty und er com.
blned torsion a nd te nsion. There seems to be no pu blished data for ot her
s~re8S systems. In t he next section we shell conside r theoretical expreeSions relating the state of etecsa to the strain-pat h ; these expressions
~n be used in conj unction with (i 4) to dete rmi ne the work-ha rde ning
In applications.
17 t M. P. Malava!, S-.u Maou~,.10 IU23}, 46 ; Complu Relldw Acod. Sci . P GN,
~ (lg2~), ~S8 ; P . ~d.ik and A. Sehe u, 8lt1Al .. . EiHn. 45 I Ul!~). 373 ; F. K ilt bel'
A. Eicbmger, M ", . KG.... WilA. l.... EiHnf. :J6 (1$43 ). 31.
t P . Ludwik, Elc.....,. thr Ico\~.. MdoRa.t IJWi ... Springer, Berlin, 19o9 ).
f
M. 8bepberd, Proc. l
M d.. &"9. U9 11N 8J. g~.
I C. Z - and J. H. B on
, J -... App. P A,..17 (1'").1.

w.

F OUNDATIONS OF TH E T H E OR Y

30

(11. 3

(ill) An altunativt AypoIAuU Jor 6trainlumuning. Another hy po-

thesis, less natural than (14) but used more frequently, relates ii to ..
certain measure of the total plastic deformation. A quantity lEI'. known
as the generalized or equivalent plastic strain-incre ment . is defined by
the eq uation

;r.. ~

+ "l (d,~ d,~}'.

(16)

By comparison ..... ith the definition of ii in (14) it will be seen that, apart
from a numerical factor, fI;p is the sam e invariant function of the compon ents of the plastic strain-increment tensor &8 a is of the compo nents

of the deviatori c stress ten sor (remembering that df7J = dflj. since
dfr. = 0). The equivalent st rain (kP, integrated over the strain-path,
t hen provides a meas ure of the plastic distortion. It is assumed t ha t

"

ST R A. I N . H A. R D E N I N G

II . 31

next section that for many metals t he dependence of the state of stress on
t he strain-path is such that the two hy potheses atwayslead to approximate ly t he sa me results . In fact , Schmidt's data (ment ioned previously)
agrees equa lly well. within experimental error, with both (11) and (14).
It is worth noting t hat an explicit expression for the integral in (11)
can also be obtained when the principal ax es of successive atrain-increments do not rotate relatively to the element , and, further, when the
components of any strain-increment bear constant ratios to one another.
It is supposed, too . that elastic strain-increments can be neglected, so
that ilfp and ilf are identical. Let dEl ' dE" and dE" be the principa l com ponents of an increment of stra in. Since there is no change of volume,
we may write
dEl:dE. :dE, = J : a: : -(l + a:),
where a: is constant throughout the strain-path. Then

where H is a certain function depending on the metal concerned. t The

use of strai n -increments is d ictated by t he consideration t hat t he amount
of hardening is obviously not determined only by the difference betwee n
the initial and final sha pes of a n element . If it were , an element would
not be hardened by an extension followed by an eq ual compression, nor
in fact by any st rain-pa t h restoring its original sha pe. This is disproved.
by experiment, which shows that a definite contribut ion to the hardening
is made by every plasti c distortion (a pa rt from Bau schinger effects).
To be satisfactory, then , the measu re of total stra in must involve th
summation of some continually positi ve qu an ti ty over the whole strainpath. The measu re ad opted in (17) is by no means the only possible one,
but it is perhaps the simplest and most na t ural, a nd satisfies all obvio
requirements. A similar relation was proposed by Odquistt ( 1933), i
terms of ik, the analogous express ion in the components of the incremen
of total strain. This is equivalent to (17) only when th e elastic strai
are negligible.
T he num erical fact or in the definition of (l; p ha s been chosen 80 that
t he functi on H ie identical with t he relation betwee n true stress and
logarithmic plastic strai n in a tension or compression tes t . In torsion,
jhp is equal to (tan -T/G)/.J3, in the previ ous notation , an d the graph
of ../3T plot ted aga inst (tan - TIG)J.J3 coincides with th e etresa-etrai
curve in te nsion. In t his case ( J 7) lead s to the same resu lt &8 (14) ; this, 0
course , is not necessarily t rue in general. H owever, it will be shown in th

t Amoregen......&MW'I:Iptionwould be (4. _ .IJ~. J ; ,... I>GIltbeyieldlocu ienot. eirc~

1 F . K. O. Od qu iet., Z~iW. 1IZ"ll'- MtJlh. M reA. 13 (1833 ). 360. For o th.... acemm,"- ...
C. Zener and J . H . H ollomon. T rill..... ...e ..... Soc. Alrt. 33 ( 1H4). 163 ; L.
J ae Uori.
MdGU T eeIIllOlow, T ech. Pub. 2<l12 (1948).

n.

ilf

= ../1 (d(! + dEI+dEJ)i =

2
../3 (I + a:+ c.')1 dEl

if rU1 is positive ; if dE) is negative, t he negative radical must be taken.

Let axes of referen ce be chosen in each element of the material coincidin g
with the principal ax es of strain-increment, whose directions in the
element hav e been assumed constant . By t he definition in (10) , lUI is
equal to O(dul )/ox l where X l is measured along t he first principal a xis
from the centre of the element . Similar express ions may be written for
dEl and dE, . If xf is the val ue of Xl before t he element is deformed,
"t = xt-xf, and so, regarding
as an ind ependent variable,

r:

dEl =

~ (dUl) _ d(~)
& 1

Hence

dEl =

04
EI '

say.

tl( = : 3 (1+a: + 0I1)1(1'

E, can also be defined by simila r expressions, and we then have

( I : E, :(,

and

1+ Ou l '

In(l+ ~J = In(~J =

Therefore
" and

Oxt

= 1 :01 : - (1 + 01:);

f iI; =

../1 (Ef+EI+(~ )1 =

(c = In(: ;):

(18)

say.

(19)

i.

i may be thought of lUI an equivalent total strain, being the same functi on

FOUNDA T IONS OF THE THEORY

32

[11.3

of the r, a.s l( is of the dr,. The quantities defined in (18) are evidently
analogous to t he logarithmic strain In(l jl . ) a1ready defined for simple
tension, but modified to take account of possibl e non-uniformity of the
deformation. If there is a reversal of t he strain-pat h (CI retaining t he
same va lue) the integration must be restarted from the new origin, so
t hat iIf is always taken positive. It sho uld also be care fully noted that,
alt houg h quantities dr, can always be formed, eve n where t he prin cipal
axes rotate relatively to the element , they cannot generally be evaluated
explicitly, a.s in (18), nor d o t hey possess any geomet rical significance.
If, then , only etrain-pe t hs of this special type are considered, and if
eleeric et rain-inerementa are neglected, (17) is equiva lent to

a ~ H ('),

(20)

where i is t he quantity defined in terms of the logarithmic finite strains

by ( 19). The function H is ju st the relation between true stress 0 and
logarithmic st rain In (l j'-) in uniaxial tension (for which CI = -I). The
work-hardening hypothesis in the restricted form (20) wee tint stated by
Roe and Eichinger] (19 29), though they did not limit its U8e to strainpaths where the strain ratios a re constant .t Even so, their experimental
results on the deformation of mild stee l tubes by internal pressure and
exial Jced were consiste nt with (20) to within about 5 per cent . Later
testa by Davisll on ann ealed copper tubes under internal pressure an d
e.xial load confinned t he hypot hesis to a simila r accuracy ; the strain
ratios were again not held strictly constant . Many more experiment.
are desira ble to examine further t he prec ise ranges of validity of (14)
or (17). However, it seems safe to use either hy pot hesis in practical
t M.

no. a od

A . E ichinger. M ttalla D i.d ;"....ioru~,6dIl No.3" an E ~ m

Mau, ialprUj..,upa...uw, ZUrich. 1929 ; Proe. 3", I ,.,. Cong. App. Mrch., Stoc kholm, 3

( 1930) , 26" .
t The reader ill warned t ha.t some .riters have applied (20 ) in c_ wheee t he principfll
aXeII rotate relatively to the element (e.g. torsion ), in conjunction with dellnitbna 0
t he whi ch lead to l"lllIulta at va rian ce wit h (17): 1IllII, for n ample, A. Na.dai . Jovm. App.
PI'/I" S ( 1937) . 206 : E . A. Davis. ibid. 213. Such a p rocedure i.. legit im a te mathemati.
cally, bu t iLl eelevenee for the deformation o f me tab de pend.. on iLl physical approp riateand agreement with ex pe rim en t. At p reeen t t he re
t o be no general theory
worth considering Man a lte rnat ive t o ( H) or (17 ).
I The mUd steel was ennea led, end 80 bet ter agt"e(lIllent co uld not be oxpected it the
yie ld loolU Vu16l1 from a hexago o to a circle.
11 E . A . Dav ill. T raM . Am. S oc. M u ll . Eng . 65 ( 1943 ). A- 187: J OUrrl .'11'1'. M idi . 11
( 1945), A- I3. Boo allo W . T . L&nkford .J. R . Low , lUld M. Oensamer, TraM . Am. I"".
Mi". Md. Eng . 171 (lD"7). 6'74,; D. M. Cunn ingham, E . O. ThumMn. an<l J . E . Dom.
P roc. Am. Soc. Tell. MoI. 7 (1 947). 546. This paper atao indud~ anaceount or a~ experi .
rnent in which the It rMa.ra t iOll ..e re varied, namely by upand1llj' a t ube UI'Ider In ternal
preMUnl while applying a cou tant axial tenaion. I n thia co nn- ilion - a110 H . J,;. nav"
and E . R. Parker,
A PI' . Medt. . 15 (I9'S). 20 1 ; W. R . o-aood. ibid . 69 (194'7).
A- I.7: 8 . J . Fraenkel. ibid . 15 ( lgU), I g3.

f,

n_

_rna

J"""".

11. 31

STRA IN HA R DE N ING

33

applicat ions, where random variat ions in t he properties of t he ma terial

mey well exceed small inaccuracies of theory.

4. The com p lete s t r esa-etr a ln relations

(i) General relalWm between , lru, and ,train. In the last section a
th eory was formula.ted to describe the hardening of a metal du ring
plastic distortion. Suppose, now. that an element of met al has been
cold -worked by taking it along a certain strain-pa th, and that its state
of hardening is represented by some yield locus. If the stress is increased
to a point just outside the yield locue, a further increment of plastic
strain must be enforced . The eeeocieted increment of elastic st rain is
known from (11) directly in te rms of the strese increment, but we have
not yet considered how to calculate the increment of plastic strain. It
is true that t wo condit ions rest ricting possible plasti c strains are already
known: the plastic volum e change must be zero , and the magn itude of
the strain is governed , through (14) or (17), by the position of the new
yield locus. Fou r more relations must be found, however. since there
are six components of the strain-increment te nsor to be dete rmined .
The choice of possible relations is se verely restricted by th e considera tion th at no plastic strain can occur d urin g a ny increment of st ress for
which the stress-point remains on the sa me y ield locus. Th is follows
from the definition of a yield locus. and in fa ct is implied by equations
(14) and (17) when the locus is a circle. Su ch stress cha nges have been
well called ' neut ral' . since they constit ute neither loading nor unloading. t I n the special, and rather trivial , case when the principal axes
rota te, but the reduced principa l stresses retain the sa me values, the
stress -point stays where it is. Now according to the postulate in Section
3 (il t he yield loci depend on the strain-history t hrough a single parameter
only. We suppose, therefore, t hat the yield criterion (4) can be put into
I (J;, J ;) = c,
(21)
the form
wherej'd oes not depe nd on t he et rain-hietory, which enters only thro ugh
the parameter c. A general ne utral change dati is then such that

df _ af do" _ af, dJ;+ af, dJ; ~ o.

oOlj
. oj .
oJ 3
The Condition t ha t drr; is zero for a neutral cha nge of stress is satisfied
by assum ing that
drP = G d;
lj
Ii 'J '
where Gtl is a symmetric te nsor. The Glj are supposed to be func tions of
the stress components a nd poeeibly ofthe previ ous strain-history, bu t not
t o . H . Handelman. C. C. Lin, and W . Praaw, Q.... rt.

App \lalll (19"'), 397.

FOUND AT IONS OF T H E T H E ORY

III. '

of th e stress -increment . The significance of t his la.st assumpt ion should

be carefully st udied : it mea ns th at the re ttce of the components of t he
plastic strain-increment are fun ctions of th e curre nt steese but not of th e
atreea-inerement. Th e assumpt ion is suggested by the following coneldera tlone. I n a crystal gra in a plast ic strain-increment is produced by
a combination of shears a long certain slip directi ons, depending on the
orientation of th e grain and its externa l cOll8traint ; for t he operation of
such a glide-system a certain state of st ress is needed , and hence, as a
statistical average over all grains, a definite macroscopic stress. T he
etresa -Increment enters only in determining t he magnitude of the et rainincrement , as meas ured by th e invar iant (h I>, As we shall see later, all
experiment&1 determinations of th e st ress-st rain relations ha ve been
carried out und er conditions where any effect of t he stress-increment
would be negligible. Consequent ly , th ere is at present no evidence that
the stress-i ncrement influences the rat iosof the components of the plast ic
IItrain-increment .
Th e functions OJ} mu st sat isfy two necessary conditions: (i) the
restriction 0 ( ( = 0 must be imposed to ensure zero plast ic volume change;
[ii] t he principal axes of t he plastic strain-increment tensor, and so of
OJ}' must coincide with the principal stress axes, since t he element ia
isotropic. Th ese condit ions can be satisfied with sufficient generality
by choosing

OiJ =h~,
at7(J

where g and h are scalar functions of t he invariants J; and J;, and

possibly also of th e st rain-histo ry. We now have th e equations

d.~ ~ h ~df,

(22

at7fJ

which were a ppare ntl y first used by Melant in 1938. With th e definit ions
of J; a nd J; in (5), equation (22) may be written

df~ = h(aj~ a:J + aj; ~J)d/,

where t(J= ai",akJ-iJ;Su is the deviator of th e square of the reduced
stress. If g and h are chosen, t his set of equations determines t he plastio
stra in-increment corresponding to a given st ress-increment . A new state
of hard ening is th ereby produ ced, represented by a slightly differe nt
yield locus. Th e new locus is calculable from t he change in th e peremeter e, which we may regard &8 va rying in a known way a long the
t E. Melan. lIogm ir" r.A rd ir .lI ll e38). 118.

n .4.]

TH E COMP LET E S T RE SS . ST RA IN R E L ATI O NS

atrain-path. Since th is locus must naturally pass th rough th e new stresspoint , it follows t hat g and h cannot both be chosen arbitra rily but mus t
satisfy a certain necessary condition. This we now proceed to find .
The opposite standpoint may, of course, equally well be taken : the rela ti ons between strain-increment, stress, and etreee-Increment, may be
laid down arbi trarily, and t he way in which t he paramete r C varies with
the stress- and st rain -history will then be Implied.
(ii) GeonutriaJl rtpru entalion 0/ the pkutie 8train-incrt ment. Sufficient
generality is retained if (22) is specialized further by ass uming that t he
ratios of t he plastic strain components depend only on th e rati os of th e
reduced stress components and not on their abso lute magnit udes. In
ot her words, states of stress specified by the same value of po, applied to
the element after varying amounts of pre -strain, elweye produce the
same ratios of the incremental plast ic strain components. Th is has
usually been tacit ly ass umed in expe rimental work ;t it is probable only
80 long as the element rema ins isot ropio and deforms by the same basic
atomic processes. g can then be taken to be a homogeneous fun ction of
the stress components, and independent of t he st rain- history. The
surface g = constant in (at, aa, (1, ) space is a cylinder of uniform section,
cutting the plane n orthogonally in some curve r. Now th e plast ic
strain-increment can also be rep resented in t he same space by a free
vector 20 (df, dff , dt": ), where the factor 20 is introduced to obtain th e
dimensions of stress. Th is vector lies in n since dff + dff + dff = 0_
The equations (22) may t hen be interpreted as stating t hat the vecto r
representing th e plastic strain-increment. is parallel to th e normal to r
at the point of intersection with th e stress vecto r (we must obv iously
suppose that r ill met only once by any radius from th e origin). Now,
with a single crystal, t he reversal of the sign of th e applied stress doee not
change the opera tive glide-planes but only t he sense of t he respective
&hears ; hence th e st ra in-increment is cha nged only in sign. This would
also be true of a polycrystal were it not for t hose internal stresses pro
duced by the previous st ra ining as a result of th e differe ntial crystal
orientations. Since we are neglecting t he effects of th ese, th e slope of
the curve I' must be th e same at opposite ends of a diameter. Hence,
th e function g must be a n even function of th e at reeeee, and th erefore
of J;. Furthermore, if th e material is isotropic, th e effect of interchanging at and (11 is merely to interchange d~1 and dfa; thus, r is
eymmetricel with respe ct to th e three axes. I t follows th at r must ,
t See, bowevlll', 8 . J . Fraenkel.Jou..... App. M edi.15 (I H 8).I Il3.
in v..no\l8 . \ate. o ( h&rde nm, (or _ given ,. .

Lode,aI.o.~W"ltd

"like th e yield locus C, be identical in each of the 30 segments of

F OUNDATI ON S OF TH E THE ORY

(11. 4

Fig. 2.
Fi g. 6 shows a t ypi cal 30 seg ment of Jl , cut off by th e stress vectors
p. = 0 and p. = -1. The ab solute size of I' is, of course , immate ria l.
The plastic strain-incre ment vector RQ' is parallel to th e normal at t he
point R where the stress vecto r OP meets r (RQ ' is a free vector and
can be placed a ny where in the plane) . If if; denotes th e angle between
J.I -I

1I.4J

THE COMPLETE STRE S S. ST R AI N R EL ATI ONS

"

Ideally, a thin tube t wisted by couples should therefore not change ita
length ; if a cha nge is obser ved it is d ue either to anisotropy resulting
from a prefer red orientation , or to inte rnal stresses, or to a combination
of both. If the tubc is isotropic the sense of t he length change is the same
if th e to rque is re versed ; if the sens e or relative ma.gnitude is altered, the
tube mu st be anisotrop ic. Returning to the curve J' , it follows, for
reaso ns of contin uity, t hat it mu st cut orthogonally the radii bounding
the 30 segments. Apart from this, I' may conceivably be of any shape
provid ed that the normals at two points in the same segment are not
parallel, for reasons of uniqueness. The in crem ent of plastic work per
unit volum e may also be found in terms of geometrical quantities:

0:
OP.RQ'
2G

But

' d'
= 0"1'd ef + a2'd'+
t"1 a3
t"a =
IOPI = ';(a~2 + a~t+a;l ) = "'i s,

and

IRQ' I ~ 2G"(d.f'+d.f'+d.f')

2Gv! a., .

dW.p

p."'D

(J

Fl O. 6. Geome t rica.l eepreeentetlon of t he 8traBll end the

plas t ic ,tra.in-inc reme nt b y vectors in t he plane IT.

RQ ' and th e radius p.. = 0, a param eter v (not to be confused with

P oisson 's ratio) is defined by the relation
v -_

'31an't'.f. _- 2df -df-df

-'V

df- df

(23)

'

The d efinition of v is ana logous to (6) for p-, and was also introduced by
Lod e. A plastic stra in-increment is complet ely specified when v is given
(for the pre sent di scussion we d o not need to know the directions of the
common principal ax es of the stress and plastic eteain-Incrernent'tensors).
In pure tension (/L = -1) it follows from symmetry t ha t v = - 1 for an
isotropic elemen t . For the ideal body t he strain cor responding to a pu re
shear stress (". = 0) must be a pure shear st rai n (v = 0). Thi s may be
shown by the following arg ument. Suppose that the st rain (dt"l' dt" t , dt"a)
corresponds to the shea r stress (a, - a, O). If, as w e ass ume, the direct ional effects of intemel atressea are negligible, the re verse of this stress,
namely (-(7, a, 0), pro du ces th e st rain (- dt"! , - dt"t , -dt",). Bu t t he
stress ( - (7, a, 0) is also obtaina ble from (a, -a, 0) by inte rcha nging the
axes, and hence, in an isotropic mate rial , produces the stra in
(dt"t, df l' d f a)

Thus ( - dt"I' - dft, - d f a) is equ iva lent to (dt" t, dt"l' dt"a ); th is is only
possible if dt"l = - d t"t and df a = 0 , that is, if t he strai n is a pu re eheer.t
t It Bhould be noted that it iB only necesaa ry to ......ume that the .....' e rea l of the et rM'
re venefl t he .trai n wh en the st rese il a pure Bhea r. Thua g noed not be
it i. l ufRcicn t if iJg/aJ; is ze ro ",hen
O.

J; _

IBn

eve n funct ion;

Hence

dJfp

= iii1fPcos(ifJ- 8).

(24)

(25)

It will be supposed t ha t t he sha pe of the y ield locus is also preserved

duri ng progressive deformation, implying t ha t I is a hom ogeneous
function of the stresses which is ind ependent of strain-history. By con vention we choose t he sign oi ] so th at the condi tion for continued loading
of a plastic element is dl > O. Th e fun ction h is determined from the
way in which the element work-hardens. For our ideal plastic body we
assume that the state of hardening depends only on the total plastic
work 80 that t he yield criterion (2 1) is
(26)

This is a genera lizat ion of (14). F is a monotonically -increasing positive

function and can be dete rmined from the etrese-et rein curve in simple
tension , on ce f has been assigned. E9uation (22) ca n now be written ee
dt"Ij = hF'

!2.... (akldt".l',),

oall

where F ' is the derivative of F with respect t o its argument . Multiplying

through by a'i and summing :
a'ldt"Ij = hF'al j!2....(alcldf fz) = nF'ghuk1 dft,
aa(1

by E uler's theorem for homogeneous functions , n bein g the d egree of g.

Thus
n F ' gh -_ I
W 7.li

F OU NDATIONS OF THE TH E ORY

"This is t he condi tion on

(II. ..

g end 11 that we were seeking . On eli min at ing 11

th e relationa for the plastic strain-increment become

d.~ ~ ~ !J... df

(df ;;' 0).

(27)
ng &Ttl F'
The functions I, g. and F are to be rega rded &8 known, eit her calculated

from experimental data or arbit rarily prescribed. The equat ions (27)
a re a complete statement of plastic behavi our during cont inued loading.
If the stress-increment is such that dJ < 0 t he element unloads, and t he
change of strain is no longer governed by (27) but by th e elastic equations
(11). Further plastic deformation does not occur until the stress- point
again liea on t he yield locus defined. by t he st ress fro m which unloading
began.

5. The Uvy-Mlses and Reuss equations

(i) T heoret ical epeculat lon about the relation be tw een s tress and s t rain

origina ted in 1870 with Saint-Venant's treatment of plane plastic

st rain.t With groat physical insight Saint Venant proposed that the
prin cipal axes ofthe strain-increment (and not the to ta l strain) coincided
with t he axea of principal stress. Saint-Venant did not discuss t he
dependence of Il on 1', eit her for plane strain or more generelly.f A
general relationship between the rat ios of the components of the strainincrement and t he stress ratios wee first suggested by Uvy (1871).
Levy's work remained largely unknown outside his own country, a nd
it was not until th e same equations were euggeeted independently by
von Misesll in 1913 that t hey became widely used as th e besle of plasti city
th eory. The Levy-Miees equetione , as th ey are known, rna)' be expreeeed
dIE
dIE
dIE
dy
dy
dy
in the form

- i!

= - ,"

Uz

UN

= -.~ = _I'~
O.
T N'

_~ =~ ,
T,z.
T.

or , more compactly, as
dlE jJ = OIJd.\,
(28)
where d.\ is a scalar factor of proportlonelity.t] Since Levy and von

n. til

Mises used the tota l st rain-incre ment, and not the pleatic atrain-increment, th e equations are strictly appli cable only to a fictitious material
in which th e eleenc st rains are zero. Accordingly Young's modulus
must be regarded as infinitely large, th e ma terial rema ining rigid when
unloaded. The extension of th e Le vy -Mleee equatio ns to allow for th e
eleetlc component of th e strain was carried out by Prandtlt (1924) for
th e plane pro blem, and in complete genera lity by Reu88t (1930). ReUS8
a.ssumed that
dlElj = alJ tU.
(29)
I t is evident that these equations are equivalent to t he combined statements that t he principal axes of stress and plastic strain -Increment are
coincident, and that p. = v. Regarded from the geometrical representation of Fig. 6, this means that RQ' is parallel to O P . The curve r is
then & circle, and g = J~ , tJg/Ba u = ai.J. E quations (27) become
d. Ii -- 2J
a"df
' F"

"u/2,.

. h/ = F
wlt

(J _r) from (25).

aaE P

If this is combined with von 1tlises' yield crite rion J =

th at (26) reduces to (14), we obtain

df~ = 3ujJ rJq

iJ

2q1 F'

F' =

'

a=

J( 3J~ ) , 80

dii

a 'J:io

But since a = F(J a J;p) it follows t hat ii is 8. funetion only of a;,..

In other words, when p. = v, the work-hard ening bypcth eeee (14) and
(17) are equivalent . From th e definition of th e funct ion H in (17), F'
is equal to H '/a where H' is the slope of th e equivalent stress/plastic
strain curve. For simplicity it is bet ter to wri te t he last equation in
terms of H rather than F:
d P _ 3aOda
(30)
lEu - 2iiH'
Alternatively, this may be split into th e two statements

a = H (J)
ilf" .

d(C

30iJ
ikp = 2a'

B . d e Saint.Ven ant. Comp/t" Rend" . A cad. Sci . PlIrw , 70 (1870 ), 473 ; J ourn. Mo41o .
p u ru tl IIpp . 16 ( 1871), 308 ; Crnnptu R tndUoJ Acad. Sci. Par.... 7' ( 1872) . 1009 an d 1083.
t In a pplieation. to particular probl em . Sai n t .Ve nant used T rollCa'. yie ld eriterio n
a nd euppoeed the work -ha rd ening to be zero.
f M . U v y . Comptu R t nd UoJ Acad. Sci . PlI rU.70 ( IS70), 1323 ; Journ . M w. . pt.lru II
IIpp. t6 (ISH ). 369. See I . Todh unter and K . Peerson, A H ~ oj IA. Eltul~ lind
Slrmgeh oj Motffl4h (Ca mb ridge, IS93). vel. ii. part i. 16.5 et IItIq. for a crit ica l re vill....
of t he work of Saint-Venant and Uvy.
II R . von Mieo:-A. Otlll in.ger NatAridlltn. maIA.pAy . K laIIH (19 13), .582.
tt The l'Noder ahoul d gu.ard agairult a faei lfl ana logy " 'ith thfl eq....a tiona for a Ne ....to nian
vitolou. ftuid: i l/ _
whe re the vi llCOIIit y ,. i. a material e<mItant ~ and t he rate of
train il d il"fOC'l tly linltNt " 'ilh t be epplled lIt~. Although (2S) can be :"",Itt-: n ... i ll _ A'..~
the l"fllationa bet" 'een .ttNI and .trai n a re .till indepcmd. nt of tunll tmee t hfly ano

39

THE L :t V Y- M t8 E S AND R E USS EQ UAT IO N S

(31)

From (15) the complete eteese-eteein relations are

d,. ~ 3a" da + da"
II

e =

2iiH'

20

(d

) }

a~ 0 ,

(1- 2.) s :

(32)

U-U~ , .

~Iy homogtlneou.. AI8o ,\ it certainly not a material con8tant . b u t variN

duriDt: the df!fonutiOli.

t L. Pr.ndtl. Proc. 1_ /",. Cor.,. App . M d. . Dfllf\ . (It!,). '3.

~ A. Reu.. llne.. ltnf. MoIJi . MICA. to ( 1' 301. 2M .

F O U N D AT IO S S OF THE T HE ORY

[II. $

All the applications of plasticity t heory to be described in this book a

baaed on these equ ations.
In many problems it is necessary to introduce a further simplification
in orde r to avoid mathematical d iffic ulties. Work -hardeni ng is neglected
altogether, 80 t hat the yield locus remain s unchanged during the range
of strain considered . a is then & constant (usually replaced by Y . the
te nsile yield IItreea) and H' = O. In te nsion the material deforms elastic
ally up to a yie ld-point Y and th en extends under constant stress. Thi
is the ideal ma terial of classical theories. From (31) the equations for th
plastic strain-increment are
d l'. _ 30'1(11'
{o -

2Y ( .

Th ese eq uations are a complete statement since they ca rr)' th e implica

ti on that a = Y (as may be verified by squa ring each Ride a nd summing)
Many .....ritera int rod uce t he proportionality factor d;\', in which case t"..
state ments are needed :
df~

= <1i j cU. ;

<1;jO';j = 2ylj3 = 2k l ,

On combin ing this wit h the elastic component of the strain, we obtai
eq uations originally due to Reu88:
df 'lj = a'j' d' dl'1tj
2G '

"'+

II. ' J

.,

d ' _ 30'; do+dO';

f, 20H '
2G'

<) 1-1

d' _

= . '" .

By differentia ting th e yield crite rion, we find l'1ijdO'ij = O. The in

mental work of distorti on O'; j df ;j per unit volume is thus just the pl&4ti
work d l~ = l'1:j dffl (cf. Hencky 's interpretation of von ~fises' yiel
crite rion, p. 20). Since the plasti c work must be positive, that is,
.,.. 0 ,
dWp -- 2k'dA '"

a prescribed strain-increment dfij produ ces loading if l'1i j df/j > 0

equations (33) th en uniquely det ermine the etress-increment . When th
work of distortion is negati ve, unloading takes place. If. on th e ot he
hand, a et rese-incremcnt satisfying uij dO';j = 0 is prescribed (so t ha t th
element is st ill plasti c), the elasti c st ra in-increment is known, bu t tU an
the magn itude of the plastic st rain-incre ment are ind eterminate fro
(33), In ten sion , for example, if the stress is maintained at the yiel point an arbitrary am ount of exte nsion may be produced . Other con
lIide rations determine the magnitude of t he plastic strain, for exempl

applied constrai nts or restricti ons du e to neighbo uring elements of the

material. Th e eq uations (32) an d (33) are t herefore to be contras ted in
th is respect.
The assumption that the hardening is zero does not diminish the prectica.l value of th e t heory as muc h as one might suppose. For pre-strained
metals the rate of ha rden ing is comparatively small, a nd eq uations (33)
are then a good approximation. I fn ecessery, a semi-empirical correction
factor can be applied to the calculated stresses ; severa l examples will be
described late r. For an a nnealed metal the usual practice is to work with
an arbitrarily chosen average value of t he yield stress, t hough, as we
IIhaU see, it is sometimes possible, even in complicated problems, to
allc w for hardenin g in a more rational way .
(ll) TM geometrical repru enlation 01 8treu and 8train in a pla ne
ditupam. R et urning to the equations (32), we now describe a geometrical
represe ntation of st ress and st rain in the special case w hen the principal
axes of stress are fixed in the element.j The principal axes of the elastic
and plastic st rain-incrementa a re then coincident. If the common
principal ax es are chosen as t he fixed a xes of referen ce, three of the six
equations for the devletori c strai n components vanish identically, the
rema ining three being
df' = 31'1~ do + dO'~
1
20H '
2G'

(33
I'1j jO'ij

THE LVY-!II1 SE S AN D RE USS EQ UATION S

f"a -

(34)

30'; do+ du;

208 '

20 '

Only two of these are independent, since t heir sum is identically zero. It
should be carefully noted that dO'i (i = 1, 2, 3), defined in the first place
&8 the nonnal components of the stress-increment referred to axes of
:eference fixed in t he element , are also in t his special case eq ual to t he
l~crements d(O',) of the principa l etresa components. (When the principel axes rotate, it is not generally true, of course . t hat th e principal
components of the st ress-increme nt are equal to t he increments of the
principal components of eteeee.) As th ere are on ly two non-vani shing
t

VariOU8 go,ometrieal repreeenta.tiona have t-n. peopoeed Cor certain .pecia1 l ta.*

~r.t~ : CO~ plane I tI'&in by L. Prandtl. Pn:oe . 1.1,." CO'ftg. App. Mu4 . Do.lIft . (l92f l. 43 ;
Ie: koruon by A. Nadai. Z nu. <mg. MalA . M u4 . 3 ( lg231. 4f 2. and Proc. l .... Mu4. E,.,.
I 7 1I~7 1. 121; COl' com bined tomon and tenaion by W. Pnce~, J _",. JtP1/. Pll/I. U
( ~" I,~. TIle ClOnIt.nIetion ~bed ben! ia due to R . HiU, DiHtrf,cII
p . Sf (Cam.
bridge I':'SJ. M.ued by Miniatry or Supply. AnDUDent ~h E-tablW.
" .. Survey
I' .... It IS. genwali.&etioa oCone due to A. ReuM. Ln.... . . ,. MOlA. Md. 10 (lg30I, 26t.

F O UNDA TI O N S OF THE THEO RY

(II. &

independ ent relations, t he de viatoric stresses and strains can be repre eented in a plane diagram . When t he prin cipal axes of stress and streeeincrement are not coincident , a five-dimensional space would normally
be requ ired , al th ough th e relat ions between th e dress a nd th e plastic
st rain-incremen t, or between th e stress-increment and th e elastic st rainincrement , can still be 6t parak ly represented in two dimensions.
In Fig. 1 OP and OQ represent t he curre nt deviatoric stress a nd strain
in t he plane n, t he coordi nates of Q being 2Gf j (i = 1, 2, 3), where f{

... ... ,

p'

,
,

0:

\ 0,

Stram path

o
Flc . 1. R<!'Jl~nt&tion o r t M R eUMNola t ion Bfor 6
plutie ele m"nt of wo rk ha rd en ing metaJ. when the
principal alt~ of fl t l'f:'Slll a re fixed in t he ele ment .

is defined in (IS). OP also represe nt s th e deviato rio elastic st ra in reo

covera ble by complete unloading. PQ t herefore represents th e total
plastic stra in. During continued deformation P and Q describe curve.
which respe ctively represent the st ress- a nd st rain-paths, or more
exa ctly t he projections on Il of the paths in (0 1 ,01 , OJ ) space. Th
hydrostat ic components 0 and f are represented by vectors perpendicule
to n (see Sect . 2), and need not be considered furt her. Let PP' be
increment of stress a nd QQ ' t he corres ponding increment of stra in with'
components df j. The elast ic strain-increment daj/2G is represented by'
t he vector QR with component s da;, and is therefore equal to th e vectc
PP '. Accord ing to (34) QQ' is the sum of t he vectors representing t he
elasti c and plast ic components of th e stra in, and so RQ ' must be the
plastic st rain-increment . Let QS be th e per pendi cular from Q on to
Q'R pr oduced. Since PP' is parallel to QR, and OP is par allel to RQ'
by th e Reuss equations, the acute angle between OP and P P' is equa l to
angle QRS . Now by (24) OP is of length .vJ 0, and 80
"I da ~ P r e,," L QR S = QR eo. LQ R S ~ S R .
But from (24) we elec hev e
do = If' il( p =

~~ vi R Q'.

II. I]

TH E Lt V Y- MI S E S AND R E US S E Q UAT IONS

"

On equating t hese expressions for do we obtain an equation for t he

position of R :
SR
H'
(35)
RQ' = 3G (0 ';; H' < co).
The construction for the stra in-increment QQ' prod uced by a given
stress -increment PP', const it uting loading, is t hen as follows. Throu gh
th e st rain-point Q draw QR equal W PP' and in t he same direction. Let
fall the perpendicular QS on to t hc line through R parallel to OP. The
new stra inpoint Q' th en lies on S R produced, t he distance R Q' being
given by (35). If PP' is such th at P' lies within th e yield circle t hrough
P, th e element is unloaded and the st ra in-increment QQ' , being entirely
elastic , is parallel an d equal to PP' ; th e stress- and st rain-pointe will then
continue to trace identical path s until th e form er once more crosses t he
circle. If, on th e other hand , QQ ' is given, dr aw Q' S parallel to OP, and
let QS be the perpendicular to this line. Th e position of R is defined by
(35), a nd QR is th e elastic st rain-increment. Th e stress-increment P P '
is then determ ined since it is equal and parallel to QR. However, (35)
docs not fix the position of R uniquely since t here a re t wo pointe dividing
S Q' in a given ratio, one inside S Q' and th e other outside. Uniqueness
is secured by the considerat ion that (i) P' must lie outside the yield
circle through P and th e plast ic work OP . RQ' must at the sam e t ime be
positive , or (ii) these t wo condit ions cannot be satisfied simultaneously
for either position of R, in which case unload ing occurs and PP' is equal
and parallel to QQ'. When th e materi al does not work -harden , P' is
const rained to move along th e circle t hrough P. QR is th en always
perpendicular W RQ ', and the work OP. QRJ2G expended in elastic
distortion is zero, as a lready observed.
It is clear from (35) that when H ' is of t he order G the elastic component of the strain is at least of t he same order of magnit ude as the
plastic component. This is 80 in the initial part of the strees-strein curve
of an annealed metal , a lthough after a loga rithmic strain of about 0'05,
H' is normally much less t han G. However, th e elastio component of
strain may still be a pprecia ble, and even predominant. Th is is so
whenever QQ ' mak es a large a ngle with OP . I n the limit when QQ' is
perpendicular to OP, th ere is no plastic strain-increment at all ; S and R
coincide with Q' , a nd the stress-point P' lies on t he same yield circle.
At the other extreme th e elast ic component is least when QQ' is parallel
to OP. Th is may be realized in practi ce by increasing the stress component8 monotonically while holding th eir ratios constant. Th e streee POint th en travels outwards a long a bed rad ius, correaponding to th e

FOUN DATION S O F T HE TH E O R Y

[II. 6

assigned constant value of p... Wha.tever the (iL, v) relatio n th e strain.

point also moves in a. fixed direct ion, according to the previous assumpti on a bout r . This type of exper iment , which is often employed to
determine t he (p.. , II) relationship, possesses t wo great adv antages:
(i) the complicat ing effect of th e elast ic component of strain is redu ced
to a. minimum, and is altogether negligible if th e material is slightly prestrained; (ii) since th e expre ssion (23) for I' is now equal to the analogous

-,

~ -IO

-- 2

,.

:/
1/

1/

./

Cop~r

x Alummlum

-z

TH E L ~ VY- M ISES A ND R E U SS EQU A T IO NS

-8

.. M lld l~titl

-10

expression in th e finite stra ins (18), the measurement of II may, fo

greater accuracy, be based on th e latter.
(iii) Experim ental evidence. The first experiments to investigate th
validity of t he Levy- Mlses relat ion were not made until 1926, whe
Ladet tested tubes of iron, copper. and nickel under combined tensio
and inte rnal pressure. An a pproximately consta nt ra tio of axial an
circu mferentia l stresses was maint ained in each test . It was found th a
the relation was valid to a first approximat ion, but in spite of appre
ciable scatter in th e dat a due to anisot ropy: in th e drawn tubes th
results indicated a probable deviation from th e relation. Later tests b
W . Lode, Z eiu . Phl/" 36 ( 1926), 913.
"
.
: In many ina t&ncN ~ ..._ not equ",l to _ I in . im ple tenalon, .. It . ho uld be m
iII.ot ro p ie material {rom . ymme try alone .

'6

Lodet in 1929, with tubes machined from solid bars to minimize anisotropy, supported this view. The deviation was confirmed in 1931 by the
classical experiments of Taylor and Quinney,: who stressed tu bes of
aluminium, copper , and pre-strained mild steel in combined tension and
torsion. The axia l load was held constant while t he torque was increased,
so th at t he stress ratios were not constant. The degree of anisot ropy was
kept within allowed limits by obser vati ons of t he change in internal
volume of t he t ubes during pure tension ; this should be zero for a truly
isotropic tu be (elastic strains being neglected). The results of Taylor
and Quinney are reproduced in Fig. 8. Pragerfound that the observations can be app roxima tely fitted by ta king
g(J;, J ;) =

FlO. 8. Experimental results of Ta ylor and Qu inney fro m

combined torsion and ten.eion teIIts on t h in walled tubes
(I' and u are Lode'. variablllll).

11.6]

J;(1-0'13 ~t:)

in place of g = J;, but t he corresponding stress-st rain relations (21)

would be very cumbersome to use" On th e other hand , Schmidt] (1932)
tested mild steel a nd copper t ubes in combined torsion a nd tension,
the stress ratios being constant , and obta ined results agreeing with the
U vy-Mises relation within experiment al error. However, recent experiments by Davistt (1943 ) on copper, a nd by FraenkelU (194 8) on mild
steel, using tubes under internal pressure and axial load, hav e again
shown deviati ons.
It seems fair to regard t he Levy-Mlsee relation as a reasonably good.
first approximation, t hough for appli cations requiring a high accuracy
it willevent ually be necessary to include th e deviations in th e th eoretical
framework. At present, however , th e experimenta l data appears to be
too slight to make t he add itional mathematical complexity worth while.

6. The Hencky stress-strain eq uations

Anoth er syste m of stress-strain equati ons, due to Hencky (1924),
must be briefly referred to , as it has been frequently applied in special
problems. This is unfortunate because th e equations are , as we shall see,
not enti rely suita ble for represent ing th e observed behaviour of a metal.
W. Lode, unpu bli~hed wo rk , refereed to by A. Nadai, T m n8. A m. Soc. M uh. E ng .
(1933). 111.
" O. I. Tayl or a nd H . Quinne y, Phil. Tr an , . Roy. S oc. A, 230 (1931), 323.
o W. Prager, M t m. Sci ",M alA. 87 ( 1937) ; Joum . A pp. Ph", . 16 (1946) , S37. See 111&0
. H . H ",ndelman, C. C. Lm, II.fId W . Pr&ger, op - cn., p . 33.
It R. Schmidt , lngm~r ...4 rchiv, 3 ( 1932 ), are.
tt E . A. Dav ia, TJUn8. Am. Soc . M Wi . Eng. 65 ( 1943), A-IS7.
U S. J . Jo'raenkel, J oum . AW. M w.. U ( 1948). 193.
....1:' H . H eock)", Z fit. . ang . MAth. M Wi. 4 (11124), 323 ; Prr.>o. I.e 1...,. Cong. AW. M Wi .,
~I{t (192').

FO UNDATIONS 01<' THE THE ORY

[II. 5

It is assumed that the strains are so small that their squa res ca n be
neglected, the te nsor of tot al slrain being defined as in elas ticity by the
equation

(a-.'+-'
au~
,

1
f'J = -

2 &xi

'"~ (Ht~)a", }
fjj

(1-2.)

(7u.

where If> is a scala r qua ntity . essentially positive during continued loadin
and zero during unloading. E qu ations of th is ty pe were p reviously u
by N&dait in the special problem of torsion. The plastic component 0
the stra in is evidently
flj = 4>aij "
(37
As &. hypothesis of'work -herdenl ng ~ is normally taken to be a functic
of u; t his is clearly equiva lent to the assumption t hat a is a given funcno
of i P. If a is constant and t he hardening zero (as in Hen cky 's origina
form ulat ion ), ~ is an unspeci fied proportionality factor, an alogous to cD.
(33). According to (37). t he components of total plasti c st ra in are propor
t ional to the corres pondi ng deviatoric stress components, whereas in th
Reuss equatio ns (29) the components of the increment of plas tic stra in a
proportional to th e devietoric st ress componente .f Again, in the Henck
equa t ions t he fina l state of strai n is determined by the final state of st
while in the Reuss equations there is no suc h unique correspo ndence. I
general the tw o systems of eq uations lead to d iffere nt conclusions .
The Reuss and H encky t heories ca n be directly contrasted by mea ns
of the previ ous geo metrical representation , if we suppose for this purpo
that t he principal stress ax es are fixed in d irecti on . E quation (36) state
that the strain-point Q lies on the prolongation of t he st ress vecto r 0 .
Thus, accord ing to Hencky'a equations, as Q describes Rome strain-pet
the stress vector rotates so that it is d irected towards Q at eve ry stage.
According to t he Reuss equations, on thc ot her hand , t his happens onlyj
when t he etreln-path is a st ra ight line th rough the origin, that is, whe
t A. N.d.i. Zfit . " ng.\lut" .1Itch . J

(1!J23). "4 2. See.tao I' lWlfici, y ( McGr. ..... H ill

B ook Co. 1931).
. . .1
: A . A . lIy u Bh in . Priklad'la ;g }.IotUl1alilro i Mdhan lka . 9 ( 19'~1,' 207. haJj d eoo ignal<"!
t heoriea o f the Re u....ml lI " n ck y t )l'f'" a.s f1 o... .nd u"rann. uon ' th~orl"" . res pec'
t ively . Since fto w sh ou ld be reooerve<t to co n n#J te d eformat io n "",<.I" r co~tant at ..-:
th ia tennino lof{Y ia no t to be rec ommended . It i . p refera ble to .I-k of Inc.... m~ll:lW
and ta W ' atrain t h eon..

"

the stress and strain ra tios are held constant. t AnalyticaUy, if u fJ "'" Cufj'
where
is conetent and C is a monotonically increeei ng parameter. we
have from the Reuss equationa:

crt

ax

where u, is th e total di splacement of a pa rti cle whose init ial posit ion w
Hencky's equations are

x,.

THE HEN CKY STRESS STR AI N EQUAT IONS

II. II]

d*i j = Cufi tD.

+~~ .

The strains being small, d*fj is equal to ' tj, where this has the meaning
defined above. H ence

1) .

~ fC W\+20
J> a" = (A
"'+20

su = Ujj

u fJ'

if f is written for (f CtD.)/C. These are th e Hencky equations . By a

alight extension of the argument leading to (20), to allow for elastic
IItrains. it may be verified that the respective work-herdeningbypotheeee
are also identical. When t he strain-path is curved, different stresa states
are predicted by the Reu ss and Hencky theories ;t possible experiments
have been suggested by Dru cker.
It is very easy to show that the Hencky equationa are unsuitable to
describe the romplek plastic behaviour of a metal. S uppose that after &
certain plastic defor mation the elemen t is unloaded , partially or completely, and then reloaded to a di fferent stress state on the same yie ld
locus. \"' hile the stress-point lies insid e the yield locus only elastic
changes of stra in can occur, and the to tal plastic stra in is unchanged.
According to (37), however, the plastic stra in ra tios are now entirely
different since the state of st ress has changed. This means that t he
plast ic strai n itself has al tered during the unloading and reloading, which
is absurd. I n principle t he same object ion has been made,t hough less inei sively, with regard to neu tral changes of stress, by H andelman, Lin, and
Prager ,1I who ha ve shown that it is im possible to satisfy th e necessary continuity conditions between the elas tic and plastic stress-stra in equations
even with very general total strain relations. None t he less, in sit uations
~herethe loading ill continuous, the Hencky equ ations may lead to result s
In approximate agreement wit h observat ion. I nsome problems , too, total
str~in theories have certain advantages of mathemati ca l convenience.
It IS apparently for thi s reason that the Hencky , or more gene ra l total

Pr!

A. A . I1YllBhin. PriJ:ladnaia Matfmat ilra i _\ld cha n. ilro , 1t (1947), 293. See .. 1ao W .
gee, Jou.rn . App. P ity . 19 ( 1948). 640 .
~ .It is a com mon fall acy to . u ppoH t ha t . ainn t he . t ra iruo aN lBllBumed emall.itia
~:'n:"'te to rep lace ' II ~y d~.J in (3 7 ). Th ia " 'o u ld be eq u iva len t to the atatement th.t
y, .. equal to lI tz ... h lC h on ly tf\NI. o f co u rse , when 1//z ia eo natant .
See D. C. D rucke... Proc. Jet Annwol S ympal um j".. .App. M aJA., Am _ Ma t h. Roo. 1041.
aboo Sert. 3 (vi). Chap. V.
D O. II . H&lt<.le lman. C. C. Lin. &ltU W . P~r , op. en ., p . 33 .

I.

..

FOUNDATIONS OF TH E TH E ORY

[II. II

strain, rela tions have often been used in app lications where th e strains
are small,t particularly by Russian writers. Of course, when t he strains
are large t he Hencky equa tions cannot be used without mcdlficet lon.f
T hrou ghout t his book t he Re uss equa tlon swill be un iversally emplcyed
for t he sake of mathematical consistency and physical appropriateness.

7. Other theories
(i) T heory of SUYlinger . Anoth er system of etresa-atrain equations,
also establishing 8. one-one relat ion bet ween t he to ta l (small) strain and
th e current stress , has been propounded by Swainger.] In t heir simplest
form Sweingee'e equations are

. 20.;, +23(1
1)(" ')
P- E

ij - Uij .

' 11 =

fU

(1-2.)
E

U ti '

Th e streee -etreln curve in tension is supposed to ha ve a sharp yield-poin

and a consta nt rate P of work-hard ening. of; is the stress in the elemen
when it fint yields; th is is supposed to be governed by th e criterio n of von
~1i8e8 . Swainger's syste m is inadm issible, not only because it is subj ect
to th e objection raised against Hencky 's equations, but because it also
conflicta wit h observation when the rate of hardening is very small en
zero. For if P is very small so also is th e difference bet ween u(j and u1;
(i , j = 1, 2, 3). This mea ns that no matter how t he plest lc strain is varied
th e deviato ric stress only changes by an infinitesimal amount, and in the
limit not at all. This is true only for simple strain-paths where the
st rain ratios are held consta nt . If th e stress ratios ar e held constant
t hat U tj = C17?./ , th en

. 20+2
.;, 3(1P-1:1)(1 I) .

fjj

-(j 17;J.

The st rain ratios are therefore also constant . By comparison with (36)
it will be seen th at for th is special type of st rain-pat h Swetnger's equations are equivalent to Hencky's (with t he appropriate work -hardening
hypot hesis), and 80 also to equations (32).
t A . A. I1Y UlIhi n. Prilcladnaia Mat tmat ihl i M dd,anika , 7 (1943), 245; 8 (11144), 337:
9 (19411), 101 : 10 (1946 ), 623. Bend ing of plllte ~ a nd she lls. W . W . So kclovsky, pn.
lcladnGia Mattmat ika i .Ud :hano'.l:a.8 (1944).14 1. Bl"ndinll: of p lato md shel l... A. W inuor
and W . Prager, J ourn . A pp . M u h. 14 ( 1947), A- 281. E xpe neion of a circ ulAr hole in a
t hin pla te . A. Gleyul, ibid. 68 (1946), A- 261: 15 (19 48), 288. C'-mJ-.i circ ula r dia
phragm unde r p..-ure.
l No eiltelUlion of the theory to large .trairuo appean to ha"e bee n . u ~ted . Mall Y
de finitiolUl of finite It railU a re po lloSible ; pe rhapa the mQlllt natura l in thia conte d ill
df U, where dfu h.. t he mM.Iling of ( W ).
t K . H . SwaLllger. PAil. M ag. 36 ( 19U), 443 : 38 ( 1947), 422 : Proc. 1' 111 I..,. COJUI.
App. .\1 11., London ( 1948).

..

OT H E R THEORIE S

11. 7)

(ii) Theory oj Prager. Of greate r interest is a syste m of stress-strain

equat ions proposed by Preger] to a void th e mathematical difficulties
encounte red in solving problems with th e Reuss equations (33). These
difficulties (about which more will be said later) arise from th e different
sets of equations in t he elasti c and plastic regions when the material ia
non-hardening. Prager proposed to avoid t hese difficulties by using one
set of equations only, giving a gradual transition from th e elastic to th e
plastic region. It may be shown tha t Prager 's equat ions, initially expressed in his paper in a rather unusual form, are a special case of (32),
the tensile stress-strain curve being

Y tanh(~')'

(38)

where 17 is the stress and I" is th e logarithmic strain. There is no sha rp

yield-point , the curve init ially ha ving th e slope E and bending over to
approach t he stress Y aaymptotically . The approach is extremely rapid ;
for example, when f is only 4YIE , 17 is already ea much as O999Y.
Prager's equations thus replace th e abrupt yield -point of th e Re uss
material by a smooth but rapid bend in which the stress Y is very nea rly
a.ttained in a strain of elastic order. The corresponding relation bet ween
u and GkP is
dO,, =E qJ- l .
H' = i/f

(Y')

Substituting th is in (32) we obt ain

2Gd '

(1j

.
= d17'1./+ (Yudu
I - ul) 17i}'

f
i v =

I,

(39)

which, apart from notation, is one of t he fOnDSof his equations given by

Prager. This syste m has received little application, and it seems that the
desired simplificat ion haa not in fact been achieved.

.sth

t w. P r. r, Proc.
Int. C(n\IJ. A pp . M Wi ., Cambridge, 101. . . (1938 ), 234 ; Du.b
Math . J f1Vm . 9 (1942 ), 228 ; Rw . Fac . Sei . U..i".I.eaI'lbul, 5 ( 1941), 2111.

T H E P LA STI C P OTENTIAL

Ill. IJ

is

aU'

Let

o~

be any other plastic state of stress, so that

II I

/(o~ ) = /(o;j) =

1. The pl as ti c potential
THE fun ction V(O'u) defining the ratios of the components of the pla.stio
atrain-increment (equatio n (22) of Chap. II ) is known as th e plasti c
pote nti&1.
Now, if a polycrystalline element is strained, one of & number of
possible eyeteme of five independent glide directions muat be active '
eeeh crystal grain, conceived &S deforming uniformly. Such a glide
eyetem demands for its operation a state of stress in which the critica.
shear etreee is a ttai ned in these five directions and is not exceeded i
any others. The glide-system determines both the ratios of the oompc
Dente of the strain-i ncrement and also the ratios which the componen
of the applied stress must bear to t he critical shea r st ress. I t is likely
t here fore, t hat t here is a re lation, from a statistical ave rage ove r poesib
orientations of t he grains in a. polycrystel, between t he plastic poten tia
and t he funct ionf(ofj) defining the yield locus. I t is not yet kno wn wha
th is should be, th eoretically , for any particular metal.
It seems, however, th at the simple relat ion g = / has an especia
significance in the mathematical t heory of plasticity, for, as will be show
la ter , certain variationa l principles and uniqueness th eorems can the
be formulated. When g = / (t hat is, when the curve I' and t he yiel
locus are similar in shape), the plastic stress-st rain relations are
(I)

o OfJ

Notice that/ must be independent of hydr ostati c pressure, th at is,

0/(00" = 0,

if the plasti c volume change is to be zero. Also, if/is an Hen function,

that th ere is no Bauschinger effect , (I ) implies that a reversal of t h
sign of th e stress merely reverses th e sign of the st rain-Increment: these
properties are mut ually consistent since each is t rue only in t he absence
of t he same kind of internal st ress (see pp. ij and 35). We ha ve already
encountered an example of (1) in the Levy- Mlsee or Reuss equation
where/ = g = J; = IU;:jo; j' f/ /OUij = oiJ
Suppose, now, that th e plastic strain-incremen t dtfJ is prescribed, and
that t he corresponding st ress determined by (I) and the yield criteric

10

c.

The work t hat would be done by o~ in th e strain dtfJ is d W; = oZ dt&.

This has a sta tionary value for varying plastic states o~ when

GENERAL THEOREM S

d.r, ~ h 81 dl,

"

~a_ (ao dt~-f(o~) d.\)

~a;j

= 0,

where, following the met hod of Lagrange, we have int roduced t he

consta nt multiplier d.\. Hence,
,,__ .
d.'o ~ dh 8/(a~)
~"
This equation is satisfied when
is the actual stress ail (d.\ being equal
to Ad/). 'Thus. when the relations (1) hold, the plastic work done in a
given plastic stra in-increment has a stationary value in the actual state,
with respect to varying stress systems satisfying the yield criterion.
This t heorem is due to von Misest (1928). It becomes obvious when
stated in terms of the geometrical representation of Fig. 6. The curve
r is, by the hypot hesis (I), simila r to th e yield locus C, a nd t he vector
RQ' representing th e plast ic strain-increment is parallel to t he normal
at P, where O P is t he stress vector oiJ' The plast ic work done by any
stress OJ) is proportional to t he projection of the correspondin g st ress
vector Opt on RQ' [cf equation (25) of Chap. II ). Th is evidently has a
stationary value among neighbouring states when P- coincides with P .
Furth ermore, when C is concave to th e origin at P , th e work done is a
mazimum. Now C must be concave to th e origin at all point s if t he st ress
corresponding to a given strain-increment is to be unique, and in t his
case the work done is an absolute maximum, t hat is, a maximum for aU
plastic states of stress a nd not merely for infinitesimally near sta tes.
Th' ,
,
,
. IS I~ true, In particular , for th e Reuss equations where th e yield locus
IS a circle.f The st ation ary work th eorem docs not apply, of course,
when Tresca's criterion is used in conjunction with the Uvy-Mises
relation p.. = Ii.
. If it were true th at the plast ic behaviour of a metal is such that th e
Yield ~riterion and plasti c pote nt ial are identica l, it would be possible
to derive t he yield locua from a n experimenta l determination of th e
<J.t., v) relat ion (or vice versa). This procedure has been suggested by

ao

R. von Miaet. Z t iu. 0"9 . ,vGJA. M eda. 8 (l 92s ), 161.

H . LN, and B. J. Tuppw. Pr<>e . Ror . Soc. A, 191 ( 1Iln). 278.

l R. Hill,

"Teylor.j In the notation of Fig. 6,Iet 8 and.p be th e angles made wit

G E N E R AL THE OR EM S

the radius p. = 0 by OP and RQ'. From equ at ions (7) and (23) 0
Chapter II we have J' = - .'3tan8. ... = - -,'3 130 "'. Suppose t hat
is &. known function of 8, calculated from an experimentally determin
(Il . v) relation . If C and r are simila r curves , the angle between t he norma
to t he yield locus and th e radiu s po = 0 is equ al to.p. Th e equation 0
th e yield locus iii therefore
db=
tI d

tao(6 -"'), or r =

,I

)
TO CXP ( '
tao(O-",)
d8

(2

where ,. is the length of the radius of inclination 8, and r0 is the length 0

the rad ius 8 = O. Taylor has applied. t his met hod to generate the yiel
locu s for coppe r from t he (P,,, ) relation measured by Tayl or and Quinne
(Fig . 8). The calcu lated locus lies between the T resca. and Misea crite ri

th ough nearer th e latter (0 ~ 9- if < 4). On th e other hand, meesu

menta of th e yield loeus agree closely wit h the crite rion of von M'
(Fig. 4). In view of t he scatter in th e data due to variations in th
material, and other ca uses, a definite decision as to t he validity
equation (I) is hardly possible. Since large departures from t he relatio
p. = " can be produced by a plasti c potential differing comparative!
little from a circle, it may be th at t he true yield criterio n for copper'
in fact slight ly different from th at of von Mises, a nd th at the equatio
is corr ect.
If a metal yields in accordance with Tresca'a crite rion the yield loe
is a regula r hexa gon (Fig. 2). I f (l ) holds, the plastic potential is rep
sented by a similar hexa gon and th e strain-increment vector is direc
normally to one or ot her of th e sides; th is direction corresponds, as w
have seen, to a pure shea r. It follows th at the plastic strain-increment '
th e same for all stress -points on an y one side of th e hexag on, and that i
is a shear in t he direction of the maximum shear st ress. The work don
in a prescribed shear st rain is t he same for all possible correspondin
states of stress (since th e proj ection of th e stress vecto r on t he norm
to t he side is constant}, and it is greater t han th e work done by an
other plastic st rese-syetem. Now, in th e one metal which is observed
to yield most closely in accordance with Treece 's criterion, nemel
annealed mild steel, th e ensuing st ra in-increment in a Luders ba n
is a shear in th e di rection of the ma ximum shear stress. Hence, i
thi s instance too, t he plastic potential and th e yield locus are at leas
approximately simila r.
t O. I . T aylor. P r . Roy. Soc. A,

.9.

(1t4'J ). tu .

"

UNIQ UENE SS OF A STRESS DISTRIB UTION

III . 21

:I. Uni queneSS of a s tr es s distribution under gtvee boundary

co ndl tlonst
Ii) Workhardening material. Consider a mass of ideal material which
has been deformed in any manner unde r applied surface forces o~ prescribed surfa ce displacements. I n general, a part of t he mass will be
lastic, a part will have unloaded. from a previous plastic state, and the
~mainder will have been strai ned elastically th roughout . The stra inhistory of each element will usually have been different , and th e
parameter c (Chap. II, equation (21)), specifying th e final state of
work-hardening, will vary from point to point . Th e current values of
c and the stress UCJ are regarded 8.8 known. Suppose, now, that further
infinituimal incrementa of stress or displacement are applied at the surface. We wish to find the circumstances in which the corresponding small
changes in st ress and strai n t hroughout th e mass are uniquely determined
by the given bounda ry conditions and th e stress-strain relations formulated for th e ideal material. We shall assume that th e fun ction / (uij ),
defining th e yield locus, is also the pleetic potential. The relations
between infinitesimal changes in the stress and strain in any element are
then taken in t he form
dfll

~ull +h 0/ d/ , wherever
20

oUII

whereve r /(a~/) < c,

or where / (af/ ) = c and

dUll
du
= 20'
d

(1- 2' )d

/ (ut/ ) = c and

(1

d/

0;

d/ ~ 0;

(3)

everywhere (df = idf" , do = idufJ

The function la, apart from being positi ve, is not restricted in any way ;
we also do not need to retain the limitation that / is a homogeneous
function. The components of th e st rain-increment must be derivable
from a displacement-increment du, such t hat

I(oXa(duI) +-ex,a(dull ).

df ll = - 2

(')

Elements at present stressed to th e yield-point (f(C1~/) = c) will be said to

constit ute t he pkMtic re!Jion . I n t hese elements continued plastic
deformati on is enforced if t he stress-increment is such t hat dj > 0;
if dj = 0 the element remains on th e point of yielding, while if dj < 0
it begins to unload elast ically. Wherever j (uiI ) < c, any further sma ll
change in stress produ ces only an elast ic change of st rain ; t hese elements
will be said to consti tute the diutit r~OR, even th ough some may
t The I?m&inder or t.hi& eh&pter ma y be omitted on a fun reading or the book.
unn

..

64

GENERAL THE OR E MS

[ Ill

previously have been plastically deformed. Finally, both th e origin

etrese and the change in stress must satisfy th e eq uations of equilibriu
8

- (O'ij) = 0,
- (00' / ) = 0,
oXI
oXJ
where Sail is the change of st ress at a fixed point. Thi s differs from t 6
change duo in a gitJtn element by th e amount

tU;,u- ooiJ

= du" Ca'i.

"",

which represents th e cha nge in stress due to th e movement of t

element . In te rms of ck fl th e equations of equ ilibrium are t hus
!....{do i j )
iJzj

~(dUk

Oxj

&ri
l)= aX
!....(du.t)8cu .
ark
ark
I

dUt: oX
!""(Oai/\
= dUA: !....(ila<l) = o.
ax"J
ax. aXj

since

In the linear th eory of elasticity the right -hand side of (6) is neglec
since t he change in strain is of order 1/ E x the cha nge in stress; whe
plast ic st rains are concerned . however, t he right -hand side is not n
eerily negligible if t he rate of work-ha rdening is small compared with
Suppose, now, th at (duu, duf ) and (du~ ,du; ) could be two distin
distributions of stress- and displacement-increments satisfying (3), (f
and (6), and correspo nding to th e sa me changes of surface stress
surface displacement . Consider t he integral

t aken th rough th e volume of the mass. By (4) and the symmetry of t

st ress te nsor, th e integral may be written as
8x,

(dut -du,) dV.

This is evident ly equal to

-:.0 {(duZ -duf/Hdut -du, )} dV -

(II I

(dut -duj) .!- (du~-du(j) dV.

orl

Since t he small changes in stress and displacement a re neceseerlly co

tinuous in a plastic-elastic material, we may use Green' s t heorem t
t ran sform the first volume integral into an integral over th e surface 0
t he mass :

f (dl7~- dl7tJHdu t- dljj)lj f

dS-

(dut - du, )

U N I Q UEN E SS O F A STRE SS DI ST R I B UTI O N

"

where 11 is the unit outward nonn al to t he surfa ce. Now since (3), (4),
and (6) are st rict ly sati sfied only when the changes dUfl and du# are
allowed to become infinite simally small, ha ving the meaning of differentials in th e limit , th e possibility that th e dilferentiaM duu and du~ are
discontinu ous must be reckoned with . Thil is frequentl y 80, for instance,
across th e interface of the elastic and pleetic regions, since the rate of
change of t he stress with respect to th e extern al 10ads or displacements
may be different in th e two regions ; th e discontinuity in any element
is, of course, only momentary as th e element peeeee from one region to
th e ot her. In th e limit, th en, o(du~- duu)/iJ%1 becomes infinitely great at
such an interface of discontinuity , and t he interface makes a finite
contri but ion to th e volume integral in th e last equation. Provided th is
interpretation is given to th e volume integral the equation ie true
when dO'I ' etc., a re differentials. With the use of (6) we obtain finally

J(daZ-dou){d~-du)

dV

(dut - du,) :X/{(dU: - dUt)

C:::} dV

(doZ-dl7o)(dut - du,}l1 dS = 0

(1)

if the boundary conditions are such that

II(duij-duf/Hdut - du,) = 0

(8)

on th e surface. At any interface 1: where t he stress gradient is dieconti nuous, th ere is a contribution to th e volume integral in (1) of the
amount
(dUt-du,)(dU:-dut)[~~]AI dt,

f (dqij - dutj)(d(~ - df/) dV

f (dq~-du'/) !....

III. 2]

a:,(dl7~-dl7jj)

dV,

where the square brackets denote t he jump of auulaz. in the direction

of the unit normal to 1:. Equa tion (8) is satisfied, in particular, when
the external displacements a re prescribed , 80 th at dut = du, on 8 . If
the external stress ~ = ' l 17fl ill prescribed, the boundary condition ill
that d(lj a'j) is given. This docs not imply th at 11 duZ is equal to II dUf/'
unless it is permissible to neglect th e variation dll of th e surface normal
during the deformation. 'Ihue, when th e external stress is prescribed,
t he expression in (1) differs from zero by an amou nt dependi ng on th e
change in shape of t he eurface.]

"I

t Alternatively , one m.y take .. the ba~i. for an esamination or uniquen_ the
equation
(!ct; - 3(tlJ)(dt~ - d t j, ) d V 13et~ - 3et u)(d.. - d.. , )li ss

in eotn bination ..-i!.h (61. I n t he p roor of th~ equa.tion it m Ullt be noted that for..-na
of equ ilibrium ~ aa u ito eontinuo Ull ae..- _ di8eon t inuity in toorfaee.

se

GE NERAL T HEORE MS

111. ]
2

From (3) we have

(dC1~ - da ti) (d~ - dll)

= (dut-dolj)(dt' -drijl

+3(du*-da)(d (*-

d)

= h 8f (do#-dofjHcc. dr -adJ) + la (da7i -da'J)(da~' -da'il

BUll

+ 3( 1~2v) (do.-da)l,
where

a = 1 where l (a' /) = c an d dj
0:

Since

= 0 where/{aij)

<

0;

e, or where /(ui/> = c and dl

IX =

1 where /(ot,) = e an d

0:* =

0 where ! (Ui j)

< C, or

dJ = 8f

dUf/'

dJ

<

0;

0;

where / (Uf/ ) = c an d

dr =

oO(J

d/* <

O.

of da~,
ro(J

the above express ion is equal to

h(dr-df)( OIdr - adfl

+ 2~ (do~'- d(J;/)(dO'~' -dalj)+

+ 3(1:; 2v)(du. -do)',

By consideri ng t he four possible combinations of signs which df and

may have at any one point, it may be shown immediately that t he fi
term is never negetlve.t Since t he last two terms together are a.lw&
positi ve unless dut = do i j , t he whole expression is positive except wh
du# = da fj. On the other hand, if the volume integral in (7) is negligib

f (daij- dafj)(dt"# - dt" fi) dV = 0,

provided t he boundary condition (8) is satisfied . It follows t ha t , to
approximation involved in neglecting the volume integral, there cannot
t wo distinct solutions. Thc volume integral is strictly zero when

Oafj/oxk = 0;
that is, when t he stress distribution is uniform. If the mass is enti
elastic, or if the existing state of stress is such that t he elastic regi
t The te rm ia aero in the elB.Btie regi on , or whe re both d a;j and da~ produce unloadi
in the p lB.Bt ic regi on. since '" ... ",. ... O. W her e both produce loRding Coo = "'. _ I)
term ia e qua l to h (dr - df )l, wh ieh ia never negativ e (10 being _ntially polliti
Where daiJ produ cea loRding (<I = I ) and da~ unloading ("'- - 0 ), the term ia equal
h (df - -dfJ( -df) ; this ia never nege.tive s ince df ;;' O. df- 0;;; O. Where d"t; prod
unloading (<I _ 0 ) and d,,~ load ing ("'- _ 1), the term il equal to h(dr-df) dr ; t
again ia nev e r n"S ativ e since df 0;;; O. df ;;. 0,

UN IQUENESS OF A STRE SS D ISTRIBUTION

67

trains strain-incre ments in t he plasti c region to be of order I/E X the

cons
i epproxtmanon
'
. ID
in thee limear t h eory
_incre ment, then, to t h
e uaua
t
s f~ticity, t he solution is unique; this t heore m is substantially d ue to
~elant (1938). When , however , large plastic strains are possible t he
hove analysis fails to give a definite answer . I n fa ct , it is easy to con: truct instances where tw o solutions are to be expected physically as
well as mathemat ically. Fo r example, if a hollow spherical shell is
expanded sufficiently far by intern al press ure, a stage is reac hed where &
further plastic expansion does not req uire so large a press ure . After this
stage there are clear ly t wo solut ions corres pon ding to a given small d rop
in pressure : one is t he pla stic expansion ment ioned , the other is the
incipient elastic recovery of the whole shell. On the other hand , in this
example an d also more generally, one might suspect that t here is a
unique solutio n corresponding to prescribed external di8placemen~ .
This is a problem awaiting further research .
(il) Non-harthning f'1Ulkrial . The stress-strain relations for a nonhard ening material (c constant) are
d ' = dail + oj Ii>.
flj
20 oalJ '

wherever / (0., ) = e and d' = 0;

:J

wherever f (afi) <

or where f(a'j) =

C,

and df

<

0;

(9)

everywhere .
When the stress-increme nt maintains a plastic element a t the yieldpoint (dl = 0) t he associated strain- increment m ust be such t hat t he
pleetlc work is positive. Now

8/

d ~ = ujldt"t = alj -dA.

"""

The scalar product of alJ and o//OU,j is posit ive since the vector representing o/lOU,j in t he plane Il is d irected along the outward normal to t he
yield locus. The requirement is satisfied, therefore, if
dA ;> O.

(10)

With the notation of t he previous section, it follows from (9) t hat

(dO"~-du'/)(dt"a-dt"fJ) = (dj* -d/)(lI:*d.\*- a:d.\)+
I d afi
" - d'
*, -uu'l
~-')
+20(
atl )(dulJ

t E . Melan, I ngm Uu rA rchi". 9

+3( 1-2"')(d
E
a' -

(1938). 116.

da.
)'

..

GENERAL THEOREM S

[III.

The first term on the right-hand side is alw ays positive or zero, while th
l&8t two to gether are positive unless dufJ = da'J" The argument continu
&8 before, with the conclus ion that the stress d istribution is unique whe
only small st ra ins are possible; t his was proved by Greenberg] for th
Reuss material, a nd by Bauerf for a material with & genera l fun ction
H owever , we CAnnot deduce, with out further in vestigation, t hat t he dis
placements are also unique. Whereas in a work-hardening mate rial t h
st rain-increment in any element is determined by t he st ress-increment
th e magni tude of t he plastic component of t he strain-increment in
non-ha rdening material is indeterminate from equations (9)
since d;\ can ha ve any posit ive value. It is not yet k nown , in gene ra l. f
what boundary conditions and existing stress states t he dieplecemen
a re unique; proofs of uniqueness can, however , be given in special
(see, (or examp le, Cha p. IX , Sect . 2 (iii)).
(iii) Pltutic-rig id material. A material is described &8 plasti c-rig'
when Young's modulus is assigned a n indefinitely large value.
elastic component of st rai n is zero in the limit (it follows th at t here
no cha nge of volume), a nd an element is t herefore rigid when et
below t he yield -point. In many problems where t he plastic st rains a
large th e stress dist rib ution calculated for a plastic-rigid materi al cloeel
a pproximates t hat for a plast ic-elastic material. Since t he solution
problems is ofte n much simpler for th e former , it is worth while
invest igate th e corresponding requirem ents (or uniqueness.
In th e first place, the uniqueness theorems ofthe previous sect ion
naturally st ill valid (or a material in which E has a very large, t hou
finite , value. If the existi ng sta te of stress is such t hat th e non-plea
material const rains the remainder, th e whole mass is rigid in th e lirrii
and there is only one distribution of stress-increments corresponding
prescribed increments of th e external loads. On th e other hand , if all
part of th e plastic region is free to deform th ere is not necessarily a uniq
solution.
When, however, increments in the surface displacements are p
scribed, we have to distinguish betwecn the behaviour of pleetlc-rigi
material and th at of plasti c-elasti c material with a finite Young'
modulus. It is helpful to refer to th e geometrical representation of etre
and strain (Chap. II , Sect . 5 (ii . Consider a plaati c-elaatfc element
which is applied a given stra in-Increment producing no change
volume. If th e element is not already plastic, or if it is caused to unl
t

H . J . Green be rg. QUllrl .141'1'- M lltlt. . 7 ( I V4V), 85.

: 1' _ 8 . n... uor. Jlrown Un , . R~p. ,\11- 27 ( IV49) .

III. 2J

"

UN IQUENE SS OF A STRE SS DI STRIBUTION

(rom & plastic state, the st rain-increment is entirely elastic . If the

element remai ns in a plastic state th e vector representing th e elasti c part
of the strain-increment has a. consta nt component perpendicular to th e
corresponding norm al to t he yield locus. It follows that the stress-increment , being equal to 2Gx t he elastic strain-increment , always Increeeee
indefinitely as E tends to infinity. In th e limit, then, the st ress in a
plasti c-rigid element changes discontinuously. The only exception is
(or a plastic state in which the correspo nding normal to the yield locus
is parallel to th e vecto r representing th e prescribed st rain-increment (and
in which the principal axes of t he etreee and the strain-increment coincide); t he st ra.in-increment wiU t hen be said to be consistent with t he
existing stress. If it is not consistent. the stress vector rotates 80 th at it
becomes so. If t ho element is now taken along a certain strain-pat h the
st ress vector rotates 80 th &t it is always in th e direction of t he tangent
to th e st rain-path ; provided the strain-path has a. cont inuously t urning
ta ngent t he stress also va ries contlnuouely.t In general, t hen, when
increments of displacement (producing no change in volume) are applied
at the surface of a mass of plasti c-rigid material, the stress changes discontin uously 80 t hat it becomes consistent with t he st ra in-increment at
&11 points. Thenceforward, provided th e st ress distribution cha nges
smoothly with t he su rface displacements, t he theorems established in the
previous sections are eppliceble.
It is natural to inqui re whether t he consiste nt dist rib uti on of stress
produced by applied su rface displacements is uniqu e, or whether it
depends on t he state of st ress existing beforehand. In partial answer
to th is question , we now prove that th ere is not more than one consistent distribution for which th e whole mass deforms plesrically.];
This theorem has a rather rest ricted applica tion since the mass is brought
to a completely plastic state only by special dist ributions of surface displacements. Suppose th at (u(j , du i ) and (O'u' dut ) could be two consistent
solutions correspondin g to th e sa me boundary condit ions. It may be
shown by th e use of Green' s th eorem, and th e equations of equilibrium,
that

f (O'u -O'ij)(dt:u- dt:jJ) dV = f (a~ - ajj)(dut -duj )IJ es =

;f

(Ft-~ )(dut -duj) = 0

( II )
(12)

on the surface, where ~ = IjO" J denotes th e external st ress. This

~ Note that in a non-harden ing plar.t ie .ri8id m a terial the . ~reelI- ine",ment doee not
th nd ~n the change in length of t he et ra in -path, bu.t on t he ehanp in direction of
e firam_path .
: R. H ill, Q...m. JOVrft. M A . App. M IItA. I (l U 8). 18.

..

(III. 2

GENER AL TH E O R EM S

condition is satisfied, in pa rti cular. when th e surface displacem ents are

prescribed. Now, if t he two solutions are such that t he whole mass is
plastic,

III. 3)

EXTRE MUM AND VARIAT IO NA L PRINCI PLES

, -

at each point, where c spec ifies the local state of hardenin g immediately
before th e applicati on of th e incremental dieple cemente. Hence

(o~ - aj,j )(df~-d(fJ)

where

d>' and

= (0 - 0 0) (

oJ. d>.. _

80iJ

etA- are positive or zero, and where

8/
80Q

cIA).

(13)

01184 denotes

a/ (o4)/oaij
(for th e present purpose we do not need to write d>' &8 h df when t he
materi al work -hardens). Now (aij-utj)8floaij is proportiona l t o t he
scalar product of t he outward normal to t he yield locus at t he point 04'
and t he chord joining ajJ to at ' . Thi s product is obviously positive since
I . by hypothesis, is never convex to the origin. Since (u(j -oij )Ol l oafJ is
similarly posit ive, th e quantity (13) is also positiv e unless o;,j = oij'.
Hence, from (I I ), 0(J and oij can only differ at each point by a hyd rostatic stress which, for equilibrium , must be uniform .
Th e boundary condition (12) is also satisfied if th e exte rnal stresses
are given ( Ft = F't, ), or if t he norm al component of th e displacemen t and
th e resultant tangential st ress are given (since th e vecto r dll~ -d ll, lies
in th e tangent plane an d the " ector F~ -F't, is directed along th e normal,
their scalar produ ct vani shes }, Thus, in a plast ic-rigid material, there
cannot be two distinct plast ic states of stress satisfying the same boun dary conditions. On th e ot her hand, t he increments of strain are not
necessarily unique .
3. Extremum a nd variation al principles
(i) E laJtic mat erial , For thc purposes of later comparison, it is helpful
to ret race th e proofs of some well-known extremum principles in t he
t heory of elasticity. Let (oiJ, eiJ) be t he stress and strain in an elastic
mass which has been loaded from a st ress-free state by prescribed
e xte rnal st resses li e ver a part SJo' of its surface. and by prescribed
displacem ents over th e remai nder Sf " If xJ is t he initial position of an
element , the eq uations of equilibrium are
8 0/1 _

eX

0
,

"

where, as usual in the th eory of elasticity, the displacement of the

element is neglected . The stress-strain relations are
( 1- 2.)

- E
- - a.

~,,j must be derivable from a cont inuous displacement function Ill: such

that
t(1

l(&u.l:
U:c

'2

81l )

+ U:c,J
J

Let (oij, et) be any ot her dist ribution of stress and strain satisfying th e
equilibrium eq uetione, the stress-strain relations and the stress boundary
conditions, but not necessarily derivable from a disp lacement function.
Consider th e integral
(04- a(l)efJ dV

taken t hrough th e volume of th e mass in t he unstra ined configurat ion.

By th e use successively of the equilibri um eq uations and Green 's
t heorem, t he integral is equal to

(04- 0(j) ::; dV =

f a~1 {(o~-af/)Il()
f
ss

dV =

f (o~-a(,j)uf lJ ss

(F:-F't, )u(

8,

since F : = F't, over SF' Now

2(0~-0(J~'j =: (ot~ -a(J t(I) - [a~(tq -t(/)+t(J(ofJ - a4)]

= (o~t.;~ - oOe(/) - (oij - o(I)(t.;~ - t(I )'

by virtue of the recip rocity relation

But
(04 -afJ)(t4 - e(J) =

and t herefore

2~(0~'- 0~)(0#' -0'/)+ 3(1;2\.')(0._0)1 ~

0,

i(OqfU- Ofjf(j) ~ (o~- o(l)ffl

for all st resses 0fl and Oq. The equality holds if, an d only if, oq = 00'
Hence, unless Oq is equal to 0(1 a t all points,

..

[III. S

GENERAL T H E OR EM S

Rearranging this :

EXTR EM U M AND VARI ATI O NAL P R INC I P L E S

and t rans form it into

1 aZtZdV-

I F;u,dS > 1J
Ji', u, dS
"
~ ! f ;; u,dS -! f ;;u,dS,
s,
O'I / t'fjdV-

..

(14)

8"

wit h the use of Green's theorem an d t he equations of eq uilibrium. T his

is the well-known extremu m principle, to t he effect that the expression
on th e left-hand side of (14) tak es an ab solute minimum value in the
ectuel state. (It followa as an immed iate corollary th at th e bounda ry
cond itions define e, unique solutlon.) By using the stress-strain relations
to express the left hod side solely in terms of a~ or of e~ we obtain two
complementary forms of the principle; either of these is applied, acco rding
to convenience, in the approximate solution of special problems.
A weaker state ment is sometimes given in the form of a variationa l
principle for distributions 0'4 differin g infinitesimally from th e actual
one. This is proved as follows. Let E* denote t he potent ial energy
iOq t~ of an element in which t he stress is o~. We wish to find wh en the
expressio n
E*dV Ff u, dS

"

assu mes a. sta.tionary value with respect to varying 04 satisfying t he

equations of equilibrium. By the usual transformation the expression
is equ al to
(E* -oZ t ij)dV+
Ff u ,dS .

Sin ce Fj =

IU.3]

"

JC on SF this has a sta.t ionary

- * (E *- oZ e jJ) = 0, or
aOjl

valu e when
aE *
~ = t jJ'
ClOlJ

at every point . Since Oq an d tiJ are related by t he stress-strain equations,

aE'

eZ = - ,

aa.

The expression ha s, therefore , a stationary valu e when eZ = t 'J; that

is, in an act ual etete .
A second extremum principle is concerned with d ist ributions (oZ, t~l
where eq is de riva ble from a displace ment u f sa tisfying ~~e ~undary
conditio ns but Oq d oes not satisfy the eq uat ions of equdlbn um. We
begin with the integral

ss,

"

ut

(uf - uf)J;

II

where use haa been made of the fact that

= u, over Su. Now, by the
reciprocity relation,
(tZ- eU )ojJ = (Oq - o(l)t'J'
Hence, by the inequality proved above,
i(oZ tq-o'Jt'J) > (eq -t'J)o'J
unless 04 = o'J. I ntegrating this through the volume, an d rea rra nging
the result, we find

f ut JC dS - l foZ tZ dV < I. u, JC d8 - i Jo' je' JdV

~ ! f ;;u,dS -! f ;;u,dS.

S,

8,

8,

(1 6)

Su

On comparing this with (14), it will be observed that t he expreeeion on

the right-hand side is the same in both equations, and that it is the
absolute minimum of t he function of (oq, tZI in (14) and the absolute
maxi mum of the fun ction of (oZ, tql in (15). These extremum principles
furnish the mea ns of obta ining uppe r and lower bounds in t he approximate solution of special problems.
It is noted, finally, t hat similar extremum principles may be proved
in identical fashion for incrtmntU of stress end strain.
(ii) P kut:elfut:material . We restrict our &ttention to exis ting sta.tes
of stress in which increments of plast ic stra.in are constrained to be of
order l/E x the stress-incrementa. Let (dou , d flJ ) be the actual incre ments of stress e nd stra in produced by gi ven exte rn el stress-incrementa
dJi over a partS, of t he surface , and by given d isplacement-incrementa
over the rem AinderSC/ o Le t (4oZ, df q) be eny increments which satisfy
the stress-strain releuona, the stress bounda ry condi tions, and t he
equations of eq uilibri um, but such that dfq is not necessarily derivable
from &continuous displacem ent. In ot her words (do~, dfZ) are physically
POSsible increments for an element if it were free, but not necessarily
when it is sub ject to the constraint of surrounding material. It may be
shown, in th e usual way, that
Now,

f de~ -de") d,,,} dV = f dF~ - d;;) du,} dS.

Btl

2(4oq-4o' J)dfu
.=: (doq th Z- dau df(l)-[doZ(th~ - th'J)+ th(l(dou - daZ)).

..

(III. 3

GE N E R A L T H E O RE MS

But, in a work -hardening material,

dq~(df ij- d Ii)

I(d '
d'
a'i ) + 3(1-2'
E
a

&

in the actual state . t By trsnsformetlon of t he surface integral, there

results

non-harden ing material,

Since dF: = dJ; on SF, the last integral is a constant and the expression
ha.s a 8tationa ry va lue for va rying 40 when

+ [dJ' (o' <I' - 0 <1)+ 0 <I(dJ-dJ'll.

I n both C&Se8 , th e first two terms on the right -hand side are togethe r
positive except when tU7q = dOl i' while t he term in square brackets is
never negative.t I t follows t hat

>

8(ldaq~v -4oqd.'J)

= 0
at every point. Now, for a work-ha rdening material, it follows from
(3) tha t
3( 1 2)
40" 40"'
do'rIf
- .. 40 11 + "20 " + a o'dlf"
' J j'j =
E
ll
.
Therefore,

(daij - daij )dfil

8(jda.,u.) ~ 3(1- 2 )da'8(da 0I+(da. +ooA 8J df')8lda. )

except when daij = tUlw Th us, unless daij = dail at every point,

J(daij lUij - duiJ df iJ) dY > J{(dFt - dFi) du,} dS,

1 f {daijdij) d V-

J(dF t du,) dS > I J(cfqO df'J}dV- f (dJidui}dS

8(1

8(1

If (dij du,l d8 - 1 f (dij du,ld8.

s,

8(df' ) =

since

8,

or

f ( idav~~-dav d''J)dV+ f (dF: du,) dS.

8,

I (d o1j
" - d0iJ
' l('loW"ij
~" -uu'
'-'J )+ 3(1-2')(d
= 20
E
a ' - da )'+

Hdaijdt-ij-daiJdfQ}

eo

if (daqdf Zl d V- f (dF r du,)dS

' ~)'+

-ug

+ [AdJ'(o' dJ'- odJ )+oAdJ(dJ-dJ'l]

and , in

EXT REM UM AND VARIATI ONAL PRINCIPLES

It is instructive to compa re th e above proof wit h that of the weaker

variational prin ciple, a.sserting the existe nce of a etetkmery value of

+d( 'J(da~J -doij)

1 (du
" - daiJ' l(da "i j
= 20

nr. 3)

(16)

l!J(1

This extremum prin ciple is substantially due to Hodge and Prager for
8. work-hardening material, to Greenberg for & non-hardening Re uss
material, and to Bauer for 8. non-hardening material with a general
fun ct ionJ.t From (16) we may immediately deduce th e uniqueness of
the stress-increment distribution, already proved more directly in
Section 2 (i) and (ii).
t For both material, t h e tenn ~ ,.ero in the elas t io region , or where both dalj and d..lj
p roduce unloading in the p lastio region, einee <I .. <I- .. O. Where bo t h p roduce loading
(<1 " "- " 1). t he tenn ~ equa l to A(df- -d/)" or to zer o , reepec t ively; it i, therefore
ne ver n egati ve , Where dau p roduces loading (<I .. I ) and d "u unloading (.. - .. 0 ), the
tenn i. equal to A(dfl - 2dfdJ' ) and - 2dJ'd >.. . f'elIIl"Ctively ; bo t h are non .negati ve .moe
df ;;t- o. oi! , < O. <fA :> O. When d"lI p roducll8 unloading (.. .. OJ and
loading
(..- .. I ). t h e tenn ~ eq ua l to Adf" a nd ee rc, nwJp8O t ive ly; -.gain it ~ nonnegat ive.
t P . Hod Rf> and W. Prager , J "",m , MalA . Gild PAy . 11 (I9.8), 1; H . J . Greenbera:.
op . cit ., p . 1l8 ; F . B . Bauer. Gp . cit . p . :i8 , T he linot-n&med "mten p roved the t heo f'lllQ
_der t he reetriction that n o p.n of the p INt.i c re giQll ehould unJoed, ; I.he p rewnt proof
__ , up p lied la ter by the a ut hor ; letter to Prof. W . Pncw. 10 JIII>& 1....9.

etau

20

&"

8(:! da.) = :!8(da.l.

"

"

a( i4ov~~) = ~vS(4o~).

Hence,

Also,
8(4oqrlf u ) = rIf'j8 (do~:).
Thus, t he condition for a 8tAtionary va lue is d. Z = tUu ; t hat is, th e increments must be th e actual ODes.
J ust &8 with a purely elastic material th ere is a second extremum
principle for distributions (da~,~v) where df~ is derivable from a dis placement dur satisfying th e bounda ry conditions but daZ is not in
equilibrium. FoUowing th e usual method, we begin with th e equation

f {(df~ -d('J ) dOfJ} dV = s,J{(dut' -du,) dJi(} dS

and th e identity
2(dZ -d'j )do"
sa ( d(7~ dfq -do fj df,j) - [df~(dav-da'j) +da'/(rIf,,-~v)] '

By t he argument empl oyed previously th e term in square brackets can

be shown to be positive for both a non-hardening and a work -hardening
material, unless 4o~ = 40w Thus,
H4o~dt~-daud'(I )

>

(d(~-dfu)dajj

/ 1Il J. ( R.eua. mat.eri&lJ by W . Prager. PIOC. ~

1.." C0ft9. A pp . Mh. l'aria (INO).

t Thia . .. proved fGr the _

GENERA L THEOREMS

except when

dat =

(III. 3

I (dutdJi)dS - i f (dO'td(~)dV < f (du,dFc ) dS- l J(da'ldf j/l d V

8,

~ I

J(dF,du, ) dS- 1s,J(dF,du,) dS.( 17)

f {(df~-dfjj)ao}dV = s,I {(dur- duil.F,}dS,

8,

Compa ring this with (16) we observe tbat in the first principle the righ t ha nd Bide is the minimum of one funct ion of (dC74.dft), and in the second
t he maximum of an other. This theorem is eubstentially due to Green berg for .. non -hardening Reuss material, and to Bauer for a general
non -hardening material.f
(iii ) Pkuticrigid matuial . In Section 2 (iii) .. uniqueness t heorem was
proved for the consiste nt distribution of st ress under boundary condi tions eucb that the whole mass is deforming plastically . By anal ogy
with the previ ous results it is natural to expect t wo related extremum
principles pertaining to .. consiste nt state. In one we consider plastio
states (at ,dft ) euch that
sa tisfies the equations of equili bri um and
stress boundary-conditions butdfo is not derivable from a displacement ;
in the other, df u u deri vable from dur satisfying the displacement
boundary-conditions, but the distribut ion
is not in equilibrium.
In the proof of t he first principle the natural start ing-po int is the
eq uation
{(a: - ao)d fij}dV =
{( F:- ~)du,}dS.
s,
Now, in any element, the vectors representing at' and O;j lie. by hypot hesis, on the same yield locus, while dfo is parallel to the out ward
normal to t he locus at the point o~. Hence, (at- ai l) df fj is proportional
to the scalar product of the outward normal to th e yield locus at the
point a~with t he chord joining a;/ to au' ; it is therefore negative , since!
is concave to the origin. Th us,

a:

ao

(a4 - a'j) df(j

unless

a~' =

a;j, and

<

80

f (F r du,)dS < f (~dUi)dS,

Su

"

equilibrium state of plastic stress. t This is known es t he principle of

maxim um pla.stic work.
For the second principle, we begin wit h the equa.tion

dUfJ" Hence, unleea doij = dUIJ at every point,

8,

EXTREM UM AND V AR IAT I ONA L PR INC I P LES

111.3]

(18)

So

unless a: and ao d iffer only by a uniform hydrosta tic stress. Thus, the
work done by th e actua l surface forces in t he prescribed displacements
is greeter than t hat done by t he surface forces corre sponding to a ny ot her
t H . J . Or-nbe rg. op . en., p . ~8; F . B . Bauo:or. op . ~it .. p. ~s . Th _ ~te ... p roved
t he theorem (o r boundary cond it ioTUI ,m" h t h. t nOplutlO e lement unl_led . the p~nt
proor u. d ue to the . uthor. op . eu.. p. 64.

and consider t he special case of the Reu ss material (j == a;' au). For this,
the vectors representing a;j and dfo are parallel. and 80 their scalar
produ ct a:j dfil (or afj dfij) is equal to the product of their lengt hs or
moduli . laul and jdf,j l, where
la{j l = .j(a'j a;j),

Idf'j l = .jtdfij df jj)'

In passin g. it may be reca lled that the moduli are proportional to t he

equivalent stress and strain-increment; in fact . according to equetione
(14) and (16) of Chapter II , q = "I jaql. (l; = " f ldfo l. Now, the scalar
produ ct of th e two non -parallel vectors representing a;' and lk4 is, of
course. less t han the product of their moduli . Hence,

au'

all (df~ - dfij)

<

l a;j l ( llk~ I -ldf(J l )

unless
= a;'. ] t followe'[ t hat , unless
uniform hyd rostatic s t ress,

a: and

00

differ only by a

J(1.;'1Id.~ l)d V - J(F, dutldS > J(I;'l ld." lldV- s,J(F, du,ldS
- s,J(F, du,ldS.
5,

(19)

The right -hand sides of (18) and (19) are identical. I n this equation t he
quantity la;j l. specifying t he initial state of ha rdening, is to be regarded
&8 known. lfthe state of hardening is uniform ( Ia;jl = constant) and if,
furt her, t he displace ments a.re given at all points ofthe surface (S, = 0)
then (19) reduces to
t R. Hill. op . c i..., p - 69 , The IIILlM principle appli". a l80 ror the He ncky .t~_lltraiD
rela ti one whe n the IMoteri.1 u in~ompr-.iblll and no n.hal'den1ng ; _ A. H . Philippid u ,
J OUrn. App. MKh. IS (19. 8 ). 2. 1, and t he di.cu.es ion b y H . J . Gree n berg, ibid .
16 (1949). 103. Whe n an elaati c region u. preeent . t he Hencky relatione for a
nonhardening materia.l &l'8 ..-ocit.t.ed with. varit.tional principle IIUggested by A. H ..,
and Th . von Karman , Glf4lingn- Nacll ricllu .... -'1l..pA~ . K laue , (1909). 20' ; .. prool
of the Hau.Karm..-a p rin ciple under th_ ~onditione hu been given by H . J . Gree n_
berg, Brown Univenity, D ivi8ion of App . Math., RIp. A Il-84 ( IH9).
A heuristic principle of maximUIQ plutic ..... t..nc:e' ..... . ...ted by M. A . &dow.ky.
JOlt"". App. M ecA. 10 (1943) , A-e~, on t he buI. o r i"- IlUceMa in a re w inIIt.anoe. : the
~il'eWlUtaIlcN in whi~h it M.pp"" to rUJ'llWh the co.....,t -oIution bve been stated iD
the paper by Hill.
t R . H ill, ibid. 17 (19601, ll4.

{III. 3

OEXERAL THEORE!aIS

In thi s restricted form the principle was fint stated. by Markov. t

(iv) I nvtr.nonof tM. 6trru'8train rdali07&8. For the application of (16)
and ( 17) to speci al problems it must be possible to express do~d.. solely

11I.3]

+
20

by

dar;. and sum.

'k

al

80 11

811

e lemen~ unloads. Using (22) and ( ~3) to eliminate dJ- and dA from th e
respective st reee-et re ln relations, we obta in

in te rms of th e independently va ried quantity, duZ or d(~. respectively.

We show now th at this may a lways be done.
To eliminate dfu we multiply
d fjl. ' -- dar
-;

EXTREM UM AND VARIAT IONAL PRI~CIPLES

da"
--.!L =
20

aI d')
' ,(-aald
'.. aJ
" (_'_ + al a~ \ au"

d-' _

2Gh

(2')

Wid 8a;J

for a work-hardening material, and

d'"
,
d "
...!!!L

We obtain

20

da"i l dail" + ' kd''''

dall" d'
fjj 20
'J

,(-aId'"' )
WI;l
~J
( al a~ \ a."

= d{~' _ ,

'

(26)

W idao;J
(20)

II

for a non -hardening material . where

ll

= 0 wh enJ(atl> <

do;

ll

= 1 wh en J (ai/ ) = c and ;'

(21)

Hence,

For a non -hardening material, 1& df ia replaced by d.\ . Now 0).- = 0

where /(uu) < c, or where / (0' /) = c and d/ < 0; elsewhere t he
ere restricted 80 that df = O. Thus

C,

or whenJ(au ) = c an d

Yd~~ ~ o.
"

dati df #' = 20 d{1' dft' -

0,

"

, ,( al

&;;j

d.,), ]
jj

(27)

(l + ol al )
20 k

everywh ere. for & non-ha rdening material.

To eliminate M Ufor a plastic element undergoing continued loading
(Ol- = 1) we begin by forming t he produ ct

:! d{~ <

aa'1 8aO

for a work -herdenlng ma terial , and

d ti d'li =

20[d'~'d.~ - '(~?:;1']

(28)

8aij oail

for

8.

(or a non -hardening material.

U equations (20), (21), (27), or (28), are combined with the identities

work-hardening material, and

da'd
' da"d
; j {iJII { "
ij

= 3 a d{ = _3(l _- 2v)
_ da u =
E
(I

3E
2v)

d{u

the quant ity daZlk~ is expressed in ter ms of da~ or df~ alone.

for a non -hardening ma terial. Since (aJ/w lI HaJ/aall) is a positive
quantity, being a sum of equaree , a given st rain-increment produces
cont inued loading of a plastic element if

:! tU~ ~ o.
"

II th e str&in-increment is such th at the inequality Us revened., the

t A . A. Markov.

Pri1&adowria AlGkmOti..l:G i N~a.. II l iN?).

he.

(29)

IV. I ]

IV
THE S OLU T IO :-I OF PLASTIC-ELAST IC
PROBLEM S. I
I. Intr oducti on

THE complete solution of & general problem in plast icity involves &
calculation of th e st ress and th e deformation in bot h the elastic and
plastic regions. In th e former th e streee is direct ly connected with the
total strain by means of the elastic equati ons. I n th e la tt-er th ere is, & 8
we have seen, no such unique correspondence, and the st ress-strain
differential relations have to be integrated by following t he history of
t he deformation from th e init iatio n of plasticity at some point of the
body. A process of plastic deformat ion has to be considered mathematically as a succession of small increments of strain, even where t he
overall distortion is 80 small that t he change in externa l surfaces can be
neglected . When t he st ra ins are large th e determination of th e cha nging
shape of free plastic surfaces necessita tes, in itself, the following of th e
defonnation from moment to moment.
The solutions in t he elastic and plasti c regions a re interrelated by
certain conti nuity conditions in th e stresses and displa.cements which
must be satisfied along the plestic-elaefic boundary. This boundary is
itself one of the unknowns, and is usually of euch an ewkwerd ehepe tha t
even th e stress distribution in the elastic region can only be obtai ned by
laborious numerical meth ods. The complete and accurate solution of a
plastic problem is pra.cticable in relatively few cases, and can nonnally
only be expected when th e problem has some special sy mmet ry or other
simplifying featu re. This chapter a nd th e following one are concerned
with problems for which analytic solut ions are known, eith er in an
explicit form or such t hat the solution ca n be completed by direct
numerical Integ ration. From them it is possible to obtain a general
insight into t he interrelatio n of t he states of st ress and strain in t he
elasti c and plastic regions. We shall th en be in a position to formulate
reasonable app roximations which &88ist solutions of the more complicated problems of technical importance.
The problems described in t he present cha pter are particularly
simple, and fall broadly into two groups. In th e first group th ere i8
no plastic-elast ic boundary to be calculated , since .U elements a re
eimulteneoualy st ressed to t he yield limit . I n t be eeoond group plaatie

I NT R O D UCT I OS

11

and elastic regions exist side by side, but t he stra ins are restricted to
be small.
2. Theory of Hohenems er 's e xp e riment
(i) When Re uss formulated his eteeee-eteein equations he else suggested an experiment by which th eir valid ity might be tested. This "'aa
necessary because although the relation p = .. had been shown by Lode
to be app roximately true when th e st ress-increment and the elaatio
component of th e st rain were negligible, this might not be 80 when the
elastic and plaetic components of th e strain were compara ble. In other
words th e ratios of th e components of th e plastic etreln-Incremeat might
not depend only on the stress ratios, but on t he etreee-increment. a.s well.
The suggested experiment consisted in twist ing a hollow cylindrical tube
to the point of yielding, and t hen extending it longitudinally while
holding the twist constant; the wall of th e tube was sufficiently th in to
obta in a n approximately uniform distributi on of stress , and t he metal
pre-strained to secure a sha rp yield-point and reduce th e rate ofberdening to a valu e small compared with the elastic modulus . If CT and or are
the a xial stress and logarithmic st ra in, end e end ,.. are the shear stress
and strain , t he Reuss equa tions 33) of Cha p. II) give
d"

d,

= 0 = .,. tL\.+20'

d. -

da

lad.\+ E '

uf+3r = YI.

There are other equations from which th e treneverse contraction of th e

tu be wall ca n be found if required. Eliminating dA :
a d.,. da
dor = - 3.,. 0+1:'

Substituting fc r r from t he yield criterion, and integrating :

(1+6) +_1l-2,
_ ',
+v

60
-y f = In - _
1- ,

where' = <flY.

(1)

As is increased , CT rises from zero (initially with rete E) and epproechee

Y a.symptot ically and 80 ra.pidly that a is already wit hin 1 per cent. of Y
when is only 3YJE. The shear steeeee correeponding ly diminiahee from
YN 3 towards zero. Because of thi.8 init ial rap id change of stress , the
elaetic st rain-increment is comparable with th e pl&8tic8train-increment.

72

THE SOLUTlON OF PLA STI C -ELA STI C P RO B L E ) I S.

I _ (I \'. :Z

u desired . Afte r a tensile strain ofonly a few times t he yield -point strain

YIE th e elast ic st rain -increme nt is entirely negligible and the stress is

virtually simple te nsion. The prescribed twist has by t hen been rendered
permanent.
The experiment wee carried out by Hohenemser.t using pre -strained
mild steel. Agreement with t he predictione of Reuss 's equa tions wee
probably ai good u could be expected in view of various uncertaint ies,
for example the hysteresis loop and rounding of the yield -point, eleeric
a fter-effeeta, and th e pro bable deviations from th e relation jJ. = ...
indicated by Lode's experiments. Seconda ry factors of thi s kind , not
embodied in t he t heory, tend to preven t any significant test of the
influence of the etreee-Increment when the strain is small. Th ere appear
to be no other published data. from experiments designed to check the
Reu88 equations.: It seems that this is an other reason for th e use of
t he Hencky equations by some writers in small-strain problem s where
t he loading is continuous, notwithBta.nding t heobjection mentioned in t he
)&8t chapter. It happens, too, th at the variation of th e to rque in Hohenemeer 'e experiment egreee rat her better with Hencky 's theory t han with
t hat of ReU88. The agreement is fortuito us, and no fundamental significance should be attached to it.
(ii) When t he work-hardening is not 80 small u we hav e assumed, the
eleeti c strai n-increment cont inues to be compa rable with t he plasti c
etrain-incremen t 80 long u th e rate of hardening is compa rable with E,
quite apart from t he influence of t he prescribed stra in -pa th. In detail,
we ha ve from (32) of Chapter II :
3Tda

o ~ 2H '. +
ada

dT
20 '

THEORY O F H OH ENEJoI SER ' S E X P E R I ME N T

du

J:. ~ '{3d;. ~Gln(";.)"

=

:l

Pr~r.

l Since the book ..ent to p~, J . L . M. Mo rriwn and W . M . Shepherd.Proc:.IM . Mun.

E",., (1900), have reported e xperiment.- o n the Olt..-ing o r tube. or . tee] and aJumin iUJD
b y Var10ul combination. or toman and tenaion . Piae tic and elae t.tc lI.r.iftl "" _ com'
r-rable, and tho> ~ v......tionI of ~ IUl.d t"".t ""ere in IUbitant iai agreement
""ith the predietMlni or t.he Reu. equatiorw (wo rk .hardenins being ~~ed. ror by t.hIo
equivalent ~-I\r&in e UJ'Ve l_ In partieular, the init ial toNion&l ncichty o r the tube
wt-t twilted und.,.. lUI. ~ load produeinl' a pennanent . ",wa.ion .... e"'M't ly equal
10 0 (_ (iii) be low). The H . nelo.y equatiorw.,on the ou.. hand, __ rnq'-ltly Ie rioUily
in eeec e,
I W , Prater, M t .... Sei. MalA . 87 (111 31); J-.m . An Plofl' . 15 ( 19440 ), e e.

This is a relation between a and T , in general req uiring numerical integra_

t ion. Then , by eliminating a from the leading term on t he right-bend
side of the second equation, a differential relation is obtained from which
the fall of torq ue with increasing strain may be ca lculated.
(iii) An allied pro blem ofsome inte rest is th e t wisting of a tu be already
stressed in tensio n to the point of yielding. Su ppose th e tube bee been
extended to the point where its yield st ress is Y, and that an increesing
torque is t hen applied, th e tensile st ress being held constant an d equal
to Y. We then have

at

ada = 3TdT,

= 3T*+YZ,

and the equa tions of Reu88 take t he form

df: = _ 3YTdT
H ' (3TZ + YI) ,
g.,.ldT
dy = 2H' (3T*-t-Y 1)

dT

+ 20'

From th e latter equation we see that initia lly, when T = 0, t he effective

torsiona l rigidity is st ill 0 , e ven th ough the t ube is plestic. Th e general
relation bet ween y a nd T can be dete rmined exp licitly when H ' is constant. On performi ng t he integra tions we obtain
=

y~

t K.
Pr. . Jrd 1,.,. CtINJ. App. Md ., Stockholm,
( 1930 ) ; Z,iU.
0"'.
MaUl . M ICh. II ( 193 1), 16. See a l80 K . H ohene meer and W .
ibid.
U ( 1932), 1.

7J

where 0 = (a*+3T*)' a nd H ' is the ra te of hardening (a known function

of 0). From th e lin t equation:

d =H'a+ E'
Hohene~ ,

IV. 2)

2H ,ln

( l +ytT
3.,\

2..[._!'tan_.(4
3.)]+2..20 "
43 Y

2H '

The (T,y) relation has a tangent of slope 20 at the origin, and gradually
bends over until the slope of t he tangent becomes 28'/3. Th e meaning
of y in this context should be care fully noted. Ii is eq ual to

r d8

2/ '

where (J is the relative twist of the ends of the tube, an d 1 and r are the
CUrrent values of t he length and radius of t he tube, which can be calculate d by using th e Re U88 equ ations for t he radial and circumferential

'740

TH E 50LUTlO N OF PLA STI C. ELASTI C P R O B L E)I S.

l.

[IV. 2

I\r.3J T O R SION AN D TEN SION OF A THIS .W ALLED T UBE

strain-increments . y has no such simple geometrical inte rp reta tion as

in pure torsion, where it is equal to I tan,p,,p being t he slope of th e helix
into which an original generator of th e t ube is distorted.

and

3. Combined torsion a nd tension of a thin -w all ed tube

We now invest igate the st resses in a thin-walled tube subjected to an
arb itrary combination of twist and extension. The st rai n-pat h and the
ra te of hard ening are supposed such t hat th e elastic component of the
st rain can be neglected . Let 10 , '0_and
be th e init ial length, mean
radi us, and t hickness of the tube, and let',', a nd t be th eir current values.
From (32) of Chapte r II expressed in cylindrical coordinates (' , e.::):

Substituting for a in the first equation of (2) and integrating:

to

d~,

<II

=7=

lU _ dr _

. de
H 'a '

dy ,.

, d9

= 2f =

3Tde }
t H'a '
(2)

,- r - -

o da
2H'a'

df, =

dt

eliminat ing

bet ween th is and (4), we obtain

-~ [I +'-:I,(dli)']
I
31 dl/ .

, zl = constant = ~lo '

(3)
T he internal volume of t he tube t herefore remains constant during th e
distortion . This is necessarily true for an isotropic t ube under pure
tension as a simple consequence of the equality of t he radial and circumferential strain-increments . It is only t rue und er combined torsion and
ten sion , however. when the relation p. = " is sati sfied. Taylor and
Quinney made th ese two facts t he basis of th eir experimenta l determineti ont of th e (p. ..) relation, and measured the internal volume by filling the
tubes with water a nd observing th e movement of the meniscus in a
connected cepillery. B )' first stra ining each specimen in tension t hey
were a ble both to pre-strain the material by any desired amount and also
to detect anisotropy in th e material.
From the first a nd second equations of (2):

'~~ ~',J(~)~ ~ 3:.

(4 )

If th e strain-path is prescribed d8/dl may be regarded as a given functi on

of th e length of the t ube. Accordi ngly (4) determin es th e ratio of the
tensile and shear at resece at each stage . Now

de =
H'

f [I +'lI.(d9\']1'!!
3/ dl)

I'

(6)

"

where Y is t he initial yield st ress of the tube. This is the relation bet ween
aand t he length of the tube (the left -hand side is evidently JiTt) . When
the integral has been evaluated by numerical integration, or otherwise,
o and T are directly obtainable from (4) anti (5). The tensile load L is
21TTta. and th e torq ue G is 2m-'lT. Since th e volume 27rT1l of t he tube
material is consta nt we have rll = r. 4'. Hence from (3):

~= ~ = J~'
Therefore

L=

21N'oto(~)0.

(7)

G = 2.. ,,: to(~)IT'

(8)

Conversely, if some restriction is placed on th e stresses applied to t he

tube (for exa mple, th e load or the torque may be held const ant), th e
elimination of 17,0, end T between (4), (5). (6), and (8) gives a relation
between e and I from which th e resulting strein-peth can be calculated.

4. Com b ined to rsion and tens ion of a cy lind r ical bar

It is supposed that t he ela.stic component of th e strain is negligible,
and that the bar is everywhere plasti c. With these eseumptione th e
analysis for t he thin-walled tu be leads us to expect that a cylindrical
bar behaves as if it were an assembly of concentric shells, in each of which
the sta tes of stress and etrein develop inde pendently. Since th e internal
volume of each shell remai ns constant th e material inside any shell can
be accommodated with out produ cing other components of steese, a nd
transverse sections will remain plane. T hese expectations are confirmed
by th e st rict analysis. For this it is convenient to int roduce the components u, v, 10 of t he velocity of an element referred to cylindrica l
COOrdinates (,...8, z). Assuming that transverse sections remain plane,
and that t he local rate of stra in is a function only of ", we try th e following
expl'e&lliona for the velocitiea:

t,

(oZ+3,.t) f

t G . I . Taylor-and H . Qu ~Y . PAd. , ',...... ll(i. s. ,", 130 IHl 31). 323.

(S)

(1

o da
= - 2H 'a'

where e is t he rela tive angu lar twist of th e ext reme sect ions of the tube.
It follows that dr/r = - dl/21 and hence, that

a=

80,

rs

II

= -2j '

I,

w= ..,. ,

(9)

78

T HE SOLUT ION O F PLA STI C- EL ASTI C PR OBL EM S.

I.

{IV. '

where the origin of coordinates is taken at the centre of one end , which is
held fixed . I is the length of the ba r, a nd 9 is the relative twist ofthe ends:
a dot denotes the time de rivative . Assuming furt her tha t the only nonvan ishing compo ne nts of st ress are 0 , = 0 and Til = T , equ ations (32)
of Cha pte r II redu ce] to

o~ .

f, = -2i = -2H'(j '

f, =

-211 =

f,

O'~
ur

o~

3T~

_ a. :
= :'_'/ = ')H'

Yrw = 0;

Y"

1= H '(j;

r6

y ,:

O.

These are aU satisfied provided t hat

a.l

1= m :

,9

and

3.,
~ -;; .

(' .)

The etreesee a re funct ions of , only and 80 t he equet lona of equilibrium

a re automatically satisfied. (9) and (4') therefore con stitute 1\ compa tible
system of stresses and velocit ies, a nd the concept ion of the solid ba r 8.1
an assembly of independent shells is justified . This would not be t rue
in general for a ny ot her (p., v) relation, since the internal volum e of a
shell is not constant (the radial and circ umferent ia l strain-inere mente
being unequal ). Transverse sections must necessarily become warped,
except when the ba r is loaded eit her by a pure te nsion (p. = .. = -1)
or by a pu re torque (p. = v = 0).
When t here is no harden ing the stress d istributi on is imm ediately
found from the eq ua tions
o
3 dl "
02+ 3T2 = y2,
- = - - = - , say,
T
, d9
r
where " is indepe ndent of r but varie s from momen t to moment . Then

"Y
0 = .J(X1+3r 2)'

,y
T = .J(0).2+3,2'-

These formulae appea r to have been first stated by NadaLt The shear
stress is zero on the a xis of the bar, and rises to a max imum at the surface.
If the strain-path is prescribed, a must be regarded 8.1 a known funetion
of the length of t he bar. Conversely, if some condit ion i. placed on the
t Bee Append ix II for t he e xp..-ioll8 for t he r.te.of, train ",o mpo nente in ey lindric.I

I\. .l]

TOR S ION AND TEN SION OF A CY L IN D R I CA L B A R

S. Com p r es s ion under conditions of pl ane strain

A recta ngular block of metal with edges parallel to the axes of x, y,
and z is compressed in the x di rection bet ween overle pplng rigid pletea.
Expansion is allowed only in t he y dire cti on , and is prev ented in the z
direction by rigid dies. All surfaces of contact are su pposed to be perfectly lubrica ted , 80 th at the deformation ill plane a nd uniform, This
espt"rimental arrangement has been employed by Bndgmen .r The
solution! of th e problem illust rates features common to e ll pro blems of
plane strain. Work.hardening is supposed zero, and the metal is assu med
to yield in accordance with Treeca'e lew. While t he block is still stressed
elasti cally 0, = lIO'z. It will ap pea r a po8teriori that 0, is always the
intermediate prin cipal st ress ; conseq uently 0" = - Y at yie lding end
throughout subsequent plastic distortion . The Reuss eq ua tions are
1

dz = i(20,, -0, -o, )d.\ +'E {da,, - ..daw- - vda,),

d /I

I
= i(2a/l- o. - o,,)d.\ +'E (da, - ..da,-vda,,),

( II)

0 = df, = H20, -0,,-0,)d.\ +"E(da,-lIdaz - .. da, ).

Sub~tituting 0.1' = - Y , 0, = 0, and eliminating d.\ from the first and
third equations, and integrating :

E (z-zQ) = - 3Y
- In (
4

1-2.),

y +(. -v)(o,+ " Y ),

1+ 20,1

where ;ri) = - (l - III )Y/E is the strain when the block first yield s.
(" can be det ermined from th e second Reuss equation if required, As
the compression proceeds the last te rm becomes unimportant and 0 ,
rist's ra pidly from its valu e -IIY a t yield ing to the limiting value -iY.
For example, if v = 03 (a ty pical value for metals), 0 , is already equal to
- 1l' 498Y after a plastic stra in of only five times the yield -point strain .
Owing to this rap id initial cha nge of 0 , the elasti c strain-increment is
Comparable wit h t he plastic strain-increment up to total atreina of three
or four times the yield-point strain. Thereafter the elastic atrain-incremeut qui ckly di minishes in relative va lue, and 0 , ca.n be taken equal to

",ool'd i~t<N.

: A. N.d.i. Tn" ... Am . S oc. M h . "9. 52 (19301. 103. The ~ter .. ~. . . diff. r
en t mMnID, in N.d. i', formule. ,in~e he used t he Hfmlllr.y " ..-_,u.m ~J. ho,...

"

rela tive valu es of th e load an d torque, th e parameter CI a nd the strain.

path can be ca lculated.

t P . W . Br id gman. J _ m . App . PAy,. 17 ( 194.S), 226.

: R . H ill,

J_,.,.. A pp. Mw.. 16 {lh91, 296.

78

TH E S OLUTION OF PLA ST I C EL AST I C PR OBLEM S,

I.

(IV . 5

- iY, or 10.1" to an extre mely close a pproximation. It is instructi ve to

consider this by mean s of the geometrical representat ion descri bed on
p. ' 2.
Similar conclusions are reached if t he metal yields acco rding to t he
~ -ozo. + O: = YI.
(12)
law of von Misee:
Since

o. =

VO'z

in the elastic state , yielding begins when

0" =

_ (I - ..llY
= .J( l ..+ ..I)E

-Y
.J( l - ..+ "I)'

t""

IV.5J

CO MP R E S S IO N UN D E R P L AN E S T R A I Y

78

approximation after a plas tic strain of a few tim es the yield-point IItrain.
The elas tic component of st rai n is corres pondingly negligib le, and the
Uv}- .Mises relation ((28) of Chap. II) may be used instead of the Reu88
equations. This helpful simplificat ion continues to be valid during the
ensuing plastic deformation 80 long &8 there is no sharp ' bend ' in the
strain-pa t h, where th e stress-increm ent is of order E times the strainincremen t . The conclusion is also unaffected by the presence of work hardening. provided t he rate is small compared with E , as it will normally
be after a plastic stra in of a few per cent . On the other hand, whenever

For the usual values of .., the yiel d stress is nu merically a little less tha n
2Y /V3; t hus Ozll = - 1121Y when .. = 03. On putting 0', = 0 in (11),
and eliminating tV.. from the first and third eq uations,

ss; _
z

[1 - 2,+ (0.1'

3Y'

20'. )(20.1'

a.l]da.

after using (12) end its differential form

( 2O'z - 0. ) daz + (2O'. - O'z ) da,

H ence,

= O.

, 3Y (2YI-'3- a,)

E (fz- fZO) = (1- 2..)a.- - . - 1n 2Y/v3+ O'z + oonst .,

Flo . 9. Coo rdinate,yatem (or anaIyw o( the bending o f

rertangulu t-m in plane 1Itra.in. wit h piutic W nM
Mhown &haded .

(13)

where th e constant can be obtained by sub stituting the condit ions at t he

first yielding . As t"z is increased, Oz approaches - 2Y /";3 , t he centre term
qui ckly becoming negligible. 0 , correspondingly decreases ra pidly
towards 10.1" virtua lly attaining this limiting value in a to tal st ra in of
elastic order.
Experimental verification of these conclusions would be va luable, b ut
no d ies are abso lutely rigid a nd some allowance would need to be made
for t heir elasticity. Bridgman's experiments, already mentioned , were
not suffi ciently refined for this purpose, but confi rmed th at when
elas tic etreine are negligible the plane-strain yield stress of mediumcarbon alloy steel is about 15 per cent . highe r than the uniaxial yield
stress (until an isotropy develops). This ha s also been roughly confirmed
for other metals by Be raneki,'] who extended bars of brass and mild stee l
under approximate conditions of plane st rain (th e cor respond ing analysis
for tension ill obtained by changing th e sign of Y in the ab ove eq uations).
The foregoing analysis suggests th c general conclusion t hat in plane
strain t he IIt re88 0 , perpendicular t o the pla nes of ftcw may be taken equal
to t he mean Ho",+o..) of the other two normal stresses to a very good
t o. Ba ra n,k i. Z . ir. , Mdallkuntk.26 ( 1934). 173 . 8M al..:> H . Ford. P NX. In4 . M.cA.
1''''4. 159 (1 948). 116. and t he d iecu.ion by t he ,,",iter. ibid. 167 .

the stress-increment is of order E times the stra in-in cre ment, considera ble
inaccuracies would be int rod uced by neglecting t he elastic strainincrement (no matter wha t the previous plas tic st rain may ha ve been) .
This will be further illustrated in later examples.

6. Bendin g under cond itions of pl ane s t rain

As our first exa mple of a problem in which plastic and elastic regions
exist side by side , consider the bending of a uniform rectangular beam
or sheet of non -hardening ma te rial under conditions of plene strain.
We choose coordinate ax es so t hat t he e-exie is in the direction in which
strain is prevented (normal to t he paper in Fig. 9), and t he %Z plane
coincides wit h the central plane of the beam . The axis ofy is taken positive towards the convex side of t he beam , which is bent un der terminal
~ouples G in t he sense shown. It is supposed that t he radius of curvature
18 so large in relation to the thickness that the induced transverse etreeeee
in the y direction can be neglected ; the effect of these will be considered
in a later chapter when the problem is a nalysed for strains of any mag nitude. The neutral (unstrained) fibre Ox is bent into a circular arc of
radius R. While t he beam is erreeeed below the yield -point, it is kno wn
from elsatie theory that the Jongitudinal stresa o. is distributed linearly

80

TH E SO LU TION OF P LAST IC E LAST IC P R OB L EM S.

I.

[IV . 6

ecrcee a tran sverse sect ion acco rding to th e equation

U

Ey

z = (1

vt) R '

z is te nsile above Ox and compress ive below it . Apart from U.' which is
equal to l"O'z ' all other st ress componen ts are zero. T he required couple

per unit width is

G=

-.f

2Eat
vt) R '

uzy dy = 3( 1

(14)

Ea

;1(.,. -'-+-.
...)"

( I -"')R y -

As the cou ple is further increased , plastic regions spread inwards from
both surfaces. If 2c is t he width of th e remainin g elastic zone a t a ny
moment, the corres pond ing radius of curv ature R is eviden tly given by
R

a:
C

tlJ

BEND ING U NDER CONDI TION S OF PLAN E STRAIN

_ .J(I - v+ vt )Ea
( I vt )y
.

( 15)

y -

This eq uation ceases to hold, even approximately, when t he strains are

no lon ger- small . Th e na tural expecta tion t hat tra nsverse planes contin ue
to remain plane while part of the beam is plastic, and t hat the state of
et reee is still a longitud inal te nsion or compression, may be justified by
subst it ution in t he Reuss eq uations and the equat ions of equ ilibri um.
It is evident that the a na lysis is in fact identical wit h that of the last
section , end that th e state of stress in anyone fibre develope independently of th e re er.t th e st rain z being eq ual to YI R. The t ra nsverse
contrac tion or ex pan sion in a ny fibre is a uto matica lly accommodated,
since all a re free to move tr ansversely. At eac h stage of t he bend ing U z
and a. ca n be calcu late d from eq uations ( 12) and ( 13), wit h t he appropriate choice of t he sign of Y in the regions of comp ression and tension.
Th e longitud inal st ress in a fibre increases from the value a,nJ , when t he
fi bre first becomes plast ic, to wards the limit ing value 2YI"'3. However,
t Thi.. would n ot ~ if th .. bt-l'Im ", ern b<- nt ", hil.. u nder _ co ""t _n t ten~i"n . The
po.it ion o f th.. n<'ut 1 i and h.... ce th.. " t ...in in .. ny fib "" , wo uld. h_-:-" to Lt. de ter
mine<l ..t flAe h ~t"Il" by tho cond It io n t h..t t h.. fOllultlUtt Qf tbe 10ng.t ...d tn_1 l'I t ",,-.. i8
('<1.... 1 to the ..ppl iod t .. ""ion .

81

the approach to the limiting valu e is not particularly close, except in

the extreme fibres, in t he ran ge of strain for which the present analysis
is accurate. The inte gral ( 14) for the bendi ng couple m ust be evaluated
numerically.
The treatment of the problem is apprecia bly simplified if Treece's
yield criterion is ad opted , since the longitudina l stress in the plaati c
region is always Y. In this case

R = - Ry =

where 2a is the th ickness of t he bea m. The deformation is such that

treneverse planes contin ue to remain plane, while th e tensile strain in a
longitudinal fibre is yl R ; fibres above the neutral plane a re extended
and t hose below compressed . According to von ~I ises ' crite rion (12) the
IIUrf&Ce fibres of' the beam yield at a st ress Uzo = Y J.j( I_v +vt ) , and a
rad ius of curva t ure R y sa t isfying t he equation

Ry =

IV.

(I

The couple G per uni t wid th is

Ey' dy

(j _ "'jR + 2

2Ec'
Yy dy ~ 3(1 ... )R+ Y(a' - ") ~ Y (a' -j, ,).

( 16)

This resu lt was first obtained by Saint-Venant. E ven thoug h t he material

has a sharp yie ld-point, the relation between t he couple G and the curvature llR is & smooth curve wit h a continuously t urning tangent.
In t he conventional engineering treatment of this problem no account
is ta ken of t he elastic component of t he strain in the plastic region . A
discontinuity in t he calculated stress a. across t he plasti c-elastic bounda ry can then only be avoided by eeeumlng the fictitious val ue 05 for
Poieeon'a ratio. For in the elastic region u. = l"O'z ' while in t he plastic
region a. = iaz; consequently if the plastic boundary is determined by
the condition that a z is continuous ec roee it , a. must be discontinu ous.
This does not affect t he relation between the couple and the curvat ure
when Tresca's criterion is used, but it obviously does in the case of von
Mises'
criterion . The longit ud inal stress a is t hen also discontinuous
.
S10ce it is equal to 2Y /"/3 in t he plastic region but to Y /../(1- 10'+ 111 ) on the
~1&8tic side of the plastic boun dary . In the convent iona l t reatment this
1.8 avoided at the expense of an inconsistency by formally continuing the
'elast ic' st ress dist rib ut ion Oz = Ey j( l _ vt)R to the fibre in which
Oz = 2Yh '3.

.,

7. Bending of a pr is m a ti c be am
A uniform prismat ic beam of non.hard ening mate rial is bent by equa l
and op posite couples G applied at its ends . For simplicity it is supposed
that a transverse secti on of tile beam (t he y: plane in Fig. 10) has an ax is
of symmet ry Oy, and that the axes of the couples a re parallel to Oz.
The origin 0 is taken on the neu tral fibre in t he ry plane. It is requ ired to

12

T HE SO L U TIO N O F P LA ST I C . ELA ST I C P R OB L EM S.

I.

[IV. 1

calculate th e relat ion between the curvature of t he beam and th e a pplied

couple when part of th e beam has yielded plastically. Th e strain is
restricted to va lues sufficiently small for th e curv ature to be neglected
in 80 far as the eq uilibrium eq uations are concerned. It is normall y
eeeumed that t he plastic-elastic boundaries are pa rallel to t he neu tral
plane, an d that all stress components apart from U~ are zero. That
neith er of these assumptio ns is in fact correct can be seen with out difficulty by considering t he deformation of
elements situated moment arily just on
t he elastic or plastic aide of t he common
inte rface. Let th e longitudinal curv ature of t he beam be II R, and consider a
z further small change d(II R). If th e
{-...,~rt~ stress were in fact a simple tensi on, t he
change in the ant iclastic (or transverse)
curvature of elastic element. would be
vd(1/R ). On th e other hand. the change
in t he anticlastic curvature of plastic
F lO. 10. Coordinate ayatem for a na- elements would be Id ( I /R ), since th e
Iyaia of t he bending o f a p riamati o
beam, wit h p laati o Wile. ahow n st ress after yielding rema ins eq ual to Y
ahaded (P oiaon'a ratio _ 0 5).
and t here is no elastic strain-increment .
Elem ents on opposite sides of t he
plastic-elastic interface would therefore not fit together. Th e necessary
conditio n of continuity can only be satisfied by int roducing t ransverse
st resses, and rejecting the original over-simplified assu mptions. The
boundary of the plasti c zone can no longer be assumed plane, and t he
problem becomes extremely difficult ; t he general solution is not yet
known . By a slight extension of th is arg ument t he same conclusion may
be proved for a work -hardenin g mate ria! wit hout a sha rp yield-point .
When Poisson' s rati o is I the diffi culty does not arise, a nd the
simple treatm ent is correct . Th e posit ion of the neut ral plane xz is
determined by t he condition t hat th e longit udina l st resses should have
zero resultant , na mely .
zdydz - 0

ff

taken over a t ransverse section. While t he bea.m is still elastic t he

stress U z is distributed linea rly according to t he form ula U z = Ey/R .
where R is the radius of curvat ure of t he fibre coinciding with the x-axis.
Hence a must be the centroid of t he sectio n. The fibre lying fart hest
from t he cent roid yields first , and , if th e sectio n is not. symmetrical

1"' , 1)

B E ND I N G O F A PR I Sl rAT I C BEAM

83

abou t Oz, ,t he plaetlc zone penetrates acme way from this: side of th e
beam before t he other side yields . The etreee in a pleetfc fibre is a
constant te nsion or compression of amo unt Y. When the couple haa incre~ .to an extent such t hat there are two plestic zones , th e plaaticelestlc interfecee are at equal distances c = RY/E from t he neut I
F'
m
plane ( tg. 10), In genera l when th e bea m is partly plastic the neutral
(unstressed ) plane varies from moment to moment , and does not necessarily contain th e line of centroids . So long as th e fibres in the unstre~ plane ha~e only been st rained elastically d uring t he prior
bending (as th ey will ha ve for all usua l sha pes of section), t he resultant
strain in th e ne ut ral plan e is zero, and th e compo nents u, e, and w of t he
total displacement are
w= _ Y%

2R '

(17)

in both eleat lc and pJaatic zones, These a re the well-known expressions

for purely elast ic bending. t I t may be verified t ha t they are compatible wit h th e eseumed stress distribut ion in the elastic region, and
that the ~istortion is such t hat transverse plan es remai n plan e d uring
the bendmg. In th e plastic region we hav e to show t hat t he st rainincrement produced by a small change d(l /R) in the curvat ure is compatible with th e eeeumed stress dist ribution on th e basis of t he Re u88
equat ions. Th e incremental components of displacement in a plasti c
.
element are

d.

ZYd(~) + idY,

d. = -l<2z'+!I'-Z')d(~) - 2~dY,
dw ~ - IYZd(M- 2~dy,
since the position of th e element does not change (to the order of
app roximation involved in th e assumption of small strains), but th e
y coordina te vari es d ue to th e relative movement of th e neutral plan e.
The te rms in dy represent a uniform longit udinal exte nsion of a moun t
dY/ R; th e remaining te rms represent t he st rain-increment which would
result if th e neu tral plane were fixed. The Incrementa of st rain are th en
See, for e ll6,ftlp1e, S. T~o. T~ of El4M~y. p . t !4 (McGra....H ilI Book
. 1934); R . V. Southwel. l. IUroduaioR '" fA4 T /uqry oJ El4Miatr , p . 3t1 (Clarendon
p......... 1936J; I . S. SokolDikoll. MaIA'>MGlical TAcory oj E""k~. p . I " ()(eO raw .H ilI
Book eo. I N 6 ).

eot

84

T H E SO LUT IO N OF PL AST I C EL A ST I C PR OBL EM S, I ,

{I V. 7

IV. 8)

(remembering that dy is t he eame for all elements )

<I.,

where w is th e warping fun ct ion an d 8 is the twist per unit length right
handed about th e positiv e e-exls. The angula r rot ation of . ' ..na
verse
.
id
pIa ne IS e VI ently proporti onal to its distance from t he fixed . .
Th
. . f
ongm.
e warpmg IS. 0 course , proportional to th e twist in the elastic
b t .
itten i h
ra.nge,
u W 1S wn n m ~ e more general form as t he proportionality cannot
be ex~cted to contm ue when th e bar becomes plastic. Th e componenta
of stram are
f z = f . = f , = yzy = 0,

~ Yd(~) + ~ d(~).

d.,- d~ - jyd(~H i ~ -ld(~).

dyav = dyIP = dyu = O.

Th e etra in-mere ment in every fibre is a uniform extension with equ al

la tera l contractions of half its a mount , and this is consiste nt with t he
assumption t hat t he fibres are stressed. in simple tension (irres pect ive
of wheth er th e material work-hardens or not).
OzY dyd: in a beam of
Th e calculation of t he bending mome nt
given section is straightforward ; exam ples can be found in th e books
of Nad ait and Sokolovsky. f Th e same t heory is also commonly applied
to beams bent under shearing forces, where the st ress distribu tion a nd the
poaition ofthe pleetic-elean c interface va ry along th e length ofthe beam.
It is evident t hat this involves further epproxime tlcna of uncertain
&.Ccuracy.

If

8. Torsion of a prIsmatic bar

(i) Ela8lic Torn on. I n all th e problems 80 far investigated th e st reu
has been a fun cti on of a t most one geometrical va riab le. We now consider a problem of greater difficulty where the st ress depe nds on two
independent coordinates. A uniform , long, pri smati c ba r of a rbitrary
section (enclosed by a single curve) is twisted about an ax is parallel
to th e generators by equa l and opposite couples. Cartesian coordinates
e , y, and z are taken with th e e-exia parallel to th e generators ; the origin
an d orientation of the e- and y-axes is immate ria l in a general analysis.
In th e elasti c range it is found t ha t , if t he only non-vanishing etreee
components are T z and T~. , the deforma tion consists of a rotation of
originally plane sections a bout a line parallel to t he a-axle, toge ther with
8. longitu dinal war ping of consta nt am oun t . Apa rt from an arbitrary
rigid-body movement, th e compo nents u, v, and w of the total displacement are
u = - 8yz,
v = 8xz,
W = w(.:r , y, 8),
t

A . Nadai. Pkut~ily . cha p. 22 (McGr a wHiII Boo k Co., 1931 ).

W . W . So kolovRk y. TAtrwy oj P la.otidl y. chap. I I ( MORCOW. Hl40 j. See al lOO J . W.
Roderil'k . Pll il. MfZtJ. 3 9 (1948). 5Z9 ; H . A . W iIlia m_. J OU rft . A, ro . Bel f (11147 ). 457.
f 8 . T irnotlhe nk o. T Ite<>ry oj EltUt icity. p . 232 ( McGra w.Hill Book Co. 19 34); R . V.
SOut h w ell , l nlrod ud i_ (0 1M T~y oj Eltufu-u y . p . 324 ( Clare~on Prea, 193&11
I . S . SOkoln ikofl. M olA rmQl iJl Thory oj Ellwitity. p . 12:l(McOraw HIIi Book Co. 194&).

T OR 8IO N OF A P RI SMA TI C BA R

a..

2YD = at - 8y.

a..

2y = &y +8z .

The shea r-stress components are

G(: -8y) .
v = 2Gyp = G
(';; +8z).
~ = 2Gy~ =

-r

By eliminating w we obtain th e compatibility rela tion

~ _ ~D = 2G8

ax

By

(18)

The equation of equ ilibrium Ie

8vp+~ = 0
ax By

and this is satisfied by introd ucing th e st ress funct ion ~(x, y ), where
Tn

=:,

T1t, = -~,

(19)

The resultant shea r stress acting over a t ransverse plan e is directed at

each po~nt a long t he.contour curves of consta nt ~, which are th erefore
called ll ne8 of S4OO"1I9 SiTUS . Th e magnitude of t he shear etreea is
Igrad .pl or /8/&nI, where the derivativ e is taken normal to a conto ur
li ~e. Th e resulta nt shear stress acting over a tra nsverse plane must be
duected parallel to t he boundary in a surface element , since the lateral
sUrface of the bar is free from et resa. The bounda ry must therefore be a
contour of ~, and we may conve niently take the constant va lue to be
Zero. The couple M required to produce a t wist 8 is

.11

ff -yv..)dzdy ff (z::+y~) dzJy - If ~ dzJy

(ZT..

= -

(20)

88

TH E SOL UT I ON OF PLA STI CJo: I.A STI C PR O BLE MS.

I.

[I V. 8

on integra ting by parts and using th e condit ion e = 0 on the boundary.

M is t herefore equal to twice th e volume under t he surface representing
the st ress funct ion. Substituting th e expreeeione (19) in the competibility relation (18) we obt ain finally
(21)

For a given croee-eection and a prescribed t wist 8 this equation, together

with the boundary condition ep = 0, is suffi cient to determine ,p, and
hence the stresses, over th e whole section. Prandtl t (1903) first pointed
out t he analogy with the deflexion of a uniformly tensioned membrane,
fixed at ita edge to a plane support of the same shape as th e section of
th e bar , and stressed late rally on one side by a un iform pressure. The
deflexion satis fiesth e same equation and boundary condition as th e stress
function tj" th e constant on th e right-hand side depending on th e applied
te nsion end pressure. Th us t he surface assumed by the membrane in ita
equilibrium position is similar to the ep surface, and the contours of
equal deflexion correspond to t he shearing lines, while the slope of t he
membrane at any point is proportional to th e resultant shear stress at
th e corresponding point of th e bar. The membrane analogy furnishes
en experimental means of calculating th e st resses for shapes of section
difficult to treat by mathematical analysis.
(ti ) St,eu di"tribtdion in. a partly plMt ic bar. The bar yields when the
resultant shear stress in some element reaches a critica l value 1', where
l' is equal to Y/2 according to Treece's crite rion or to Y/ ~3 according
to von Mises' criterion . It is a property of equat ion (21) that Igrad ,pl
attains ita greatest value on the boundary ;t this is physically selfevident from th e membrane analogy, since the membrane would
na tu rally be expected to assum e a sha pe everywhere concave to the
applied preMure. Th us plastic yielding first tak es place somewhere on
t he bound ary. In a bar of ellipt ical section, for example, t he weakest
points are th e extremit ies of t he minor a xis; in a bar whose sectio n is a
square or an equilatera l t riangle th e centres of the sides yield first (the
shear stress is zero at project ing corners). As th e applied couple is increased plastic zones spread from t hese points. Assuming for th e
moment that Tz~ and T U1 are st ill the only non-vanishing st ress components, it follows th at the resultant shea r stress remains equal to k if
t L. PTandtl, Z riu. PAy4, (1903 ).

. .
: See. (or exam ple, I . s. So koln ikofl. M~wl T'-'"'r oj E~y (MeG,...H ilI
Book Co. h ac.), 19411, p. 130.

IV.8J

TOR SION OF A PRI SMAT I C BAR

87

there is no work-hardening. Hence, in th e plasti c region t he st ress

function satisfies t he equation

Tl.+T:' ~ (~r +(~r = t',

(22)

".. hile in th e elastic region'; cont inues to satisfy (21). The plastic boundary is determined by th e conditi ons (i) th at the shear stress is con.
tinuous across it , a nd (ii) that the shear stress i.e not greater then F inside
the elastic region. Ot herwise expressed , the slope of the ep surface must
be equal to l' in the plastic region, and must not be greater than k in t he
elastic region, while the height and slope of the surface must be con.
tinuous across the plastic boundary. As was first pointed out by Nadai, t
t his euggeete an extension of th e membrane analogy to simulate th e
stress function for a part ially plastic bar when th e twist is so small that
changes in t he external conto ur can be neglected . It is only necessary
to erect a fixed roof of constant slope over th e membrane with t he oute r
boundary of the section as its base. The a rea und er th e part of th e roof
where the membrane is pressed against it by th e app lied pressure represents t he plastic region corresponding to a certain torque.f
It is evident from this analogy that t he st ress distribution for a given
torque is determined solely by t he shape of t he boundary (the strains
being small), a nd that the equations (21) and (22), together with the
boundary condition f = 0, are sufficient for calculating the stresses
without reference to t he deformation. For this reason the tors ion prob lem is said to be "tatically detennind. It is worth observing th at t he
stress distribution and plast ic region corresponding to a given torque
are independe nt of th e value of the shear modulus G, since t his only
occurs in conjunction with 8; if th e torque is prescribed, equation (20)
supplies a condition to determine the consta nt para meter 2G8 in (21).
The twist for & given torque is therefore inversely proportional to G.
It is easy to see from an analyt ic expression of t he roof analogy th at
th e stress at a point in t he plastic region is uniquely determined by the
shape of th e external boundary. The stress function at a point in the
plastic region isequal to l' times its distance from the boundary, measured
along t he normal th rough t he point . The shearing stress lines of consta nt ep are orthogonal to th e normals (the lines of greatest slope), and
are evidently spaced parallel to the boundary at constant distan ces
from it . They are shown by t he full curves in Fig. 114, the broken curve
t

A . Nlldai. Zau. Ill"". MalA . MeeA . 3 ( 19231.'442.

: Fo r furt her e:r.amp..... _ A. Nildai. pr-;a'II, cha p. 19 (McGra..HiII Book Co.,
193 1).

88

THE SO LUT iO N O F P LA ST IC E L AS T IC PR OBLEM S. I .

[I V. 8

representing the pl&stic-elastic boundary. Th e shea ring-st ress lines may

also be thought of as the family of involutes of th e evolute of th e boundery. If t he eontouroontains a re-entrant angle (Fig. II b) t he verte x isa
singula rity for th e stress, and the shearing lines within a certain angular
span are circular ares . On t he other bend, th e shear stress is always
zero at a proj ect ing comer, which th erefore never becomes plastic.
(ill ) Calctdalicm oj 1M d~. Now since t he etraine are
eaeumed 80 smell that changes of the external contour ILDd displacements of elements can be neglected (as in elasticity) , th e stress in an

IV.8J

..

T ORSION OF A PRISM ATIC BAR

previously calculated functions of z and y. Th e equation is hyperbolio

and its cha racte rilltice are the nonnala to th e exte rnal eontour.j If d"
denotes a small increme nt of distance meaaured outwe rd along a normal,
we ha ve
dw
aw
aw
dA = eoe ~ iJz +.m~ ay'
where -/J is t he an gula r orientat ion of a normal to th e positive z axis. Now
and

Ta

80

= -ksin!f.

dw

T..

dA ~

T
8

- I

aw

iJz-

"' = kC08!f.
Tainu

T ay

(OT_+1JTp

from (23) .

= 6(- xsin.p+ycos.p).

Hence, if p denotes the length of the perpendicula r from the origin on to

dw
a normal.

(b)

dA ~ 8p .

Flo. I I . ShelU'' 'tre. trajectoriN in t he ere-

MICtion of a t wi8ted p rismatic bar with (0) a
mnooth contour. and (6) a re -ent.r&nt &nile .

element remains constant in magnitude and direction once the element

has become plastic. Th e elastic st rain-incre ments a re then zero to the
same order of &pproximation, ILDd th e ReU88 equations reduce to
ckz =

d~. =

ck. =

dy~ =

0;

dYa = dy...
Ta

T..

Hence, since the shea r-strain components Ya and Y,. are proportional
to the respective stress components T ZI and T . . while the element ia
elastic , they mud cont inue 80 when it is plastic. In th e geometrica.1
representation of Fig. 7 th e st rain-path is a straight line through the
origin, th e st reee-point. remai ning fixed. We may th erefore write
Yz.

(aw l fJx )- 9y

Y.,. = (Owlay)+ 9z =

Ta

(23)

t Thito ito identical ...ith the COl'T'NpOnd ing eq uattonJ of t he H eneky t heory ((3111 01
Chap .
h ieh thu. lMd. to t he ......, warping fu netKm, ... ,.....ned b y H . O" irinpr
and W . Prager, E~"" d. ~ Nr>tu.,.,u. 13 (1934.). 3 10.

II,..

The warping th erefore varies linearly along any nonnal ;t in particular,

if the sectio n has two ax es of symmetry w is zero along them in both th e
eleetle and plaat io regions when the centroid is taken as the origin. Since ,
for a given t wist, 10 is known on the plasti c-elastic boundary from th e
solut ion for th e warping fun ction in t he elastic region, to can be im mediately calculated everywhere in th e plastic region. In view of the
varying shape of t he pleetic-elaetic boundary as it moves inward, there
is evidently no reeeon to expect that to is proportional to the twist .
. (iv) Bar oj circular 6tClion. When t he section ill circular th e warping
18 zero and th e shearing -stress contours are concentric circles. The
solution was originally ohtained by Saint-Venant. If e is the radius of
the pleeti c-eleet lc boundary corresponding to a twist 8 = klGe, the
distribution of t he shearing stress is

'TI/'

in the plast ic reglon.] The original eeeumption th at 'TZ I and Till are t he
only non -veniehing stress components has now been justified , since the
system of displacem ents eeeumed for th e elastic region ill else compatible
with the plastic state of eteese. (23) is an equat ion determining the
warping function, in which th e shear st resses are to be regarded ...

(24)

R enee the to rqu e is

M = 2'11"

1crlc (0

= k

f rl.rdr =

e),

(c ~ r ~ a).

f'll"k(aJ - l c') ,

t.J Wi~h the notation of Appendi>t III. P _

c = klG8,

(26)

9". .. Q _
_ 9". . . and the c~ ....
f~ly of ~rma'- /klr.. _ - d, lr .
: nu. equation .... be.!. applied to the ca1cuI&Uon. of the wuping ia. . - I-t..ru bT
:;;.,c. H~. Jotnft. APJ). M d . 16 11' U I. 391. It '" 1IhoW'D that the -.t.n:buUon of
be ~ con to U~ wupins beoom. -sJ.icib. at I&rp-._of twin . b.wle .. 0Ul
- -gned Ute val _ MI"O on the ~ ~ U n a the _ _ t eJ...t.icl OlIN.

90

T HE SO L U T I O N O F P LA STIC E L A STI C P R OBL E MS.

r.

(IV . 8

1'11'.&:0 1 ,

while th e torque when t he bar first yields is My =

The value of
th e torque required to cause complete yielding of th e bar is theore t ically
11'I'ko', or IMy . This condition ca nnot , of course, be ob tained in pra ctice
since no matter how large t he twist there is always 8. core of material
which is still elastic.
(v) SokolotJ&lcy', aolution Jor a bar of oval 8edian . An ingenious inverse
met hod of solutio n for a certain oval contour has been formulated by
Sokotoveky.t His met hod coneiete in assuming a mathematically convenient shape for the plastic-elastic bounda ry, and dete rm ining from
t his t he a ppropriate contour of t he section . If t he plas tic-elast ic bo undary is th e ellipse
r
y'
al + bi = I,
tbe stresses in the elastic region are
Tu

- (~~)ay.

Tp

(:~~)bZ.

(26 )

where 8, as usual, is the t wist per un it lengt h. Th ese obviously sat isfy
the equa tion of equilibrium and t he compatibility relation (18). On the
ellipse :

'T!
,a

+~

= ( 2G9)I(al l+b1zl) =

a+b

WI

(2GI/ab)'.
a+ b

IV.8J

Substitut ing for

where

= kCOS lf,

in th e plas tic region &8 before, we have for t he value of

Ie, 'lI on t he ellipse :
1
tanlf = _ Tn = a'J;
el+'J
= 1.
l
T1/_
b{
a
bl
Hen ce

e=

a C08lf,

(z -E)tan ~.

The orthogonal trajeetorie8 of t his family of linea have the parametrio

Setting

T. .

eand '1:

y-,

y ~ ztan ~ - (a -b )ain~ .

eq uations

= - keinlf,

II

met hod will only be of va lue if, for t he chosen contour , the plae ti c-elaetic
boundary ~s an ellipse for a range of values of 8. We could alwaye chOOlle
some elastic stress distribution, take th e plastic-elasti c bo undary as t he
curve where t he shear s t ress is k, and hen ce const ruct an extern al contou
and its normals. In general, however,
r
we should only have solved the prob~
lem for t hat conto ur for one va lue of
8, and should be no nea rer solving
it for other val ues. The s uccess of
Soko lovsky's method in t his instance
is d ue to th e circumstance t hat the
pleatic-eleeti e bo undary happem to
be an ellipse, with a simi la r elastic
stress di stribution , for a range of FIG. 12. P1ut.ie and fllutic z.onN m
angles of twist. Now t he equ ation ~wiated prieroat.ie bar of ov u 'fIoCLton
(diagrunmatic. aft Sokolovell:y) .
of a normal to the shearing stre88
lines is

Yielding t herefore occurs all along t he ellipse (but not inside it) whe n
t he twist is
k(a+ b)
9 = 2Gab
(27)
T ,a

T OR S I ON O F A PR IS MA T I C BA R

If at

a point

'1 = b sin If.

Since t he st ress mu st be continuous across th e ellipse, the norm als to

the shea ring-st ress contours in t he plastic region are obtained by constr ucting a set of lines ou t wa rd fr om ea ch point of the ellipse with the
ap propriate inclinati on If (F ig. 12). T he sheari ng lines are th e orthogonal
t ra jecto ries of t his set, and an yone of t he shearing linea te a suitable
extern a l conto ur. The particu la r value of the t wi8t when the plastic
elastic boundary coincides wit h th e ellip se is given by (27). Clearly t he
t w. W . Sok olovlky, P rildadn410 M ak_ilra ;: M t&M .. i ko, 6 ( 19402), 241.

;r;

= eoa !/{ A + (A - B)sins.p]. }

y = . m</{B-(A - B)eo'',(.J.

(26 )

A -B = !la -b).

When 2B ~ A , t he contour is a closed oval curve with semi -axes A and

B ; it differs very lit tl e from an ellipse . Changing our point of view,
let us regard t he contour (28) as specified by certain va lues of A and B.
When the t wist is 8, the plastic-elastic boundary is a n ellipse with semiax es a and b given by

a+b

2G9

OJ)= T
Hen ce

'

a- b - 2(A-B) .

a = ..!...
2G6 +A _ B + [~+
40181 (A _ B)'] I.
t

)
(29)

b = 2G9+ B - A + [' G' 9' + (A - B)' ] .

The eclunon is obviouaiy only valid whe n t his ellipse lies entirely within

92

THE SOL UTION O F PLASTI C ELA STI C P RO B LE MS.

the conto ur, that is, when a

{I V. 8

~ A (2B A )O'

(30)

The method does not indicate t he shape of the pleet lc-eleet ic bou nda ry
for sma ller valu es of the twist, when points of the external conto ur are
still eleetic . In retrospect it is clear that the success of t he method is du e
to t he fact that the eq uation (28) for the contour only involves the
difference (a- b) of a and b, and not their eepe rete values. It is for t his
reason that valu es of a and b can be found correspond ing to Any given
t wist 8 ( ~8. ) . From (26) and the original equations for the warping
fun ction , t he warping in the ela.stic region is
w ~ -

(. - b)

(. +b)%JI8.

The warping in the plastic region can now be computed from (2. ),
using the fact that p = (a- b)sin40COfJ40. A nu merical example can be
found in Sokolovs ky'a origina l paper, where a formu la for t he torque
is also given .
(vi) Otkr 8Olutitnu . The only other acc urate solution kno wn at
preeent is Trefftz's conformal transformation meth od] for determining
the plsetic region at t he re-entrant corne r of an Lbeem, where there is.
concentration of stress. Trefftz bee also discussed the stress dletribution round a small circ ular hole after t he yield -point hILS been rea ched .
Th e ma thematical d iffi culties in dealing with a section of general shape
are so grea t that a numerical treatment is practi cally unavoidable.
Relaxation methods have recently been applied to ba rs with triangular
and L eecti one by Ch rietopherso n .f and to bars of hollow section by
Shaw , and also by Southwell. A fair ap proximation to the ma ximum
torque that t he ba r can with stand can easily be obtained by supposing
that t he bar is rigid up to t he yield-point. This mean s that
is
infinite a nd th at no t wist is possible until th e bar is completely pleetle.
Th e max imum torque is th us t wice the volume und er the plastic roof
coveri ng the whole section. For example, when the secti on is a square
ofside 2a the rcofle a tetrahedron of height ka, and t he t orqu e is therefore

t E . Tretlta, Zeiu. ling. M fJllo . M ech .5 ( 192S),

t D . O. Chri.ttopheraon, J DtJ.rn.

6. .

IV. 8)

TOR SION O F A PRI8MATI C BAR

8S

A. Hence 8 must be greater than

Bk

8,

I.

App. M ech. 7 (19<10 0 ). A-I . D . O . Ch mtophel'llOn an d

R . V. South w,,", P roe. Rf1IJ . Soo. A. IM (1938). 317.
f F 8 8haw AUBtral ian Counci l for Aeronau tic Rep . ACA- ll (I .....). R. V. Sou th
well. Q~". J 01J'm . MecA. A pp . Math . J (1949 ). 3S~ . See . 1ao R . V. Southwe ll, RdGZGlWot
M dADd. ;n TheortliM l P"!J';~ , p. 193 (Cla rendon Pr-. OJ<!o rd. I N 6).

8ka /3 . Other examples are given by Nadait and Sokoloveky. j H owever, such calculations are of limited significance since an actual bar
work -hsrdenaend becomes non -prismati o a t strains for which the elaatio
core is negligib le. It is worth noting that the stress is discontinuous
across lines which are the projections of ridges on the roof. This is a
genera l feature of the stress distribution in a twisted bar of rigid material.
It is easy to see that the component of shea r stress normal to such &. line
is the same on both sides; the disco ntin uity occurs in the component
parallel to the line.
(vii ) T or8Um 01 an anPUakd bar. The torsion of a bar of enneeled
~etal ', with no well-d efined yie ld-point, hILS not yet been thoroughly
-Inveetlgeted. In one respect the problem is simpler than for a pre.
strained metal, since there is no plaatic -ela.st ic boundary and the same
equations hold all over t he section. On t he other hand, the final differen,
tial equation is more complicated. From (32) of Chapter II we have

1hz = Ih, = Ih. = dyZ1l = 0;

20dYa ~

o(il'hM
u> _U)d8=

dT

l'

aa

+3(hadq.
H'g'

2Gdy.,. = G(~+%)d8 = dT.,. +3~;da.

It is convenient to introduce a functionJ(g) defined by the equation

lnf Then

f 30dq.

1 e
='/ i!8(jTa ),
e... +.) = /1 i!8e (fT..I
o(8yi!8

e...

o(8iiiiii-

Int~UCing t he streaa funct ion

equatJOn due to Prager:

)
Y

(31)

H 'g

~. an d elimin&.ting

w, we obtain an

~(~l'.
(f~)) +~(~
~(f~))
~fi!8 ~
8y fi!8
8y = - 20

(32)

-v3 Igrad~ I,
{ must be regarded aa a given function of Jgrad cPt in (32). In general,
Since

g = -V3(T:.+"s,.,)t =

U1tegration can hardly be effected without recourse to numerical

t A. Nadai. p~. obap. 18 (KoOrawHill Book Co 18SI ).
: W. W. Sokolovak1. T~ 0/ p~. p. 70 (lIoaeow, INI ).
I
J oww. API'. PA. I I ( IN7). 176.

w. rr.c-,

V..

TH E SO LUT IO N OF PLA STI CE LA STI C P R O BL EM S. I.

[IV. 8

methode. Exceptionally, when the section ie circular, th e solut ion is

trivial. As with th e non-hardening bar th ere is no warpin g and th e
shearing-stre88 contours are circles. The engineering shear st rain y
at a radiu8 r is r9. Th e shear st ress T is a known function of y , say T(Y},
obtained directl y from a torsio n test on a thin-walled t ube or indirect ly
from a tension tes t . If the sect ion is of radius a, the torq ue'[ is

M(S) ~ 2.

.f,. ,.

d, -

.f

i.e.

'laB)

- 1 ( S-dM +3M) .
d9

(33)

T{aS) is t he shear stress at th e boundary ofthe secti on, where the 8hear

strain is as. Since the derivat ive dM /d9 must be computed by numerical
differentia t ion of th e measu red torque-t wist curve, this method (due to
Nadai)t does not allow a particularly high accuracy in th e initial part
of t he curve . However, t he accuracy here can be improved by writing
(33) as
' laB)

~ 2:" (8' :l~)+ 'MI

Th e function M /9 is cons tant in th e elastic range of stra in and th ereafter

eteadily decreases. Consequently th e te rm involving th e de rivati ve
mekea no contribution in the elasti c range and only a small one while
th e rate of work -hard ening is high . In th e later part of th e stre88strain
curve, where th e rate of hardening is small and fairly constant, greater
accuracy can be achieved with (33).

9. Torsion of a bar of non -uniform section

When a bar with a non-uniform circular section is st ressed in torsion
below th e yield limit, it is known from elasti c theory'[ th at transverse
f Wh l!ln work hatden ing

ill pre8l!lnt thl!l

"

sections remain plane and circular, th ough radial linea become curv ed.
The displacementa, referred to cy lindrical coordina tes, are
u

= 0,

while the st resses a re

(I,

v ;;:;; v(r, z),

a, = a.=
O(Z-;),
=

T"

to

= 0,

= 0,

0:.

Til =

If t hese are subatituted in th e single equation of equilibrium

2..8'T(aS).

2wa'

T O R SI O N OF A BAR OF NO N UN IFO R M S ECT I O N

TrI =

y'T(y) dy.

Conversely, if t he relat ion bet ween the to rque and the twist has been
measured for th e solid bar we can derive from it the etreae -etrain curve
in pure shear. By differe nt iating t he above equation :

~(M8') ~

IV. 9]

a nd Hen ek y t heori "'" Il!Iad to identical

l'I!IlIu lta only for t he cin:ula.r III!ICtion (cr. t he foot note on p . 8S ).
: A . Nada i. p u.-il:uy , cha p. 18 (McGraw.HiII Book Co., 11i13 1).
I Fo r e xampll!lll o r ita prac tical a pplica tion. and experime nt&! v~rification, _ J . .L . M.
MOlToon, Proc. 1..". M ula. Eng . 159 ( I""S). 81; alao the d,.cu-on by H. W. SWift OD
p . 110.
.
II !:I. Ti mchen ko. TAtrwy oj E~il:i',. p . 276 M Nq. IM ~ra. HlIl Book Co.. I "~).

a.,,+a.,,+2TrI =
az

there results

ar

alv alv 1 Uv v
azs+
a,t + ; ar -;I =

'

O.

(34)

Sin ce th e external surface is etreee-free, th e resultant shear Btree8e8

acting on a surface element, over both a meridian and a t ranevene
section, must be tangential to the contour ; th e second conditio n ia au to matically satisfied , while the fint requires that
TrI

= tan e,

'"

where (I is t he inclinat ion of th e tangent with respec t to the z ax ia. Th e

soluti on of (34), with thi s boundary condition, d etermines the elastic
state of etreee.
When part of th e bar is pl eet lc, the eteeeeee in th e plastic region satisfy

r,.,+TJ, = kl.
lt is convenient to introd uce a parameter ljJ, defining t he inclination of
the resultant ahea r stress over a meridian plane, such that
ksinljJ,
T8. = k coaifi.
The equation of equilibrium is satisfied, pr ovided. that
TrI =

i _lan~ i + 2lan~ ~ O.

. az

&r

(3.)

The cha racteristics of this equation are in the directions

d.

dr = - tan ifi,

ReUY

and are therefore orthogonal to th e lines of shearing stress in a meridian

plane. The variation of ljJ along a characteristic is

i =
d{J = i
- dr +-dz
&r
az

(i
- -

ar

i) dr = -2tan{1 d,
tan{1az
r '

88

TH E SO LU TION OF P L ASTIC E LASTIC P ROBLEM S. I.

[IV. 8

This is immediately integrable, and we find t ha t

rl sin " = constant

(36)

,=

along a cha racte ristic, where t he value of the constant is determined by

the boundary cond ition
0: . This result is due to Sokolovsky .t
The characteristic field , and hence the shearing lines, can be const ruc ted
by inte gra ting (36) in ward from the surface. In particula r, the cherec teristic is a st raight line orthogonal to t he surface wherev er the tangent
to t he surface is either parallel or perpendicular to t he :-axia. Since the
pleeri c state of at reee depends only on the shape of the contour, the et reee
in any pleetic element reme.ine effectively constant so long 808 the to tal
distortion is negligibly small.
Cross-sections continue to rem ain plane when the bar is partly pl808tic,
provided the relation 11- = v holds good . Since the di rection of the stress
vector does not alter during the twisting,
y" ~ (""/"') -(0/') = T" ~ I&o ~.
y~
&/~
Th

- ""

0'

'"

1&0 +-"" - -0

o.

(37)

liz,

This evidently hee the sam e characteristics 808 equation (35), while the
variation of v al ong t hem is
dv = t' dr/r.
Therefore,

11 cc

(38)

along each eharecte riatie. Thus, in the plastic region, any surface of
revolu tion formed by characteristics is simply rotated d uring the
tw isting, without any distortion. The a mount of rotation is equal to the
angula r displace ment of elements where the aurface of revoluti on meets
the plastic-elastic interface. The non -disto rted surfaces are orthogonal
to t he shea ring lines; this is true also in t he elsetic region.
There appears to be no specific contour for which the complete analytic
solution is kn own. Sokolovsky investigated the plastic dist rib ution of
stress in a conical bar and in a stepped bar consisting of tw o cylinders
of different radii, but did not calculate the plast ic bound ary or the displa cements . Eddy and Sha w: have applied relaxation methods in an
approxima te computat ion of the stress distribution and plastic bounda ry
in a shaft wit h a collar .
t w . W . SokoloYlk y, P ri lrlGdnaia M CJUm<Jtilra i M UM" ilra, 9 ( li"6), 3"3.

R . P. Eddy and F. S . Shaw, J_m. .tpp. M ull . ( Ii"i), l3i.

v
THE SOLU T IO N OF PLA STI C ELASTIC
PR OBL EM S. II
Tms chapter ia concerned with problems of spherical and axial eymmetry. The solution of spherically symmetric problems is straightforward in principle, and for th e normal boundary conditions t he
equations can often be integrated. explicitly. As a concrete exam ple we
shall analyse the expansion of a spherical t hick-waited shell by internal
pressure ; in the extreme case when t he outer radius is taken indefinitely
large we have to do with the formation of a spherical cavity in a.n infinite
solid medium. Problems with axial symmetry are more difficult, even
when, &8 here, t he stresses are auppoeed not to vary in the longitudinaJ
directi on. Even with this simplification , it is only in special circumstances that an ex plicit analytic solution can be derived, prolonged
numeri cal calculations being generally unavoidable. We shall be
concerned mostly with the expansion of a long cylindrical t ube by
uniform internal pressure. This is a tong -standing problem because of
its connexion with the au tofrettage of press ure vessels a.nd gun-barrels;
the process has also been used to determine t he influence of a stre&1
gradient on the crite rion of yie ld ing. Although many investigators ha ve
examined the problem, it is only compa ratively recently that a.nacc urate
met hod. of solution has been formulated.
1. The expansion of a spherical shell
(i) Calculation oj tAe , lrU8U, Let the current in ternal and external
radii of the ehell be denoted by a an d b, and t heir initial values by a o
and boo No restriction is placed. on the magnitude of the expa nsion, an
essential task of the analysis being to determine the variation of the
radii with the preeeure p . This is distributed uniformly over the inner
surface, while the external preeeure is negligible compared. with the
yield stress of the ma te rial. As the press ure is gradually increased from
zero the shell is first stressed eleeticelly. According to the familiar
Lame solutiont t he stress compo nents in spherica l polar ooordinate&

t See, for u ample , 8. nmo.heoko, T"-Y oJ g~ , p , 324 (McOra.,.Hill Book

Co., IIt34); R . V. 8o ut.h-.ll, Ift1n>dwd~ kI 1M T~ oj g~, p. aST (ClaRodOll
Pr.., li31).

118

THE SO L UT I ON O F PLAS T I C ELA STI C PR OB LEMS. II. IV. I

" ~ -P(~ _l)/(::_ l), }

', = _2~n~ _ I)' }

(I )

~ p(:~+l)/(:I- I).

0,

The radial displacement, meaaured outwards, is

u =

~{( 1-2v)r+(l;;'}b:}/(~ -1).

(2)

Since, by virtue of t he symmetry, t he state of stress is everywhere

ju st & hyd rostatic tension (0', . as, a,) superposed on a uniaxial compressive stress (0"-0',. 0,0 ), the yield criterion is

a,-a, =

Y.
(3)
For the present it is supposed that the metal does not work-harden

appreciably in t he relevan t range of st ra in,

80

th at Y is

8.

constant .

os-a, = 3:C:/(I-~l

Now from (1)

Sin ce this is greatest on the inne r surface yielding begins there , the
corres ponding pressure being

p. ~2nl-~J

(0)

YEa.12(1-3MZv>a:+1+,)
u (6 ) = (l-v }Ya:
(0)
3'

Eb

Wh en th e shell is very t hin, it yields at a press ure Po = 2YtoJao, approxil

'

mately (Ie = thickness of t he shell). Th e circumferential te nsion ia

equal to p,aol2'o, t hat is to Y, and is t herefore the effective agent C&uKing
yielding. E ven when t he shell is very thick (bo -+ co), the disruptive
te ndency of the circumferen tial tension is still appreciable, and the
inn er lay er yields at a press ure equ al to two-thirds of the yield stress.
With increasing pressure a plastic region spreads into the shell. For
reasons of symmetry the plastic boundary in a. homogeneous material
must be a spherical eurfece: its radius a.t a.ny moment is denoted by o
(Fig. 13). In th e elastic region the st reeeee are still of the form
U

r=

-A(~ -I),

U, =

<1. =

A(:~ +l),

where A is a pa rameter to be determined (we may naturally still neglect

changes in the radiUll b, to the usual orde r of ap proximation ). Now t he
material jU8t on the elastic side of the plastic bou ndary must be on the

2~r(:~ + I)

u = 2Yc'( 1_2 )

3Eb:

(0)

... r

+(I+,)6:j
(e -:::=:: r -:::=:: 6)
2r'
o'

(7)

Th us the solu tion in the elast ic region is

dependent only on t he para meter c; this is a
particularl y simp le form of in terrelation
between t he solutions in the elast ic and
plasti c regions.
In t he latter we have t he equilibrium
equation
O<1r
2(<1'-O'r)

ar

and the yield criterion (3) governing the tw o FlO. 13. Plutio I"llgion ro und a
unknown stress components . We imm e- e;yliDdrical or -pberieal _vit,.
e.pandfod by wUfotmly m.t.ri.
diately derive
Or

(e :S;;; r :S;;; b,) .

The displacement ill

The dleplece mente of the internal and external eurfecee are

( g)
",a

..

T H E E XPANSION OF A SPH E R I CA L S HE L L

point of yielding and so, by substitution in equation (3), A is found to

be 2Ye' /3b:. The elas tic stress distribution is therefore

are given by the equations

. , = '1

V.IJ

butedp~ .

2Ylnr + B,

where B ill an other parameter. Since Ur must be continuous

plast ic boundary, we find from (6) that

-2Ylnc- 2;(1 _~.

" = -2YIn
(;)- 2[(1_~. } (a
U, Y
-2YJn(;)-2[(I_ij)

&CI'088

the

B =

Hence

e).

(8)

The radial stress decreases in magni tude with increasing radius, while
?wing to the yield crite rion the circumferential stress correspondingly
in Creases. Both stress components decrease through the ela.stio region,
80 that <1, is greatest on the plastic boundary. By substituting r = a in
~8), the in ternal pressure needed to produce plastic flow to & radius e
IS found to be
P ~ 2Yln(~) + 2nl - ~J
(9)
If the ratio bJa o of the external and in ternal radii is not too larg e (say

100

T H E SOLUTION O F P LAST I C.ELAST I C PROBLE MS. II. [V. I

less than 4 or 5} the st rains and the displacement of the inner surface
are ama1Iso long as t he shell bee not yielded completely. As in elasticity, variations in a, can then be neglected so far &8 the stresses are
concerned . F or a given pressure th e stress distribution is completely
determined para metrically through c wit hout t he need. to calculate the
displacements in th e plasti c region. The problem ia t hen statically
determined, with the characteristic featu re that a limited amount of
information can be obtai ned without a full soluti on. On the other hand,
if th e internal displacement is regarded as the independent variable
and the preeeure-expen eion relation is req uired, a complete solution
cannot be a voided. F or this simple case the first correct solution was
obtained by Re usst (alt bough he did not explicitly evaluate tbe displacements).
(il) Cakulation. 01 the , train.!. Wben the strains are large, however,
th e change in th e internal radius has to be calculetedj in order to obtain
th e stresses. Without writing down the Re uss st ress-strain relations it
is easy to eee tb at only th e compressibility equation provides additional
information. For th e symmet ry of the problem constra ins t he devletoric stress vector in tb e plane diagram (Fig. 7) to the position corresponding to uniaxial compression, and consequently th e strain-path
must be a st raigh t line in the same direction {t he deviatoric elastic strainincrements being zero}. This is obviously 80 in a sym metric expansion
since the two circumferential components of an increment of strain are
equal. In calcul&ting the displaceme nt of any individual particle it is
convenient to take the movement of th e plastic boundary as t he scale
of 'time' or progress of the expansion, since t he parameter c appean
in th e formula.e for the streeeee. We may speak of th e velocity v of a
particle, meanin g th at the particle is displaced by an amount " dc
when th e pJastic bounda ry moves outwa rds a further distance dc.
v can be expressed directly in terms ofthe total displacement u . For the
incremental displa cement of a particle can also be writ ten as

where rand c are ta ken as t he independent varia bles. Equating this

expression to v tk we obtain
I

~~"')'

t A. Reua, Zftu. ort9. M alA. MMA . 10 ( IQ30I. 2ea .

I R . H ill,

J_,.,.. A pp. M d

. 16 IINQ), 2Q$.

T HE E XP ANS ION O F A S P HERICAL S H E LL

(10)

10.

Now the compressibility equatio n is

d

'
'.+d'.+-~
-

(1- 2. )

(da.+da.+da~).

where we must take care to evaluate the incrementa of stress and strain
following a given element , not at a given point in space. Th us
lU,

= !. (du) = 8t' de;

dq,

&r

lU,

&r

(~' +"~) de ;
0.
8r

Hence

+,
2_

tk.l. = du >=" de;

"'rr

(~' + v 0;-)dc.

dq, = dq. =

(1- 2. )( 8
E
8c

+v &r8 ) (CT,+2CT,).

(11)

Substituting th e expressions for CT, and CT, from (8), we obta in a differential
equation for th e velocity e:

: +2rV = 6( 1 - 2v}i[;- MI -5-~]'

v is known on t he plastic boundary from th e solution for the displacements in th e elastic region ; th us, from (7) and (10),
-.-, =

i[2(1-2.)ij+( I+ . >j.

On integrating th e equa tion for

powers of Y/E, th ere results
_ 3(1- . )Y c'
Erl

to,

a nd neglecting second and higher

2( 1-2') Y(I _ ~\~

(12)

2( 1-2')Y(I _~\~ .

(13)

E
bl/c'
Since " = dalde on th e inner surface, th e relation between c and a is
to

da ~ 3(1- .)yc'
de
Eal

biJ c
In tegrating, and neglecting second order terms in Y IE. we find after

some rearrangement that

.'

a~

du= ~tk + : dr = (~ +v:)tk,

- -

V. IJ

1+ 3(1-.)yc'

Ea~

2(1- 2' )Y[3ln(!.\

a;J +

1- c' J

b~'

(14)

Care is needed in t he approximation since for very thi ck sheila ella*

may become of order ElY.
When the thickness of th e shell is not too great (b~/a~
ElY) and th e
expansion is small during t he partly plastio state , the to ta l displacement
of th e inn er surface since th e first application of pressure is found from
(14) to be

<

v(..)
au1 .11

~ Y;-[(I -.>;ij-I(I-2')(I-~ -2(1- 2.)ln(~l

B

(15)

102

TH E SO LU T I ON OF P LA STI CE LA STI C P R O B LE MS.

II. IV. I

This may alternatively be obta ined. by using the compreeeibility equetion in the integra ted form
~ + 2(e =

au
21
en- + 7 =

(1 - 2v)

(0'~ +20'1/) ,

From (7) th e corresponding exte rnal displacement is

_ (I -,) Yb,
E
.

(b ) 110

The fractional imrea"e in the volume of shell material at this stage is

th erefore
3[b~U I(bo) -aXul (aO )] _ 6(1- 2v)Y ln( b !a )
o o

E[(bUag)

1]

From (9) we find th at

Op ~ 2Y(I _~) ,
&
c
bg

Thus, when c = bo op!& is zero and the pressure reaches a true

maximum. During th e subsequent expansion the pressure is equal to
2Yln (b!a) , and this evidently decreases steadily. In practi ce t his stage
of th e expansion could not be followed since th e equilibrium is unstable
and any slight local weakne ss in th e shell would induce necking and
event ual bursting of th e shell.
(ill) Reaidual stresses. If th e shell is unloaded from a partly plastic
state, th e residual stresses are obtained. (if a possible Bauechinger effect
is neglected.) by subt racting from (6) and (8) the elasti c stress distribution (1):
g_ g)
~

o _23Y(,'aXP
_E.)(ar3 abg
~

0'1/ =

23Y(c:_
E.)(aX +a:)
ao Po 2r3 bo

where

and

which is valid to th e present order of epproximaticn when the strains

are small. The shell becomes completely plasti c when the inte rnal displacement is

bX- ag

V. ll

T HE E XPA NSION O F A SPH ERI CAL S HE L L

loa

~ 2n3 In(~) + (I -~))

(9')

p
p,

2Y(I _a'l
3

(.')

bX

The contraction of th e outer layers of th e shell compresses th e inner

layers, and leaves the internal surface in a state of tangential com.
pression of amount Y( pIPo-l) . A subsequent application of pressure
less th an th e original maximum only strains th e shell elasti cally. In
this way th e shell is stre ngt hened. by an initial overstrain (when the
material work-hardens th e strengthening is still greater). It is necessary,
as in all residual stress calculations, to examine the tacit assumpt ion that
no element is unloaded and stressed to the yield-point in th e reverse
direction during th e removal of t he applied load. For this we need to
know th e magnitude of 0'9 - a~, which, according to (3), is the quantity
governing yielding. At any intermediate stag e of th e unloading when a
fraction >'P (0 ~ >. ~ I) of t he pressure has been removed, it follows
from (I ), (3), and (6) that

ae-O'~ = Y(I-'\:~)

(ao ~ r

~ e),

0'9-0'~ = y(~->.~)
r3
Po,.s

(c ~

~ bn),

where Po is given by equation (4). As the internal pressure is released.

and >. increases from zero, ae - O'~ steadily decreases, finaJIy becoming
negative with in a radius ao(p!po)i (which may easily be shown from (4)
and (9) to be lese than c). The numerical magnit ude of O'e-U~ is greatest
on the internal surface, and the condition that yielding does not restart
here duri ng the unloading is evidently
p

2po.

(17)

Thus & single applicatio n of pressure cannot strengthen a shell by more

t han a factor of two ; this opti mum cannot be achieved if th e shell is too
thin (bolao < 4'92), t he critical thickness being given by t he equation

(16)

(iv) Expan8ion ofa apherical cavity in an infiniu. medium. At the other

extreme, when a spherical cavity is expanded from zero radius in an
infinite medium, the stresses are funct iol1ll of rIa only, and the ratio cIa

104

THE SO LU T IO N OF PLASTIC ELASTI C PR OBLEM S. II. [V. 1

remains constant. We find from (14), or dire ctly from (13), that

~ ~ (3(1 E ,)yji

(18)

V. IJ

THE EXPANSIO N OF A SPHERI CAL SHEL L

data obtained in simple compression p rovided we allow for the additional

elastic strain produced by the hydroetaric te nsion .
Making this a llowance we have

r = Y+H{ - 'r+(1-211>1}'

a,-D

to a sufficient approximation . From (9) the oonstant internal pressure is

(19)

Th.iI may &Iso be thought of as the work needed to mak e unit volume of
t he cavity. For the common pre-etreined met.&la ElY is of orde r 300 to
400, while I' is uaua.lly in the range 025 to 0' 35. H ence cia nonnally lite
between 5 an d 6, while p is about 4Y. The expreeeicea (18) and (19)
are to be regarded &8 upper limits to which cIa tLndp approach oa hole is
expanded fro m some finite radius in a very thick shell. It may be shown
t hat t he plastic and ela.stio str&in.ll are of com parable eize t hrou ghout ..
large part of the p1&stio region . This mea ns that it would not be a pertic ularly good appro:rimation to neglect changes of volume in the ptae tio
region, even though the strains become infinite ly large near the inner
surface. Thus Bishop, Hill , a nd Mottt deri ved the value {E/(I+II) y}i
for cIa on t his assumption , a formula which overes timates cIa by some
20 per cent. A closer approximation can be obtained by neglecting
volume cha nges throughout the entire shell ; on pu tting II = tin (18)
we obtain cIa = (2E/3Y)i, which is an overestimate of about 12 per
cent . On t he other hand, considerable errors would result if volume
changes were neglected in the expansion of a thin shell, since plastio
and elas tio st rama are then compereble everywhere in the plastio region.
(v ) Incltuion a/workhardening in 1M analyft8. We have now to consider how to extend the anaJ.yeis to includ e work -hardening. The
problem is no longer statically determined even if t he st rains are smaJI
since the solutions for the stresses and strains are linked by the law of
work- hardening and have to be carried through tog ether. For convenience the eteeee-etrain curve ofthe material in compression is taken in
t he form
a _ Y +H(. ),

where Y is t he yield stress, and H is t he amount of hardening expressed

as a funct ion of the logarithmic total strain.. It has a lready been
remarked th&t eac h element of t he she ll is stressed, apart from a euperpoeed hydrcetenc tension of amount D" under a uni&Xia1 compression
sr- - in the radial direction . Conaequently we can directly apply t he
t R. F. Biahop , R . H ill. and N. F . MoLt. Proo . PIl~. BOG. &7 (1$45), In .

106

and
where

(1- 2,)

,,+2., =

Now

r,

(ar

+2a,).

" = m{r/r.l,
is the initial radius to the element . Hence
a, -a, = Y+ H (21n (;:'j - ( 1~2')(a,+a,)j.

(20)

This replaces the yield criterion (3), and, together with the equation of
equi librium and the bou ndary condition on r = c, determines the stresses
at each etege of the expenei on. Th e in clusion of the second term in the
argu ment of H is essent ial when the plas tic and elastic components of
the strai n are compa rable. If H is a general fun ction , it is evident that
the integration can only be effected by a small -arc process; no inv eetigetion of this eppeere to ha ve been published. H owever, & gres.tsimplifica
tion results if the material is treated &8 in compressible, so that v = t .
We t hen have

and

80

,
The Internal pressure is t hus

Since the materiel is ass umed incompressible

r -r: = a _a:.
3

But in the elastic region

r3-~ = (ro +u)s -:~:::::: 3r: u

= 3YcS/2E

to the usua l order of approximation . Hence

.)
.. = 2E(.
3Y a -ao

(22)

p can be calculated &8 a fu nction of the internal displacement from (21)

and (22). The ove ra ll erro r of the ana lysis sho uld be Jeast for &. real

106

THE SO L UT ION O F P LAS T ICELA STIC PROBLE MS. II. (Y. I

material when the plastic strains are large, since t he effect of elast ic
compress ibility is then smallest. In t he most fav ourable case, when a
cavity is expan ded from zero radius in an infinite med ium,

~ ~ (2~1
3YJ'

nd

ra = r _a

.
p ~ 2;( I +ln (:~) +2 f H(i1n(/ l))~;
a

3,

"~

>

= !..
a

(23)

On the inner surface t = 1 an d the strain becomes infinite. Nevertheleea,

the inte gral conve rges to a finite limit if we suppo se the rate of hardening to approach a constant or zero value at very large stra ins. In pa rticular, if H = H 'e, where H ' is a constant rate of hardening (so t hat the
stress-strain curve is ap proxi mated by tw o straig ht lines), Bishop,
Hill, and Mot t have shown that

2Y[1+ln (2~]
2.'H'
3YJ +"""27.

P~ 3

V. 2]

T HE E XP ANS ION OF A CY L I N D R I CA L T U B E

107

along t he a xis. The length of t he tube is supposed so great in relation to

its mean width that the distribution of stress a nd strain sufficiently far
from the ends does not vary along the t ube, to a ny desired approxima tion. It then follows by symmetry that any originally plane transverse
section remains plane, and hence that the longitudinal strain f . is the
same for all elemen ts a t each stage of th e expansion. Let a and b be the
current in te rnal a nd external radii (initial va lues a o and bo), and let c
be the radius of the plasti c bounda ry (Fig. 13). At present, no restriction
is placed on t he amount of expa nsion. When the t ube is stressed elastically the most general radial displacement is known to be of the form

u = A r-s- B ]r,
The elastic equations in cylindrical coordi nates (r,8,z) are

E f, = E :' = E(A
E fe =

- ~ = a,-v(ue+a~).

E~ = E(A +~ =

ue- v(o.+a,),

For cold-worked copper they too k Y = 17'5 tn ./in. , H ' = 6'5 tn./in .',
and E = 8,000 t n./in. 1 With these values t he formula gives p = 8H i
tn./in. l , of which 48 t n./in.1 is d ue to strai n-ha rde ning. The theoretical
value of p provides an estimate of the steady ma ximum resisti ve pressure
in dee p penetrati on by a punch into a qu asi-infinite med ium. The work
needed to mak e unit volum e of a cavity deep in a medium sho uld not
depend grea tly on t he shape of the ind enter or, within broad limits , on
the way the cavi ty is prod uced , provided fricti on is negligible. Using &
rotated 40 conical punch with a cut -back shank, Bishop , Hill, and Mott
obser ved a ma ximum pressure of abo ut 85 tn. /in .1 in coppe r with the
abo ve properti es ; this was attained after a penetration of some five
punch-diam ete rs, and is close to the calculated va lue. There appears
t o be no ot her reliable pu blished data on deep pun ching .

2. The expansion of a cylindrical tube

(i) E laatic expa7UJirm and plaat ic yielding. In t he spherically symmetrica l problem both the shape ofthe plastic boundary a nd the strainpath are determined by symmetry a lone. In the special problems of
cylindrical symmetry to be investigated here only the shape of t he pleetic
boundary is known before hand. The st rain-path for every individual
particle has to be calculated , along wit h t he stresses, ste p by ste p as the
plastic region dev elops. This grea t ly add s to t he difficulties ofa solution.
Consider a long cylind rical t ube simultaneously expanded by intern al
pressure and loaded at both ends by equal an d opposite forces directed

Ef, = a, -v(a,+ae),
where 0" ae, and a" are t he principal stresses. Solving these equations:

(l +v)(I -2v)~
=
E

A _( 1_ 2v)B + Vf ,
1'1

", = A
(l +v )(I -2v) 'E
o

( l +v)( I -2v)~ =

+ (I -

B Vf "
2v);:t+

2vA+ (l -V)f.

A note worthy proper ty of the stress d istribution is that t he longitudinal

stress ". and the hydrostatic componen t of t he stress 1{I1,+08+0, ) are

both constant over the section. A and B are determined by the conditions tha t a, = - p on r = a o, and 0, = 0 on l' = bo:
A = - Vf + ( I+ v)(I - 2v)p .
,
E(b~/a~ -l ) '

B _ (I +v)b~p
- E(bU~ -l)"

The final expressions for the stresses are then

", ~ -p(~: - l)/(~i- l).

", ~ P(~+ l)/(~ - l).
o. =

E(.+2vP/(~_I).

(24)

108

THE S O L U TION OF PLA STI C E L AS T IC P R O B L E MS. II. [V. 2

The displacement is
U=

b!)

(J+')p (
-vf",r+ E (bUa~
I) (1-2v )r+ ,. .

(25)

the magnitude of

(26)

In the eutofrettege process the tube is eit her closed at both ends by plugs
firmly attached to the t ube, or by floating pistons which allow it to
expand freely . The first method is described as s utofrettage under
closed -end conditions, and the second as under open-end conditione.
Fo r a tube with closed ends the resultant longitudinal force acting on
the central secti on is a te nsion equal to t he force exerted by t he internal
pressure on each plug , via. na~ p . Hence , from (26),

(27)

::

~;a,+oe) ~ 2'1'/(~-1) 1 (plan e .,rein)

(29)

This case is intermediate to the first t wo, though nearer to the closed-end
condition , to which it is strictly equiv alent when the material is incompressible (v = i). In all t hree cases the radial and circumferential
eteeeeee are the same, and only depend on p . The longit udin al stress is
different, but it will be observed that it is a.lways intermediate to the
ot her two principa.l stresses.

(bU:3 p;)1r'+2(bU~_1

a,)'.

Since this is greatest when r = ao, the pressure Po which causes yielding
at the in ternal surface satisfies
(l

3p~

c4lb~)1

+(bUa~Po 1. - ll _YI
a,

(31)

Inserting the values of 0 , for t he three end conditions (27), (28), and (29),
the respective va lues of Po are

(28)

The longitudinal strain is a contracti on. A t hird end condition, some times considered owing to its relative mathematical simplicity , is that
of plane strain, or zero extension, in which

(30)

(ar-uS)I+(aS-u, )I+(a, -ar)1

Wh en the ends of the tube are open, L = 0, and

(open end ).

2~~/(~i -I).

This is the same for all end conditions .

On the ot her hand, if von Misea' criterion is adopted, the end eondition affects the pressure at which yielding begins. From (24),

i (ar+as)

::~ ~2'1'/E(:I-I)'1

oe --v, =

Po =iY(I-:D

Thus the longitudinal strain corresponding to a given axial load and

internal pressure is

a,= p/(~; _ I) =

109

Since this is greatest when r = a o yielding begins on the internal surface

at a pressure

1T(b~-a~)a, = na~{2vp+Ef",(~i-1 )}.

', - (1-2,)p/E(:I-I). } (closed end ).

THE E X PA NS ION O F A C Y L IN D R IC AL TUBE

If, then, Treece's criterion of yielding is adopted, we have to consider

The resultant longitudin al force applied to the ends of the tube is

L=

V. 2]

:D

Po =

~(1-

Po=

~(I -:i)/J(I + ;l~)

Po =

3
'!'(Ia~\/J(
43
bV I +( 1-2v)1a)

(closed end ) j
(open end}:
3b~

(32)

(plan e strain).

We see that the tube with open ends yields at the lowest pressure.
The yield pressures for the closed-end a nd plane-strain conditions
differ by less than 3 per cent. for the usual values of v, the fonner being
t he higher ; when bolao is 2 (a typical dimension for a gun-barrel) the
difference is about 02 per cent . The differen ces between the three
pressures become vanishingly sma ll as bo -7 00, but even for bolao = 2
they are less than 1 per cent .
. (ii) Partly plastic tube with strains of any magnitude. When the tube
IS partl y plastic (Fig. 13) the stresses in the elastic region are still of the

ro""

ar

a, =

-C(~ - l),

0,

Ef,+2vC = const ,

C(~+I).

THE SOLUTION O F PLASTI C ELA STIC PROBLEM S. II. IV. %

110

Since

f.

is determined by the condition that

J 2",.0'. d, should be equal

o

to the axial load L it follows that, except in the case of plane st rain,
(. depends on the state of stress in both plastic and elastic regions.
The parameter C is eliminated by using th e condition t hat th e material
immediately on the elastic side of th e plastic bounda ry r = c is on t he
point of yielding. Aseuming that th ere is no work-ha rdening, and that
a. rema ins th e intermediate principal st ress (the range over which t his
is t rue will be investigated a posteriori), Tres ca's criterion furnishes
the equation
a'-Or = Y
(33 )

V.!J

THE EXPANS ION OF A CYLINDRICAL TUBE

(36), parametrically through e, in terms of the pressure p without need

ing to calculate the defonnation in the plastic region. I n other warda
~r a nd u, are statically determined. Moreover, t he relationship ~
.w:kpendt.nl oj 1M end eondition.J. I t is for these reeeona that the uae of
Tresca.'s crite rion greatly simplifies the problem ; we shall see later that
th e same is not true when von .a.lises' crite rion is used. The distribut ion

%-"0
%-0'9
t o O' 8
f -O'7

everywh ere in t he plastic region.

Hence C = Ycl /2b:. end
u, = _

111

___ t -0 ' 6

~;(~ -l),

%0 0'5

l )
a, = Yc'(b
2bJ ,1+ 1 ,

"0

(34)

c'

bi,

u. = Ef. +IIY

The radial displacement is

U

-lit"

r +( 1+v)YC ((1_ 2v)r+ b: ).

2Eb:

(35)

I n th e plastic region t he equation of equilibrium combined with (33)

leads to
Therefore,

r~ -I-In(;)+;:- }
a,Y

} - In(~)+~
r

-0-5
~

y
Fla . I'. DiatribuUon orradial aDd oireumftmmtiN
. t.re. oomponentll over u...n.vene .ction or
p&rtl,. p'-tio tube expaoded. b,. intoemaJ p~
~ criterioll;

DO

.train.~ ).

of.ar and a, is shown in Fig. 14. On the other heed, u. can only be deter(a ~ r ~ c).

(36)

2b&

after using th e condition for contin uity of a r across r = c. The Interne!

pressure is thus given by

; - ~W+10 -~'

~)

This formula appears to have been first obta ined by Turner'[ (1909).
If t he displacement of th e internal surface is 80 small that we can neglect
variations of the radius a in t his formula, a r and a, are determ ined by
t L. 8 . 1'wnH. Tra.... Ca nW. P Ail . Soc . ] 1 111M)8). :1'77; 1...,;""""'.9] {1911). 115.

mmed by the application of ReU88'a equations, and the refore depends

on ~he strain-history. This is the real difficulty in t he pro blem, and one
which has been avoided in most treat ments by assumptions th at are
now known to be seriously in error.
The st ress-strain relations of Reuss [(33) of Chapter II] are
ck, =

~ (du, -

df' =

~ (du, -v da,-", dar)+u; dA,

tU, =

~(da,- .. dar-v da,)+a; ID..

", da,- ", du,) + a; o ;

112

THE SO L UT ION OF P L AS TI C EL AST I C PROBLEM S.

II. [V. 2

By adding t hese we recover t he compressibility relation

o.+
a+d,.
_ (1-2.)
d( + ,+a, ).
8r ;
dc E dear 0

(38)

where v is the velocity defined in (10), end where, for sho rtnesa, we write

dc =Oc +

a
er

17

to denote th e deri vative following an element. Th e elimination of d.\

between th e lu t t wo Reuss equations furni shes a second independent
eq ua tion in th e most convenient form :

a;(~a _ ~(a,- ...-

...) ~

a~E~ -~(a.- ..,-..,) ).

(39)

It ia convenient to replace a. by the quantity

_ 0',-1 (0',+ 0', ) _ a' +ln(~) _~

q -_ 30;
2Y Y
- Y
r
2bl"

(40)

ar

d,.
~ ( 1- 2.~ [dq - ~(I -~'\].
fk
E dc c
bV

(41)

with neglect of a term of order Y vlEr. Similarly, (39) redu ces to

+ (jq+(l -2.~)~~+(!q- l)~ (~') = O. (42)

~=

f 2rrt; . dr =

v, a nd q, is supp lied by th e

f
"

(431

af ter using (37) and (40). The boundary condit ions on r = c are t hat
tI and o. should be continuous. Hence

q~ _ e =

E,
cl
-V - i (I - 2v)ij'

(iii) M eIAod oj numerical i nlegrali<m oj eM general~ . Ex cept

in special C&Se8 an analytic solution is c
a lit of t he question, and th e equations II,
must be integrated numerically. The
method follows naturally from the fact
that the equetlons are hyperbolic (Appendix ill), t he characteri8tics in th e
(r ,c ) plane being the lines c = constant,
marking stages of the expansion, and ao
the paths of the particles dr-rule = 0
I
f'
(Fig. 15). When the displacements are
large, th epoaitioll8ofthe second family
~
. .
k
Flo. IS. Step.by .Repmethodohol ving
a f chara.ctenstJC8 are not nown to equatiofa for pardy plwtio tube. by
begin with, but have to be calculated in tegration ~ e~t~ in the
as the integration proceeds . From (42)
(r . e) pt.ne.
the differential relation along a characteristic of the family dr-v de = 0 is

"

+ [(jq+(l -2'~)~~+( 1- 2+- ~(2qc 1)] <1<: - 0. (45)

{l-!(l -2.)q}d(~a)+
+[{ 1+l( 1-2,)q~+2.~(E) I 2(1+')(1-2')(1 _~'\ ]
y,

rIc Y

bV

d,

~0

(48)

21rrqdr + ~P+1l'(b~-CI){E; -i(l -2 ..)~},

(~L. ~ (l+')ll+ll-2')~)-";c(~');

113

The differential relation along a cberecteristic of the family rIc = 0 iI

obtain ed by eliminating dq/rIc from (41) and (42):

{1 - J(1 - 2.)qJ~ +(l -2.)(I -r~(2q c 1)+

A third relation between the unk nowns
end condition

TH E EXPANSION OF A CY LIND R IC AL T UB E

(1-J(l-2.)qJ dq+I!1-I ) d( ~.)+

With t his definiti on, And the use of (36), equation (38) becomes
0. +!+

V.2J

I")

Equations (41), (42), (43), and (44) are the bsete for a aolution of t he
prob lem.

where it must be remembered that dt.JrIc is independent of r, For num erical computation the differentials dq, d,.. dv, dr, and rIc, in (45) and (46),
are replaced by fin t order differences 6q , etc ., and their coefficients by
mean values, bet ween adjacent points of a characteristic network of
arbitraril y fine mesh. The computation is carrie d out by th e following
etep-by-etep procedure. Suppose that t he complete solut ion has been
obtained up to th e stage when the plastic boundary has reached a
radius c (A B in Fig. 15), and t hat we wish to advance the solution by
the next increment of expansion , during which th e plastic bounda ry
moves a further sma ll distance de (to position A ' B') . A value of th e
increment of axial strain. A.t .. ie guessed by extrapo lation from t he
relation bet ween t". and C 10 far determined. The boundary conditions

114

TH E SOLUTION OF P LAS T IC .E LAST I C PROBLEMS. II. (V. 2

(44) on r = c t hen give the values of q and v at C' . The d ifference

relations replacing (45) and (46) are now solved for!J.q and !J.v acrose t he
sma ll al'C8 CP and C'P of t he cberacterietica through C and C'. Knowing
the values of q an d v at P , t he integration of dr-v de = 0 along CP
determines t he &ctuat positio n of P . This is the new posit ion of the

particle forme rly at C on the plastic boundary. Similarly, the values

of q end II at R can be calculated from the known valu es at P and Q, an d
so on along the line C'A' for a Uelements in t he pleetle region. Finally,
t he val ue eeeumed for !J.t"1 must be checked by substit ution in (43) (this
involves the numerical evaluation of

the integral f rq dr); if the end

condition ia not satisfied, a new value must be guessed and th e entire

pl'OCe88 repeated . There are several devi ces by which th e procedure
may be shortened, but even so it will be ev ident to the reader that the
numerical solution generally demands considera ble la bour.
After t he tube haa become plastic throughout, c can na t urally DO longer
be ueed &8 the time-scale. The external displacement is a convenient
qU&lltity to measure in practice, and may be wed instead . As t his stage
of the expeneion is: of little practical interest (the pressure ha ving peeeed
ita maxim um) t he modifications of (45) and (46 ) will not be d iecueeed.t

3. Theory of the a u tofr ettage p r oces s

(i) Gtmral equatit:nu whm tM strainaart arnall. Th e n umerical solution
is appreciabl y shortened when the t ube is of moderate thickness (bola,
lesa than 3 or 4, say) since t he strains remain of elastic order of magnitude so long as the tu be is only pertly plastic. The displace ments
may th en be neglected in the plastic region. This means that we can
write a o for a in (37) an d (43); for simp licity the subscript zero will be
omitted henceforward. Furthennore , t he curved set of characteristi cs
dr- v de = 0 can be regarded &8 straig ht (r = constant ) and so kn own
beforehand. To the sa me orde r of ap proxima.tion t he operators dltk
and BlOc are equivalent , and ( 10) may be rep laced by

au
v= -.
8e

(47)

By in tegration of (41), or direc tly, t he compress ibility equation i8

obtained in the simpler form

auOr+r:+f,
=
t

Detaillo

C&D

'Ey(q-3Inp:e +2h"')

(1 - 2v

I '

be foun d in t he papers ,.,ferred to

Ia~r.

(48)

V. 3]

TH EORY O F AUTOFR ETTAOE P ROCE SS

ns

The differentia.l form of this a long the lines c = constant replec j

(46), is
'
mg

d(~'H~; + ~'+ ( 1-2'1(3 1n;-~:-q)] h

O.

(49)

The differential rela.tion (45), along r = consta nt, simplifies to

[I - f(l-2, )q]

dq+(fq-l)d(~') +; d(~) +
+ (I- 2,)(2qc l)(l -~J dc = O.

(50)

The procedure for computation is similar to that already described for

th e gene ral case.
The basic equations (36) , (37), (43) , (44), (49), and (50) have been
written in non -dimensional form. On inspection it will be clear that the
quan tities DrlY, OIlY, DJ Y , q, E f:IY , an d E ulY, are fun ctions only of
rIa, bla, v, and LIY, but not of E. Thus, simple sca ling of a single solution
for a tube of given thickness and Poisson 's ratio, subject to one of the
three main end-conditions, supplies the solutions for similar tubes of
material with the same P oisson's ratio but any yield stress Y and eleatic
modulus E . When th e ex pa nsion is large, however, we can only transform from one solution to an other if Y l E is th e sa me, since the form ulae
for the stresses inv olve the varying radius Q .
Furth.ermore, in plane strain th e solution for a t ube of one pa rticular
wa~.ratlo bola, also furni shes the solutions for tubes of any lesser wall.
reno : this is a property curiously overlooked by most writers. The
~ruth of the state ment is self-evi dent physica lly since the stress and strain
In any outer annulu s of the tube are independent of t he conditions in
the re~ainder; the on ly link wit h t he inner ma terial is t he radial pressu re
t~ansmltted across the common in terfa ce, and it obviously makes no
difference by what agency t he pressure is considered to be applied . The
math ema tical expression of this property is that t he equa tions a re
byperbo llc and tha t t he bo undary cond itions depend only on the di menarona of the annulus and t he press ure on its inner boundary . The solution
for .:he open or closed end clearly does no t ha ve this property.
(u) P lane atrain condition. The first complete solu tion of t hese
eq~ations was obtained by Hill , Lee, an d 'Iupper.t for tubes of wellra t ios bla < 2 and Poisson 's ratio 0'3, expanded under conditions of
plane strain (I, = 0) . Th e end-condit ion (43) does not ha ve to be satis.
6ed a.t eac h stage of the expa nsion, an d simply gives the tensile load L
t R. H ill. E . H . r-. and 8 . J . T up pe r. P rOf:. Roy . Soc. A. 191 (19"1), 21 .

ue

THE SOLU T I O N OF P L AS TI C ELA ST I C PROBLEMS.

rr.

[V. 3

needed to prevent longit udinal contraction. The trial-and-error prcceee

is therefore unnecessary, and the integration can be carried t hrough
direct. Fig. 16 illustrates the distributi on of th e axial stress o. at various

V.3J

T HEORY OF A UTOFR ETTAGE PROCESS

117

-0 "

yielding, it follows from (29) and (30) that 0 , ha.s the valu e vYal/bl,
corresponding to th e horizonta l line c = a. At 8. late r stage 0, is equal to
vYc' /bl in th e elastic region, according to (34); this corresponds to th e
horizontal segments for various values of cia. o. is least on the inner
surface and becomes compressive t here after a comparatively small
plastic expansion.
The broken curv es in Fig. 16 represent th e distribut ion calculated by
Nada.it on th e eeeumptl on th a.telastic compressibility could be neglected
in the plastic region. According to the Reuss relatio n for th e z direction
this means that 0 , = i( or+ o,), or q = O. In view of the yield criterion
(33). t he devia toric components of th e elastic strain-increment are also
zero. Since 0 , = v(O'r+ o, ) in t he elastic region there is a discontinuity
in o. across the plastic bounda.ry of amount (1- 2v)cIY{261 (indicated by
the broken vertical lines). Th is is (1-2v)/2v, or 661 per cent., by proportion. The discontinuity is only avoided by euppoeing that v = i in
t beelastic region also. The overa ll accuracy of Nedei's solution improv es
as t he expeneion continues, since q app roaches zero with increasing
plastic straint (though not stead ily in elements near t he inner surface).
The a utofrettage operator requires th e relation between the pressure
and t he externa l displacement , in order to ensure that the tube, or gunbarrel, is everyw here of uniform and sta ndard quali ty. If the expansion,
observed at points along a nd a round th e barrel, ie too great the forging
is re-heat -treated. For th e pla ne etrain condition, and Tresca.'s yield
criterion, th e external expa nsion is given by (3S) without further
analysis:
Eu"
cl
(5')
Yb = ( 1-",)6"

-0 ' 2

With (31) th is determines u" in term s of p . The value of u" given by th is

formula is very little different from that for closed-end conditions (see

0'5 CTz
Y

b =1/
,
I

.I,,"

0'3

2G Ub
" 1'11-16
'30
7J 5
-

"

0'93

OSI

.. '

,I,

"

'. , '

0=/
I ,

0'2

,'
I

, ",

~- 0 '9

~----

b-9"61 ,
I

Yb

10
.

~=0 ' 8 "

0'1

"

"

08
0'7

/,~,f------- 06

1-fJ'-nfl-- - - - - 05
r

07

08

09

1'0

FIG. 16. DiBtribution o r axial Bt rellll componen t in a partly pl..t ic

tube expanded by in ternal preeeure under condi t ion.8 or plane
. t ra in . Th e relevant part o r t he graph ror 0. t u bto with internal
radi uma lica to the right orthe a bllC isM alb, where b imthe 6lIte mal
radium. The br oken CUfVllB are obtained ir the elut ic component
or mtrain im dieregaeded in the plB.lltic region .

stages of the flow , marked by the rat io c/b while t he tube is partly plastio
and by the external displacement u" after it has become completely
pleetlc. The etreee distribution in a tube with a. wall-ratio less t han 2 is
given, for various values of c/b, by t he parts of th e curves to th e right
of t he abscissa a/b. While the tube is entirely ela.atio o. is consta nt over
t he tube, &8 we ha.ve seen. w hen the inner surfa ce is on the point of

(53) below).
(iii) Approximation to von Mists' yield criterion, The result that

0,

approaches the mean of t he other two prin cipal etreeeee with increasing
plast ic strain is in agreement wit h t he general conclusions of t he
analysis for simple compression in pla ne strain (Chap . IV, Sect . 5).
The movement of the stress vector in the pla.ne diagram is restricted to
an angle of less tha n 14(1 near the direction representing pure shear
t A. Nad&i. TraM . Am. S oc. M ICh. Eng , ! :J (193 0). 1'13.
: ThiB vllrifiee the initial Ulumption that (I. ill the inl.ftrmed iate principal . t ..-.
I It .. o r hiBto rie.1 in te r-t to note t ha t Sa.int .Venant . in the n...t treatment ohhe com .
p.IBtely pta.t ie tube . derived the equ.Uon Ct. _ t<". + ". l rrom Levy'. nr--.tr&in I"fl~.
tiOl18; _ B . de Sa.intVenant, C_ JI4U R ertd... AIXId. Sci. Pari, ,? US12), 1009 and 1083.

aa ' .1J

118

T HE SOLUT ION OF PLASTIC .ELASTI C PR OBLEMS.

II. [V. :S

(J.1. = 0). This allows an approximati on to von Mieee' yield criterion by

replacing th e corresponding arc of th e yield circle by an element of the

ta ngent , and so writing
(52)

\ '. 3J

TH E O R Y O F A UT O FR E TT AG E P ROCESS

When t he tube is completely plasti c,

L =

27r1"(1, dr = Y

This is equi valent to Treeca'e criterion with a modified yield stress, t he

factor m being given the value 2j"'3 (see p. 21). To express this more
precisely we make use of t he ident ity

= Y

2."rq dr+

'"

7J1'(0', +(1') dr

f 2""V d'+f"'(2a.+'~)d'

from the equilibrium equ ati on. Since q _ 0 with increasing st rain,

and rearrange von Misee' yield criterion in the form

2Y

(7,-(7, = "' 3(1- ql )i .

Now q is the difference bet ween the values of (7. in t he exact solution
(full curves in Fig. 16) and the values in Nadai 'esolut ion (broken curves).
In th e particular example we are considering , it will be seen t hat the
numerically grea test value of q occurs on the plastic boundary at any
stage in th e expans ion, and is equal to (1 - 211)clj2b l . The maximu m
cannot be very different in an accurate solution based on von )lisee'
crite rion. Consequent ly, the local error introduced by th e approximatio n (62) is never greater than abou t 2 per cent., while the overall error
is much leee.t We may conclude, th erefore, th at by replacing Y by
2Y j"'3 in t he previous analysis we derive an excellent approximation to
t he solut ion for a metal yielding according to the law of von 1IIi&e8. It is
appa rent that if t he exact criterion were used th e labour of a numerical
solution would be considerably augmented, since th e equations (36)
no longer apply and all stress components depend on th e st rain-history.
(iv) CloJed-end condition. According to t he numerical solut ion of the
previous section t he load L that must be applied t o prevent longitudinal
contra ction is 1e88 t han ."a2p , th e corresponding closed-end force. The
difference decreases &8 th e expansion cont inues. This suggests that a
closed t ube will extend , but th at the amount will be limited and t he final
stages of the expansion will be under approximate plane strain conditions. The result th at the plane st ra in load ten ds to the closed-end
force with increasing expansion may be shown in th e following way.
t

Thi. h.. been v&rifled by direc t calculation of the IOlu tion (or v on MiAN' cri terion l
_ P . O. Hod ge, Jr. a nd O. N . White. Jr., a mdUilU DiNitM <:>1 .41'1>. MfIlh., Bf'OWIl
Umvenit y , Tech. Rep . 29 (1949 ); J _ rn . .4pp . M A. 17 (19601. 180.

L-

f."

:,.(rJa,) dr =

7r{"'0',~ =

wa1p,

which is just t he closed -end condition.

A numerical soluti on for t he eloeed -ead condit ion has been obta ined
by Hill, Lee, and 'Iuppe r.t for bja = 2 and Poisson's ratio 03 . The
distribution of (7. is shown in Fig. 17. For comparison the quan tity
H(7,+(1,) is included at correspond ing stages of th e expansion (indicated by t he broken curves). I t is seen that q varies within even more
restricted limits ( '076) than in th e plane st rain case. The assumpt ion t hat (7, is the inte rmediate principa l stress is thereby justified ;
furtherm ore von ~Ii8e8' criterion is approximated by (52) to within 03
per cent .
Various esaumptiona abou t t he exlel etreee have been made in earlier
treatme nts of th e problem. For example, it has been supposed that 0',
has the uniform value p j(b2ja 2_ 1) everywhere in the tube.f A better
&88umpt ion is t hat q = 0 (everywhere in th e tu be), or that (7, is equal to
i ((1, + (7, ); th is is strictly t rue only when the material is incompressible,
in which case th e axial exte nsion is zero. All elements are stressed in
pure shear (with a. superimposed hydr ostatic etreee). The end condition
is satisfied (cf. th e first para graph) , and th e von Mises yield criterion
reduces exactly to (52). The assumption gives (1, correctly when all the
tube is elast ic (see (27)), but increasingly overestimates it in the elastic
region up to a maximum of about 18 per cent. when c = b (Fig. 17).
(1. is undere stimated throughout nearly all th e plasti c region, the
error being worst on th e inner surface. On th e other hand, a useful
t R . Hill. E . H . Lee, and 8 . J . Tupper, Mini . t ry of Sup ply .Armament R-n:h Dept.,
Theo reti ca l Reeearch Rep . 11/4 6.
l O. Cook, P Ail . T roow. R t1V. Soc. A,:l30 ( 11I31). 103.
i O. Cook , hoc. 1,... N A. EWJ. 1)6 (1934 ). 401.

110

TH E SOLU T ION OF P LAS T IC- ELAST IC PRO BL EM S.

II. (V. I

a pproximation to the external radial displacement ie effected. The

accurate value of 1/) is given by

Eu,
l [(1, - V(0',+17. )J. _&
Yb = Y

"

~ j(2-.~ _ .(q)"

from (34) and (fO).

..

<T,

1~

V. 3J

THE ORY O F A UT OFRETTA GE P ROCE SS

axiallltrain is equal to

(1- 2~)YtI/2Ebl,

111

eompered with the true value

1l(1-2'~H~_
The discrepa ncy (an overestimate) Increeeee as th e pla.etic region spreeda,
amounting to a bout 64 per cent, when c = b; t he eeeumption therefore
fails to give a useful esti mate of f The true axial st rain is shown in

26 1,1 1)
Vb

10

o.

-._--_ ..0'

0'

08

07

O.
05

o
0'

HI

-ez
f lO. 11. Dilltrib ution of aT>ia) .t""", eo mpo nent
in " p..-tly p"-"tie t u be with .. doeed end and
waUratio 2. Ttl" broken eurvee ecrreepend to
<I. _ l(a,+ "')'

y(q),. /) ranges from zero to -0-024

t he plasti c region dev elops (see

Fig. 17). Since the leading te rm varies correspondingly from 021 to
0'85, th e formul a.
E
'
u, = I (2-v'b!
"
(63 )
Yb
&S

underestimates the t rue radial displacement (Fig. 18) by less than 3

per cent. Th e ax ial st rain .... ca lcula ted from (60) on the ass umption
t hat q = 0, or d irectly from the Reuss relations, will be found to vary
acrou t he pleeuc pa rt of th e t ube. In the elastic part th is fictit ious

04

b:pln l ion / (fIp-tSian ~ Mtic Iirr"t)

FlO. 18. Depemdenre of diNDetnJ. .00 kJngitudinal

ezpanaionl of. eloMd tube on the irltem.I pre.1,U'$
(...D-nLio 2 _ d no atnin..hudening).

Fig. 18 a.e a funct ion of th e eu tofrettege preeeure and in Fig. 19 &8 a

function of the exte rnal expenelon. There is a diecontinuity in gradient
&t t he first moment of complete plasticity.
The eleetdc limit of the tu be for epplieatione of pressure eubeequent
to th e initial overstrain is equal to the autofrettage pressure pro vided.
that t here ill no Be uschinger effect and that all elements of the tube
recover elastically during th e unloading. The condit ion for this ill that p
should be less than 2Pot (cf. th e derivation of (17) for a spherical shell).
It might be supposed that in real metals the presence of an appreciable
Bau8chinger effect after a small plastic strain would reduc e the elastic
limit of t he tube below t he autofrettage pressure. In fact , for reasons
not well unde rstood, au torrettaged. tubes beha ve very nearly &8 though
the Bauscbinger effect were nonexistent.t
t L. B. 1'urnw. T - . Coooob. Pit.,. &c. l l

l...:

(l 1lOe). 377; E"';""""9. ' l {1ill ).lla.

A. O. wan-en. S
poNt..... _ l -....lSmuui'" MdGl# taottl A u.oy..p . 208 (publiehed
VI the l natitut.e of M
1"7).

122

THE S O L U T I O N OF PLA ST I CELA STIC PROBLEMS.

II. (V.

The accurate inclusion of work-hardening in the snalyeis would great!

complicate the solution, but a useful estimate of th e preesure-expsneic
relation can be obtained by t he following method, due to Nad ai.t From:
the equation of equilibrium we derive the formu la
p =

f(U8-crr)~

for th e internal preeeure. Now it baa been shown that von Mleee' yiel

V. 3]

TH E OR Y OF A UTO F R E T T A GE PRO CESS

123

all through t he tube at each sta ge of the expansion. Actually, rly

increases as we pass from the plastic boundary to the bore, and according
to th e accurate solution th e departure from constancy rea ches 30 per
cent. when the tube is completely plastic. However, it is found ] that the
error introduced into th e calculated value of p by neglecting this variation is not more than one or two per cent., even when the stress-strain
curve is well rounded. Hence, writing r = b'Yt)rl , where rl> is the
maximum shear strain on the external surface,
y.

p =

(54)

T(Y);_

y.

where Yo = bly61al is the shea r strain at the bore. From (35) and (53),

II>

i1. o'--i---:--~---::~;--;-~----:""""~~-

criterion can be replaced by th e approximate relation us-crr ~ 2Y/

when the material does not harden. It may be expected that the reIau
will be equally valid when the material work-hardens, 80 t hat we
write

f
v3

p== -2

dy
y-,
y

where Y is a funct ion of the equivalent st rain. Since the state of at

in any element is approximately a hydro static tension superposed on
pure shear, it is further supposed that Y is a function only of the ma .
mum shear strain, to be deter mined from a torsion test on & thin-wall
tube (where th e shear st ress T is equal to Y I ../3). Now the maximu
(engineering) shear strain is y = ~8 -f . , and thi s is proportional to 11
in th e elast ic region. It ia assumed, finally, that y is proportional to 1/
t A.

NBdai . l'la.!t~illl , chap . 29 (McGra w.H iIl Book

Co., 1931) .

= (1+.) Ye

_ 2(1+1') U/l
Ebl- (2 v) b '

approximately.'
+

(55)

The pressure -expansion curve can t hen be calculated from (64) by

numerical integration. A method for the converse calculation, that of
deriving the stress -strain curve in shear from a known pressure-expansion
relation, has been outlined by Shepherd.
For a material with an upper yield-point Cook] hee given t he formula

.Ca ( b'C')

p = 28ln - +" 1- - ,

where 8 is the maximum shear stress in the material abou t to yield , and
8 ' is th e maximum shear stress throughout the plasti c region ; this may be
proved by a simple modification of the equations leadin g to (37). There
is a discontinuity across t he plastic boundary in th e circumferential
stress. It is assumed that th e plastic st rains are restricted to th e lower
yield-point range of strain (t his is usually of order 0,02, or some ten
times the elastic strain at the upper yield-point ). From experiments on
closed tubes with wall-ratio s bta ranging from 117 to 4, Cookt f heeshown
that th e value of 8 ' deduced from the observed maximum pressure
2&' In b/a is in good agreement with t hat measured in a ten sion test .
On the other hand , Morrisontt has concluded th at the lower yield stress is
t J . L. M. Morri son . Proc. I nn. M eeh. Eng. 159

(11148), 81.
Na.dai eeeumed t he material to be incomp re~~ible ( ~ .. i l,

l:OIblt&ntl.

80

that

r7

W all

~trictly

f W. M. Shepherd, i loiu. 940.

II O. Cook. Phil . T ....nI. R oy. Srx . A. )30 (1931), 103.
.tt O. Cook. Proo .l~l . Mull . E nfl U6 ( 1934), 401 ; IMI. C;t>il Enfl.,SeUcW E nginee,..
l 'lg PQpe,. No . 170 (19340); T .....w. Engin un OM Sh ipbuild"" i n ScoUand , 81 (11131),311 .
U J . L . M . MorrillOn. op . cit.

12"

TH E SO LU T ION OF PLA S TI C E LAST IC P ROB LE MS .

II. [V.

governed by von Mises' criterion . It may be significant that the dr op in

stress W&8 much greater in th e mild steel used by Cook t han in that used!
by Morrison. It is genera lly agreed, however, t hat the first yielding 0
mild steel is in accordan ce with Tresca'a criterion, but only in t he limited!
sense that und er similar conditions th e intermediate prin cipal stress h&ll
no influence. The maximum shear stress is observed to be higher in:
to rsion, flexure, and eutofrettege, and Oook [ is of th e opinion that the
local stress gradient influences yielding. This may also be th e explanation
of the scale effects found by Morrison: in torsion.
(v) Open-end condition . At present a n accurate numerical solution:
of th e equ ati ons for a tube with open ends is not available. The solution:
is more difficult th an for th e closed tube in two respects.
In th e first place, U~ is not necessarily th e intermediate principal st
On general grounds it seems probable that for certain wall -rati os th
&:l[ial stress may become locally less th an the radial st ress [i.e. , mo
compressive). If th is happens Tresca's crite rion states that U9- a
and not UfJ -UY' is constant. The funda mental equa t ions are the nentirel
different from those we hav e been considering . However, it may
th at the differen ce betw een uyand u. is so small th at U9-UY ~ Y wi
sufficient accuracy. Also, th e range of wall-ratio s for which u., is t
intermediate principal stress may not be usual in autofret tege practi
The second difficulty appears to be more serious. The stress vee
in the plane diagram must vary over a much wider range than for t
closed t ube. Consequently, von Mises' yield criterion may not
approximated by (52) with the requ ired accuracy. In Briti sh desi
practi ce t his difficulty is met by assuming that UfJ - Uy = mY, where
is an empirically determined quantity (cf. p. 21) ran ging from I wh
bla is small to 2j";3 when bja is very large.
(vi) Solutions blUed on theHend y stru 8-strain relations. The analysis '
less formidable when the stress -strai n relati ons of Hencky ((36) of Cba
II ) are adopted . By reason of t he unique corresp ondence bet ween st
and total strain which th ese relation s assert, th e difficulties involved .
following th e st rain-histo ry do not arise. The first complete solution
which compressibility is allowed for is due to Belayev and Sinitsky
t G. Cook, P yoc. R oy. Soc . A ,I!7 (1932) , 559; T Yluw. Engimn. and S hipbtli!da . i
Sc<xwnd, 8 1 (1 931 ), 311 .
t J . L . M. Morrison , Proc. b wt . M tch . Eng. 141 ( 1940), 193.
A . G . Wanen, op . cit., p . 121.
1I N . M. Be la yev and A . K . Sinitsky . BuU. A cod. Sci . U .R .S .S . J (1938), 3 ; or
same t heory extended to include at ya in .h arden ing, _ ibid.... (1938) . 21. See
W . W . Bokolovsky. P rikladnaia M atcm alika i Mckhaniko , 7 ( 19013 ), 273; Th -V
P llut icuV, cha p . 3 ( M08COW, 194 6).

V.3]

T HEOR Y OF AUTO I<'RE T T AGE PRO CE S S

1211

A similar analysis has been independently formulated by Allen, and

systemat ized for numerical calculation by Sopwith .]
Comparison of Sopwith's results with th ose of Figs. 16 and 17 shows
that the Hencky relati ons lead t o a distributio n of axial stress which is
not in error by more than about 5 per cent . of the maximum for both
plane st rain and closed-end conditions (the comparison for open ends
is not yet possible). In the early stages of th e expa nsion st ill closer agreement is found in t he axial stra in for th e tube with closed ends, but th e
axial st rain based on th e Hencky relations eventually reaches a maximum
value a nd then decreases. The reason for this rat her st riking difference
is not difficult to understand. Both th eories predict that u. tends to
!(u y+ue) with increasing plasti c st rain, and hence that t he elastic
component of th e axial stra in in each element approaches a consta nt
value (since U y and (19 are consta nt after th e tu be becomes plastic, the
displacements being small). But whereas th e increment of a xial plasti c
st rain is zero according to t he Re uss equations, it is th e total a xial plasti c
strain t hat is zero according to the Hencky equations. Consequently ,
in t he former t heory th e a xial st ra in asym pto tically approaches a certain
limiting value (in agreement with th e experiments of Cook! ) while in
the latter it must eventually reach a ma ximum and afte rwards decrease.
It was proved in Section 6 of Chapter II that when th e st rain-path is
such that t hestress vector remains fixed in direction th e Re ussand Hencky
relations are identical. It seems, th erefore, th a t t he reason for the close
agreement of th e Reuss and Hencky th eories in the expansion of a tube
under plane st rain or with closed ends is t o be found in the circumstance
th at t he st ress vecto r is rest ricted to a small segment of the yield circle.
A less good a.greement would be expecte d for the open-end condition.

4. Expansi on of a cylindrical cavity in an Infinite medium

A solution in explicit terms can be found for th e problem of th e
expansion ofa cylindrical cavity from zero radius in an infinite medium.
~he axial strain is zero, and all dependent variables are fun ctions of the
etngle quantity 8 = rjc, since the configuration of stress and strain
remains geometrically similar. We have also

&

c- = _
8r
dB'

t D. N. d e G. Allen an d D. G. Sopwith ,
Inl.
Lo ndon
iI948
C. W . MacG rego y, L . F . Coffin, sr.. IUld J . C. F isher, J oum. Fronklin
). See
rut ., 14!i ( 1948}. 13.5.
P roc . TV.

a1&a

G. Coo k, P l'O() . 1M . Muh . Eng . U6 ( 1934 ), 0101.

f R . Hill, Jou.". . A p p. M d . 16 (1 949 ). 29.5.

CQ1'l(J. App. M cc1I .,

126

TH E SO LU T IO N OF PLA S TIC E L A STI C P ROBLEMS.

II. [V."

Equati on (41) reduces to

v' +~ = ( 1 -2') ~[(V-8)q'-3],

where th e dash denotes differentia tion with respect to

(56)

e.

From (42)

[1 - fll -2, )q]{v-8)q' + (1- 2, )(2q- 1)+ [!q+ (l - 2') ~] :~ = O.

(57)

Now 0r+ oS is zero in th e elastic region (see (34)), and hence so are 0
and q. We can expect th at q will be very small near th e surface of tho,
cavity where the circumferential strain is infinitely lar ge. It can be
verified a po8teriori that t he numerically greatest value of q' occu
when 8 = I, and th at it is about 0'4. Since 8 ra nges from ale to 1 in the
plastic region, while v is of order Y IE or less, it is t herefore a g
approximat ion to neglect (v-8)q' in comparison with 3 in (56). Integra
tion of this equation with th e boundary condition 11 = (l+ v)YIE 0
8 = 1 (see (44)) then gives
3{1 - 2, )Y8 (5- 4,)Y
(58
v= 2E
+ 2E8 ;
Since v = dalde on th e surface of t he ca vity and since cIa is constant , w
derive immediately from (58) th e expression

~~

[ (5

2~,)y]1

(59

'_ 2(5 - b)q

38(8S as/eS ) +

1- 2, _ 0
8 ,

(~ ~ 8 ~I) .

(61)

As mentioned on p. 115, the above distributions of 11 and q are also those

round a cavity expanded from any finite radius. A nu merical evaluati on of th e inte gral in (61) shows t hat q increases to a max imum near
rIc = 0'7t as we move inward from t he plestt c bound ary, a nd then
t The po 8iti on of t he ma :<imum .8 in&Orl"iti ve to changee in ElY ; whe n
ElY _ 400, the ma",i mum

~'alue

or '1 i8 0073, approll.imate1y .

decreases rapidly to zero at the surface. This is another example of the

general principle that in plane deformation a. closely approaches th e
mean of th e other two principal stresses after a plasti c strain of a few
times th e yield-point strain. Since th e elastic and plastic components
ofthe st rain are still comparable even when rIc = 0'5, it is und erstandable t hat q is only negligible compared with ! (o,+o,)/Y ( = In 8) in a
relatively small part of th e plasti c region.
If t he material yields according to von Miees' criterion, Y must be
replaced by 2Y I..J3 in th e abov e equations ; th e overall approximat ion
is better t han for a tube of moderate thickness. For most pre-strained
metals cIa is betw een 10 and 15, while th e inte rnal pressure

Y[

P ~ -13 1 + In (5

-I3E
]
4,) Y

(62)

is between abo ut 3'3 and 38Y. An earlier a nalysis by Bishop , Hill, and

Mot t,t neglected volume changes in the plastic region, but, as for the
spherical cavity, it is a bet ter epproxlmefion to neglect volume changes
universally.
When the material work-hardens, a n analysis similar to th at for th e
spherical cavity (Section 1 (v)) leads to a pressure
"~.

Y[ 1+ln ..J3Y
E]+..J32f H (1~3lntt_1
")d'7
P = ..J3
,

t =-;
a

E] w'W

Y [
p ~ -13 ' + In -l 3Y +18 '

(60)

where, for simplicity , ;( 1-2v)q has been neglected in compa rison with
uni ty in th e coefficient of q' (th e ma ximum value of q is usually less than
0'1). Integration, with t he boundary cond ition q = 0 when 8 = I,
leads to
1

q =(1 - 2v)(I - c~~rE/3Y f(l _ c~;t)-{2E/3Y) d:

127

(63)

where = Y+ H(t") is t he stress-strain curve in compression. If the rate

of hardening is const ant , so that H = H '( , t hen

to th e usual order of approximation. Substi t ut ing (58) in (67), we ob

a differential equation for q:
q

EXPANS I ON O F A CY L INDR IC A L CA VI T Y

~ _ 03 and

t R . F . Bi8ho p.

R. Hill. and N. F . Mott, Proe. Ph",. Soe. 57 (19015). In.

(64)

VI. 2) E QU ATI ON S R E F E RR ED TO CART E S IA N COOR D I NAT E S 120

VI
PLA N E PL ASTI C ST R AIN AND T HE TH E ORY
OF THE S LI P -L I N E F IE L D
1. Assumption of a plastlc-rtgld material
IN the last two chapters we have been considering problema to which
exact solutions are known, and where full allowance can be made for the
elastic component ofetnLin in t he p lastic region. I n ma ny of th e problema
of grea test practical interest, however, we are compelled by mathema tieal difficulties to dleregard th e elastio componen t of strain. For
consistency we must also disregard th e purely elastic stra in in the nonplastic region. In effect, therefore, we work with a material that is ~
when stressed below the yield-point and in which Young's modu lus
an infinitely great value . This bypotbeticel eolid may be referred to aa .
plank-rigid material, in cont rast to the plastic-elastic ma terial of Reuu.
I t will ha ve become clear by now that the distribution of stress in the
plastic-rigid body is only likely to approximate that in .. real metal
under similar external conditions when th e plas tic material has freedo m
to Dow in ROme direction. If t he pleetic material is severe ly constn.ined
by adjacent elaatic material (as in th e expansion of At hick-walled tube,
or in the bending of A beam) , neglect of th e elasti c component of strtoiD:
Introduces serio us errors into urtain of t he calculated etreee componenf&l
On t he other hand , even though an easy direction of flow is Available,
RO t hat th e eleenc st rain-incrementa soon become negligible throug hout
most of th e pleeti c zone, there must still be Acertain boundary layer, or
transition region , borde ring t he elaetic zone, in which t he elastic ADd
plastic strain -increments are comparable. The narrower th is t ransition
region, t he better should be t he overall approxi mation. Since t he
allowable error depends very much on t he intended field of applicat ion
of th e solution, no more explicit rule can be laid do wn. In many tec hnological forming processes (e.g. rolling , dr ewiag, forging ) experience
shows t ha t th e assu mption of a plasti c-rigid materi al dOO8 not lead to
any significant errors.
In the present chapter we shall be concerned with th e behaviour of ..
plastic-rigid material under conditions of plane strain, and in pa.rticular
with certain general properties of the stress an d velocity distribution in
the plast ic region.

2. The plane s t r ain equations referred to Cartesian coordinates

A state of plan e strain is defined by the properties (i) that the flow is
everywhere parallel to a given plane, say t he (z, y) plan e, en d {ii] that t he
motion is independent of z. We are th en dealing with a two-dimensional
system (the page representing a typical (z, y) plane of flow), in which
the non-vanishing velocity components are U z and till' where t he subscripts z , y, z are used to distinguish Certeelen compon ents of velocity
from the curvilinea r components that will be employed late r . Since
Tzo and Til ' are zero by symmet ry , a. is a prin cipe l etrese.
If th e hydrostatic component of t he stress is compressive, a state of
plane st rain ma y be achieved by confining the specimen between
(effectively) rigid blocks with faces parallel to the planes of flow. The
t wo surfecee of contac t must be well lubri cated to Allow th e specimen
to expand or contract freely. Th e dimensions of the specimen, and the
forces or displ acements applied to it, must be independent of the z
coordinate. These conditions can generally only be exactly realized in a
specially designed experiment. However, appro ximate states of plane
strain are found in technological processes, for exa mple when a wide
sheet or block is reduced in thi ckn ess by passing it between cylindri cal
rolla or dies. If t he percentage lateral spread is small in comparison with
the percentage reduction in thi ckness, t he sheet is deformed under
approxima tely plane strain conditions, with th e exception of narrow
zones nea r t he edges.
Since the volume of an element of plastic-rigid material does not alter,
each incremental distortion in a state of plan e strain consists of a pure
shear. Hence, for th e ideal isotropic mate rial , th e state of stress at each
point is a pure shear st ress T , together with a hydroete tie pressure p
(see p. 36, Chap. II ). Th e stress a. normal to t he planes of flow is
th erefore equ al to - p, and the ot her princi pal st resses to -pT.
Exp ressed in Cartesian coordi nates :
a, = I(O'z+O'II)'

(I)

This relation, strictly true only for a plaet.ic-rigid material undergoing

deformation, is found to be very nearly satisfied for a plasti c-elastic
material afte r a compa rati vely small plasti c distortion in plane stra in,
provided f' = 0 when y = 0 (Lode 's va riables); examples of t his, for the
Renea ma te rial, have been discussed in Cha pte r IV , Section 5, and in
Chapte r V, Section 3 (ii) ; it is rigorously true when Poisson's ratio isi .
The th eory of plan e L'Itrain beeed on (I) is t herefore often a pplicable to a
pa rt of the plastic region in a plaetic-elaeti c material.

130 P L AN E PLA ST IC STRA IN A ND T HE SLIP . L INE FIE L D [VI . J

VI. 2] EQ UATI ON S RE F E RRE D T O CARTE SI A N COO RDINA T ES 131

If there i.e no work -hard ening, and if t he yielding is not influenced by

hydrostatic pressure, T must be a. consta nt which we shell denote by k, ita
precise valu e depending on t he yield criterion. I n Treece's criterion,
for exa mple. k is equal to Y/2. while for von Mises' it is equal to Y/..J3
(exactly &8 in 8. state of pure shear ), All cases can be treated by th e same
theory if th e yield criterion is written in th e form

calculation of the diatribut ion of stress a nd st rain in th e plastic region

in t he plane problem, and wa.s fil'8 t formulated by Sa.int-Venant t in
1870. Saint -Venen t used Treeca 'e crite rion, and later derived equation
(1) from Levy 's stress-strai n relations.
It will be noti ced th at th ere are three equations involving only t he
three components of stress; when these have been found , t he remaining
two equations suffice to determine the velocity components. We can
foresee, therefore, that two main types of plane strain problem will be
encountered. In the first t here will be a number of boundary conditions,
involving only t he etreeeee, sufficient to permit a determination of t he
plastic region and state of stress with out conside ring th e velocities.
Such a pro blem is statica.lly determined ; the velocities can be calculated
afterwards . In the 86C0nd type th ere will usuaJJy be fewer boundary
conditions in th e eteeeeee eJone, and a compensatory greater number
involving the velocities. The solutions for th e etreeeee and velocities
have the n to be carried out toget her , and so this type of plan e problem
is not statically determiaed.f in certain atatieally undetermined problems aU boundary conditions refer to etreseee. The failu re of many writers
to app ly this distinction in th e solution of special problems bee resulted
in much unsatisfactory work ; this is considered in detail Jeter.
Fina Uy, we need th e equations for t he stresses in t he elastic region.
The equations (3) of equili brium are t he same, but the yield criterion is
replaced by the compatibility equation

,.s =

HO'z -a,.)I +~q = J;I,

(2)

and k ie given the appropriate value in the final result. As usual, it is

assumed that inertial st resses are negligible compared with k, and that
th e problem can be t reated &8 quasi-static. In th e a bsence of body forcea,
the equati ons of equilibrium reduce to

a..+ihn
=
az
&y

OTn+ao,.
_ 0'
az
&y -

(3)

The condition for zero volume cbenge is

ihl z
az

+ c3v,
=
&y

O.

The slope (J of t he principal axes of stress with respect to the :r-am is

given (Appendix IV) by
(6)

while th e slope 8' of th e principal axes of strain-increment, or st rain-rete,

eatiefiee
Ou
&v
tan 2e'

---'+-'

~ &y

ax.
avll

(6)

Ou z
az-&y

In an isotro pic material th e principal a xes of stress and plasti c strain rate must coincide. Hence 8 = 8', and (5) and (6) give

Ou z &vII
~ ~ &y ax.
Uz- a ll
Ou z 8v1l
az- &y

(7)

Since equations (4) and (7) a re homogeneous in th e velocities, the theory

does not really involve the element of time and th e calculated stre&861
a re independent of th e rate of strain ; the progress of th e deformation
can be marked by any monotonically varying quantity, such as a load ,
an angle, or a cha racteris tic length. The set of five equations (2), (3),
(4), and (7), in t he five unknowns a z , a" , "z,,' U z' tI", is th e ba.eia for the

(:;.+~.)(aa+a~)

= O.

(8)

This expreeeea the condition th at th e components of strain should be

derivable from two cont inuous functions representing the x and y components of dleplecement, I t is important t o noti ce th at th e elastic
t B . de 8&int .Ven&llt, Comptu RmdlU A ead. Sci . PaN. 70 (18 70), 473 ; 74 ( 1872),
1009 IIl.nd 1083.
t The tenn ' ItatieeJly d etermined ' w.. in troduced b y H en cky in 1923 to d en ote
problerce where there are .. m&ny equationa in the Itl'efllMlll al on e &8 unknown eu-,
' ....upKt i~ o/eM bouftda'71 condi4iofw. Th e term hILIbeen ueed in thie wide r MlWJe by many
~ter writen., ine1u ding the a u thor. H owev er, in view of the con fuaion that bILl ezi..-ted
In regard to the plane et ra in problem, it _ me pNlfera ble, in an introduction to the
lubjec t . to redefin e the term in the narrowe r lienee , which ill a1lo more in accord wi th
the litera l mea.ning of the worda. While in H en cky 'l .eTUllI, t herefore , all problerne of
plane . train are l tat ica lly detennined, in the new ""nee only .cine are. Thil at once
underlinell the distinct ion between the t "'o t ype. o f bounduy.value problem, a di8 .
tinct ion t.h.t the older terminology undo ubted ly wen t fu to O t -U N . The reader shou ld
take care. when OOllsulting original p&pe.., to ucertain which meaning ill intooonded.
I 8 . 1'imoehenko. T hwry 0/ E"",,~, p. 23 (MoOraw. H iIl Book Co., 1934 ). R . V.
South-JI, I ,., rodtldOoa Jo r..w T A-.ry 0/ ElIwneUv. chap. :rli (Clanndon ~, 1933 ).

132 P LA N E PLA STI C ST R AI N AND THE S LI P L I NE F IELD

[VI . 2

constants do not appear in t he compatibility relation, which is t herefore

equally valid for th e plastic-rigid material. We shall suppose t hat II = 1,
80 th at
= 1 ( 0 %+ 0 , ) in th e elastic region and hence t hroughout t he
whole body. Now for equilibrium the components of st ress acting normally and tangentially over the pla.sti c-ela.st ic interface must be continuous. Fu rthermore, t he material just on t he elastic side of th e
inte rface must be on t he point of yielding. The stress compone nt
parallel to t he interface (i.e. acting normally on u plane element per pend icular to th e interface) is then also co ntin uo us. and t he pla.st ic
boundary coincides with one of th e conto urs of maximum shea r st ress
in th e eleetic region, namely t he one along which the maxi mum shea r
stress ha.s the val ue k.
Fu rther considera tion of the interrelation of t he elastic and pleeu c
states of stress will be left unt il la.ter. The remainder of this chapter is
concern ed with th e propert ies of the plasti c stress and velocity equations,
and th e methods by ".. hich t hey are integrated .

o.

3. The pl ane s t rain eq ua t ions referred to the s tip -Hnes

In order to devise met hods of integration of th e plastic equationa
we must first inquire whether t hey are hyperbclic.t Suppose t hat,
starting from certain prescribed bounda ry conditions, values of t he et reesee a nd velocities
:r ha ve been obta ined everyw here with in t he area
bounded by e closed curve G, and t hat we wish
to find when this solut ion cannot be extended
outside G without add itional information. In
ot her words, we are seeking t he condition t hat
G should be a characte rist ic. I nstead of a pplying t he sta ndard method, it is simpler to take
F lO. 20. Coor<J in",te "'liN fo r
advantage of the fact that t he stress and veloin vllfIt i/l:&t ion of eh&rlWte rillcity equations have th e same form whatever
t ica in pla ne at ra in,
th e axes of reference. Let th ese be chosen !W
th at t he e-a xie is dire cted along th e outward normal at some point P on
G, and th e y-a xis along th e tangent (Fig, 20), We now fix our attention
on t he var iati on of th e stress a nd velocity in the neighb ourhood of P,
and see whether the x derivati ves of the stress and velocity components
just outside G are uniquely determined by t he baeic equati ons (2), (3),
(4), (7), and t he known pla.st ic state within G. If th e :rderi vativee can be
t The.--der unfamiliar ....ith th it. te rm "'ill ti nd it ex plained further in Ap penclill III.
The pre-nt _ tioll ie en tinly eIIlll.eon~ined., bOll'eveJ',

VI , 3J

EQ U ATIO NS R E F ER R ED T O S L I P LIN E S

133

eo determined, t he solution can be exte nded out wards through a further

infinitesi mal distance along t he normal through P . On the other hand,
if th e equations fa.il to give any informa tion about some, or all, of the
derivati ves, th e solution cann ot be exte nded in t he neighbourhood of P
unless further boundary condit ions are specified outs ide O. If this is
done, th e deri vativ es will not necessa rily be continuous.
For equilibrium ozand Tn must be continuous across G. Two values of
11, can then be found to satisfy t he yield criterion (2), one of these being,
of course, the known value just inside C. We shall sup pose here t hat
0, is contlnuoue.t Then th e tan gential deri vatives OazliJy, Oa,liJy, and
8TQ I&Y, are contin uous across O. It follows from the equilibrium
equations (3) th at 0a%/8% and h z ,/8% a re also conti nuous. To calculate
Oo,/ez we differentia te the yield crite rion to give

i(o%-o,)(o;;- ~) +Tq ~q

= 0,

AU quant ities in this equation, except Oa.I8%, are already known on both
sides of C. If O:z =1= CT, t here is a unique solution for Oa,lez, which must
therefore be continuous across G. However, if 0 % = 0 " the equation
gives no information about Oa,/ax, a nd states th at hq/ax = 0 at P.
By differentia ting t he yield crite rion with respect to y it follows similarly
that OT:zllliJy = 0 at P . From the equilibrium equa tions we have efeo that
00, _ 0 _ 00,
ax - - &y

w en

_
0% -

0,1 '

(9)

Now 0% = 0, is th e condition tha t th e directions of ma ximum shear

stress at P should be normal and tan gential to G. Thus if th e tan gent
at every point on G coincides with a maximu m shear stress direction C
is a characteristic for t he st resses. The solution can only be continued
across such a curve if further bounda ry conditions are prescribed ; th ese
may be such that oO,llox is disconti nuous at each point . For a general
set of Cartesian axes, not coinciding with th e directions of maximum
shes r stress at th e point under considera tion, th e normal derivatives of
all t he corresponding stress components a re obviously discontinuous,
Since th e density does not change, conservation of m&88 require s that
the normal component of velocity must be cont inuous acrose any curve.
On t he other hand , if t he bounda ry condit ions could be suitably chosen,
the ta ngential component could be disconti nuous without introducing
any mathematical inconsistency provided th e plastic equat ions are
8&til'lfied on both sides of th e cur ve. However, physical requirements
t

P luLic

aQ'. lI

.w._

with m.oollUn uitie& in the aU- are e xamined in Sect . t al .

It

134 PL A N E P LAST IC

S TRA I ~

AN D THE S L I P L I N E FI EL D (VI . J

demand that we regard the plastic-rigid material as a real material in

which the elastic moduli are allowed to increase without limit . A curve
&Cf088 which t he tangential compo nent of velocity is discontinuous must
be regarded as the limit of a narrow t ransition region in which the rate of
shear strain in the tangential direction is
very larg e. Since d irect ions of max imum
shea r stress and shea f st rain-rate coincide ,
III the tangent at any point of the curve muat
be a maximum shear stress dire ctio n. However, we have still to prove that it is possible
r
so to choose t he bou ndary condit ions that the
tangential velocity component can, in fact,
p
be d iscont inuous &Cf088 such a curve. Thia
is proved later (Sect . 6 (in; for the moment
!
F lO. !I. St~ on _ ama11 c ur- we suppose t ha t both components of velocity
vilinMreJen-:r.t bounded by lIlip_ are always continuous. It follows that t he
linN ; p _ IDMD oomp..-ive
It.-., 1 _ yield It~ iD ehMr. derivatives 8uJ 8fJ and 811, /ity are continuous,
and hen ce also &ur/ax by virtue of t he incompressibili ty equation (4). Equation (7) serves to determine 811, /3%
uniquely, unless fl:r = fl" in which case

(10)

at P, and 811, /h may be disconti nuous.

H ence t he characteristics of t he stresses a nd t he velocities coincide,
and there are only two d isti nct characteristic d irections at a point,
viz. the di rect ions of maximum shear stress or shear strain-rate (four
would normally be expected from 8. set offour partial d ifferential equati ons). In a state of plane strain the two orthogonal famili es of curvee
whose d irections at every point coincide with t hose of the maximum
shear at rein-rete are kn own as slip-linu. To sum u p : the equat ions
of plane strain are hyperbolic, and t he characteristi cs are the slip-linea.
This property compels us, if we wish to solve special problems, to treat
the field of sliplines as the fundam ental unknown element to be determined. With thi s in view, we proceed to develop the differential relations
holdin g along the slip-linea. Let the t wo familie s of elip-lines be la belled
by the parameters (I. and {J respectiv ely ; for shortness we eha ll epeek of
e -lines end (Jlines. A small curvilinear element bound ed by two pain
of neighbou ring ellp-ltnee is a cted on by the ayetem of8trelM'l components
shown in Fig . 21. The normal etreee on each face ie equal to - p, where

EQ UATI O N S R E F E RR ED T O SLI P -LI N ES

VI. 3)

'36

Pis the mean compreeeive etreee - 1(0'1 + 0'1) , 0'1 en d 0'1 being the principal
stresses -pk (from (1) it follows tb&t pis also equal to -1 (fll +O'I + O, ),
where fl. es fl. is the t hird. principal stress). The ehee r-et reea components
ere eq ual to k. We distinguish t he tw o families of slip-lines by the convention that, if the (I.. end {J-lines are regarded &8 a. pair of right -headed
curvilinea r ax es of reference, t he line of a.ction of the elgebreieally
greatest principal stress falls in the first an d third quadrants. Evidently
the state of stress at a point is completely specified if we know the
orientation of t he slip-lines and the va lue of p. Thus, if f is the anti doehci8~ angular rotation of t he c-line from the x-axis, the Certeeien
components of stress a re
a, = -p-hin '24>.

(1, =
T:rl =

- p+ h in 24>,

(ll)

.1: 008 24>.

Th ese expressi ons, originally du e to Uvy, may be immediately verified ,

either from Mohr's circle of stress (which is elweye of rad ius k in a plane
plastic state), or from the equations tra.nsforming st ress compone nts
from one set of &Xes to another (see Appendix I V).
Now regard a {J-line as t he curve C, en d take the %- an d y-a.xes coincident with the tangents to t he (I.- a nd {J-lines respectively. Substituting
the express ions ( II) into (9) we obtain
(p + h in '24 ) ~
( '!!'
~
~-o

Hence

ap

~
8%+ 2k 8%

o,

= 0,

(.!!.
(p -hin '24 ) = o.
ity
#_0
&p

By - 2k By = O.

This means that at the poin t P th e tangential deri vat ives of the quentitles p +2hf, and p - 2klj> &long the (1.- en d {J-lines, respectively, a re zero.
This obviously remains true if f is measured relative to any fixed dire ction, not neceaearily parallel to the tangent at P. Since P is any point it
follows that
p +2k4> = const ant on an c -line, )

p-2kf = constant on a {J-line.

(12)

These relations are completely equivalent t o the equilibrium equations.

In general , of course, the values of the constants va.ry from one slipline to another. Th e rela.tions are usuall y attributed to Henckyj (1923).t
t H . Hencky,

Znu. 0"', Moth . M .a.. 3 (1923). 241.

Beacky derived the ftl1&tio~ by ftlrerrin8: t he eq uilibriUl1l equa ti<)~ to the Ilip_
till.. ae curvi liflMl' cocord ina t.8l. J . Bou... ineeq . C fml plt. Rtndw A OlJd. Sci. Po
74
( 1812), 242 and 4&0, and A .... . Be. N_ . 8 .. p . 35 (19 18). 70. and M. A. &do
y.

136 P LANE PLAS T IC S TR AIN AND T HE SLIP LINE FIELD [VI . 3

VI. 4]

though simila r ones, includ ing these a.s 8. spec ial case , were deriv ed by
Kottert &9 ea rly lUI 1903 for a plastic stress state in 8. soil; 8. soil is idealized.
&8 a plas tic-rigid mate rial whose yielding is in fluenced by hydrost&tic
preeeure, and whose weight must be taken into account (see Chap. XI,
Sect . 3).
To express th e velocity equations in 8. similar way. we int roduce
velocity co mponents u and v referred to t he e - and ,Bli nes (cons idered &8
& rig ht-handed system of curvilinear coordi nates). Th e equations snelo-

between two slip- lines of one family, where they a re cut by a slip-tine of
the ot her family, is constant along their length. In other words, if we pass
from one slip-line to another of the sa me family, along any in te rsecting
slip-line, the angle t urned through and t he change in pressure are con sta nt. Conversely , any two orthogonal fa milies of curves with t his

goua to ( 11) are

u", = UC08,p-tl8in~.
11,.

GEO MET RY OF T HE SL IP .LINE FI E L D

137

(13)

= u sin ,p+ v cos ,p.

Substi t uting these in (10) :

(U C08 ,p -V 8in f)) =

(~
~
~.o

0,

(~ (U 8in 4+tl C08 f))

~

' 0

= O.

Proceeding in a wa.y sim ilar to the derivation of (12), we find t hat

du -v dtj> = 0 along an c -line, )

dv+ud4

= 0 along

8.

,Bline.

FIo. 22. Typical .tip.linl!lfield . demonIItnIting Hl!Incky'a 8m thllOtelD .

(I' )

These equations are due to Geiri nger'[ (1930). They are nothing more
than a statement t hat t he ra te of extension a long any slip-line is zero.
p

4. Geo m etry of the s llp -llne field

A field of slip- lines possesses seve ral striking geometrical properties
which are repeatedly employed in the solution of special problems.
(i) H enc1cy'& jif'&t theorem, Consider a curvilinear quadrilateral
A B QP (Fig . 22) bounded by two a-lines, AP and B Q, and by two p.
lines, AB and PQ. From (12):
PQ -P' ~ (PQ-PB)+(PB-P,) ~ 2k(2~B-~Q-~')

Al, o

PQ -P' ~ (PQ -pp)+ (pp-P,J ~ 2k(~Q+~, -2</>pJ .

T herefore
~Q -~l' - ~B - ~'.
(10)
This is t he expression of t he necessary fact that the pressure difference
between two points, calculated in the two possi ble ways, is t he sa me.
Equation (15) is known ee Hencky'e first theorem: it states t hat the angle
TmM. Am. S oe, MWi . E'f'g. 63 ( 1941), A-H-. haVI!I ul!ll!ld thl!l trajl!lCtorillll of p~
I!It..- !loS curv ilin6lU' coord il'la tllll. The I"NUlting I!IquatiONo al"'> not uee ful for IIOlv inI
probll!lm>l, l!Iinee the elip -Iinee al"'> the naturall!lyl!ltem of coordinatllll.
t F . KOtte r, Btrlin Akad. BtriclaU (1903), 229. For othl!lr accounts of the work of
Hencky and K lltter. see A. Naclai . Han.dbmll der PhV. ik. 6 (1928); H . Oeiringer and W.
Pr&gl!lr, 1J,'Y9UmWH d . ua l1rn N atun.vi8 . 13 (1934). 310; H . Ol!liringer, Mtm. Sci . M ath .
86 (1937).
l H . Ol!licinger. Proe. 3rd I nl. Cong o App. Mult. SlOCkAolm, J ( 1930). 186.

Q.

--

-- --

~~-:"_~-+----l--

. . . - - --7---1.__

'1 slip-linn

FlO . 23. Slip-linN of 0"'" family with a I!Itraight t!JI!IgTIl6nt.

Ml!lmben of thl!lot her family inteniecting the I!Itcaight eeg m llfltll have a common evclute, to whi ch the eegml!ln~
at6 taogeo.tial.

property constitute & possible slip-line field for a plee tic mass in queeistatic equilibrium under certain boundary conditions; if t he value of th e
hydrostatic press ure p is stated at one point it may be calculated everyWhere in the field by mea ns of either of the equations (12).
It follows immediately that if a segment A B of a p-line, say, is stra ight
(Fig. 23), then so is the corre sponding section PQ of any ot her ,Bli ne cut
off by the e-Iinea thro ugh A and B. Notice that according to (12) and
(14)P and v a re both constant on each of the straight segments. If both
families are straigh t in a certain regio n, t he etreee (but not necessarily

138

P L ANE P LAS T IC ST RA IN AND TH E SLIP L INE F IEL D (VI.,

the velocity ) is uniform throughout t he region (e.g . & state of simple

shear). A further property of th e field in Fig. 23 is t hat the straight
eegmente all have t he same lengt h. This is most easily proved by noti ns
t hat t he e-llnee cutting the segments have the same evolute I , since tb.
,B-linea a re t heir common normals. An c-line cutting A B cen t herefore
be described by the end of a taut etring of an
appropri ate lengt h unwound from th e ev
lute. It follows from thi s construction t hat:
t he radius of curvature of the slip-line BQ
some point is greater t han that at the 001T&oi
sponding point on A P by th e length of tbe
,B line bet ween the two points.

(ti ) H~Icy' " ewnd theorem. The last

.perty is a special case of Hencky 'e 8eCOn
FI~. U . PJ'ooC oC Hencky',
th eorem, which is most directly proved
follows. The radii of curvature R end S
th e 02- end ,B-lines a.re defined. by th e equations

.'
.
.................

R=

I
s=
-

"",

& ..'

"'"

a'II'

(16

where a/&.. a.nd a/&II are epece deriva tives ta ken along the 02- a.nd
linea respectively, th eir relative sense being such that t hey form e, rigb~
beaded pair. Note t hat R and S are algebraic quantities whoee .
depend on the sense of a/&.. and 8/&11' Consider two neighbo .
,B-lines and let &.p be th e constant small angle between th em at
corresponding points of intersection with e-llnee (F ig. 24). Then, fro
(16),
R&tP = &' ..,
where 68.. is th e length of the small ar c of an ex-line cut off by th e t
,B-lines. Hence
a
a
- (Rt.~) ~ - (118.) = - t.~

8'11

8'11

from the geometry of Fig. 24. Since tJ..p is constant it may be ta k

outside th e operator on the left -ha nd side, and we obtain
aR = _ 1. }

a,~

Similarly,

as
_=

a,.

( 17

_ I.

These equat ions etate that as we t ravel along a slip-line th e rad

of curvature of t he slip-lines of t he other family at th e points 0

VI. 4]

GEO ME TR Y O F TH E S L IP LIN E FI ELD

138

intersection change by th e distance travelled. t The rad ius of curvat ure

diminilw in magnitude &8 we t rave l towards th e eon<:atlt! side of a slipline, and ell slip-lines of th e same family are concave in the same direction. Hence, if t he plast ic sta te extends suffiCiently far , the radii of
curvature must eventually become zero. This means t ha t neigbbouring
slip-linea run together, their envelope being a natural boundary of th e
analyti c solutio n. A degenerate example of this, frequent in eppll cetions, is th e field conaiating of radii and concentric circular arcs, which
obviously satisfies th e condition (15). The envelope is here only a single
point, which is also a singularity of the st ress distribution.
An alternative form of (17), more useful for numerical computa tion,
is derived. by replacing the &rC lengths 68.. and &.til by R~.p end - S&~
respectively :
dS +R df = 0 along an a-line,
(16)
dR - S df = 0 along a ,B-line.

These relations are ana.logous to thoee pre viously obtained for t he

variation of p , u, a nd tI, with t he engle .p.
]f the derivativ es of t he etreeeee are discontinuous across a slip-line,
80 also is t he curvature of slip-linea of the other family. This may be
proved in the following way. With th e notation and coordi nate axes of
Section 3, let Call/ax be discontinuous across a ,B-line (whose ta ngent
coincides with t he y-axis). Now from (II )

~> (:_(-p+ksin)j
=
V~
~.o
~ + 2k ~ ~

Bu. f rom ( 12)

lienee

~~
V~

_ 8p + 2k""' .

ar

ar

O.

= _ 2 iJp = 4,:1. .

ax

ar

But &f>/ax == &/I/a,.. = l /R from (16). Thus , if th e derivatives of the

stresses are discontinuous acrose a p-line 80 is th e curvature of th e
c.-lines; similarly, if th e stress derivati ves are discontinuous across an
c.-line so is the curva ture of th e p-Iines. Moreover , th e jump in t he rad ius
of Curva ture is of constant a mount all along th e slip-line, since equat ion
(17) holds in th e fields on each side. Such a discontinuity in curvatu re is
shown in Fig. 23 where t he ,B-Iines are etraight on one side of A P , or
BQ, and curved on th e other. In genera l, th e plast ic region consists of a
~t The equat ion a(~. )/~
may obvioualy be intflrpl'llted .. "'ating t h a t the

-6.

W tanC<'l be t ween two ~ i,Il00..Ti"'l . Iip lin etl v....ieoI lin early with t he ir arc length ;
P....,., R a.>. F oe. . S d . U.. ill. l _ ookl. .. (I On ). 22.

I~

PLA N E P LAS T IC STRA IN AND THE S L I P . L I N E FIELD (VI

number of subsidia.ry domains. ecroee t he boundaries of which th e

curvature of th e elip-linee changes abruptly ; thi s gives to the Blip-line
field a typical pa tchwork appearance.

5. The numerical calculation of slip -line fields

We now consider methods of constructing the slip-line field fro
known boundary conditions for the streeeee, using th e geomet rie&l
properties just established. Several distinct types of construct ion are

A
A

(~)

(b)

F lo. 15 . F irwt bouDdary-valueprob1ern; (1I) given the poeiUorw

o f t wo in~ting dip_linN OA and OB, or (6) one Blip -line
OA and a point lIinguIarity O.

found to occur repeatedly in applications, usually in th e same prohl

in different parts of t he plastic region .
(i) T wo l'ttur8ecting 81ip -linu given . Suppose that the positions of
.egmente OA and OB of two intersecting ellp-lines a re known (Fig. 2( 0),
they may be regarded as th e limit of a previously calculated slip- .
field in some area.to t he left . It is req uired to calculate the slip-line fi
to the right of OA and OB . assuming that th is region is also plaati
Accordi ng to the theory of cha racterist ics t he field is uniquely detel'mined with in 8. cur vilinear quadrilateral OACB bounded by OA. OB
a nd t he t wo intersecting cha racteristics (slip-lines) AC and BO th roug
A and B . This is proved rigorously later ; we are now concerned to formu
late an approximate method of calculating the slip-line field. If one
the given alip-Hnea, say the p -line OB . is straight , a ll p-lines in OAO
are st raight, as we ha ve seen. I n this case there is no diffi culty in co
stru cting t he field: the p-lines are simply t he normals to OA , and t
a -lines are th eir orthogonal trajectories , each spaced a consta nt distan
from OA . When both slip-lines are curved, suppose that OA is

\'1. .5]

N UMER ICAL C AL C U L AT ION O F S L I P L I N E FI E LDS

,<I

(I-line a nd let each of the segments OA and OB be subdivided into an

arbitrary number of small arcs by th e points (1. 0), (2,0),.... (m.O),....
and (0. 1), (0.2 ),... (0, n )...., respecti vely. Th e slip-lines through these
base points form a netw ork of which a general noda l point (m. n) is the
meet of the slip-lines from the points (m. 0) and (0. 'tt). By applying equ a tion (15) we can immediately deter mine th e angl e 4> for all points on
the net work : thus,
4> . = 4>"'.+ 4>....- 4>0A
It is often convenient to choose th e base points a constant an gular
dista nce tJ.4> apart; the an gle turned thro ugh in passing between a ny t wo
adjacent nodal points is th en constant a nd eq ual to ~ everyw here in t he
field (tJ.4> denotes the 'ttunurieal va lue of t he change in a ngle). Such
equiangular ntU have a property that is very helpful in visualizing t he
distribution of th e mean pressure p : one family of diagonal curves pass.
ing through opposite nodal points a re contours of constant P. th e other
family being contours of constant 4>.t
We now calculate the coordinates of th e nodal points by an e pproxl mate ste p-by-ste p procedure. Th e position of th e point (l , I) is determined by th e conditions th at it is th e meet of two small arcs whose
ter minal slopes are known. The simplest, good. approximation consists
in replacing each a rc by a chord whose slope is t he mean of th e terminal
elopes.f Thus, for t he arc (0. 1) to (I, I) we write

YI.I- YU = (tan i( 4)I.1+ 4>O.I)}(X1.1- XO.1)'

and for the arc (l ,O) to (1,1)
YI.I-YI.O = -{cot H4>1,I + 4>I.o)}(xl,I- x1.ol.
where we have used th e condition th at t he a rcs should cut orthogonally
at (I, I)_ x1,1 a nd YI,l ca n be dete rmined by solving t hese equa tio ns (or.
le~ accurately . by geometrical const ruction). In an exactly similar way
we can calculate t he coord inates of (2. I) and (1, 2). In general. having
previously determined t he coord ina tes of (m- I , n) and (m , n - l ) the
coordinates of (m, n) a re calculated from the simultaneous equations
Y"',"-Y"' -l ... = {tan H4>"'.II +4>m _I...)}(X",...- X",_l.,,),
Ym,..-Ym."-l = - {cot 1(4),,,...+ 4>",.n_l)}(Xm,,.- xm.n_1)
The order in which the point s are calculated is arbitrary. but in practice
t R . von Mi_ . ~t it" . O>lg. Malh . M K h. 5 ( 192.5). 14.7.
. t Much RUMian wor k d e-pend.. o n a ve ry crud e approx imation. n1unely tha t the " ro
replaced by a ch ord WhOM . lope i. the i.. il iol value 0 ( ; : _ . (or e xam ple. W. W .
8o kolov.ky. Theary oj P liuticily. p . 106 l:'ofa.cow. 1945). F or t he improv..me nt effecled
~~7~he PrN8llt m ..thod . _ . (or ex ample. P . S . Symo nd., J _ rn . App. Pit"". 20 ( 19"9),

Ia

142 PLA NE P L AS T I C ST RAIN AND T HE S L I P LINE F IELD (VI. 6

VI. S]

it is found most convenient to calculate succeeaively all the points on one

slip-line before proceeding to t he next . The hyd rostatic pressure at the
nodal points is found by the successive application of ( 12). or direc tly

nodal points if d ,pis small enough. eey SOor 087 27 radian. Alternatively ,
the integration may be carried out along a ,Bline in terms of S .
A third method consists in t he introduct ion of quantities i and 9
defined t by th e equ ations

by the formula

P. ... = P",.o+Po...- Po,o'

It is only necessary to know t he value of P at one point. say the origin .

A method that is more accurate. and in some way s easier to apply,
depends on solving the equations (18) for the curvatures Rand
Th e base points are chosen 80 that the numerical change t1,p in ,pbetween
noda l points i.B constant . Equations (18) are replaced by th e Linear
difference relations

S_t

8
R

-8._1 " + i (R
-R..._1- i(S

N UM ERICAL CA LC U L A T I ON OF SL IP.L INE FI E LDS

i = %C08,p +ysin,p.
(20)
9 = - %sin ,p +ycos ,p.
The geometrical inte rp retation of i and 9 is shown in Fig. 26: th ey are
the coordinates of the point P unde r consideration referred to axes
.~

+ R. -t.. )M.,p = o.

+8..._1 )JL6,p = 0,
where .\ and JL must be assigned the values
1 or - 1 according to
whether,p Increeeee or decreases in travelling towards th e point (m, a)
along t he reepectlve slip-lines. Solving for R... and 8.... and ret&ininl
powere of li,p only up to the second, t here resul ts

o . . ;-- - - - - - -- - - - - - -~ :t

R~. ~ ( 1- 1~+ ) R~._>+ I~+(S~ _>+S. _ . )-I~+R . _L"

S~.

( 1 -1~+)s. _>~ -IM+{ R~._>

+ R. _. )-I~+'S~. _.

Since the coefficients on the right-hand sides are the eame for all n
points, the step-by-ste p calculation of Rand 8 is very rapid compered
with the calculation of x and Yin th e first method. Th e values of
on DA and of Ro... on DB are obtained by numerical integration of thei
respecti ve equations (18) along DA and DB, starting from the initial
va luesSo,o and R o.o of the radi i of cur vature of OB and OA at O. No
that Rand 8 may be discontinuous across OB and OAt respect ively.
Having eva luated R end S at the nodal points the coordinates %and
a re calculated from t he formulae

s..,Il

%"",, -%0,.. =

'.f..

cosf M(l =

...
,.f.

R cos ,p ~.

,...
,...
Y...,t1 - Yo,t1 = f sin f ds(J<= f R sin f ~,
,..
,. .
,-~

F IO.26. Definition o r Ute qU&DtitiN Z.9. UMd

in one method of CODIItnlet ing .. .lip-line tleId .

passing through th e origin 0 and parallel to th e slip -line direc tions at P.

The variation of y along an c -line sa.t isfies the equ ation

dg ~ (- . m + d%+ cos+ dy)-(%cos++y . in+) d,I

~

- i d,l,

since dy = tan~ dx along an c -line, Similarly, t he variation of i along

a. ,B-line is given by
di ~ (co.+dz+ .in+dy)+(-..m+ +y co.+)d,I
~

9 d,I.

since dy = - cot f dx along a ,B-line. Hence

(19)

It is sufficient simply to usc mean va lues of the integrands bet ween the
t R. Hill , E . H . X-. and S. J . Tupper. MiniRtry o r Su p ply. Ann.. men t ~
DepartRlflnt. T heo....ti ea l R -rch Rep . 28/.(5; ..1010 briefly ....ported by R. H ill IUld E . H .
Lee , Pr;. 6th I N . Congo .App . "" 1.., P .. rie ( 19f6). A eim il&r. b u t 1_ &eCura te, method.
eoneiRt.e in UIIinlil o nly the ini ti.. 1 y .. lue. o r R e nd S; _ . ro r e .. ot.mp1e. W . P raser. JOMrf40
.Aero. Sel . 15 ( lifl) . 253 .

dfi+i d4 = 0 along an c -l ine, )

di - fi ~ = 0 along a ,B-line.

(21)

No use has been made of th e special cha racter of th e slip-line field in th is

derivati on ; t he equations (21) are t rue for any t wo orthogonal famili es
of.curves. We now introd uce t he geometrical property (15), which deternunes f at all points of t he network . It is again advantageous to take a
. t See

S. ChrilJltilUl()Yikh. M QUmal i.cJlulo:i S 6omi.l:, I ( l i 361. 611. who ..ttrihut<oe t he

IIltroduetioQ o r t he. v&riab.... to 8 . O . Mik hlin

144 PL ANE P LAST IC S T R AI N AND THE SLIP LIN E FIELD {VI. a

VI.tI]

network with a constant numerical increment tJ.cp. By analogy with (18)

we can immediatel y write down the equations

it is known that the condi tions given on AB are sufficient to define

uniquely the field within a cur vilinea r quadrilateral A CB C' bounded
by the two pairs of inte reecttng slip -linea through A a nd B . namely A C.
BC. and A C' , B C'. This is proved rigorously later; we no w form ulate
an unambiguous ste p-by-step method of calculating the field.
Two possibilities eriee: 1: may lie in the first and third of the quadrants
Cormed by any pa ir of slip-lines in tersecting on :E. or it may lie in the
second and fourth quadrants. For definiten ess, we shall consider the
first possibility, 80 that AC and C' B are e-linee. Choose A C and A C'
as curvilinea r coordinate axes and di vide AB by points {I . I), {2.2).
(m, m) ... (n. n) ... into a rbitrarily small eegmente: t hese define a net
of elip-Iinee. The press ure p"",. and angle ~"",. at a general nodal point
P{n, m) are t hen related to the given values at the points ofintenection
of the slip-lines t hrough P wit h A B by the equations

i ..... = (l - i~~I).i .....'H+ l~~{g""_l + g... _t... ) -i~tJ.CPli"'_l.",

9. = ( 1 -1~~)9. _ . - IM.~ (i~ _ .+i._,.) - I~~'9~._,
z and 11 a re calculated from i and 9 by the eq uations

z=
11 =

i C08 ~- g sin ~ .
i ain~ +g oos ~.

There is lit tle to choose, either wit h rega rd to accuracy or to speed,

bet ween this met hod and the last.

(a)

NUMERICAL CAL CULATI ON OF S L I P L IN E FI ELDS

Hence

-P

p,. - P

= 2k (~
=

- cp ).

2k(~,. -;" ).

P.~ - ~(P_ +P . ) +klO.~ -~ . ). }

~~ = 'k (p--p~) + I(~_ +~~).

(b)

Flo. 27. Second boundary-value problem, given (a) all

t.hnIe lItte. componen ... .tong & lI8jpDllDt. AB o r & c urve
1:, o r (II) the e:rotetnal au- aeting on & p lNtio

....n_ .

A very important special case is obtained if the rediua of curvat ure

one of the given slip -lines. say OB, is allowed to become indefinitely;
small. while the cha nge in cp between 0 and B is held constant. 0 is t h
a singularity through which pass all e-Iinee within a certain a
span (Fig. 25b). The ang le CP...." corresponding to a general point P(m,"
ie given by the same formula as before. where ~o." now represents the
angle bet ween the a -lines OA and OP at O. The method of calcula.tinI
the coordinates of P is unchanged . The field defined by OA and the
singularity at 0 can be formally continued round 0 t hrough any desired
angl e ; in practice the limit is set by ot her boundary conditi ons. Notice
that the radi us of curvat ure S ofall,B -lines is zero at O. 80 that, from (17)
or (18), all e -linee have the same cur vature at O.
(ii) T he ,stru 8U given akmg a certain curve (Ca~hy problem). Suppcee
t hat all three etreee compo nents are given along a segment AB of.
curve 1: (Fig . 27 a) an d t hat they satisfy the yield crite rion. Asauming
that the material in a sufficiently la.rge area around AB is plaatic , it it
desired to calculate the slip -line field. FroID the theory ofc ha racte risti

(22)

Since the t hree et eeee compo nents a re given along 1:. t he val ues of pand
are uniquely determined there. From t he laat t wo eq uations p and ;
can then be calculated at an y nodal point .
We now calculate in turn t he coordinates of the nodal points nearest
to t . namely (1. 0). (2.1 ). (3.2)... and (0. 1). (1.2). (2. 3)... . Anyone
of three methode may be adop ted , ana logous to those described in the
pre vious section. In the first method the elementary arcs of the sliplines connecting (1, 0). say . to the ad jacent points (0, 0) and (1.1) on 1:
are replaced by straight lines whose slopes are mean valu es assigned from
the te rminal veluee of ; . H aving found the positions of nodal points
adjacent to :E we proceed to the calculation of the next tw o rows of
points : (2.0). (3. 1). ( 2)... and (0. 2). (1. 3). (2)... . The boundaryvalue problem in volved in this, and in eucceeawe stage s, has already been
considered in (i). The second method req uires the determination of R
and 8 , using the finite difference eq uiva lents of (18) described in [i].
The start ing valu es of Rand S on 1: must be obtained from the given
variation of p and;. u a/a, denotes t he tangential deri vative along 1: in
t he sen se from A to B .
a
8 a
. 8a
". = oos -+ om - .
~

a...

a.,

1016 PL AN E P LAS TIC STR A IN AND TH E S L I P L INE F IE L D [VI . 6

VI. 51

where 8, at an y point on L , is th e an ti -clockwise rotation from th e

direction to the tangent to :E (Fig. 27a). Hence

A problem which is the converse of t he present one is th e following:

given a slip-line OA. const ruct 81 free surface passing th rough a (and
cutting OA at 45"), assuming th e material between 1: and OA to be
plastic. Th e solution is unique ; an equia ngular net , with nodal points
falling on th e surface, can be used in t he calculation since the surface
is a conto ur of constant p.
(iii) Om slip- line gil,'tn togdhtr u; th a curt.'t along uhicA .; i4 bwwra
(mixed Fooltm). Let OA (Fig. 28) be a given segment of a slip-line,
sayan a-line. OA can be th ought of as t he bounda ry of a previousl y

8f.

08 =

and

C08

8 sin 8

R - 8'

01:-

from (16),

!'(l!-)_cosR 8 _ sinO
a,, 2k S '

from (12) and (16).

Th e slip-line curvatures at points on :E are therefore given in te rms of

th e known variation of p and ~ along :E by the relations

~= - 2':'8 ~(:k-~)'}
.! =

l_!'(l!-H).
2k

NUMERICAL CA LCU LA T ION OF SLIP . LINE FIELDS

'"

(23)

__

2,in8 &

The sequence of calculaticna of R and S at nodal pointe is the same as in

t he fin t method. The coordinates are finally obtained from equationa

analogous to (19). Th e third method depends on the introductio n of
i and 9 as in (20).
] t is obvious that if t he given stress components on :E are such that
1: is a slip-line, th e quadrilateral degenerates into AB taken twice, 80
that the slip-line field cannot be determined in any neighbourhood of 1:
without ot her information. Th is is a restatement of the fact that
slip-line is a characteristic.
Th e present boundary -value problem is most frequ ently met with
when 1: is part of t he external surface of a specimen on which given
external forces are acting (Fig. 27b). Two stress components only ere
th en known a priori; namely th e normal and shear stresses acti ng on the
surfa ce. Two valu es of th e third component can be found to satisfy the
yield criterion (for example, & free surface may be in & plastic st&te of
tangential compression or tension); t he conditions of the problem will
decide which alternative is correct . Only that part of the slip-line field
A CB C'lying inside t he surface is relevant , namely th e curvilinear triangle A CB (supposing C to be the interior vertex).
I n general it is not poeeible to choose t he nodal points subdiv iding Z
such that the net is equiangular. Evidently , this can only be done if
1: is itself a contour of constant p or of constant,p. A common example
of the former occurs when 1: is a free surface, that is, a surface not under
th e action of external forces. The latter occurs rarely ; a possible situation is that of a st raight boundary acted on by a constant frictional
etreee and a ny distribut ion of normal st ress.

(al

(b)

F lO. 28. Third boundaty" 'allHl problern : given. dip-line OA

..:Id curve 1: .long . Me b I,he ine linat~ or th e a1ip-~
are known. Th_ .. . aingularit)'.t 0 in (6) but not in (0).

determined slip-line field in some area to t he teft . A curve 1:, along which
.; is known (but not p ), is also given ; th e interi or angle between t he two
curves a t th eir point of intersect ion 0 is acute. On th e assum ption that
the region between OA and 1: is plastic it is required to calculate t he
slip.line field th ere. Th is is uniquely determined in th e trienguler
region bounded by OA, 1:, end th e ,B-line AB through A (prov ided, 01
course, t hat th e given conditions are such th at slip-lines of one family
do not run together to form a nat ural bounda ry).
There are two possibilities to be considered. ]f t he given value of ~
on 1: at 0 is equal to th e value of '; on OA at 0 , we ha ve the configurati on
of Fig. 28 a. On th e other hand, if t he t wo values of ,p a re not equal,
there is a singularity at O. If now, the a-direction on ~ at 0 lies in th e
interio r angle formed by t he ta ngents at 0 to ~ a nd OA , the configura tion of Fig. 28 b is obtained (the sa me a pplies, mutatis mutandis, if
OA is a ,Bline). Th e field OAA ' is defined by OA an d t he singularity
at 0 ; its construction has a lready been described in (i). OA' is the
c-line whose dire ction at 0 coincides with th e given a-direction on 1::;
the angle between OA and OA' is t herefore equal to th e difference
of th e two -values at O. The problem is thus redu ced to that of

148 PLAN E PL AS T IC ST RA IN A ND TH E SL IP . LI N E FI ELD [VI .4

VI . 5)

detenninin g the field defined by OA ' an d the given condition along

:E; this is identical wit h the problem of Fig. 28a . If, however, the
a-direction on :E at 0 lies outs ide the interior ang le formed by the
tangents at O. there is no slip-line field satisfying the given conditions ; t he region betwee n OA and 1: cannot therefore be wholly pleetle.
We shall see tater that a slip-line field can be found if OA is allowed to
be an tn~~ of e-llnee, but in that case the given conditions are
not sufficient to determine the field uniquely ; moreover. p becomes
infinite at O.
Returning to Fig. 28a let OA be subdivided into small area by
arbitrarily chosen points (1.0). (2.0)... . These define a network with
nodal points (I, I), (2.2)... on :E. The dete rmination of these pointe
is a more difficult problem than those we ha ve so far considered since
the calcu lations of 1> and the (x,y) coordinates have to be carried out
together. We begin with t he point (1.1). using a method of eueceesive
approximat ion. Th rough (1.0) draw a straight line in the p-direetion.
cutting :E in a point P' , say . which is the first a pproximation to (I. I}.
We can now draw a slightly different line through (I .O) with a elope
corresponding to t he mean of t he val ues of rp at P' an d (1,0). This
gives a new point of intersection P " with :E, the second approximat ion
to (1.1). The process is repeated until the difference between eucceeaive approximations becomes less than the nominal accuracy of the
calculations. The points (2, 1), (3. I },... can then be calculated succeeeively in t he usual way . the whole procedure beginning again with the
point (2,2).
It is clearly only possible to choose t he base pointe on OA so t hat
the net is equiangular when rp is constant along :E; in t his case there
is no need to use the method of successive approx ima tion since ~ and
the coord inates can be found sepe retely. An example of t his sit ua
tion occurs if th e specimen is in contact with a st raight rigid eurfece
along which th e frictional sheaf stress is const ant. In particular, if
the surface is smooth. t he slip-lines meet it at 450 an d the problem
is identical with th at of findin g the field defined by OA and ita mirro r
image in ~ .
A elmile r, but rather more gene ral, boundary -value problem in volves
a Blip-line and a curve along which th e st resses are subject to some condition. Such a cond it ion is equ ivalent to a relation betwee n p and f
Th e calculation of p has th erefore to be carried ou t simultaneously wit h
that of 4> and the (z, y) coordinates. The same principlea arc in volved .
but the computation ill hea vier . An example of this boundary-value

problem occurs when the ma teri al ie in contact with a rigid surface

along which the coeffic ient of fricti on is constant.

NUMERI CA L CA LCU L AT ION O F S L I P L IN E FIELDS

ItS

6. The n u m eric al calc ulation of the ve locity d istr ibution

The compo nents of velocity are found from Geiringer's eq uations
{U l, or from their finite difference equivalentB, once the slip-line field
is known. If the problem is statically determined. t he slip-line field is
defined uniquely by the etreea boundary conditions; the velocity boundary conditions are t hen j ust sufficient for calculating the velocity
dist ribution. This type of pla ne problem presents no great difficulty.
If, however, th e problem is not staticaUy determined there are insufficient
streea boundary conditions to define t he elip-line field uniquely. Uniqueness is obtained by choosing t he one field t ha t also satisfies the velocity
boundary conditions. There are more of these than would be needed
merely to dete rmi ne the velocities iJ the slip-line field were known.
In other words. t he velocity bou ndary cond itions impose restrict ions on
the slip-line field it:aelf. In general, the approach to such problems must
be a process of t rial and error. A plastic region and associated slip-line
field, satisfying all steese boundary cond itions, are assu med . The
corresponding velocity distribution is then computed, using only those
velocity boundary cond itions th a t are necessa ry for t his purpose (there
is generally some freedom ofchoice here). The solution can now be tes ted
to 800 whet her t he remaining velocity bou ndary conditions a re sa tisfied.
If not, the slip-line field must be modified and the procedure repeated
until the agreement is sufficiently close. This ieobviously a very laborious
process. and 80 far no problems req uiring this trial and error method
appear to have been solved . Solutions have been confined to statical ly
~ndetermined prob lems where t he correct slip-line field can be decided
III advance by exact a na lysis.
At present, however, we are concerned with methods for calculating
the velocity compon ents relative to a given slip-line field, known or
~umed. Since t he slip-lines are cha racterist ics for the velocity equetons, the boundary.valu e problems are a nalogous to those already
described for the stresses.
(i) Normal components oj velocity given along inter8ecting 8lip-line...
t t DA and OB (Fig. 25 a) be eegmenta of an (1. - and ap-line, respectively.
t th e velocity component v be given along OA , and the component u
along DB. By the direct a pplication of ( 14) we can im mediately deri ve u
al~ng OA and tI along OB. If one family of elip-linee is etraight . say the
,Blinee, v ie conetant on each a nd iBtherefore a funct ion of ~ only. Hence
....J.II

150 PLANE PL AS TI C ST R A I N AND TH E S L I P . L IN B FIELD (VI

the che oge in It bet ween tw o p-lines, na mely v tLf" is else consta.nt .
Wh en both fa milies are curved we re place ( 14) by its finite difference
equivalents referred to t he previously calculated network of slip-linea:
u

- u.._1. = i(v....+V. _I )(~.... -~._l I,

- v. _1 = - i (u. + U _ I ) (~.... - ~

_l)

These equations dete rmine u and v at the nodal point (m. 71) in terms of
the values of v a nd v at t he points (m - l , 71) a nd (m,7I- l). If the network is equiangula r the equations may be solved to give
v",. = ( 1- 1~o/lt)u"' _ I...+1M.p(v

_l+ v..._ l.,. ) - 1~~'u ",." _ 1'

v....,. = (l -l~.pt )v"'.11 _1- 11-l-1l4> (u _1+ u",_I.,.)- l .\jLIl4>'v",_I.,..

by analogy with the previous eq uations for R , Sand l , g.
Since the normal compo nents of velocity can be arbitrarily prescribed
without inconsistency, along two intersecting slip-lines, it folIo
that it is possible to hav e a discontinuity in the tangential componen
of velocity ecroes a slip-line. Su eh a discontinu ity must be regarded.
the limit of an infini tely great shea r-strain rate . Thus t he componen
v can be disco ntin uous across a p-line (OOlas.. -+ co), and the compa nen
u across a n e -line (eul8a_ -+ co). It follows from (14) t hat 1M jump '
It or v iI constanl along the respective slip-lines. These discontinui .
are frequently encountered in applications. and usually spring from
eherp comer pressed into the material. They are a feature peculiar to
non-hardening plastic-rigid body, and correspo nd to what in a
material would be a more -or -less narrow transition regio n where t
shear -strain rate is very large; it is evident that such transition regie
tend to be less sharp in a metal with a high rate of work -berde .
A small element of material crossing a velocity disco ntinuity abruptlj]
cha nges its d irection of moti on, and undergoes a sudden finite sh
parallel to the d isconti nuity.
(ii) Both component" 0/ velocity given akmg a certain curve. Su p
that u and v a re given along t he arc AB of a curve 1: which is not a eli
line and which is not cut twi ce by the same slip-line (Fig. 27 a). The
the velocity solution is uniqu ely defined in the curvilinear quadrilate
A CBC' formed by the slip-lines through the end -points of the segment
u a nd v are calculated at nodal points by the equations in (i).
Th is type of bou ndary-value problem a lways arises at the plestl
elastic boundary. Accord ing to our original eeeumpttone t he material '
t heelastic reg ion movC8ua rigid body . Ifthe velocity is to be contfnucues
t he material ju st on the plastic side of the boundary must ha ve the sam

CA LCULA TION OF V E LOCI TY DISTRIB UTION

'61

velocity as the rigid material. Regarding AB in Fig. 27 II as the plastic

boundary . t he up per aide being the elastic region, we know v and tI
along AB. Hence the velocity distribution is uniq uely defined within
ABC. The plastic material in A BC t herefore moves as a rigid whole
attached to t he elastic material , since suc h a motion obviously sa tisfies
the velocity equations a nd t he boundary conditions. It follows that , in
all plane strain pro blems. we can d istinguish two parts of the plasti c
region whose common in terface consists of one or more slip-lines: a pa rt
in which the ma terial is actually undergoing deformat ion, and a pa rt
which is rigid a nd is prevented from deforming by the constraint of
the bordering elastic ma teria l. It frequently happens that the tangential
velocity component is discontinuous across the slip-lines separat ing
the rigid and deforming pa rts of the plastic region . The rigid part eorrespe nds to what in a real ma teri al would be a region where the pleatic
strains are of the sa me order of magnitude as the eleetic strains.
(iii) T he 7Wn11al eomponesu oj velocity given along a alip-lim, togethu
wilka boundary cmuliti07l along an interauting curve . Let v be given along
an c -line OA (Fig. 28 a ) and let 1: be some curve intersecting OA at 0
and along which there is a given boundary condition J(u. v) = 0 to be
satisfied . For example. 1: might be a fixed rigid aurface 80 that t he
velocity compo nent normal to I: must be zero. The problem has a unique
solution provided there is no interven ing slip-line field correspond ing
to a singularity at O. If t his were so (Fig. 28 b) the velocity solution
could not be construc ted in the field OA A' unless the value of u were
given along t he p-line A A' (problem (i.
Referring to Fig. 28 a, we ha ve the following equations for the unknown
components U I 1 and tlu at the point (1, 1) on 1::
V 1.t - V l.o

J (U I 1 , v11 )

= - i(UU + Ul.0)(~I .l - o/l l,O) '

= O.

If f is linear in u and v, as it will generally be, these eq uations can be

solved directly. Having found u and v at (1, 1) we can use them to calculate u and v at (2, 1) (problem (i)), and 80 on successively for the points
(3, I ), (4.1),... . The procedure begins again with th e point (2,2) .

7. Analytic Integratton of the plane strain equ ations

So far we ha ve only examined approximate methods of integrat ing
the plane strain equations. We now deriv e exact expressions for the
coordinates. slip-line curvat ures. a nd velocity components at any point
or a field in terms of the boun dary vel uee. The expressions contain

152 PLANE P LAS T IC ST R AI N AND THE S L I P . LINE FIELD (V]. 7

Integrals which can only be evaluated in finite form if the boundary

conditions a re especially simple. In the maj ority of special preble
th e Integ rals would ha ve to be evaluated num erically and this would
generally be more troublesome than the approximate methods already
described . Conseq uently the exact analysis is of limited practical value.
It is mainly useful for telIting the rela ti ve accuracy of ap proximat.li
methods.
We int rod uce t he curvilinea r coordinates (a, p ) of & poin t P refe
to an a -line OA Anda p-line QB &8 curvilinear ex ee (Fig . 26). The val ue
of'" at P is taken, &8 usual , to be the angl e between the e-direction at
and the e -direction at P, measured anti-clockwise. The parametera
(CI.,8) at P are t hen defined &8 follows:
= value of ~ at t he point where the ,Bline t hrough P cute t
Q; base-line OA ;
(J = value of f at the point where the a -line through P cute
Ol

p b...-line OB.
Thus a is constant along ,8-lines, and,8 is constant along e- linee ; in
ti cular, o: = 0 is the,8 base -line and ,8 = 0 is the a base -line, j ust as wi
ordinary Cartesian coordinates. The corres pondence between & pair
values (0:,,8) and a point (x , y) is uniqu e except where one family
slip -lines is straight ; for exa mple, if a ,8-line is stra.ight t he same vel
of a an d ,8 correspond to ell po ints of t he line.
From H encky 'e first theorem (15) it follows that
and that

~ - +P

:k

(24

= ,8-a +:; ,

where p, is th e valu e of p at the origin O. Conversely,

2. ~ :Z- (:k- ~)'

Sin ce cl4 = da. on an e -line, and d~
can be rewritten in the form

au
aa-v= O,

2P~
=

- :Z+(:kH),

(25

dfJ on a p-line, the eq uations (If

ilv U
8p+

= 0'

(14'

except when one family of slip-lines is st raight . Similarly, equatio

( 18) a nd (21) become
.

as
.. + R ~O,

aR
ap - S - o ,:

(18'

VI. 7)

INTE GRATI ON O F PLANE STRAI N EQ UA T IONS

ag

..+i

. nd
From ( 14'):
From (18') :
From (2 1'):

...

ilv

= 0,

..ap =ap = _u,

" R as
..ap - .. - -R,
..iag
_
..ap = .. - - r,

'j'hue all the quantities e,

ent ial equation:

II,

ai

ap- D~ o,
...

..ap =

o's
..ap =

(21')

au
- .. = - v.
oR
- ap ~ - So
ai

a'y

..ap~

rea

-op= -Y'

R , S, x,fi, separa.tely II&tisfy the aame differ-

0'/
..ap + /~ O.

(26)

This is t he well-known 'eq uation of te legraphy', whose connexion

with the plan e strain prob lem was first
pointed out in 1923 by Cara.thOOdory fJ.
and Schmldt.t Jt is not satisfied in a
field where one family of slip-lines is b -:::_~,:::-_ - -,P{a,b)
et reigbt, Solutions corresponding to
I
I
such a field are t herefore not given by
OL -- - - - - A
this equation and are eome t lmee celled

,,
,,

'loet ' <solurions.

The equation is in tegrated by the

method of Riemann. Consider t he prob- l-------i~--.
lem of Cauchy (Sections 5 (il) and 6 (ii Fl o . Zi. Rep"*lntation
o(alip.wwhere the valu es of I and one of its deri- and other curve. in t he 1.-, (II p lane
vat ives, say 811aa, a re given along .. ror R iemann'u nethod orintegration.
c?rv e 1: which is not a slip-line. The other deriv ative 8/lap is immediately calculable in terms of 81180: and the space derivati ve along 1::

a//a. ~ (co. O/R)a//a.-(.inO/S)a/lap,

where 8 is the ang le between an a -line and the tangent to 1:. As originally
formulated, the bounda ry conditions were that t he paire of qu antities
(u, v), (R , S) , or (x,fi), should be given along 1:. This is clearly equivalent
to specifying a member of a pair and its deri vative. For example if
1t a d '
,
n v are given, we know &u/iJo: and 8v/8P from (14') ; conversely if
1t and &u18a (or &u18P) a re given we ca n calculate II.
It is helpful to regard the problem in terms of elements in the (o:,P)
pl.an~ (Fig. 29 ), instead orin the rea l (:r, y) plan e. In th e l,P) plane the
Slip UDeII are rep resented by straight lines parallel to the a:l68. while 1:
T c . CwaU>6odory.nd E . & hmidt, ZN.. e...g. M Q<lA . MA. 3 111123) .(&8.

1M

PLANE PLA STI C ST R AIN AND TH E S L I p LINE FIELD [VI . 7

transforms into a certain curve. Let P (a, b) be the point at which it ia

required to calculate th e value oflin terms of t he given conditions along
AB, where AP and BP represent the two slip-lines through P , namely
Q: = a and fJ = b.
Riemann's method depend s on the possibility of
finding a particular analytic solution of (26) with special properties that
will be laid down later. This solution is known as th e Green's function
for this parti cular differenti al equation and boundary-valu e problem;
it is denoted by O(a ,fJ). We remark first th at the expression

INTEG RATION OF PLA NE ST R A I N E Q U AT I O N S

VI. 7]

'"

It remains to find th e particular function O. It may be shown t hat

G(a,b,a , ~) = J,[2~{la- a)(b -~)}] ,

this is

(28)

where Jo(%) is the Bessel function of zero order defined. by t he equations

J; +J;+J,
~ 0,
z

J,IO) ~

J;(O) ~

1,

0,

(29)

where deehes denote differentiation of Jo(%) with respect to a, The expansion of Jo in ascending powers (convergent for all %) is

1 -I-o~ da+ (I-oG- G-01) d~

(G-0oa
oa
ofJ
ofJ

Jo(z) =

+(-)"
~

Z2 zt
(n!) 1 = 1-"4 +64 - ..

(!%)2..

is a perfect differential. The necessary and sufficient condition for thie

is t hat

The dependence of th e function 0 on the particular point P under consideration is emphasized by the notation O(a,b, a,fJ) . We can verify
that th e functi on (28) satisfies th e differential equation (26) by direct

This is seen to be sati sfied since I and 0 ar e solutions of (26), so that

differentiation:

G 0'1

oaofJ

_GI_I o'G,

Hence th e integral of t he a bove expr ession round any closed. curve iI

zero. In particular it is zero when taken round APE (say , in an anti
clockwise direction):
o ~

f ((

oG)
( oG -01 ) d~ )
G-01
oa -I -oa da+ I --G
ofJ
ofJ

-'1"

~ f (l oG_ Gal ) d~ + f (G 01- I alI\, da+

ofJ
ofJ
Oel
0-;;J
AP

PB

+ f ((Go
l _loG)
da+ (t"G_
Gol)
d~).
Oel
oa
ofJ
ofJ

-'.

Suppose that th e function O(a,fJ) is such th at 0 = 1 on AP and BP;

t hen oO/ofJ = 0 on AP and oO/Oel = 0 on BP. The first t wo integrali;
can now be evaluated explicitly and we have

o ~ (/..- 11')+ (/. or

11')+

f
-'.

o'G

oaofJ

((G ~ -/ ~~) da +(/ ~~-G %) d~l,

11' ~ IIJ..+lul+ 1 f((G :~- / ~~ da +(/~~ -G %)d~) ,(21

00 _ ,ilz _
' J(b-~)
- - J o- - - J o - - ,
Oel
oa
a-a

J" ilz J(b -fI\

oaa~ ~ - ' o~

J" J;

'+,'

02 0
J'
"or:r.ofJ + O = J~ + zO+Jo = O.

Furthermore , when el = a, or fJ = b, % = 0 a nd 0 = Jo(O) = 1; these

ere th e boundary conditions that 0 was required to sati sfy along AP
and BP. It should be noticed that the curvatures of the slip-lines may
be such that (a-a)(b- fJ ) is negative. Alth ough the argument of Jo
is then complex, Jo itselfis still real , as can be seen from the power aeries.
For purposes of numeri cal computation we ha ve to use table s of the
10 (z) == Jo(iz).
function
The corresponding formula for the boundary -value problem of Sections 5 (i) and 6 (i) can be obtained. by taking th e curve I: to be the two
slip-lines OA and DB along which the value s of I are given. We have

11' =
0'

IIMIB) +! f (G ~ _ /~~ da+! f (G%-/ ~~ d~,

Ila,b) ~ J,(2~(abl)/(0, 0)+ f J,[2~{(a-a)b}] ~ da +

-' s

This is th e required expression for I, or for any one of-u, v, R , S , i , 9

J;

a -~} +2~{(a a)(b ~I)~

by integrating by parts.

+ f J,[2~{a(b-~))] %d~

(30)

ise

PLANE PLA STI C S T R AI N AND THE SL I P . LI NE FI ELD [VI . '

The slip-line field defined by two slip-lines which are circular at'CI oli
equal ra.d.ii is of considera ble importance in applications. If we ch
th e (r , y ) ax es of reference &8 shown in Fig. 30, IX is negative andp
ti ve over the whole field. Suppose we wish to calculate th e (x,y) coordi.
na tes of a network of slip-lines by th e (R, S ) method of Section 5 (i).
R is equal to - r on OA, and S is equal to - r on OB . Hence, from (IS'),
S = -r(l-a) on OA , and R = - r(l + p ) on DB. I nserting th
y

VI. 7]

INT EGR ATI ON O F PLAN E ST R A I N EQ UATIONS

157

symmetry th e value of S at (a, 6) is eq ual to the va lue of R at (-6, - a),

the reflection of (a, 6) in th e a xis of symmetry. Formula (31) can be used
to check th e accurac y of th e approximate method for calculating Rand
S described in Section 5 (i). It is found t hat if an equ iangular network is
used, with a 5 Interval (ii.~ = OS727 radians), th e error is less than
0-1 per cent . ove r th e field defined by circu lar arcs of 45 span. The
met hod is therefore capable of a high orde r of accurac y, even with a
relatively coarse network. E quation (19) has been used to calculate
values of (x, y) at points of a 6 network over a field defined by 90
circular arcs . The reeulte are given in Table I at the end of the book.]

,,

..

,,-. ..
~~~

(a)

(b)

FIG. 31. PIa.Lic et...- dWooDWlui\y aeroe. . aurface.

F IG. 30. Slip li ne field ~fined by equ&l ~ireular arc. 0..1 and OB .
lIhown i. eq uiangular, with a 15- interva l. For accurate
n l,*, o r the nod.l poin~ _ T Ull e I . , ' he en d o r the book.

This field occurs in many of the probl ems whoee solutions are described.

n.e net.

boundary values in (30), we obtain t he foUowing form ula for th e val

of R at a general nodal point (a, b):

_ ~Rla, b) ~
Put,

J,(2J (abll +

2J{a(b-fil}, eo that

f
"

J, [2 J(a(h- fil}] dfi ~

Jol2J(a(b- fill]dfi.
8. Discontinuit ies in the etreee

f "',1'1

1,,'ab

d,

"

~~

2-'4b

or

II-

1,(2J (lablll +

d("',),

+ J~J,(2Jlabll,
a

J I~II,(2J( labll).

. I t has been shown t hat th ere may be discontinuit ies acrose slip-linea
velocity, and th e gradient of the stress.
We have not yet examined the poeelblllty that th e st ress itse lf may be
discontinuous across some curve. Considera tions of equilibri um demand
only tha t the etreee component 0'" normal to the curve (Fig . 31 a) and
the shear stress T' parallel to t he cur ve should be the same on both
sides; the components 0', and 0'; acting parallel to th e curve may be different. The reeder is alreedy familiar with one exa mple, namely in t he
bending of a plas tic-rigid sheet in plane strain (Chap. IV. Sect. 6). The
in t he velocity, the gradient of the

where J1(z) is the Bessel fun ction of the first order (J 1 = - J~ ). Hence
_ l R (a,b) = J,{2J (abl}

in the following chapte rs.

For an account of ot her properties: of the equations of Hencky and
Gehinger and th e derivation of certain special solutions (mainly of
&c&demic interest) th e reader is referred to the monographs by Geiringe r
end Pregerf (1934), end by Geiringer (1937).

(31

Thi s form must be used in calculefione since ab is negati ve; th e vel u

of I, and 11 can be obtained from tables. From considerations

t
t

Caltulatioa. of 8. J. Tupper Uld UHIauLhor .

H . Gei.ril:J.sw MKI W . Pratrw.
d. ao!:sm N ~. 13 (1814). JIO.

El'. ,...

t B . Garinaw, M41lt. sn. MoNA. " (1811).

U8 PLANE PLA STIC ST RA IN AN D T H E SLIP .LIN E F IE L D [VI.

VI. 8]

longitudinal stress is tensile on one side of the central (neutral) axis an

compressive on the other . As the bending torque is increased the cent
strip of elastic ma terial shrinks and finally vanishes. When this happe
the longitudinal stress on the te nsion side is everywh ere of am ount 211
while on the compress ion side it is - 2k ; there is there fore a discontinuit
of amount 4k a long t he neutral axis. (We may note , parenthetically, tha
the sheet cannot begin to bend un til it is entirely plastic, owing to t
rigid core .) A second exa mple of a stress discontinuity (t hough net I
plane strain) has been previously noticed in the torsion of a plastia.
rigid bar whose conto ur has sharp corners (Cha p. IV , Sect. 8 (vi)).
tangential component of t he shear stress acting over a transverse sect io
is discontinuous acro ss lines emanating from each corne r and conesponding to the ridges on the pla stic roof.
The possibility of stress discontinuities being thus established.
mu st in vestigate their general properties unde r conditions of p
strain . In a real plastic-elastic body the discontinuity is re placed by
narrow transition region of elastic ma terial through which the st
changes ra pidly. Known examples of these tran sition regions are so fi
limited to simple problems such as bending and to rsion. This is not a
prising since they are probably mostly prod uced under boundary con
ditions for which an exact solution for the stress distribution would
prohibi tively difficult . Within recent yea rs, however , problems
increasing complexity ha ve been solved with the a id of the plasti
rigid body a pproximation, and the possibility of encountering st
dis continuities in future work must be envisaged . The properties
stress discontinuities were appare ntly first systematically Inveedge
by Preger.]
The a mount 0,-0; of th e discontinuity in tangential stress is restric
by t he condi tion that t he material on both sides of t he line is plastio
If 0.. and T a re regarded as given, possible va lues of Of and 0; sa tisfy t
yield crite rion
(0 - 0.. )'+ 4T' = 4k' .

It is more interesting and useful to regard the d iscontinuity in terms

of the slip-lines. Consider the eq uilibrium of a quadrilateral element
W'ith sides perpendicular to th e four slip-line dire ctions through the
point under consideration (Fig. 31 b). By resol ving in the tangential
direction it follows that the element must be sym metrica l about the
tangent , or, in ot her words, that the 0: (or 13) di rections on either side
are reflections in the curve. If 8 is the acute angle between an a -direction
and the tangent to the curve, it follows by resolving in t he normal
direction that

Thus

0 ..

2.J(k 2 -

T 2 ).

The tangential st ress may therefore ha ve one of two values (corres pond
ing in Mohr 's rep resentation of stress to t he tw o circles of rad ius k thro
the point (O..,T)) . H ence, if there is a d iscontinui ty , it is of emoun
4.,j(k' - T' ). The jump in t he mea n compressive stress p is evidently h
this, nam ely 2J (k' - T' ).
t w. Prai"r, R. C..,.ranl A .. niveroJary Y"lu ml, p . 289 (Il1te......ience Publiahllfll, N
York, 1(I4.S l.

DIS CO NTINUITI E S I N THE S T RE S S

Ip- p'l - 2ksin2U.

(32)

In Fig. 31 b the algebraically grea te r val ue of p is on the upper side ofthe

curve (p > p ' ); if it were on the lower side t he c-lines would point to the
left instead of to the right (this configurat ion is obtained simply by
turning the page through 180),
The cur vatures of the slip-lines change abruptly across a st ress discontinuity. F rom equ ation (23) the cur vatures l/R' and l iS' on the
lower side of the curve in Fig. 31 b are given by
1

(P' ')

(p' ')

I
1 8
S'=-2 sin 8oa 2k+ rp

R' =-2cos 8 oa 2k- rp ,

On the upper side t he an ti -clockwise rotation of the a -direction from the

tan gent is - 8, and 80

(p )

(p

1
1
8
]l = -2cos80a 2k-rp

Hence

I
I
8
8= 2s in 808 2k+ rp

~. -~ ~ 2C~U:sW;t)-IH')] '
~,+~ ~ 2s:n u:sW

2t) +IH ')].

But p - p ' = 2k sin 28 and rp - rp' = 28, and so

I - R
I R'
I

U UdD}
- 2smtan
ds '
.

d8

(33)

S ' + 8 = 2 cos 8 cot8 d8'

These equations relate t he jumps in the curvatures to the variation ofthe
angle 8.al ong the discontinuity.
The question now arises as to whether th ere can be a discontinuity in
~ngential velocit y acI'088 a stress discontinuity. That this cannot be 80,
if the plastic-rigid mate rial is rega.rded &8 a plastic-elastio material in

1&0 PLAN E PLA STI C STRAIN AND THE S LIP LINE FIELD (VI.I':

which Young 's modulus Is allowed to increase wit hout limit , may
demonst rated by th e following ergument.] Suppose, if possible, th at
na rrow transition region could exist in a plastic-elasti c body such t hat:
the st ress and velocity cha nge rapidly across it . For equilibrium it ~
necessary that th e shear-stress component and th e normal st ress com
ponent must be very nearly constant t hro ugh t he region ~a~d in ~h
limit exactly so). It is t herefore impossible t ha t all the t ransition regso
should be plastic, since the stress component parallel to t he line of
t ransition region varies rap idly, by hypothesis. Th us, most ofthe chan
in stress must take place through a cent ral elastic strip. On the ot he
hand t he change in velocity must clearly take place through a plasti
strip; thi.8 req uires th e slip-lines th ere to be directed effectively alon
a nd perpendicular to th e line of t he transition region (since t he eh
strain-rate becomes infinite in th e limit ). Th is leads to an inconeieten c
since th e st ress in th e plastic strip must be very nearly constant a n
equal to th e stress just outside th e t ransition region-to which, b
hypoth esis, th e slip-lines a re inclined at some finite angle. From t
standpoint, then, slip-line fields involving simultaneous st ress
velocity discontinuitiest cannot be allowed. Such fictitious fielda
however, occasionally useful as approximat ions when the co
solution Ie not known (see pp . 172 and 220).
t Let te r by t he author to Prof. W . Prarr. Brown Univenity (23 Oct.. 19U ).

A. WinUlr an d O. F. Carrier. hum. App. M ~ . l5 ( 194.8), 2111.

VII
TW O-DIM EN SION AL PROBLEM S OF
S T E AD Y MOTION
1. Formulation of the problem
1M this and th e t wo following chapters the ideas and techniques of
Chapte r VI are applied to the solution of a variety of pro blems of plane
strain. We begin with problems of steady motion , in which th e stress and
veloeity do not varyat anyfiIed point (referred to some coordinate system
which may be at rest or moving uniformly). This condit ion Ie fulfilled in
contin uous processes of shaping metals, for example rolling, draw ing,
and extrusion. The approximation by t he plastic-rigid body is likely to
be good since t he strains are usually large; th e error due to th e neglect of
work-ha rdening can be largely removed by a simple correction facto r, &8
we shall see. While t he two-dimensional theory Ie stric tly valid only for
wide blocks or sheets , &8 in strip-rolling, it gives a useful qualitative picture of th e deformation in such proceeeee &8 the dr awing of wire or the ex trusion of rod ; it will be shown, too, th at the theoretical results , suitably
modified, frequently provide a close estimate of t he energy consumption.
Problems of steady motio n differ from th ose we ha ve 80 far discussed
in that t he distribut ions of stress and velocity are presumably independent of the manner in which a steady state is reached. A proof is
lacking, but , provided th e external conditions are invariable, it appears
unlikely t hat t he final steady state could be affected by variations at
the outset (for example, in the shape of th e end of a length of strip
introduced. into the roll gap) . However, when t he condit iona under
which a steady state is established cannot be cqmpkuly specified, it is
conceivable that th e previous history may ha ve a n influence. For
example, the shape of the dead metal separating off at th e beginning of
direct ext rusion must partly depend on the physical properties of the
end of th e billet; since th e dead metal directs t he flow, very much 8.8 a
rough die, it must control th e final steady state. Wit hout an explicit
uniqueness th eorem we cannot be certain that th e conditions under
which we seek a steady state necess&rily ensure a uniq ue solution.
However, reference to experiment will indicate when we can reasonably
expect our conditions to be definitive.t
t nu. ~'. .. _ _ in applied. _~tioe, tacitly
b..io equatiolw _ ~ pwaIW thIo .etual pbyaieal behaviour.

t.bat the

18Z TW O .DIM E N S I O NA L P R OBLE MS OF STE ADY MOTION

[VII.1

Assum ing, now. that the steady state is unique. and that we do not
need to trace the previous development of the plast ic region , the streaa

and velocity at a fixed point are functions only of position; the element
of time, or progress of the deformation, is absent. The plastic region ia
fixed in space (or can be made so by imposi ng a uniform velocity on the
whole syste m); rigid material enters on one side. is deformed while pass ing through , an d leaves on t he other in a uniform stream which becomes
rigid again as it unloads. A problem of steady motion is. by its very
nature, statically undetermined since the ma inten an ce of a uniform Bow
of ma te rial, to and fro m the plastic region, imposes restrictions on the
shape and position of the plastic boundary .
We now form ulate the problem precisely. The pleetic region consists,
&8 was shown in Secti on 6 (ii ) of Chapter VI . of a part which is rigidly
held by t he non -plastic material, and a part where deformation is
occurring. The slip-line boundary separating t he tw o parts must. in
the first instance. be constructed to satisfy all condi tions in stress and
velocity that diredly concern the zone of plastically deformi.ng material.
The restrictions on t he stress d istribution in this zone may include. for
example, fricti onless surfaces or prescribed exte rnal loads ; th e usual
restricti ons on the velocity are that it must have a zero compo nent
normal to fixed bounderiee, and that t he component normal to the
plasti c-rigid boundary must be compatible wit h the rigid-body motion
of material outside th e zone. In gene ral (cf. Cha p. VI , Sect. 6) we mU8t
construct t he slip-line field by a trial-and-error process , first choosing
& field that satisfies the stress condi tions. a nd th en examining whether
it ia associated with a velocity solution t hat is consistent wit h t he velocity
conditione'[ and which implies that t he ra te of work done on every plaatic
element is positive.
It may happen that these boun dary veluee alone do not uniquely
determine the slip-line field or that the assum ption &8 to t he general
position of the plastically deforming zone is in correct (for exa mple, in
sheet-drawing we do not kn ow a priori wheth er a standing wave of
plastic materia l is formed ahead ofthe die). These questions are decided
by the considerati on that t he rigid material (which may be p1&stic,
t Mo.t write... on .teadymo ti on p robl.rnlI h.ve unfortuna tel y negleocted to d o tm.;
_ . for iruotance. W . W . Sok olonky. T hwry oj PloMkiiJI ( Moeoo.... 1 ~ 6); K. H . 8~'
e henkc , Prikbl...... a M QkmGlihI i M d ,Aa....:.l::d. 5 (1941). 4311, and 6 ( 11142), 381 ; IftlUltiJ
AI:dd. N ouJ:. SSSR, 3 (11148 ). 329: F . K . Th. van I terwon. P ltuficily i" Engi~
(BIae .. ;" , 1 ~7 1 : E . Si.bel. J o..no. I rtm OM Sled IMe . 1.55 ( I N 7), 1126; O. F . CatrieI'.
Q.-f. App. M alA. 6 ( 11148). 186 ; H . I . AMOft. 0rGd-'" Di......... oj App. MalA . B~
Um venity , Teoch . Rop.. 14 and t3( lhs). In geoenJ their p~ .up.1U:M field. c.D
be Mown to be ineoneet; eKUDp _ .... diK~ la tei' .

VI I . II

FO R M ULA T ION OF TH E PR O B L EM

163

non-plastic. or unloaded) must be a ble to sustain the forces on its peri mete r. Thus. t he va lidity of the slip-line field ie fin&lIy proved by demonstrating the existence of a eteedy-etete d istribution of st ress in t he rigid
material such t hat the yield limit is nowhere ex ceeded .
It ap pea rs to be im possible to form ula te an ex plicit ste p-by-step
met hod for the solution of problems of steady motion ; t he element of
trial an d error can hardly be elimi nated. Eac h prob lem has its peculiarities end these mU8t first be a ppraised q ualitatively. Physical intuition
havi ng ind icated t he probable general loca tion of t he plastic region. t he
positio n of a section of some slip-line is assumed ; it shou ld be a slip-line
from which , with the st ress boundary conditions . a plastic field can be
built up unam biguously . The field is exte nded . unless halted by a n
inconsiste ncy , until it seems large enough to permit t he overall deformation required by t he ste ady state ; in rolling , for exa mple, the plastic
region must clearly extend right through the sheet , since t he material
leaving the rolls moves faster than it did .before en tering. A slip-line
field ha ving been guessed. we const ruct the velocity solution , beginning
where sufficient bounda ry va lues are available. Ha ving obtained the
d istribution of velocity we examine whet her it is compa tible with the
boundary valu es not 80 far used; since t he problem is statically un determined there are al way s more bou ndary conditions than a re needed
to define the velocity solut ion for an auumtd field. If all conditions
cannot be satisfied the original choice of slip-line must be modified .
When a ll condi tions dire ctly affect ing the ptestlc zone are satisfied we
have next to verify t hat th e rate of plastic work is everyw here posi tive,
and have finally to exa mine the associated stress distribution in t he
rigid mate ria l. If everything is consistent we have found a possible
steady state .
With a little practice and experimenting the reader will soo n gain
experience in choosing a favourable starti ng slip -line , while known
solutions will suggest possible patterns of slip-lines. Nevertheless. each
new problem usua lly presents fresh features. a nd there are still many
problems of practical importance whose solutions are not known, even
qualitatively.

2. Sheet -drawtngj
(il Drawing through a nnooth dk It is supposed that t he die hae
straight rigid wells, with an included angle o f 2m, a nd t ha t t here is no
t nw. -,tion folio_ cloMl y the pa per by R. H ill and S. J . T up per, J oouro . I ron oOld
Slql l _. 159 ( I04a ), SU.

)$4

TW O.DIMENSIONAL PR O BLEM S O F STE A D Y MOTI O N (VJI . t

friction, so t ha t Blip-lines meet th e wall at 45. We a re seeking th e steadystate configuration in which th e t hickness of the sheet, initially H , is
reduced to h by pulling the sheet through th e die unde r a force directed
along th e central axis. There is evidently a steady state in which the
sheet passes symmetrically through t he die, and we shall suppose th&t
th e surface rema ins undistorted until it reaches t he die (Fig. 32). F or
the starting slip-line let us choose the one through A meeting the wall
at 45, and assume its shape a ver a section A C, where C is its intersection

:/
Flo . 32. Slip .line field and plaatic region for drawinl
through a IIJDOOth lII'ed ge.haped d ie giv ing a eecd e....te
red uction in thiekn_ .

with the slip-line t hrough B meeting the wall &t 45. The slip-line field
is thereby uniquely determined within A B C (third bound ary-value
problem ; Chapter VI, Section S (ill)). Now A and B must clearly be
singularit ies for the st ress dist ribution; this fact enables th e field to be
continued round A and B , as far as is necessary , to fonn the regions A CD
and B CE (first boundary-value problem , epeciel case ; Chap. VI , Sect.
S (i)). The slip-lines CD and CE then define a region CDEF (firet
boundary-value problem ). Since th e zone of plastically deforming
material must extend t hrough the sheet , th e point F lies on the centre
line, so that it is common to the two plastic zones spreading symmet rically from opposite sides of t he die. Furthermore , since there is no
reason (at this stage) for sup posing th at th e stress is discontinuous, the
slip-lines at F must be inclined at 45 to the centre line. It is easy to see
that th ese restrictions on F fix th e angles CA D and CB E , hitherto left
arb itrary. For th e moment , t he fractional redu ction in thickness,
r = (8 - 1)/H, is taken sufficiently small to mak e this constru ct ion
poeeible .

vu. t]

SHEET DRAWIN G

A trial slip-line field having been assumed, we proceed to calculate the

velocity distribution, the remainder of the sheet being taken &8 rigid.
If U is the speed of drawing, th e speed of app roach to the die is VA/H
since there is no volume change and the flow is steady . The normal
component of velocity is th erefore known on the slip-lines'[ ADF a nd
BEF, and t he solution may be begun in region CDEF (first boundaryvalue problem ; Chap. VI, Sect. 6 (i )).t This solution gives the normal
components on CD and CE, which, with th e oomponentson AD and BE,
define the solutions in A CD and B CE. From th ese we obtai n the normal
components on A C and B C, defining the velocity in A BC. In general
the calculated velocity in ABC would not be found to be tangential to
the wall along A B . For this boundary conditi on to be sat isfied the starting slip-line A C must be correctly chosen, and in this way the velocity
boundary conditions impose restrictions on the slip-line field.
In this insta nce we are able to show by direct analysis, without any
calculations, that all conditions ere satisfied when AC is straight. All
slip-lines in ABC are then straight, and the slip-lines in ACD and B OE
are straight lines and concent ric circular erca (Chap. VI , Sect. f (i)). Now
by th e equations of Geiringer ((14) of Cha p. VI ) th e velocity component
along any straight slip-line is a consta nt, and the chan ge in the normal
component in passing between two straight slip-lines is 801&0 constant.
Since, however, th e material to the left of ADF is rigid, ita component
of velocity normal to AD is everywhere the same; the normal component
is th erefore constant on each elip-line th rough A , end in particular on
A C ; this is true whatever the distribution of velocity along CD. Similarly, th e normal component is constant on B C. It follows that the
velocity is unifonn throughout ABC. However, since Geiringer 's
equations imply zero change of volume, And since th e inflow &CrossADF
haa been made equal to the out flow across BEF by baaing the solution
on an entry speed V A/H, th ere is no na flow of material &Cr06S AB.
Thus, if A D is st raight, th e velocity in ABC would, when calculated ,
be found to be tan genti al to t he wall. It is remarkable t hat this proof
has been carried through without needing to calculate, in deta il, either
the slip-line field or the distribution of velocity in CDEF. It will be
seen that there is a tan gential discontinuity ofvelocity of amount r V j .J2
&<:rosa ADF a nd BEF; th e possibility of such a discontinuity W&8

nu.

a thorthand e ~D. ( 01' t he COfIlponftlt. DOrm&J to the .up_

point OQ t he Nip.line ' .
n-t to d~tinguWh tho .. and (...mliea ; the dMtributOoQ o(
the Geirinpr eq...tio it ~ t of tho c:onYelltKm, .inee
tile ~ -.I,.. ~ &eI"O raw o( ez
on tJoo.i the .lip.liDea.
_'.11
M

.t
will be u.ed ...
hne. o( the velocit,.. at a
: W e do not , ... yet.
"elocityealeu.1ated (rom

186 TW O D IM E N S IO N A L PROB L E MS OF STE ADY MOT I O N (VII. !

eetabliahed in Chapte r VI , Section 6 (i). The sense in which elements

are shea red when crossing the discontinuity requires t hat AD F be an
c -line, in orde r that the work of distortion should be positive. A proof
that t he rate of work is positi ve everywhere in t he field has not been
given, but it is reasonab le to eeeume th at t his would be found to be 80.
Since th e slip-lines CD a nd CE are circula r arcs of eq ual rad ius, t he
field CD E F is that of Fig. 30. By a pplying Hencky 's first th eorem it is
apparent that the angles CAD = If, and CB E = 8, must satisfy t he
relation
8-1f = III
(IJ
if the slip-lines a t F are to ma.k e 45 with th e centre-line. Since the
coordinates of an equiangula r network with a 5 mesh have been ce leu
leted (Tab le I, p. 350), it is convenient to take F to be a nodal point 0
this netw ork . According to (1) t his is 80 only when t he semi-angle of th
die is an integer multiple of 5. For each of t hese die -angles we can then
calculate t he reduct ions corresponding to a eeriee of val ues of 8 a nd "',
a t interv als of 50 from zero upwards . The values of 8 and - for any othe~
reducti on can be obtained by interpolation. The maxi mum reduction
for which t he present field is va lid, for geometri cal reaeone alone, ia

h
2 sin III
(2)
H
1+ 2sin lll '
corresponding to - = 0, 8 = III (the points E a nd F coincide).
We ha ve still to dete rmine th e stress distribution in th e pleeti c zone
and for that we req uire t he va lue of th e mean compressive steese P. a
one point of th e field, 88Y F. Th is is provided by th e condition t hat th
sheet is drawn without back -pull, t hat is, no exte rnal force i8 appli
to t he part of t he sheet approaching t he die. We hav e, t herefore,
equate to zero th e longit udina.l component of t he total force acting over:
A DF ; th is is found by Integrating along A DF t he resolved components
of the pressure P and th e shee r stress k, using Hencky 's equations ((12)
of Chap. VI ) to determine t he val ue of p at any point in te rms of PI'
Having found Pe in th is way, we can calculate the stress at a ny point in
the field . Since both families of slip-lines in A B C are 8traight, the
pressure q on th e die wall is dist ributed uniformly ; its depe ndence on
die-angle an d red uction in t hickness is shown in Fig. 33. The fcrce
T (per unit width) needed to d raw the sheet is equal to th e longitudinal
component q(H - It) of t he t hrust on the die, and th e mea n te nsile st ress
t in the d rawn sheet to qr/( l - r) (Fig. 34). Th e right -ha nd extremitiM
of t he eurvea correspond to the reduction (2), which ill pecu liar in th at an
ex plicit formula can be obtained for the dr awing eteeee. By considering
, ~I - ~ ~ --- -

Z< H~:-'<J""'~-t--+---I---j

e-

10

4'

30

%~tion

'"

~ oVUI

Flo . 33. Relation between the die.p..-ure &nd t he reducti on in

thickn_ (or varioua eemi- anglM in d ra wing t h rough & smooth
wedgelhaped die (no beck-pull and no work-h a rdening ).

Ik

/'

~,/

30~ , /

os

a -z:
,
,

oZ

oI

~gt limit

:~/

Curvt COHU~~
to ynifo.-m otfl'lsiorl

'7'
k
'-,

.~

,-, "
o

10

30

40

% Rtd...ction of

<Irt<l

'"

F IO.34_ Relation bolt w_ the ..-n drawing . t reee &nd the reduc.
tion in th ickne. (or V arioUi ..,mi..-.nglee in draw ing t~h a
arnooth wedge-oped die (no backpull a nd DO workhudornng).
11>e right-band broken eurve llO~pon<bito ....wonn de(o~tion.
and IJw le l't.hand curve to inc ipie nt bulgi ng.

168 TWO.DIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS OF STEADY MOTION [VII. J

VII . 2]

the equilibrium of the drawn sheet under the tension T and the etreeeea
along BEB (E and F are coincident), we easily find that

BCE ,ABC. CEDF, AGFG, and AGH (first and third boundary-value
problems). It may be demonstrated that the velocity conditione are
satisfied when BE is straight (and therefore inclined at 45 to the
centre line); the slip-lines of the same family in BEG are then also
straight, as are both families in ABC and the AC family in AGFG. The
velocity solution must be begun in AGH, the only region where two
boundary conditions are available, and continued in the order A CFG
ABC, GEDF, and BGE. The solution is possible only when the cal:
euleted velocity on BE is compatible with the rigid-body movement of

t = 1:-po'
A18O, by Hencky's equations, the pressure q is equal to k+po+2ka.
On combining this with the expreeeion q = (1-,.)t/,., and eliminating
Po, we obtain
t
2(1+a:)sina
q
1+a:
21: = 1+2aina'
21: - 1+2aina'
It remains to verify that both the drawn and undrawn parts of th
sheet can sustain the eteeesea applied on their boundaries. For the un
drawn sheet these are the calculated stresses along ADF, and zero ex
temal loeda elsewhere; for the drawn sheet they are the celcula
stresses along BEF, zero loads on the plene surfaces , and the applied
tension T . The rigid part of the plastic region is indicated in Fig . 32
but, as no investigation of the stress distribution hes yet been made
the plastic boundary is only meant to be diagrammatic . However , fro
calculations of the ave"age shear stress over oblique sections, it see
that, in genera l, the yield stress is unlikely to be locally exceeded. a
the oth er hand , it is easy to set an upper bound to the validity of th
solution . Drawing is impossible when the reduction is 80 great that t h
calculated mean ten sile stress in the drawn sheet exceeds 2k ; this li .
is not reached in the range of angles and reduction in Figs. 33 and 3.
At the other extreme, when the reduction is sufficiently small, it .
evident from Fig. 33 that the die-pressure may become 80 large that th
surface of th e sheet ahead of th e die becomes plastic, rather as thou
the die were an indenter. It will be shown later (Chap. IX, Sect. 6 (0)
that thi s is possible when the pressure q is equal to 2k(1+ r -a); th
curves in Figs. 33 and 34 are terminated at this value . For stillsmalle
reductions theory indicates] that a standing wave of plastic mate .
forms in front of the die (near A ) ; this has been observed in drawin
bars and in ironing thick-walled cupe.f
When the reduction is greater than (2) the slip-line field of Fig. 3
does not apply for reasons of geometry, and we must tum to the field 0
Fig. 35a. Here the most convenien t starting slip-line is BE, and wh
its shape has been assumed we may determine successively the regia
t R . Hill. DW,motion, p . 158 (C&mbridge 1948 ). wued by Mini.try of Suppl,.
Armament Beeeareh Eetabllahmen t, &OJ Survey 1/4S.
: M6lIo8uremen tll of the wave form. ~d an inv Mtigation of ita dependen ce on
an glo an d reduceicn , have been made by O. C. Driggs and H . 'W. Swift , Motor Ind
RUYlrth A , .oociation , Rep . U47 /Rf4.

SHEET . DRAWING

'"

(b)
Flo.3l!i. (lJ) Slip.lin., field for aomewhat larger reductiollll . (b) Incorrect
field for .till larger reduotioDll. with 8n 8CCompanying d iscontinuity
in velocity slang the errcwed dip.linllll.

the drawn sheet; this is 80 if the velocity component normal to BE is the

same at all points. By the argument used previously it may be shown
that the normal component of velocity is constant on each of the straight
slip-linesin ACFG, and hence that the velocity in ABC is uniform (third
boundary-value problem). Thus, the normal component of velocity is
constant on BC and therefore on all slip-lines of the same family in
BEG, in particular BE ; this completes the proof. There is a tangential
~Bcontinuity in velocity , initiated at H . and extending along the sliplines HGFDB; there is no discontinuity across BE. A qualitative
application of Hencky's theorem shows that the pressure on the die is
constant over BA and rises steadily over AH. Little pra ctical interest
attaches to a detailed knowledge of the stresses, since the drawing
force is given sufficiently accurately by th e simple theory of Sachs (see
below).
. Fo~ still greater reductions (Fig. 35b) it is natural to expect that the
elip-Iine field would be the continuation of that in Fig . 35 a. t In general,
)} Thill w... independently propoeed by W . W . Sokolovlky. T~ 9f p~"lI. p . IS4
to jUlltify the .lip-line field
Y coflllidering the velocity aolut ion . So koloveky d id not auggeet a field for .....a1ler
redu ctiorw .

~ oeeow, 1940). who, however. ..... .. una.wa", of the n _ i ty

170 TWO.D I MENSIONAL PROBLE MS OF STEADY MOT I O N [VII.

VII .2J

however , this cannot be true since the velocity discontinuity transmit

from t he die ent rance along the arrowed slip-lines finishes (undiminished
somewhere along th e exit slip -line. This is obviously incompatible wi
th e rigid -body motion of the drawn sheet. So long &8 th e discontinuit
terminates on the exit comer of th e die, &8 it does for certain reductio
and die-angles, th e solut ion is valid, but otherwise th e solution f&ila
th e correct field is not yet known.
(il) DtJurmation and tffici~y. The most efficient, or ideal, meene
reducing t he t hickness of a sheet would be by compressing it unifonnl
between smooth parallel plates , and the work done per unit volume wo
be 2kln (H Ill) under conditions of plane strain. Now th e external w
per unit volume expended in drawing t he sheet through a die, withon
back -pull, is equ al to th e mean drawing etreee t. This follows at once b
considering the work done by the applied force T &8 a certain vol
of material, of area. A and unit width , passes through the die: since
length A lA is added to th e d rawn sheet , the work done is TA lA, that
T IA or t per unit volume. If th e sheet were compressed unifonnly .
passing th rough t he die, t he drawing st ress would be 2k In (HIll); this .
represented by th e broken curve in Fig. 34. However , uniform com
pression is, of course. prevented by th e constraint of t he rigid material
th e differen ce bet ween t he broken and solid curves corresponds to
non-useful work expended in distortions which do not contri bute to t
final red uction of thi ckness. When the reduction is small and the .
ang le large, the efficiency , defined &8 the ratio of th e ideal work
t he act ual work, fa lls &8 low &8 50 per cent . On the other hend, wh
t he reduction is large the curves for each die -angle tend to approach t
broken curve, and th e effi ciency is correspondingly high. However
this docs not necessarily imply that th e actual deformation in dre .
closely approximates uniform compression.
Consider, for exa mple, th e distortion of a square grid scribed on
longit udinal section of t he sheet (Fig. 36); th is has been calculated fi
0
II. = 16 and a redu ct ion of 341 per cent. , corresponding to the spec'
configurat ion (2). The method is to calculate first th e trajectories f
pa rt icles on the longit udinal lines, and then to find th e successive a
length s covered in equal times. It will be seen that th e distortion coneia
essent ially of successive sheers o ver two oblique direc tio ns in th
element , th e first on croeeing th e entry slip-line A CE, and the eecon
in th e opposite sense, while crossing th e exit slip-line BE ; the stra'
sustained while passing t hrough the region B C E is comparatively slight
Ev en th ough th e strain-path is 80 different from uniform ccmpreeaic

the work of distortion (Fig. 34) is practically ideal. There appears to be

no experimental inve stiga tion of th e distortion in sheet drawing ; t he
cusp in t he transverse lines after drew ing.t d ue to the velocity discontinuity, would probably not be observed in a real metal, where work.
hardening tends to diffu se zones of intense shea r. Apart from this
feature , apparently peculiar to plane strain, there is a qualitative

SHEET .DRA W ING

17I

Flo.36. DiBtort ion of .. ~uare net work in drawin4!' through a

RmOOth -edpdlaped di& o f eo:orni -an glll 16 , givin8" m ue_
Lio n of 34-1 pel' cenL

reeemblence to th e distortion found by Tay lor an d Quinneyt in grids

scribed on split wires.
The eerliest theory of the stress dist ribution in drawing, d ue to Sachs
(1927 ), was based on the assumptions that a ll the material between th e
planes of entry and exit is plasti c, that t he prin cipal axe s of stress are
everywhere parallel an d perpendi cular to th e axis of the sheet, and that
the stress is uniform over any transverse section. These lead to th e
formula t = 2kIn(Hlh),1I which we ha ve Been to be only e, good approxi mation when t he reduction is sufficiently large. Korber and Eichingertt
have a ttempted to allow for t he expenditure of non-useful work by
I' t It m ay be eho wn , by cONlid"ring the die tortion of a e.....11 e lement on t he ce ntre
In". that the to tal included angle 2x of the cUllp ie . uc h t hat co t X _ 4 einl...
t G. I . T ayl or a nd H . QUinney, J ourn. 1M. M tiDU. 49 ( 1932). 187.
th~ ~ . &Ctt.,Zriu. Q>If1. M a4h. Md . 7 (1927 ). 2311. Sach.' t heory w... for wiN! drawi n g ;
18 II t he plane et ra in analogue_
.
~_ ~ ~ fonnula it o btain ed if the materi.1 in the d ie ill reg.rded .. PArt o f .. ring
; "'Ch II bell1g p u lled inward. by .. l,lIlifonn intem.l tenlion , t he oen t re of the ring being
.~erteJl ofth" angle made by the .... 111o f the die . Th" lin.... of prineip6l .tre. ..... then
radII &nd co ncentric ci...,u.... arce, wi t h th;. vertex .. cen t re .
tt F. KOrber and A. Eichingel', MlU . Kow. WiD!. 1MC. EiHnJ. J1 ( 1940). 27.

172 TW O. DIM E N S IO N AL PR OBL E MS OF STEAD Y MOT ION (VU.I

VII . 2]

adding a term in a; to represent t he work of shearing an element as it,

enters and lea ves t he die ; their formula implies that t he curve for each
die-angle is spaced parallel to the ideal curve, which is st ill a poor
ap proximation.
Sachs and Klinglert have slightly e xtended the elementary t heol'J,
to draw ing t hrough ro ugh dies of any sha pe, particularly a circular
conto ur {if t he die is smoot h, th e drawing stress predicted by this thea
is equal to 2lcln(H/A} whatever the contour ). The th eory is again likel
to be a good approximation for large reductions. The accurate solution
for smaller reductic ne, where the expenditure of non-useful work cann
be neglected , is not known ; t he slip-line field doubtless resembles Fig. 3
qualitatively, but with a curved starting slip-line A C. When t
reduction is large the pressure distribution over th e die has been
culated by Sokolcveky.f Shevchenko, Camer,n and Ansoff,tt all
whom use th e same, incorrect, slip-line field. Their assump tion that
exit slip-line BE (cf. Fig. 35b) is straight can be shown to be inoo
patible with the velocity boundary conditions. Nevertheless, t he diat
bution of pressure on the die agrees closely with that calculated by Sac
and Klingler. Th is is to be expected when the ratio of contact-arc
mean strip-thickness is greater than three or four, since possible p
states of stress are severely restricted by t he stress condit iona on t he
alone and cannot differ much from each other. There is no a
reason to sup pose t hat the drawing stress calculated from lion arbitraril
assumed field is less inaccurate th a n that of Klingler end Sachs. The
is little point in making extensive calculations of t he sma.ll erro r in
elementary th eory unless it be done with rea sonab le eccurecy.
(iii) A Uowa nu f ar work hardening. It is not difficult to ellow for
contribut ion of et rain-herdenlng to t he dr awing force by a method
is at once sufficiently accurate and easy to app ly.:: We he ve elreed
proved th a.t when th ere is no friction th e mean plasti c work per uni
volume is equal to th e dr awing stress t. Now for a non-herdenieg
materiel, obeying th e Levy-Mleee relations, th e'work per unit velum
is equal to Y iIE, where JIf: is th e equi valent strain (equatio n (25) 0

Chap. II). We can therefore define a mean equivalent st rain for sheet
drawing equal to tlY, or tN3k. Let us assume t hat , to 8. 6nt epproximstion, the same mean equivalent st rain t/.J3k is imparted by the die whet ever the strain-hardening characterist ics of the material. Then the
drawing stress, or the mean work per unit volume, is equal to t he area
under the equivalent stress -strain curve (the true-stress vereue Iogerith !Die-strain curve in compression) up to th e strain t/.J3lc. This strain is

G . &ella and L . J . Kl ingler , J oum . App. Med. If ( 1947) . A-S8 .

W . W . Sokolov.ky, T~ oj P/<w4 i.eily. p . 192 (Mo.oow, HU6) .
f K . H . Bhevohenko , op. c it. , p - 162.
II O . F . Ca rrier, op.
p . lISt:
tt H . I . Aneol'f, op . c it . p - 162. Aneol'f ,.lao t ..-ted the problem by "ppf"OJ:
the mooot.h con to u r by,. po lygo n ; ha pf"O~"aolution in tel"l'n.' of.u- diecon tinoi
(ohap. vi . MOt. 8). but . ince the velocity ill ,.Iao diIocont inuou the aolution ill In.
altbouib it ill ,. fair ly good appf"Ollimation.
U A complica ted cone<:t ion h... been introduced into flach. ' theory by E . A. D,.
and S . J . Doka., Jr;nu7& . A Pt' . M d . 66 (JM. ). A_ 193.

eu.,

SHEET . DRA WIN G

173

=
,,,bf.l'll:l'Of/,
,

,
I

I
1
\
\

D,lfFI~ k-_ _

-~~
FI o . 37. Sli p-line field and p1Mbo region Cor
drawing through,. f"Ougb Wl!Od!t"-wped d ie giving
a moderate red uct ion in thic~

equal to the app ropriate ordinate in Fig. 34 multiplied by the factor

2f.J3 ; in particular, th e equivalent strain corres ponding to uniform p lane
compression is (2/.J3)ln(H /h) (t his should be contrasted with t he equivslent strain in fr ee compression which, &8 we beve seen, is identical with
the logari thmic strain In(H l h )). The yield stress of the dra wn sheet in
uniexiel tension is equa l to t he ordinate on th e stress -strain curve at
the mean equivalent st ra in.
(iv) Drawing through a rough die. Let ~ be the coefficient of fricti on
between th e material and t he die, and let q' be th e pressure on the die
at any point. According to equation (11) of Chapter VI the acute engle
f3 between the wall and th e ,B-Iine is given by
oo'2p

I"I'/k,

(4)

Fig. 37shows the slip-line field, which ill &nalogous to that for t he smooth
die (Fig. 32). It may be proved by the argu ment used previously that
the velocity boundary conditions are satisfied when t he slip-line A Cis

174 TWO .DIMENSIONAL PR OBLEMS OF STEADY MOTION [VII. 2

straight . The pressure q' on t he die is therefore uniform, and hence, by

equating the drawing force to t he longitudinal component of the thrust
on the die, the mean drawing stress is found to be
t' = (l +pocot<l:)rq'f( I -r).
(5)
From Hencky' a first theorem we have also
9 -~ ~ l~ + a - ~ ,

(6)
0

which is the condition that th e slip-lines at F make 45 with the centre

line. A prerequisite for the solution of this problem is th e coordinates
of the slip-line network in CED F , for a number of values of the ratio
A CI BO. Although no calculat ion of the field defined by unequal cir cular arcs has been published, it may be useful to indicate how the
solution might continue . An angle fJ is chosen , corresponding to a ratio
A OIB O for which an equiangular network CE DF is kn own. The
pr actical requirement th at F should be a nodal point, or that 8 and ."
should be multiples of the angular interval tJ.4> of the network. restricts
a: to one or other of th e values tJ.4> -(lll'-fJ), 2tJ.t/J- (111'-P) , etc. Choosing
a value of a: we calculate th e redu ctions corresponding to values of ."
equal to 0, tJ.4>, 2tJ.4>, et c. For each of these reductions th e mean compressive st ress Po at F (say) ill then determined by t he condition for
equilibrium of the undrawn sheet to t he left of ADF. An application of
Hencky 's equations giv es q' directly. Finall y po ill obtained from (4),
and t' from (5 ). The result is a aeries of values of t' for a spe cific a: and a
series of paired values of T and po. By st arting with another value of fl
we can obtain a second series of paired veluee: in general, however, a:
would be different. Thi s can evidently be avoided only if the particular
set of ratios A CJBO are such that th e interval between the corresponding
values of P is tJ.t/J. Supposing this t o be so, we can asse mble, by repetition,
veluee of t' for t he given die-angle and paired values of po and T covering
an area in t he (po, T) plane. In terpolation will then yield t he drawing
st ress for arbitrary val ues of t he reduction and coefficient of friction .
We now turn to an approximate method of estimating th e effect of
die friction on the dr awing st ress. Thi s may be based on th e th eoretical
indicationt that th e preeeure on the die is but little affected by friction
provided po is less than about 0'1 , which is usually 80 in good drawing
practice. We assume, t herefore, t hat
q' ...... q,

and hence, from (5),

t See R . Hill and S . J . Tupper. op. cit ., p . 163.

(7)

(6)

VII. 2]

S H E E T . DRAWING

17&

where q and t are th e die-pressure and drawing stress for the die when
smoot h (corrected for work-hardening, if necessary) . Sachs and other
wri~t8 ha~e take~ account of friction in a more complicated way, but
their theories retain the defect already noticed for smooth dies.
For a given redu ction the frictional cont ribution to th e drawing load
decreases as th e die-angle is increased ; on the other hand the contribution
from the non-useful work increases. For a given redu ction and co.
effi? ient of frict~on th ere will, th erefore, be a n optimum die-angle for
w~lch th~ dra';lng ~oad is least. This can be directly determined by
mung (8) In con junc tion with Fig. 34. For a non-hardening material and
a coeffi cient of friction of 0'05, for exa mple, it is found that the relation
between th e optimum half-angle (i and th e fra ctional reduction T can be
closely represented by th e relation (iQ = 40r (r < 0'5); when po = 0.10
the optimum is a bout 10 per cent. greater. Th e optimum angle is less
for an annealed metal t han it is for a pr e-strained metal ; precise values
for any given stress-strai n curve can be found by applying the correc tion
(iii) for hard ening to t, before sub stituti on in (8). Since th e load rises
sharply for di~-~ngle8 less than the optimum, and only gradua lly for
those greater, It IS bet ter when grinding dies to err on the side of a too large angle.
.(v) ~he infl~n ollxuk-pull. Suppose that a tensile force F (per unit
WIdth) IS applied to th e sheet approaching th e die. If there is no die
frictio~ all bou.ndary condit ions in th e zone of plastically-deformin g
~atenal are evidently satisfied if a hydrostatic tensile stress I = FIH
IS added at every point, th e slip-line field being unaltered. Thi s is equa lly
~rue for a work -hard ening material , provided the law of hardening is
Independent of the hydrostatic component of stress. Th e rigid part of
the pl~st~c zone is, of course, altered, and it is assumed that th e rigid
mater ial 18 a ble to sustain th e new syste m of bound ary stresses. The
pressure on the die is reduced by I (a change tending to minimize die
: ear). while the drawing stress is aug mented by I, and t he drawing force
y fA or F hJH. It is convent ional to define a factor b, expressing th e
depen~ence of th e drawin g force T and die load Q on th e back-pull F
according to the relations
T ~ T, + Il- b)F.

Q ~ T, - bF,

(9)

Where To is th e drawing force (a nd die load) when no back-pull is ap plied.

lienee, when t he friction is zero, b = I - hJH = r. The a mount of backpull t hat can be applied is limited by the onset of necking in th e dr awn
Sheet whenT = 2kh.

11' TWO .DUIEN8IONAL PROBLEMS O F STEADY MOTI ON {VII.I

If, however, the die is ro ugh the problem i.e very mu ch more difficult.
A change in the pressure on the die alters the angle of intersection of the
slip-linea with the wall (equation (4)), and with it the whole slip-line field.
The effect of back tension on the etress distribution is therefore Dot
merel y additive. Failing an accurate solut ion we lJl&y obtain en epprcximationt for the back-pull faotor by introducing the eaeumption (7),
and 80 writing
Q' = (1 +~ cot .)(H-h )q' _ ( J+~coto)(H-h)q ~ (I +~ coto)Q .
H ence, if T ' and T;, are the drawing forces for a rough die with, and
without, back-pull,

T ' ~ Q'+F - (J+~ ooto)Q +F

= ( 1+ ~coto)(T. - . F)+ F , from (9),
_ T,+( I - b)F ,

..be",
b ~ (J+~ cot .)r.
(10)
This O1&y be compared with a formula du e to Lunt and MacLellan :t
b = l_(l_r)l+,. OOtt!.
(Il )
This follows either from Sachs' theory or from the eeeum ption that the
pleetlc materi&l is drawn towards the virtual a pex of t he die (Bee footnote
on p. 171); the same expression is obt&ined ifwork-hardening is included.
The form ulae (t o) and (tl) a gree (to the first ord er ) when 110 is small,
while (10) predicts the greeter b when 110 is l&rge; however , both rest on
eeeumptione which ere likely to be lese acc urate when p. is large.
The efficiency of ba ck-pull drawing depends on whether the work done
against the back-pull by the sheet can be usefully recovered. Let U'
suppose that this is possible, in order to set an upper limit to the efficiency .
The exte rnal energy expended per unit volume of material is then r - /'
which , from (9), is eq ual to

1- . I
(I-b)I -I = (, - (b-.)

(, + 1- .

Adopting t he formula (10) for h, it follows that there is a sa.ving of work:

equal to/,.,. cot a:rJ(I - r) per unit volum e. The eeving is proportional
t he back -pull, and is greeter t he rougher the d ie.
(vi) Application oj 1M plane ,.train thwry to Ioirl!!-draloing. At presen
there exists no "nal ysis of the stress distribution in wire-drawing (
t R Hill J~ l roa oowI SIul I .... 161 (IMi ). 41.
R : w. Lun' -do. D . 8 . M:~Leu.n. Jovno. I .... /tI....w. n ( l i 46). 66. Tbeit . - l1

wire.dnwina:; t.h.ilI u \he pl.ne .,~ ~6. 8M aleo

J ov",. Irrm "''''' Slul I ..... US ( U 4S). 347.

.. u for

a. D . S . M:~LeI.

VU . 2J

8HE ET.DRAWING

1'77

problem of axialeymmetry) of an &CCUl'6Cy comparable with that for

sheet-drawing. There is available only the t heory of Sachat which
neglects, as we ba ve seen, the non-useful work of distortion. Sachs'
formula. for the drawing stress is

' ~Y(I + "'; )[I -(~r' l

where A and IJ are the initial and final erose -sectio nal areas, respectively.
By a.llowing II. to tend to zero , we recover the expressio n t = Y ln(Ala),
correspondi ng to uniform exte nsion. Note that

(~rGO''' = exp(II.COh ln~) "'" 1-II. COhln~.

The circumstance that Sacha's theory is a good approxima tion for
small die-ang les and sufficiently large reductions, both for wire- and
sheet-drawing, suggests the eeeumpt ion that tlY (for a wire) is the same
function of the red uction in arw (I -alA ) as t/2" (for a sheet ) is of the
redu ct ion in thicfcnu8 (I -k/H) . Thus, when the die is smooth and the
material non -hard ening, the drawing stress for a reduction in area r
and an angle a: is equal to Y t imes the ordinate in Fig. 34 corresponding
to the same ang le and a reduction in thickness r , This empirical rule is
obviously consistent for reductions where Sachs' theory is accurate,
and should at leas t reproduce the qualitati ve dependence of the nonuseful work on die-angle at lower red uctio ns . E vidence for t his is
provided by t he da ta of Linicua a nd Sachst for braes wires. They
estimated the frict ion by using rotated dies, and eleo obtained stressstrain curves for th e d rawn wires: they were t hus able to ma ke rough
corrections for friction an d work-hardening, finally deriving the rela tion
between drawing stress and red uction in area for a non-hardening
materiAl drawn through a smooth die . The agree ment with Fig . 34 is
remarkably close, for example in the spacing of the curves for different
die-ang les, in t he chara.cteristic inflexion, in the asymptot ic epproech to
Sachs' s curve, and even in magnitude.
Frict ion may be included by the factor (8); this leads to a slightly
greate r load than Sachs' formula. in the range where the la tter is most
accurate. Strain-hardening can be al lowed for by the met hod (iii ) (the
equivalent strain is equal to the ap propriate ordinate of Fig. 34). The

aotlOUD'

i'. _

t FOI' aD.
o( Sachlo' ' heo ry . and empirioallDOdific&\iona of
R. W . L un '
llnd G. D . 8 . MacLeUaa... op . ci'. p . 176. A -.ride revie... of..v.drawiJ:>g Iitera'UN hu
been given. by G. D . 8 . HacLeUan, cp . ci'. p . ne.
t W . I.in icua a nd O . Sachlo. Mil' . ~k" M",u";<JlpnlJu..,~n~ . 16 (10311. SII.

31

178 T W O -D IM E N S I ONA L PROB LE MS OF STEADY MOTI ON [VII. J

\"II.

existence of an optimum die-an gle gi ving minimum load has been observed in many experiments, for example by Linicua and Seche and by
Weiss.t who fit ted his data. for coppe r wires by the relation lio = 30r
(coefficient of frict ion not known). The deriva tion of the formula for the
back-pull factor can be taken over unchan ged. Alth ough the linear

cup diameter, however, the hoop strain is everyw here negligible compared. with the strain compo nent resulting from the reduction in t hick.
ness. Thus, if Wand w are the wall t hicknesses before and a fte r ironing,
and d is the punch dia mete r, t he ma ximum hoop strain is roughly
2( W - w )fd , while t he red uction in t hickness involves a strain not less
than In( Wl w). For the practical ran ge of red uctions, My up to 50 per
cent., t he hoop strai n is always abo ut a fraction 2w/d of the strain result ing from the chan ge of t hick ness. If d is not less t ha n, say, 30 W it sho uld
be a good app roximation to treat the problem &8 one of plane strain,

dependence of t he load. on the beck -p ull is we ll co nfir med, t he le ek of an

experimental determination of flo prevents 8. test of the form ula for b.t
A dir ect determination of fl , under act ual conditions, demand s 8.
knowledge of the mean pressure on t he die . This is more difficult to
obtain in wire-drawing than in sheet-drawing, where the tw o helves
of the die are sepa rate and t he resultant load can be measu red d irectly.
The difficulty can be overcome, in principle, by t he use of a die split in
tw o along a plane t hrough the &Xis ; t he force needed to hold the hive.
toget her d uring drawing is to be meeeured. Let Q. be the splitting force,
that is , th e transverse component of the reaction between the wire and
one-half of t he d ie, a nd let Q( = T ' - F ) be th e lon gitudinal component
of t he rea.ct ion on the whole d ie. Then

Q~

q'( A -a)( I+~cota) ,

(12)

where q' is the mean pressure on t he die. A resolut ion in the transverse
dire ction of forces on one half of the die gives
Q. =

[(A -a)(cot"-~).

(13)

Combining (12) and (13), we obtain a formula.for ,.,.in termaof meeeure ble
quantities :

1- 1'l'(QJ Q)tan D;

,.,. = tanD;+1'l'(Q. fQ)

(H )

3. Ironing of a thin-walled cu p
The pa rticular ironing process to be a nalysed here is one where t he
wall t hickness of a cup is reduced while the inte rnal d iam ete r is kep
constant . This is achieved by forcing t he cup, mounted on a tig btlyj
fitting pu nch, throug h a d ie (Fig. 38a ). Th e circ umferent ial, or hoop,
strain imparted to an an nular element on the inside of the wall is exa.ct lyj
zero, while it increases steadily for annular elements of increasing initial
radius. When the wall thickness is a sufficiently small fracti on of th
t

L . Wei-.. ,zriU W'd4llh ..ar . 19 ( 1\12 71, GI. 8eoe AOO E . L . FrNlC'is And F . C. Thomp
IOn, J tnuw . J-e . Md4l" 46 (19 31), 3 13.
l See t c ritioeAlrev ie_ of t .... lite rAt ure on bAckpull by J . o . Wu.t rmch . J tN.r7I . 1
aM Slul b
15 7 C19f 71. f 17 ; t he effeeu on ..--hAnk.1 propen.i.. Ate . ood"u.-d.
I R . H ill , ibiJ. 161 ( 19491, u .

I R O N I N Q OF A THI N W ALL E D CU P

r-)

(b)

"

FIa.38. (a ) Iro n ing a t hin-", &I1ed tu~or cup . (b) The.l1.ip .Jm. field
when the d e formAt ion is t~ted . . .pprollimately plane . t.n.in.

and also to neglect t he contribu tion of the hoop stress in the equat ions
of equilibrium.
We shall be concerned only with the steady state, which is established
if there is no friction between the wall and the punch , and if the length
of the cup is sufficiently great. It is ev ident t hat the problem is identical
with tha t of sheet-drawing if we regard the surface of t he punch as t he
centre line of the sheet (Fig. 38 b). Th e pun ch load , t ransmitted to the
wall of the cup through its base , is

"",d+ w)" ,

where t' is the mean tension in the ironed wall. From (8) this is
L = 1IW(d+w)( 1+/-lcoh )l ,

where t is to be read from Fig. 34. It is custo mary in ironing practi ce

to regard L as a function of the absolute red uct ion for a given initia l wall
thickness. An appropriate non -dimensional meas ure of th e load would
then be L f2."dW k , an d we may write, with sufficie nt accuracy,
L

2."dWk = ( 1+,.,. COh)(l-r)2k

( 15)

L f27ttlWk is shown in Fig. 39, when JJo = 0, as a function of r = l - wlW

(this is a suitable non -dimensional measure of the absolute reduct ion

180 TWO _DIM E N S I O N AL PRO B LE MS O F S TEAD Y MOTIO N

[VII. J

since W is being held constant ). All curves would ulti mately p&88 through
a maximum and return to zero. Th e broken curve (l- r)ln{l /{l-r)) ,
rep resent i.ng the load. for uniform com pression, is included for comparison ; it reaches a maximum val ue of I l l. (_ 0-368) for a fraction&!
reduction I - l It (-- Q-632). Also sh own is the locus 1 = 21; whi ch
rep resents the limit set by yielding of the ironed wall and intersec ts the
lower curve at ita maximum . The effect of t he factor ( l+~coh) is to

",

b Jwk

lI"OI'I1

YJ'
I...-f,'

,Y.&'

o1 InciP'tnt~

fl

Wglng ~\S.

oZ

';'.k.
" '''''
, 1\1""

-;::/

",

---

'-- -

VII.3J

IRON I N G OF A THIN .WALLED CU P

Consequently , the load on the punch is increased, not by t he full value of

the friction , b ut only by a fraction bF . In practice the frict ional force F
would have to be regarded as an unknown quantity to be determined
experimentally. Wh en the red uction is 80 large tha t the slip-line field
meets the su rface of the p un ch over a finite length, the frictionalstressee
can no longer be regarded &8 eq uiva lent to a negative back-pull. An
analysis based on a simple exte nsion of&Chs' t heory of drawing, which
should be fairly accurate in this range of reduct ions, h as been given by

Sachs, Lubehn , and Tracy.t

4. Sheet extruslont
(i) E:dT'U8ion tkrQUlJh a wedge-81laped d~ . In direct ex trusion the metal
billet is held in a container and forced through a die by a ram (Fig . 40).

:-.::- ' ~eneoui

i<!: "'

"'",",, 00

t-r.;/'
'V
V
o

181

01

06

Flo. 3g. I rooing Jo.d ve t8WI reduction in t.hicJme. (or varioua

....-mi..-ng1N (l:I:QOOtb die aDd p unch ; no work. ha.td&nins).

make the cur ves cross , indicating an optimum die-angle for which the
load is least (see (iv) above). Th e gen eral effect of work- hardening is to
increase t he slopes of the curves without altering their relative positions.
If the punch is not perfectly smooth, frictionel streeeee will be induced
where the wall and the pun ch move with differen t speeds, that is, to t he
left of F where t he punch moves fa ster than the wall (the ironed wall ia
ob viously carried along with th e p unch ). The presence of t his friction it
recognizable by the decrease of the load, since progressively less of the
wall remains un -ironed . Th e problem is not then stric tly one of steady
motion, since th e slip-line field mu st be conti nual ly altering . However,
we can easily form a ro ugh est imate of the in8uence of the friction . If
the slip-line field intersects t he pun ch in one po int only, t he frictiona l
stresses are equivalent to a negat ive bac k -pull. The frictional force F
on t he p unch therefore decreases the te naion in the ironed wall by the
a mount ( l - b)F , where b is the back -p ull fac tor d efined in equa tion (9).

Flo . to. Slip-line field (or direcl llnruaioll l hrough

wedge..lhaped die.

We are concerned now with the ext rusion of a sheet t hro ugh a wedgeshaped d ie of total in cluded angle 2a:, the thickness being red uced from
H t:o h._ The pl'OCe88 is clearly very similar to that of sheet-dra wing, the
main diff eren ce bein g that in the one process the sheet is pushed , and in
the ot~er pulled, t~rough t he die. Thus, all bounda ry cond it ions direc tly
affectmg the plasti c zone are satisfied by the slip-line field used in the
problem of sheet-dr awin g (cf. Figs. 32 and 37). T he rigid part of the
P~&8tic region and the srreeeee in the n on-plas tic material are, h owever,
different, owing to the new dis tribution of surface forces . Wh en the die
t G. ~ha. J . D. Lubahn, ~d D. P . Tracy , J OfUft.

App. MecA. II (19" 1, A-199.

t.e!nRp
. H Ili. J OfUft. 1NJft aM 8 Iftl 1...,. 158 ( 1 ~".8' - .177. I~oorreel lJlip.line fl"ltU hay.
~ by F . K. Th . y~ I~. PlaaflCUy ,.. Eroga"""",, IBJ.c kioe. 1947), Nld
by F.: Stebel , J ount. 1"", <SOld St.d 1.... 155 (19471. 62t1; _ ither Yri'- e1&IIlined tho

-..:.e.-ted yeloeit y ..lutKoll.

""'"

182 TW O DIM E NSI O NAL PR OBLEM S O F ST EA DY MOTION (VII.,-

VII. 41

is smooth, th e state of stress in th e deforming part of the plastic region

differs from th at in sheet -dra wing only by t he addition of a hydrostatio
pressure, of a mount equal to the drawing stress ' (thereby, th e resultant
external force on the extruded sheet is red uced to zero). Hence, if there
is no frict ion bet ween the conta iner wall a nd t he sheet , the pressure of
extrusion (defined as load divided by area of ram) is equal to the mean
drawing stress for the same die. Thus, t he extrusion preeeure for II
smooth die may be read directly from Fig. 34, while the pressure on the
die is equal to HIlt. times the pressure on the die in drawing (Fig. 33)
The contributions of die friction and st rain -hardening may be esti mated
by the methods described in Sections 2 {iii} and 2 (iv). The contribution
of wall frict ion to the load is simply additive in t his range of reductional
As with sheet -drawing there is an optimum die-angle for which the I
to achiev e a given redu ction is least .
When the reduction is small two poeeibilitiee arise. For simplicity.
suppose that both the wall and the die are smooth. Then, on the a
hand , the slip-line AD cannot make an angle of less t han 4So with t
wall, and 80 tP cannot be greater t han !'lI"- a;; the solution for low
reductions is not known (except for special velueej). On th e other hand,
th e pressure on the die may rise 80 far that the plast ic region sp
round t he edge of t he die to t he surface of the extruded sheet ; this '
poeeible when th e pressure is equal to 21-(1 j1T+ a;). For example
when a; = SOth is critical value is reached when th e reduction has bee
lowered to about 1-8 per cent. Fo r still smaller reduc tions t he th eoreti
implicat ion is that the actual reduc tion is less than th e nomina l, due no
merely to elastic recovery but to plast ic flow round th e die com er. I
is furthermore implied th at recovery may be complete , and that most 0
th e billet then pa.sses t hrough und eformed , plastic distortion occurri
only near t he surface. However, th e th eory may cease to be valid f
very small reduct ions, since the effects of elastic compressibility may n
be negligible.
(ii) I nvert.ed extru&ion through a square die. The ext rusion is said to
inverted when th e ram is held fixed and th e die is forced into the biUe
(altern atively, t he conta iner end th e billet can be moved toget h
towards a stat ionary die). A frictional resistance bet ween th e bill
a rid the conta iner is th ereby prevented . When th e die is square (0
wedge-shaped with a large included angle) it is observed that 80m
material in the corner bet ween the wall and the die ill held back and'
not extruded with th e rest of th e billet. The boundary of this mate .

ca.l1ed dead metal, is marked by a narrow zone of intense shear (a definite

fractu re cannot usually be seen, because any gap or crack which opens is
at once closed by th e severe hydrostatic pressure ). The dead metal
separates off from th e main billet during th e early stages of extrusio n
And thereafter constrains th e flow &8 ifit were a perfectly rough die (no
doubt its shape is modified immediately after fract ure). Since th e Burface of frac tu re must evidently depend, among ot her variables, on t he

friction over th e die, t he temperature and speed of extrusion, and the

physical properties of t he end of th e billet, it is impoeelble to predict its
position by t heory . Nevertheless, for a useful est imate of t he extrusion
pressure , we may assume a bounda ry for th e dead metal which allows a
8imple solut ion and a t th e same t ime is reasona bly closeto what is actually
observed. Fortunately, itha.s been shown t hat th e extrusion pressure is
but little affected by the choice of boundary, within fairly wide limits .t
Poeeible slip-line fields are shown in Fig. 41 for red uct ions greater,
and less, than 50 per cent. respective ly. The boundary of the dead
metal must be a slip-line, since th e maximum frictional aheer-etresa is
indu.ced there . This slip-line meets th e container at 45 since, by hypo.
tbeeie, t here is no frictional st ress on th e wall. We now verify that the
velocity boundary conditions are satisfied when OB is straight , 80 that
the slip-lines in OA B are radii and circular arcs. It is supposed for eeee
of description t hat the die is sta tionary. In Fig. 41 a th e velocity solution
must be begun in ACD E , since this is t he only region where two boundary

t R. Hill. J _ rn. 1,.",. a M StuJ I nd . 156 (1""' l. 613.

t R. Hill. cp, eu., p . 181.

S HEE T E XTR US IO N

183

Flo. 41. Slip -line field (or lrIvel1.ed. ex t rusion through

a llCJU&nl die gi v ing a red lK:tion or {<I I mo "" than 60 pet
cent.. IMd (b) Ie. than 60 per cen t .

184 TW O .DIM E N SI O NA L PR OB LEMS OF STE ADY MOTI ON [VU .

VII. 4]

SHE ET EXTRUSI ON

186

conditions are known; th ese Me that t he normal component of velocit

should be zero on A C, while on CD it should be equal to th e norm
component of th e speed of th e billet. The solution cont inues in the ord
BED, AOB. The velocity component normal to AO is uniform {in fi
zero} and hence, by t he now-familiar th eorem , th e normal componen
is constant on each radius through 0, in particular OB. The solut ion '
therefore compatible with the rigid -body motion of th e extru ded sheet
In Fig. 41 b, on th e other hand, th e solution must be begun in BEOD
using the velocity component normal to BD given by th e speed of t
extru ded material. The solution is built up in the order BEOD, A 011
BED, AEO. By the argument used in t he problem of sheet-drs. .
(p. 165) it may be shown that th e velocity on A D is uniform and tha
when calculated, it would be found to be zero on AO, so eatiaf .
th e remaining boundary condition. There are velocity discontinuiti
along CD and DO in Fig . 41 a, and along OD, D C, a nd 00 in Fig. 41
The field ABOD is defined by th e circular arc AB and t he conditi
that slip-lines intersect the a xis of symme try at 450 in (a), or the wall
450 in (b). Thu s, for both , ABOD is the field defined by equal circu
arcs (Fig. 30 ); in (a) t hese are AB and its reflection in t he axis oh YJD:
metry, while in (6) they are A B and its reflection in t he wall. In (a) 0
is inclined at 450 to the axis of symmetry, and the angle AOB is cb
so that the slip-line OAO intersects the wall at 450 : in (b) OA makes f
with the wall, and the angle AOB is chosen 80 that OBD intersects
axis of symmetry in 450 When th e reduction is sufficiently e
(approximately 8 per cent .) th e plasti c region extends round 0 to
free surface of the extru ded billet . At the other extre me, geometri
requirements prevent t he application of t he present soluti on beyo
the reduction for which OA is tangential to th e die.
The value of th e mean compressive stress is determined at one poi
(on OB, 8ay) by the condition that th e resultant longitudinal force
the extruded sheet should be zero: Hencky's equat ions th en give
stress at any point in the field. It is interesting to noti ce th at th e m
pressure on th e die for a fractional reduction r in (a ) is equal to th e m
pressure on t he die for a redu ction (I -r) in (b) ; t his is a simple coo:
sequence of th e property t hat t he respective fields A BeD are reflectio
of each oth er. The extrusion pressure P is shown in Fig. 42 as a functi
of th e reduction in thi ckness ( l - h/H ); when t he reduction is 60
cent., P = k(l + 11T). k here represents th e yield stress in shear a.t
mean temperature and speed of ext rusion ; billets are generally extrud
hot , at temperatu res where the work-hardening is small. The brok

curve in the Figure is the pressure 2k ln (H jh ) corresponding to uniform

compression . The relative expend iture of non -useful work is seen to be
considera ble; it is roughly the sa me as that observed by Eisbein and
Sachst for cylindrical billets of brass .

~k
3

,
1

./

// /

.--- -...- ............

---~

--

'"%

'"

//

In ..!:L
h

BO

Red uct ion

100

F ra . ' 2. Ext.nl.Bion p nl88unl ve l'lJ\14 reduction in inverted enrosion through a square di e. The broken curve correepcnda to
uniform deformation .

,,

,
Ct nt rt

~nt

F lO. 43. Distortion of Baqu.&re gri d in inverted ex t ru.

aion through BBqua.redie giving 60 per cent. reduo+'ion .

The distortion of a square grid has been calculated for a reduction of

50 per cent .t (Fig. 43). Apart from th e cusp on the a xis of sym metry,

there is a close resemblance with the disto rti on observed in smell-ecele

experiments on cylindrical billets ,particularly th e severe dragging .back

w. E iabein and O. Sacha , M iu . ~.. MaurialprU/~~....u-, 16 (193 1), 67.

For de taila, _ the paper by Hill . op . cit ., p . 181
C. E . Peanton, Tlu E~~ 0/ MeIGl. (Chapm&n and Hall, 19"').
t

1811 TWO DI MENSIONA L P R O B LE MS OF STEADY MOTI ON [VlI.

VII . 5)

of th e surface leyere. Th e cusp is less pronoun ced when th e redu ct!

differen ce between t he steady states of inverted extrusion and piercing

with a smooth container is th at t he positions of the central axis and the
..all are intercha nged, provided th e dead metal (if present) is identical
in shape . We shall be concerned only with piercing by a flat pun ch. It
is ASSumed that A false bead of dead metal, shaped like a 90 wedge,
becomes Attached to t he punch And is retained there du rin g th e steadystate period ; t his presu mably requires A certain minimum degree of
friction on t he punch. Th e slip-line field for a reduction of less than 50

i8 smell, th e Acute Angle between the Axis And the deformed tra
verse lines of the grid being cot- 1(B /la - I )1 when th e reduction is I
then 50 per cent. Th ere ie no cusp for t he field in F ig. 44.
(iii) Dirm txtrurion tArougla a IlqU4Te die. Since th e billet moves re

t ively to t he container in direct extrusion, A frictional resistance

induced. The pressure on th e wall is 80 great thAt, unless A lubri

P IE R C ING

187

Flo. ol.5 . Slip-line field (or pter.:ing with. rough

flat di<e (reduction _ than 50 per comt.)
Flo .". Slip .line field (or direct ed.rusion t hrough
a MlU&re die (no 11,Il>rYation ).

is used , th e fricti onal stress reac hes the VAlue 1- Andslip-lines ofone fA
meet th e wall tangentially. A possible dead -metal region (similar
whet is obeervedt) is shown in Fig. 44; t he slip-line field is eelf-exp
tory . By analogy with previous solutions t he velocity boundary
ditions can be immediately seen to be satisfied (t here is now no veloci
discontinuity Along CD And OD ). The extrusion pressure hAS not
calculated. It is observed t hat the load on t he ram stead ily dec
d urin g extrusion, attaining its minimum value shortly before th e 00
pleti on of extrusion. A rapi d rise then follows, owing to th e difficulty
eject ing the remainin g disk . It is found that th e minimum load is roughl
equal to the eteedy-etete load in inverted extrusion.

.5. Pte rcl ng

In th is proce88 a billet is held in a container a nd hollowed out by
pu nch. When th e problem is regarded as one of pla ne strain t he a ni
t c. E . PMl'lIOn . op . cit. p . 18:1.

per cent. is shown in Fig. 45; th is should be compa red with Fig. 41 b.
When the container is not perfectly lubri cated, t he angles at which the
slip-lines meet th e wall must be suitably modified.
When th ere is no wall frict ion, th e pressure on the punch is clearly
equal to (extrusio n pre88ure)/(reduction in thickness), th e extrusio n
pressure being thAt corresponding to t he same reduction in inverted
extrusion. Th e relation between th e punch pressure P And t he reduction
in thickness, i.e. (punch width )/(width of container), has been derived
from Fig. 42 and is shown in Fig. 46. The pressure has a minimum VAlue
of 2k(1+lw) for a 50 per cent. redu ction, and th e curve is symmetrica l
about this point (in the range of validity of th e solut ion). Such a flat
minimum was obtained by Siebel a nd Fangmeiert in experiments on
the piercing of cylind ricallea.d billets with cut -back flat punches. Th ey
found thAt th e pressur e rose rap idly towerda the steady-state value,
and that the rise was steepest for large reductions. Th e steady state
persisted until t he punch had penetrated to within half ita wid th from
t

E . Siebel &lid E .

Fan~ier,

M ilt .

x..... Wilh. 1_. Ei_/. 13

(1931 ), 2s.

,..

188 TW O.DI ME N SI O N AL PROB LE MS OF STE ADY MOTI O N [VII.

VII . e]

the base of the con tainer. In t he present prob lem t he punch preeeure
needed to begin piercing would be 2k( 1 i1T) for red uctions of less thaQ
60 per cent . (see Cha p. IX , Sect. 5 (i)), while for reductions greater tha
60 per cent. piercing would not begin unt il the steedy-stete press ure
applied. This is in broad a.greement with the obeerva tione of Siebel &n
F a.ngmeier , if ellowence is made for the rounding of the preaeu
penetration curve by eleet ic stra.ins and work-hardening. When

one hundred. t imes t he t hickness of t he strip. Since t he width of the strip

is large compared with th e length of the arc of contact bet ween strip And
rolls, the constra int of the non-plastic material inhibits late ral spread (it
is normally less than 1 or 2 per cent .). The deformation of the strip is
therefore essentially plane strain, with the exception of narrow zones
near the edges. The calculation of stresses in the rolling of rectangular
bars , where the spread cannot be neglected, has hardly progre ssed
beyond the empirical stage.
The accurate solution of the problem of strip-rolling is not yet kn own ,
and even the q ualitative appeara nce of the slip-line field hee still to be
demonstrated. Most present theories assume, in effect, that the material
is uniformly compressed while passing between the rolla. Orowant has
form ulated An Approximate method (see Sect. 8 below) of allowing for
the expenditure of work in non-uniform distortion , which indicetee f
that the correction is very small when the arc of contact is greater than
the mean thickness of the strip (cf. Sacha' theory of sheet-drawing).
Fortunately, apart from skin passes, the reductions giv en in industrial
practice are such that the ere of contact is rarely less than three times as
great &8 the strip thickness. I n this range the error in the elementary
theory is likely to be sma ller t han the limits within which man y of the
variables can be specified in practice. for example t he physical pro pert ies
of the strip, t he frictional condi tions , and the elastic distortion of the
rolls, to nam e only a few. It is worth while, t herefore, to describe
the elementary theory in some detail.
(ii) Eltutic di,tortion01 t1u rolU. I n an y process of sha ping metals the
apparatus is elastically distorted, and this must be allowed for in an
accurate calculation of the load an d the energy expenditure. It is particularly necessary to make this allowan ce in strip-rolling where the
rolls are 8attened so mu ch that the arc of contact is ofte n in creased by
BOrne 10 or 20 per cent., a nd even d oubled when the draft is very small.
The only practicable method of est.imating roll-flattening appears to
be that due to Hi tch cock, who replaced the actua l pre ssure di stribution
OVer the roll by an elliptical one givi ng the sa me total load. It is kn own
from the theory of elastic contact between bodies, du e to Hertz, that the
roll surface under t his pressure distributio n is deformed into a cylindrical

Jik4

1/

<,
3

<,

../

,
1+'f
1

20

40

60

%R.cl uetiM

80

100

FJo. 4e. Rela t ion bf,t.-,. die-p_ and redlletiOD iD

t bicu- iD Jriercing.

red uction is very smell the eleetic compressibility becomes impo

end the stea.dy-state pre ssure should approximate t hat needed for d
punching in to an infinite medium . If we eccept the theoretical result
Bishop , Hill , and :Mott {p. 106), the maximum p ressure should be &
.H~ X 2k (the exact value d epends on t he ela.st ic constants). I t is not cl
what t he limiting pressure should be at t he other extre me a.s the red
tlon is indefinitely increa sed .

6. Strtp -rolltng
(i) Scope 01 1M theory. The following account of theories of rollin g:
restricted to the cold rolling of strip. Th is is the term applied to t
sheets with a thickness not more than about 02 inches, an d & wid
thickness ratio of at least ten. Th e strip is red uced in tblckneeeby p .
it between two parallel cylind rical rolla whose radius is of the order

STRIP . ROLL IN G

s..,.

t E . Orowan. Protc. 1f1M. M d .

150 (IVU ). 140.
: D. R . BIand.M. H. Ford. i btd . Hot ( IV. ,). I U .

t J . H . H iLehcock , A ..... Soc . Md . E"'I' R_reA P.bliMiort (1930), Ap pendill I .

" .lOOre det.&il&d invwtiption o f t he dillt.ortion of the U'O of OODt&ct hu ahoorn that
HILeh oock '. fonnula cannot be be t tered withou t cOn8ideroble co mputation : D. R . Bland.
Proe. 1",.. Mid. . Erog. (to be publiehed).

1110 T WO DI MEN S I O NA L PRO B LEMS OF S T E AD Y MOTION [VII. S

VII. Sl

arc of larger rediuet (the cha nge in shape du e to the frictional forces i.e
probably very small and is neglected ). The shape of t he flattened roll
ia thus expressibl e by one paramete r only, nam ely t he radi us Ir ofthe
deformed arc of contact . This is a great mathema tical, and indeed a
prac tical, convenience. The acc uracy of H itc hcock's method is not
known , but it is difficult to eee how his assumption could be im proved in
any simple or useful way.

prod uced. If we neglect that pa rt of the arc of contac t du e to the elastic

recovery of the rolled atrip, t he roll surface must be horizontal at the
point of exi t B . Th us 0 'B is vertical. Let t he an gula r arc of contact be
denoted by l:I (angle AD' B ); in strip-rolling l:I is gene rally less than 0' 15
radians. B is evidently a distance i (Ir -R)(I, ap proximate ly,t ahead
of t he line t hrough the two roll centres ; this is a fraction i( l - RI R')
of the arc of contact. The length of the arc of contact , a nd the distance
apa rt of the centres of the rolls, is dete rmi ned by t he redu ct ion given to
the st rip. Ir S is the draft, or the d ifference H - 1 between the initial a nd
fi nal t hick nesses of th e strip, it is easy to show by geometry that t he
lengt h L of t he arc of contact AB is approx imately equal to .,J(R'S).
Substit ution in (16) gives

S T R I P _RO L L I NG

R' =R(I + ~),

Flo . 41. Elaat. ac diatoRion of a c ylindriea1 ro ll wit h (m.,t)

the .t~ a.ctint; on a II1ice o f t he .trip. 0 iao t he .piild1e
axis and (y is the cent re of eutvaLure of the defom-l are
o f cont&e t (afWor H it.chcoc k ).

If R is t he radius of t he undeformed roll , the change in curvat ure d

to a force P per unit width acting over an arc -length Lis

lIP
R' = eL I'

"R -

where e is a constant depending on the elasti c properties of the

and is equal to TT E I16( I - vl ) . If P is meas ured in tons per inch a
lengths in inches, c has a valu e of about 29 X 10' to ns per square inch f
steel rolls.
Referri ng to Fig. 47, which rep resents a t ransverse section through 0
roll, let 0 be the centre of the roll, or the point where the line of the spin
e xie intersects the sect ion, and let 0 ' be the centre of the circ ular Arc
contac t AB. Since t he ass umed pressure d istribution is symmetri
about the mid -point C of t he arc of contact , it fo llowe that O' lies on C
t See S. T ima.henk o , TArorr 0/ EIGM ~iI p .

).foil ( .. eo...

H iU Boo k

ce., 111M).

'01

(17)

which is Hitchcock 's formula for the radius of t he deformed Arc of contact. Th e angula r measure Cl of the deformed are, with respect to its
centre, is L IR' or .,J(SI R' ) (note , also, t hat L = S/(I).
(iii ) General ~ratioM. Since the speed of the strip is increased in
passing t hrough the rolls there shou ld be a point N on the arc of contact
where the local elements of the roll and strip move with t he same speed ;
this is called the neutra l point . To the entry side of N , where the roll
moves faste r than the at rip, frictional stresses are induced which draw
the material into the roll gap ; to the exit side of N, the frict ional stresees
oppose t he de livery of the st rip, which here moves fu ter than the roll.
In a steady state t he strip ad justs its speed relati vely to t he speed with
which t he rolls are driven, in such a way that the extem alstresses acting
on t he strip are in eq uilibrium. This determines t he posit ion of the
neutral point.
Let fJ be t he angular position of a generic point on t he a rc of contact
referred to 0 ' B, a nd let be t he an gula r position of th e neutral point N .
If pte) is the distribution of normal pressure! on the roll, a small element
of the surface , of length R' dB, is acted on by a norma l force pR' dB
(per.unit width) and a tangential frictional force IlpR' dfJ (1 Ie lese than
01 In cold rolling with a lubri can t , and 80 the frictional etreee IlP is
almost always less th an the shear yield stress k ). The equation of

t In thill and .u~.......t formulae ain .. ill replaod by .. , . nd

00. .. b y unity, with

n error n ot greeter t han I pe r oen t .
: p mu.t no t. be co n r..-d wit h t he mef"./l com p....ive . t ...., ror wh >c h t he aame
'Ynabo l ..... prev1~y t-'l u.d in H illneky . eq uatw....
. t J .11le modific&t >On of \he Lheol')' W Mn ,. ill 110 Iarp t hat t he frie t ional . t ....
taina the value} over part. o f the arc o r Cotl tact laa i.D. botrollint;) haa t-'l Jiv_

Ul2 TWO .DIMENSI ONAL PROBLEM S OF S T E AD Y MOT I O N [VII.

(.!PP co88R' d8- [ p..p cos 8R' d8)

a-

where T = 7f- ~ is th e difference of the front and back te nsions

(pe r unit width) applied to the st ri p. Beplscing sin 8 by 8, and cOB8 byj
I, to & sufficient approximat ion (since a. is generally less than 016
radians) we obtain

f,

.
.
.

2~' = p8dD-~(J pdD -

f'

PdD).

(18)

The resultant vertical force P per unit width a cting on t he r oll is gi ven by

P =

fpeose R' d8+ (Jp.p sin 8R' d8

).

pdD.

(19)

The torque G per unit width act ing on each roll is found by taking
moments about t he spindle ax is 0 for forces on th e roll. The lever arm
of the force pR' d8 is Approxima tely (R' - R)(1C&- 9), depending 0
which Bide of 0 th e element lies. The lever arm of the force p.pR'
is R , to the same ord er of approximati on. Hence

.'

1113

RR'! pDd9-jRT,

Hence

(2 1')

It will be shown later that G is less than G (see equation (33)).

The distribution of t he pressure over the roll must, of course , be
found by conside ring th e plastic state of eteeee in the strip. When p(B)
is known, t he ro ll-force P is dete rmined from equation (19), and t he
torq ue G from eq ua.tion (20) or (21). Th e rate of external work performed
on the rolls a nd strip is

[p.p sin 8R' se

The terms in brackets is negligible to the present ord er ofa pproximation,

and 80
/I

;,~ ,f

ST R I P . ROLL ING

If the moment of the normal pressure is neglected, the formula. for the
torque is
..

equilibrium for th e horizontal forces acting on t he strip is

T = 2 [ psin 8R' d8-2

VII. 5]

R~, - ~(J pd9- PdDH~ - I)f p(9-j .)dD.

(22)

Except when front tension is applied, J is normally less than 005 in

etrip-eolling. In unit time & volume UA(per unit width) ofatrip is rolled ,
and 80 the work per unit volume may be expressed as
(23)

(20

The contribution of the moment of the normal pressure is generall

omitted in existing theories of rolling , either as being aero when roll
flatte ning is disregarded, or otherwise negligible. This is & reeeone b
approximation if th e roll-flattening is small , but th e correction .
desirable in th e last passes of a series where a is small a nd R'f R is large
Another expression for th e to rque, which is ofte n useful, can be derived
from ( IS) an d (20) by eliminating t he term in po common to bot h equs
tiona:

G _ R"! p9 d9- j RT- j(R'- R ).P.

where w is the an gula r velocity of the rolla and U is the exit speed of
the strip. It is conventional to define a quantity J ,lmown as the forward
slip, expressing the relative difference in the epeede of st rip a nd roll at
the point of exit:

(21

by E . Oro_ lUI. PTw.l_ . M eclo. "4. 150 (1043'. 1'0. A . N~, -!&tMft. A JIP: M~
(193 9), A-65. h.. oonai denod fric t >onal eo ndit ionl . uc b ttw.t the fnotlonal .t~ .. pro
tioDal to the~.,. ~ oI"'ip.

wheret, = 7}/A is the mean front tension etreee and t. = T./Histbemean

back tensio n stress. Not all this energy is U86d in pleetic deformat ion,
since a part is dissipated by th e fricti on over t he arc of contact, in
proportion at each point to th e difference in the speeds of t he roll and
strip.
A relatio n betw een t he forward slip I and t he neutral angle'" may be
obtained with out a deta.iled analysis if we neglect t he variation of velocity
across any vertical sectio n. If hn. is t he strip thi ckness at th e neutra l
point the mean epeed over th e corres ponding vertical section is Uhfh .
This, by th e above assumption , is equ al to Rw , and to
A./A -

U I Rw ~

1+/,

from (22). But A,,- A _ R'",', with neglect of higher order terme

in~,

I e.. T WO DIMENSI ONAL PR OBLEM S OF ST E A D Y MOTI ON

and hence

[VI I. e

VII. e)

to von
(24)

This form ula is not valid for very large redu cti ons.
(iv) Eltmtntary Ikory oj 1M. St T8 S distribution. Conside r the etreesee
on a thin alice of the etrip contained between two verti cal eecrione
distant % and %+dz from the exit plane 0' B (Fig . 47 ). Let y{%) be the
thickn ess of the strip at any point . Let qy be the resultant umik force
acting over a vertical section ; q is then t he mean. taken over the eection,
of the normal component of stress in the horizontal d irection . The two
forces pR ' dB, acting on the ends of the alice, hav e a horizon tal reeultent'
of amount 2pR' sin BdB, or p dy. The two forces~pR' dBhav e a resultant
of am ount 2~pR' C08 BdS, or 2~p dz . The equation of equilibrium of the
slice is therefore
d(qy)+p dy2~p <Ix ~ O.
(25)
where the upper aign refers to the exit side of the neutral point N , and
the lower eign to t he entry aide.
So far the analysis baa been exact; we now introduce the assumptio
that characterizes t he elementary theory:
p +q _ 2k,
(26)
where 1', &8 usual. denotes the yield stress in shea r. Th is equation may be
derived from t he yield crite rion by making three sepa rate assumptions,
namely (i) that the stress is uniform ly distributed over a vertical section,
(ii) that p and q are the magnitudes of the principal stresses at any point
on the arc of contac t. and (iii) that t he plastic region exte nds everywhere
between t he pla nes of entry a nd exit. ] 0 many presentations the second
assumption is rep laced by the state ments that the principal stress axes
are everywhere horizontal and vertical, and that t he magnit ude of the
vertical principal etrees is t hen ap proximately equal to p. However, it
eeeme preferable to make only the one postulate (26). If the material
work-herdene, I: is to be regarded as a function of x , Assuming t hat the
deformation is app roximately uniform compressio n, the va lue of 2.t
at a section x is the ord inate of the compressive etreee-etre in curve,
obtained und er conditions of plane strain, correspo ndi ng to the abscissa
In(H l y ). Alternati vely, 2k is equa l to 2/-.13 times the ordinate of the
unia xial etresa -atrain curve at t he ab scissa. (2/.J3)ln(H /y) (this is the
equivalent stra in; see p. 30). When I: varies, equation (25) must be
integrated by a smell-ere process . A simple met hod of a llowing for
work-hardening is described later.
The theory of strip -rolling expressed in equations (25) and (26) is due

."

STR I P ROL LING

Kerment (1925). Assuming, now, that k: is constant , t he elimina-

tion of q gives
(2l )t

The boundary conditions are that q = tf) a nd p = 2k- tf) when % = L ;

q = t, and p = 21'- t, when % = O. Since the equation is first order
these boundary conditions uniquely define the two solutions starting
from the pointe of exit and entry, an d corres po nding respectively to the
upper and lower sign. The solution must be contin ued until a va lue of
x is reached where the two values of p are identical ; this is the neutral
point (the equation of equilibrium of the st rip &8 a whole (18) is automatically satisfied). Sin ce the arc of contact is circula r,

dy
2z
dz = g O
to the usual approximation for small angles of contact . Subst itution in
(27) gives
()
I Ia + ~, ~~ = 21: ; . ~p.
( 28)
Introducing the non-dimensional q uant ities

!
we obtain

~ .J(~'h) = J(~')8 = J(I '

a=

,H

- p

"1 -

21: '

~J(~,) ~ ~J(l~')'

(29)

where T is the fractional reduc tion 8/H, and a is a parameter whose va lue
is normally between 0'5 and 20 in strip-rolling (R'/1a is normally in the
range 50-500). The boundary conditions are

~ O;

"1 = 1-

t.
,
2k

! =

J(t' ,).

In equation (29) the upper sign is to be taken on th e exit side of the

neutral point , and the lower sign on t he ent ry side. Following t he
t Th. VOD K &rma.D.. Z riu . a"ll. MalA. Md . 5 (l e::6 ), 139.

t Thill eqUAtioD i.I a pp lica ble (wit h the upper . ign ) to .heet .drawing or lIlttlUllion
through a die o r any contour 1I(~) . Wh en the d ie i.I wedp. ha ped (dll /cb: _ 2 t.a.n" j the
eq uation l...ds to the p1&ne. t ....in analogu-: or Sacha' rormula Ip , 111) ror t he drawing
. t ,-,. A . T . T aelikov, M d4lJwrp 6 (1938). el (R uaiao ). hu bued a t heory or rolling o n
an a ppro:a:imation to t he an: o r contact by itoa "hom; ro r an aocoun t in Engli.... _ L . R .
Underwood. ShuJ Mdal I~riu. (February. " ..e). 288.

J86 T WO D I MEN S IONAL PROBLE MS OF S TEADY MOTION [VII .

standard method for solving linear first -order equa tions we find that

. tan ~ #1
, - .-...[(I -;k)...._2f....

(entry side,

.p~ ~

, =....[(1_ ~) +2 f'-"'tan~ #l

(30)

(exit side, .p.. ~ >It ~ 0),

where

~~

.p ~ .p..),

tan-If ~ tan-'j(~) 9.

~,~

tan-'j(l ' ,)_';n-'v,.

a nd t/I.., the value of t/I corresponding to the neu tral point, satisfies the
equaUon
~

VII.6J

ST R IP RO L LI NG

.-....[(I-;k)..L2 f.... tan ~#l

..

..
= . .... [(1_ ;~) + 2 f '-"' tan~ #l

As p. decreases , t he neut ral point moves to wards t he point of exit. The

least value of p. for which rolling is possible under the given tenai OId
corresponds to t/I.. = 0, or to t he solution a = Ii of the equation

tan~# - (l - ~).
(1 -;k)....-2 f....
From (19) th e roll-force is

I
01

(31)

oIlr /(t- r ))

~ R' P d9 ~ 2l;.J(R'h )

,df.

Since the radius R' of th e deformed arc of contact depends on P through

Hitch cock's formula (17), it can only be foun d by eucceaeive epproxim...
ti on. Thus, a tri al value of R' ill first used in a calculation of P; the
correspo nding va lue of R' given by Hitchcock's form ula will generally be
different from th e tri a l val ue, which must therefore be modified, When
compa ti ble values of P an d R' have been determined , the torque is found
from (21):
01
G = R'O p9d9- I RT- I( R' - R).P

"'lrf(t - ~lI

_ 2kR'h

,fdf- I RT - j(R' - R). P,

'"

The integrals in (30) and th e va lue of y,.. can only be evaluated by

approx imate meth ods. Trinkat has computed a set of solutions when the
applied tensions are zero, a nd has presented th e roll-force and peak
pressure (but not th e torque) graphically in term s of the pa rameters r
and f'/a (the nominal accuracy is uncertain). Nad ai t has calculated th e
pressure dist ributi ons for various values of r, p./a, an d the front and back
tensions, but mak es th e approximation tan '" ...... y, in ord er to complete
the integration expli citly . A th orough exa mination of the overall
accuracy of Nedei's met hod does not a ppear to hav e been made, but
in a few instances it has been found th at th e roll-force is in error by
5-10 per cent . A closer approximation, with an error less t han 2 per
cent . if no tensi ons are applied, has been euggeeted by Bland and Ford.1I
Their form ula for th e pressure distribution ie

Wben',

." .

(l- ~i.)(l - r)t~~"')aec~

(entry aide), }

." =

(l -~)e"' sec~

(exit side).

0=

'f), an inspect ion of

(32)

(30) reveals t ha t their approximation

is equivalent to writing

lb),
# ~ 1'-"' coso~ d(tan'lb) -1d(tan'
end

(tan'lb).
f
.... tan~#
- f.... C08'1b d(tan.~) - .....COs'lb,fd

21-"'tan~

The contri bution of th e integral on the exit side is 80 small that it is an

equally good approximation to neglect it altogether (t he front tensi on
being moderate). Th e calculations of Bland and Ford for zero teneiona
are presented in Fig. 48 in ter ms of r a nd a parameter
b-

~j(~') ~ ~ v,.

The roll-force Po and tor que Goare expressed non-dimensionally in terms

if th e pressure were eq ual to the yield stress at
of th eir values P: and
every point (Goshould be correc ted for th e moment of t he normal pres sure ; see (21')). The work -hardening being zero, it can be shown without

a:

t w . T rin k., Bltut

l'",,,"ou .. ood SUd Pltotll, J5 (193 1), 6 11.

f A. Nadai, J ....m . App. Meda. 6 (1939 ), A-66.

f L . R . Und~, Slt_ M -.l/ftdwlriu, Ap ril , 1948.

n D. R . BLuld

IMd H. Ford, op . cit ., p . 189.

l i 8 TWO .D IMENSIONAL PROBLEMS OF STEAD Y MOTI ON [VI I . II

\'11. II]

ST R I P R O L L I S G

'"

value of b for which the a ngle of contac t is equal to t he angle of friction

is '/r (01 = p.). An empirical formula for PoIf7 , correct to I per cent.
in the range 01 < r < 06 and PJf7 < 1'7, is

P.

~ =

I08+1 79rb-I 02r.

A formula for 00 10: , correct to

and 00/0: < 1'5, is

a =
en

,.,

.z

04
F lo.8 A.

03

(}5

'6

.,

----------

ez

-,

--

" "

-, -,

"

" ,

F lO. 8 B.

F lo . 48. Th&Ortotieal rtol.tiona bet.... een (II) roll -force and reduction, .nd (/I)
torque and red uct tcn, (or various ValUH o f /I _ "..j(R'/H) .

difficulty that P: = 2kJ(R'1J ) and G: = kRB. Acc?rding. to Bland ,&D

Ford 's theory t he least value of b for which rolling IS possible at a give
reduction , with out ten sions, is
b"'f" =

0'6

105+ (0 07+ 132r)b- O 85r.

From (23) t he energy expended per unit volume is 2G/Rh(I +j)

when no tensions are applied, or 20/ Rh with an accuracy sufficient for
practical purposes ; thus th e ordinate in Fig. 48b also represents
(1-,) W/2h.

rs

"'_0'1

06

2 per cent . in th e range 01 < r <

IJ( I -r)ln(l ~r)/sin-1 "r.

For th is value of b the neutral point falls in th e plane of exit . Th

Hence th e broken curve in Fig. 48 b, with equation {(1 -r)/r}ln{I/( I -r)},

represents the value of th e torque supposing th e external energy to be
entirely consumed in compressing t he strip uniformly . The percentage
efficiency of th e rolling process for given rand b is th erefore lOO xthe
ratio of t he ordi nate of the corresponding point on the broken curve to
the value of Go/a: .
The general feat ures of th e pressure distri bution are meet easily seen
directly from (28). The sign of dp /dx is th at of (xIR') (p.p/2k). Hence,
on th e exit side of th e neutral point dpldx is elwey e positive, t he pressure
rising steadily from the value 2f -t, at the point of exit. At t he point
of ent ry dpldx is negati ve when p. > 1l/( I - tll /2f), and positi ve when
p. < a/(I - tll /2k). Th us, in the first cese .the pressure begins to rise along
the arc of contact , and hence must conti nue to do so since x/ R' decreases.
In the second case, on tb e other hand, th e pressure begins to fall. How.
ever, the accurate solution shows that it begins to rise again if p. is not
too small, and that it becomes greater th an 2lc- t, at a point on the arc
of contact (x ~ 0) provided p. is greater th an the value given by (31).
The pressure peak t herefore coincides with t he neutral point. Typ ical
pressure distributions, calcula ted from (30), Sore shown in Fig. 49 for
r = 03 and b = 084 (P./OI = 1'53), and for va rious front and back
teneione.t
Work -hardening may be allowed for by th e following meth od. Let
2k(~) be th e compreeetve yield stress in plane stra in, considered as a
t p~UI"& d iat ribut iaRII rOl' a _ ide ""'II" or co nd itioM and ror hOD-eonatan t k have
been computed by M. Cook and E. C. ~e, Jaunt. 1_ . M fftW,11 (U UI. ~ 7 .

200 TW O .DIMEN S I O NA L PR OBLE MS 0 1" STI': AD\' MOT ION l VII.

funct ion of the convent ional compressive strain e (fractional red uction in
height ). Now th e value of e at t he point 80n t he arc of contac t is given by
H(, - . ) ~ R'I!',

Hence, if the pressure were equal to the local value of t he yield streee,
the roll-force would be

17 -

R'

2k(.) dO

STR IP _R OLL I N G

VII . 6J

201

is used to calculate the torque, the correct value is overeetfmeted by &8

much &8 10 per cent . in the first pass of annealed materi&t.t That the
torque should be overestimated is evident from (2 1), since the quantity

f p8 de is just th e moment of th e pressure distri bution p(8) about the

of exit (8 = 0). It is more accurate to proceed by calculating th e
point

a:
a:

for which the pressure is equal to t he yield stress, a nd then

torque
assume that th e contribution of th e friction hill is allowed for by multi by the ordi nate of Fig. 4sb. Th e value of
uncorrec ted for
plying
the moment of t he normal pres8ure a bout th e roll centre, is

~ J(R' H I J~ dt.l'

201,-- - - - - - - ----,

a:,

a: ~ RR' [ pO dO~ RH [k(.

) dt ,

\ -0

1--- ---

0-8

06~----

01'0

0'5

%.

Flo. 4.9. T ypiul rollprea...... dietribu.t iona accord ing to

vo n Karman', theory for . t rip .rolling with tenaio na (no
wo rk hardening).

It is now eeeumed that the factor by which P: should be multiplied to

give the actual roll-force is independent of t he atresa-strain cherecter isti cs of th e metal , and 80 eq ual to th e ordinate in Fig. 4Sa for a nonhard ening material. Clearly th is is eq uivalent to using a mean yield
stress

2W.

Although t his assumpt ion is not adequate to reproduce th e true shape:

of t he friction hill, the pressure being overestimated on th e ent ry side
and underest imated on the exit side, th e error in th e calculated roll
force is found to be insignificant. However, if the same mean yield strell8,

The theoretical predi ction that t here should be a pressure peak (the
friction hill , &8 it is called) bea boon confirmed by expe riment. A pressuretransmitting pin is held in contact with th e strip through a radial bore
in one of th e rolls, t he pressure being measured by a. pieeo-electricf or
photo -elastic met hod. The distrib ut ion is found to be more rou nded
tha.n th e theory predicts , both at the pea k and at the points of exit and
entry. The roun ding is probably due partly to t he elastic behaviour of
the strip. and partly to th e dietortiona inherent in th e method ofmeasurement . A closer comparison is rendered uncertain by th e leek of direct
experimental determinetiona of ~. Thi s difficulty is present , too, in the
comparison of t heoretical and experimental values of t he roll-force or
torque.11 It seems likely t hat th eories of rolling have not infreque ntly
been brought into agreeme nt with th e measured roll-force by attaching
spurious values to p.. For a significant test of t he th eory it is desirab le
to compare th e values of both Go and Po (it should be noted t ha.t Go/Po
it.almost independent of po in th e pra ctical range). Fig. 50 illustrates t he
success with which experimental datatt is represented by the preceding
theory. Th e material was 3 in. x 0 0 63 in. annealed mild steel, red uced.
by varying amounts between rolls of 5 in. radius with flood lubricant.
The th eoreti cal curves are based on a coefficient affliction eq ual to OOS.
t D . R . Bllld:ld and H . F ord, op . cit ., p . 189.

E . Siebel and W. Lues , Mill . KG... Wi th. but. E l.mJ. 15 ( 1933), I .

f E . Oro_an (to be p u bl iehed ).

f B See H . Ford, Proc . l u. M d . Eng . 159 I ltH S), 115, fo r e llpe rim on UJ. va luel or eeu.
bOroe ~d torqUl' for top pe r n ri p. and .. del&iled co mpuilon _ ith the valuel p red.icted
y V&l1OWl t heoriw.
ft
obtained in 19.8 on the experiment&! ro llingmill a t SheftieJd Uni ve m ty ,
~_ .. rep roduoed by the ki nd ~;.ion of the Direc to r. The Britiloh Iro n a: Steel
-- r eh A.:>ciation.

':l'hill ...

202 TWO . D IMENSIONAL P ROBL EM S O F ST E AD Y MOTION [VII. e

vu.er

The small discrepancies may be ettributedt to two factors not includ

in the th eory : (i) the additional load due to the contact between t he
rolls and the elastically-recovering rolled strip, and (ii) the falling-off
of the press ure towards the free edges of the strip. The forme r predominates at moderate reductions, a nd th e latter at large reductions.

application of back tension, and ba ckward by t he ap plication of front

tension. The permissible amo unt of front tension is limited only by
necking in the rolled strip; t he amount of back te nsion is controlled by
two factors: necking in the strip before rolling, and insufficient friction
on the rolls.
The approximate solution of von Karman 's equation due to Bland
and Ford is equally satisfactory when moderate tensions are applied,
but less so for a heavy back ten sion (t b /2k > l, say) since t he contribution
of the integral in (30) is relatively more important. It would , however,

"

STR IP .ROLL INQ

203

.~

.E

Thfo rttiCdl
Torqu e

OC,f

'"",
~

7f,

0
10

Mrilsvrtd RolI-fQfce
+ Mtd~urrd TorQue

"

zo I) 40 SO
Percen t age Il.t d",ction

60

Flo. 50. Com pa ri80n of theoretical and e xperimental

ve fuee of roll-force and torque for 0063 in . a nnealed
mild.tool Btrip . The eedius of t he undcformed rolla
ill 5 In., and the coefficien t of fricti on ia llMum ed to
be 008 .

(v) I nfluence of applied tenai<m8. The effect on the pressure distribu tio
of applying front and back ten sions can be understood from (30). Exce
near the neutral point (Fig. 49) the pressure is reduced by an emoun
which, a.t points on the entry side of t he pressure peak, is directly p
portional to the back tension stress tb , and at poin ts on the exit side
the front te nsion etrese tf (thi s is not quite accurate since t he change .
roll-force slightl y affect s the lengt h of the arc of contact ). The reduc tion
in pressure varies according to position on the ar c of contac t , bein
proportional to exp{2a (r#.-r#l} on the entry side, and to exp(~)
the exit side ; both factors increase towards the neutral point. In gene
the position ofthe pressure peak is alte red , being moved forward by tb
t E . QroWllfI , P'O" . Intl l. M h . Eng. 1!9 {I 94SI, HIS.

t,

t,

(~

lal
FlO .

:n.

Approltimate linear re la t ions between the cIil'eetly me&8u.rable

quantiti('8 in cold et riprolling With teMione (d iagramma t ic).

be lab orious to compute, and difficult to present, data sheets of t he rollforce and torque covering a range of values of b, r, t, /21c, and tll /21c. An
alternative method of approach to this problem is suggested by t he consideration that the dependence of the roU-force and torque on the
applied tensions is probably only slightl y affected by t he precise distribution of pressure on the rolls. This appears likely in view of the general
shape of the friction hill, and the restricti ons upon it imposed by the
equations for the equilibrium of the strip as a whole , Theoretical con.
~derationst indicate t hat there should be an approximately linear rela tion bet ween the non-dim ensional quantities GIPR and TIP, and that
the intercept of the line on the TIP axi s should be very nea rly equal to
the angle of contact 0: (F ig, 51 a) . Both predictions have been demon Btrated experimentally'[ over a wide range of conditions (Hitchcock 's
:ormula being used to calculate 0:). The linear relation may be expressed
In the form
(33)

R . Hill. Prt:>e. lnlfl .

M~"" . E1lfI.

163 ( 1960), 133.

,,.

204 TWO .D IMENSIONAL PROBLEM S OF STE AD Y MOTION [VII

vII. 6)

where the subscript zero denotes no-tension values. That the intercept
on the T /P axis should be approximately equal to 0: can be understood
by reference to equat ion (21). Wh en 0 = 0 (this corre sponds to Steckel
rolling, or drawing t hrough idling rolls), we have

Alrernatively, we may use this equation to deduce p. from measurements

of G and P at the greatest possible back tension. Thus

..

(~o., = 'R' [POdO _ (~

R f pdO
,

~~

_+.

y [ p dO ~ [ pO dO.

~ 0+ RR'(2y-o).
(!!:\
pl a..o

(3f

For any pressure distribution of th e characteristi c sha pe obeeev

experimentally, the centroid must lie close to the mid-point of the a
of contact when the torque is zero. This follows from (20) since, wh

o=

0, th e areas [ p dO and! p dO, on either side of the pressure

are very nearly equal (exactly 80 if there were no roll-flattening). Hen

__
(D
p}a..o

0:

when

y --

to:.

It is found that the line cuts the ordinate axis a little below the pain
io:; the intercept is very nearly equ al to the angular position of t he centroid of the pressure distribution when T = O.
Th e (algebraically) leas t value of T /P for which rolling is possible'
found by substituting tP = 0 in (20):

f
,

(36)

0 -

[I+ (1 _RR,)(RP,
- I)J(!!-.)
20
PR .-0'
a

(36)

If roll-flattening is neglected, I/o -- (O/PR ). ..o; the correc tion may

amount to some 5 per cent .
On the (very rough) assumption th at th e effect of te nsions is to decrease
the pressure by t, on th e exit side of th e neutral point, and by tb on the
entry side, it may be shown from (2 1) that

Now, by definition, the angular position y of the centroid of the preeeu

distribution satisfies

Hence

G ( R)( T
'G );
P- PR

~ ~ PR+1 1- R'
or, from (33),

(~L. ~ ';' j POdO-(~- I)~.

Therefore, from (19) ,

ST R I P R O L L IN G

R~' =~ PdO +(~ - I)f p(O-lo)dO

_[~ - l(~ -1];,+(~ - I)(,~, +';i-) Irom(18) and (19),

Hen",
P~' ~ ~ -I(I - ;.)(o -~; ~ O
.

G ~ G,+IR((I - , )T.-T,l ~ G,+IRh (',-,,).

(37)

This is an equation expressing th e dependence of 0 on th e tensi ons; it

has been found to be in close accord with experiment '[ for annealed
metals.t Back tension increases, and front decreases, th e torque by
equal amounts for the same tension stress (Fig. 51 b). A very simple
interpretation can be given to (37). If, in the expression (23) for the work
W per unit volume, we substit ute for 0 , th ere results

(1+f) W ~ (1+1, )W,+!('r '. ),

where lfo = 200/ ( I / o)Rh. When the forward slip is small (as it usually
is except when a large frout tension is applied), W --lfo. Thus th e
energy expended per unit volume of material remains roughly constant
when tensions are a pplied. Therefore, apart from possible savings in
the dri ve, the efficiency cannot be significant ly improved by rolling with
tensions, but may be materially lowered. if the back -tensi on energy
cannot be usefully recovered .
If, now, we elimi nate 0 betw een (33) and (37), we obtain a relation
between P and the ten sions (Fig. 5I b):
P = PrJ -A1f-BTb ,

where

A = RPo_!,
2GQ

a.

(38)

B = ! _( I _ r)RPrJ.
a.

20 0

This agrees qualitatively with experim ent in predi cting th at the rollforce is decreased more by a back te nsion than by the same 8t re88 applied
as a front tension. Th e quantitative agreement is less good, due to the
t R . Hill , op. eu ., p. 203.

Fot pre_Rtained met&k, bcwe ver, a d~ not depend. linearly on ' -.rui q uadrat.io
terme in 4 a nd 'I'. m\lllt be added to lMICUnl elcee ~ent .

208 TW O . DIM E N S I O NA L P R OBL EM S OF STEADY MOTION [VII. 8

\'11 . 7)

magnification of errors in (37); since Go/p, R is not very different from

lc&, a. small cha nge in the coefficients of T, a nd T6; in (37) produ ces a relet ively large change in A and B. Better agreement can be secured, at
the expense of some complicati on, by all owi ng for t he greater decreeee
in pressure nea r the neutral point which is indicated by von Karman',
th eory and which is neglected in th is simple analysis.

stAnt coefficient 14, with a corresponding an gle of frict ion .\ = tan-1J4.

). and 14 depend , among other thin gs, on th e speed of machining. Th e
ghe n conditions a re, t hen, th e va lues of 0::, .\, t he depth T to which the
metAl is machined, a nd its stress-strain cherec te ristice. The problem
is to calculate th e distribution of st ress over the face of the tool, the
shape of the plasti c region, an d the thi ckness t of the chip, Since t he
width of th e tool is generally very large compared with th e depth T ,
the deformation is essentially plane stra in.
The solution of the pro blem, &8 thus form ulated, is not known, even
for e non-hardening, plast ic-rigid ma te rial. A useful analysis can,
however, be based on the experimental observ at ion tha t th e deformation is mainl y concentrated in a narrow zone, which springs from the
edge of the tool a nd, moreove r , is only slight ly curved. The freshly
machined surface does not appear to be significantly deformed nor, therefore, hardened. Following E rnst and Merchant '[ let us idealize th e region
of plastically deforming material, and assum e it to be 8. single straight
line (Fig . 52) inclined at some angle f to th e surface . Th e deformation
then consists of a simple shea r. When th e work -hardening is not zero,
t his finite shear could not , for reasons of equilibri um, take p lece abruptly ,
but it is, nevertheless, assumed that the zone of sh ear has a negligibly
small bread th , From geomet ry , the chip-thickness ratio is

7. M.chlnlnllt
In the proc ess of machining, a surfa ce layer of metal is removed by a
wedge-shaped. tool which is const rained to tra vel para llel to t he surface

Pat h if ~ltmtnt

MAC HI SIN G

lill. M-.ch ining of a plane lurla.ce,lhowing the fol'C'el on the

tool ...bon the c hip ill co ntinuous, with (ineet ) the deformation of
an e lemen t cl'OllIlling the line of l hear .

F lO.

T
t

r - -

This relation, in th e form

at a chosen depth. When the lubricat ion is poor , a cap of dead me

accumulates around the cutt ing edge, from which it breaks a way
Intervals, leaving a rough finish; alternatively, if th e metal is brit
th e chip itself may rupt ure periodicelly.]; On the other hand , if
metal is d uct ile and the lubr icat ion good, th e chip is a conti nuo us coil
an d t he pr ocess may properly be considered one of steady motion. W
shall rest rict our attention to orthogona l cutting, where t he tool is mov
in a dire ction at right angles to the cutting edge. The rak e (); of th e tool
which is t he angle betw een the upper face and t he normal to the me
surface (Fig. 52), may be either positi ve or nega ti ve. For simplicity, i
is assumed tha t th e sta te of frict ion OWl' t he area of contact betw
tool and chip can be ad equately, t hough broadl y , represented by a con
t Th e following M!COWlt ill oonOOlmed on ly with the mec haniel of m-.ch ining ; for
di ~u ... ion o f the m pt&lluri ic-al p ro blema the read ee ill refel'ftd to 'Conference on :\llclIina

F.",.

bi lity ' , Proc.1_.\ln A.

155 (19 "8).
: H . E m.t 'IlKlIi" i.., oj .\l ruu . Am. Soc. Metal. ConpeM (19311 ). &-to . boo VI
R o-nh.in and A. C. St umey, f>r.oc . 1_. Mult . ", . I (192.5). 141.

..I. _
. .n' _

8in~
cos( ~

0::)

(39)

r cosC& ,
l -r sin o::

is used in conju nction with a meas urement of r as an accurate mea ns of

determining ~. ] t will be seen from th e inset in Fig. 52 that t he shear
strai n is of amount (engineering definition)
y = tan( - C&) + cot

= .

cou
= r - 2rsinC&+ I
smcos(-a)
r coe c

~or given a, y is least when

(40)

= I1T+tc&, that is, when the shear line

bisects the angle between the surfaces of th e metal and th e tool. Values
ofy as high as 5 ha ve been observed. It is proved in Chapter XII (Sect . 4)
that th e direction which undergoes th e greatest resultant exte nsion
d uring th e shea r is inclined, in the chip, at an angle (J to th e line of shear
l uch that
2 cot28 = y.
(41)
T H . Emat.1Illd M. E . llerchant.. TraM . A m .

$0< \lrt<Jl..

1194.1 ), 299.

2:08 TW O .DIM EN SI ON AL PR OBL F.MS O }O' ST E ADY MOT ION [VII. 7

VII . 7]

The elongation of individual crystals gives a fibrous appearance to the

microatruotute of the chip. and, if the crystals are initially oriented at
random, the fibre direction is well defined and can be expected to be the
direction 8.
Let P and Q be the components of the external force per unit width
which i.e applied to the tool; P is parallel to the metel eurfsce, and Q is
normal to it and in the dowrl1Dard direction. Their reeulte.nt is inclin ed,
by hypothesis, at the angle
to the tool feee , and hence at a. down ward. angle '\- 01 to the horizontal. Thus,
Q ~ Ptan (~-.).
(42)

or

r-.\

The apparent coefficient of friction can thereby be deduced from measuremente of P and Q. In the experiments of Merchantt po had valuee between
a bout 0'5 and 10. Th ese high values are und entandable since t he chip
surface , bearing on the tool. is freshly fonned and should therefore be
free from adsorbed filma. It is found that an Increeee of the speed by ..
factor of 5 lowers p. by ebout 20 per cent.; there appears .180 to be
ecele-effect in that the epperent value of p. depends on the depth of
mechlning.
Let ok be the shear stresa of the materiel after the stra.in y. Considering
the equilibrium of the chip, and resolvin g perellel to the line of sheer,
we find

kTloin4 = P eo<4-Qoin4
_ P[eo<4-oin4tan(A- .>] from (42)
_ Pco'(4+~ -.)fco. (~ - .) .

(43)

The average value p of the eompreeelve stre&8.cting ecrcea the shear line ia
p = ktan(A+4- )

(<<)

Th e external work d one in rem oving unit volume of the metal is

PIT =

k eo A-.>/oin 4 eo 4 + ~- .>

(46)

To complete the a.nalysis we need to relate q, to ~ and 0: . Fa~g. full

solution for the distribution of stress in the metal near the cut tmg edg~,
e further &88umption must be ma.de. Merchantt postulates that . ~ 18
such tba.t the work done per un it volume is a min imum . The condi tion
for this is

~(~=o .

t M, E . M...d,an~. J '*"' . A pp . MecA. It (1944), A-16S.

t M. E . Mef(:hlUll, Jo" r'II, App. P hll_' 16 (1945 ), 2111 and 3 18. A _imilat analy'- bIolI
been giv en by V . P iispanen, i bid . 19 ( 1" -18 ), 816 .

...

MA CHINI NO

eo ,+ A-.) ~

~~ oin4eo4+A-

.).

(46)

In view of (40) ok is a known fun ction of q" calculable from the stressstra in curve in shear at the eppropriete temperature and rate of strain.
If there were no work-hardening the eclutio rrt of (46) would be simply

4-

"+I . -I~.

(47)

From Merchant's measurements it eppeere th&t, within experimental

error, q, is in f.et &function of the single verieble (A- el) but th.t th ia
formula c vereetfmetee q, by some 20 to 40 per cent in the range inveatigated. The discrepancy cannot be du e to neglecting work-hardening,
because if this is included, the calculated value of q, is stillla.rger (except
when A = 0, for which q, is elweye equal to l"+iCl). Merch&nt haa
attempted to improv e t he agreement by permitting the wear stress to
very with the normel preeeure on the plene of ebeer, but the required
variation is so greet aa to be physically out of the question, the pressure
being only of the ord er of the yield streee. The comparat ive fe.ilure of
the theory is alm ost certainly due to the inadequacy of the minimum
work hypothesis.

8. Flow through a converging channel

Coneider a wedge-shaped converging channel (to tal engle 2(1) through
which plastic mate rial is being forced. Let polar ooordinatea (r, 8) be
taken rel.tive to the exie of symmetry and the virtual apex 0 of the
channel (Fig . 53). The sides of the chan nel ere rough and it is supposed
that the frictional stress is constant. When the channel is very long,
s.nd the flow is steady , it is to be ex pected that the state of stress in
material remote from the ends is effecti vely independent of exte rnal
conditio ns, and tba.t the slip -line directions de pend only on 8 and not
on r , Th e correspondi ng flow-lines are radii t hro ugh O. It is this special
distributio n of stress with which we shall be concerned. here. Th e slip line field near t he ends of the channel is similar to that already described
for extru sion through a wedge-shaped die (Sect. 4 (i)) if the external
conditions s.re the same.
. t ~l mould be no~ie...t t ha~. if ,. is fel!:uded. .. CODlitazot along the tool. ~hitl fon:n Wa

unpli. that lhe eu U ml edp . .. aingulari~y for t he atate o f at..- m the e h ip . Thus, if
~be ~lioll of rDas imum ahN,r aU- .. ~ a poiDl on ~he ehip wrl_ adj~" \0 lbe

CUUmg edp were paralW \0 lbe m-r line. _. Iboukl. have ~ _ l"+"' - .l. Thia ~
that t.he direeUon of u.. ...wtazol av- .... ting on the t.ooI f_ _ .. priDcipal direetion
(or t.he atate o( aU- . l the eu~t.ing edge; lDOI"8OVW, the other principal componen~
of ewe. u. ~. ~ fannula undere.t.imal . ~, aDd oolTMJlOlldingly ov-"ima _ the
reeiatanoe \0 machining ; OD 0 priori JtI'OWldl, i~ is ce rtain ly Invalid (or large nega~ive
rak. _inc. i~ impli. a nega~in ~.

210 TW O -D IMENSI ONA L PR O BLEMS O F STE AD Y MOTIO N [Vll.8

VII. 8]

The yield crite rion is sa t isf ied by the introduction of . param eter "'.
depending only on 8 by hypotheeie, end such tha.t

where c is a constant. Thus

TrI

= hin2l,b,

ar- a, = 2k cos2.p .

F LOW THR O U GH A CO N VE R G I NG CHANNE L

8_

(48)

'" is the angl e between a radius end the direction of t he algebraically

greeter principal st ress. Or- a, has been taken positive since elements
on the axis are subject to a simple circumferential compressio n and an
equal radial extension. '" must hav e t he same sign as 8 since t he friction
ecte to oppose the relative motion ; ifJ is zero on the axi s, a nd ranges

f 008~d+

(I"

where A is a.nother constant . Since we a.re taking '" to have the same
sign as 8, c must be positive, and moreo ver must be greater than unity
to avoid infinities in t he integral. Integrating:

8~ -H J('.'

.......

O<:~-1L
"

_ r-

..-T,.

l ~dr
----~-- - - -

,,,I

,,

'1(,,'

l) tan-'lJ(:~ :)t&n ~)

ar + a8 +

;k-cos~ =

a.

it follows tha.t

'/'(')+ 008 2~(l + ~' (8)) ~ 0,

rJ'(r) = - c.

all(8) = clleC"14- 1,

Since

(02)

('3)

= g(B)

in order to satis fy t he eq uation of incompressibility. g(8) i.e determined

by the condition tha t th e principal a xes ofstress a nd 8trainra~ coincide '
this is

ir- i , _
-2g(8)fr _
2y" - 2TI'f or
g'(8) /r l - cot 2ifJ

zc:

Hence

Substit uting t his in th e tint equation of equilibrium:

(61)

These equations are du e to Nadai.t

The red ial velocity u (measured out wards) must be of th e fonn

2Trt9 = O.

f sin~d8+J(r).

r.

1)t&n-'j(:+:)~ 1w+ e,

g(8) = exp( -2

f tan 2ifJ d8) =

BI (e-cos 21jJ)

from (50), where B is a (positive) constant. Thus

Combining (48) with the second of these, we find that

;: =

and

21 ~ - , 10 ' -I OO8~- j<:lo (c - 008~J+A ,

.,e

- i l'l'

I),

;i- -, lo '+i OO8 ~-I, lo('-OO8 ~)+A, }

bet ween - p and 111' if we suppose, for definiteness, that ITrll = k on

the sides of the cha nnel (it will be shown later how th e solution can be
adapted for a fri cti on al stress Ieee than k). The eq uations of eq uilibrium

a0 8

(e >

As 0; varies from 0 to i1l', c varies from <X) to 1'1 92 (eppro x .). From ('9)
and (50) the ateeeeee are , fina lly,

Flo . 53. Stre311 component. for anaI)'W or the ftow o r

plutk material throU4l:h a conve rgin g ...edg.: ahaped
chan ne l.

81-"

('O)

C COS 2.p'

where the inverse tangent le an ang le between

ifJ = 11'1' when 8 = a, C satisfies the equation

,,

'"

.;

('9)

= r (c

B
cos 2lp) '

(54)

~ow, since the flow is radial and t he shear stress is constant along any
redlus, the stress distribution within a sector 8 Ie the solution for a
chan nel of angle 28 and a frictional stress J: sin 2.p. Conversely if we
recut
'
' onal
qUire t he 8O.ution
corres pondi ng to a channel of angl e 28 and a fricti
t A. Sadai. Z. iu . / .

PA~. 30 ( 192401. IDe.

212 TWO DIMENSIONAL PROBL EM S O F STEADY MOT ION (VII

streee ,\k (0 ~ ,,~ 1), we simply solve (51) for the appropriate value
of c. with 2I/J = sin-I ,\. The stress components are then given by (48),
(61), end (63).
If, by BOrne means, t he shear stress on the sides of the channel were
directed towards the apex, 80 tha.t it assisted the motion, the state of
stress would be obtained by taking y, opposite in sign to 8. It followa
from (50) that c must certainly be less than COBa, end that

8_-+- >1(" '- 1) tan-'(J('+I)tan+)

,-1
8
-Vs - ../(1cC,) t&nh-l{JG+~)tan tP}
=

(' ';; - 1);

(-1

~ o ~ 0).

(66)

The relation between c a.nd e iaobtained by subst ituting 8 = 1):, ep = - Pr.

As c increases from - co to - I , IX increases from 000 r -l i as c increeeee
still further, Ol continues to increase, becoming equal to In when c = O.
Orowan based his enelyeis ofrolling'[ on t he present theory. He eeeumed
(in the nota tion of Sect . 6) t hat t he distribution of stress over any
circular arc, which cute the rolls orthogonally at points where t he frictional st ress isp,p (8) and which has an angular span 28, would be identical
with that near the centre of a long wedge-shaped channel of angle 28,
and a constant frictional stress of amount p,p(8) (its direction depends
on whether t he arc cuts t he rolls on th e exit or entry side of the neutral
point). When 'l is small, sin 2t/J "" 2c8, e,...",. 1/2'l, and

Tre =

k-8 ,

"

The analogous pair of solutions for the flow of material th rough a

diverging channel is obtained from th e previous analysis merely by
changing the sign of cos 2rjJ wherever it occurs in the formulae for t he
stresses. The relation between 8 and t/J becomes

B~

fco,d+.
c

c+ cos2t/J

Finally, it is to be remarked that the present st ress solution is appU

cable, with similar limitations, to t he compression of a plastic m&88
between two inclined plates (see Chap. VIII , Sect . 5 (i), for a detailed
discussion of certain additional eesurnptione). The velocity distribution
is obtained by superimposing a uniform velocity U coseoe parallel to
t he axis, where U is t he inward speed of t he plates normal to their length s.
t

E . Orowan . op . (.it ., I>' 189 .

VIII
NO N S T E AD Y MOT I ON PROB LEMS I N TW O
D I MENSIONS. I
I. Geometric si m ilarity and the unit d iagram
WE now consider problems in which the stress and velocity at any fixed
point are varying from moment to moment. To begin wit h, we restrict
our attention to problems where the plastic region develops in such a
way that the entire configuration remains geometrically similar. We
have already encountered two examples, namely t he expansion of a
cylindrical or a spherical cavity from zero radius in a n infinite medium;
when the configuration at any moment is scaled down to a constant
cavity radius the same distribution of stress is obtained. Other exampl es
are th e indenting of th e plane surface of a semi-infinite block by a conical
or pyramidal punch . For geometrical similarity it is necessary that
the distortion should be initiated at a point or along a line, and that
the specimen should be infinite in at least one dimension. Although
either condition precludes the exact realizat ion of similarity in prac tice, it is easily attained within experimental error. For example,
Vickers pyramid hardness is observed] to be effectively independent of
the applied load, provided the specimen is large compared with the
diameter and depth of the impression , and provided the impression is
large compared with the grain size and the radius of curvature of th e
tip of t he cone.
To formulate the idea of similarity more precisely, let r be th e position
vector of an element referred to the origin of distortion, and let c be a
cha~acteristic length defining a stage of t he deformation ; for exa mple,
c m~ght be the radius of th e plasti c region round an expanding spherical
cavity, or the depth of penetration by a conical indenter. Now in a general
problem of non-steady motion th e stre ss and velocity are certa in
functions of r and c. When geometric similarity is preserved. the stress
and velocity are functions only of the single variable ric. Hence, if the
confi.guration at any sta ge is scaled down in the rat io c: 1, we always
obtain exactly th e same geometrical figure, at a fixed point of which the
:~ponding stress and velocity are unvarying ; in particular, th e
gion representing the plastic material does not alter. This figure , in
p f P . Field F oeter, The Mec/uJnicol TMti>lg oj M dah a l'ld A lloy., 4th ed iti on , p . IIll
( Itnllm & 8ona, 1948).
3. 3; .1"

...

N O N . ST E A DY ) IOT IO N PR OB L EM S. J

[VI II. I

which the characteristic length bee been mad e unity, will be called the
uni~ diagram. t An element. whose posi tion vector is r in ec t uel epece, is
re presented in t he unit d iagram by a point whose position vector is
p = rIc.
There is a close resemblance between problema where geometrio
simila rity is ma intained &nd problems of steady motion. Wb en the
ex te rnal condit ions a re completely specified, there is no development 0
the plastic region to be traced and. in bot h, 8. system of coordinates can
be found such that t he corresponding distribution of stress and velocitJ'j
is consta nt. Both ty pes of problem are statically undetermined and the
same t rial-and-erro r procedure must be followed. to constru ct a slip-lin
field sati sfying th e stress and velocity boundary conditions. In both,
the fields are finall y justifie d by showing that positive wor k is don e on a
plastic elements , and that in the rigid material there is an associated!
state of stress such that t he yield limit is nowhere exceeded. The only!
feature of difference in the method of solution is the form taken by t
velocity boun dary condit ions expressing the maintenan ce of similarity
It is more ad van tageous to phrase these in te rms of the movement 0
elements in t he uni t diagram, rather t han in ect uel epece . If t he velocit
of a n element in the actual space is v = d r /de (referred to c as the scale
' time' ), an d the velocity of t he corresponding point in t he unit dia.gra
is dp/de. t hen
d
dp
dp
(I
v = de(ep) = c de + p, or c de = v - po
This equation etetes that the corres ponding point in the unit dU~"'f
moves, at eac h moment, to wards a focus whose position vector is v
and t hat ita speed is equal to t he q uotient of its focal distance and tb
parameter e. The path of an element in actual space is represented b
some t ra jectory in the unit dia gram which is calculable from (1); .
particular, t he trajectory of a n element which is at rest in act ual s
(for exa mple, an element not yet overtaken by t he spreading pleati
region ) is a straight line directed to wards the origin. After the elemen
becomes plastic the corresponding point in the unit d iagra m describes
in general, a curved t rajectory . It is evident that a ll elements initiaU
sit uated on t be same rad ius through the origin describe t he sa me trajeo
tory in the unit diag ram ; this is a complete express ion of t he contin .
geometric simila rity. We she ll eee late r how this property of the uni
diagram facilitates a calculation of the distortion of a square grid.
t R. Hill, E . H. I.-, and S. J . Tupper. P roc.

R~.

Soc. A. ( BS IU n ). 213.

VIII . 2]

W EDOf;. I N D E NT A T ION

2, Wedge -Indentatfont

'"

(i) J [ dhod oJ8Olulion. The plane surface of a semi-infinite block of

plastic-rigid material is penetrated normally by a smoot h rigid wedge
of total ang le 28. In Fig. 54 (right -hand half) ABDEC is the region of
plastically deforming material; A C is the displaced surface (whose
shape is to be determi nod); A B is the line of contact wit h the wedge, a nd
BDE C is a slip-line. The most conve nient starti ng slip -line is BD.
When its position bee been ass umed , t he condi tion t ha t slip-lines meet
the wedge at 45 defines t he field A BD uniquely (third boundary-va lue

Flo . 54. Inde ntation 0 ( . p lano su rface by a smoo t h wedge , Bho" 'ing ths slip .
lin&fit kl on t he ri gh t a nd th& main (ea tu N'tl o(the d istortion o n the I&ft.

problem). Since the free surface will not necessarily meet the wedge
orthogonally, the point A must be a stress singularity. This, with the
slip-line AD, defines the field ADE, 'which may be continued round A
through any desired angle (first boundary-va lue prob lem, special case) .
The slip-line A E, together with th e requ irement t hat A C must be a free
surface, defines the field AEC and, incidentally, the shape of A C (converse of second bounda ry-va lue problem). Now the poin t C must lie
on t he origina l plane aurfece ; th is determines the angu lar spa n .p of t he
field AD E . We ha ve next to exa mine wheth er, with our init ial choice
of BD, t he velocity boundary conditions are sa tisfied. Along AB the
component of velocity normal to the wedge is equa l to the normal com ponent of the speed of penetration ; along BDEC the norma l component
of velocity is zero since th e material underneath is rigid. The velocit y
solution may t herefore be begun inA BD (third bou ndary-value problem ),
and exte nded successively to ADE and AEC (first boundary-value
problem ). Th e calculated velocities of elements on the free surface must
t . R. H ill, E. H . I.-, and 8. J . T uppel', op. cit .. p . 21 Ths problem o( obliqU&~_
trat lon by a wl'ldgoo h&I t-n treated by R . Hill and E . H . L.e, Min ifiry o( Supply ,
Armunen t n-rc h Departmont. Theo,.., t ieal ~ h Rep . 1/4e.

2UI

NON ST E AD Y MOTION PROBL EM S. I

[VIII. !

be such t hat the surface is continually displaced in auch way th..,

geometrio similarity is prese rved. This is the condition which controll
the eha pe of the starting slip -line BD . In the uni t diagram the curve
correapo ndin g to the free surface must be the trajectory for 8Urfa.oe
elements. H ence, according to the interpretation of (I), the tangent
at any point on this curve must pass through the eaeocleted focus with:
position vector v. If the tentative solution has this property. similaritJ:
is maintained.
(ii ) Pofttiml 0/ tAt d~ 8Ur/au . We now verify t hat there iI
poeeible solution when BD is str&ight and has a certain epeciflc le~
The displaced surface A O and the elip-linee in ABD and AEC are th
al80 straight, while A..D E is a field of radii and circula r arcs. For a giv
choice of t he length of BD, t he magnitude !/J ofthe an gle DA. E is d
mined by the condition t ha t C should fall on t he original surface.
is 80 if the height of C ebcve B is equal to c; that is, if

VIII . 2]

WEDGE_INDENTATION

217

The elimination of hIe from (2) and (3) gives the relation between ifJ
and 8:
C08 !/J
oo 29 - ~) - 1+ &. + '
(4)
Since similarity is maintained by this solution, and since the velocity
equations express incompressibili ty. it neceeeerily follows that the
volume of ma terial d isplaced a bove t he original surface is equa l to the

...... . ....
~,

.... .....

-""1('--

AB oo<9-A C.m(9- +) ~ OB,

1I(oo< 9-.m(9-+)] ~ c.
Since vis zero on the plast ic-rigid boundary BDEC. it is zero everyw h
by Geiringer's equation for the variation of v along t he straight p.u
I t follows that u is conatant on each a-line , an d hence, by the boun
condition on AB, it is univ ersally equal to .....h inB (the downward
of the wedge is unity on the ecele c). Thus. at any moment, all elem
a re moving with the same speed along the a-lines. The surface AO
therefore displaced to a parallel position, and the new configu ra cen be mad e geometrically similar by a suitable choice of the length
BD or. equivalently, t he position of A . Referring, now, to the
diagr am (Fig . 55), the foci all lie on a circular arc H K of span '"
radius Ivl = .....2ein8. where OH and OK are pa rallel respectively
E C and BD. H is the focus for elementB in AEC, and K is the focus fi
elements in ABD. Since OK is of length .....2ain 8 and is inclined at '"
to A B , K must lie on A B . In ADE the focus for an element at Pis
point F where the arc H K is intersected by the perpendicular from.
to AP. Now we have seen th at, for similarity, the tangent at any po
on A C must be directed towards its associated focus ; hence A O m
p&88 t hrough H. The condi tion for this is that the projection of ...
perpe nd icular to CA shou ld be equal to the sum of the projectfcns
OR and OB ; th at is,
A B COB !/J = OH sinl'n+OBC08(8- !/J ),
('
A008+ - c(.in9+ooo(9-+ll
0'

0'

\
Flo. s:i. Un i' diagTam and 'rajeetoriee o r e1emeot. (or
wedp-indf'flta'ion .

volume of the impression below it . This may be immediately verified

from the observation that triangles A OC and A OB ha ve an equal side
(AC = AB) and equal perpendiculars (length sin 8) to these sides from
0 ; their areas are therefore equal. Th e result follcwa on subtracting
triangle AOL from both , where Lis t.he meet of OC a.nd AB.
In this instance it is easy to show that the rete at which work is done
is nowhere negative. This is 80 for the finite shearing of elements croeaing
the plastic-rigid boundary BDEC, if the boundary is an a -line. Since
the velocity is unifonn in ABD and A CE , zero rate of work is done on
elements traversing these areas. Finally, for elements in ADE the rate
of work per unit volume is equal to v2kein 8 di vided by the distance
from A (see the form ula for the sheer strain-rate in polar coordi nates,
Appendix II).
The mean compressive stress has the valu e Ie on a free surface in
COmpression, and hen ce, by Hen cky's theorem . ita value on the wedge
face A B isle(1 2lp). The pressure P on the wedge is therefore distributed
uniformly, a.nd is of amount
P - 2.(1 ++).
(')

NO N -STEADY MOTION PROBLE M S. I

[VI n.

'"
The load per unit width is 2Phsin 6, and the work expended per u

volume of the impression below DC is Ph cos8/c. The rela tion betw

P and 8 is shown in Fig. 56; P rises steadily from U to 21-(1+ 1"')
t he angle increeeee. Th is should be contrasted with the experimen
observa tion by Bishop. Hill, and Mottt th at, when cold-worked cop
is indented by a lubricated ccae, the mean resist ive preeeure dec
&8 the cone becomes leas pointed ; for 8 > 30 the decrease is slight a
th e pressure bee an approxima tely constant value 23Y .

f-

l.

I'
s

10

V
lIJ

/
.,. ,

F lO. S8. Re lation behreeD t he pl"ellSW"ll and t he

..mi &ngle in weodge-indenw.t ion .

The distribution of stress in th e rigid material is not known, but

is no re&8QD to suppose that th e material is incapable of supporting
calculated stresses along BDEC. It is observed in t he indentation
hard materials by a smooth wedge that th e plastic region exte n
little way below th e tip (more if th e wedge is rough or the material
ann ealed ), but that the strains are small; thi s corres ponds to the .
part of t he plasti c region (sketc hed diagrammatically in Fig . 54 ) for
hypothetical plastic-rigid body. The present solution would cantin
to hold even for a block of finite dimen sions, provided it could be
elated with a non-plastic state of st ress in t he rigid material. In a
words, to the app roximation achieved by the hypothetica l material.
st ate of stress in th e plasti cally deforming region can remain simi
even if the block is finite, though the non-plasti c stress distribution,
course , can not . As th e penetration increased, however, a stage would
reached where a possible sta te of stress in the rigid material could
t

R . F . B iRhop . R . Hill , and N . F . 1\o10tt. P r. Pl., . Soc. .57 ( 194.5 ), I on .

R. L ' Uerm it.e. Proc. 7111 I n' . Co" ,,_ App. Mull., London 11~8J.

WEDGE .INDENTATION

VIIl.2J

'"

be found ; this would imply that plastic dt/ormalion had begun elsewhere.t
(iii) Distortion round 1M imIWtMWn. An inspectio n of t he trajectories
in Fig. 55 reveals t ha t an element initially between OD an d OB remains
in K BD and 80 always moves parallel to BD after becoming plastic.
Hence th e material initially situated in OBD finaIly occupies KBD,
and its deformation is equi valent to a simple shear parallel to BD.
Similarly, an element which ie finally within AEC bee always moved
parallel to E G after becoming plaatic. Th e materiaJ finally OCCUP)ing
AEC has, in effect , been shee red parallel to E C from the initial position
JEG, where J is the meet of OG with th e parallel to CE through A .
'The deformation of material initially in ODE J hee no simple properties,
except th at surface elemen ts initially on OJ are finally in contact with
the wedge along K A . Thus, part of the original surface is drawn do wn
the side of the wedge; thie phenomenon is eccentueted if th e wedge i8
not free from friction.
The calculation of th e distortion of a square grid it moet conveniently
carried out in th e unit diagram. Th e problem is to find th e final position,
when t he penetration is c, of th e comer of a square wboee initial position
is r . Suppose that the plastic boundary fint reach es the com er when
the penetration is e. e), and let P. = r oleo be t he posit ion of the
corresponding point in the unit diagram. Th is point lLfterwllrds moves
along the tra jecto ry through P. Th e trajectory ha ving been calculated,
let , be th e further distance traversed by th e point when the penetration
has increased.to e, and let/(, ) be th e corresponding focal distance. Then,
from ( I ),

In;' ~ ,j K.i.

(6)

in terms of e, and hence th e position vector r = ep.

The integral must be evaluated. numerica lly in ADE, but in K BD and
AEO (6) simplifies to
c
d
Co = d- , '
This determines

""here J( ,) = d -8, and d is th e distance from Po of the focus K or H

teapectively. The calculated distortion for a wedge of total angle 60
~ The CTit icaJ penetratione in to rectanpl~ b loc.... of finite b readth Of depth h aye
ealcw..ted for ...edgN and flat ind ente... : R. H ill. PAil. M Gt}. 41 (19601, 745. The

.....

I'!laulta .... of Iigni.ficNlce in decid ing ho. tarp . apec'lmen ahouW be foJ' . val id hardn_

NON .STEADY MOT ION P ROBLEMS. 1

""
it ahown in Fig. 61.

The sgreement. with experiment is rem&ru b

cloee.t Hodge: bee ahown that a. good approximation to the dietc .
ill obtained by fonn&1ly replacing the regi on ADE by &n arbitrary
number of stresa diecontfnuitlee &Cl'088 certain radii through A .
material between two neighbouring discontinuities is ta ken to mo
ILl .. rigid body. As might be expected, this method ia not useful w
most of the plaatie material is actually deforming, and where, ..
from the pla.aticrigid boundary. there are no zones of severe shear (for
example, in the eompreeeion of eo block between rough plates).

vIII . 2]

W ED G E_I N D E N TATI O N

22'

heavily pre-stra ined metal t he further work -hard ening is slight , and th e
load needed to effect the second mode of deformati on is reached before
that needed to overcome th e elastic resistance in th e first . In lubricated
indentation of a pre -strained metal a ridge or coronet is alway s t hrown up.

3. Compression of a wedge b y a flat diet

The apex 0 of an infinite wedge (total angle 28) is compressed symmetrically by a smoot h fla t die (F ig. 58). Let A A be th e contact at any

,
,

Flo. 67. D iatortion o r

_ 1Iquat'll

grid in wedge. indentat ion .

(iv) I nfluence Q
I Jrit:tUm and 8train-hartkning. The solution when
wedge is rough (eliding fri cti on) differs only in that the slip-linea do
meet the face at 46 0 The displaced eurfsce A C is still straight, tho
inclined &t a smaller angle, end the pressure on th e wedge is unifo
distri buted. F or &. sufficiently blunt wedg e a nd a large eno ugh coeffioi

of friction, th e theory indicates that the indenter is covered by a

wedge-shaped cap of dead metal.
The effect of work-hardening and elastic compressibility can only
&88e88ed. qualitatively. It is helpful to visualize th e actual mode
deformation as a compromise between two ext reme poeeibilitiee. If
displaced material were accommodated by the elastic resilience of
bulk of t he specimen, th e plastic strains would be relatively small
diffused over a wide area. If, on t he other hand , t he material were
placed sideways the strains would be relatively large. Now for an aD
nealed metal the work-hardening which would accompany t he eecc
mode of deformation is so grea.t that th e first mode is initiated at
smaller load , and th e familiar sinking-in impression is obtained. For
t See tho photogt-.p ht or dietorted grid. OR lead in the paper by R . H ill, E . B .
aDd 8 . J . Tupper, 01" eit., p. 114.
.
.
l P. G. Hodge,Jr. , Orod_ Di~ of App. M atJt.. Bro'Or'D 'lJD'",raaty, Tecb .
30 l l t-le).

. '111.

-~- --

, c

~~
~~

as. Slip. line fipld a o<l d ("{ormat ioo io a wedge l'Omp ~1 b)" 1\ IlmQOth flat die.

moment bet ween the die and the fiattened wedge, and let the lengt h 0 B
betaken as tbe t ime-scele e. Proceeding ee in t he last section, we can show
that th ere is a possible plastic region preserving similarity when the
displaced surfaces A O are straight. The slip-line field shown in Fig. 58
is self-explanatory, a nd it is evident that elements move with uniform
speed 0/2 along t he slip-lines parallel -to the plastic-rigid boundary
BDEO. If AB = A O = h, a nd angle DAE = y" th e requirement that
C should lie on th e original surface is satisfied when

AB+ A Osin y, _ ta 8
OB +A C cosy, n,
or

h( l + siny,) = tan8(c+h cos y,).

(7)

The foci lie on a circular ar c HK of span y, and radius .J2, where OB and
OK are parallel respect ively to EO a nd BD (we may, with out confusion,
regard th e right -hand half of Fig . 58 eith er as th e unit diagram or th e
actual configurat ion). Since OK is inclined at 450 to BA , K must be
situated on the die face. For geometric similarity H must lie on CA
t R. Hill, P roc. rIA I fIJ. c~ . App. M uA ., London,lle4 8).

N ON . STEADY MOTION P R O B L E MS. I

[VIII.

'"
produced ; th.i.e requires that the projection of AB perpendicular to C

should be equal to the sum of the projections of OB an d OB , that '

AB cDe.p = OHsinl1f+OB sint/t,

or

h cosrp = c(l + sin,p,.

(8

Solving (7) and (8), we find

tane =

(1+sin.p)2 ;
cos.p(2+sin,p)

~ _ l + sin,p.
c
cos '"

(9

vIII."1

E X PANS I ON OF A S E MI.C Y L IN D R IC A L CA VI T Y

'"

4. Expansion of a eeml-cyllnd rtcal cavity in a surfacet

A semi-cylindrical cavity of curre nt radius c is expanded by suitably
distributed normal pressure from a point on the plane surface of an
infinite block of material. In Fig . 60 BEB is the surface of the cavity,
and ABC is the coronet. The impression is supposed to have been
initiated at the point 0 , and the pressure is applied only over BEB and
not on AB. Since geome tri c similarity is preserved during the formation
A

The pressure on the wedge is equal

/"

~ 2 k(1 + ~) .

As the wedge angle is decreased,

also de crea ses and eve ntually becom
zero when tan 8 = t , or 9 -- 26'6'"
1
The surfaces of the displa ced mate .
are
then vertical, and P is just t
0
0
compressive yield stress in plane at .
0
30
60
90 8<> (Fig. 59). The mode of deformation ~
F lO. ~9 . P ressure ve raue semi-angle for still narrower wedges is not known.
the eomp re esion o f a wedge b y a die .
By the reaso ning of the last eectio
it may be proved that t he triang
K BD has, in effect, been sheared parallel to BD from its initial positi
OBD , and that triangle AEC has been sheared from J Ee, where
is the meet of OC and the parallel to CE through A . The section 0
of the original surface is finally in contact with the die along KA .
There is ano ther configurat ion which is ana lytically possible,
stress and velocity boundary conditions being satisfied . The disple
surface is still straight but the slip -line from C passes, not through th
mid-point B of the die, but through th e opposite comer A of the surra
of contact. A ste ad ily increasing 90<> wedge-shaped cap of dead metal"
carried down with the die. The pressu re on the die in this second con
figuration is greater than in th e first . Th e reader should have no difficult
in provin~ that

,,

"

(l + 2sinljl)2 ;
~ _ 1+ 2 sin if!.
(11
4 cos "'(I sin rlt)
c
2 cos if;
It is to be presumed th at both configurations could be obtained .
practice by suitably modifying the sha pe of the wedge tip . This preble
exemplifies a prev ious state ment that the final steady state may
dependent on the initial conditions .
tane =

F lO. 60. Slip. line field and d efonnation round a lJemi .cylindricaI
cav ity e xpanded in a plane surface .

of the cavity, the process is not the two-dimensional analogue of a ball

hardness test .
Let us examine whether there is a possible mode of deformation in
which the plastic-rigid boundary ED C passes through the deepest
point E of t he impression. Since, by hypothesis, there are no tangential
stresses over the cavity surface, slip-lines meet it at 45. BD is the most
convenient starting slip -line; when ita position has been chosen , the field
~ED is uniquely determined (third boundary-valu e problem ). Now
~nce the surface of the coronet is free from applied forces, the elements
m a part, at least, of the coronet must have unloaded from t heir former
plasti c state . This part of the coronet moves as a rigid body , and is
carried outwards on the plastic lay er beneath ; furtherm ore, it must be
separated from the plastically defoeming material by a slip-line.
The natural trial hy pothesis is that BD is this slip-line. It then follows
that ~he slip-line CD is straight , since the coron et moves as a rigid body.
Consider, now , the equilibrium of ABCD under the stresses acting on
BD and CD . The normal pressure along CD is constant by Hencky 's
theorem , and equal to Po' say. The distribution of normal pressure
along BD is fixed in te rms of Po and the shape of BD by the same theorem.
~he ~hear stress at all points on BD and CD is of course equal to k ; its
Sign IS such t hat CD is an a -line. By a little experiment ing the reader
t R. Hill. op. oit., p . 22 1.

[VIIl. f,

NON .STEADY MOTI ON PR O BLEM S. I

will 800n con vince him salf that ABOD can only be in equilibri um un der
this distribution of forces when BD is straight and P. = k. All plines
in BDK are then straight, the e-linee being the involutes of the circle
with centre 0 and radius cl..J2 (cf. Fig . 23). Using t he property that t he
p-lines may be generated. by unwinding a taut thread from the circle evolute, we see tha.t B D is of length rre/2..J2 since t he p lines between
E and B are tangential to the evol ute over an angular span of 11'1'. U

VIII. 4]

EXP ANS ION OF A SEM I CYLI NDRICAL CAV I T Y

meets the fOC&1 circle in th e re quired point F . It is evide nt that QF ia

tangential to t he ca vity surface and that it is of unit length. F is the
focus for all points on the stra.ight slip-line through Q. If (p,8) are polar
coordinates with respect to 0 and the horizontal, the eq uation of ..
trajectory in BDE is
d8 J(2p'-I)
dp ~ P{p'_I )
(12)
A

8 is the angular coordinate of 8. point on the surface of t he cavity.

measured round 0 from the horizontaJ, the angle t urned through in
peeeing fro m BD along an e -line to t he point is equal to 8. By Hencky 'e

theore m the mean comp ressive atreee at t he surface is k( 1 26), and the
neceeeery norm al pressure is 21:(1+ 8). Th e mea n work needed to make

",,,

unit volume of t he cavity is 2k(I + 111).

circle

We ha ve still to verify the hypothesis t hat BD is t he base of the rigid

coronet. This will be t rue if t he deformation of material below BD is
compatible with t he movement of th e coronet as a rigid body ; that is,
if the norm al component of velocit y on BD is un iform . No w, by one
Geiringer equ ation , the velocity component v is constant on each
stra ight p-line, a nd is therefore universally zero since it is zero on the
plastic-rigid boundary DE. Hence, by th e second Geiringer eq uation,
the component u is constant alo ng each a -line. But, since t he cavity
expands radially a t unit rate, U is equal to ./2 on BE. The speed of aU
elements in BD E is therefore t he same, and the coro net slides outw&rds
along DC with speed ./2 . In peeaing, we note that t he rate of work
unit volume is positive, being equal to ./2Jc times the local curvature of thi'
e-line.
Finally , in order t hat simi lari t y is maintained, we must suitably
determine t he shape of the coro net . I n the unit di agram (Fig . 61)
foci are situated on the circ ular arc A Z of radius ./2 a nd span 111';
focu s of elements in ABCD is & point A of t his arc suoh that OA .
parallel to DC, and 80 inclined at 450 to t he horizontal. The req .
ment that the trajecto ries of elements in t he coro net are directed
to wards their common focus A demands that the eurfecee of the coron
are plane and that A is the apex. Th e leng th of AB is equal to c, and the
length of Be to 1m: (since BD = ."c/2./2). Hence t he area of triangle
A B C is im:'; t his is equal to half t he sectional area of the ca vity, as .
na t urally must be since t he continui ng 8imi1arity implies that the cavityj
waa ex panded fro m a point.
To construct the focu e F of .. point P in SDK, the slip-line PQ ia
produced to touch the circ le-evolute at T ; the radius OT produ

!!5

,,
E,
,

FIG. til . Unit di&gnt.m and traiec torte. of

elenwontol for ,. ~i-c)'Iindrie.t cavit y e
panded in .. plano lFW"face.

If is the arc-length of a trajectory measured from its intersection

with DE,
'd
.u ~ J(dp' +p'd8') ~ _ LL

(P'- I)"

It will be seen from Fig. 61 that the focal distance /(,) is eq ual to p, and
eo, from (6),
ln ~ =
'0

f.!!..
J (, )

= _

fp'_ 1 - I ln~'_ I)'

p dp _

p: - l

o
"
where Po is the length of the radius to the point where the trajectory
meets DE. Th erefore,
CI( p2_ 1) = c:(p: - l ) =
(13)

r:- c:.

To find the final position (p,8) , when the cavity radius is c, of a point
overtaken by the plas tic boun dary when ita position was (Po, 80 ) , we fint
calc~te the correspondin g trajectory 8(p) from (12). From (13) we
obtam p , and hence 8. Th e final poRit ion in actual 8p&Oe is (r, 8), or
(Cp,8). In tlria way the deformation of a sq uare grid (Fig. 62) bu been
COmputed. The surface of the cavity ia formed fro m elemen te initially

N ON .ST E AD Y MOTI O N P R OBL E MS. I

(VIII.

'"
situated vertically below O. and it will be seen that these elements have

been su bjected to particularly heav y distortion. It will be noticed, too,

that part of the coro net baa been strained in simple shear. Reference to
t he unit di agram sho ws t hat elements which Ct'088 CD al ways rem ai n in
the rigid a rea A CD, and hence that. t he finite shear recei ved while CI'OMing CD is retained unchanged. The triangle OeD is therefore shea red
perel lel to CD into ita final position A CD.

VItI. 5) COM PRESSION OF B LOC K BETWEEN RO UG H P LA TES ZZ7

plates, and a va riety of materials and frict ional properties, indi cate that
t he plastic zones spreading in ward fro m left and right in variably meet
first in the geometric centre of the block. No theoretical investiga tion
has been carried out, nor indeed is it essential for a usefu l ana lysis of the
sub sequent distortion. We take t he experimental observat ions &8 our
starting-point, and auumt that the p lastic region develope in such a
way that a non-plas tic area is left in contact with each pla te over a
certain length near the centre.
Ou r idea lized material being rigid
t.

when stressed belo w the yield limit,

tH
t he plates cannot move together 80
long as a rem aining non-plas tic strip
of finite width spans the block. E ven
II)
when th e plastic zones ha ve fused ,
compre ssion may still not be possible. It is necessary , in addi tion ,
th at the tw o slip-lines through the
centre should be entirely contained
Ib)
within the plastic zone up to t heir
. ti
.h h I
So I
Flo. 63. Comp~ion o r .. rectangulu
June Ions WIt t e pates.
ong block bet n p".... llolpl..u..aho...ing the
as t hese slip-lines intersect t he non- configu ti on. (0) init ia ll)". and (6) during
plastic areas, no deformation con the eompr->ol'l .
eletent with Geiringer's equa tions is possible, and the block rem ains
rigid . We may legitimately, and convenientJy, re fer to t he moment
when the plates first approach each other &8 t he yield-point of the block
&8 a whole, and to the corresponding load on the plates as the yieldpoint load.
A plast ic-elastic block is neceeeerily compressed by any load, however
alight , bu t , when work -ha rden ing is absent, t here ie a pron oun ced bend
in the loed-ccmpreselon curve markin g t he initi ation of large p lastic
st rains. The load ing interval corresponding to the bend is narrow and
well defined , and the mean load in this interval should approximate
closely to t he yield -point of the plastic-rigid block. At lower loads the
amount of compression is restricted by t he elastic resistance of the nonplas tic strip, and all plastic strains are of an elas tic orde r of magnit ude .
Th e bend is the more ro unded and less definite, the more rapidly the
~aterial work-hardens. If the metal is fully annealed , it is altogether
Impossible to define a load which may be compared with th e va lue cal culated by t he theory. .
Pl astic deformation is also restricted by t he overha ng, part oCwhich

'r=~=-1

''-- - .-----'

Flo. 8%. Dietonion of a IqIlaN grid near a .emi-ey lin drical cavity ex panded in a p
...rlace.

5. Comp r ession of a bl ock betw een rough pl ates

(i) Funda7lWltal auumptiom. A rectangular block of pla.stic- rigid
material is com pressed between rigid parallel plates which are ass umed
to be 80 rough tha.t t he greatest possi ble frictional etreee , namely the
yield stress in shear , is induced wherever the relative dleplecemees
exceeds an elastic order of magnitude. It is supposed , to begin wit h,
t ha.t the block is wider than the plates (Fig. 63a) . In this problem
geomet ric similarity is not maintained , and we hev e therefore to follow,
from the very beginning , th e progressive changes in the configura tion.
Plastic zones are initiated at t he sharp edges of the plates by t he first
application of load , and epreed inwards. In a pleetic-eleetfc material
the d irection of spread, and t he shape of the plastic boun dary, are controlled by the Irictional etreesee ind uced by re lative d isplace ments of aD
ela.stic orde r of ma.gnitud e. Th e relat ion betw een the friction and t he
a mount of slip in t bi8 ra nge mU8t be very dependent on the particulat
metals u800 for the block and t he plates , and on the precise state of the
8urfa.ces of contect, However , e xperi ments with artificially ro ughened

[VIII. 5

VIII. 5] CO M P R ESS ION O F BL OC K BE TWEE N ROU G H PLATES 229

Since we have
mad e a hypothesis about th e development of the plastic region in one
direction, we cannot a void makin g anoth er about its development in
the opposite direction. Ex periments'[ suggest that t he overhang, even
if partly pia.stic, is thrt18t sideways as a rigid whole. I t follows that
the external plaaticrigid boundary must pass through t he edges 0 of
the plates (Fig. 64), intersecting the horizontal a xis of symmetry a t 4150
in A.
(ii) T M yWd potnlload.t Cons ider . now. t he slip -line field in the upper

therefore happena to be a natural boundary of t he solution (Chap. VI,

Sect . 4 (ii. The construc tion of th e field continues in similar fashion
up to the slip-line through th e centre of the block. The wedge-shaped
area included between t his slip-line and ite counterpa.rt in th e right-hand
quadrant is, by hypothe sis, rigid ; the boundary of th e pleetlc region is
indicated diagrammati cally by th e broken curve. The rigid wedge is
borne down with the plate , loeing materia l to the pleetic region so that
it cont inues to make point contact wit h Ita fellow.
Two boundary conditions are available for th e velocity solution in
the part olthe field ad jacent to t he wedge ; these are th at th e component
of velocity normal to the horizontal axis is zero. and that the component
normal to th e wedge boundary is equal to the component speed. of the
wedge in that direction. If t he plate is moved. with unit speed, there is
obviously a ta ngential velocity discontinuity of Amoun t "'2 along t he
wedge boundary ; its sense requires t hat th e boundary is en a-line.
The discontinuity is not propagated farther since t he boundary meets
the plate tangentially. The solution may be sy8tematieally continued.up
to the circular are A B . Since the normal component of velocity on the
slip-line OB is constant, it is constant on OA, whatever t he distribution
ofvelocity on AB. The disto rtion is therefore compatible with th e rigid body displacement of the overhang; this verifies th e initial choice of th e
shape of OA . There is no velocity discontinuity &Cr088 OA .
Considerations of th e equilibrium of t he overhang show that th e mean
compressive stress must have the velue k aJong OA. By Henoky 'e
theorem th e mean compressive stress on OB is equal to J:(I +i1'l"); this
is also the value of t he normal pressure actin g on the plate. The slip-line
field has been CAlculated by t he (R, S) method (Chap. VI, Sect . 6 (i)),
up to the slip-line DE. E coincides with the cent re of th e block when the
ratio of width to height is 6,72, epproximetely. The corresponding
pressure distribution on the plate is represented by the solid curve in
Fig. 64. Since we do not know th e state of stress within th e rigid wedge,
we can only calculate the average pressure between the plate and the
wedge; this is obtained by integra ting th e resolved components of the
stresscs acting on DE. (The load on this sect ion of th e plate is Ius than
it would be if the plasti c region extended farther to the right, since
there is then an additional upward thrust from th e shear st resses acting
Over the vertical section through E .) By cut ting off the field at various
POinte between 0 and E we may obtain, from the same solution, the
Pressure distribution for any block with a widthfheight ratio between
3'64 and 6'72. The average pressure P over the plate at the yield-point

NON . ST EAD Y MOTI ON PROBLEM S. I

'"
must be non-plaetde since th e surfaces are stress-free.

.E-

3 lA

,,

/ Pr~l l

f-7l~.(

distr1~.o.:

,,
,,
,

- --

~
. ~_

---- _#--

Flo. M . Slip .line field and plut ic regi on in a block cc m preeeed between
perfectly ro ugh palM, toge th er with . oomparison orthe aetuaJ p..-Ur&
diAribution ",'ith Prand tl ' .

left-hand quadrant (Fig. 64). OA is & convenient starting slip-line from

which to build up the field ; let U 8 suppose, all th e simplest trial &88Umpti on, th at it is straight. Since 0 must be a stress singularity , a field of
radii and concentric circular arcs can be extended round O. Now one
family of slip-linea meets th e plate orthogonally, since th e frictional
stress is equal to k; hence (third boundary-value problem) this radial
field may be cont inued up to the horizontal through 0 , the final slip-line
OB being completely coincident with the surface . The arc AB and itt
reflection in th e axis of sy mmetry define the field ABO ( all in Fig. 30).
The field B CD is defined by the slip-line B C and th e boundary condition
on th e plate ; slip-lines of one family meet the plate tangentially, which
t J . F . N ye, MinMtI'y of Supply, Armament ~h Dept., Rep. 39/017.

l R. Hill . E . H . We,and S. J . T UPPN', MinMt ry of Su pply, Armament a - r ch Dept..,

Theoretical ~h Rep. 28/46. Y OI' hortet' ac count. _ R. ~ill and E . H .
Prot:.6t.\ I N . C""" . A pp . Md ., PerM, (1948); J OMrR . App. M d . 1m preM).

x.-.

JU1. U

{VI II. a

\'HI. 5] CO MP R ESS IO N 0 1' BLOCK BETWEEN RO U GH PLATES 231

is found to depend on this ra.tio very nearly ac cording to t he equation

vertical section, from the plate to t he axis of symmetry. Hence a vertical

line is deformed into a curve which is convex to the edge of th e block.
The final quantity obtai ned in a calculation of the velocity solut ion is
the out ward speed of t he overhang; t his may be compared with the
accurate value, which is wfh times th e speed of th e plates, since the
material is incompressible. It has been found'[ that the resultant error,
after first computing a 5 net as fa.r a.s E by t he ( R. S) meth od, and then
computing the velocity components from E outwards by t he equat ions
of Section 6 (i) in Chapter VI , is only 02 per cent.
The equation of t he contour of t he material squeezed from between
the plates is easily found. Let (x, y) axes of reference be taken such t hat
the axis of x coincides wit h th e horizontal axis of symmetry , and the
axis of y passes through th e left-hand edges of the plates (Fig. 63b).
Let 2l be th e t hickness of t he overha ng at a distance % from th e plane
:r = O. During a further increment of compression the overhang moves
out th rough a distance - w dAfA. The tangent to the surface at the edge
of the plate is therefore in t he direction of the block diagonal . Th is is true
at all moments of th e compression, and hence

230

NON . STEADY ) IO TI O N PR OBLEM S. I

P
2k

( 14)

~ .+ .h

where 2w is t he widt h of the block, and 2h. is the height. Experimentet

with tellurium lead (005 per cent . tellu rium ) hav e confirmed this reletl on in the range of strain for which the ra te of work-hardening is sm&1l
(k ,..", 13 X 10' dynesfcm.' after about 30 per cent. pre -strain in compression).
When wfh is less than 364, but greater than unity, th ere is a solution
in which the rigid wedge extends over the whole plate (Fig. 65); th e pla.sti

o
Flo . ~ . Slip-line field IUlII plutie regi on in ..

bloc k oomp~ bet ...~n rough pIa,,". when

the . idth of the pla iN ill bet..Mn I ~d 3-64
timN t he height of the blo.-k .

region is compat ible with the rigid -body di8p~e.ce~ent of the ove~
since th e velocity component normal to OB 18 stili constant. It 18 ~
known with certainty for what range of frictional conditio ns thi s eolut i
is appropriate , though similar zones of intense shear , radiating from
edgee of th e plates, have often been observ~.t For t he sl~p.line field
80880Ciated velocity distribution when wflt. IS less than umty see Cba
IX (Sed. 5 (Ui)) .
(iii) DUwman of a blockafter a fi niu rompru 8i<m . I t is obvious that .
present soluti on is valid no matter what the amount of compreesc
since th e overhang remains rigid . As t he compression cont inues, we ~a
to deal, in effect, with a series of blocks of increasing width jhei
ra.tio. No calculation has been made of the distortion of a squ a~
after a finite compreeeion, but only of th e displacements dunng
infinitesimal compression following the yield -point. 1~ is found t
the horizontal component of velocity inerea.ses steadily, over
II s. ..
. F',N~. op . c\ it- P'Nt~;1 PllUtil:ily cha p . 11 (McO.... .mu Boo k Co. 18' 1).
or "",amp e. A .

'
.
228
.

I R . Hill. E . H . r.-. a nd 8 . J . T up pe r. op. Clt.. p .

<it

JZ= w'

or

t = ~.

(15)

The total distance through which th e overhang hee been dieplsced is

therefore w ln( H l h), where 2H is the initial height oCthe block.
(iv) ComprU8ian betwun partiaUy rough. p'lalu. For simplicity,
suppose t hat th e frict iona.l condit ions are such that the shear st ress on
the plates has some constant value, less t han k : The slip-lines t hen inte rsect the plates at constant angles (if th~ coefficient of friction were constant, the angle of intersection would vary with th e normal pressure
along th e plate). Th e read er should have no difficulty in constructi ng
the field, analogous to Fig_ 64, aeau ming that t he Blip-lines t hrough
the edges of the pletee are st raight . Thi s, however, cann ot be the correct
solution for all widthfheight ratios since the velocity discont inuities,
initiated at t he block cent re, are now propagated by successive reflection
from t he plates down the whole length of the block. It is easy to show
that t he amount of t he discontinuity is multip lied at each reflection
by the factor tan8, where 8 ( ~ jw) is th e angle at which th e c-lines
meet the plate ; th e discont inuity is th erefore progressively diminished
(unleea t he plate is smooth) but never becomes zero. When th e dimensions of t he block are such that th e discontinuities terminate at the edges
t I bi,l. p . 22S.

l VIII.

,,'111. ~J CO M P R ES S ION OF BLO C K BETW E E N R O U OH PLATES 233

of the pla.te&, the field is valid. For all ?t.h~r dime~on8 t.be di8C~)Q.ti.
nuitiea terminate on the exit sliplint>8 ; this ie in compet ible WIth the rigid,
body movement of the overhang. The correc t 801ut100 is not kn own;
the situation is enelogoue to t htLt DOted in sheet-drawing (Chap. VU.
Sect. 2 (i)). In particular, when there is no frict ion on the plates,
solut ion !ails unless the widthfheight ratio is integral ; the block th
deforms, momentarily, &8 8. nu mber of independent rigid unite, whi

These equat ions are due to Prandtl.f The slip-linea may be shown to be
cycloids with slopes

23%

N ON .STEADY )IQ T ION PR OBL E MS. I

sli de along 8. criee-ceoee of slip-lin es . When there is no o ve rha ng . .. hi

compressed between fricti onless plates de forms ~niformly:

(v) Pranda'3 cycloid "olution. When t he block 18 ve~ wl~e compared
with its height, it might be expected that t he field of slip-lines ~
more unifor m with increasing distance from an edge, and that, 10 thi
limit, th e slip-lines of eech family are parallel curves. It has in
been shown] tha.t such a limiting configuration is approached, n
stea.dily, howeve r, but in a qua.ei-oscillatory man ner typiea.l of h
belie differential equations.
In ord er to find this limit ing field, it is simplest to return to
Cartesian form of the basic equatione (Chap. VI , Sect. 2). With the
of Fig. 636 , if the slope of the slip-lines is independent of e , 80 al~
{cf' equation (11) of Cha p. VI) . Thus, we ma y wnte
~ - a , and T n <
Tn<

= kJ(y ),

a~ -a,

= 2k.J(I -J' ),

whereJ(y) is to be determined . Substitution for

tiona of equilibrium givee

Tn<

00, =
Oy

o.

1la' + k f lY) = 0 ,

a.

an d

a. in t he eq

These are compatible if and only if

f lY) = ay +b,

. , ~ - k(az + ej,

wbere e band c are constants. The boundary condi tions are Tn< =
when y:"" '0, and Tn< = mk when y = h, where 0 E;;; m " 1 (m = 1 f
perfe ctly rough plates). Hence a = m!h, b = 0, and

k~ = -c -T+
mx)(
2 1- m'y') ,
7

mx
k=- C- T'

Tn< _

T -

my
A '

t R . Hill. E. H. 10M, and S. J . T uppM'. op . eu., p. 228.

(I

1 (mY/A))
) ( I'f (my/A) ,

and ra.dii of curvat ure

When m = 1 the projection on the zax is of t heir length from plate to

plate iSll'h ; they are divided by the e -ex ls in t he ratio (111' + I ): (1.,,-1).
Since th e left -ha nd edge of t he block is free from stress, the resultant
horizontal thrust on a vertical section must bala nce the fri ctional
resistance exerted by the plates. Hence

fa~

dy = - mh:o

sin- 1m
-+"(l-m') .
m

e= -

This requires

(17)

Note that ok would be the valu e of t he pressure on the pla te at the edge
(z = 0) if this solution extended so far ; that is, if the distribution of
external eteeeeee required by (16) were applied over the edge of the
block. Pra.ndtl's solution for m = 1 (c =
is compared with t he
accurate solution in Fig. 64. It will be seen that Prendtl'e solu tion is a
very good approximation , even up to a distance h from t he edge; the
correct pressure distribution oecilletee a bout the Prandtl d istributi on ,
the amplitude preeumably decreeeing steadily. This may be regarded
as the pleetlc analogue of Saint Venant's prin ciple in elaaticity.
If we regard Prendtl 'a field &8 applicable (with negligible error ) in
the central part of a suffi cient ly wide block, the rigid wedge is bounded
by cycloids. The correspondi ng velocity distribution, constructed as ex plained in (ill, has been calculated when m = 1 by Geiringer, t in a region
near the cent re, using the Green 's function method (Cha p. VI , equation
(30)). It might be expected that , at a sufficiently great distance from the
centre (the velocity discontinuity having diminished to negligible pro POrtions), a limiting distribution of velocity would be approached, such
that the strain-ra te is independent of z. This hee not been Investigated,
but t here is a possibl e limiting distribution with Cartesian components

r)

~=C +i-~J(I -mh~i ,

At

i'~\.I
.
Gei.nnpr.

ac4. 56 (1137).

~ .". - ~,

( 18)

Zei,- . DOOf Mal4. M A. 3 (1123), 401.

.
Proc. Jrd I "". COOO/J. App. MA., 8toekh ohn, l ( IISO), 186 : M m.. Sri.

NO N .STE A DY MOT I O N PROBLEMS . I

[VIII. 6

where U is the speed of the pfatee . These expressions are d ue to Nad&iit

it may be verified that they satisfy equations (4) and (7) of Chapte r VI.
They Are not valid near t he centre, since they are incompa tible with
the movement of the wedge as a rigid body. Fo r the rete of work to
positive, the radical in (16) an d (18) must be given the positive sign
The parameter C must be determined so tha.t the horizont&1 flow &C1'08I
a vertical section is equ al to the rate at which mate rial to the right
displaced by the plates. This requires

_ [ u

dy = (w - x )U,
sin - 1 m

0 = -/i + ...-- +;n J(l -m' )'

0'

(18)

It is evident from (1 8) that an element always remains at t he sam

relative distances from t he pla te a nd the a xis, since

~ (~) _ ~ dy _J!. dh _ !+yU =

de 1&

1& dl

AI de

hi

o.

Thus, equally spaced horizo ntal lines remain equa lly spaced. Consi
now, the horizontal d isp1&cement of an element for which g/A has
constant value "I' At &Oy moment, let be the distance by which it
in adv eace of t he surface element which was origina lly situated in
same vertical section. Then , from (18),

_ d! =

.!- d! =

dhUdl

Integrat ing:

~ +~ J( l-m"') -~ J(l-m')'

1&

~ _ (H' - h) [J( l -m',')-J(l-m' )].

m

[H~hl + .j(I -ml)r + m1&~ 1 =

or

1.

Thi s is the equation of t he curve into which an original vertica.l line

distorted. It is a sect ion of an ellipse wit h semi-major axi s hIm
semi-minor axis (H I- hl )/mh. Wh en t he plates are perfectly ro
(m = 1), the ellipse is tangential to the surface at the extremities of
maj or a xis. Under these condit ions the calculated curve has been fo
to be in good agree ment with that observed when t he rate of ~
ha rdening is small.t When the plates are partially rough, it is evid
that th e deformat ion can be visualized as though the block were part
a larger block whose initial height is H /m.
t A.

N"adai (nn p u bli. hed work ).

\'111 .5] CO MP R ES S ION OF BL OCK BE T W EEN R O U GH P LATE8 236

(vi) Solution wlw:n the plalu ovulap 1M block. Subject to aim.il&r

provisos concerning the prior development of the plastic region, t he
field of Fig. 64 is also valid at t he yie ld-point of a rectangular block
compressed bet ween perfectly rough, overlap ping plates . The rightangled t riangula r region to the left of O.A is stressed in pure compression,
and, although entirely pla.st ic, is displaced outwards &8 a rigid whole.
The solution therefore continues to hold throughout the eubeequent
eompreseion.t so t hAt, rather surprisingly , there is no barrelling. It
may be shown t hat elements on the free surface gradu&lly move round
the com ers to the surfaces in contact with t he pla tes . The slip-line field
for this problem W&8 first given (qualitatively) by Prandtl ;t however,
he was not aware that t he associated velocity solution is such that the
plane edges rema in plane.
If the edge is initially concave, the field is differen t . Assuming that the . . .
edge is plastic, the solution is defined in the region bounded by the two-" I
slip-lines from the comers, ma lting 450 with the edge (second boundaryvalue problem). Each of t hese slip-lines and t he singularity at the correspond ing com er define a regio n up to t he (curved) slip-line which is
ta ngential to the plate. Th e construction of the field conti nues in t he
usual way up to the boundary of t he central rigid wedge. The velocity
boundary condit ions impose no res trictions on the field since t he edge of
the block is plastic (it is necessary , of course, that the rate of work should
everywhere be positive). Du ring the ensu ing compressi on t he shape of
the edge, and with it the slip-line field, progressi vely change. If, on t he
other hand, the edge is initially wrtVtz, the adj acen t part of the block
ia preeumebly displaoed as a. rigid whole, 80 that the starting slip-line
te straight, &8 in Fig. 64. The same field is then va lid t hroughout the
compression.
Suppose, now, that the pla tes are only partia.lIy rough . If the edge
ill initially concave or straight, t he ' nat ural' field is valid . When t he
velocity disconti n uities do not termina te at t he corners , they a re au t omatically accomm odated by the pkutic edge, whose shape is thereby
altered. An analogous field cont inues to hold during the subsequent
compression if the edge remains plastic. If t he edge is initially convex ,
the solution is vali d only if the block dimen sions are such that the
discontinuities end at the comers. Sokolovsky ha s compu ted the
pressure distribut ion on t he plates when the block is rectangu lar,
..I. ..!..- ~. Hill, Di.NerIaliool, p . 138 (Camb ridge. 19-1 S), iaeued by Minilt ry of Supply ,
" ' -.nent n-teh E.tabIWunollt, .. S\U'Vfly 1' 48 .
Z L. I'rand tl. Zftu. ....,. \1tJ1J1 \1 4. 3 (1923), 40 1.
f W . W . So kolovU1. T"-ry 0/ P~irilll , J'. 180 (M_ _ I NS).

sse

NON . ST E A DY MOTI O N P RO BLE MS. I

without, however , recognizing the limits to the range of validity of the

solution.
If the frictional condi tions are eucb that there exists 8. coefficient
friction po. we can easily obtain an app roximate estimate of the yield.
point load, which should not be too inaccurate when p. is small.
&88umptions of the analysis are analogous to those of Sachs' tbeo
of drawing, OT von KArman' s t heory of rolling. Let p be the PI'688Ul1l
on the plates a t a dis tance :r fro m the left -hand edge of the block .
2q" be th e to tal horizontal t hrust on a vertical section ; q is then
mean compreuivt stress a.cting over th e section. For equilibrium of
slice of the block contained betw een the vertical planes :t and x+dz,

(q+dq )h-qh
dq

_p <ix,

-p

dx=""h'

or

It is now assumed (cf. equation (26) ofCha.p. VII) tha.t the yield condi .
may be written approximately as
p -q = 2k.
Eliminating q between these equations :
dp

p.p
dz = '"

or

_ 2"-.
Jl'v- ,

p -

after using the fact t h&t q = 0 and p = 2k when .r = O.

press ure is

P = _1 p <ix _2kh
_ ("'""_ 1),
10

_ 10

or since Il is , by h ypothesis, small,

P_ 2k(I +~:).
If the compression plates are n ot ca refully lubricated, the appa
yield stress p may significantl y exceed the true yi eld stress n ,
ticu1a.rly when the block is wide compared with its height. For the co
sponding analysis for a cylind rical compression epecimen.eee Chapter
(Sect. 7).

IX
NON -ST E AD Y MOTION PROBLEMS IN TWO
DIMENSIO NS. II
1. Introduction
W& tum now to tw o-dimensional problems in which, for simplicity,
it is neeessa.ry to restrict th e analysis of the state of etreee to the initial
part of t he loading path, when the total etrain is stil l small. I t will be
assumed , in fact, that aU changes in tk exrernal dimen.rion.t oj 1Mbody are
rugligible, 80 far as the boundary conditions are concerned. Th e plastic
strains being small, it is generally inacc urate, even for a calcu1a.tion of
th e et rese di stribution, to suppose that the material is plastic-rigid ;
however, it will be sh own that in certain cir cumstances the stress is
independent of the value of Young's modulus. We shall therefore carry
out t he analysis for a plastic-elastic material, and eeeu me only that it
haa been pre -stra ined to a degree such that the work-hardening is negli gible in the ra nge of strain under consideration. Wh en such a body is
conti n uously loaded fro m a stress-free state the plas tio and elastic components of the strain are at first com parable. The non -plastic part of
the body constrains the displacement of t he remainder, and the overall
diatortion of t he body is of order l /E xthe mean eteeee. As the leeds
are raised, the plastic regi on expands to a size where t his cons traint
becomes locally ineffecti ve ; large plastic strains are then possi ble, and
the overall distortion increases at a ra te (relatively to t he a pplied loada)
controlled only by t he cha nging shape of the specimen. In a non-hardening material t he loading interval during which this t ransition is effected
ie well defined when there is a sufficient freed om of flow; a curve of load
plotted. against some measure of the overall distortion would then have a
rapid bend corresponding to the transiti on . In a plas tic-rigid body, on
the other hand , no d eformation at a ll is possible until the plastic region
~ttains a certain critical size; th e loed -diato rtion cur ve has a discontinuity
In slope at the load under which distortion begin s. Th e bend, whenever
it is SUffic iently well d efined , will be described &8 the yieldpoint oj tJu
~Y for th e par ticular loading path ; thi s is a te rm already introduced
m the discussion of t he compression of a m&88 between roug h plates
(Chap. VIII , Seer . 5 (i)) . In many problems the yield -point load is
the quantity of greatest interest, and a mai n object. of the analysis will
be to calculate it . In view of the initial eeeumpn on , the yield -point.

N ON .STEAD Y MOTION PROBL EMS. II

(IX. I

'"
load represents the upper limit 00 the range of validi ty of the prese nt
analysis.

2. Formulation of the problem

(i) A.uumption 01 inwmprusibility. In a pleetlc-eleetlc body, eubjeeted to plane st rain, the et rees a. in a plastic element depends on the
strain-history. Since the displacements in the planes of 80w depend 0
their ca.lculation is a matter of extreme difficulty. We have seen,

0',.

however, that when P Oi8800'S ratio is t this difficulty d isappears, since

is always equal to i(a.ll +a,). Throughout this chapte r we sha ll take
ad vantage of this and set II = , . The state of stress in any element iI
then & pure shear combined with & hyd rostat ic pressure. while the
maximum shear etreee is &. constant k t hroughout the plastic region.
Although this simplificatio n is not adequate to afford even a to lerably,
acc urate value of a. for & compressible material (the plastic strain bein
smell}, thiB does not grea tly matter since a knowledge of Ct, ie not uaue
of much interest. On t he other ha nd, the accompanying error in t
yield criterion is negligible for most purposes (cf. the expenaion of
cylinder by internal pressure, discussed in Cha p. V). Thus, when
boundary conditions are such that the problem is statically de
mined, the calculated stresses Ct., Ct. , and r sho uld be very secure
Even when the bou ndary conditi ons inv olve prescr ibed external .
placements the erro re in Ct. , Ct.-' a nd 'r.., can be expected to be f .
small .
(ii) T lu ba.m Vl1UJIwJU. In a problem of non-steady motion the
figurat ion of stress and strain is continually cha nging. The problem
properly posed only when the ent ire load ing (or d isplace ment ) path
specified ; that is, when the load s (or displecementa) applied to the surf
are given at all t imes from t he moment when the bod y was origi
stress-free or in a kn own sta te of initial st ress. In a body lia ble to pi
yieldi ng the state of stress does not depend only on t he current I
I t is apparent that the inte rmediate development of t he plastic regi
a nd hence its fina l extent, depends also on the route by which the cu
load ing has been rea ched . For example, th e individual loads might
increased from zero in proportion ; some might be raised to their
values before t he oth ers; certain load s might be applied and aubeequen
remo ved. BO that they do not ap pear in t he final system , and BO on.
following typical boundary -value problem therefore presents it8elf
each stage of the lcedtng-pe th : given the previously calculated state
streflB throughout t he body at one moment, wha t are t he (infinitesi m

0'.

IX. 2J

F ORMULATION OF THE PR OB LEM

'"

incrementa in stress and strain produced by further incrementa in the

loads and displacement.e applied to the surface.
Instead of the differentials da., da. , and d'rltt/' we may equally well use
the stress-ra tes 6., a., and
obtained by dividing by th e differential
dt, where t deno.tes time or an y other mon otonically varying qua ntity
(such as ~n applied load) . To t he approximation in volved in neglecting
changes In the external dimensions of the body we may disregard the
movement of any element and interpret the time-derivative as referring
to the variation at a fixed point.
The steeea-retea must satisfy the equations of equilibrium, which,
to the sa me order of approximation , are

+..,.

aaz.+8+zr = 0

hBy'

Ofz +au. = 0

.xBy

In en element which undergoes cont inued plasti c deformation,

remaining stressed. to the yield limit, we m ust have

(1)
80

alatU (a.- a. )I + 'r~} = 0,

1(a.-a..)(6.-a. )+'rz.+rr = O.
(2)
On th e ot her hand, in a plastic element which begins to unload, or in
or

an~ ~I~ment in the elastic region, the atrese -retee satisfy the com.

patlbilityequation
(3)

eI~~ng the co~dition for the existe nce of a cont inuous velocity
satl8:ytng t he elastic stress-st rain eq uations. ACl'088 the existi ng plastic.
elastiC boundary (or, indeed, any curve) the normal and shear components of the stress-rate must be contin uous for equilibrium ; the normal
com~nent acting parallel to the boundary may , however, be dis contrnuoua (this happens, for instance, in a bent or twisted bar). It
y be sho~n ~ithout difficult y t hat equations (I )and (2) are hyperbolic,
th the slip-lines of t he existing state of stress as cherec terietlce. (l )
an~ (2) may:t herefore be tran sformed into relat ions givi ng th e variations
d(p) and d() along the slip-lines in t he loading part of th e plastic reman
~
, ' I
~
,
pnnetp e, t hese relat ions can be integrated by the usual sma ll-arc
prOC~88, sta:ting from values of p and ~ known (or assumed) on the
plastlc-elastlc boundary, or on a plastic section of the surface.
However , the differential form of t he stress equations is best suited..
for general investigations, such as t he discussion of uniqueness (see
below), and it is usually simpler in approximate computation to work

:t

NON .STEA DY MOTION PROBLEMS. II

(IX . J

with the equatiOIll in t heir integrated form. For this purpose, let
u" . a TZW now refer to the unknown stresses whose values are required
after a further emell, but finite, change in the external leeds or dieplacements. The equations of equili brium are

:-+?

,o;;+~ =

= 0,

O.

IX.!}

8u,.,+Ov,_ +,Q
2<..

(:>~,+a,)

ax

0.,

az -

o.

The componenta of the plast ic stra in-rate are

OIl,.,

az -

c7~
20 '

~_~
8y
20'

!(&,., + ~)_ +,Q

2 8y
az 20 '

20

1 (0
Oy = 20 a,.,- 6.,)

a;; - '~(''-'') - - ~o

(6)

Now, in the usual nota tion,

It. = 1tC08 ~ - V Sin ~ ,
v Bin ~ + t1 C08~ ,

Substituting in equations (6) :

~ (~at ('in ')). ....

(:"(' '''''' ~-V'in ~).-0 ;= - 20

(3

where the subscript zero refers to the moment when unloading bega"l
Coming, now, to the calculation of the increments of dieplecemen
let V z and VII be the components of velocity. The equation of incom
pressibility is
&
ov

a;

(6)

a. -a... = - 2ksin ~ .

In an element which has unloaded from a plastic state during t he inte

under considera tion, or at any previous tim e,

azz +

By

6.)'

at P. When combined. with (4) , this leads to

v. =

0,

in view of the identity a~ -a~ =- a.-a.,.

When th e eteeee-retee have been calculated, (4) and (6), together with
suita ble boundary conditions, serve to determine th e velocities in the
loading part of th e plastic region. The chara cterist ics are , of course
still th e slip-lines, and the relations along them are found by the method
of Chapter VI. Let th e (x,y) axes be taken coincident with the (c.,P)
directions at some point P. Since a. = (1." (5) reduces to

= O.

(~I+ ~1)(az+a,-azO-a..) =

ax

By

a.-(1, ""'" Ouz _ Ov, _ (6,.,

All the th eorems proved in Chapter VI, relating to t he slip-line fi

are applicable. In a n element which bas been etreeeed elastically ev
since it was stress -free,

S401

where th e subtracted terms constit ute the elastic component of the

strain.ra t:e. Now, ~ ~n element of ideal material undergoing pJa.stic
deforma tion, the principal a:le8 of th e plastic strain-rate coincide with
the principal axes of th e atreM. The condition for th is is

(1')

The pleatic-eleeti c boundary alten slightly during this interval, and i~

new position bas to be determined. This additional unknown qua.ntity,
is balanced by the condition that aU componen ts of st ress must be made
continuous scrcee the boundary, m oo elements just on th e elestic .
must be on the point of yielding. (This should be carefully cont ras
with the formulation of the stress-rate problem , where it was mentioned
that one component of the stress-ra te is not neceeaerily continuoua.:
There the value of the stress in 8. given element after a small interval .
obtained, in principle, by integration of the etreee-rate : since the lat
i8 only momentarily discontinuous as the element is traversed by
moving plasti c boundary, th e stress components th emselves are
cont inuous.) Throughout th e new plasti c region the stress satisfies the
yield criterion
I(a,., _ a, )'+r_11 __ >1:.
I-I

F ORMULATION OF TH E PROBLEM

(6

whence

~Jv sin f+ v c08~) =

(s
."0
du -v d4> = -

.!.(!(sin'J4
20 at

~ d8..

k
dv+ u ~ = 0
'" d8ft

.-0;

on an e-Hne, }
(7)

on a p-line.

These. are th e analogues of Geiringer's equationa 14) of Chap. VI ),

to which they reduce when a is infinite (It end v being non-uro) or when
the slip-line field doea not change in ti me (for example, in a certain area

...

NON . STEADY MOTION PR OBLEMS. II

[I X . 2

nea r & free plas tic euefece). For approximate computation these eque tiona can be rewritten in terms of smell increments of disp1&oement;
the to tal diapla.cemen t is given by to summation ove r the whole st rr.inpeah, Equations (7) lore solved , in the usual way, by integrating along
the slip-lines from the plastic-elastic boundary or from the surface of
the body, using &8 bound ary conditions the values of u a nd v calculated
in the elastic regi on or prescribed on the surface.
In the elas ti c region and in the unloading part of the plastic region the
streaa-stra in relations (in different ial form) are

4G ~ _

4G ~ ~ -

G(~+ ~) =T...

}
(8)

where use has been made of the identity E = 30 for an incompressible

material. Equation (3) is, of course , obtained by the elimina tion of u..
and \'" from (8); conversely , when the stress-rates have been found,
ll&tiafying (3), there exist velocities U z an d v,. which satisfy (8).
(ill) Statically dturmimd probkma.t Since we are considering small
strains only , the uniqueness t heore m of Chapter III (Sect . 2 (ti l) eeeuree
us that if a distribution of et reee-rete is found such that all the streu
and velocity equations, together with the continuity a nd boundary conditions, are satisfied, then it is unique. We must now inquire when the
problem is statically determined : that is, when the bou nda ry condi tions
are such that t he stress-rate can be calculated uniquely from the st~
equations alone , with out reference to the eeeccieted velocity eolurion. f
Now it is obvious t ha t when displacements are prescribed over a part
the boundary (for example, in a body indented by a rigid die of give
shape) the state of eteeee and the exte nt of the plastic region cannot , in
general, be found independently of the associated velocities. (There are
certain apparen t exceptions, to be noted leter. ) However , eve n whe
all the boundary condi tions rela te to stresses only , the problem is still
not necessarily statically determined. Taking, for deflniteneea, the
when no plastic element unloads, it is necessary in addition that no slip
line should cut the plast ic-elastic interface more t han once ; in oth
t

TIle follow ing di8cu.ion an d t heorema are taken from unpubliahed work of
(1941 ).
! Apan from verify ing that the ra t.e o r plutic work ill p<it ive .
f That th i. it not universally nec- " ) ' CIILl be Men by reference to the c.... \0'
the en t ire body u nload. ; t he .treu.ra"- then ..ti.lf~ the el...t ie eq.uat ion. IIvery whe
uuI .... un iq u.ty determined by them ...hen the appl ied IoadI .... glVen .

",,;ter

IX . 2J

}'O R MUL A T ION O}' T HE PROBLEM

2013

w~rd~, eve~y pl&&~ic element must be linked with the surface by t wo

slip-lines lyin g entirely within the plasti c region . If thi s condition is not
fulfilled , t he stress eq uations alone are not sufficient to determine the
stresses and t he pleenc boundary uniqu ely.
To prove this, conside r Fig. 66a where th e shad ed area P represents
the plastic region at some moment, and the unehaded area E the elastic
region. B,Y hypothesis, certain slip-lines in P cut t he plastic-elaatic
interface 1: t wice. Let A B be one of these slip-lines a nd let CD be the
parti cular slip-line of t he other famil y which c~ AB and intersects

~
(al

(b)

F lO. ~6. CoNltroct.ioNl used in e xaminJJlg when _ p!qt ic.

",tut le .tate o f .t~ it u niq.... ly d efined by the . t ..bo undary ec n dlticns alone ,

I at right angles. Suppose that one etrees-re te distribution bea been

found , satisfyin g all eq uations a nd boundary cond itions throughout the
body. This sol utio n defines certain values of p and ~ along AB. Now
l~t ~n ~rbitrary. d~stribution of ~ be chosen on CD, su bject only to the
limitation that It IS contin uous along CD and at C' the differential rele t ' be
'
,
I,on twee? p~nd 1> a long CD th en gives the corresponding va lues of p.
~Ince t~e slip-lines a re characteristics for the stress-rates, the values of
p and. 1> a long A C a nd CD define a solution of the pleetic eteeee-rate
~uatlons th rou ghout t he whole of A CD . Simi lar ly, a solution is defined
In B CD by the va lues a long B C a nd CD . By combining these wit h the
part of th e known solution which re fers to plastic elements outs ide A CB
W h
e ave eVIidently constructed a nother stress-rate d istribution in P.
The ca rreepond mg
'
va I ues of p a nd ",' on I dete rmi ne valuea of th e normal
and shea r components of the stress-rate ac ting across 1:. We draw, now,
on a well-known theorem in elasticity to t he effect that for any applied
ex~mal stre88ell (in equilibrium) there exis ta a corresponding distri~Utlon of etreee within th e body satisfying the ela.stic equations ' this
Is o bvl
,. . for the st ressrate. By applyi ng th e theorem to E ,
VIOUtlI y true &l/JU

' <4

NON.S TEADY MOT IO N PR OB L EM S. II

[I X .

we see that. solut ion of the stress-rate equations , sat isfyi ng all boundary
cond itions, can be eeeocieted with an arbitrary choice of ~ on OD.
Thi ll com pletes t he proof. Now the uniqueness theorem of Chapter 111
ind icates t ha t t he actual distribution of stress-rate is t hat with which
there can be eeeociated solution of t he velocity eq uations. To under.
stand how this requirement im poses res trictions on t he stress -rate, note
fint that there is & unique velocity solu tion in E eeeocieted with &n
distribut ion of stress-rate. By the theorem of Section 6 (ii ) in Chap
VI , the correspondin g velocity components on AD determine
velocity throughout A CD, wh ile the compo nents on BD determine th
velocity throughout BCD . However, there ie no a priori reason why,
these two solutions should lead to the sa me velocity on CD. It. follo
that a eelf-coneietent distribution of velocity can only be found if
valu es of ~ on CD are properly chosen.
It remai ns to mow that the problem it statically d etermined 1I'h
no slip-line cute 1: t wice (still referring to the case where no p
element unloede) . Now, if an a rea of plastic material is comple
contained wit hi n the elastic region , 1: is obviously cut more than on
by any slip-line. Th us, no p roblem where a plastic nucleus arigina
within the body is statica lly determined. Consider , therefore , a p
region compris ing one or more zones intersecting t he su rface S ; Fig. 66
shows a t ypical zone which includes a section AB of S. Since, by h
thesis, any slip-line crossi ng 1: else intersec ts A B , p ' lies within
triangu1a.r area bounded by A B and t he inte rsecting slip-lines thro
A and B. Hence t he prescribed external stress-rates on AB un iqu
de ter mine the etreee -retee t hrough out P . Th e corresponding no
end shea r co m pone nts of the stress-rates act ing across 1:, together wi
the other boundary condi tions for E , then uniq uely define the etrese-ra
di stribu tion in E (t he normal component acting parallel to 1: will th
fore usually be di scontinu ous a cross 1:, as was mentioned previously
Th e pro blem is thus statically determined . Kn owing the etreee-re
in E , we can evaluate the corresponding velociti es uni quely , and .
particular t heir values on 1:. The letter define the velocity distributi
in P, which is d irectly calculable from (7); no inconsistency ca n e me~
eince no slip-line cuts 1: more t ha n once .
(iv) I nfluenu of the value of G. If th e velocit y equetione (7) and (8
are re -writte n with q uantities u ' = Gu and v' = Gv as dependen
variables, no elastic consta.nts a ppear expli citly . It follows that, W
the bounda ry conditi0n8 do not 8~cif!l the absolute value8 oj any d
plaumtnu , t he qua nt ities u' and v a nd the d istributio n of etreee a

IX. 2]

F O RM UL ATI O N O F TH E P R O B L EM

independent of G to t he app ro xima tion in volved in neglecting changes

in th e shape of t he body ; thus, at loads below t he yield-point, th e value
of 0 is effectively without in fluence on the stresses and the quantities e '
and V' . The displacement of an element a t a given moment is t herefore
directly proportional to I/ O.
In a plastic-rigid body t he etreee d istribution is the same , bu t the di llplacements are , of course, zero pri or to the yield- point . Neverthel68ll,
the quantities u' and e' have still to be int rod uced when the problem is
1Wl staticaUy dete rmi ned (even though th e boundary conditio ns relate
to stresses only ). Moreover, since t he streee-rate terrae in equations (5 )
and (7), re -writ te n wit h u ' a nd v', are comparable with the other terms,
tbey cannot usu ally be omitted in the rigid part of the plastic region with out introducing en appreciable error in the ca lculated 8treuu . This
shows, in a particu1a.r1y vivid way, why a pleet ic-rigid mate rial must be
regarded as a pleetic-eleetic material in which E is made to increase
without limit . If l IE were naI vely 86t eq ua l to zero at the outse t ,
thereby fores talling the int rod uction of u' and v' , there would be too few
conditions to define the extent of the plastic region when t he problem
ienct staticany detennined ; the reeu lt would be an ebee nce of uni quenesa.

3. Yleldln~ of notched bars under tension

In illustration of t he foregoing principles consid er a long bar, notched.
symmetrically on opposite sides, and pu Ued. in tension by forces which
are directed along t he longit udinal a xis and which are ateedily increased
from zero . The su rfaces of the bar perpendicular to the planes of flow
are et reee-free . Th e bar is eeeumed 80 long that the state of stress in the
neighbourh ood of t he notch ill, to any .desired appro ximation, independent of the precise distribu ti on of the end load. All boundary conditione
; fer. to ~oa.ds, and it follows acco rd ingly from Section 2 (iv ) that the
teteibution of etresa is not dependent on the elsa tic constants .
Southwell and Allent have shown how the etreee equatio ns ca n be
aolved numerically by the applicatio n of rela xatio n methode t The
equilibrium equ ations ere satisfied by the introd uction of a etreee function
!jJ such that
Uz

.1.

k = ~1I11'

a ll

Where t he eubecripta attached to

~ : . v. 8o uthW8U and D . N-. de

0xJ:

.1.

k = ~zZ'

iJJ

O. AIleD.

. V. Sout h_ D. RelGzGll.Qt\ M~

<>I'd. 19' 6).

"n.u

k=

or

- iJJzlI ,

re fer to partial derivatives. The

PAil. ~.

ROV. 8 00. A 242 {1960J. 379.

i .. T"--'k41 PAV.;e. (Clarendon Pre.

...

N ON -STEADY MOTI ON PROBLJo:!lI S. II

(IX.

(x, y) plan e is subdivided into a square network of ar bit r&ri ly fine mesh

a nd equa tions (2') and (3') , in t he form s

U+..- +..)'+# , ~ I
and

V't sa

(=' + ~lr' =

0,

are replaced by finite differen ce equations across the nodal pointe

the net. Values of ifi are tentatively assigned to the nodal pointe

IX . 3)

YI E L D I N G O F NOTCHED BARS UN DER T E N SI O N

'"

interface can only be found by satisfying the condition for th e existence

of a velocity solution. Since Southwell and Allen did not investigate
this point t heir results become progressively less reliab le &8 t he load is
raised. Nevertheless, th e general exte nt of the pla8tic region and ita
direction of spread are probably not far wrong, since these are mainly
a matte r of equilibrium. The results indicate that the pla.st ic boundary

modified until, after & process of t riaJ and error, the difference eq ua t i

and boundary conditione are sat isfied to en eccurecy warranted by t

fineness of th e mesh . Only one such solut ion is needed while t he bar'
still wholly elastic, since th e st ress at &ny point is proportional to
applied tension. Afte r & plastic n ucleus has formed (normally a t
root of t he notch ) separa te solu tions have to be found for each of & 8 U
ceeeion of small incrementa of the tension . I t is reasonably assumed.

no element unload s. so that at each stage one of the conditions helpi

to determine t he new plastic region is that it m ould completely enel
th e existing one; it is in th is way that th e previ ous history cont inues
influen ce th e course of events. Now the incrementa of stress are cspeb
of being eval uated uniquely only when th e steps in t he applied teneio
are infinite8ima l; the steps should therefore be taken 80 small that
uncertainty in placing th e plastic boundary is compara ble with t
errors inherent in t he finite difference formulae.
(i) Consider, first, a u micircular notGh (Fig . 67), whose radius r .
equal to one quarter of the width w of the bar; th e width 2a of
minim um section is therefore equal to 2r or iw. Thi s probl em bee
investigated by Southwell a nd Allen.t It is found that the bar defo
elastically up to a mean etrese of approximately 0 '33 x 21' distribu
over th e ends (the mea n longitu dinal stress across th e minimum secti
is t wice this). Yielding now occurs at the roots of the notches, and '
ap pears th at the shape of t he plastic region is initially such that t
pr oblem is statically determi ned; since the surface is circula r a nd et
free th e slip-lines are logari th mic spirals, as in a t ube expanded sYJD:
metri cally . The positions of t he bounda ry for various val ues of
applied tension are indicated roughly in th e figure. At tensions gree
th a n a bout 0 '45 X 2k , however, t he plastic regions obtained by South
well and Allen are such that the plasti c-elastic interface is cut twice b
certain slip-lines . According to the t heorem proved in Section 2 (iii
th e problem is no longer statically determined, and t he position of
t

R . V. South well and D . N . de O . A II.I. op .

ci~ .

p . 24G.

,,,
,
,I

~- ------ --

"
------------

F lO. 67. Su eee.i:ve poeitiona o r the plNtie bo undary in a

tenllion~ bM wit h t ..o wmieircu lar noteh_ laf't.cr Sou t h
w p ll a nd AI....n ). The numbe ... a t tached to the c urv e.
d enote t he applied ~an .tnu ( th~ u niaxia l tcnllile 3;eld
et r-- i. la ken u 100). Plane . t...in.

moves inwards from the notch at a rate roughly proportional to the

lncreeee in 10M until, at a tension of abou t 060 X21', t wo plastic nuclei
appear on the longitu dinal axle about a distance a from the mid-point
of the neck. Plast ic zones now develop very rapidly from t he nuclei,
and fuse wit h the prima ry zones by the time the te nsion has been increased only to 061 X 2k. Before this, t he o~erall exte nsion of th e bar
is of an elastic order of magnitude because of th e residual core of nonplastic material r unning the whole length of the bar . Following th e
fusion of the prima ry and seconda ry zones the plasti c region must continue to spread ra pidly , and large dietorticna 8000 become poeeible.
The yield-point load is therefore approximately equal to 0 '6 1 X 2kw
(per unit width normal to planes of flow).
It follows that the av erage longitudinal etreee a.cting ecrose the

'"minimum section at th e yield-point ill 122 X 2k . This is greeter (lX.

N ON .STEADY MOTION PR OB LEM S. II

th e plane strain yield stress 2k in unia xial tension, despite th e fact

the notc hed bar yields locally much earlier. This is in accord with ~
familiar experimental observation that in .. notch ed-bar teet t he m
atre88 in the neck, meeaured at th e yield-point, is greater t h o the t
yie ld et reee meeeured with an an-notched specimen. The re&8OD for
phenomenon is, broadly, that the lateral contraction which we
&coompanya uniform extension in the neck is partially inhibited by
ad joining bu lk of material; .. lateral tensio n is th ereby induced, in
Ieee of whic h the requisite shear eteeee for yie lding i.e only attained
means of an increased axial tension . When the metal work-hard
rapidly, &fly ba8ia of comparison between notched and un-uotch
epecimena must be eomewbet arbitra.ry in view of the complete ly ro
Ioed-exteneion curves ; however , the constraining effect of the notc h
still ap parent from t he general raising of the curve.j
The distribution of the lateral tension over t he minimum section
immediately calculable within that part of t he plastic region where
state of stress depends only on th e shape of the surface (Chap.
Sect . 5 (ii)). When the notch is circula r the slip-lines in t his part
logarith mic spirals, &8 we have mentioned , while t he t rajectoriee
principal stresa are normals to the surface and concentric circular
The longitudinal tensi le etreee is th erefore distributed &Cl'088 the
mum section, in "'iI pan oj eM pkutie region, according to the form

where :t is distance measured from th e root. a rises steadily from

value 2k at the root . The latera l stress is a ten sion of am ount ( 1 which increases from zero as we go inwards to th e plastic bound
Plastic yielding th us diepereee the concentration of etreee near th e
present while th e bar is still elastic , end reverses th e grad ient of
distribution of stress across the neck.
(ii) Consider, next , a notch whose root is a circular arc of rediue
and for th e present leave th e relati ve values of w, 1', and a unspeeift
The state of stress depends on th e t wo parameters wla and rIa, 'II
define t he shape of the notch. No detailed investigati on has been oa
out , but we can make what should be a tolerab ly accurate eatima
t &.e. (or example. M. L. F ried and G. Sat:ha, .4".. Sot:. T,.c . Mill ., Speo . Tech .
No. 87 (1849 ). 83.
t R . H ill. Q.... >1'. J _ no. Mh . .4pp. M alA. :J (1948), 40.

IX. 3]

Y IE LD ING O F NO TC HED B ARS UNDE R T E N SI O N

248

ofthe yield-point load when th e shape ofthe notch is such that th e plastic
region spreads directly across th e neck, somewhat as in Fig. 68. For a
given value of rIa we should natu rally expect this to happen when wla
is sufficiently large. It is convenient , for the present purpose, to reintroduce the plastic -rigid material in view of t he precision with which
the yield-point can be located. When the plastic region develops &8
in Fig. 68, a little consideration showlI that t he yield-point corresponds
to the moment when the slip-lines from the points
S, where t he plastic boundary 1: meets t he surface,
fall within 1: and intersect at the geometric centre
of the bar. No extension is previously possible
since, by the theorem of Section 6 (ii) (Chap . VI) , the
whole of the plastic region is rigidly conetre lned.]
2.
Following this moment, however, the ends are free to
move apart, and only the plast ic material between 1:
and the slip-lines 08 is held rigidly to the non-plastic
ends. There is eviden tly a discontinuity &CTOll8 08
.J _ FI o . 118.
Qualitative
. I
in th e tangentte
component 0 f ve Iocity ; if t he enlUl
"'P~tation of the
of the bar are drawn outwards wit h unit speed the plastic region at t he
discontinui ty is of amount ../2. The distribution of yield .point o.fa~y_
n otoehed b&r U1 tenaion.
velocity within 808 can be found , if required, from
the known velocity components normal to 08 by t he approximate
integratio n of Geiringer 's equetioee, or analytically by the application
of Riemann's method (Chap. VI , equation (30)).
We see, the n, that at the yield-point th e state of stress with in 8 0S ,
and in particular scroee th e minimum sect ion, is uniquely determined
by the conto ur of th e root (the position of 1: depen ds, of course, on the
notch depth). We can therefore calculate the yield-point load with out
needing to kn ow the distribution of stress thro ughout th e remainder of
the bar. It should be carefully observed how th is poeeibility depends
on the assumption that t he plast ic region spreads directly ecroee the
neck;t we cannot similarly sidetrack detailed calculations of the plastic
boundary in cases where it is impossible, or unsafe, to surmise the
direction of spread. .The distrib ution of longit udina l stress over th e

t I.t will ~ appreciated., afte, the dWcuaion o( Sect. 2 (iv), that the equat iOla (1),
~l~ten WIth u ' an d e', should .trictly have been woed, ra t h er than Geiringer'. equa.
t L _ ,U1 the p roof o( t he theorem. The argument . unaft'eeted. lince the alip .linel are
.... cbaracterinioa in bo th CUM
.t ~ abo on the oircumatanoe that the .t~ and velocity ohwacterilticIJ are
Tha po.ibility would no t n- Uy e xilt if t h.. materiaJ. yielded acoording
MOM '. criterion (_ Chap. XI, Beet . 3).
I Tb.. method IIhouId . . re lia ble whenever t he notoeh illUft\ciently deep. provided the

:l!lOident.

20.

NON STEADY MOTIO N PR OBLEM S. II

[IX.

minimum section is given by (9). By integration the yield-point load .

(10)

L j4ka is, by definition , the oonatraint fader ; this is the factor by which:
the mean axial stress in the minimum section exceeds th e true yiel
stress 2k. The constraint factor rises steadily from the value unity wi
increasing air. If C is the centre of t he circa
contour of th e root , and if 28 is the angulai
s
span of th e arc SS , it follows from the poJ..u:
equation of the slip-lines OS that

~ = e"- l.

If, then, t he angular span of the circular

is 20:, the formula. (10) is va lid for 8 ~ a,
for value s of afr such that
Fla. 69. Slip-line field round Ito
deep wedge-eheped notch with
8. cireula r root .

Notice th at values of or; greater than t1T correspond to a keyhole note

To see how the solut ion can be extended to cover greater values
a!r, suppose, as an example, that the sides of th e notch are straight a
inclined at an angle ," -21l (0:: ~ in), so that they join smoothly with t
circular root (Fig . 69). The points S where 1: meets the surface now
beyond the circular root RR. Since the surface is stress-free the sli
lines in QRS are straight lines meeting the surface at 45, while in RT
they are logarithmic spira ls. The region PQRT is uniquely defined
the slip-lines QR and RT ; th e slip-lines normal to RT are straight a
equal in length (cf. Fig. 23). Hen ce the slip-lines in OPT Pare st reig
and

RS

OT

= a-r(e" -l).

The axial st ress across the minimum section rises stead ily according
(9) as far as T , but along TO it is constant since OPTP is a reg i~n
uniform stress. By subst ituting x = r(e"-l) in (9), or by a di
applic ation of Hencky 's th eorem , th e constant may be shown to
cu rv a t ure of tho root dOOll not cha n ge aign . T he IIlip.line field near a n olliptical n..
haa been com p uted for va riOUII eccentrici ties by W. W . Sok clc veky , T hwry oj P
p . 123 ( MOllCOW, 19'6), and ..lao by P . S. Symon~lI, J OUffl. App , Ph " . 20 ( 1949 ). I
The me thod ill probab ly 1_ rel iable whe n apphed to a rec tangular notch (R . 11
Min is tr y of Su pply. Annament Re_re h Dept . Th eoretical Reaea!'Ch Rep . 9f 46) j
rea d er IIhould have no d ifficult y in const ruct in g t he field q uali tat Ive ly .

IX . 3J

YIELDING OF N OTCHED BAR S UN DE R TEN SIO N

'61

Zk(l + 0::). Hen ce the yield-point load is

L

4",.,o+4k(1 +.)[a_,(,O_I)]

~ 4k4[(l + .)_~(,O _I_ .)] (~ ;;, ,0- 1).

(11)

The constraint factor L!4ka increases stead ily with 0:, and is greatest
when the notch has parallel sides (0: = ',"). The maximum constraint
factor obtainable with a parallel-sided notch corresponds to a vanishingly
small root radius (r!a -+ 0), and its value is 1+,'", or about 2'571. This
agrees, by chance, with the value found experimentally for cylindrical
notched bars of a metal with a sharp yield-point ; t hus, Orowen, Nye,
and Ceima t ha ve observ ed a maximum const raint factor of about 26
for annealed mild steel.
The formulae (10) and (11) do not involve the width of bar. They are
valid, as has been mentioned, only when the notch is sufficient ly deep.
How deep cannot be stated without accurate solutions, but a lower limit
can be set at once. We must obviously have L < 2kw, for, if the load is
greater th an thi s, the implication is that th e bar would already have
yielded in uniform te nsion near its end s. Otherwise expressed, wj 2a
must not be less than th e constraint factor. Taking formul a (10) as an
example, we must hav e

~ > (1+~)I+ + ~) .
When r!a = 1, the least value of w!2a is 2ln 2, or about 1'39. However,
the range of validity of (10) certainly does not exte nd to such a shallow
notch, since we know from Southwell and Allen's solut ion for "ja = 1
and wj 2a = 2 that the plastic region spread s in a way very different from
that contemplated in derivin g t he formul a. Indeed , according t o (10),
the constrai nt factor for rta = 1 is 1,39, whereas the value given by the
numerical solution is 1'22. The same conclusion may also be reached in
0
regard to a 90 wedge-shaped notc h (r = 0, IX = ;'") and w!2a = 2,
Where fur th er calculations of Southwell and Allen suggest that plasti c
Zones spread outwards from t he root s in direct ions parallel to th e longltUdinal a xis, rather like long fingers ; th e mean stress at the yield-point
appears to be a little in excess of 064 x 2k , for the zones th en bend
sharply and rapidly in to th e a xis, which th ey intersect at distances from
the centre somewhat grea ter th an a . For thi s notch, (11) implies a constraint factor of 1,79, as against 128 from th e numerical solution. The
n.!..E. Orow&n, J . F . Nye.

"'~d W . J . Ca irn 9, Minis try of Supply . Armament Re aeareh

- "l"'., Th eore t ic..1 Ree6 areh Rep. 16/U .

,.,

NO N . STE ADY MOTION P ROB LEM S. II

[IX. a

results are only qualitative since, for this notch , the problem is nev
statically determined at any stage . Using th e same technique Ja.cobet
has found similar plasti c zones for a slit notch (r = 0, a = i 1l').

4. Pl as ti c yl eldl n~ r ound a cavity

If 80 body containing a ca vity is loaded externally , the local concent ree
ti on of etreee on or near th e perimeter of th e cavity ultim ately indu08l
yielding. Suppose that th e perimeter is subjected to given stresa; iii
prac ti ce this will usually be zero or & un iform interna l pressure. 1ft
now. we are able to surm ise th e direction in which the plastic regioa
spreads under & prescribed loading -path , we can at once calculate
distribution of st ress in th at part of th e plastic region dependent 0
on th e shape of the cavity . When most of eome cross-sectio n of t he
is occupied by t he cavity, 80 t hat the load is supported th ere only
t wo narrow strips, the conditions are most favourable for est-ima ting
yield-point load by the method described for notched bars. On t he
hand , when th e cavity is far distant from the surface t he problem
usually to find how local yielding relieves th e stress concentn.tion
loads well below th e yield-point of th e body as a whole; t his problem
encountered , for example, in th e theory of th e rupture of a (norm
du ctile metal where it is essent ia.l, if fracture is initiated at minute
ternal cracks, to estimate th e depth and influence of any plastic eo
In such circumstances a detailed solution can hardly be avoided .
When th e cavity is circular and is sit ueted in an infinite medium,
surfaces of which are uniformly stressed by normal pressures, th e .
but ion of stress is easily obta ined by an obvious modific&tion of
t heory for an a utofrettag ed t ube (Cbep. V, Sect . 2). G&lin: haa inv
gated the more difficult problem where th e stress &tinfinity is not .
a uniform hydrosta tic pressure but a uniform st ress of any kind .
stresses in the part of th e plast ic region depend ent only on th e shape
the cavity are (equatio ns (36) and (37), Chap. V)

a, =

-p+ 2k ln ~ ,

0fJ

-P+ 2k (1+ ln ~),

where p is the internal pressure and a is th e radi us of th e cavity.

corresponding stress function, defined by
Or

1 a.J.

F = ;:

0, _

~'

s. A . J -.cobl., P ll il . M G/}. 41

T-

as.p
art '

llll~). S4e and 'l6~.

L. A. O.tin, Pr iJokod....io MGk_il'a. M..u-ika . 10 ( It4oOI. H6.

,.,

P L AS T IC YI E L DI N G R O UND A C AV I T Y

IX.4)

I(1+-pk)''+''In-.a

~ = - -,

This happens to be bi-harmonic, that ia, it satisfies t he 8&me equati on

V 4o/J = 0 as th e stress function in t heelee tic region ; Da tura lly, only a few
plastic sta tes ha ve this property, Anoth er being t he slip-line field eonsisting of radii a nd circular ar cs. Galin took advantag e of this circumstance to treat th e stress in the plasti c and elastic regions on a common
footing, and replaced .p by a combina tion of functi ons of the complex
varia ble z = re.iB.t In th is way he was able to construc t BoD elest ic-streea
state satisfying t he boundary conditions and such that th e plaeti c-elasti c
interface is an ellipse surro unding the cavity . It is necessary that t he
ellipse should not have too great an eccent ricity (n.tio of a xes < v 2)
for otherwise it is cut t wice by certain slip-lines, and the problem is Dot
statically determined . F urthermore, t he solution can only a pply when
the internal and extem al loads are mutually varied in such a way that
aueeeeaive ellipses conta in their predeceeeore, and provided alao th at the
rate of plastic work is positive . Galin did not investigate the lat ter point ,
nor did he propose a. solution corresponding to th e early part of the
loading-path, where t he plastic region consists of t wo discrete zones.
It is t herefore not known how (or even whether) the loads can be applied
to produce th e first ellipse (touching the perimeter of t he cavity).
A slight extension of this meth od of const ructing elastic ete tee of streee
adjoining a known plastic state has been sketched by Parasyuk,: for
use when the plastic ete te is not bi-harmonic. He has briefly indicated
how it m&y be applied when a circular cavity is subjected to a constant
shear etreee mk (0 ~ m ~ 1) in addition to a uniform preeeure. The
etreesee in the pleeti c region bordering the cavity are

ma'
: = rs'
PI '
T

a, _

Ok -

- 'k-

= 2k.Jll-(mla ' Jrfo)],

[ l- "(I-m') ]
o,-Or

n.+ l ln I 'l{1 (m"" '''' )} -

- I[ "{l - (m'a" "' ))- "(I -

m)).

These equatiolls are due to Nadai.

~ t A fun etion ~ . tia ry ing t he bi.harmonie equatio n ean al way' he up..-d in the

;,nn Re{f O{I I + ...hll, whe re nand .. are certain rwtet iotul of I ; A . C. Stevenaon. PIlj/,.
t og. 3f p t 431, 706, _
"ho wn ho w thi. m"thod may be 'y.temaUoall y employed in
~IOOI~t~ of p lane pno"a-... in eJa4 ir ity . I . N. ~ ..... l,lon. ib id . . . (1945 1. &2t . b.III Y ind.icat.ed ho w S~'. met hod eaR be adapted to genwate p lut ic "tau. of

-.

,l 0 . 8. P&rNyuk, ~ Mol_ olin , MrUo.. i q . 13 ( It 48). 3117.

A. Nadal. Z nu. P llr ". 30 (1924). lot.

,,.

N ON . STEADY MOTI ON P R OBLE MS. II

{IX . ,\

5. Indentation and t be theory of hardness tests

At load. below the yield -point . when the distortion of exte mel eurfecee
is negligibl e, the distribution of stress and strain in a notched bar un der
comprtMion is clearly identical, apart fro m a change of sign, with that
in a similar bar under tension. Since, by symmetry , th ere is no displa cement &C%'088 the minimum section, the Action of one half of the bar
on the other is equivalent to that of a flat rigid die fixed at the minimum
section and having the same width ; since the shear stress there is zero
t he die must, in addition, be smooth . By superpos ing 8. un iform velocity

""

~
,

(a)

"

<tl

F IG. 70. Sli p-line fioeld IUld pl u t ic reg ion a t the y"'ld _point in the
indent ing o r ..,mi.infinite med ium by flat die , . ha wing (0) the
author', IIOlut ion, ILr'I d (b) Pranrl t l '~ lI()lut ion.

to bring one end of the bar to rest, we obtain the problem of t he indenti
of a medium by a smooth flat die . I t follows that any solution for
notched bar under tension is immediately appli cabl e, with only a chan
in sign , to t he indenting of &. medium similar in ebepe to one half of th
bar. We may therefore take over the discussion a nd reeulta of Section 3.
It ie to be observed that, although indentation by a die is gene
expressibl e only through a velocity boundary conditio n , we ha ve in th'
special C&8e been able to form ulate the probl em entirely in tet'me of et
boundary conditions by considering the medium together with its mi
image ; this Ie clearly only possible when the die is fiat .
(i) Stmiinji nite mulium with a plane mrfocr.. By setting (I. =and r = 0 in (11) the estimated yield-point load for e, plane semi-infini
medium indented by a smooth flat die is
L ~ 4ka(I +I') - 20571 X 4ka ,

( 12)

where 2a Ie the width of the di e.j The probable pla stic boundary at th
yield -point is indi cated by the broken curve 1: in Fig. 70a ; the elip-li
t 'nMl reeiIIti ve p reuure it; unifonnJy diIIt ribut.ed over the die. It. lIhould ~ .
~ to ,........k t.hat tho plutic regi on wou ld be en tirely d ifferent if a PMdil,.
Cr-WIg unifonn preuure were a pplMd o ver a _tion uf .i~t~ 20 l it ~ known
"lutic tb&ory that p .....tic yield.inI first. oeeun along t he ...."' ."'''' ha\,.f1l1: tho ... diam&"""'. at a preuure &qual to f . x U .

I X. 6]

IN D E NTA T IO N AN D TH E OR Y O F H ARD N E S S TES TS

2~

field is self-explanatory. The plas tic material betw een OP QS and 1:

is rigid , while elements in O P QSR move with speed o/(2)U &.long the
slip-lines pa ra llel to OPQS, where U is the downward epeed of t he die.
Th ie problem was first investigated (for e, plastic-rigid bod y) in 1920
by Prendtl.j who recognized. the hyperbolic character of th e stress
equations and derived the t wo special fields needed in th e solution (this
work preceded the publication of Hen cky 'a general eq uations by three
years) . Prandtl suggested the field of Fig . 70b, for which the correspond ing load is still given by (12). H owever , by the time the plastic region
has spread 80 far, considerable in dentation and distortion of the surface
must have occurred ; the condit ion d etermining the yield -point was
apparently not kn own to Pra.nd tl. The velocity distribution in the CODfiguration of Fig. 70b is indeterminate , and Prand tl ass umed that the
trian gle RA R moved downward ee a rigid body attached to the die.
There is experimental evidence to show th&.t this may, in fact, be true
when the d ie is sufficiently rOWJh (cf. the discussion of piercing in Chap.
VII , Sect . 5); no theorericel eolun on ha.sbeen suggested for intermediate
amounts of frict ion .
(ii) Truncated wedge. Consider an infinite wedge of an gle 2C1 truncated
by a plane section of width 2a perpendicular to its axis of symmetry.
The yield-point load , when the wedge is compressed. by a smooth flat
die of width not less than 20, is obtained from (1I) by sett ing r = 0 :
L - 4ka (l + a ).
(13)
The slip-line field is similar to that in Fig. 70a , the angle P RQ being
equal to 01. The relation (13) and the ass umed di rection of developmen t
of t he plastic region are in fair agreement with experiments on mild steel
by NadaL: However , annealed mild steel is not & suitable material for
comparieon with theory when the overa ll strain is small since the
~ijders bands are well spaced . A Ludere band requ ires leee stress for
Its p~opagation than for its formation , a nd in conse quence there must be
considera ble varia tions from the etreee state ex pected in a metal that
deforms homogeneously.
...
The stress distributi on in a seve rely compressed. wedge has been
described in Cha pter VIII , Sectio n 3.
(iii) Finite medium with a pla m 8urfau . A medium of de pth h, resting
on &. plane founda.tion, is ind ented by a smooth fiat die of width 2a
(a < h). Provided hla ie not too greet, experiment shows that th e plastic
t L. Prand tl. NIMAr. Gu. WiN. O(lII irt9"' (11120,. ,..
A . Nadai.
I, In).
132.
'

znz.. 0 .... M IlIA. M d

. I ( 11I! t ), 20_ So- &leo

o. Saet..' zm.' ~'

.. P ''' ,_.
_J

US

N ON .STEADY MOTI ON PR OBLEMS. II

[I X. !

w oes, originating at the comers of the die. fuse. end spread directly
t brough the medium. Assuming this, the yield-point is determined ~y
th e condition tha.t slip-linea should connect t he comers R to the midpoint S of th e suppo rting plane. The shepe of these slip-lin,ell must be
chosen so that a. velocity solution can be found such th at (1) the compon ent of velocity nonna.l to RR is constant, and [ii] the normal component of velocity at any point on RS
~ Z a -+is compatible with the sideways displacement of th e st ill-rigid material
These requirements are fulfilled by the
field shown in Fig. 71.t where the sliplines in PQR are radii an d clrculer erce ,
and where PQSQ is defined by the
Q
equal arcs PQ. Since there is no change
in volume the sideway s speed of the
h
rigid ends is equal to Ua/h, where U iI
the speed of the die. We can therefore
construct the velocity solution in the
order PQSQ, PQR, and RPR. Since
the velocity component normal to the
FlO . 71 . 8lip.lino fieldet the y)eld -po~t stra.ight slip-line R Q is constant, the
in the indenting of e block of finite

depth res t ing on e pWlO foun cb.t ion , component normal to R P 18 also constant , by the now fam iliar theorem.
Hence the velocity in R P R is unifor m (and directed downward) an~ .
therefore compatible with t he movement of the rigid die; this velociey,
when calculated, would tum out to be V since the speed V alA hee heeD
eseigned to the rigid ends.
'The relation between the a.ngle P R Q a.n d Ala ill given by Table 1 (
end of book) . The stress distribution is celculeble by Hencky 'e theore
in terms of the mean compressive steese at one point of the field, say P.
This is determined. by the condit ion tha.t the horizontal resultant of tb
stress acting across the vertical section thr ough S should be equal to .
resistance to sliding over the plane foundation . Wh en the ~sistan~
zero the relation! between the yield -point load an d t he ratiO Ala 18

Md . 3 .1 1V:~t::
who did no t ho wever, e u.tnine whetbet' It could be .-oe..ted with .. veloci t y
A 6eW ~ ~blinl t.hilIhu ~ 0.' - ".0<1 ~ mild ateol. et.cbed \0 IIbow ~ JI '
baDt1a. whic b comeide epprosima~Y wltb .up-~; ~~. K ltrbw and E . S ~
Kllw . WWA. 1.... ...../ . 10 (11128). t7; A. Nadal. Pfo"atcity, p . 2"V (MeOraw-BiU

t This fteld ..u lint eugpted by L.

Ooi' ~3:lin

~dtl. z.;,.. ..~. M~.

J<;Nnt. 1",," ..,..I S,..z 1.... 156 (I N 'I'I. a l s . A It. aoeurate oa.Iculatioa
.
b y W'. W "kolovakv
TIM-y 0/ PlM4iril, . p . loIS (Me-ow. IHeI
f1ven
~ .

I X .tI]

INDE NT ATION AND THEORY OF HA RDNE88 TE8TS

%.57

shown in Fig. 72; t he theoretical relation when Ala is less tht.n unity is not
kn own . As Ala increases from unity the pressure necessary to begin
indentation rises from 2.1::, t he compressive yield etreee in plane strain,
to 21: (1+111') when Ala """" 876 (angle PRQ """" 77,3) . For values of hia
grea.ter than t his, the inference is that t he pla.stic region develops in suc h
a wa.ythat indentation begins at the loed (12) and proceeds by diapla.cing

...
--L

,
1

...

I
I
i -r

t->

I
I

! ,

!
8

874

10

'7.

Flo. 72. Relation bet".D the indentation p~ aDd. AlII I~ ..

block of height A indenWtd by .. Bat die of width 20.

material sideways to the free surface; the plastic zone beneat h the die
is still rigidly constrained by the non-plastic matrix (its depth of pen e-

tra.tion naturally depends on Ala). Thus, for a true meas ure of herdneee
by a plen e ind entation test, the thickness of the material should not be
less than about 44 t imes the width of the indenter. This ia somewhat
greater than the minimum thickness of a cold-worked metal recom mended for the Brinell tes t, t where there is greater freedom of 80w.
The effect of a. frictional resistance F over t he foundation plane ia
clea.rly to increase the mea.n compressive stress at every point by the
amount FIA; the yield-po int load ill t herefore

L' ~ L + 2aF,
h

Where L is t he load when the plane is smooth. If the resistance may

represented by a coefficient of friction po, then F = lpoL' and so

De

(I,)
t O. A. Haokin8 aDd C. W. Aldo.... J~. 1 ...... M-z., H lin,,). ae.

...

N ON ST E ADY MOTI O N P R OBL EM S. II

(IX. 6

The state of stress in 8. rectangular block of height 2h, symmetrically

indented on opposite aides by two dies, is evidently ident ical with that
in 8. block of height h which is indented by one die and is resting on a
smooth rigid founda tion : the horizontal pla ne ofsymmetry in t he former
is replaced by th e supporting plane in the latter. Now the pla ne stressatrain curve of 8. strip, before or after rolling, is convenient ly obtained
by indent ing the strip by two dies. t Th e above a.nalysis indicates th a t
the width of the dies should be approximately equal to the t hicknesa of
the strip ifthe resisti ve pressure is to give a reasonably accurate measure
of the yield stl"e88 (the uppe r limit to the width of the dies is not known ).
When this precaution is observed, the agreement wit h stress-strain
curves obtained. by other means is found to be good; it a ppears, th ere fore, t hat a negligible error is introduced by disregarding th e nonuniformity oCthe deformation, both in strip-rolling and in th e test itself,
when &88i.gning a corresponding st rain to th e measu red stress at any
lItage of the indenting .
(iv) S ignificance oj a ha rdnua tat. Alth ough we ha ve at present no
detailed theory of th e distortion during indentat ion (except -for a wedge:
8e6 Chap. VIII, Sect. 2 (iii)), or of th e relation betw een load a nd penetretion,: the qualitative significance of the hardn ess test should be apparent
from the foregoing analysis. For amell loeda th e deformation is ela.stio
and th e impreeelon disappears on removing the load ; th e diameter and.
depth of the impression are described by Hertz's th eory of elastic contact. At a certain load, depend ing on th e shape of the indenter , yielding
occurs in some element, not neceeeerily on th e surface. With an initially
stress-free specimen and a ball inden ter th e first element to yield it
distant about O25d directly below the cent re of th e Impression, diame
d; th e ccrreepondlng average resist ive pressure on th e ball is abou
1'1 Y.1l A pleeti c zone now spreads from th is nucleus 38 the load is rai...LJ
farther. If the load is subeequenuy removed t he recove ry ia only partial'
a permanent indentation remains an d t he specimen is left in a state of
residual eteeee. Tabortt has demonst rated experimentally that theJ
recovery in ma ny metals is elastic, so that a reapplication of the sam

t H . F ord. Proc. 1...,. M d . E"41. 159 ( llU8), 115.

: R UMian writeR [eee W. W. So kolovK)'. T"-"J oJ Pkutieily, p p. U5--eO ) have ooSB
p u ted .up.line field8 aM. to.da for indentaliona o f v&riowl .t.apM aM. deptM, bul ha
a.umed t hat the NI'f_ nomaU>a fiat ; t he calculation of the . urfaco dUltonion and
effec t on the la.d ..-Ily the e no: o f the problem.
I 8 . T imoe hen ko , Thwry oJ EltuficUy, pp- 339-60 (MeC r.HiIl Book Co., lV3').
II Ibid . p . 344. F or an 1'II",~rirnental confirmation of t hi, fonnula. _ R. M. Da .
P roc. R "lI. Soc . A, 197 (1" ' ) 16.
tt D . Tabor, ibid . 1 9~ ( l i ' 8). 241.

IX. 6J

IN D E NTATI O N A N D THEO RY OF H A R D NE SS T E STS

2611

loed reetores th e original impression a nd brin gs every plasti cally strained.

element back to th e point of yielding; he has shown fur ther that the
am ount of elastic recovery is in accord with Hertz's theory. At finlt the
plastic distortion is constra ined to be of an elasti c order of magnitude
by the non-plastic ma trix . In a pre -strained metal there is, 38 we have
seen, a fairly well-defined load , th e yield -point load , under which the
plast ic zone has spread 80 far tha t th e constrai nt becomes ineffective
near th e indenter; the materi al th ere is displaced sideway s to wards th e
free surface, undergoing relatively severe distortion, to produce t he raised
coronet characteristi c of indentation in a cold-worked metal. The yieldpoint load is norm ally much greater t han t he load a t which the first
plast ic nucleus appears an d corresponds, by definition, to the rapid
~nd in th e Joed -penet rat lon curve. Th e sharp ness of th e bend depends,
In part, on th e shape of the indenter, being more marked for a fiat die
th an for a ball where a continually increas ing contact -surface is presented
to th e medium; the yield-point load is va nishingly small for a cone
where, after a penetration exceeding the radius of curvat ure of th e ti p,
the configura tion of stress and lItrain rema ins effectively similar and the
load is proportional to the impression area . In a thoroughly a nnea led
metal, on the other hand, th e load-penetrati on curve is always well
rounded, th e transiti on from small to large plastic strains being grsdual .
Moreover, th ere is little or no displacement of material above the Jevel
of th e original surface , a nd a 'sinking-in' impression is produced. We
can understand th e different behaviour of cold-worked. and annealed
~etaLs by regarding th e act ual impression &8 a compromise betw een
{i} flow out to the surface , necessitating severe and localized. distortion
and (ii) an inward displacement accommodated by th e resilience of
whole specimen, with relatively small strains spread th rough a much
gteaW!r volume. When th e work-hardenin g is slight (i) takes place
before the elastic resistance of the bulk can be overcome ; when t he work hardenin g is heavy th e load which would be needed to effect (i) is so
great that (ii) occurs first.
;~n8ider, now, the dependence of the resistive pressure p (load l
projected area. of impression) on the shape of the inde nter a nd on th e
Properti es ofthe material. If t he indenter is a cone, pyramid. or wedge,
geometric similari ty implies that, in an initially st ress-free specimen,

th;

p = 4LImJ.t = constant ,

:~e:e d is th e dia mete r of the impression (meas ured in th e plane of the

ngmal surface) when the load is L , and where th e va lue of the constant

NON .STEADY MOTION P R OB L E MS. II

'00

[IX.S

depends on the angle 2 of the vertex, t he properties of the material,

and th e coefficient of friction p.. If the work -hardening is negligible,
we may write

p = ej",

(15)

where Y is the tensile or compressive yield stress and c is .. constant

whose value depends on 01. p.. and the shape of the indenter. When
(II is greater than about 60 and the lubricati on is good , e it found to lie
between about 2'6 and 3,0, the exa.ct value depending slightly on
and on the ahape of the indenter;t this is in agreement with the theory
for .. wedge (Cha p. VIII, Sect. 2 (il where, &8 01 _ 90,

IX .6J

INDENTAT ION AND THE OR Y O F HARDNE SS T E STS

2151

of strain. We can, if we wish, introduce a mean equivale nt st rain i and

write

l' - 'Y(i) .

(17)

where Y(E) is the tensile st ress-stra in relation. In effect, for any chosen
value of e, this is a tkjini'ion of i at each etege of th e indentation; the
justification of this procedure liee, of course, in the circumstance t hat
when c is assigned a valu e of about 3, i ia found to be reeeoneble . Con.
eider, for example, the Brinell tes t . Meyert has shown tha.t for many
metals the function/in (16) may be clceely approximated by a power law

l' - ,L/mP = g(I/D )

l' - <L/.d' ~ A (d/D )" ,

(18)
where A is a constant with th e dimensions of st ress, depending only on
the material, and m is a posit ive dimensionless expo nent usually less than
0-5. m is smaller th e greater th e amount of pre -stra.in, and for heavily
worked metals is alm08t zero ; for th e latter the power law (18) gives to
p a very rapid rise for small dID (corresponding to distortions of elastic
order preceding the yield -point), followed by a sha rp bend and &0
almost constant value A of p. Now the tensile stl'e88-strain curve can be
empirically represented by a power law

for .. die of width D where t is the penetration. 'The funet ione J and ,

Y = BE",

l' ~ n (l +j-o) -

297Y .

if von Mi.gea' criterion is applicable (k = Y/.J3). When th e indenter is ..

ball or fiat die, dimensional considerati ons show thAt
l' - 'L/mP - /(d/D)

(18)

for a ball of diameter D , and

depend mainly on the properties of the ma.terial, and onl y slightly on p..

Now. when the material is pre -strained, the variation of p with dep th
can be neglected after the yield -point, 80 long as d and 'are small compared with D (as is usual ), and we may write p = eY where c is ~
found to be of order 3.t The general conclusion is, therefore, that
quantity measured in a hardness teet , namely the resistance to penetration , is directly proportional to the tensile yield stress when the rna
is heavily pre -strained, and th at the factor of proportionality de
on the shape of the indenter but does not differ greatly from 3 when
lubricant ill ueed a nd the specimen is initially etreee-free. If the epeclm
is initially in a state of residual st eese (for exam ple, when berdn
micro-tes ts are performed ac1'O&8 a section of a rolled sheet or a dre
wire) this affech the shape and size of the impression for a given load
th e reeietive pressure is th erefore not necessarily equal to the hardn
of t he etreee-free material.
We come now to annealed or lightly pre-strained metale . Since t
plast io distortion around the indenter is non-u niform , different elemen
harde n by different amounts and th e hardness is th erefore some ooID
plicated funct ion of t he whole etreee-eteein curve in t he relevant
t R . F . BiJlhop, R . Hi1I.lUld N . F . Mot.t., Prt1c. PlIlI. S oc. , 57 ( 1"6), 1f,7.
S D. TNoI-, op. cit... p. 268.

{l9}

valid for moderate strains, (Chap . I , Sect. f ). Tabor has found that
m -- n, to a very rough a ppro xima tion. Assuming this relation for broad
descriptive purpoeee, and combining (17), (18), and (19), we obtain
,Bi" _ A (d/D )".
or
i - (A /Bc )V"(d/D).
(20)
Thus the mean st rain in & Brinell test is proportional to the impression
diameter. For annealed copper, where A __ 60 kg./mm. I , B __ 45
kg./mm.I , n -- 0'4 , c -- 2'8 , we have (A IBe)l/fl __ 015. Notice that for
a heavily worked metal, where 11. -+ 0, A /Be __ I - An, where A is some
positive constant; hence (A IBe)1/" -+ t-~.
H.tv o.
~ .r.

~. M.y.... Z~iu. Vn-. d~. [rtf. 5:1 11908 ). 646. 140.

, -roo. Am. Soc . T t..' . Mal. 3 7 ( 11137), 1111.

&flu

83.5. See also R . H .

X .I ]

AXIAL S n D I E T R Y
I. Fundamental equat ions
I N an a xially symmetric distribution of stress the non -va.nisbing components a re C1r
and Tn ' referre d to cylindrical coordinates (r , 8, z)
wit h z as t he a xis of sym metry. The non-van ishing velocity components
are u and w, respectively perpe ndicular and pa rallel to the a xis ; 11, the
compo nent in t he circumferential direction, is zero since the flow ia
confined to meridian pla nes. The stress an d velocity are independent
of 9, and are functions only of r, e, and the time . If t here are no body
forces, and inertial etreeeee are negligible, t he equat ions of equilibrium

a,.o.

are

8;,r +~+.ar r a, = o . }
8T"+ 8a,+7 "

ar

'"

(I)

o.

r
The yield criterion of von !.[jses (equation (9) of Chap . II) red uces to
(ar- u,) I +(o,-O'. )I +(a.-a,)I+~ = 61:1.

(2)

I n cylindrical coordinates the Levy-Mises relations become (see Appen

dix II )
i,

= ~ = " (20', -0',-

0',) ,

i , = ~ = " (20',- 0', -0',) ,

r

(3)

i , = : ' = .\(20', -0',- 0', ),

2';,.. =

au
Ow
_a, +-;;:
=
v,

6.\r" .

If the pleetic region includes e. finite section of th e axis of sym metry ,

it is necessary that a8 = a, when r = 0, if infinities in the stresses are
to be avoided. Hence, since the a xis is 8. principal stress d irection
T... = 0 and a,-a, = v3k = Y when r = 0; furtherm ore , U = 0
since the a xis is 8. st ream line. (11, (2), and (3) constit ute a sys te m of'eev
eq uations for th e seven unkn owns (4 stress components, 2 velocity com
ponente. and."). There are only three eq uations involving the st
alone, but a fourth can be derived from (3) by eliminating II , 10, and

F U ND A MENT AL EQ UA T I O N S

!G3

(this leads to a third -orde r differe nt ial equation ). H owever, since the
boundary values of the etreseee, and not their de riva ti ves, are specified
in a ph ysical prob lem , the velocity equations have to be resorted to in
any event, to secure uniqueness. In general , therefore , the problem is
not statically dete rmined .
It is easy to show a lso that t he problem of a xial symmetry is not
hypeebolic.t Sup pose t he stress and velocity compo nents are given on a
curve C (in a ny merid ian plane). If the distri bu tion of stress is con.
tinuous, it is evide nt from (3) that in general the velocity gradie nt can
only be discontinuous when .\ is. But, since the velocity must be con.
tin uoue (except possibly when G is a slip-line) it follows from the second
equation in (3) that" itself must be continuous (except , perha ps, when
u = 0). In general, t herefore , the velocity gradi ent is uniqu ely determined by th e given stress a nd velocity on C. Thus the problem cannot
be hyperbolic.t It should be noticed t hat if r is increased indefinitely
the circumferential stra in-rate i, te nds to zero, e nd we recover, in the
limit , t he plane strai n equa tions which are hyperbolic a nd where " may
be discontinuous. This essential difference between ax ial symmetry
and plane strain is direc tly du e to t he fact t hat th e circ umferent ial
strain-rate is finiu and cont inuous in t he former, but is zero in the latter.
Whereas the theory of plane strain is well developed. a nd t he met hod
of solving specific problems is well understood, there is at present
nothing simila r for a xial symmet ry . I t is, for exa mple, not clear bow to
construct, in principle, the solut ion of mixed boundary-va lue problems
sucb & S cone indentation or wire-drawing. The nially symmetric etreee
distri butions deri ved below are either approximate , or are obtained
by inverse methods and afterwards related. to a physical sit uation.
2. Extrusion from a contracting cylIndrical contalner
Consider a metal rod which is held with in a closely fitting cylindrical
sleeve over a pa rt of its length . Su ppose, now, that the sleeve contracts
r~ially, extruding the rod from each end. This hypothetice.l proC688
simulates the swaging of a rod between two diametrically opposed.
rn t tR..;. ~~I!~ _DU~~io". p . 42 (Ca mb ridge. 1945), illllu~ by Min i,try o r Supply Anna .
en .~h EJ t&blilhment , .. Survey 1'4 8.
'
n ;4~ eonel~on baa t-~ ~~ted b! P. S. SrmondJ, QlOOrl . J uv m . App. Math . 6
and I, ~ ..e. H I, ~h?d eOrlll"~ In aho1l'IlIg that (tho .w- a nd voloeit y eomponentA
d thllir .fint dllnva ti VN .,... l Iven on a c urve C. t ho .e<:o nd dllriva t ivN or t he , tfeN
:.. vel.oo,ty.oomponlllltA .... un iq uel y dllfined. Th o eoneluaion ap~ not. to be ...._
ted br thiJ, theorem alone. ainee it ia -.u.n>lld without pl'OOr t hat the f1.Rt derivaLivN
~7"t mUO"..l8 ; rurthermore. in ph,..ae.J probl _ the boundaf')' eond it iorlll trmereJly
-r""1 Y only t he ,we. o r velocity. and. no t thlli, rr-dien tA.
I R. Hill. cop. eit . (p . 184 or reference).

2..

AXIAL S Y MMETRY

[X. 2

eemi-cylindricel, dies. We eeeume t hat the friction&! etreee has t he

conatant value me (0 ~ m ~ I ), and seek a. solution in which t he
inclinations of t he principal axes are independent of z. This. by enelogy
wit h Prandtl's cycloid solution for a block compressed between rou gh
pletee {Chap. VIII, Sect. 5 (v)}, m ould approximate t he actu.} atreee
distribution in a long rod , except near the ends or the middle.
Let the plane z = 0 be taken t hrough one end of the container, witli
the .laxis directed in to the container. Let U8 try the expressions
(4)

where U is the inwa rd radial speed of t he container and a is the radius of

the rod. We then ha ve i , = fS , and hence Ur = 0,. Substituting this in
the yield criterion, we obtain
a, -ur =
= -.13k 1- m...' ) I .
(
7

0,- 0,

Inserting t hese ex preeeione, with (4), into t he equations of equilibrium

we find that t hey are compatible, and that

~ = 7=

2;: -c .

}.

2mz
= - + "3 ( 1_ m~l
_l - c
'
a
a
constant. The ends of the rod bein g free from stress,

(S

X. !)

EX TRUSION FROM CONTRACTING CO NT A I N E R

where C is a constant which must be determined 80 tb&t the axi&lftow

scroee & tranavente section is equal to the ra te at which material is
d isplaced by the container. This requires

- [2rrrwdr = 2na(l - z )U,

where 21 is the length of t he container . Therefore

a~ -

th,

where c is &
res ultant &:rial force on a t ra naverse section must balance the frictional
resiat&nee over t he surface. Thus

j2ffU.
tlr =
and

"3m,[l -( I-m')'].

(6)

The equation of incompressibilit y is

Ow
&u
8z = -

2U

ar -.,. = -a-'

""3ml

[I - (I- m' )'].

(8)

3. Compression of a cyli nder under certain di stributed loadst

I n th e preeent eectio n an inverse met hod is applied to obtain a possib le
plastic st&te in a solid cy linder compressed by a certain distribution of
stress over its plene ends. The incompressibility equation

aw
au
_+ _+ _ ~o
in

IJr

ia Batiafied by the velocity components

~ -AJ;(i)ooo(ij .

lD

-AJ.(i).in(i).

(9)

where A and b are positive constants, and ",,(or) is t he Bessel function of

zero orde r defined. by

- 2mnhu:: ,

c~

80

21

- +-

The radicals in the above equations must all be positive in order that
the ra te of p laatic work is posit ive. It may be shown, by t he met hod
used for Prendel'e solution, t hat an originally plane transverse section
is distorted into an ellipsoid of revolution, with eemi-mejor a xis aIm
and sem i-minor axis 2(a o- a )3/-v3ma l , where a o is th e initi a.l radius of
th e rod.

0,
-

Ie

2M

J;+ J.0=0 ;
J 0+ x

J.(O) ~ I ,

.r,(O) = O.

Th e expansion of Jo in ascending powers of x is

2%
o r U = li'"+g(r ).
W

%1

z4

z4

Jo(z) = 1- 21+ 21.41- 21.41. 61+ ... .

Th e t hird ind epend en t relation remaining to be sat isfied by U And 'If

may be obtained by taking t he ratio of t he second and fourth equatio

Notice th at w = 0 when % = 0, and that u = 0 when t = 0 ; t he die tribU ..Ion of u over t he surface represents the development of a bulge.

of (3) :

The shea r strain-rate

Integrating :

2';.. = _nn'(r) = _ 2V3 mr ( l_ mlrl) -l.

4
~
a
~

_~ "'" 2: _ 2-/3( 1_ ml~i +0.

U

alJ

(7

c: +Z'

is everywhere eero , and th erefore

"'. . = O.

t R . Hill , op. cit ., p. 263 (po 182 of ",,"_).

(10)

[X . 3

A XI AL SY ) DfETR Y

2..

Thi s is consiste nt with the req uirement th at t he cylindr ical surface is

steese -free. The remai ning independent equ ation furn ished by the
velocity relations (3) is

;/m (')
ai = Ji(i) = / 6 ,
a;

0;

"y,

(11)

0,

where and
are , as usual, the red uced stresses. J takes values from
- 2 to infi nity as rjb increases from zero to 3-83, th e approximate argument of th e second zero of J~ .
Now, when Tn = 0, th e yield condition (2) can be alte rnatively ex 0~1 +0'l +(J~2 =

pressed as
But

o~ =

2kl .

- 0;-0;, and 80
08'+0;0:+0:2 =

kl .

Combining thi s with (11), we ha ve

.; ~ kN(l +f+f'),
a; ~ kll.J(l+ f+f')
Hence
.
.
,
.

a,-a, ~ a, -a, = 2a, +a, = k(/+ 2)/~(l +f+I ),

O. -

Or

20~+oi =

0;-0; =

(12)

1c(2J+ l )/,J(I +J+JI).

We ha ve finally to satisfy the equilibrium equ ations (1). Since Tn = 0,

it follows from th e second tha t o. is a function of r only, and so from (12)
t hat Or and
are also functions of r only. Th is is compati ble with the
first equilibrium equation provided th at

0,

dOr

(f, - Or

k(j+2)

d' - - , - = ,~(l +I+f') '

0'

f~( I+f+f') "

(/+ 2)

= -

d,

(13)

since (f, is zero on th e free surface r = a . Th e condit ion that .\ should

be positive requires
.\ =

u/3ro; = - .J(I +J+JI)A J~ (i) cos(~)/3kr > O.

Thu s, J~(rjb) and cos(:lb) must not change sign, and t he radi cal must be
positive since J~ is negative bet ween its first a nd second zeros. If 21
is th e length of the cylinder, th is demands t hat

~ ~~

b ""'" 2 '

~ ~ 383 [approx .},

b ""'"

Th e distribution of stress e ver the end s of the eylindee, needed to produce

X .3]

CO MPRESS ION O F A CY L I N D E R

th is pJaatic state , is
o.

2/ + 1

F = ~( I+f+I')

(/+ 2)

d,

~( I+f+f') "

( I<)

a. is compressive in the centre an d decreases numerically towards th e

edge, becoming tensi le t here if I (a/b) > - 1, th at is, if alb > 217. Th e
parameter b is still arbitrary an d determines the total load .
The solution does not specify t he man ner in which this final exte rnal
stress distribution is to be reach ed , a nd it is conceiva ble that for certain,
or even a ll, load ing pa ths t he cylinder may not remain rigid (though
partly plastic) until th e final state is reached . Also, for certain loading
path s th e cylinder ma)o' not finally be completely plast ic, even th ough
th e stresses (14) are applied. I n short, it is impossible to say exact ly
what problem ha s been solved ; thi s is a defect common to man y inverse
'solutions' in plasticity .

4. Cylin drical tube under axial t en s ion a nd interna l pres sur e

In an experimental determina tion of the yield criterion, or of the (~, v)
relation, a common meth od is to use a hollow tu be etreeeed by combined
a xial tension 0 and internal pressure p . Pro vided t he ra tio l ja of wall
thickness to mean radius is sufficient ly small, th e variation of the axial
and circum ferential stress components th rough th e waUmay be neglected.
The radial stress va ries from -p on the inside to zero on the outs ide, an d
is eit her enti rely disregarded in comparison with t he mean circumferential
te nsionpa/I,orroughlyallowedfor by assigni ng to it th e mea nval ue - p/2.
It is of inte rest to investigate th e actual variation of the stresses th rough
the thickness, on th e assumption that the Le vy- Mieee relations are va lid.
Provided the tube is sufficiently long, the state of stress and st rain
should be effect ively independent of z, except near th e ends. Furthermore, tran sverse plan e sect ions should remain plane. The combined
radial and axi al st rain muet therefore be expressible by th e velocity
components
tr C
tz
u = - 21+ ;:'
W = T'
(15)
where I is the gauge length, and C is a parameter depending on the rele~ive ra tes of extension a nd ex pansion. The incompressibility equation
18 satisfied, and (3) states that Tn = 0, an d t hat

"" - / a
i)r

~ =
r

zr-;:a

' +~ =

21

,.s

O~

0;'

..

X.4J

T UBE U N D E R T E NS IO N AND INTE RNAL PRES S URE

%ell

AXIAL SY MMETRY

This distribution of stress was derived, in essence, by Nad.ai ,t employing t he Hencky stress-strain relatione. In Nedei'e solution, therefore, u and w denote t he (email) displacements and tIl is replaced by f.,
the total exial etrain. A. ebown in Chapter II (Sect. 6) the respective
solut ions agree only when the stress ratios are constant , that is, when
tllO ia constant (the defonnation being small).

If t his is substituted in the yield condition

'S

'S -

(I:i~)" ".~

tbere reeulte ..

[ = -

(I+ 41'';;'jl'

_.
kS

'r -

(I

;~)

(I + 41'';;.)1

where the radical must be given the sa me sign as 0 , in orde r ~hat.the

of work &hall be positive. The second equilibrium ~qU&tlOn 10 (1) 111
8&wfied identically (since .,.. = 0 and the stresses are Independent of z).

ra.t:e

and the first gives

5. Tube-siDkingt
Whereaa the eq uations of Section 1 are satisfied exactly in t he three
previ ous problema, the stress d istributions now to be derived only

2k

0;: ~ " / ' = ""'r(;,---"31

"''''
;:;;)";"1'
+ 4/ l:
i

'

Hence

~ ~ _2 j
, '(1

dW 1 =cotb-'J(I+ ~;~) _cotb-'J(I + ~';;.).

+ 41'C')

(16 )

where b is the current external radius. The inte rnal pressure is therefore

a')-coth _.j(1+ 412C2

3/'b')]'
p=k [coth-1J(1 + 431'1'0'
By allowing

la)

(b)

(e)

Flo. 13 . Reductkm. of the .u-diamot of .. tube by (a) dn..i.ng , and (b)

preMinjj: . TIle ~ 00. .. anWl elemen t of the .u ..... ahowu. in (el.

t to tend to zero, we regain the familiar expression

p = 2kln(bla )

for the expansion of a cloeed tube, when elastic strains ~re. neglec~.
When 0 = 0, P is zero, t he t ube being extended under uniexiel te nsion,
The distribution of axial stress is
a.

k=

0',.-( 20'~+ 0';)

_ (I +f;a
) +cotb-'j(l+~7;).
"')1 -cotb-'j (l+3l"'
41' C'

1 4l2C'
The total axial load and the pressure p are functi ons of tlIO
; inu~:
words, a. definite combination of load and pressure m.ust be p~
produce given relative rate8 of exten.sion and expansl?n. The m~ to
and exte ma.1 r adii
u, a an d b, vary during the deformatIOn ; according
(15) their rates of change are
lb C
La C
6 _ u(b) 21 b
a = u(a) = -21+ ;'

- -+- .

satisfy t hem a pproximately . We consider first the process of tubeBinking, in which a thin-walled t ube is drawn through a. die, as in Fig .
73 a, or is pressed th rough , aa in Fig. 73b. A cup can be similsrly drewn
or pressed , the main difference being that in (4 ) the cup is push ed through
the die by 8. loosely fitting internal ma ndrel, bearing on the base of the
cup but not supporting t he wall during ita passage through t he die.
Apart from end conditions, the process is t he sa me for bot h cup and tube.
The obj ect of th e analysis is to calculate th e load and the cha nge in wall
thickness . I t will be supposed tha t the thickness is init ially uniform,
and that it is smal l in relation to the length of contact with the die . A
steady etete is t hen obtained (if th e tube is sufficiently long ), a.nd it ehcu ld
be a good approximation to neglect th e variation of etreee through the
t
t

A. Nt.da.i, T"."" . Am_Soc . M ecA. E"". 52 ( 1930). 193.

H . W . a.in, P hil. M ag. 40 ( 1949). 883. See.1eo G . Sae hl and W . M. Baldwin .
Jr., Tro"" . Am. S oc. M ecA. E"". f>8 ( 1946). 66.5,wh o, howe ver, do not allo. (or thickn_
change..

27.

(X. 6

AXIAL S Y MME T R Y

thickness, by analogy with Sachs' theory of wire -drawing or von

K eruien'e theory of sheet -rolling.
Let p be the pressure between the die and the well a t any point, q
the mean tensile stress parallel to the die , and (1 (= -a,) the mean
cin'umferential compressi ve stress. Let t be the thickness of the waU at
radius r fJ. the coefficient of friction , and 11 the semi -angle of the die
[assumed conical ). Consider the stresses acting on a small element of
the wall . bounded by meridian planes inclined at an an gle AB, and by
planes perpendicular to the local geneT&lor of the die And &. dietsnce
dr/ainOo apart (Fig. 73c ). Resolving perpendic ular to the die :

a(' -:!"-)Mcos. ~ p(,M am

~)
.
e
8100.

th e shea r etreeeea &Cling over the ends of the element being negligible for
normal coefficients of friction. Hence
p~

at cos.
r

Thus p is neg ligible in com pariso n with

here. Resolving parallel to the die :

d{Qtr6.8) +o(C

~r

sm e

( l ~)

-- .

when

dr

O.

!(rqtl+ot(l + ftCOtll) = O.

(20)

d,

Wh en t he tube or cup is d rawn, and q are both positive, and 80 the yield
crite rion of von Mises can be approximated by the equation
(drawi ng) ,

(21)

where m is a disposable constant, to be selected to give closest overa~

agreemen t with th e exact solution or with experiment . \~hen the cu~ ~
pressed , o is posit ive butq is negat ive. Now it may be veri fied a po8tt~
that o is numerically greater than q in th e practical range of reductio n'
in diam eter 30 per cent.) , and 50 von Mtees ' criterion can be ap proximated by th e equa tion
(22)
a = mY (1'n.'!>Sing),
where m again den otes a disposable constant .

(23)

The elimination of t between (20) and (23) leads to

,dq+q(2q+a)+( I+p cot . )a(q+2a) = O.

(24)
dr
q+ 2o
If, now, a is eliminated with t he aid of (21)or (22), a differential equation
for q in terms of, is obtained . Th e boundary condition is q = 0 when
, = a (drawing) , and q = 0 when r = b (pressing), where a and b are
respectively the initial and final radii of the tube. When, = b (drawing),
q = D , t he drawing stress ; when' = a (pressing), - q = P, the pressure
needed for pressing. Similarly, by eliminating r between (20) and (23),
we derive the relation between q and t:
,dq+ Q(2q+ a)+ (!+p cota )a(q+2a ) _
Q

o.

(25 )

The boundary condition is q = 0 when t = '. (dra wing), and q = - P

when t =
(pressing), where '. is the initial wall thickn ess. The integration of (24) gives t he relation q(r) between q a nd " while the integration
of (25) gives the relation q(t) between q and t ; combining these, we obtain
the variation of ' with r and hence the final thickn ess. The formulae
are too complicated to be worth giving ; t he calculated values of the
8tress and the relative increase in thickn ess are shown in Fig . 74 for
p cot.e = 0, I, and 1. Th e load s for drawin g and pre ssing ere respectively
211'Dbt"cOS lX and 2nPatgcos lX (it is a curious property of t he present
tbeorythatD = Pwhenp = 0). Sincethe8tre8sandrelativethickeni ng
at any point are fun ctio ns only of ' la, the load for a give n va lue of bla is
directly pro portional to th e initial thickness. Thi s is a consequence of
the approx imations in the analysis, and is only likely to be t rue when
the tu be is t hin -walled; in fact, Ba ldwin and Howald] have observed
that t he thickness of a drawn tube decreases over a wide ra nge of reductions when alt" is less t han abo ut 5. In th e pra ctical range t he effect of
~train-hardening has been shown by Swift to be comparatively slight
Ul regard to thickness chengea; the load ca n be est imated with sufficient
accura cy by using a mean yield stress.
t W . M. Bal d win , Jr. and T . S . Howald, T roou. Atn . Soc. MU<J4 , 33 ( 19fofo), 88.

'II

Using (19) to eliminate p , we have

q+o = mY

dt
q-o t
dr - q+ 2o;'

i.e ,

dt

8ID II

271

In the steady state the ratio of the circumferential Htrain-nte to the

strain-ra te in t he thickness direction is

e/r is small, &8 eeeumed

) 6.8sin a+ ftP (r 6.8 ~, ) = 0 ,

sma

~("It)+ at+ PI" =

or

T UBE . S I NK I NG

X .G]

[X. IS

AXIAL SY MM E T R Y

'"The changes in thi ckness shown in Fig. 74 may be understood qualita-

tively from equation (23). In drawing, when th e redu ction is small, a

is the predominant streM; thus q- a is negative and th e tu be thi ckens.
For large reduct ions the axial tensi on q becomes pred ominant near the
exit from the die; q- a is then posit ive and th e t ube thins in this region;
however, there is still a resultant thickening except for very lar ge red uctions . (It should be noted that the value of t at a given position ria is

,
,, , ,,
,, ,, ,,
,, ,, ,,
,, ,,

17

Drilwin
_ _ _ Pru
s,n

Lor.Q...

mY

18

mY

10

,.,f-----+-+ - f.

,,

.."\' ',
," ,
"
,
', ",
,"
,' ,

..

"'

,
0' _0

0'9

O-S 1)-1
(a)

' 'I

01
0-6 % 0,5

, ,,

,
/'
'. .
III

D9

"

~,~~

'.,'

:...::::::

08

-.

'0

01

(b)

'"

0 6%0-5

FlO. 74. (0) Relat ion be tw een the load and the reduction in d iameter. and (b) b:"tweeD
t he eh&ng9 in thiokn_ and t he red ullt ion in d iameter. for drawing and Pre881Il8" (DO
work hardening ).

independent of th e final reduct ion in drawing, but not in pressing.)

In contrast, since the axial stress q is a compression in pressing, q-a is
alway s negati ve and th e t ube thickens continuously. The resultant
change is thus much smaller in drawing th an in pressing ; indeed, Swift
has shown th at it makes little difference to t he calculated streseee and
th ickness changes in drawing if the variati on of t is neglected in the
equilibrium equation (20).

6. Stress distribution in the neck of a tension specimen

After a neck hee formed in a cylindrical ten sile specimen. the distribution of the st ress across a tra nsverse secti on is not necessarily uniformThe quan ti ty (load)j(minimum sectional area ). conventi onally plotted
in a. stress-stra in diagram , then measures, not the uniax ial yield stress,

X. 6J

S T RESS I N N EC K O F T EN SI ON SP ECI MEN

273

but t he mean etrese through the neck. The true yield etreee beyond t he
point of max imum load can only be determined by this test if t he state of
stress end strain in th e neck is known. Even if the material does not
work-harden, th e stress is likely to vary across the minimum section, by
analogy with th e not ch effect described in Chapter IX (Sect . 3). The
problem of calculating th e stress distribution is much more complicated
th an for th e not ch, since the shape of t he neck is unknown and can only be
deter mined by t racing its gradual development. Also, elements in the
neck ha rden by va.ry ing amounts because ofthe differenti al deformation.
Fortuna tely , a radical simplificat ion is possible if we accept the experimental evidence of Brid gman,t indicating that elements in theminimum
aection are deformed uniformly (at any rate to a first approximation).
These elements must th erefore be in th e same work-hardened sta te ,
with the same yield stress Y ; moreover, th e stra.in corresponding to this
yield stress is kn own dire ct ly from t he measured reduction in area. at
the neck. A further consequence oftmiform radial st rain is that th e radial
velocity is proportional to r; hen ce th e circumferent ial stra in-ra te
'-, (= ufr) is equal to th e radial strain-rate i.~ (= fJul&r) in th e minimum
section. It follows that a~ = a, there, whatever t he (IL, v) relation,
provided th at isotropy is maintained. Inserting this in the first of th e
equilibrium equations (I). we hav e
dq,+OT" __ 0

h
(26)
wen
z=,0
dr oz
the origin being ta ken at t he centre of t he neck. F urthermore , since the
state of stress a t each point in t he minimum section is just en axial tension, with a varying superposed hydrostatic atreaa, th e yield condition is
a. - a, = Y when z = 0,
(27)
provided th e influence of a hydrostatic stress on yielding is neglected .
Combining (26) and (27):

da.
&r" = 0 w h en z = 0.
(28)
-d +r
oz
,
The second equilibrium equation, applied in t he plane e = 0, states t hat
oa.jOz = 0 (Tn being zero from symmetry), and is not useful in the subsequent enelysls.
We now introd uce the change of variable which characterizes Bridgman 's analysist of th e stress distribution. Let.p be the inclination of a
Nt P. W . Bridgman, Rev . M od. PAV . 17 (1945), 3. See . 1ao N. N. Da videnk ov and
. I. Spiridonova. P roc . Am. Soc. T Uf. Mal .. 46 (1946). 1147 .
t P . W. Bridgman, TraM . A m . Soc . M u.a.z.. 3:J ( 1943), lio53.

."

rx. e

A XIA L SY MMETRY

principal etreee direction in meridian plane to the axi s (Fig. 754).

If uJ an d 0'1 denote the prin cipal stresses (os being equal to a~ when ol: = 0),
the eq uations for th e tra nsformat ion of stress components in a plane give
0,

0'1 '

tlr

ex 0 1_

T.... =::: (0'1-0'1)4. .

near the plane % = 0, to t he first order of sma ll q uanti ties. Now t he

yield condition for an element nea r t his plane can be written as
as-oJ = Y + a term of order

p.

r.

L _

p .

(bl

(a)

F IG. 75 . (G) Coordinate UN o f princiFNLl It reM in the IHlek o f

.. t.ell8ion specime n, a nd (b) co nat ruet ion fo r the de ri .... t ion of
Bridgm&n '. fonnula.

Th us

T ...

STRE SS I N NEC K OF TENS ION SPEC I MEN

X . OJ

Fai ling an accura te solution for the stress distribution in th e neck we

may esti mate a, by arbitrarily selecting a. reasonable variation of p
with r. On t he surface, p = R , the radius of cur vat ure (in an axial plane )
of t he neck at ita root (Fig. 75a ). Since the prin cipal directions at the
centre of the neck are along the axes of %: and r, it appears improba ble
tha t p could do otherwise th an increase steadily from th e surface inwards.
Hence 0 , steadily increases inwards from the value Y at th e surface.
The radi al st ress is then a tensi on, t and a. is greater than Y . It is probab le tha t the neck forms in such a way t hat th e lines of pri ncipa l st ress
pass smoothly from coincidence with the surface to coincidence with the
axis. If this is so, it can hardly be far wrong to assume, following Bridgman, that th e tran sverse trajectories ofprineipaJ stress in t he neighbourhood of th e minimum sect ion are circular arcs meeting th e surface an d
axis ort hogonally (Fig. 756 ). Let L Jf be such a trajectory, infinitesimally near the minimum section OA and intersecting it in N . Let C
be the centre of curvature at P of a longitudinal principal stress trajectory PT. By simple geometry,
pi:::::: CT' =

OC' - ON' :::::: (r+ p)' - ON ' ,

to the first order of small quantities. Hence, for any point P on OA,
r '+2rp

=::: Y.p, and we obtain (exactly )

= constant = a' +2a R ,

on inserting the particular values of r and p correspo nding to A. Thus,

on passing to the limit ,

(~;)..~ Y(i:L.~ ;.
where p is the radius of curvature of a longitud inal line of principel etreee
where it crosses the plane z = O. Substituting in (28):

M'
_+_Y = O \I. 'hen z -_ 0.
d.
p
This equation may alternatively be derived by conside ring the 8treseea
on a small curvilinear element , bounded by prin cipal plenes .j Integrating, and introd ucing t he boundary condition 0", = Yon the surface
(since 0", = 0 th ere), we find

.., ~ 1+
Y

where a

dr ,

~ = [211rO"I dr = 1 + f" r ' :r,

Y
11a'
ap

jg

(29)

the radius of th e neck, an d u, is the mean axial stress.

t N. N . Da videnk ov and N . I . SpiridonoV&. op . en., p . 273.

(30)

(3 1)

Substituting this in (29)and (30), and integrating, we obtain formulae d ue

to Bridgman:

o.

y-

(a' + 2aR - rJ
l + ln

2aR

).

~ ~ (1 + 2I)I++2~) '

(32)

This constraint facto r is represented by th e lower curve in Fig . 76.

The applicati on of this formu la in practice depends on the possibility
of measuring R, th e radiu s of curvature at th e root of t he neck. For
wid~ly differing steels Bridgma n has found that, to a first approximation,
[R 18 a function only of th e reduct ion of area (all the specimens having a
lengt h to diameter ratio of about t hree). His meesuremente, exte nding
.t TIle

init j"tiun o f (tu tu... at the eeetee or t he ,..,.,k appee.Z1I 1.0 be o.Iue

1.0 , ....

, tate o(

t r IAxial ~lUion. For an e ..perimeD~ mVNtigatm of the de"ek>pmMIt of & eup _and _

(rac t Unt, _

S. L. PwDphnoy, Prot. PA" . Soe , B . 61 11t49). . .t .

AXIAL S Y MME T R Y

".

up to reductions in &rea of 95 per cent. , ate scattered about

represented by the empirical formula

8.

i ~ J(ln(~O)-O"'I,

{X . 6

x. e)

mean

-rL.:_

(33)

where A is th e initial sect ional area and A is the curre nt area. ~f the
rdl
to (33) R is infinite when t he reductIon of
0
"
minimum sect ion. Aero mg

os

J,. l.I-lG

STRES S IN NECK OF TENSION BPECIME N

~
Y -- 1 + .!!...
4R '

leads to

which ia slightly greater than Bridgmen'e factor (see Fig. 76).

7. Compr ession of a cyli nder b etween r ough pl ates

Siebel] (1923) has derived a factor by which the mean stress measured
in a cylinder compreeeion test can be roughly corre cted for th e effect
of a amall amount of friction on t he plates. Th e analysis is analogous
to that described in Chapter VIII (Sect . 5 (vi for the plane compression
test in that t he variat ion of the etreeeee in t he longitudinal direction is
neglected. In addition is set equal to u,; the error introduced by this
assumpt ion is not known. Integrating the first of the eq uilibrium
equations (1) with respect to e, we then have

u,

,so

A~_ 2pp =

0,

where Ais th e height of t he cylinder . and p is the pressu re on th e plate

at radius r (Trw is equal to -pp on th e upper plate and to + pp on the
lower one). If p. is small, the yield condition may be written epproximately ee
p+u, = Y,

" lIS
e0

where Y is t he yield stress corresponding to the current compressive

strain . Eliminating u, between t hese equat ions :
2~p

dp _
10

iul "tion betwee n the eo natT*int fac tor ~

Flo . 76. Theoret
~
raW o f the minimum IleCtion and
the ratio o /R. whore IIW tJw
1M
k
R is t be radh~ of CUlVa\.ure of the eec .

is about 10 r cent.; this represents th e uniform st rain p~ng

&~. g Since tI:lat ter venee with th e amount of cold work prevlou~
nee m .
.
th f mula is least accurate when th e to
given to th e materiel, e or
.
be
lied to the
red uctio n is smallj however , th e correctIOn. factor to
epp

measured mean 8~:e88f is_t h::: ~~v:~;i:=~~~~~denkOv and SplriAnot he r form uUIo or a.
donove.j who proposed that

dr - - T '

p = Yet,.{--n'A,

Integrating:

(34,)

on inserting the boundary condition p = Y on r =

The mean pressure on th e plates is th erefore

P~

[2mpdr

",,'

IJ

(since u,

2)

"" 1+ :::

Y,

= 0).

(35)

to th e first order in p.. The measured mean st ress must be divided by the
factor I + 2p.a{3A to give t he t rue yield stress ; th e correction is likely to be
less good when th ere is appreciable bulging . Thelinearrelation between p
and alA, which is predicted by(35)for specimens in tM8afRt WOf'k -laardaud
Iltalt , has been observed e xperimentally for copper by Cook and Larke~
t E . Siebel. StaAl .."", EiHoo., 4 3 ( 111%3). 12115.

N . Cook Uld E . C. Luke. J ov ..... 1_. M d4l4.71 ( IH 5), 377, partieularly Fig_ II .

~ &leo W. Schroeder and D . A. W ebtltet . JOVnl . A pp. Mee4 . 16 (111411), 2811. loteom~_

u..

tiYe data lor thin diM. (_{Ae z Wnding up too 60 ); it.. w,", &leo ho..
theory lI1uA be
lriclioaal etn. ~ equal \0 lbe yield etn. iD . . . ..

1Zlodified .- bONa

"'.11

u..

'"
over

[X. '1

A XIAL SYMMETR Y

range of alh from 0' 5 to 1'5 ; th eir results correspo nd to values of

0'3. Extrapo lation of the expe rimental line back to
8. zero value of alA appears to be reasonably safe, and should give the
true yield stress. The complete stress-st rain cur ve cen be const ructed
in this way from three or four compression tests on specimens with
different alA rati os (preferably widely lipread for greater accuracy) .
&.

p. between 02 and

8. Relations alo n g altp-Hnes and floWaUnes t

By taking the slip-lines in a meridian plane as cur vilinear coordinates,
th e fundamental equations for t he problem of axial symmetry can be

X .8]

RELATIONS ALONG SL IP LINES AND FLOW . LINES

where aj04"" and ~/04, denote epece derivatives along the slip.lines, their
mutual sense being such that they form a right -handed pair. R a nd S
are t he (algebraic) radii of curvature of t he slip-linea, defined by
1

R = 0..'

8=

The stress-velocity equations (3) transform into

..

u sin r/J+ v cos r/J

auClv

&p
&,

+2, +(a+p) a, _~ ~( rr ) =
R

Olf..

r 81f~

0, }

+ 2, + (a+p) "" _~ ~ (...) ~ 0,

S

&,

(31

f" & ..

t R. Hill. DiHel'CcJ'....... p - 40 (Cam bridr. 1H8). ~ by Min ilot.ry o( Su pp!ti

Armament R-roh E.t.bliahment... Survey Iff,S.

(~

- A(a+ p ),

uv

&, +8,,,,, + Jl+;S =

&p

- A(a+ p ),

= 2>.(o+p).

0., -8 ~

81f.-

(39)

04,

&..

The (X and f1 families of slip-lines are disting uished by t he sense of the

shear stress 'T (Fig. 77), the convention being the sam e &8 in the theory
plane st rain. The angular coordinate of th e ,B- lines is denoted by
measured away from th e r direction towards the positive z directic
Th e equat ions of equilibrium are

(38)

C08 r/J =_ .

-.

iJu

0,.

""

""

. Y', =
SID

a;- - R =

expressed in &. more symmet rical Corm which ia useful for certain purposes. Th e maximum shea r st ress in a meridian plane is denoted by or
and the mean compressive stress - i(ur+ a. ) in this plane by p . The
principal stresses are th en -PT, 0. where 0 is written for the circume
ferential streee
The yield criterion (2) becomes
l
'T i + (0 + p )l j3 = k = ylj3.
(36

-a.,.

There are also the geometrical relations

Fla. '17. Coordinate asee in .. me ridian pilUle ror an

IUli.&l1y,ymmetric pla.8tio etete .

278

6.\,.,

where u a~d e den~te the velocity components referred to th e slip-lines

(the mearung of u In the present Bection must not be confused with its
previous meaning &8 the rad ial velocity).
The elimination of .\ from th e first two eq uations in (40) gives
&u _ !+ usin r/J+vcos ljl _
alf"" R
tr
With the help of (38), tbi8 becomes

du-v~+(u+vcotr/J)dr
2, =

o.

0 a long an (X-line . ]
(41)

Similarly : d17+u ~+ (v+u tant/o) tU = 0 along a p-Une

2,

!heae differ from Geiringer's equations in t he th eory of plane strain only

In the ext ra ~rm8 in r (which vanish

&8

r _ 00). Equations (41) repreaent

~wo of three mdepend ent reletiona which can be derived by elimina ting

~m ~40).

To find a third. multiply the four equatioD8 of (40) by ul,

I ( + v )-3UVT/(O +p) , Vi, uv. respectively, and add . R Sand" vanish

and we find
,
,

i(u~"" +v ~~(UI+VI) + (U'~vl _ :~~)(u~"" +11~~lnf"

00;

O.

AXIAL SYMMETRY

280

Now u

[X. I

~ + t'.!.- is th e space deri va tive along t he mom entary dlrectjons

&of flew. Hence,

& ..

writing q for the total velocity .J(u!+vl ) , we have

~v

d(,q') ~ -

d,

('2 )

v+ p
along th e flow-lines at & given moment. On m ultiplying the eq uations
(37) t hrough by th.. and MI l respectively , we obtain
dp +2T ~+(a+p_TCot~)dr = 8T cUI:< along an c-line , }
r

8all

dp- 2T <f4. +(O'+p- Ttan ;') dr =

~ d8fl along &

&.

('3)
pline.

These ere not 80 simple as the relations for the velociti es, owin g to th e
deriv atives of T on t he right-hand side.
If, however, we ad opt Treece'ecriterion instead of (36), then, teAm .
if tJu inltnMdiaU principal 8tTtu , T = iY a nd the equations become

dp + 2T ~+ (o+P-T cot4

d: =

a ,B-line.

("

t A. H .... an<! Th. von :tt.m:lan.

NgcA~.

014. Wi... Otilt ;,,?,," , lolal4 pIly'. K

281

veloci~y distribution aatisfying th e Uvy-Misea relatiolUl, since there are

t~ree mdependen~ e~uations and only two velocity component8. The
Hear-Kerman cntenon has been used in the problem of ind enting a
plane surface by a flat cylindrical punch . The indentation pressure was
calculated approxim ately by Hencky,t who eeeumed that the slip-line
field was identical
with that for the a.nalogous prcbl
. pane
I
t '
.
' v
em m
8 ram,
and th en mtegrated (44) along the fam ily of slip-lines passing from th e
free 8U:"~ to the punch . Isblinskyt improved Hencky 's solution by
deternll~~g t he ~tu~1 field by step-by-step integration of (44) a long
both famlli~ of el ip-linee : he obtained the valu e 286Y for th e mean
pre&'>?re ~f mdentation. Ishlinsky a lso computed the field beneath a
aphencal tndenter, &Seuming that th e impression was t here to be
with and so neglecting the displa cement of the surface. CalcuIati: :
such 88 these have little value since the Hall.r- Ka , m
h
thesi
is with
h '
.
an ypo eSlS
18 Wit. out P yeical reality for metals a nd Introduces en error ofunknown
ma.gmtude .

These differ from the H encky plan e strain equations only in the te
in r. H owever, this does not mean that the slip-lines are cberecteristi
here also, nor that axially-symmetric problems can be solved by
tec hniques of the t heory of plan e strain. The three velocity relati
impose certain cont inuity restrictions on the etreeederi veti vee, and m
be resorted to in orde r to determi ne the circumferential stress o.
Some writers ha ve adopted an artificial and unreal yield conditi
originally suggested by Heer a nd von Karmant (1909), in order
complete the analogy with the plan e strain equations. This condi .
does not allo w t he stress poi nt freedom to traverse a yield locus,
st ipula tes that it shall be fixed in th e position corres ponding either
uniaxial ten sion or to uniaxial compression. When applied to t
problem of n ial symmetry, it states that (/ is eq ual to one of t he 0
two principel etreeeee, 80 that (/+p = i Y and .,. = iY. Thus a can
once be elimina ted from (44), and the slip-lines become cherecte ri .
for t he stresses. However. if the stress distribution is determined
this manner, it will not generally be possible to find an aS8OOi&
( 19011 ). 204.

RELATIONS AL O NG SLIP . LINES AND FLOW -LINE S

t H . Jieo.c1IY. z~. 0..,. J:1Wh. Mw..3 (1923). 2f l .

0 along an c -line, }

dp- 2T d?+ (a+p-TtaJ1 4 dr = 0 along

X.8)

A. thlineky .

PrUlcd1\tJ14

M cu>n4tikc i M d:hc" iktJ, 8 (I0ff ), 20 1.

DEE P .DRAWING

XI. I)

'"

regarded. Let U r and 17, be th e radial and circumferent ial stress componente in th e a nnulus at radius r (Fig. 78 b). The equation of equilibrium

Xl
MISCELLANEOUS TOP ICS
1. D eep draw ln~

&8

in the expansion of a thi ck cylinder. If there is no strain-hardening,

IN th e process of deep-drawing , a. thin circular blank is formed into ,s.

cylindri cal cup, open at th e t op and closed at the base..The .bla.nk :
placed over a. die with & circular aperture and rounded lip (Fig. 78G),

ctr

= 2k ln - .
r

where b is th e external radius of th e blank a t the moment und er cons ideration. The condit ion of plan e st rain can only be maintained by th e blenkholder if ct. is compressive. This requires t hat
t1.

(b)

(a )

Fl O. 78. Dee p .drawing of a circu lar bt.nk into a cylin dric al cup, &howing (ell ) l ide "..",
-.nd (oj plan.

usually a blank -holder is employed to minimize crinkli ng.j A pun oh ~

forced down on to the blank , drawing the oute r a nnulus ov~r the die
to make the wall of the cup . Among th e variables are th e radius of the
lip t he shape of the punch, t he lubricati on, the clearance betw
pu~ch and die and between blank-holder and die t The f~ll~wing analy
sis is restricted to a calcu1&tion of the stress and stram m the ~utel:
annulus of th e blank while it is being drawn radially towards th e lip
h bl ok

the die.

(i) Plane 8train. If t here is a fixed clearance bet ",:een t e

8o.

holder a nd the die, equal to t he thic kness of th e material, the b,l&nk .

drawn under conditions of plane strain. (This is seldom realized
pra ctice, even approximately , owing to t he elast icity of th e apparatUl
there is generally a greater thickening than would be expected .f~Dl t,
nominal clearance .) Friction between th e blank and the die 111 .
F
theoretiul and e llpe rirnent.aJ. io vNtiga.t.ioR or c rinkling . - W. )I . s.Jd
I Of .
S
Md4J. 38 119. 8). 757.
J r. and T . 8 . Ho. ald, Tro.... A"' . oe.
.'
H W S.-ih P r1lC 1.... A-

t F or an accoun~ or ~be efled or theM vanablM. -

E"'I.:U ( 1939), 381.

.,

= i(ur +t1,) =

2k(ln~-~) :s:;; 0

for a

~ r ~ b.

where a is the radius of the die aperture. This is true for aU b provided
that In(bola) ~ I. or bola s; .Jr -- H m , where b" is the initial rad ius of
the blank . If bola is greater th an this, th e blank thins near the lip of the
die, and the t heory must be modified. The circumferential stress is
numerically greatest on t he rim, where it is a compression of a mount 2k .
The radial tension where the blank is a bout to be drawn over t he lip of
the die is 2kln(b/a ); thia is greatest when drawing begins,
To investigate th e influence of work-hardening we must find the
atrain in t he annulus at any radius r. Let IJ be t he initial radius of an
element which has moved to th e radius r when the external radius of the
blank is b. Then
(I )

The etrain-increment is a tangenti al compression of amount (- dr)/r;

thle is equivalent to a shear of amount 2( - dr)/r (engineering definition).
The equivalent tota l shear Ie th erefore 2ln(lJ/r). Hence, if th e relation
between th e shear etreee or and the engineering shear st rain y is or = J (y ),
the conditi on for yielding is

a.-a, _ 2/(2 In;) = 2/('+ +bl;.b')).

with the help of (1). Subatitution in th e equation of equilibrium, followed
by integration, leads to

a. _ 2 j IH+b:;.b~)d;.

MI S CELLANE OUS TOPIC S

[XI . r

The radia.l tension T at t he lip (r = a) is therefore

T= 2

d oes not occur at the beginning of t he draw (i.e., within 8. di spla.cement

of eleetic orde r). Th e greatest initieJ slope of the stress-stra in curve, for
which T ..tt&ins ita maximum at t he beginning. is given by the equation

(aD
~ 2[/(0)_ f 2bJ'(O) d
'] .
aliI".".
bo
,a

1'(0)= /(O)/(~: - l) .
~

Hence

DEEP .DR AWIN G

where la is the local thi ckness of th e bla.nk , we obtain

fIHl +b!~bil~ '

If the materia.l is annealed before draw ing, th e maximum value of T

o=

XI . I]

:,(ha,)

where k = Y/2. This expression is also a fail' a pproximation to von

Mises' crite rion if for 21: we substi tu te mY , where m is an empiric.&
consta nt slightl y greate r t han unity (see p. 21); the best value for"
increases with th e drawing ratio. It is verifiable a po8uriori that thei
equivalent strain in any element is never more than about 3 per cent .
greater than the numerical valu e of th e circumferential strain,

1_,1

In(8M

Hence, if the tensile etreee-strain relation is a = H(f.), we may write

(lr -OS

H(1o;)

to a good approximation (comparable with the accuracy with whic

H would be known in industrial practice).
In serting this in the equation of equilibrium
!. (hc ) = h( a,- or},
dr r
r
t R . H ill, B ritiah I ron and 8'-1 ReBearch A-.eia t ion . Rep . MW/E /48 /4V. rep

duced he ... b~ kind permiMion or t he Direc tor or B.I .8.R.A.

(2)

If v denotes the radial velocity of a. particle in th e sheet, measured with

respect to b &8 th e tim e-scale, the Uvy-Mises relations give
ir

i; -

iN/Or

20, -0,

(I,+ H

vIr = '},o,-(l, = (I,- 2H '

(3)

The thickness changes are found from th e equat ion of incompressibility

IDla

iN

Xu + Or+ ;: =

0,

where Db =: ab+vOr'

With th e use of (3) the differenti al form of this becomes

dhla = _(H-2o.)d'
2H -0,

1 th e init ial rate of hardening in shear is more t ho t his, th e tension at

the lip is gre&te8t at some later stage ofthe draw.
[ii} PlaM Itrtu.t 1 & fixed load is applied to t he blank -holder, I Uch.
thAt the mean pressure exerted on the blank is small compared with the
current yield stress of th e material, the blank is virtually drawn in
condition of plane stress (see Sect. 4 of this chapter for the gen eral theory
of plene stress). Since Or is te nsile and 0 , compressive, Tresca's criterion
gives
a - a, = 2k '

~ -~H(ln;) .

(f )

taken elong the pat hs of the particles, dr- v db = O. Equations (2 ),

(3), end (4) a.~ h.yperbolic end ere solved by numerical integra.tion along
~~ .cha.~tenstlC8 db = 0 and dr- v db = 0 in t he (r,b ) plane. If th e
initial rediua of th e blank is ta ken to be unity, without 1088 of generality.
the boundary conditions ere

v = I. along th e edge r = b;

0, = O.

o, =H(O)ln ~,

~=I .

V = '(I_~10~) -4.

initially.

17 o~er. t~at th e blank does not neck a.t the lip before it is completely
p een c, It IS necessary that the radial tensil e stress should not exceed
~(O) ; this is ensured if th e drawing ratio is leas than e (2'718...). It is
und tha.t th e variation of thickness &C1'088 the blank a.t any instant
can be neglected in the equation of equilibrium wit h at most a 5 per
oente
' (I, for
ma.ximum error in
the . ~r 10
or d rawing ratios leas tha.n 2. The
Li position of any particle occurs locally neer the lip and is of order
In 3,000, while that in the thickness is about I in 500. For most purpoeea, then, it is sufficient to write

~=

_;H(ln;).

(2')

rWhen H ~s constant we ca.n obtain an a.na.lytio expression for the paths

o the particles. Substitution of u,/H = In(blr') in (3), followed. by an

".

txr. I

MI S CE LL ANE OU S T OPICS

e&8yintegration , leada to

V= (: t = i(l - ~ In~rl;

r = 6when b = 1.

Th e exa.ct integral of t his equation is unwieldy end for practical purposee

it is more con venient to use the approxi mate solution

t';b ln~r = 8ln~, .

0'
1!. -1
h.

XI. I ]

D E E P.DRA W ING

'"

I t ia found thAt t he posi tions of the particles depend little on the

It11l88-stra.in properties of the mAterieJj for exa mple, t he positio ns for
H = constant and H cc 4f. differ by less than 1 per cent. over most of
the range. Th ere Are greater differences in the thickness, t he genera l
te ndency of strain-berdening being to reduce the variation in thickness
ecroee t he ann ulus at any moment . Th us, when H ce 4f., the thickn ess
is very slightly greater at the die than at the edg e when b = 0'9 ; the
opposite is true by the time b has d ecreased. to 07. The thickness of the
outs ide edg e for a given reduction in the exte rnal radius is, of course,
inde pendent of eteein -herdening since it is always stressed in pure compression. Wh en the etreea-etrain curve is well roun ded , the paths of the
particles are closely approximated by

b' -,o = vb(l - .'),

02

r-

08

07

0'

' 0

whi ch is correct to 1 in 1,000 ove r t he relevant range . Now t he incompress ibilit y equatio n can be writte n &8
lit dr = 11,8 tU (b constant) .
Combined with t he pre vious form ula this gives

!!. =
lIu

'Vb(l- Inbl' ).
r

In II.

However, this expression underest imates th e total thickn~88 at ce~

points by some 3 per cent ., owing to magnifica-tion of errors ~ the emp~"
cal formula for r, This is a voided by integrating (4) n ume rically to gtv
the changt- in thickn ess. Accurate t hickness contours for H = con8~nt
computed from equat ioos (2), (3) , and (4), are sho wn in F~g. 79 for VAno
stages of th e d rawin g. Th e t hickness o~ the dra wn cup 18 somewhat
t han this owing to bending o ver th e d iet (see Sect. 2) .
t H . W . S ifi. E tlf ;nrioog. 16fI ( 1 ~8J. 33 3 1Md 361; t he Mmepapel'f$lI, aJ.o be f;

iIl ~ . 7'" 1

CoN}. App. MecJo . LoDdoa

IIHI).

which is obtained by neglecting the variation in t hickness &CI'088 the

blank at &oy moment.
In an earlier in vestigation by Sachs t he particles were assumed to
move elong the paths (I ).t Thia is a ra ther poor a ppro ximation in volving
positio nal errore of up to 10 per cent . Sachs then used (4) to ca lculate
the thickness, assuming the work-hardening to be zero ; his results
overestimate the tr ue theore tical thickn ess at a given point in tlu!. drawn
blank by several per cent., but agree closely with the final thickness of a
givtn ~kment

2. General theory of sheet -bendlngf

In t he elementary theory of sheet bending (Chap. IV, Sect. 6), it is
eeeumed that the stra.ina are 80 small that the tra nsverse stresses induced
by the curvat ure ca n be neglected. It i.e supposed, too, that the neutral
surface coincides with the oentra.l plane of the sheet t hro ughout the
distortion. This theory is a good approximation provided the final
radim of curvature ia not less than four or five times the thickness of t he
sheet . We now exa.mine the state of et reee, and the movement of t he
neutra.l aurfsce and individu al elements, when the stra.ins are of any
magni tude. The analysis is res t ricted to the bendin g of a wide shee t or
bar , where t here illnegligible strain in the width direction. It is supposed ,
t .G. s.c~. Mia. d. ~ M~J'M"'JMJt\.6IQlk.n. 16 11113 1). II. The a ppro u.
1- . baa t-. '*'lI by K . L . JaeboD. J _ ",. / "" . Prod. E"4. 1'7 ( l lU a)

;nation b- r -

/Xl; S4.ed M dGllrtd..-;...:16 11949). 123 and 1" ' .

: R . H ill. Britu.bIfOQ ali 8teel~b A.oeiatioa.. Rep . MWfBJ' /' 9. J . D .LubMn
UW:I G. s.et.. Trcm.. A ... . Soc. Md. Eoog. n (1960 ). 20 1. ob1.amed aimiW rormulae rM
u. '""r-.. bu t ~IlJ\>&&oId. \be . tram. iDoorntcc.1y . F or 1I11pet'imMtaI data _ G . 8.
8&nadahl. Jr. E . L . AuJ., aDd G. Sac.... ~. Soc. 8zp. S ...... A -.I~"'. 6 IIMI). I.

ss

(XI. %

WIBCELLANEO US TOPI CS

to begin with, tha.t the bending ieenforced by couples applied aJong opposite edges and that there &ft'I no other exte rnal forces. For greater clarity
in describing the me.in features of the process it is assumed that elestie
strains can be neg lected a nd that the material d oes not work-harden .
(i) TM diltribtdion. oj Btrt.U . It is to be expected t b.t, in t he part of
t he sheet well away from the region of application of the coupl es, t he
stress and strain are the eeme at.ll pointe alon g eac h longitudinal fibre.
This part of t he sheet deform s in such a way that its t hic kness remains
...2"... _ -_ _

XI. I]

GENERA L T HE ORY OF SHEET BE NDING

...

after using the fact that til' is zero on both surfaces. Since. for equilibrium,
must be continuous a.crosa the neutral surfa.oe, we must ha ve

tI,

2~ 1n-

2~ 1n - .

Thus the radius of the neu tral surface is

c ~ .J(ah).

(7)

From (6) and (6) the circumferential stress is

a. = 2~( l - ln(blr)}
a. _ - 2~{ 1 + In (rla)}

(e .;;; r .;;; b),

(a ';;; r ';;; c).

(8)

a,

The distribution of fI, and is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 80. The

radial stress baa a maximum numerical value klo(b/4) on the neutral
lurface. It is obvious that the distribution (8). over a croee-eecaon of
the sheet, must automatically be equivalent to a couple since we have
ll&tiafied the condition that no external forces act over the surfaces of
the sheet. In fact, the resultant force over a section is

'~b

FlO . 80. Dietribution o r ~ and eircumf"renti.l .t~

in . theet. bent in plane lItrain (no work -hardening).

du.
-dr'

a,-a, =

= - r- ' .

21: (e ~ r ~ b),
= 2k (G ~ , ~ c).
Substituting (6) in the eq uilibrium equation, and integrating:
a, = _ U ln blr (, .;;; r .;;; b),
til' = -2i lnr/a (a ~ , =s;. c),

(')

fir-a,

(.

f:,

(,tll') d,

= [,ftl'! = o.

The couple per unit width is

G=

f a,rdr.

where, for convenience in perfonning the integration, momente ha ve

been taken about the centre of curvature. Substituting from (8):

!!.=
2i

a,-ft

Let t be the radius of fibres which, in a further infinitesi mally small strain,
undergo no change of length; t he cylindrical eurfece containing these
fibres is called the neutral ~'Jace. F ibres outeide this surfece are
mot7Wttarily extended and those inside compressed . Since the bending iJ
aeeumed to take place under conditions of plane strain the yield
criterion is

d,

uniform and ita plane surfaces become cylindrical; we m all verify thia
a pO&teriori. Let a end b be the internal an d external radii of curvat ure
&1 any moment, and let l be the thickness (F ig. 80) . I t follows from t he
symmet ry of the defonnation that the principal st resses in the planes of
bending act in the radial and circ umfere ntial di rections. If ft, is the
circumferential etreee and ftr is t he radial eteeee, the equat ion of equi-

librium is

til

l(a' +6' - 2c')+i<' ln

ah
~

&fter an e&8Y integration. Inserting t he value of e from (7)

2~ ~ 1(6-a )' =

1t'

(9)

(ti) The ckJormalion in bending. Le t u da be the i nward radiaJ component, and 11 da the circumferential component, of the displacement
of an element during a further small strain in which the angle of bending
IX (per u",i, original ltngth) increaaee by da. Since we are neglecting
elasti c compreeai.bility, the componente of displacement must be such
~t there is no change in volume. Furthermore, they must be conIl8tent with the stl"e6ll distribution (6) and (8); this demands that the
68e0ciat.ed strain it a circumferential extension of elemente outside the

MI SCELLAN E O US T O PI CS

[XI. I

neutral surface, and a compression of those insid e. These conditions

are 88ttiafied if

u =

..!..(T+~'\'

v = rD ,

iJ

2ca

U=

-d~, = (1_~)~,

c' , ,, =
-2,.

0;

The work don e (per unit width) ill therefore

dYr6 =

(ii)

r
u = 2ca '

"I

GLa = 2k ~~

(10)

4(a+bJ"

o.

(11)

Since u is constant where T is constan t , t he surfaces of the sheet remain

cylindrical, and , since 1:1 is proportional to T, radial eecticne remain
plane. An arbitrary mul tiple of 0088 may be ad ded to u, and th e sa me
multiple of sin 8 to v, to represent a rigid -body displacement of the sheet
&8 a whole parallel to the plane of sy mmet ry . In this way we can satisfy
a further condition : for example, that some point of the sheet is fixed
in space. For present purpoeee it is simplest to make the centre of curve ture th e fixed point , &8 in (10). The in cre mental distortion can be
visualized as t he sum of two strains :
(I)

GENE RA L THEO RY O F SHEE T.BEND IN O

ca

where 8 is the angle between a radius and the plane of symmetry. The
corres pondin g stram-incre ment has compo nents

cU, =

XI . 2J

v= -r8 .

The first represents an inward radial di splacem ent as in the unifo rm

shrinkage of a hollow tube ; the second rep resen ts a uniform circum feren tial strain of amount da./2a.
An immediate deducti on fro m (10) ie that the thickneea does no t
cha nge. Thus , the decrements in the internal and external radii are

Th ia ia

(13)

per unit volume.

(iii) The movement oj individual elemenu. Although the thi ckness of
the sheet remains constant, the d ietencea of internal elements from the
surfaces va?
In fact, accordi ng to (Il), elements are radially com~reesed. outs ide t he neutral eurfsce, and radially extended inside. ConSIder t he move ment of a fibre distant ml/ 2 from the centra l pJane in t he
~nbent sheet (- I :::;; m :::;; I ; m is regarded as posi tive on th e convex
Side). Let T be the radius of curva ture of the fibre when t he internal
radius is a. Since the material is eeeumed Incompreeeible, the fibre must
continue to divide the section into the sem e areas. Hence

l+ m
rS-a l
I-m = b' - rS'
0'

, ~

Thu s the final radi us

TO

.JWa'+b'l+!(b' - a'lmj.

(14)

of t he original centre fibre (m = 0) is

',-_ J (a'+b'\
-2-r
~ fibre is, of co.urse, nearer to t he convex surface in its final posi tio n
(Fig . 81). By eet ttng T = e in (14) it is found that the initial position of
the fibre finally coincidin g with the neutral surface ie such that
m

-(:+:).

Now the neutral eurfece initi&1Jy colncidee with the cent ra l plane a nd

~P~:oaches the inner surface during the bendin g. Hence aU fibres

1t
' : iallY .sit ua ted to the ten sion side of the central plane (m ~ 0) are

and so
, can therefore be trea ted. &8 a constant henceforward , and it followt
from (9) that the coup le G is ind ependent of t he am ount of plastio
bending, a result which is t rue only for non -hardening material. The
relation betw een the internal radius end the an gle of bending ie found
by eq uating the initial and final &reas ; if L ie the origi nal length of
sheet then
2
Lt = !(b'-al)Lca, 0;1 = - .
(12)

a+b

P ogreeeively extended , while aU fibres finally situated inside the radius

e have been progressively compressed. Fibres for which

-(:+:) < m <

or

c<

<j((J'~bl)

the ove rtaken by the neutralsurfa.ceat some intermediate stage, and are
fl refoTe first compressed and afterwards extended (the Ba uschin ger
~a eet w?uld thu8. be operative in practice). A fraction t/4a of the width
pp roXlmately) 18 t ra versed. by the neutral surface.

t ll!

MIS CELLA NE O US T OPI CS

(XI. J

At each etege of the bending there is one fibre which baa un dergone
equ al amounts of compressio n and extension, end whose ruultam cha.nge
in length is zero. The radius of this fibre is, fro m (12),

, =

!=

I_

l (+ b).

XI. ! ]

Since a, must be continuous

'

Ntulr<1' surf.x:t
hed
nSUttc
~~

-~(:+:).

It may be shown that the effect of work-berdenin g is to .dia~laoe the

neutral eurfece nearer to the concave side and 80 lead to .. thinning al tho

m eet.
oed
(iv) Bending under leMion. 8D P~ . now, that the bending is ~
out while the aheet is stressed by tensions T (per unit width) applied to
the ends. The line ofaction ofeech tension isa.ssumed to be normal to the
terminal radial section (that is, in the circ umferentia.l direction). The
tensions have an inward resultant which is assumed to be balanced b~.
uniform pressurep applied over the inner surface of the sheet. For equilibrium it is evid ent that
T = ap .
(1&)
The stress components are

- 2t ln-b, ,

a =

_ p_2tln a_.

0,_ 2k(I - In~)

( .;; , .;; b);

a,

(a .;; , .;; .).

_p_2k(I +ln;)

= ~-pflk.

!!..
=
2k

(16)

H+b.-2obe- ....)- Tb

4k

t:h

the neutr&l surface , CMUsSes

(17)

Th e surfaces remain cy lindrical and the displa.cemente are st ill given

by (10). H owever, t he thickn ess of th e sheet d oes not remain const&nt .
In fact ,
- da ~ {. ~,\do =
do.
\' ti}2a
2a

e
that which coincides, at the moment under considera tion, with
ceeteal eurfece oftbe sheet. The initial position, according to (14),11

a =

u.

The neutral surface ia therefore disp laced Inwerda by the epplicaticn of

tension. It m&y be shown th&t the bending moment G per unit width,
referred to the cent ral fibre, is given by

..d ..

m -

&CJ'068

CS

Thus, the fibre which hee undergone no resu ltant change in length i.e

. . I ' .O''1,'11.
"I rt 3 Cln",""

GE NERA L TH E ORY OF SH E E TB END ING

(.+be--)

-db = (b+7i):: - (b+..-- )::.

dI ~ db - I = .(. --1) .
da
da
.+.(.- +1)

(18)

Thus the application of te nsion ca uses the thickness to decreeee. If the

varia tion of T, end hen ce of p , with the in ternal radius a is prescribed,
equation (18) determines the relation between t and a.
Wh en tta is emell (less than 18&y) a first epproximatlon to the thinning
ma.y be obtained by neglecting the rreneverse str688C8 end the com pressio n end subsequent exte nsion of the fibres overtaken by the moving
neutral surface; the inBuence of these facton only enten to the second
orde r of approximation . Let the applied mean te nsile atrees be a fraction
z of th e yield atreea, 80 thAt

:r

p
xl
2J; = 2m = jj"

Th e neutral surface is a distance

(0 ~ z ~ 1).

l.rt from

t he central plane. From (18):

dI
zI'
u':
2a s'

Hence, % being maint&ined constant d urin g the bending, the proportional

thinning is
.6.t
:rl
- ,- = 24'

(19)

To th e present order of appro ximation th e change in length of each fibre

is regarded as achieved. by a mlinU01U extension or oompteMion ;
t bua, the defonnation work per unit volume of &D element dis tant 11
........u

...

[XI . 2

MI S CELLANE OUS T O PI CS

from t he neu tral surface is 2kyla since gla is the resultant strain. The
mean work per unit volume of th e whole bar is th erefore

2k [i (I+.l'~

at

Y dy +

j( J-Z)I ]

kt

y dy = (1+,r') 2a'

,
to order (i '

(20)

If the sheet is re-strai ghtened under th e same te nsion th ere is & further
t hinning of equal amount. Th us the total work done per unit volume in
producing a thinning ofamount xl/a is k ( I + xl )tla. Since the work needed
to produce th e same thinning by uniform ex te nsion is 2b:tla, t he efficiency of bending and re-ateeighte ning under tensio n &8 a means of

XI.3J

PLANE STRAIN O F A GENERAL P L AS T IC MATERIAL

that th ere is no st rain in th e z direc tion th en implies the funct iona l

~epend~nce o~ u. on the pri ncipal stre88ell 0'1 a nd 0'1 in the plan es of Bow '
In particular, If th e reversal of the stress reverses l h
. .
....,.. e sI ram
'mcrement
(~ t~at p. = 0 when I' = 0), u. is equal to i(0'1+0'1)' u. may thereby be
elimmated from the yield crite rion, which is reduced to
F (p,T IOI) = 0,

where

p = -1 (0'1+0'1),

3. Plane s train of a gene ral pl as ti c m aterial

(i) S ignifioonu oj tk envelope oj ainu circles in Moh r', diagram.
The plastic yielding of some non -metallic materials, such &8 clay end ice,
may be broadly described (if a ll secondary phen omena are disregarded )
by a yield criterion in which th e hydrostat ic component of stress has
significant effect . The st udy of the plane deform ation of such a material
ill included in th is book because it illumina tes certain features ofthe plane
deformation of a metal which are apt to pass unnoticed in th e tees general
theory.
Elaatic strains are neglected , end it is supposed that the pleetic
strain-increment ratios depend only on t he applied etreee. The condition
t

H _ W. Swif\. op . ci L., p. 2S8.

(21)

T... = 1(0'1 -0'1)'

p it the mean comprt'SSive stress in th e plane, a nd

T.

is t he (algebra ic)

reducing thickness is 22:/(1 + %' ). The efficiency is higher the grea ter the
tension, and becomes unity (to the present approximation only) when
t he applied te nsion is equal to the yield stress (x = 1).
Swiftt has shown how these resu lts can be a pplied with suitable
modification s to the calculation of thinning produced in a st rip bent
under tension by pu lling it round a roller (like a rope over a pulley).
A part of th e t hinning takes place during t he bending oftbe strip immedia tely before passing over th e roller, an d the remainde r &8 the strip is

re-etreightened on leaving th e roller . Since th is is a cont inuous steadymotion process, in which th ere is a variation of thi ckness alon g t he strip
where it is being bent , the deformation and state of stress are st rictly
not identical with th at conte mplated in the abov e analysis. However.
the differen ce is proba bly negligible when Ifa is small, and in fact Swift
has found good agreement with t he observed t hinning when strainhardening is suitably allowed for (strain-ha rdening acta to red uce the
amount of thinning when the applied tensi on is large).

296

FlO. 82: Yield envelope in th e plane dero~tion or

matoerw whoee yield~ is in fluenced by hy droetatio
P~W"Il .

~aJ:imum sheaf' stress. The yield criterio n may be represented by a

hOCUS refe~red to coordinate axes 1(0'1 +0'1)' l(UI-UI) (Fig. 82). If a pure

. ydrostatlc te nsion of suffi cient am ount produ ces yielding t he locus

ISclosed on one side. The yield condition T . = k, for an ideal metal
~ppe&rs as a ~peeial case in which F is independent of p , and th e F locus
e~nel'ates mto a pair of parellel Iinee.
ollo.wing Mohr's well-known representation we may a lso plot in the
8&m~ diagram th e ~eal' st ress T and normal stresa a, over a ny plane
para el to th e zaXIS, the circle of stress for & plastic state being
(a +p)' +T1 =

T=,.

For a point (a, T) on th e envelope E of th ese circles we hav e

(O' +p ~dp)I +Tt = (T...+dT",)I,

(O'+p) dp = T. dT....

aF

er
Or...
.

e dp + -

dT = 0

(22)

,,.

(XI. 3

MI SCELLANEOU S TOP I CS

H ence

a+p

-;:- = -

aFjaF _ dT.
ap

fh ... -

(23)

dp'

The elimination of p and T ... between (21), (22), and (23) furnishes the
(a,T) equatio n of the envelope. If the inclination of the ~n~ent ~ E
is denoted by !/J (regarded &8 positive where ITId ecreeeea WIth m~reaatng
tension a ), and the inclination of the tangent to F by x. equation (23)
expreeeee the fa.et that at corresponding points on E and F
sin t/J = tan x.
(24)
Thus, only when -I'll' ~ X :s;;: 1" is there rea l contact between a atreM
circle for & plast ic state and t he envelope E. This possi bility was eeemingly not reoognized by Mohr, who proposed '[ a criterion of yielding to
the effect that permanent deformation occurred only when .. 8treee
circle touched a certain curve in the (a. T) plane. Since there are possible
pleetic states corresponding to circles lying entirely in side the envelope
(e.g., the sma.ll circle in Fig. 82) the locus F ,.and not E, m~lIt be regarded
as the fund amental quantity to be determined by experi ment.f
I t will now be shown that the stress equetione are hyperbolic or elliptic
accordi ng aa the contact wit h the envelope is real or imaginary. respect ively. Suppose , following the method of Chapter VI (Sect. ~) '.that ~me
curve C is give n along which the stresses are known. and t hat It III required
to find whether the stress derivatives nonnal to this curve are uniquely
determined. Consider any poin t P on C. and take Cartesian axes (z ,Y)
parallel respectively to the normal and tangent at P. The equilibrium
equati ons limit the only possible discontinuity to &III/ax. H owever.
this derivative can be found from

o ~ aF _ ~ F( - I<a.+a,), {Ha.-a.) +~.)ll

ax ax
=

_~ :(~: +~;)+:,"~{Haz-Oll)(~:-~)+T~~:}.

(26)

unless the coefficient of OOIl/OX venlehes. This hap pens when

a.+p ~ _ aFj aF.

T...
ap &7-",
t

0 , Moh r , Zew, Vet', deuUeh, l ng. '" (1900).

XI. 3]

PLANE S TRAIN OF A GENERA L PLASTIC MATERIAL

297

Comparing (26) with (23), we observe t ha t C is a characteristic whe n

at every ~int. the norm~t stress component acting acrOBIJ C correspond~
to the point of contact WIth the envelope E . Since there are two points
of contact for a given pla.stic state, there a re tw o characte ristic directions '
these are inclined at an angle 11'1"+ 14- to the directi on of the elgebreicelly
greater principal stress (Fig. 83). Thus th e stress eq uations are hyperbolic if and only if the contact ia real. When X = llT and 4- = r
the characteristics are coincident . These
points on the locus F corres pond to the
'if'
maximum and minimum values of (11 and
~
01 ; t he characterist ics coincide with the
~
ax is of the numerically leeeer principal
~

steese. For the ideal metal 4- is always zero /

and the charac te ristics are t he elip-hnee. !L
"i ...
~..
Cfi (>f'", )
The relation between charac te ristics and "'f ; J
the envelope wa.skn own to Prendtl'[ (1920)
'(
R
for the special states of stl'e88 encountered
~
in his in vestigatio n of the problem of
'VlJ:fKa.,Q.
indentation by a flat punch. The first
P~
general demonstration ia apparently du e
a.
to Mandelt .(1942), who. reach ed the result ~~
.
S:~
s~_~~~~~~rerTed
..........e....
.....O<UnlCtiOrl*.
by geometn cal reasomng and also by th e
standard method of the cherecteriati c detenninant (Appendix III). The
present method is du e to the author.
(ii) .RtL:ztio.M along 1M. eAaracUrilJticlJ. When t he equat ions are hyperbolic there exist relations, analogous to those of Hencky, for the variation
of the stresses along the characteristics. Let the stress components,
referred to the directions tangential and normal to a charac te ristic at
any point, be denoted by P, Q, R (F ig. 83). The sense of Q, an d the
distinction between the Ol and P familie s of characteristics , follow the
COnvention in the theory for an ideal metal. Now from (25) and (26)
we have

1:-;,T+-

--)...

(26)
.

"

nteot

t In eoil mechanic. E ill often a pproximated b y two oblique "talght linN. the co Id
then bei ng alwaye real. Tho p~nt modifiee.tion or Mo~'e ,latement or the ~

e riterion dON not _ m to be widely known to wo rk,1W ID. that field. who ~n ~
I"elf&rd the . heat' .box ..... t ... giv ing a di reet meaeUl'OJ of point.- on the.envelope. Bmoe It.
de ronnation iA .... r Ollllt ra ined All to be e"eetively a Iirnple , heat' In a ,n&n'Ow ~
_ me t hat the telt I'NIlly gi VM a d iteet ~Ul'OJ. not. or E. ~ut. o r F, for Irth.' material
.1I10t.rop"l
. ' h e d ,tee ,~
r .._6
~. _
- . im um Ihear .t...- and maxunum . hear .t.ra ln .rate m u-"
ooiM ide .

at t he point P , when C is a characteristic (the upper a nd lower signs

COrrespond respec tively to
and pcurves). With the first equilibrium
(I -

L . Prandt.l. N oeJir . Ou. WW4. O/JU.iotqefl ( 19201. 14.

Mandel. ~qu ilibru par jl'Q ll("lou pl4M~ Ju .., liJu ~ Louilo ,Jean . Pari 10.2) ;
roe. /Jill. 1",. eOfl//'. App. M ull. P ,.,.iA (l O ~ 6 ).
I R. Hill. PAil. MQ{J. 40 ( 1949 ), 911 .

t J.

MI SCE L LAN E OU S T OPICS

298

[XI.a

equation (th e weight of the material being neglected) t his becomes

a;;"'n~~ =

O.

(27

If a p-cha.r acteristic be regarded as th~ curve C, and if ~~ is i.ts anti

clockw ise orientation at any poin t with respect to the x -aXIS, th
(Appendix IV)

OT

--=r =
(I"..

OT

T %

dR -2Qdw

cos ';~ - sm .,.- ~

(Ix
&y

[I(p- R)'in 2~r Q cos 2~~1)

(.!(I"

~
aQ

~, - t.

oo::~~(w~i"'l.,,:"') gp dh

on an a-curve, }

l"'- I ~) dh
P
d R+2Q dw -- co, ~co,(wcos (w+ I.'.
.,.- IfT ) gp on a -curve,

at the point P. From the last t wo equations :

Hence, at P,

where c is the so -ca lled cohesion , and t/J is constant . Bya slight exte nsion
of th e precedin g theory to allow for body forces, it may be shown that

along an cx-chara.cteriBti

. ./.OT%1/

= O.

( R -P)~ + (I" .. = o.

Now it is evident from F ig. 82 th at

R-P
dQ
2Q = "'n~ = - d R '
Combining (28) an d (29):
dR - 2Q #~ = 0 along an e-curve,
where ~~ may be meas ured from an y fixed direction. Similarly,
regarding an ell-characterist ic as the curve C,
dR + 2Q d~1a = 0 along a p-curve,
where ,pia is t he anti-clockwise orientation of an e-curve from the 6
direction. For an ideal metal, where
~ = O. R = -p, Q ~ k, d~. ~ d~~ = ~ , "
ti
(30) an d (30' ) red uce t o the familiar Hencky relations.
equa Ions
.
' . 1 t
dlrecric
If w is the anti-clockwise orientatIOn of a pnncipa s rees J
dw = d(~. +l~) = d(~~ - l~)

Hence, by defining a quant ity>. such t hat

~ ~ ~(fd~_ +
the equ ations (30) and (30') can be written more symmetrically as
>'-w = conl'ltant along an e-curve, )
(
>'+w = constant along a p curve.

2U9

>. is a known fun ct ion of 1/1, calculab le fro m the envelope E. Equations
(32) were derived by Mandel. t
In so il mechani cs the env elope E is often approximated by two oblique
straight lines:
c- Q = R tAn t/J.

T., ~ H P- R).in2~~- Qco,~~,

Now, from (27), t he space derivati ve of

has t he value

XI. 3l PLANE S T R AIN O F A G EN E RA L PLA STIC MATERIAL

(33)

where p is t he densit y . h is t he height relat ive to some fixed horizontal,

and w here re fers to th e directi on of the algebraically grwter prin cipal
st ress. These eq uations are du e to Kot ter: (1903). Wh en '" = 0 and
Q = c, the characterist ics are t he slip-lines, and it is easy to show that the
geometrical theorem s of Hencky apply (Chap . VI . Sect. 4).
If it is ass umed that th e material is incompressible, and that the
principal axes of stress and strain -rate coincide, t he Cartesian componenta of velocity are gove rned by Sai ntVenant 's equations ((4) and
(7) of Cha p. VI) . Th e slip-lines are therefore always chara cterist ics for
the velocities. whose variations along slip-lines conform to Geiringer 's
equations ((14) of Chap. VI }. Thus, th e solut ion of a problem defined by
both st ress and velocity boundary conditions may eit her require the
considera tion of four rea l and distinct characteristi cs, or of only two,
namely t hose correspo nding to the velocity equations. All in vest igat ions
of special problems known to the author are de fect ive in tha.t th e velocity
equations are not d iscussed . F urthermore, in initial -moti on problems
(for exa mple, stability of earth slopes or indentation by a flat dieJl) t he
complete loading path has been neither specified nor followed in t he
SOlution, 80 that, as shown in Cha pte r I X, t he extent of the plastic
region at t he single moment under considera t ion could only be 8. matter
for conjecture. Fi nally , it is to be remarked th at a un ique mathematical
SOlut ion may not necessarily exi st , since t he yield crite rion an d plas tic
POtential arc not identical here. Unique ness has 80 far only been proved
t J . Mandel, or . eu., p . 297.
t. F. K otter. Buli" .Akod. B er1c4l (1903), 229. For an al ternative b ut !eM elegan$
"'"(
, v.. tion _ W. W. 8o ....010v.k,.. C_ pt u RHId.... (DoHGdYl, 31 (1939), U3, and 33
13~I , f .
NI
W. Sokolovaky. TraM. A ", . S. MA. E"9 . 68 (1940), A-I ; Ift1U1iG Al:ad .
SSSR , l (l D3D), 107 .
L. Prandtl , o p . ete., p. 297.

w.

U"k

JUSCELL AN E OUS T OPICS

JOO

[XI. I

when they are identi caJ. (Chap. III, Sect. 2 (ii), and &g&in for the plane
problem in Chap. IX , Sect. 2 (ill). where th e coincidence of 8treea and
velocity chara.cteriaticaeeem8 to be a necessary pro perty for uniqueneee).

4. The theory of plane plastic stress, with applications

A Iltate of eteeee is ea ld to be plane with respect to Cartesian axes
(x, y) when the stress components a., Tn' ,..... ' in the z dire ction , are zero.
If a plate of uniform thickness is loaded along its edge, by forces acting
in its plan e, the distribution of st reee m ould be very nearly plane
sufficiently far from th e edge. If, during plastic deformati on under theee
appli ed loads, th e thickness does not rema in uniform, the state of stress
may still be treated &8 app roximately plan e 80 long as dh/d. is 8mall
compared with unity, where A is the local thickness and 8 is the distance
in any direction parallel to th e surfaoe. For greater generality the th eory
of plan e plastio etreee will be developed for non-u niform plates. 8ubject
to thia condition being eatiafied.
(i) TM. 8tru8 equatioM. If a z , U.' and "'Z Jl denote valu es of th e streea
components a veraged through th e thickness, th e equations of equi librium are (in th e absen ce of body forces)

a
a
a.
(ha.l+ ily (hTn ) ~ 0,

8
8
a.
(hTn ) +ily (ha,) ~ 0,

u.

af- al u. +oi = 311 ,

(36)

where Ul and
are th e principal etreeeee in th e plane of the plate, and
I: = Y/.J3. Equation (35), considered &8 a locus in the (uI, u.) plane ,
represents an ellipse (Fig . 84) ; it is in fact th e section of th e :MieM
cylinder in (uI' UI' U.) space by th e plane u. = O. Referred to its principal
axes, th e equation of the ellipse is
F(p,T.) '"

where

p = - I (UI+ UI)'

Ip' +<l. ~ k',

T ...

TH E ORY OF P LA N E P LAS T IC STRE S S

301

be cont inuous. The envelope E. correepondia g to (36), may be shown

(from (23 to have the equation
E (a,T ) ea I" +T ' = P .

(37)
Now it W&8 proved in Section 3 th at the .trell8 equations are hyperbolic
when t he i~clination X of th e locus F to th e gaxis is numerically le88
th an 111'; thlll correspo nds to th e th ickened arcs of the ellipse in Fig. 84.
Over the remainder of the ellipse, where both lUll and ju ! are greater
than k (or, equiva.lently, where th e ma.ximum shear st res: in the plan e

,,

,,
', - 0

,
,,

i,-o

(3')

The averaged etreeeee may be inserted in th e yield crite rion, with only a
small error. Von Mises ' crite rion reduces to

U:-uz u.+U:+MSqo =

XI. ' 1

(36)

= I (UI-ul)'

Now (36) is,formally, a speci e! case of the yield criterion (21) . It is

eviden t , t herefore, that th e inveet igetion of cberecterietice for plane
stress is mathematically analogous to that fer plane st rain of a gene~
material. The additional term. in A do not fund amentally altet the
investigation since h is to be regarded &8 a known function of z and t
at th e moment under consideration, while 8h/az and aA/au must in general

is.nu~erically less th an I k), the equations are elliptic. The characteriatic

directions are coincident with t he a xis of the nu merically lesser principal
atress when th e princlpel etressee ha ve the values (I:,2k).
The equations analogous to (30) and (30'), obtained by transfonnina
(34), are
---e
d(Rh)-2Qh d+, = - ( R ain ++ Q coa +)~h d.o. _Iong _n e-curve }

(,I'~

d( Rh)

8h

+ 2QAd4.. = -( R8lD 1J.+ Qcos 'M -d8~ along a fJcurve.

(38)

8,.

~; the present problem it is convenient to express P , Q. and

.p. or a related angle e such th at
lan8 ~ ,'3. ;n +
No'W , from (37),
and 80, from (29),

R in terms

(-iw "; + ,,; iw ; - j w " 8 ,,; j w).

l.R1+QI = kI,

(39)

[XI.

MI SCE LLAN E O U S T OPI CS

302

Hence

R ~ 2P =

2J(k' -

tan~ =

Q').

2P

./(k' -Q' )

4 slO'P
- _sin6
. .,
4
= J (I+ 3. in"/i) - ,3
'

Q _ _ CQ.~ _

r-

"I( 1+3oin'~)

(40

= "I( I- I.in'9),

where the positi ve radi cal is to be taken. T he prin cipal st resses O'llUl
as

~(~s~!"_t=tlJ .

are

J( J+ 3.in '~ )

3 8in ~

Thus

or

2ksin(ei)'

= .J3 tan8 = -0' 1+<71 , w here at

a i-a.

>

(41

as'

But this is Lode' s variable p. when Crl = O. Hence 8 is equal to the.an

defining t he or ientat ion of the stress vecto r in the plane n relative
the position of pu re shear (Chap. II, equation (7 . 8 ma y also ~rega f
&8 the auxiliary angl e parametrically ex pressing the eoordinetee 0
point on the ellipse F . The quantity..\. d efined in (31), has the value
~ = tan -l( 2tan ~ )-I~

= Sin-I (:3 8in 8)- i sin-l (~3 tan e) (-lw :<.\ ~rr). (
where t he inverse sine and tange nt denote an gles in the range (-111',
.\ is tabulated es a funct ion of l/J or (J in Table 2 at the end of.the
In serting in (38) the val ues of P , Q, and R from (40) we ebtain,

.I. dh

constru cted by methode closely resembling those des cribed. in Chapter

VI (Sect . 5). When the thickness le uniform an analogy to Hencky's
tint t heore m ma y be stated : there ilia COrl8tant difference in the values
of both ,\ and w where two given cha rac teristics of one family are cut by
any member of the other . It follows that if a secti on of one characte risti o
is stra ight so also are the correspondin g secti ons of other members of the
same family .
The F locus correspondin g to Tresca's criterion is a hexagon inscribed
in t he Mise8 ellipse (Fig. 84). When 0'1 end 0'1 have the sam e sign , the
maximum shear stress lies outside the plane and the greater of 10'11 and
10'11 is eq ual to 2k, where k: i.e now wri tte n for iY. When 0'1 and 0'1 have
opposite signs , the max imum shear stress lies in the plene and
100t - 0'. 1

d(ph) + 2kh d+

~ k ah d8. along an c -line,

d(ph)-2kh d+

~ k ah. d8~ along a polin.

o.~

(2/.J3)sin 8 dla _
i sec 8 Oh d.J...on a n o.curve' 1
J(1- I . in'9 )-k - - "I(I I .in'8) a,~ h

(2/.J3)sin8 dla __ ~c ~ _ &Ia ~lon afJ.curve.

d(A + wl+ J ( l l . in-ej T- J( I- I.in'8) a,. h
The thickness Ia be ing given, these equation s express t he variation ~r
nAramcter 8) a long the characte Tl8
etreee com ponen ....._(s pecified by the r-:

(0 ';;

Ipl .;; k) .

(46)

In the seco nd C&Be there is only a single characte ristic, which coincides
with t he di rection of the numerically lesser principal stress . Returning
to equation (25) we find that

~= o,
aince Tqo = 0 at the point P . Thus, at the point P, the equef iona of
equilib rium (34) reduce to
8Tqo

Alternatively, written in terms of 8. the eq uat ions are

a,.

(1 + 3 sin'.p) &It cLJ... on an o.c urve , }

dh _ _ (1+ 3 sin "P) &h ~ on a fJcurve.

d(.\.+w) +2ta n ljlh 'l.cos ljl &&... h

= 2k.

The envelope E coincides with F for stress states such that 10'1- 0'11 = 2k,
but for ell other states it degenerates in to the pair of pointa (2k.O).
In the first ca.se the equetione are hyperbolic , with the slip-lines &8
charac te ristics. Setting Q = 1:, P = R = -p, d?.. = d?p = d?1jI = O.
we have from (38):

d(A-wl+2tan~ T ~ - -2CQ' ~- o.~ h

d(A- w) +

30.

in terms of the angle through which the principal axes rot&te.t The
field of characteristics corres pondin g to various boundtory condi tions i.e

----"2Q- -

From (39):

THEORY O F PLANE P L AST IC STRESS

XI. 01]

Now,

"zw =

ay

R &1a
= - -. _ ,

h ""

i(P-R)sin 2w,

0'" =

i(P+R)-I(P-R)cos 2w,

where w denotes the a nti-clockwise orientation of that principal stress

t U npublW>ed "'Mil o r the writ C18411). Whe n the thickn _ . unironn \he equat io...
l-.ctueo to I.hoee derived (in d ifferent ruhion) by W . W . Soko&ovaky, C_ pu Rntd...
(Dollad y ), al (I N S), 1'J~l T"-r oj P ltlMte1Iy, p . 201 l.14e-ow, 1848).

304

MI SCELLANE OUS TOPICS

IXI . '

direction which is also th e cha ra cterist ic. Subst itu t ing these expressions
in the equilibrium equations, and inserting veluea at P after differentiat ion , we find

"'" R ah
(P - R) ay ~ h ax'

(l _ I~I) dw = _~:da,

_(l_lfl)h
""',
2k
an

(k <:; Ip i <:; 2k),

cntz

(47)

Y = XtaDw+ F(wl,
where F(w) is a fun ction determined by t he stress boun dary condi ti
prescribed along some eurve.t I t is not difficult to show t hat the curv
ture of the other principal stress trajectories is
(hi.

(iPl)

a(IPI)

1-

2f

dX""2k = sec w as ""2k = X +costwF'(w)

along a cha racteristic. On integrating, we obtain a n equat ion du e

SokolovBky :t

IP I

1- 2f =

G(w)

X + costw F '(w )'

where G(w) is a funct ion to be determined from the boundary val ues of.
(il) The vdotily equation.s. Let the (x , y ) components of velOCI
t IL d implicitly ...urnN I.ha' ' M 1IIope. vary. Ir \he l~nN are par*llel , he .~
\Lll.ifonD ' t.m. _
i8 no' ind uded in 'he followinjj: general U1~.
.
: w. W.So1r.olovsky. C_ peu R,rwI.... (DoUlod~ ,.51 ( ItU). UI ; TIw>rr oj P
p . 111111_.... I Hf).

ay

(49)

We begin by investi gating whether these equat ions poeeesa characte r.

istics. Let C be a curve along which u z ' v..' and the compo nents of stress
are given, and let t he (x, y) axes be taken to coincide respeotively with
the normal and ta ngent to C at some point P. Then , if t he velocity is
continuous across C, auzlBy and av../By are known at P. Equations (49)
suffice to determine auz /&% and 811./&% uniquely at P unless 2q.. - az = 0,
80 that
av
ill =
= 0 at P .
(60)

a;

Thus C is a characteristic for the velocity components if it coincides at

every point with a direction ofzero rate of extension . There a re two such
directions th rough a ny point , bu t , because of the z component of st rain ,
they are not generally orthogonal, or necessarily even real. The cha racterist ics are inclined a t an a ngle 1"+1'" to the al principal etresa axis
(0'1 > a,), where
il
2q1- a ,
- =

Now

2a,-al

i,

sinJ/l =

~I+~' =

(1-('

IPI

Therefore from the second equa t ion of (41) :

""

+811..

ay az
2az a.. = 2o..- az = 6TZJI

and eo

1
X BeCw+ coswF'(wf

~z

811 11

""

where use has been made of th e facts tha.t R is a conatent end t

P/R = IPI/2k since P and R have the same sign. .u and ~n are arc
lengths measured along t he trajectories of principa18tress~ Wlt~ cU .10 .
the chara.cteristic; t heir relative sense is euch that t he direc ti on. of
inclined at a.nan ti -clockwise angl e of 90 to t hat of n . When the t hiekn
is uniform w is constant along each cha ra cterist ic; that is, t he che rec
istica &re straight lines, and their parametric equation referred
Carteeien axes (X . Y ) may be ex pressed in the form

"'"

THE ORY OF P LANE P LASTIC STRESS

averaged throughout t he thickness of the sheet be denoted by (" z' v..).

To the usual order of approxima tion, these, toge ther with the averaged
Itresses, may be inserted in the Uvy-Mises rela t iona:

ap+ pah = (P- Rl'::.

ay hay

Since only the deri vative of w occurs, we may measure w relat ive to a ny
fixed axis, and wri te

IP1) ~
!a. (h2k

XI. ]

!(al+a,\ .
3 al-aJ

(51)

'" is therefore real, and the equations hyperbolic, when Ipl ~ 311'..1.
When von Mises' yield criterion is ueed , the characteristics for the
Btressea coincide with those for t he velocities. This is clea.ron comparing
(42) and (51) , when it will be seen t hat they define t he sa me value of ",.
a~ternatively, it is evident from (40) that th e stress characteristi cs an:
directions of zero exte nsion since P is equal to i R, and is th erefore th e
mean of th e other two nor mal stress components. Th e statement may
~lso be dem onstrated directly by reca lling tha t t he funct ionf(az ' a ll , 1'ZJI )
In von Miaea' yield cri terion (35) is identical wit h t he plaatio potential
....hen a. = O. Thus (50) implies t ha t

a/

-=0.

a.,

N"o'W if the stress compone nts a re given on C. their derivati ves in t he 11

306

' MI SCE L L AN E O US T OPICS

[XI . '

direction are known. The equilibrium equations then give 8uz !8z and
3T ,I8z, while ao,fikl is uniquely determined from
z

z!L "'""

8f _ 8f /la. + 8f /la, +
at - Baz ax &. ar
ih'zv a:r
" /"- o this however , is eleo t he conditio
n that C __
should
be a
, ~ .. - . .
.
..I
un!es8 (lJ
....eristic
If
the
Uvy-Mi8ea
relations
are
Ul:II:'U In con",
chare
1
~ooy
~.
.
' ~
" e tiIon WIith Tre8ca.'s criterion , t he stress and velocity charectene....ce
Jun
are in general distinct.
.
Let (at tI) be th e velocity components along the (01,,8) velocity c~ar&C.
teriBtics. Then , if an OI-ehal"&cleristic is regarded a.s the curve C. simple
colUlidera t ions of the perellelogrem of velocities show t hat

v, ~ [v C08~.+usin(~.+~)j/C08 ~"
On substituting in (50), and setting

derive

du _(v +;:~n"')dcf>/I

+.. =

= 0

i1T after differentiation,

on an a-curve.

we

(52)

Similarly. if a ,s-chara.cteristic is regarded &8 th e curve C,

v, ~ [vsin(~r ~l - u C08 ~,lIC08 ~"

on

dv + (u+ tl ain "') d+~ = 0

8. p-cune.
(52')
en ee
COII.p
The at rees dilltribution hav ing bee n found, equa tions (52) and ~62')
are the bas is for the calculation of the velocit y in te rms of prescn~
bounda ry conditiona.t .p must be calculated beforehand at ~h pow.t
from (51) , while d+a. and d+, are equal to d(w~l.p). where W III the anUetockwiee orientation of a principal etreea e xre.
The elgn oftbe rate of strein in the z dire ction ill that of _ (0'",+ 0,,),
f p {this follows from the Uvy-Mi llell relation for t he z component
:~ :rain-rate). Th e am ount of thickenin g or th inning ill determi~ed m
the conditi on for zero volume change. The rate of strain in the z direction,
av eraged through the thickness, is
'Dh
' (8h
8h
8h)
X75t =h at+u",ilx+v"ey'
H

n:o

where D/Dt is th e operator denoting fate of change following an element.

Th e equa tion of incompressibility is th erefore

80, + a., + ~ Dh ~ O. }
Oz

or

&y

h D.

8h + ~ (hu.l+ ~, (hv,l _ 0"

at 8%
,, ~
t Un pub lished wo rk of t M wri ter ( 194011).

(63)

THEORY O F PL ANE P LAST IC ST RESS

,.,

It follows from (53) that, wherev er the discontinuity in velocity gradient

allowed by (4 9) occurs, there must 1.1110 be one in 81&101 (eeeuming that
th e III0pe of t he surface is initially conti nuous). This impliea that th e
ensuing et ra in produces a discontin uity in the surface slope.
As in the theory of plan e etrain , where the velocity equations are 1.180
hyperbolic, plast ic ma terial may eit her be undergoing deformation or be
rigid . It can be shown, by the reeeoning of Section 6 (ii) in Chapter VI ,
that the pleetic material is rigid every where within t he t riangular area
bounded by the plastio boundary and th e intersecting velocity characteri sti cs through its terminal points. A chan ge in thickness of th e Meet
is only possible outside such an a rea ; in a plastic-elaatic material, on th e
other hand, thickenin g strains could occur within th e corresponding
area, but would only be of an elastic order of magnitude.
(iii ) Ezpanaion oj a circular hole in a plate. The only work on special
probl ems of plane stress in which th e progressive changes in thickness
hav e been ad equately incorporated in the solution, other than where
th e state of eereee is uniform , appears to be t hat on d eep-drawing
(Sect. 1 (ii)) and th at of Taylor.t described below. In certain R U88ia.n
work t on t he drawing of thin strips through a die, under conditione of
plane stress, th e ap preciable thi ckening that must occur is ignored and
it is not MOwn that th e proposed plasti c region satisfies the velocity
boundary condi tions. Other investigations.on th e pla8tic zones around
notchea or holeaJl of arbitrary shape in a tensioned plate are subj ect to
th e same limitetiona as th e similar work on plane strain, diee ueeed in
Chapter IX, and to t he additional defect t hat the circumstanoea under
which local thinning is initiated are not examined .
Consider a circular hole of radius a in a uniform infinite plate ofplasticrigid material, and let a gra.duaUy increasing pressure P be applied
uniformly over the edge of t he hole. While th e plate is st ressed below
the yield limit th e radi al end circumferen tial compo nent.l of stress are
known from elastic theory to be
ar =

Pa'

- --,:s '

O'B =

Pa'

--,:s '

The state of stress in every element is a pure shear. Yielding begins

first on th e edge of the hole, at a pressure k, where k is equal to Y /43
t G . I . Taylor. Quao1. J~. M d . App. Ma.Lo\. I ( 1114081. 103.

l W. W. Sokolo~k:r, TrotI.J. A .... S<W: . Mtd. E .... 68 (1IIf e) . A- l; T "-7toJ PlIMtiNr.

PP . 229-3.5 (M~w. 1&f e).
I R . V. Southwell and D . N. de O . Allen, Ph il. T "Oow. R 0!l' Soc . A , 1f1 (1960). 3711.
II W . W . Sokolovaky, T"-'r oj P~illl, chap. lI: (M_ w, 111408).

MIS CELL AN E O US T OPI CS

30.

(XI. t

for von Miaea' criterion an d to Yj2 for Tresca'a. If the pressure is now
raised further t he materi&l round t he hole becomes plasti c within some
rediue c. The stresses in the non -plastic material a re
0,

a,

kc'
= - -,

ke'

= t

(c ~ r},

We hav e to decide whether or Dot the plate immediately begins to

t hic ken; &I shown in the preceding section , the pla te does not thicken in
a certain a rea Deaf the plas tic boundary if t he velocity eq uati.ona are
hyperbolic. This is 80 if Ipl ~ 311'",,1. an d this condi tio n is certainly
satisfied on the pleetlc boundary where p = -1(0,.+0,) = O. Furthermore, eccording to (51), t he velocity chara cte ristics at points on the
plastic boundary Are inclined. to t he radial directi on a t .. finite angle,

XI . ]

THE O R Y O F P L ANE P LAS TIC ST RESS

309

the edge of the hole. The pressure required j ust to ad van ce th e plasti c
region to the radius pa is equ al to U; th e circumferential stress at t he
edge is then a compression of amount k. If a still greater intemalload
is applied , th e pla.stic boundary continues to expand an d th e inne r radius
of the rigid annulus of plastic ma te rial is sti ll th e constant fracti on
IIp (- 0571) of th e rsdiua of the whole plastic region (Fig. 85). Th e
ma terial inside th e radius Oli71e is not constrained to rem ain rigid by
the material farther out, and a thickening becomes possible. That such a

f /.utie

namely 45. Thus the rigid part of the plasti c region muet extend over
finite annulus, its inner boundary being t he circle where t he velocitJ:
characte ristics are coincident. In the rigid plastic annulus, then,
thickness is uneltered and the equation of eq uilibri um is simply

rLur

a'-Ur

dr = - r - '

T o f&cilitate the integrat ion if von Mieee' criterio n is adopted,

introduce th e euxlliery angl e B defined in (39). From (41):
a,-ar = 21:0088,
where 8 is zero on th e pla.at ic boundary. Su bstituting in t he equilibri
dB
cos B
eq uation :
cosUn- 8) dr = - r- '
a,

= 2.1:sin(jn+B),

ar

.= -

c'_

Integrating :

r'

Fl o. 86. The pla.tJtio ~gion round an expanded hole in

& thin pla te, MO.ing the rigid plaetic ennulue.

2ksin(i 1'l' -B),

= e- "l8 coaB.

(54

Th e internal pressure producing a. plasti c region of radius c is given

parametrically by

thickenin g dou occur is due to the fact that the plasti c material cannot
euetaln a greater stress than 2k , the pressure already a pplied ; hen ce, if
the load is increased, the plate must thicken to support it , and the
pressure can be expected to fall.
Turning, now, to t he corres ponding analysis for Tre eca 'a criterion,
we have
o,-ar. = 2k

in a oertain annulus near the plastic boundary where th e principal

Itresses hav e opposite signs. Thus, from the equat ion of equilibrium,

p = 2ksin( r - B"l,
ar

8" becomes increasingly negative with increas ing P, and th e cherec

istics coincide when
= - in, or cIa = p where

e"

p = tie"" ")). -

1751.

Th e corresponding value of t he angle '" is - 11'1' , and the angle

which t he characterist ics e re inclined to the direct ion of th e algebrai
greater principal steese (viz. a,) is zero; th us the characteristics ene el
t A. N..w. PlaM.iciIy . p . I VI (McG..... Hill Book.Co. , IU' ).

-k(I + 2 1n ~),

0, =

k(I- 2 ln~).

When the iptemal pressure is raised to its maximum possible value 2k

the plastic boundary ia advanced to a radi us sa where

= .Je -- 1649.
(67)
The applicat ion of a. greater load causes a. t hickening, an d the rigid
annulua of plastic mate ria.l is confined between t he radii O607e and e.
p

hal .lI

310

MI SCE LLA N E O US T OPICS

[XI. 4.

That the velocity equations ere hyperbolic in t his annulus may be seen
from (51), since the angle

~ = -8in-l (~ln;)
is real (-sin-II ~ t/J ~ 0) when cl../e < r ~ c. When a greater load is
appli ed 0 8 becomes negative on the edge of th e hole, end the yield
cri terion cha.nges to
_ - 2k
0" _

0, varies discon tinu ously

&CTOS8 the radius 0607c from zero to - 1', the

value needed to preserve zero circumferential strain in the presen ce of a.
thickening. Just in side this radius, t/J = - tll' and the velocity cherac teriatica coincide with the circumferential direction .
F or the analysis of the ensuing distortion t he equa tions of equilibrium.
in comp ressib ility, a nd U vy-Mises are respectively

XI. 4]

T H E O R Y OF P L A N E P LASTIC STR E SS

ill. they ate functions ofthe single parameter rIc. In particular t he eteeee
distribution around a hole expanded from some finite radius ~ identical
with that in the correspondin g annulus in a plate in which a hole hae
been enlarged from zero radius and in which, therefore. the distribution
~f st~ remains geometric~y eimiler.j The lat te r problem has been
mvcstigated by Ta.ylor,: uemg Treece's criterion. Let

e = ric, U = -09/2.1:
and put Ur = - 2.1: in (68). Then
a

hv

8c+ a.,(hvl+ ,

!)

Oh'

T= o- I,

1a' v
,
( v- 0) X +j+v = 0,
VI

- 0,

U .::;;;

I d

811,

(0 .::;;;

Or =c dS'

!(Ikr,) _ , A(a, -a, ),

a.,

3lJ

(59)

tI
= 2-u _

2a- lO '

(58)

where a dash d enotes differentiation with respect to 8. Elimina.ting A'IIa:

20',,-0' t'
Or - 2a,

0tJ

op'"

where v denotes t he radial velocity wit h the param eter C &8 the timeecele.t For both Tresca.'s and von Mises' criteria oUr/Or is zero (&:I,lar
being finite), and U' - U r is equal to k, just within t he inner boundary of
the rigid annulus. It follows fro m t he equation of equi libriu m th&t
olalOr is equ al to -AopJ2e just within the radius clp; thus. t he slope of
the surface changes discontinuously . I t may be shown from the UivyMieee equation that OU9/iJr has the value - 3kpl2c just within the radiua
clp. and from the incompressibility equation that 8TJliJr has t he value
-1 /2< (ohl8c ~ (- l /p)ohla., at this point).
Since it is clearly immaterial whether the p ressure at any radius ia
applied by an external agency or through the displacement of an inner
annulus of the pla te , t he stress and velocity in an element depend only
on what happens beyond this radi us. Sin ce the plate is in finite they ere
funct ions only of the relative d istance from the plastic boundary; that
t Thill i r-tem o f equatio... ill hyperbolic ..-ith tk _ 0 lind d r - fl tk _ 0 .. ehanlcter
iltio direct iON in the (r, c) plane. tr t he I y.tem it conlidered by i t.elf, and no t . . .
llpe'Cia lir.atio n of the general (~, y ) eq ua t ion t he fun d&mental I'M.&OD for the e:dlt.enOf
of a rigid an nul ue of ple.et ic m a terial i . l...rgely c beeueed . . SimillU'ly , th e in ne~ bound uy
o f the rigid annu lue no longe r appean: &II the locu. of pomu where the , "loc,ty chane '
teriatict coi.Deide, but n>erely .. the circle whero 2.., - .., - O.

' _ (2-.)(.-1 )
v - 2(u l

Eliminating v:

(2a- l)(. - I)

0=

u+ I)'

0 + 1)

2(ul

(60)

O!c [(2a-I)(.- l)] = _ 3(. - 1)'

dB

(0 1

u+l )

(01-0+1)"

Integrating, and using the boundary condition

In/~)
\P8

_~(1 - 2') +i ln[

3 I- u

when S = IIp:

3(1 ;-.)' ] + 2.-tan-, (1- 2. )

0+ 1)
43
---::J3 .

(u l

u,

~ow the yield

(61)

criterion Ur = - 2.1: is valid only when is negati ve. A.

deoreaaea. udecreaseuteadily from I and beco mes zero when = IIp',
where
In p
In3 "

p= -l+i

+ OV3- '5183;

.-2-769.

(62)

~e value for p' obtained by Taylor, by approximate numerical integra.

tion ~f eq ua.tions equiva lent to (59), agrees very closely with (62). It i.e
not difficult to show that

~ ~ [2(/ .)J!UP[; 3tan-'C~32a)],

p~te il ft'":<l. tbe It..- dUotribution tbe

::-:rit I~&COW"le.
J.thePI'OVI~
the e n We plate ill not plutic ; the
ia

dilI_ t.

Mme

(63)

in the plutic&U1 defo rm '

breadth of the rigi d plut.i(l annu~

- % Q . 1. Tay" '. op. ci t. . p. 307.

MI SCE L LA NE O US T OPI CS

[Xl. 4

where lao is the initial thickness of t he plate. Th e thickness at the radius

where
is zero is thue

a,

~ h,lill"P (3~3) - H S3h"

(64)

Equations (60), (61) and (63) give" and A/lao as functions of 8 = rIc.
parametrically in terms of a. The total displaceme nt u{r,c} satisfies
the equation

Du =

(! + t1 ~)u =

De

'"

XI. ")

T H E ORY OF P L ANE PLASTIC STRE BS

313

relation to the p late thickness, the configuration became unsymmetrical

and the plate bent out of its plane.

,.,

If

e.

'"

Now the displacement must be of the form

v(',c) = cF(B ),

au =

Hen ce

'"

F' ,

(e- B)F'+ F = e;

end

~=
F

..!!.

F -8F' ,
0 when B ~ l ip,

(M)

v{S) having been detennined , this equation eervee to calculate F (8).

Alternatively , we een proceed directly from (63), by writing t he equation
of in compreaaibilit y in t he form

where

p'

= c' _ (r _ u)' =
pi

2c1

f"

ao

.
r

'r

Fla. 8e. Dietribution of t he IU - and the

thielm _ round .. hole exp anded in .. thin
plate (T~ criterion) .

ho! a" = hr dr (c constant ),

= r- u is th e initial radi us to an element. Integrating:
CI _ ,I

..

h, 4

5. Completely plastic states of etreea In a prismatic bar

laS de.
ho

(66)

u,

When 8 ie leee than l /p' , that is when r is less than 0'361<:, becomes
positi ve again and th e yield criterion reverts to
= 2k. The
corresponding modifica t ion of (59) is such that an a naly tic 80luti
appears to be impossible and the equetione must be integrated numeri
celly. The theory can only be regarded as approximate neer the edge
the hole, where t he slope of the su rface becomes infinite and the core
is knife-edged. The res ults are shown in Fig. 86; they ha ve been
calculated'[ since Taylor's method of integration was insufficient!
accurate. At t he edge ofthe hole (8 = 0'2805) hlho has the value 3'
(a pprox.) ; the elmcet. exact agreement with the value for hl!o fo
ex perim entally by Tayl or is certainly fortuitous. T he hole W &8 ex pand
by p iercing a lead sheet with a lubri ca ted cone of very small taper
The experimenta indicate that the mode of deform ation contempla
in this analysis may be unstable ; once t he hole reached a critical size
t R . H ill, PAil. M og. 40 (19"9) . 971.

a,-a,

A pris~atio. bar of plaatic-rigid materi&!, with an a rbitrary uniform

croee-eection , 18 deformed. by forces app lied at ita ends. It is supposed
tha t the for ces are applied in euoh a way, and in euch combin ation that
th. ,.,,'. h "
'
,
re 801' 18 10 a p Ieetic
8tate; surfaces across which certain com ponenta of stress are dis continuous are permi t ted. (for example the
neutral surface in pure bending). Let Cartesian axes ofreferen ce be teken
~ that t he z-axis is parallel to the generators, and the axes of z a nd y lie
ID the plane of a croes-eeceion . Only thoee states will he
id red '
whi h
. COD81 e
In
~ .t~e stress and stra.in -ra te a re independen t of z. Thi Sl'UJes out the
POSSibility of flexu ral forces but allows certain combinations of bending
eoup l t . ti
e, w~ ng couple, and longi t udinal force . By analogy with the
correspondin g problem in elas ticity Jet it be assumed tentati vely that
O'z. ~ end T~, a re identically zero. Th e equilibrium equatiOD8 then
requtre the existence of a sttell8 function I (z, y) su ch that
T ,"

0/

= -.l: 8y'

T .. -

0'
.I:%z.

(67)

l is zero on the contour of the section sin ce no eJ:ternaJ fol'Oe8 are applied

314

MI BCE LL AN E OU S T OPICS

[XI,IS

to the cylindricaJ. eurfece . According to the yield criterion of von Mises,

the longitudinal stress has the value

' . = ~3k( 1-/l-I:)I,

(68)
a/ /3y, and where the radicals are

where I~, I,I ere writ ten for a/lax,

positive.
Now the most general expressions for the velocity eomponente, such
th at the material is incompressible and the strain-ra tes are independent
of e, may be shown without difficulty to be
u

~
_ ! A(x'+" )- !Cx+Dy%,
&y
(69)

~ _ ! B(Y'+,' )- ! Cy- Dn ,

'" ~ ~(x,Yl+An + BY'+ C"

~ and ifi are arbi trary fun ctions of x and 11 ; ~ specifies t he warping of a
cross-sect ion , while A , B , C, and D are dimensional constants related to
th e rates of bending. extension, and torsion. By substit ution from (67),
(68), and (69) in the U vy- Mises relations it is readily shown that
~(x,y) ~ h(A y' -Bx')+!xy(Ax- By);
(70)

a;.

~ ~3(Ax+ By+ C)/ . }

,' (I f : J:)

ax =

-!I,

a;.

PLASTI C STATES OF S T RESS IN P R IS MAT IC B AR

'*

315

0, we obtain t he familiar 8OIutionJ~+/ : = I corresponding to pure

torsion .
The external loads applied at th e ends of the bar are statically equlv elent to a longitudinal force

JJ (1- 1: - / : )l dxdy,
G. = If (XT.. -YT..) dzdy ~ - 2k If I dzdy ,
and a bending couple with components
G
JJ - 1: - / : )1 tlxdy, G" JJ -1: - /:)1dxdy .
Z = , 3k

a twisting couple

= _

XI. Gl

= -/3k

y( 1

=f x( 1

= -/3k

In th e above equati ons eith er t he upper or the lower sign must be taken
thro ughout in any one element . The correct sign is decided by th e consideration t hat the ra te of work must be positive. Th us

(auI!% + aw)+...(""
+ aw)+aw
ilx
I!% &y
I!%

0 <; . ..

~ - kl, (~.+ Dy)+ kl.(~, - Dx)~3k( Ax + By+C)( I-/l -I:)1

~ ~3k Ax+ By+ C

,)(I- / l-I:)

fro m (71).

Hence the upper sign must be taken where A x+ By + C is positive , and

the lower sign where it is negative. If th e longit udinal plane
Ax +By + C ~ O

(71)

.,{3(Ax+ By+C)/ .
&y ~ x '1(1 I l I l ) .
Hence, combining (69) and (70), possible velocities for a completely
pleetde sta te are
u ~ lA(y'- x' - 2,' )-!Bxy-!Cx +Dy"
}
(72)
= _ !Axy+ 1B(x'-y'-2" )- !Cy -Dn,

divides the bar in two parts, a. is tensi le in one and compressive in th e

other; the rate of extension of elements lying in th e plane is zero.
The equation (73) may alternati vely be reecbedt by a simple application of t he maxi mum work principle (Chap. III, Sect. 3 (iii. The ra te
of work of th e exte rna l forces is

'" ~ ~(x,Yl+An+ BY'+C"

Equetione (71) are compatib le if

where the integral is taken over t he ends of the bar. This expression
must be made a maximum for varying ateeeeee satisfying (67) a nd (68),
and for given surface values of u, v, w, tentatively assumed to satisfy (69).
In th e integral, term s not involving % cancel out at opposite ends of th e
bar , while t he remaining terms lead to

a [(Ax +By+ C)/'l + ~ [(Ax+BY+C)/'l 2D =

./(1 J: 1:)
&y ./(I-/l 1:)
T3

0,

(73)

+(AI.+BI.)(I -/l-/I)~(I-J:-/l)1 = o.

(73')

ilx

(Ax + By +C)[( I-I:l/..+ 2/ .1,1.,+(I - / ll/n l+

The solution of this (ellipti o) equation for given ratios AID, BID, aiD,
and subject to th e boundary condition 1 = 0, determin es th e stress
functionj and th ereby the , tress distributio n. When A .,. B = 0 = O.

W=

II'
kL

~ ';3

Jf (T,pu + T,. v+a.w)dxd'y,

ff (Ax+ By+C)(I- / l-/ 1J'

ff
ff

d.nly-

- D

(xl.+YI.) d'tdyH L

(AI.- B/. ) dxdy,

t R. Hill. Quarf. J o",,""_ Mec:A .AJ11I. At..... J IU48). 18.

318

MISCELLANEOUS T OPICS

(XI.6

where L is the length of the bar. On the right-hand side the third term
is zero since I = 0 on the contour, while th e second term can be tJ'anaformed to give

:i ~ 0/3 If IAz + By+Cll l - / :-/ :1 dxdy+ 2DIf

1

r:

By t he well-known Eu ler-Lagrange formula of t he calculus of vanatl?nS,

it may be verified that stationary val ues of Ware obtained from functl~ns
J satisfying (73). If this method is adopted,. it is necessary to venfy
afterwards t hat corres ponding velocit ies eXist such that th~ LevyMiaea equed one are satisfied and such that the rate of wor~ m e~~
element is positive. This justifies the eeeumption tha~ a te~ dis.tribution of velocities (69) produces a completely plaatlC state, m which.
moreover, the stress components u., 0' )' , and -r~ are zero.

XII
PLAS T IC ANISO T RO PY
TaERE are certain important and striking phenomena which ca.nnot be
described by t he theory constructed in Chapter II. The eeeumpdoa th &t
every ma te rial element remains isotropic is an approximation t hat
beccmea less good &8 the deformation continues. Individual crystal
grains are elongated in the direction of th e greatest tensile strain and th e
texture of the specimen appears fibrous. Now it is a consequence of th e
glide proceee that a single crystal rotates during th e straining 80 that it
approaches an orientatio n characteristic of the particula.r stra in-pa th.
For example, when hexagonal single crystals are st retc hed in tension,
th e basal planes gradually tum towards positions partJIel to the direction
of the applied load. Simila.rly, the grains of a polycrystal tend to rotate
towards some limiting orientation (not neoeasarily equivalent to tha t in
a single crysta.l, owing to the mutual constra ints between the grains);
thus, in face-centred cubic metala compressed.between lubricated plates,
face diagonals tend to align parallel to the direction of compress ion.
By this mechanism a meta.l in which th e grains are initially oriented at
random, and which is therefore isotropic, is rendered eniectrople during
pleetlc deformation. The distribution of orientations between the grains
(meeeured, for exa mple, on a percentage baais}"then h~ one or more
maxima.. ITsuch a maximum is well defined it is referred to &8. preferred
orienta.tion. IT the orientatioD8 of the individual crystals are not fan domly distributed, the yield stress and the macroeoopio st ress. stnJ.n
relationa vary with direc tion. For example, in hea.viIy cold -rolled breee,
the te D8iIe yield stress transverse to the direction of rolling may be &8
much &8 10 per cent. greater than that parallel to the rolling direction. t
Greater variations may be obta.ined by a crit ical sequence of mechanical
and heat treatments which produces a final recrystallization texture
approaching that of a single crystal (for example, rolled. copper sheet
can be prepared 80 that varying proportions of the grains have their
cubic axes parallel to the edges of th e sheett).
We now consider how the theoretical fram ework may be broadened.
to include ani80tropy. A8 usual , we neglect the effecte: of thoee internal

t M. Cook, JOOIft. ; .... M~ . 60 (11131). 15' .

t W. K&ter, z.tu. M~.18 11'28). 111. See . . . W. M. B.khrin.Jr. 7'NM.

A", . 1_. Mi". Md. E .... 166 (I ke). 6'1.

318

PLAST IC AN ISOTRO PY

[XU. 1

etreeeee which result directly from th e differential orientat ion of the

grains. Th ese effects can be largely removed by a mild annealing which
does not alter the preferred orientation. To change th e latter th e heat
t reatment ha.s generally to be earned out above the recrystalliz.a.tion
temperature.

1. The yield criterion

For simplicity we shall only consider states of a nisotropy that possess
three mutually orthogoneJ planes of symmetry at every point; the intersections of these planes are kno wn a.s the principal ex es of anisotropy.
These axes may vary in direction throughout the specimen ; for example,
if anisotropy is developed in a hollow tube uniformly expanded by
internal pressure, the principal axes must lie in the radial, circumferentia.l, and axial directions. A strip cut from t he cent re of a. coldrolled sheet provides an example of uniformly dire cted ~ni~otropy ; it ~
observed, in accordance with expectatio n, tha.t th e principal axes lie
in th e direction of rolling, transversely in the plane of the sheet , and
normal to this plene.t Th e principal a xes in a given element cea also
vary relatively to th e element itllelf during continued deformation, ..
in Bimple shear.
Let us fix our at te ntion on a particular element in a certain state of
enlect rcpy, and choose the principal axes as Cartesilttn axes o~referen~.
The criterion lttpproximately describing th e yielding Ofi80 troP1C ma~
is th at of von Mi.aes. Th e simplest yield criterion for a.ni&otropic material
is t herefore one which reduces to von Mises' lew when th e anisot ropy iI
vanishingly smell; the met hod adopted will be to follow t he implica.tio
of this hypothesis, a nd generalize it later if neceseery. If, then, the
yield criterion is &88umedl to be a quadratic in th e stress componenta.
it must be of th e form
2!{at/) ;:::: F{o",_ O', )s+ G(O',-a;c )I+H(O'z -all )l +
+ 2Lr:'+2M'f:':+ 2N'f:V = 1. {I
where F, G, H , L, M, N are parameters cherecterietic of the curren
state of anisotropy . Linear terms are not included since it is &8llum~.
as alread y menti oned, t hat there is no Bauschinger effect . Qu~tiG
.
1
. ted ' Vie
te rms in which an y one shea r stress occurs linear y are rej ec
m
of th e symmet ry restriction. Fin ally, only th e differences of the no
components can appear if it is ass umed th at th e superposition of a h
t L . J . Klingler IUld G . Sacha. JQIUft. AffO. Sci. IS ( I Q4Sl , 61lQ.
:: R . Hill.I'roc. R~. 8oe. A . 193 (IlU,S ). 2SI .

XII. I]

...

THE YI ELD CR I TERI ON

static stress does not influence yielding. I t must be remembered that the
yield criterion only hea th is form when t he principal axes of anisotrop y
are th e axes of reference; otherwise th e form changes in a way that
ca n be found hy transforming th e stress components.
If X, Y, Z are the tensile yield stresses in the principal directions of
anisotropy . it is easily shown that
1

XI = O +H ,
I

y s =H +F ,
I

zs =F +G,

2F

= y s+ z'- XI'

20 = z s+xs-ys'

(2)

2H = X' +yl-Zs'

It is clear that only one of F , G, H can be negative, and that this is

possi ble only when th e yield stresses differ considerably. Also, F ~ G
if and only if X ~ y, together with two similar inequalit ies. If R, S. T
are the yield stresses in shea r with respect to t he principal axes of anisotropy, t hen
1
I
1
2L ~ R"
2M ~ S"
2N = '[".
(3)

L , M , N are thus essentially positive. Ifthere is rotational symmetry of

the anisotropy in an element about the a-a xle, the form of th e expression
(1) remains invariant for arbitrary {r , y} axes of reference. Now (1)
can be writ ten alternati vely as

[(G+ HJa: - 2Ha. a, +(F +HJa:+ 2NT'..1-2(Ga.+ Fa, Ja.+

+ 2(ln:'+ MT:')+ (F+ GJa:

~ I.

Let oth er axes (r' ,y', z') be taken so t hat t he z'-axis coincides with th e
e-exis, while th e r '-e xla is inclined at a clockwise a ngle 8 to th e e-s xle.
The equa tions of transformation (Appendix IV) are
O'~

= orcos2B+all.sin2B+ 2'fr y sin8 cos B,

0",

(]~,

'fv' = 'fy~ co s9 -'T~,r sinB ,

2B),
2
'f;1:lf = (0'1I'- (]r)sinBcos 8+ 'fz'v(cos 8-sin
'fu = 'Ty~si n 8 + 'f..r cos8.
0'",

= O'rsin29 +(]II' COSIB-2'f,ry sinB cosB,

In order th at th e coefficie nt of O'~ should be equal to - 2(G(]r + FO"...)

after th e transformati on, it is obviously necessary and sufficient th at
F = G. The coefficie nts of th e terms in (];c' 'f;c'1I and - 0"1I'fz'II' are th en
bot h equeJ to
4(F + 2H - N }sin 8cos 6(cosl8-Ilin'8).

".

[XII .

P LASTI C AN I SOTROPY

XU. 2] RELAT IONS BETWEEN ST R ESS AND STRAIN-IN CREMENT

321

Since this is to vaniah for aIlS, F+2H-N muat be zero. It ma.y be

verified that the coefficients of u:'. 0':'. and O'~(TII' are th en invariant.
Fin&1ly, the term in "'''z''I'II11' vanishes if and only if L = M, in whi ch
eeee the coefficients of ,.:.... and 1{... are also invariant. To sum up. th e
Deoess&ry and 8uffieient conditio ne for th e a.niaotro py to be rota tion&1.ly
symmetrio about th e z-ax is ere

n6OOl8&ry that t he anisotropy should be distributed unif ormly through a

volume suffic ient to allow the cutting of tensile test pieces of arbitrary
orientation. Th en, if a pure tension X is applied to a strip or cylinder
cut parallel to the x-axis of anisotropy, th e increm entalstraina are in the
rati08
tW~ : lU ..:tW. = O+H : -H : - O.

N ~ F + 2H ~ 0 + 2H,
L = M.
If there ie complete epbericalsymmetry, or isotropy,
L = M ~ N = 3F _ 30 - 3H,

The atrain in each transverse direction ia a cont rac tion unleee t he yield
etreesee differ so much that one of 0 or H .is negative. The cont racti on
in th e y direction is the larger if H > 0 , that is, if Z > Yj the strain is
therefore less in th e direction of the greater yield stress. Similarly .
tension teats in the y and z directions furnish the ratios FIH and G/F.
In prin ciple, this allows an immediate teat of the theory in view of th e
id entity (H IO) X (OIF) X (F IH) ~ I. Klingle r a nd Sache,t using rolled
aluminium sheet Ii inches thick, m easured th e strains in te nsile epecimens cut at va rious orientations in , and obliquely to, th e plane of th e
sheet. When the specimen was normal to the plane of rolling, the two
transverse strain components were equal within experimental error ;
if % ia the rolling direction and y the tran sverse direction in the plane of
rolling, this implies that F __ O. It was aOO observed that one prin cipal
st rain was always in a direction parallel to th e rolling plane. Where t he
th eory is applicable, meeeureme nta of th e stra in ratios in tensi on
specimens cut in th e z and y directions provide an indirect meth od for
dete rmining th e ratios of t he t hree tensile yield stresses, with the U86 of
equation (2 ); this is preferable to t he direct method if the yielding is not
sufficiently sharp a nd well defined . It is a particularly convenient mean s
of determining th e through-thickness yield stress when the material
is in th e form of a th in sheet . On th e other hand, independent measurementa of the st rain ratios and t he yield st resses provid e further tests
of the valid ity of the th eory.

(' )

and the expreeeion (1) reduces to von Misee' cri terion wh en 2F ia equeted
to IJYs (Cha.p. II, equation (9).

To describe fully th e state of anisot ropy in an element . we need to

know the orientations of th e principal u es and the va lues of the six
independent yield stresses X , Y. Z , R. S, T . They m ust be consid ered 68
functions of th e mech&nical and heat treatments since t he element wa.e
isotropic; in general, th ey will also vary during a further deformation.
It is not yet kn own how to relate th e yield stresses quantita.tively with the
microstructure, for exa mple with the degree of preferred orienta.tion,
end it must be supposed, therefore, t h&t they have been determined by
experiment .

2. Relat ion s between stress a nd strain- Inc rement

By enel ogy with the Uvy-Mises equeticne for isot ropic material it iI
supposed thatf(a'J)' in equat ion (1), is the pla.stic potential (Chap. Ill,
Seot. 1). The etreln-Increment relations, referred to th e principal &:lee
of enieoteopy, are thent
<I.. _ <l.l(H( - ., )+ O(- )],
tW. = d.\(F(O'. -O'.) +H(O'. - O'~)] ,

dy~ ~ d>. ln~,

= d)J{T
dyzr = d>.NT~.
dr a

g ,

}
(5)

lU. = d.\( O(O'. - a~) + F(O'I- O''' )]'

It will be noti ced thatd~.r + d(..+ d~. = 0 identi cally, and that if the 8tress
ie reversed, so also is the strain-increment . Furthermore, if the principal
axes of etreee coincide with th e axe s of ani sot ropy, 80 do t he principal
ax es of strain-increment. Otherw ise, t he principal n ee of eteeee end
strain -increment are not genera lly coincident .
For Ion experimental determina ti on of th e state of anisotropy it is
, R . Hill, op . c it. p . 3 lB. In .peci.J - . .umw reZa&iorw (derived (rom

dil'J_,

.-urnptiona ) ha va bee n dated by L . R . J ad u on. K . F . Smith, and W . T . 1.&nILlotd.

Mww T llCAnolow, Te<l h. Pub. 2' 4,0, ( IH e) , and by J . E . Don>, Jt7td'n. App. PAV-"
lO (111"9). U .

3. Plastic a nisotropy of rolled sheet

(i) Variation oj yield atru6 with orientation. We consider now what
information can be obtained about th e anisot ropy of a rolled sheet from
the behav iour of te nsile specimens cut in its plane. Let axes of reference
be chosen 80 tha t x is th e rolling direct ion, y th e transverse direction in
th e plane , and z normal to t he pla ne. If any element of the sheet is now
subjected to stresses applied in the plan e of t he sheet , the crite rion of
yielding is
(6)
(0+ H>a: - 2HO'z a..+ ( J1 + F >a: + 2NT~, = 1.
t L . J . Kli ngler ""d G. Sae l... op. cit . p . 3 18.

3!Z

PLA STI C ANISOTR OPY

(XII. :I

XII. 3)

P LA STIC ANI SOTROPY OF R OLLED S H E E T

3!3

I n particular, for a tensile specimen cut at ..n ..ngle a: to t he rolling

direction,

The principal ax es of the strain-increment coincide with the principal

stress ax es (i.e., along and perpendicular to t he di recti on of pull ) when

where a ia the ten sile yield etre se. Sub stitution in (6) gives

or

(d#.r- df" )/dyz,, = (t7 z - a")/Tz ,,.

(7)

((G+ 2H}eosto: -(F+ 2H)si n ta ]/N ein e CORa: = (cost,,-sinto:)/sina co8CI.

Values of F , 0 , H, and N (but not L or M ) can be ded uced from the observed dependence of the yield stress on the orientation. It may be
shown that t he ma xima and minima of 0' occur along the anisotropic
exee, and also in directions 0: such that

This is satisfied by a = 0, Ii, or p , where 0: has t he valu e (8). Thus the

principal axes of stress and stra in-increment coincide for the orientations
where the yie ld stress is a max imum or mini mum .
T he ra tio of the t ransverse to the t hrough-thickness st rain is

a = [ F sin1a:+ O cos1a +H + (2N - F - 0 - 4H )sinla cos1a]-I.

tan10: = N -0-2H

2Ho

r = (df.rsinta+ck" c081C1- 2dyz8in lll C06a)/d#.

(8)

If N > F + 2H and 0+2H the yield stress bee maximum (uneq ual)
values in the z and y directions and minimum (equal) valu es in the 0:
directions . Cook,t and Palmer a nd Smith,t hav e observed variatiODi
of this kind in bresa, after various rolling and annealing treatments.
Klingler and Sa.chs found that for aluminium alloy sheet the yield
stress had a mini mum near the 450 positions, a nd that F __ O. If
N < F +2H an d 0+2H , t he yield stress has minim um (uneq ual)
va lues in t he x and y directions and ma ximum (equal) va lues in the 0:
directions . If N is inte rmediate to F + 2H and 0 + 2H, t here is no real
va lue of 0:, and the yield stress has a maximum in the x direction And a
minimum in t he y direction when F > G,II and vice versa when F < O.
It is evident from this that the relation of N to the quantities F +2H
and G+2H baa a definite physical significance (cf. also equa tion (. ));
this will be further exemplified later.
(il ) S train rotio& in a tmrik 6pteil7Un. The equations for the components of the strain-increment correspond ing to a uniaxial te nsion a
at an angle a. to the e -axie are
df z = ((O + H )cosla - H si n ICl]O'd~ , }
df ll = [( F +H )sinto:-H coete] d~,

df. =

-( Fsinto:+Gcosto: )ad~,

(9

dyzv = (N sin Clc08tl)atU.

t M. Coo k . J OUrft. 1M. M-u, fJO ( 1837). I:i8.

E . W . p ..lmer and C. S . S mith, T ro.... A .... 1.... M i". Md . EJlf. 147 (1942). 184.
I L . J . K lintfler I.Ild O. Sac.... op. e it . p . 3 18.
I Thi.e kind o r v....iatton hM '-> ot--ved in .. Iu minium .aheet pre"tr.. ine<I 12 ~
"....t . in teMOon ( t he direcUon o r thill p re tr...i n ill taken to be t he .rnUl I. See 1- J
Kli ng ler .... d O . Sac .... J _ no. A ..... Sci. IS C I ~ 8). 1$1.

_ H + (2N - F - G- 4H )8in1C1 cost a

F sin to: + O costCi

(10)

This expressio n is in good. agreem ent with the experi mental data of
Baldwin , Howald , and Ross'[ for copper with a cubic recrystallization
~ xt u re of 50 per cent . or less ; in th is material F = G, by symmetry ,
Since the cubic ax es in the preferred orientation a re parallel to the edges
of the sheet. Values of N IF a nd H I F can be deduced by fitting (10) to
their results ; it is found, for exa mple, that N IF = 20 and HIF = 0 '8
for a 50 per cent . cubic texture, while for copper whic h had been rolled
to a final reduction of 80 per cent., and was then annealed at 81So C.,
NIF = 48 and F = G = H . I n general, when F = 0 , t he r(a) relation
is conca ve upward when N < F + 2H, and concave downward when
N > F + 2H. The latter type of relation wee obtained in aluminium
by Klingler a nd Sachs;t this ia consiste nt with their measured yield
stresees (see (i) above).
.(iii) N~lcing in knaion. When thin strips are pulled in te nsion (t heir
Width being at least five t imes t heir thickness), it is observed that the
n~k does not form dire ctl y ACross the speci men, but at an oblique angle
which depe nds on the state of anisotropy. Necking begins, after some
preliminary uni form exte nsion, at a point where there is a slight non uniformity, either geometrical or structural. Theore t ically, th e line of
t he neck should coincide with a characteristi c, in view of the property of
sberecte rietice &8 curves along which small disturba nces propagate.
We must therefore begin an analysis of necking by determining the
characteristics in a state of plane litress. Proceeding &8 in Cha pte r VI
t w, M. Ihldwi n. J r. T . 8 . H o......Id, and A. W . R_ . M - u To\~. Tech . Pub.
18OS11 94 .5). See &lAo L . Douma I.l\d R . Hill. Ph il.. ''' ''fI . 41 119.50). 6 " .
t 1- J. Klingler u>d O . !W'boo. J - . .. A ero. sa. 15 11&48) .5t1l.
I K. mn, op . en., p. J1 8.

PLASTI C ANISOTROPY

(XU . 3

(Sect. 3), with u. , a" T. , as the stress components referred to the tangent.
end normal to the curve C, we find t.hat.ell etreeaderivatives are uniquely
determined unless 8f/M, = 0, where f (u. ,a" T q ) = 0 is the yield cri terion. Since J is also the plastic potential, lU, = (af /&7,) cD. = 0 when
8f /&7, = O. Th us C is a characteristic for the stresses if it coincides at.
every point. with a direction of zero extension. There are t hus two
characteristics through 8. point, namely the directions of zero extension.
It may be shown simila.rly t hat t hese are also t he characteristics for th e
velocities. Th e characteristics are not generally orthogonal because of

Flo. 81. CoordilUlote

. S eII

(ltJlJing d;rrdion)

ror &nal)"l'Uo orth&obliq ue neekinj: o r . nrip in teNl ion .

th e strain normal to the sheet, nor are th ey always real (cf. Chap . XI,
Sect . 4). Th e slopes dy /dx of t he charecteristioa sat isfy t he equation
dzdx2 +2dYz~dxdy +dlIdy2 = 0 ,

or

[(G+Hla.- Ha,l dz' +2NT., dzdy +[(F+ H)a, - Ha.l dy' ~ O. (11)
In the present. prob lem t he cbe rec te riet ice are straight since th e eteeeeit
uniform. Let 6 be th e inclination of a poeeible neck, measured away
from th e rolling direction (Fig. 87), so that dy/dz = tan(8+ (I). Inserting
this in (II ), with U z = U OO8 I (1 , etc., we obtain
a tan18 +2btan8- c = 0,

where

( 12)

a = H + (2N - F - 0 - 4H )sinl(l COSI(l,

b = [(N -F-2H )sin1a.-(N- 0-2H)cosl(l]sin (lcos 0'.,

c = a +F sinl(l+ Ocosl(l = 1/0 1 from (7).
Th e anisotropic parameters refer to the state of anisotropy immediately
preceding necking ; this is effectively the same as in the rolled sheet elnce
the additional anisotropy introduced by t he preliminary uniform ex'
tension is usually negligible.
In an isotropi c sheet F = G = H = N /3, b = 0 , and c = 24, so th at.
tan 8 = 42 Dr 8,..., 547. Th ere are thus two, equally possible, necking
directions equally inclined to th e specimen axis ; if thc origin of the

XII.3J

PLA ST I C ANISOTROPY OF R OL L E D SHEET

:t15

~turhance which initiates necking lies, not on th e edge, but in the

middle of th e specimen, a V-shaped neck is sometimes observed with

its branches coinciding wit h parts of both characteristics.
'
When the sheet is anisotropio there are still two, equa lly possible,
necking directions corres pondi ng to th e roots of th e quadratic (12) in
tan 8, but generally with differe nt inolinat ions. Th e roots are numerically
equal, but opposite in sign, if b = 0, which happens when a = 0, Ii, or
rr/2, where Ii is given by (8). F or these values of a th e two possible necks
are symmetrically situ ated with respe ct to the specimen axia ; this was
to be expected. since th e (I dire ctions are, as we have seen, those for'which
th e principal axes of etreea and stra in-increment.coincide (and for which
t he yield stress has stat ionary values). If N is greater than both F+2H
and 0 + 2H , b is nega tive when (I < Ii and posit ive when (I > a. Now II
is generally positive (it can only be negative in th e unlikely event. of N
be ing Ieee than I( F + 0 )). Hence t he sum ( - 2bla) of the roots is positive
w~en (I < Ii and negative when (I > Ii . Th is means that, when (I < Ii ,
8. IS n.umerically. larger for the neck tending to lie across the rolling
direction , and VIce versa when (I > 0:. Th ese inequalit ies are reversed
w~cn N is less t han both F +2H and 0 +2H . The measuremen ts by
Korber and Hoff] of th e necking angles in aluminium, copper, br ass,
ami nickel, are in qualitative agreement. with t his analysis; it may be
deduced th at th e state of anisotropy in their materials after coldrolling 98 per cent. must have been such that N > 0 +2H > F+2H.
This is consistent with th eir direct. measurements of th e yield etreee
which, for thi s red uction, was Jess in th e rolling directi on t han in th e
~n.ns,erse direct ion (i.e., X < Y ). A closer queatltetive comparison
18 prevented by the scatter in the data. Bitter,t in work on iron -silicon
sheets concluded that. the two possible necks were approximately
8~ mmetrical to th e directions of maximum elonga tion; this is in accord
With the theory since th e neck is a direction of zero elongation. It. may
be ded uced that th e state of anisotropy (which was very pronounced)
was such t hat N > F +2H and F,..., O.

4. Length ch anges In a twisted tube

A hollow isotropic tu be twisted abou t its axis does not change in
J~ngth so long as the internal stresses dire ctly resulting from the
~ffere~tial grain orie~tations are negligible (p. 36). In the following
diSCUSSIOn of the tors ion of an anisotropi o tube it is eeeumed that the
t F . K 6rber and H. Hoff. M ill . Ko i4. WtlIl . 1.... E iMftJ . 10 (11128). 1'15.
~

un.1I

F. Bitler. hoc. R oy. Soc. A,I"! (111341. MIl.

no

PLASTI C AN I S OT RO P Y

(X U

t ube is gripped at th e ends in such lit way th a t it is Iree to change ita

length (if th is is pre vented, en exiel etreee is induced).
Consider fin t .the deforma tion of lit small ele ment of the tu be, eeeuming
that the material remains isotropic. Let T T ' be th e direction of shear,
and ON be unit length of t he generator th rough t he cent re 0 of t he
element (Fig. 88a) . Du ring tit shea r strain y (engineering definition) a
direct ion OP. fixed in th e element , rota tes into a new dire ction or
such th at PP' = y. and simulta neously undergoes a. resultant exte nsion

XII. " ]

L E N GTH CH ANG ES I N A TWI ST ED T U B E

321

By differentiation with respect to 8 it is found t hat the minimum value

of lllo is such that
1
= tanS, where 2cot 28 = y.

r,

OQ is then perpe ndicular to OP , a nd

I, 1
/ - [ = y.

(13)

The directi on which undergoes th e greatest contrac tion will be denoted

.Y

--~.~
y

P'

~/ ../>

Axis or

~'

tub~

-to
I

r'

!I

(0)

O;r~dion
~ or twist

FlO. 89. Coordinate axes ror t he e.nalyeis o r

le ngth c hange. in a t_u.tt!d tu be .
Flo.88. Deonnation

or.

emai l elemon l in

~.

or contraction. If Q a nd Q' are t he reflections of P and P' in ON , OQ

rotate s into the position OQ' , being lengthened in t he sa me rat io t hat OP
is shorte ned; this is merely a consequence of th e fact th at t he same
amount of shear, applied in th e reverse sense, restores th e original
configuration. There are t wo directions that und ergo no resultan~
change in length : one of these is obviously parallel to TT', while the
initial a nd final positions of th e other are OD and OD' (Fig. 8Sb) where
D and D' are reflections in ON, a nd DD' = y. It is evident t hat there
must be some directi on bet ween OT and OD which is cont racted the
moet by a given shear, and one direction bet ween OT' and OD whioh
is exte nded th e moet, Let OP be inclined at 8 to OT, and let OP = Ie
a nd 0 P' = I. Then

by OC (Fig. 8Sb); th e direction undergoing t he greatest extension is of

course, OE where E is the refleetion of C' in ON. Since
I

DN /ON - lY ~ cot 20,

it f~Uows that a ngle ODN is equal to 28, and hence that 0 0 and OE are
th e mternal a nd external bisectors of the angle between OD and OT simi.
larly~ 0 0 ' and OE' are the bisectors of th e a ngle bet ween OD' And OT ' .
.I t IS now ~L811U~edt that the anisotropie axes coincide, at each moment,
W1~h th e .dIrutlOns of greatest extension and contraction . Since t he
a~lal s.tram of th e tube is very small compared with the shear strain, th ese
directions are effect ively t he same &8 those in an isotropic t ube. Suppose
tha~ at some sta ge t he X, y a xes of anisotropy (corresponding to 0'0 and
O~ ) make a n angle t/> with th e dire ction of t wist a nd th e axis of the t ube
(Fig. 89). If the tube is isotro pic to begin with , t/> incre&lle8 steadily from
n/ 4 to " /2. If T is t he shear stress,

l' ~ ~ +y' - 2I,yC080.

Hence

= (1- 2ysin 8cos8 +y' sin'6) t.

a~

and

T -

- 0, =

- Tsin 2t/>,

TZI' = TC08 2t/>.

[ 2N+(F+ G+4H- 2N),in' 2~J-I.

t R. H ill. op . e it .. p . 318.

( 14)

'28

PLA ST I C AN ISOTRO P Y

[XII. fo

The components of th e increment of stra in are

/Uz = _TdA.(G+2H )sin2~ .
d~.,

= TtU (F+ 2H}ain 2fi.

tU. = T d>. (G- F )sin2';,

dyztl =

dll. N cos '.

The axial strain-increment df and t he (engineering) shea r st rainincrement dy are given by

df = dfz sinl'; +df vCOSI'; - dYzl/ sin 2'; .
dy = (dt-.,-Ihz}8in 2';+ 2 dyzvcos 2';.
Hen ce

[(N _ G_ 2 H )sin'+_ ( N_ F_ 2H)cos~ Jsin_,,! .

d.

dy

- - -2N+ (F+ G+ 41l

(16)

2N )sin'~

The denominator is al w8.yt1 posi t ive. being equal to llTI by (14). The sign
of the n umera tor thus determines whethe r t he tube lengthen s or ehortene.

th /dy is initially zero when th e tube is isot ropic, but for small ang les of
t wist , when'; is a little larger th an In, df has the sign of (F -G) or of
(X- f). Since tP approaches 171' with progressive twist, rk is 60&11y
positive if N > 0+ 2H . The ma nne r in which t he an isotropic par~"?~ten
vary d uring torsion is not yet known , but Swift t bae found that InitIally
isotropic specimens of aluminium, copper, braae, mild steel, 05 per
cent . carbon stool, etainless steel , a nd cupro-n ickel kngtheA cont inuoueJy
by varying a mounts, the extension being of the orde r of 5- 10 per ce~t .
for a sheaf of 3. E xcept ionally , a lead specimen shortens. The &Xlal
strain cannot be attributed solely to the development of the internal
stresses due to the differential orientationeofthe greine since on reversing
the couple the ensuing ax ia.l etrai n-increme nt was also reversed (eee
p. 31).

5. T he eartng of deep -drawn cups

When a cup is deep-drawn from a circular blank cut fro~ rolled .sheet.
it is often found tha t the height of th e rim ab ove th e base 18 not un iform,
as would be expected in a symmetrical operation on an i~tropio. blank.
Instead it ie observed th at 'ears' form in poeitioneeymmet ncaUy 81tua~
with respect to th e direct ion of rolling in the origina l sheet . Ge~erall~
four eara are found , eit her at th e ends of the two diamete rs makin 0g.5
with t he rolling direct ion, or at the ends of the diameten making 0 and
900 with the rolling direction. The poeiticne an d height of t he
t H . W . S....m. E "fi_ring. rea (leu). "3.

XU . 5]

THE EAR INQ OF DEEP .DRA W N CU P S

'28

depend among ot her thinge on t he pa rticular metal and on the prior

mechanical and heat treatment. Both types of caring can be produced
in t he same metal by suitably varying t he treat ment before drawing,
for example, in copper and eteel.t With brass, six ean ha ve also been
observed in t he 00 and 60 positlone.f It is recogn ized that earing ill due
to ani sotropy in t he rolled sheet , a nd many attempts have been made to
correlate th e observed behaviour with the crystal texture a nd th e
mechanical properties of t he material. In the following a nalysis it is
supposed that the anisotropy is specified by th e six parameters F , G, H ,
L, M , N , whose veluee are related in some complicated. way to the
previous treatment of the materi al.
Earing begins while the blank is being drawn to warde th e Moulder
of the die (Fig. 78), a nd it is observed t hat the final poeitione of the ean
coincide approximately with their initial poeitione.f It mould be sufficient, th erefore, to analyse the stress an d strai n distrib utio n immedia tely
after drawing begins, when th e rim has just etarted to move towards the
die aperture. Thi ckening of th e sheet is controlled by the blank-holder.
Two ex treme possibilities will be conside red : (i) the blank-holder ill
fixed in a position such that th e space between th e holder and th e die
is equal to the origtnal eheet thi ckness (this is rarely attained in practice
owing to th e elast icity of th e apparatus), and (ii) t he space between the
holder and th e die is so much wider t han th e sheet thickness that negligible normal force is exerted in t he es -ly stages. If frict ion can be
neglected, (i) corresponds to pla ne strain, and (ii) to plane stress.
Th e ears an d hollows must begin to form. at those points on the rim
where the radial direction is one of th e prin cipa l axes of the strainincrement. Now on the rim the circumferential stress is t he only nonzero stress component in t he plane of t he sheet. Hence the ears an d
hollows form where the principal exee of stress and strain-increment
coincide. Let e xee of referen ce be chosen to coincide with th e exee of
anisotropy, the e-ex ie being norm al to the blank and th e x-n is along th e
direction of rollin g. If the blank is drawn under conditions of plan e
strain, the ears an d hollows can only be in t he 0, 45, and 90 positions
(see Sect. 7 below). It is clear t ha t either four ears form at 0 and 90
with hollows at 45, or t ha.t the reverse configuration occurs. If th e
blank ill drawn under condi tione of plane stress, th e ea. ", and hollows can
t c. S. Banet~, ToW 8trud..,.. oJ M d4LI. p. 443 (McGra .... HiD Book Co. I H ) ).
: M. Cook. J - . .. 1.... M-U.6O (Un). loe.
I R. H ill, 0,. eu., p . )18 .
F. H . W u.on aM R . M. Brick . T......... A M . 1.... Mi .. . N -. . E.... 161 (IHal. 111.

330

P LAST IC A NI SOTR O PY

[X II. IS

only be at 0,90", and (90"-5:) to the rolling direction, where ii is given

by (8). There ere thus four ears in the 0" a nd 90" pos it ions, or in the
(90" -a) positions. Noti ce that .i = 45" when F = G, irrespective of
the values of N a.nd H. If N is intermediate to F +21l and G+ 2H,
ci is not real and t here are only t wo ears, eit her in the 0 or th e 90"
positions.
In both plane stress and pla ne strain t he tangents at the points where
t he ears and hollows develop are in t he directions for wh ich t he yield
st ress has stationary values (since these are th e direct ions in which
the principal axes of stress and strain-incre ment coin cide). In order to
distinguish between th e possibl e arrangements of eara in terms of t he

relative magnitudes of the anisotropic param eters we must know t he

distribut ion of dieplecemente on the ri m. Failing t his, it may rea.sonably
be surmised t hat the ears and hollows d evelop respectively fro m pointa
where the tangents to the rim are in t he directions of the minimu m and
maximum values of the uniuial yi eld etreee . This hypothesis is BUPported by the results of a detailed inveetigefion of earing by Baldwin,
Howald, and Ross. t No blank-holder wa s used , and the material
(copper) was euc h that F = G. Th e relative values of Nand F+ 2H,M
indicated by the stra in ratios in te nsile strips cut from the rolled sheet
(see Sect, 3 (ii) above), were such that N < F+ 2H for the copper
produ cing 0" and 90 ea rs, a nd N > F + 2H for that producing 45
ears. It was proved in Section 3 (i) tha t when N < F+ 2Jl t he yield
steese hee minimum values in t he 0 and 90 positions , and that when
N > F + 2H the minimum valu es ar e in t he 45 poeitione (Ilince,i = 46
here) .
The presen t theory predi cts four ears at most , and must be generalized
if it is to represent the anisotropy in a materia! such &8 rolled ca rtridge
brass which , afte r a final annealing near 100 C., produces six ean t
Let us eeeume for th e yield crite rion and plas tic potential a polynomial
of degree n in th e reduced stress components (the polynomial is eeeumed
not to be a mere po wer of some polynomial of lower degree ). For a state
of plane stress or strain , th e polynomia l takes the form

xu. a]

TH E EARINQ O F DEE P D R A. WN CUPS

331

t rop y. The strain-increments are

dtz = d>..

8/

8az

= d>..

dt, = tV.: =

dYq =

tV.:!

~ iAj.llrajz -la!TA:
1/ ZI/'

tV. IiA jjlr a~o{.- l ,..tqo,

I

tV. ~ kA Ij. a~ ~,..tr;I,

where the factor I is introduced in th e last equation since T" and T"
must be treated &8 distinct in the differentiation. In uni&:li~ tensi:~
a at an angl e Q: to the e -exis,
a Z = acosllX,

a, = a sin'Q:,

T"q

= a sinQ:C08 a:.

The principal aICS of stress and strai n -incremen t coin cide in d irectio ns
,i where
a~ -a,
tkz-tk,
2 T".qo

UY.qo ,

or
C08~,i - sinl,i = ~ A j.lJi(C08 ,i)2I-+-A: -'(sin ,i)Ii-+-c_ j(cos ,i)'j -+-lc(sin li)l/-+-lc-lj
28m,i cos,i
kA ,jlr(cos li)lj-+-Ir-I(sin ,i)I.I-+-A:-1

This reduces to

.!

~ A'jlc(C06 ,i)" -+-l -l(sin ,i)' /+Ir -1((2j + k)cosI,i_ (2i +k)sinlli] = O.

(16)

~ Ajllra~ a~~"

Since k is .even there mu st be a fac tor ofsin,i and cos ,i in every term , 80
that possibl e eolutlons are 0 and 90". Including these, there are eltoge~her 4n roots in th e range 0 ~ a < 2n, sym metrically disposed in
relation to the axes of anisotropy. Th e posit ions of the ears and hollows
are 0, 90, and 90"- ,i; if aU the roots are real the n umber of ee ra is 2n
For certain values of the parameters Aj.lA: IIOme of the roots will not be
real (cf. pla ne stress with n = 2 and N inte rm ediate to F+2H a nd
~~2H). Thus th e observed nu mber of eera only ena bles us to set a lower
hmlt to the degree of the pleetic potentia l.
It is interesting to notice that, whatever the yield criterion, the ea rs
and hollows form where the tangents to the rim are in the directions of
s~.a.tiona.ry yi eld steeee.t These d irecti ons are given by dajda. = 0 or,
" 000 <kId = - (cflc.)f(cfl""), by

where t he powers i,i , A: are pos itive integers or zero (i + j +k ~ A), and
k must be even when the x,g directions are the principal a xes of snleo-

B;..J(a~, t1" T"qo ) = 0 ,

t w, M. o..l d _ in. Jr. T . 8. Ho....a ld, I\nrl A. W . ae-, M rJah TAtlOlogy, Tet'h . Pub.
180S (19 4 :1 ). See a].-.o L. Uo um" and R . Hill . P llil .'l ltf/. 41 ( 19:1O), &71.
l H . L . 8 urghoff a nd 1':. C. Bo hle n, Tra ..... A m. h Al. .\1 i.. . M rt. Eng. In ( 10"2). IU.

Where

t1z = a cosllll,

a, =

aainlQ:,

T"qo

= 17sin lll C08 l1l.

t A theo~m l ta t.ed by the author in a I"tter ( 10 Dee . 184s , to Pror W M D-ld .

e.- In-titute or TOllMOIogy.

DO'

WUl.

'"

P L ASTIC ANI S OTR O PY

(XII. tI

XII. 8] ANIS OTR OPI C P A RAM ET E R S D URI NG COLD- WO R K

plastic work.j Now t he increment of plastic work per unit volume is

Th is is
or

d W = aiJdfil = afl

2a [ -

ill sin a coso + oj sin a:C08 a + ill (C08la - sin'a)]

aaz

Ca"

iJ'Tz II

O.

8/

"'...

6. Variation of the a nisotropic parameters during cold -wo rk

Th e problem of relating t he velu ea of th e six param ete rs to th e strainhistory is obviously extremely complicated . Here we shall restrict
our at tention to a metal in which a pronounced preferred orientation
is already present, and to 8. range of strain such that changes in the
orientation can be neglected. Since the state of an isotropy then remaina
effectively t he same, t he yield stresses must increase in "triet proportion
&8 th e ma terial work -hard ens. We may write X = hX o, y = h~, etc .,
where the subscript zero denotes the ini tial val ue, a nd 11 is a parameter
increasing monotonically from uni ty and expressing the am ou nt of
hardening. Th e ani sotropic parameters decrease in strict proportio n,
since F = Fo/AI etc. , from (2). Thus the relations between the strainincrement ratios a nd the stress ratios remain invariant ; for example,
in uniaxial tension the stra in-increment ratios remain conetent. ] To
complete th e system of equations we need only to specify the way in
which h veriee with t he strain. We may rega rd
(F o

'2

Go

(18)

together with t wo similar eq uations obtained by cyclic pennutation.

Hence

which is identical with th e condit ion for th e coincidence of th e pri ncipal

axes of stress and strain-increme nt.

- J3
h
'2 + +

cU = 2/ cU = cU,

Grh, -H rh, ~ (FG+GH+HF)(a,_a,) <1>.,

8/

cos ' o: - sio1a _ ~-&;

2sin aC08a 2 iJ!

a=

fJ/

au"

with t he use of eq uat ion (I) an d E uler 's theorem on homogeneous

functi ons. From (5) we ha ve also

After rearrangement this becomes

US

L [F(F~~G~~~F)' +2<11;']
= (<1>.)' I [F(a,- a,)' +2Lr:'1 =(<1>.)'.
Th is suggests the following definition of an equivalent strain-increment
for a nisotropic ma teria l:

d-; = Vi{ Fo+ Go+ lIo)i[F,(

Go dfM-Ho df, )'+ + 2d)':' + ]1
, F, G+G 8 + 8 F,
..
L
... .
00

000

From (18) and (19) we find

(19)

dW
df = vi(~ + G.+ H.)LA '

an d

d W = ii rh.

(20)

Thus, jf there is a fun cti onal relation bet ween ii and W (thi8 has yet to
be demonstrated ), there must also be one between ii and
This js
the analogue of the eq uivalent streee-etrsln curve for isotropic material,
the are a under th e curve being aga in eq ual to the work per unit volume
.
In uninial tension X parallel to the z.axia,

fd;.

s =J~( G,+ H, -' IX

2 F,,+ Go+H;}

a; ~J~(F,+ G,+ H,)l d

3 G,+H,
(;t'

The~ are tw o similar ex pressions, obtained by cyclic permutation , for

tensions Y and Z parallel respectively to the y - an d a-exes. A compa rison
?f the stress-strain curves in the z, y, and % directions provides a n
~~;ediate test of the proposed (a, d-;) relation. Thus, if ii = F(f ih),
n a.X, pY,,,Z are t he same func t ions F of f;tla., f ilIP, (,/Y, respectiv ely,
W here

Ho)t

[F,(a,- a,)' +G.(a,- a. )' +H.(a. - a,),+

+ 2 Lo T;.+ 2 .Mo T:" + 2No T~

]1

(17)

Fo+Go+ Ho

as a non -dimensional measure of t he equivalent stress. By analogy with

t he isotropic theory it is na tural to assume that ii is a funct ion of t he
t Thi. Juuo t-n ebecrved in UlrWle Ip"Cimena e u\ [rom rolled a lu m ini u m pI"... ;
L . J . Kl ing ler and O. &dw. JfNr.. . A el'O. Sci. U ( 18tS). 6~.

= J~(_ .q.j- H~ -' I

2 ~ +G. + JiJ '

_J3
( F,+G, -'I
2

)' -

}.'o+Go+ HJ

{J ~ J~(

H.+F, \I

211+G.+ H"J '

(a. + ,8'+ )'1 = 3).

t L. R . J ae bon. K . F . Smi t h. ~d W . T. Lankford M~ T 1I"""'w T h P b

:!UO (19.8). J . E . !>om. Jo,mo . Apt>. 1'11",.10 (19. 8). '16.
: toe . u .

[XII . e

'"P.,.are calculab le from the ratios FoI H. and OJ H

PLA STI C ANIS OTR O PY

are given by
the strain rati os in tensile teats in the x and y directions . lfthe material
i8 in the form of a thin shoot the stress-strain curve for the z direction
(through the t hickne ss) can convenient ly be obtained by t he ap plication
of balan ced biaxial te nsion in the plane of the sheet; this is equivalent to
a uniaxial compression normal to the sheet, toge ther with an equal
hydrostatic tension. Such & bia xial state of stress may be approxima tely
realized in the bulge test where a circular sheet, clamped at the circum ference, is plastically deformed by pressure applied to one aide. t
o1 which

(I ,

7. Theory of pla ne strain fo r a nisotropic m eta ls f

(i) F undamental equation.!. Let th e state of plane strain be such that
th e t prin cipal axis of anisotropy is norm al to the planes of flow. Setting
df. = 0 in (5) we ha ve
Guz+ Fu lI
(2 1)
a. =
G+ F .
In t he compression of a chrome-va nadium stee l block under conditione
of plane strain, Bridgma n hea found that u. becomes increasingly
greater than 10'. (20 per cent. more for a stT8.in of 0-4), where %" is t he
direction of compression; this im plies G > F . A cylindrical specimen
cut from t he compressed block , with its axis in the origina l % direc t ion
become s elliptical when compressed, the major axis being in th e former
z d irection ; this else implies G > F.
If (21) is substituted in (1), with T ", = T u = 0, there reeulta

(
For

re&8Ol18

FO+ OH+ H!'. ( _

F+G - J 0.

0,

)'+2N' - I
T7:JI -

XII. 71

PLANE STRAIN FO R ANI SOTR OPI C METALS

With the use of (22) the yie ld criterion can be written aa

(O"z- u,)1
I
Q
4( 1 c) + T

(23)

-,

~he plane -strain te nsile yie ld stress a in th e directi on ma king an angJe

8 With the z -axie is found by substituting

a. = ucosl6.

a, =

asinl6.

in (23). leading to
a =

It is evident that

0"

2T(I

I- c

)1

(24)

csin l28 .

has eq ual valu es in an y set of four di reotions

9,

11. - 9),

and hence th at t he a ngula r variation of a .ill symmetrical a bout the ax es

of anisotropy and abo ut the 45 direc tions. The corresponding values
of. ~. are , however, different unJe8IJ F = G. If c .ill positive, (J haa a
muumum ~alue 2T.j(l - c) .in the directions of the ax es of anisotropy,
and ~ maximu m value 2T 10 the 45 directions; if c is negative. a has a
m~~lmum 2T{ (I -c) in the direc tions of the a xes of an isot ropy, an d a
muum um 2T In t he 45 directions .
If "and VII are th e components of velocity referred to the ani sotropic
a xes. the atresa-strain relations (5) red uce to
&uz _ ~
(I -c) az
Oy = az - a, .
&u. W,
27_
-

(22)

If N is greater than both F+2H and 0 +2H, c is negat ive, while if N

is less th an both F+2H an d 0 + 2H, c is positi ve. c is zero if th e material
is isotropic, Bond also when the ani sotropy is rotationally symmetrical
abou t the e-exie 80 tha t

N _ F + 2H - 0+2H

(3).

_ I _ ~N( F + O)
(
I)
2(FO+OH+ HF) - oo <c < .

'""

~here T is th e yield stress in shear with respect to the Z -, y-ax es, defined.
In

that will appear later it is convenient to write

c_

_
-

(F "" H ).

t C. C. ClIO.... A. W . Dan&. and Q . &eM. J""""",, oj Md4 t. . 1 I ID..D), " D. L. R . J'~k

.m. K. F. Smith. and W. T . La n.IlJ ord . op. ci\ . p . 333 .
! R. H ill. Prot:. Roy . Soc. A , 198 IU ..D). "28.
I P. W . BridjtIUAII. JOUf'ft . A pp . Ph,.. 17 (ID4SI. 22~. See.L.o R . Hill. Prot:. 1...
M4 . Eng. 159 (lD4SI. 161.

'"

fJy

T ilz

(25)

-.

!hese ~hould be compared with the equations of Saint-Venant for an

l~t~PIC ma te rial ((4) an d (7) of Chap. VI) . If .p is the orien tation of a
~nnC1palstress dire ction with respec t to the .r-axis, an d y,,' is the orientati on of a principal strain-rate dire ction,
tan 2~' -

(I-c}tan 2.,6.

(26)

Hence y,,' = .p if and only if .p = 0. 45. or 90; this is a coneequenee of

the fourfold symmetry of the angular variation of th e tensile yield eteeee
The equation. (23) a nd (25) together with the equilibrium equatioJU'
between the five unkn own. a 0'" Tqo. "'a' and t7I" invo lve only tw~
parame ters. na mely T . which i. a meuure of the average 1'e8il!ltance

P L AS T IC AN ISOT ROP Y

[XII. 7

'"
to deformation, and c, which specifies t he state of an isotropy in th e

pleeee of flow. T and c can be experimen tal ly determined by two

measuremen ts, for example in compression testa (under conditions of
plene etrain) at 0 and 45 to t he axes of anisotropy . [t is necessary to
know th e eeperate magnitudes of th e four parameters F , 0 , H, N (or
X , Y, Z , T ) only wh en it is required to ca lculate (1, "
(0) TM. ui8lenu of cMracurittiu. As in the theory of isot ropic plane
strain it may be shown that there exi st curv es (chara.cte ristica) ecroee
which certain derivatives of the stress and velocity components may be
dis continuous under su itable boundary condi tions. T he proof is enelog OU8 to that in Section 3 of Chapter VI. I t is found that the charaeteria-

tics for th e etreeeee a.nd velocities are the same, and th a t th ey are the
slip-linea, or directions of maxi mum shear strain-rate; t hese are not ,
in general , maximum ehear-atresa directions. If t he slip-lines at some
point P are taken &8 (E. "}) axes of reference, we find (by t he met hod.
leading to equation (9) of Chap. VI) that
00/ _ 0 ~

8E

XII. 71

PLANE ST RA IN F OH A NI S OT R O P IC METALS

008~[ (a.- a, )ooo ~- .

'
(1-,)
2To1 "n ~J+
-j-sin 24{(a.. - afJ)sin 2++ 2"ol eos
Solving th ese two equations for a..- afJ and T..,:

if ~ ( 1 -,oin~)I.

(27)

8,

at th e point P , where at. alf'''n are the stress components referred to th e

(E."}) a xes. Similarly, if Vt and to. are th e velocity components referred
to these axes,

~C) [ (a..-

+ (a.- a,) ~ o.

H
ence

a. - -p-lT'"
.."

a, ~ - p+!T,,'
.."

To1 ~ Th ,

(31)

A(~) = ( l -cein'~}I.

and p = - l(a..+ o,,) is the mean compressive stress in th e plan e.

To express the relations (27) along t he slip-lines in terms of the
va riation of p and ~ , we transform th e stress components according to
the equations

a/ - - p+l(a. - a, )ooo 2(+- +,)-To1 ,in 2(+-+.).

= -p- 1(a..- a,B)cos 2 (~ -~I)+T 01 sin 2 (~ -~o),

where ~o is th e value of ~ at th e point P under consideration. Substituting in (27), and using (3 1), we obtain

[:e (P+IT ~ 0082(+-+,)+Th.in2(+-+,))]

(29 )

I (a.., afJ. -r..fJ) es (1

(30)

where th e positi ve square root is to be taken. It may be verified that

d'1'4

a'l

(iii) RelaliO'M akmt; the characteriJlica. It is now eeeumed that t he

anisotropy is uniformly dist ributed in magnitude and direction . We
introduce t he stress components 0' .. . afJ' '1'..fJ' referred to the slip-linea a.a
curvilinear a xes, where th e t wo families are distinguished by the convention that -rf1.fJ shell be a positive quantity, to preserve th e anal ogy
with th e isotropic th eory. If q, is the anti -clockwise orientation of an
a-line to the e -exie, th e yield criterion (23) becomes

a@= 2csin 2+cos2+

T
( 1 cain' 2+}1 I

(28)

at th e point P. The inclinations dg/dx of the slip-lines relati ve to the

x-axis of ani sotropy may easily be shown to be th e rocte of the equation

2.p] = O.

!....-

where

51

'"

directions of zero extension 81/Ba.. = -81/8afJ = 0, or

-.or

Hence

[~ (p - lT ~ oo.21+-+,)- Th.in 2(+_+.))]

(~t+ (I T~~+2Th)(~t~ 0 ,

#_#.

0,

o.

#-#.

(~t -(IT~~ + 2Th)(~t = 0 .

Sin ce P is a genera l point,

a/l)eos 2+- 2'1'''fJ sin 2+]'+

+ [ (a..-afJ)sin 2q,+ Z" ..,oos 2q,)' =

4T',

on tranaforming t he componenta of eteeee. Since the slip-linea are

i'T+ g=

constant on an c- line , )

iT-V= constant on a ,B-line.

(32)

...
where

PLASTI C A NI SOTR O PY

g(+) =

f G ~~+ h)d,I ~ H:J:+ fhd,l.

Inserting the value (31) of

la (~),

where

xu. 7)

',",,'2+)' + I E(u, k ),

sin 24 = so(u, ok);

1.

d. ' (u, k)du -

The analogy of Heneky'e second t heore m is too complica.ted to be

useful.
. (v) I ndentation by aflal rigid d~. It is evident that th e present theo
IS only applicable.throughout a process of plaatic deformation 80 lo~
as th e state of anisotropy does not change appreciably or changea in
such a way as to rems.in Uniformly distributed , The Indentation of the

(33)

k' = c.

f'.

(1-k',;0'8)1 dfJ.

" ..

For values of'" in the range (- p,l1f) u lies in th e range (-K, K) ,

where K is t he quarter-period of t he elliptic function. When'" lies in the
range (P , }1r) u must be taken in the range (K, 2K ), an d 80 on for other
veluee of r/>. When c = 0, equation s (32) reduce to the H encky relations,
(12) of Chapter VI. If u and v are the components of velocity along the
Q; and {lsliplines. equations (28) transform to
du - v d4> = 0 a long an c -line,
dv+u t1P = 0 along 8. ,a-line.

3311

dlstributlon.

so(u, k) is the Jacobian elliptic fun ction with modulus k: (which takes
complex values when c is negative), and E (K, k) is the sta ndard elliptic
integral of t he second kind :t
E (u , k) ~

PLANE S T R A I N FOR AN IS OTROPI C M ETALS

~ example of such a field is tha t consisting of radii and concentric

c~u.J ar ~, whose common centre is a point singularity for th e stress

we immed iately obtain

tc 8in~ C08~

g(+) = - (1

[xu. 7

t Tabut.ted in. E . Jahnke and F . F.mde. hnktWr0eN4jd.. . 2nd Edition, p. 141

(Teubner. Leipzia:. 11133).

, .!
~ ./
""~~-~~----------~""

Fl O. 90. Slip .line field in a aernjinfinite anUotropie

medium indented by e fiat di e.

plan~ ~urface of a block of metal by a flat rigid die satisfie8 th e Brst

(34)

exactly as in the isotropic th eory (equ ations (14) of Chap. VI).

(iv) Proptrtiu oj tM 8lip-line field. We now examine whether geomet rica.l theorems, analogous to th ose of Hencky , exist in the anisotropic theory. It is immediately evident, by the method used to prove
Hen cky 's first theorem , that th e difference in th e valuea of g (or p) .
where t wo given slip-linea of one family are cut by any member of the
other family, ia a conatant . Conversely, any t wo orthogonal families
of curvea poeaeaaingthis property const itute a slip-line field for a plaatio
state under certain boundary condit ions. In Hen cky 's theorem it is t he
difference in the val ues of if> t hat is constant along two given slip-lines.
Thia is not true for anisotropic metals except when th e differen ce is .".
If, now, a section of an c- line, say. is stra ight,.p is constant along i t ;
hence g and p are also constant along t he sect ion. It follows from the
previous result that th e corresponding sections of all a -linea are also
straight, and 80, &8 a simple consequence, that th ey are of equa l length.

p'

condition. At the moment when indentation becomes roeeibl 't '

ed .
rd
.
r ~1 e I 18
m , In ecce an ee With th e discussi on in Sect ions 3 and 5 of Chapter IX, th at.th e plast ic zone covers the area between the broken curve
an~ t he eectton P P' of the surface (Fig . 90). Th e state of etrese ia then
uD1~uely de:ermin~ within the trian gles OPQ and O'P'Q' formed by
tb e intereectlng p&U"8 ofslip-linea th rough 0 PandO' P' ti I
Th La
f

'"
, ~ ~pec ve y .
e e te 0 stress ID each of these regions is a uniform compreeeicn
parallel to the surface, Let y (0 ~ y ~ t IT) be the angle between th e
surface and the z-uis of anisotropy (in th e eenee indieated i Fi 90)
and let anglea POQ and 0 ' P'Q' be denoted by 8, Then ~r:cJ~g ..;
&88 U

(24) end (29),

Po =

T(l

~:'2y)i,

8=

y+lcot-I {(I- c)tan2,,},

(35)

: ere th e Inverse cotangent is an angle in th e interval (- In, 111'). It is

Y to show that, regs rdless of the va lue of y . 8 liea between cor - ! I( I - c)
and 1"'-oot- I.)(I-c).
v
t

Th~ slip-~~ in the regions OQR and O'Q'R' , defined reepecnvely by

he 8lDgulantle8 0 and O' and t he position s of t he elip-llnea OQ an d

IXU . ?

P L ASTI C A N I SOT R O P Y

O'Q' , are radii and concentric circular ares. The positions of OR and
0 ' R' are determined by th e condition t hat t he surface of th e die is

frictionless. The regions OR B a nd 0 ' R'B are th erefore unifonnly

stressed, the prin cipal axes of stress being par allel and perpendicular
to th e surface. Hence th e orienta t ion of t he slip-lines is th e aeme &8
in region s OPQ a nd 0 ' P'Q' , th e a ngles QOR and Q'O'R ' being 111'.
According to (32 ) and (33), th e value ofpi n ORB and 0 ' R'Sis Po+ 2TE,
where
I.
E = ElK, 1: ) =
(1-I:'sin18)t dB

is t he complete ellipt ic integral of th e second kind . The pressu re on th e

die is th erefore uniformly distributed , and is of amount P , where

{p =

h _~ :~2 i.y) t +E .

(36)

When c is zero th ill reduces to t~ e Prandtl formula P = 2T( 1+ 111').

For a small degree of anisotropy , E can conveniently be calculated from
th e series
(37)
E ~ !-FH , ! , I, , ) ~ I+ - ~ - ~'

-;.,-..).

where F is the hypergcometri c function. T he eeriea expansion for P is

:;. _ 1 +! _ - ~(I +l_ + .in' 2y).. ..

(38)

Tables for E &8 a funct ion of c or k' are eveilable[ for th e calculat ion of
P for finite degrees of anisot ropy . If c is posit ive, P is less than
2T( 1+j_) ;
if c is negative, P is greater th an 2T( I+ t 1l'). Furtherm ore, P and t he
slip-line field are th e same for orienta t ions y and
of th e exee of
anisot ropy ;t his is due to the symmetry of th e an isotro py about dtrect ioea
making 45 with the axes of anisot ropy .
The position of th e point S , hitherto not specified, depends upon the
state of stress in th e non-plasti c material, for it is this th at cont rols the
development of the plastic zone. As in th e leotroplo th eory t he flow
st reamlin es coincide with t he slip-lines parallel to PQR S and P'Q' H' S,
respective ly, a nd t he plastic material below th ese boundaries is const rained to remain rigid. The velocity is of magn itude V see 3 in
0 ' P'Q ' R' S, and of magnitude r cosec 3 inO PQRS, where Vis th e downward speed of the die.

r -Y

APPENDIX I

SUFFIX NOTATION AND THE SUMMATION

CON VE NT IO N
(il Su!fiz n.ot.alaon. I n particula r a pplica tions. tho not&tion used in this book
for the nino eom ponen te of aU - at a po in t ia cr., 0'.. , cr., "1'.... "1'..., T a T~, "1'.... Tn'
refernd to rectangular ex ee z , y, z; only aU: component. lU'e ind ependent aince
T ... _ T .... etc . Tho co mponent. ol an increment of llb'ain lU'e denoted by tU.. dy ....
etc. I n d i8cuuiona of rela tio na be t ween al.rell8 and strain.incremen t the normal
co mponen ts of I tn.-as lU'e deno ted by aU , a ll ' Un ' where eu ... U. ' eec., an d the ~r
componen ts by Un . Un' Un ' where Un "" T.... e te, A gen era l component is denoted
by crfl. whero letters lU'e used ae auffixes tneeeed of n um be rs ; a particular com
ponen t ia obtained by givin g i andi the appropria te vel uee 1, 2. or 3; any ot her
lettera can, of course, be used instead of i and i . For brevity a at reaa is referred to
aimply by writing it. genera l compo nent. S im ilarl y, t ho eo mponenta of an tneee.
men t ofst rain lU'e denoted by tUu (i ,; = 1. 2,3).
(ii) Summation convent ion . In a llwn auch &II
,f Cl'u '" cru +CI'. . + crn .

taken ov er t he vel uee i = 1,2,3, the 8UIRIIl&tion aign is omitted and the whole
e:lpresaion ia \IF!'i tt.en llimply CI'". Th ill is the l ummation co nven t ion, accord ing to
which a rec:urr ing kUer flUffis: indicat.eflthat the aum JDuat be formed of all t6nnII
obtaina ble by &IIIIigning to tho auffix the values I, 2, and 3. T he conven tion d0e8
not apply to n umerical auffixee. Similarly . in a q uanti ty containing tw o repeeted
lIuffixes. such All crll tUlI' the aummatio n mUllt be carried ou t for aU values 1, 2, 3
of both i and j . Thus,
Cl'll tk ll -

+ 2(CI'II cUu +CI'n cUll + an dt"III,

Cl'uCl'/ t - Cl'u CI'lt + crn Cl'u. +crjacr""

s ia a dummy su ffix. while i an d .I: are free .

E vidently a dummy auffix can be

replaeed by any other letter ....hich dcee not occur ebe. here in t he lI&IIle tenn.
The U86 of brac kets mUllt be C&I"e{ully noted. T hUll,
(crU)1 -

(o u + oll +aU)1

4 -~ + ~ + ~

Summat ion m ust be carried out wide a bracket before any other opera tion ill
performed..
In an equa t ion auch ae
Pu 9Jt = " ;.1
the free IlUffixe- (i and 1:) rouat be the same on bo th aides, &I:Id th e eq uation ill to be
understood to hold for all valUN o r the free .uftizN . The a bo ve eJ:prMBion atanda
therefore {or nine equatiotw of the type

Pufu +Pufll + Pu fn = "II

J'ufll+P.. f .. + P . f u "'* "..

t E . J ,.hnk. and F . Emde. l'.. ~;_/d,., 2nd edition , p. 160 (Teubnor, Le ipaia:,
183 3).

Cl'n tUn + CI'II ck l l + crl l tk..

where the aymmeu 'e prope rty cril ." Cl'/ j, dt"jJ "" cUJi' ha.a been used. Bepeeted
letter auffixee are called ' d ummy' auffixes, and non -repeated onea ' Cree ' !JUffixN .
For example in

"" . 11

(i -

(i -

I , I: - I ).
2, 1 _ 3).

APPEND IX I

S UF FIX N OTATI ON AND TH E SU MMAT IO N CO N VE N T I ON

Summation is elec to be underetood in an exp re8!lion in vol ving a derivative,

euch B8 iJuJ8:e" whi ch ltandl for
Oul+ Oul+Oul.
&:1

&:1

;}x l

component with reepeee to the directiolUl (.\.'.~;.I'" and ("", ~", .."). Thus the nine
co mponentB ofstres8 (and sim ilarly of at ra in- incremens ] eolUltit ute a tensce which.
moreover, is aymmete-ical since C11i = I1J' (and tUu = /kid. In this notation
eq uations (2 ) are of th e t y pe

'\" +,.1+,,1 =

Simila rly. the equations of eq uilibr ium

a.:r1l +WII +WII

;}x l

8:e1

8:1:1

8:1:1

a.:rl l +80'11 + 80'11

&xl

axl

axl

W 'j _ 0

can be written as

& j -

o!IPp) _
Cpu

= 0
'

since

'*"

x,

p'

a""

Here
(k = 1. 2, 3) are the dtrectlon -cceinee of the x;.axis with respec t to the:r
aet of a xeB; the direction -cosines of the xi-axis with respec t to t he e ' 86t are therefore
(k = 1,2,3). The direction- cosin es IIIIotisfy the well-known geometrical
rela tionB
a",a,. = 81i ,
(2)
a . ,o., = 811,
Equations ( I ) are precisely the eq uc tjona of transfonnation be t ween st rees
com ponentB referred to d iffere nt lltltB of IIoxes . In th e u8ual notation these are

a.,

=0

where

.\.'a," +~'a.. + "'I1. + 2 ~1"T ...+""T.... + ~T ),

.\.'''''C1.: +,.'~''I1 ..+'''''''I1. + (,.',," + ~ .,,' )T + (,,''\'. + ".,, ')T.... + ("'~. + .\..,.')T.:..'
11

ill the norm8J. .treu component in the d.inoction

!L

_
OpH ~ - Cpll ott aj/>
= ~. Ost Pu.

-,.

h =~ Ost ~
.
and the t hoorcm 18 pr oved .

= ~ ~~,

(v) Invarianu of a teMor. A func t ion of tenso r compone ntB wh ich re tains the
same form wh en any o t her a xes of re fercnce are taken ill known as an in variant.
Thus a functionf/pij ) is in varian t if

f/pu ) = / (a aUPkI) -

I /Pu)

i ~ invariantB. any ot her in varian t fun ction being ex peeeeible in terma of

'*"

T=

O.

It may be proved t ha t tenaora of the kind conside red here have only three

au,

and tw o ot her similar pairs obtained by cyc lic pennutat ion of t he lIUffu:es. Th ese
componen te can be wr itten aBl1u -ll1t.t when i = j and 108 C1jj wh en i
i, Of, Itill
more shortly and un ifonnly. aBl1lS - 181SC1u'
(iv ) T en,ot6. A Cartesian teneor of the kind occurring in this boo k is 110 quantity
comprising nine compo nents Plj (i,j = 1, 2,3). It is implied that th ere existe
some rule (depending on the particular field of a pplication) whereby definite
componen ts may be aBlIOCiated with any given set of three-d imensional Cartesian
n es through the po in t unde r co nsideration. The three components eeecc leeed
with th e ith axis are PIS (j = 1,2,3). The nine componente can be visualized aa
a 3 x 3 array in whi ch p ij ill the element in the i t h row an d j t h column. A tensor is
eald to be symmetrical when P u = Pi" The defining property of 110 tensor is tha,t
ita componenta P u and
correspond ing to any t wo diff erent eete of aXel x, and Xl'
are related by the squarlons
(I )
Pu =0 0Uai.Pll'

P.,

!L iIp.

,ij

~e

H ere l ummation is over t he dummy suffi.Ij . and the equation holds for all vel uee
I, 2. 3 of the free suffix i.
(iii ) T Ju tkka tymbol. It is oeeaalonally advantageoUl to use a symbol 8u wh ich.
j . F or example,
by definition, is equal to unity wh en i = j , and to zero when i
t he devia to rio or red uced stre8B, wh ich is the part of the stresa au remaining after
the hydrostatic tension f(an +all +au ) bee been removed, has componente
all-l(all + a ll + au ),

'\ '.\. . + ~ '~ . + " ,,,. =

9'

Wit +W.. +fu ll = 0

& 1

I,

The followin g th eorem on tensors is drawn on in Cha ptel'3 II and Ill. If the
9Ca la r quanti t y f(p'i) le a func tion of t he eomponenee of a tensof PjJ. then the
M8Cmbly of deriva tives g'J = iJf/OpjJ constitute a teneor, itll compo nents referTed
to another set ofaxee xi being formed according to the rule
= iJf /Pu)/OplJ. Now

= 0

;}x 1

343

(.\., ~, ,, )

an d

ia th e . h N t

them. Th e' simplest ind ependent invariantll are

Pu . PUPi"P"PJ. P. "
or an y scalar multiplee of them . Taking the8e in t um. t he proofs of invariance
are 108 fcllcwe. From (2) we have
PU = a,l:a l/PH = 8.t1Pll = Pu = P.,.
by tbe de finition of t he delta . ymhal and the interchangeability ofdummy IlUffi.sCl!l.
Similarly,
p u pj, = (aj.OJ,P H)(OJ.O P...) = (au a p.w}(llJ,Oj.P...)
= (8.....Pll)(o\,.P ) = P..,1'l .. "2 PUPJj;

pu p j. pl. = (allOS.p,.)(ai ..o.,. p ..,)(0i:faj,P,, )

= (allaUPI",)(ai. Oj. p .,)(a.,.ab P,I)

(8 u PI..)(8.. . p.,)(8" Pd)

= P,,,,P_Pr' "" PUPj. P. ,

T he summation conven tion ill virtually ind ispensable in proofll mob .. these, not
only in saving t ime and space but also in displa.ying the IItruo t ure oCth e equa.tiona
and suggesting t he correct grouping of the te eee.

( 3 .~)

APPENDIX II

APPEN DIX III

COOR D I N ATE SYSTEMS

CH ARACT E R I ST ICS

(0 Cyl indrical eoon:Ii!"IQw (r. S ). The equations of equilibri um (body fol"CN

being

dill~garded)

are

&,

Or

+! Vr" +a,. "+~ _

r 06 , 0:

0,

Vr" +! &' +Vr" + 21-,., ... O.

Or

roe

oz

ih'"+! Vr" +ao.+!!! "", 0,

Orr88&r

wbere 0 ,.. 0" 0 " '" ""' "" are the 8treM componentll referred to t heee coo rdin&teoJ.
The oomponentll of the 8tn.in rate tenllOr a.re
.
f,

Co
= Or'

1(" ' ''''')

t tl = '2 0: +; 88

.. .

W E begin w ith the tin t.order linear equation

P ax +Q iJy =R,

( I)

where z is t he unknown d ependent va ria ble and x. y a re the independent va r i&b lell.
and where P , Q. R are cc n t inu cua alngt e .velued fun ctions ofx, s. z. The variation
of z in the direc ti on dyJtk in the (:r, y) plane is

..

"

cU - a:rok +iJy dy.

( 2)

Consider the family o f e urvee with slope

'"

dy

(')

=- '0'

one, and onl y on e. of which p888EIlI through e very point (except JKlllIIib ly a 8ingu.
larity of z). The variatton o f z along a curve of thie famity

" +Q iJy
" ) '"
cU = ( P a:z
P = R
pdz.

tk
P

dy

cU

""' Q- 1i'

I"

Theee equations, a 8tat&nent of the variation of: al ong t he family of curvee (3).
are oomp letely equivalent to the original d ifferen tial equation ( I) . The eurvee
(3) are known 88 characUriMiu.
Hthevalueof ... is given at one point 0 in the (z,y) p lane, itl values are uniquely
d etermined a t al l plintl along the character. t ic through O. In ...numerical solu tio n
we 8imply replace (') by the finite di ffere nce relatior18
Az

.6y

ol1.l

-rr -Q - 7i '

0",.

T,.,

where 11'
0 " "''''''
are t he 8t reM eo mponentll re felTtld to t hese coo rdiDatell.
The componf'ntll of the 8tl'lloin rat.e t.el18Or IIU'e
.

Co

e. ... Cr'

i , ...

r.~

I
(
"'"
..)
"" 2r sin6
8in 6 06 -wc086 +~

~~ +U).

~(~ + u 8in 6 + tlco ..6) .

r 81J1 6 i'Y'
wh('re u, '", U' a re t hto co m poml"n h rof velocit y in tl .., r.
i . ,..

8.1> <liroctio Wi. I"elIpec ti vely .

wh ere Az .6y. ol1.l are IImaII. incremeata between t wo n eigh bouring pointl on the
eharKteristic and P. Q. k are mean. values over the in terval. IC P and Q d o n ot
involve .... t he characterilltio through 0 can be calculated tint and the values of ...
afterwards; if ... ~nte rs into the funct iora P and Q the calculations of z and the
characteris t ic have to be ca rried out together. I n the tint _
t he shape of th e
characterist ic does not depend on the given val ue of ... a t 0; in t he 8000nd C886 it
does. Similarly, if va lues of .zare 888igned a lon g a sec t ion J K of some curve 1:,
wh ich ill not 6 cha racter ist ic. the values of ... a re uniquely determined at all poin te
w ithin t hel!ltl'ip of t he (z .y) plane cov ered by cham.cteristiCIJ ou t t ing JK. (I t ill
ev ident that JK m ust be eueh that n o charac te r ist io c ute it twice sin ce the value
o f z can only be arbitrarily assigned a t on e po in t of a char&cterilltic ; for eJ:&mple.
there is no IIOlution of (I) taking arbitrvy values on a ejceed eceve.) In particul.....
if the blunduy values in the ne igh bo urhood of . point 0 on J K are sl igh tl y
altered. the IIOlution ill only affected in the conesponding n eighbourhood of th e
ch&r&oterisUc through 0 ; we m8y _ y therefore that amall dilIturt>a.nce. are
prope.gated &1oag c harao:teriaUc..
The boundary val. - of % OD J K need not n ~y be co ntinuoUli. unl_ t h ia

".

CH A R ACT E R IS T ICS

APPENDIX III

is required by P S t.r1I.neOWI ooMiderationa in the particular problem . AllIO, the

boundary v-.luea may be su ch that the apace derivative o f ~ .al ong J K is d iscon tinUOU8 at tlOIDfI point O. IT this ha ppens. the d iscon t inuit y in derivative is p ropa
gated aJona: the characteristic C through 0; in other word s, t he d erivative in any
d iree t ion e)[oept alona: C hu d ifferent val uee on oppoite ,idN o f C. I t will be
_
that t h ill poeeib i.!ity Items d irec::tly from t he circUJnllt&n ce that the original
d ifferentia! equation ia equivalent to a specification oftha variation of J only along
the characteristiea. I t (ol1owlI. abo, t hat u t ht:! n-gion ofthe (r , y ) plane co vered by
the eo1ution c:orWata of Ie venU domaine in each of wh ich J is anal ytic [i.e . flOMC BB EI
continuous d erivative.) then the d oma.m. can adjoin on ly along character iet tee.
F or t h_ relIoIIOn8 the field of chaf'acte rifltiefl m uet be ft'glU'ded 1M t he fund amental
element to be cal culated.
When dea.lingwitb more com pl icated equetlona it ia conven ient to take the beeie
defining property of .. characteristic to be that it is III curve &CroM wh ich certain
d erivatives may be d illoontinuoua under suitable bo undary cond itionIJ. T o in vestigate the cha.racter illtic8 of ( I ) from this standpoint, sUPJ>086 that values of z: are
giv6J\ along some curve 0, 110 that the differential rh is known at a ll pointe on O.
Thoro are then t wo equationIJ, ( I) and (2) , available for th e eal.culation of & /&
and & /iJy. In general the equatioll8 haye a unique IIOlut ion and the derivatives are
thf.'n identieal on both sides of O. Howev er, when the d eterminant

I~ ~ I

vanish es , t he eq uationa do not have a u nique so lu tion and th e d eri vatives cannot.
be eval ua ted without addit ional informat ion; this may bo euch t hat t he derivat ives
are d i8eont inuOUlJ acroes O. TIle d eterminant vaniBhee at all po inte of the curve
when C ill one o f t he family (3), w h ich are therefore. b y d efinit ion. the characteriet te.. The cond ition for the com pati bility of ( 1) and ( 2) if! t hen

I~

~ I = o.

wh ich is just t he equation ( f). governing the variation of z: along a characten.tic.

Conaider. now. tw o .imul Uuioous first-order equatiODll

P: +Q: +R: + 8 : _ T, }
P'~
+ Q' ~
+R' az
Cv+S,Cv
... T',
&'
&y
i!y

I')

are kn own on O. The first d eri vatives are uniquely determined by the above four
eq ua tiorul a t any point on C u nl_

Odzdy _ O.
r Q R S
P' Q' R' S '
Thill illl a quad rat ic form in dz and dy. ha\' ing two roo n dy/dz ,
O

be A~ic, and t hey may be reduced to . pair of d ifferenttaJ relations ezp~

th e var18t ion of " and v along the characte riBt ial. TheIIIe are solv ed numeric&lly
by replac ing them by di fference relatioD8 &C f'08ll Ito netwo rk of characte riltica.
If va luea of u and " are given al ong eome eection JK of a curve ~ which is no t a
characteristic, it may be proved that U and to are un iq uely de termined in t he
curvilinear quadrilateral bounded by the t wo pain of in tf:lnl6C'ting characteriette.
through J and K . An example of hyperbolic equation. .,

. -. ...-...
Ott

(ru

Ott

i)u

of wh ich the eh aract.erilltte. are d'yI- lizl = O. that is, the lines z y "'"' oonst&nt.
Along the family 2:+Y _ oonat&nt .

....
(..
o.)
az- ..)
iJy _ liz (..
&- & '
o.o.
(o.o.) (o. ..)
azdx + ayd'y -dx az-ay _ d'z &- az '

dU _ ~ + aydy _liz

d" -

d'u + d'1)

whence

=>

0,

Thull. u + " ill COIl8tant alon g eech line z +y = COD8tant . and 1IO u + v = 2/(z+y).
MY. where/ ill an a rbitrary fun ction to be d etermined by th e bound ary co nd itio na.
Similarly. u - v = 2g(z -y), and the finaJ IIOlu tio n;'
:} _ /(2:+ y ) g(z- r )
In th is example the (2:, r l equat ioR8 of the characten.tic8 could be e..pi u !il
explic itl y. bu t this, of ooone, it not UBUa1ly pceeib te,
. If the roo" of(8) a.reoomple:ll: tbeequationa (6) are ...id to be ellipric . An exarnple

au

as

0.

iIv
& -

& - Cy'

Since

.... ... ....

iJzI

&ry

i)u

-ay '

and

&yl

u and " are re lated 8OIutionl of Laplace's equat ion. I t will be realized from this

where P, P ' eee. are fun cti on. of ;1:, y, U , v. SUPJ>086 t ha t u and v a re g iven al ong
IIOme cu rve 0 , 80 that the diff ere n tial.
ilu
em
8v
av
dU -= (lzdz + &ydy ,
dl) = (lz dx+ ay dY,

dxd y

'"

U the roo ts are real and d illtinct. there are t wo famil_ of characterietic8
memOOr' of eeeh family puaing through any point. The eq uatio R8are then 8&id to

( 6)

th~t ~he bo undary-value p robl ema and m ethode of 8Olut ion of hyperbolic and
elhp t lc equa t iolUl are com plotely different (in th e real plane).
If the roo te of (6) a re ('qual at a ll points t he eq uerlcna ( 6) a re ...id to be parabolic.
An example is
i)u
av
az - '"
oz "'"' u ,

th e charact.cl'ilIt ics being lin ea parallel to the za:ll:iII.

The lI&ID.e method is U86d for find ing whether character illt icll e.. ilIt for a fIltt o f
mo", than tw o simultaneo us lin ear eque fione. The labour of expand ing the d eter.
minant can be reduced by the following artifice. Let'" _ "" z , y ) and ~ - !/I(z . yl
be the p&rametrio equatiODll of t wo familiee of CurYN in the (z. y ) plane. Taking
~ uatioll8 (6) ... an e..ample. u and ~ may be corWde md ... functioDa of'" and ~
ms te-d of ;1: and 1/. Su ppoee. now, that" and " are given along one e f the

curv.

".

AP PE NDIX II I

( k ill

~ = COJUlt an t, 80 th at iJu/&/J and ""/~ are a lso knOlll'n on thg cu rv e. Eq uatioJUI (5)
can therefore be .... rit te n in t he fonn:

APPEND I X I V

T R AN SF ORMATIO N EQUATIONS F OR STR ESS

COMP ON E NTS I N A P LANE

The derivativlllli &u/a.; and ~/&j.. and hence t he d erivatives in any direction, are
uniquely determined unless

pC4>+QC4>
ax Cy

_ o.

p"ax +Q'C4>

(7)

Cy

The equi va len ce of (6 ) and (7)

e&Il

fOu ily be ve rified . re membeeing that

d'; = ~rl:c+ =dY ~ O

or

ill:

al ;

0 1;

"

in).

ax,+2B iJre;y + C ey , =D %'Y':' Ox' ''Y

Appropria te bo undary eon diricns are t he apooification of z a nd its fif'llt denveuvee

IIOme curve 1:. Th e va riations

ra,)
ill:
\ai = &xl dz +OrOy dy ,
(JIll'

a':

(")
d i)y == ~ dz

OIZ
+ey'
dy.

are therefore kn own along :E. The three eq uations are suffic ien t to determ ine the
eecond derivatives iJ'zlcr, OSzjcxiJy. (JIz!er un iq uely unl_
dx

o
A
0'

dy
rl:c
28

0
dy
C

= 0

A. d yl _2Bdxdy + CcUJ ... O.

Th -

iJzloz, inliJy, along

d

11~

(')

The equa tio n is th erefore hyperbolic (wit h tw o fa milies of cha racterist iCll) if the
roota of the q uad ratic arc real and d istinct ( 8 " > A C ). ellipt ic if t h..y a re co mplex
( 8' < A C). and parabolic if th ey are equal (HI '- AC).

l1, ain"8 + 11,C<NI"8-2T'."ain 8C088.

Th - -(0'. - 0'.. )llin 8C088+T...,(coaI8 _8in"8).

Alternatively, th e- may be written
O't -

dY/dz ""' _~/~

u, - u;ccosI8 +u,lin"8 +2T... "in 8c0ll 8,

O'~ -

along a char.cterilltic .; = co nstant. The order of t he dett"rm inant is ha lved by

this method.
We como finally to the lin8&!' eeeond-ceder equation

~ttl1;c.Uw . T~, be the eompone nts of IItteslilin the (z .y) plane. Let (E. 'I) beanother
pau- of&J:ee In th e 8ame plane. and le t 8 be the inclination of t heE .a ll:is to t he z '&J:i.ll
mees ured antic1ock wise. T hen th e U. '1) components of IItrellll are related to th~
(z, y) co mpo nents acco rding to th e equationll

1(11..+ O',)+ I(O'..-O',)coe 28+ TU .m 28.

1(00..+ I1..)- 1(0'..- 0', )coa 28-1'....ain 28,
-

i(11. -O', )llin28 +"... coa 28.

<""l
THE following Table gives t he Certeeien coordinates of nodal pointe in
8. slip-line field, with a I SO mesh, defined by t wo intersec ting equal
circular a rcs of unit radius (Fig. 30). The ccordine tea are referred. to
rectangular axes (z', y') pesaing through 0 and directed along, and
perpen dlculer to, the a xis ofsymmet ry , and such that
."f2z' = z + V,

.J2y = y-z,

where z and y are as in Fig . 30. Since t he va lues of

points are integer m ultiples of 15, we can write

IX

and

fJ at

000&1

- m X 15,
If' = n X 15,
ard refer to a particular point by a pair of positi ve integ ers (m, n) .
This is the convention adopted in t he Table. The computa tion was
carried out for 8. 5 mesh and it is thought that the error nowhere exceeds
11

one uni t in the third figure; t he accuracy is likely to be least good in x'
for large va lues of m and a ,

(m. ,,)

(I, I )

( I, 2)
(1, 3)
(1, 41
(1.51
(1. 6)

( 2, 2 )
(2, 3)
( 2, 4 )
(2, 6)
(2. 8)

..
0 428
0 &"
0 7112
0-84 5
0-7811
0-6 17
1-0 18
13 33
1652
1834
1-64:1

TABLE 1

"
c-e..

,-

0 83 9

. ....

(3. ! )
(3 )
(3. $)

(3, 6)

H 64

'880

....

(f , ' )
{ f . 51

(01. 6)

IH 13
1' 671
U 68

(6. 61
(5, 6)
(6,6)

"

0-815

U 73
'804

!-4J4

..

3-J :J(fo}

,'U7

,-00

...
8 17

TABLE 2 (see Chap. X I, equ ation (43))

""'

radio...,

,.,.
10

so

,...
""
eo

0 176
0 3019
0 ,624
0 698
0 873
1041
122 2
H Il6
15 71

radio...,

0
0252
OfM
0 &95
0 686
0 73 7
0 -76 6
0 780
0-78 01
078.~

"

18111
2-338

14%9

0 1137

, .ees
0
H 53
0

degr~u

rodion'

,adio,,'

10

0 )7 5
0 349
0 ,524
0 81l8
0 873
I -Of7

0
0 161
0 300
0 447
0 583
0706
0786

2.

:JO

..
so

AUTHO R I NDE X
A..ahor,'
Joa.-d &., IM ~' oj f>d9" "" ""'ie4 poprr' or boob ,... ~ ,
",,"",;0Md. W.vr. ..-.tioll, d ;6Ii1td pm.. (lJ IM ..... _ , . . . poWd ", diJIrrrrtf J>d9".
gil pagt ,... ~ _
I} 1M _
rJIGkrial i6 f"OWd - . &.11_ _

oW pagt
.Mere iI }r. _
, i6 ,,_,

,i_.

AIdo Il*. C. W" 167.

Alkina. W. E., 27.

Allen, D . N, de 0 . 126. 246. 307.
Anaoff. H . I. 182. 172.
Aul. E . L., 287.
&ld'll"in. W. M., Jr. 17. 269. 271. 282.
317.323.330.
B&n.oaki, G 78.
BatreU. C. S., 4. 329.
Bal1ef'. F . B . 58 . 84. 86.
Becker, A. J . 23.
Belayev. N . M. 124.
Beltrami, E., 20.
B ilJhop. R. F . lot. 127, 218.
Bitt.er. F ., 325.
Bland. D. R., 1811, 1117. 20 1,
W .. ...
BohJeo . E . C. 330.
Boume. L . 323, 330.
Bo.....ineooq. J . 19. 135.
Braq. W . 1... I f .
8 ric k . R. M. 321l.
B ridgman. P . W. 12. 18. 77. 273. SU.
Brigg><, G . c., 168.
Burghoff. H . 1... 330.

no-.

Cai rn". W. J . If. 251.

Ct.!'atModo ry . C. 163.
Carrier. G. . ... 1&0. 162. 172.
Chow.C_c., m .
ChriMtia novitt' h, S ., 1013.
ChriKtop herooon, U . G . '2.
Coffin, L . Jor., Jr.. 125.
Coo k. G. 23. 119. 123. 1201. 125.
Coo k. M. 1911. 277. 317. 32:.!, 329.
ClU Mn. A. H . 01 , I I.
Clu lom h, C. A.. 19 .
eo", II . L . 23.
Cun ningham. D . M., 32.

"'it

E illbeiD, W . 186 .
Elam, C. F ., f. 14.
E mat, H . 2<l6. 207.

Fangmeier. E.. 187 .

F iahw. J . C. 126.
Ford. H . 78, 189. 1117. 20 1. 258.
Foat.er. P . Field. 213.
Fraenkel. 8 . J . 32, 36, 45.
Francie, E . L. 178 .
Fried. M. L . 2018.

Galin, L . A. 262.

Geiringer , B . 88 . 136. 167. 233.

GeDaamer. M., 32.
GIeyz&l, A 48.
Goldbera. A.. 14.
G.-:aberg , H . J . MI, 64, 66, 67.
GUNt. J . J . 23.
H aN, A. 67, 280.

Haig h. B. P., 17. 20.

H andelman, G . H .. 33. 01 6.
H ankin.. G_ A., U 7.
H aneon. D. 27.
H enc ky. n . 20. 015. 135. 28 1.
Hermi te, R. 1.., 218.
Heyer . R. H., 28 1.
H ill, R . f l. 611, 64 , 87. 71. 100 , 115.
126. If!, 163, 178, Ull . 1 ~2, 203.
2 18, 219, 221, 223. U8. 2ft, 2018.
263, 26.1, 27~. 2 ~t . 287. 312, 318.
32V, 330, 334.
Hitchcock. J. H ., 189.
Hodge. P . O. 64, 89. 118. 220.
Hoff, H . 325.
HohenemM r. K . 72.
H ollom on . J , M. 14, 211. 30.
Howald . T . S. 21 1. 282. 323. 330.
H oward, J . V. 15.
Huber. M. T 20.
Hu me-Rothery. W., 4.

Dana. A. W . 3301.
Devidenkov , N . N . 273.
DaviN , R . M. 258 .
Davit. E . A. 22, 32 , 016 , 172.
Da vit. H. E., 32.
Dehlinge r. U . 23.
Dok.., S . J ., 172.
Dom . J . E., If, 32. 320. 33 3.
D""cker . D. C., n .

J acUo.D. K . L. . 287 .
Jacluon, L . R. . 30. 320, 333.
J acoba. J . A . 252 .

Eddy. R . P . 116.
f'..o.I warWo. S. H., 22.
E ichinpr. A %3. 29. 32. 111.

K.&nnao . Th. V OQ... 8 7. I H , 180.

Klingler. L. J . 172 . 31 8. 3 n . 323.
K6eJ-uJ6ri.... A. U .

Il yUlhin, A. A.. 46 , 01 7. 018.

bhlinllk y. A .. 281.
hereon, F . K . Th . v..... 162. 18L

119,
215.
268.
323 .

AUTHOR I N D E X

3~:!

K6 rber , r ., 29, 171, 256, 325,

KOlIter, W. , 317.
KOtte r, r., 136, 299.
Lankford, W. T., 32, 320, 333.
I..rke, E . C., )i9, :111.

LM , E . H ., u s, 119, 142, 215, 228 .

t - J... ~. M . , n.
Levy , M., 38.
Lin, C. C.. 33, U .
Linic Wl, W ., 111.
Lode, W .. 18 , 22, U . 45.
Low , J . R., 3 2.
LuWm, J . D ., 14, 181, 281.
Lud...ik, P ., 12, 14, 29.
Lueg, W., 201.
Lunt, R. W., 176, 177.

s;

McAdAm, D . J .,
15,
MacGregor , C. W ., 12, 22, 1".
Mac Lellan , G. D . S., 176, 111.
Malaval , M. P., 29 .
Mandel, J .. 291, 299.
Ma rin , J ., 22.
Mark ov, A. A., 68.
Muon , W ., 23.
Mall well , J . Clerk, 20.
)le ba , R. W ., 15.
Melan, E ., 34, 5 7.
Merchant , M. E., 207, 208.
Me yer, O. E. , 26 1.
Miller , C. P., 22.
MiaN , R . von , 20, 21, 38, sr. 141.
Mohr, 0 ., 296.
Mor kovin , D ., 23.
Mom.on, J . L. M., 13. 72, 94, 123, 124.
Mot t , N. r ., HM. 127, 218.
Nadai, A., 20, 32, 41, 4,s, 46, 76, M. 81, 93.
94, 111, 122, I ~ , 192, 191, 211, 230,
234, 253, 2505, 256. 269. 308.
Nye, J . r ., 14, 228, 251.
Odq uiat , r , K. 0 ., 30.
Orowan, E ., 14, 189, 192. 201, 202, 2,sL
Oagood . W. R., 32.
Palm, J . H ., 13.
Palmer, E . W ., 322.
Paraeyuk, O. B., 253.
Parke r, E . R., 32.
Peanon . C. E . 185.
Pea f&On, K ., 38.
P hi lipp id i A. H., 67.
Piisp&nen , V. 208.
Polany' . M., 16.
Pope, J . A., 23.
~ . W., 33, 41, U , 48, 49, M , es. 72,
88.93. 136. 139, 142, 161, 1&8.
Prand t l, L., 39, 41, 86, 233, U 5, %:15. 2.56,

"".

Pum phre y, B. L., 276.

Put nam. W . J ., 23.
Q uinn ey . H ., 22, 27, . ,s, 171.

Re ine" :\1., 13.

Re WII, A., 39, 41, 100.
Robert.on, A., 23.
Roderick, J . W., 8'.
Rna, M., 23, 32.

W., 206.
Ro., A. W., 323, 330.
~h.;n ,

Sach8 , 0 ., U , 23, 171, 172, 177, 181, 186,

2'8, 255, 269, 287, 318, 322, 323, 334,
Sado1nky, M. A., 61, 13,s.
Sa int.VenlUlt, B. de , 38, 117, 131.
8&ngdah l, G. 8., Jr.. 287.
Scheu, A., 29.
Schl oicher, F ., 21.
Schmid, E ., 4, 16.
Schmidt, E., 163.
Schmid t , R.. 27, 46.
Schroeder, W., 277.
Scobie. W. A., 23.
Seely, F . B., 23.
Sei tt. ,

s.. .

Sha w, F . S., 92, 96.

She pherd , W . M., 29, 72, 123.
Shevchenko, K. H., 162, 172.
Shoj i, R ., 1 .
SidebothNn, 0 ., 23.
Siebel , E . 16 2. 181. 187, ~ I . 258, 271.
8i.nit.k,., A . K . 124.
Smi th. C. S ., 322 .
Smi t h, K . r., 320, 333.
!:lmi th , B. L ., 1/;'
Sneddo n, I. N., 263 .
8 nitko, N . K ., 23.
Sokolni kofl, I. 8 ., 83. 84, 8&.
Sokolo~ky, W . W ., 17,48. h , 90, 93, 9&,
124, 141, 182, 169. 172, U5, 250, 26&,
258, 299 .303.304,307.
Sopwith, D . G., 23, 1%:1.
Solu th _ lI. R . V. 83, 84, 92, 97. 131, 246 ,
301.
Spir idonova , N. I., 273.
Stanley , R. L .., 22.
S te veneo n, A. C., 253.
S tumey , A. C., 206.
S wain ger , K . H ., 48.
Swin , H . W ., 94, 168, 269.282, 286, 3:8.
Bymondot, P . S ., 141, 250, 203.

Tabor, D. 2,s8, 260.

Taylor, O. I ., 22, 24, as. 27, 4li, es. 111,
307.
Thompeon, F . C.. 178.
TbomMR, E. G., 32.
Tiet z;, T . E ., U .
T~nko, S ., 83, 84, 94, 97, 131, 190,
2,s8.
T odhunt, I ., 38.
Tr&ey , D. P. 181.
Trefth, E., 92.
-rr-,a, H ., 19.
T rin...., W ., 1Il7.
TlIOlikov. A. T.. 1lI,s.
T lIPP"r , S. J ., 115, 119. 1'2, 163, 21,s, 228.
T u.rn tr , L. 8 ., 110. 121.

A UTH O R I N D E X
Uadwwood, L. R., 19.5, 197.

Vooe, E ., 13.

WunNI, A. 0 ., III, 124.

~e~, D . A., 271.

- . L., 118.
W..tergaard , H . M., 17.

Wh ee ler, M. A., 27.

Wh ite , G . N., J r., 118.
WiII1&rruI, H . A., 84.
Wileon, r . H., 329.
Win__, A.. 48, 160.
Wiat re it'h, J . G., 178.
I _ r,

c., 14,

29. 30.

'"

S UBJE CT I N D E X

SUBJECT I NDE X
AnilIotropy. 29, 44, 45, Chap. XII.
Annealing, 6.
Autofrettaged t u be, ax ial eI~lUUlion of,
121-2 ; a:xial 8t . - diHtributlon in, 116,
120 ; under p lane at Ta in, 1l ~ 1 8 ; with
elceed e nds , 118-24; with open ends,

124.
BaWlChinger effect. 8, 16. U, 30, 72, 121.
Bending, of a eheer, 79-81, 287-92; of 1ft,
beam,8 1-4.
- WIder ttlnsion, 292-4.

Cavity, e xpansion in pla te o f c ircu lar, 30713 , exptWSion in surface o f Berni.

cylindrical, 223-6 ;ex pa lUlionof cylmd eical. 12So-7, 252 ; expeneion of BPhe rica l,
103-6.
Channel , flow of plastic material t hrough ,
209-12.
CharacteristiCll. theory of, 346-8 ; in deep drawing, 285 , in e xpeneion of a tube,
113 : in plane s t rai n. 132, 296-7, 336, in
p lane st relllJ, 300-1; in tcreion , 89, 9So-6.
ComprllMibility d uring plBlltic di stcetfon,
26-7.
Compl"8llBion, o f bl ock between rough
platae, 226-36 ; o f block be t ween smooth
piau., 77-9 ; o f cy linde r between rou'ilh
pleeee, 277, o f cy lind er under dlfl.
tributed load , 266-7 ; o f wedge by a tlat
d ie, 221-2, 351.
Coneistent s t ra in .increment for pleetic rigid body, 59.
CoJUltr...mt factor in notched-bee telIt , 260 .
Creep , physical m echanism of, 6.
Cri terion of yielding, definition of, I ~ ,
dependence on cold-work of, 23-32 ,
e xpe rimen tal invl\lltigatiol18 of, 19, 22-3 ,
for anillOtropic metal8, 318, geometrical
fl'Pf"86Cntation of, 17, 296, 30 1 , infl uen Oll
of hyd~ts.tio lltress on , 16.
~taI, lattice llt ruc t un of, 4 , plll'ltio
glide in , 6.
Cyclo ida llllip .line field , 232 .
Cylind rical cavity in infini te medium,
126-7,252.
_ tube. under internal preBllun, 115-26,
under tenllion an n internal preBllu re,
261- 9; unde r telUlion a nd tol"l'l ion , 1 1-/1.
Deepdrawing, 282- 7, 328-32.
Deviatoric, stra in .in crement, 27 ;8 t """" 16.
D*,ontinuity. in stre8ll, 93, 11\7; in strees
gradient. 133 , in .t~ ra te, 5IS, 239 ; in
ve locity , 1.50, 160 ; in ve locity gradient ,
134.
Drawing, deformation in, 171 ; die .Free
u,.., and load in , 167, 17z.--3 , effictenc y
o f, 110 , intluenOfl of b.ck-pull in. 115 ,

of sheet, 163-76 ; of wire, 176-8 ; 1lt&Dd.

ing wav e in, 168.
Earing of deep. drawn cups. 328-32.
E l&IItic limit, _ Critoerion of yield ing.
_ moduli , influen ce o f cc ld -wc rk on, 6, 16.
E 1&etie.plastie boundary, condi t ions along.

55, 132, Chaps_ IV , V. IX.

E nv elope o f Mohr circ lee, 296--6.
Equivalent , st rain , 30 ; atre88, 26.
Extremwu principles, for elaBt io body,
60-3; for plallt ic -elNtio body, 63-6 ; for
plutie-rigid body. 66-8.
Extrusion . deformation in, 185 ; direct .
186 ; effioiency of, 185 ; (roI'D contn.et
ing container , 263-5 ; inverted, 182;
prell8ure of, 186.
Forw&td Blip in rolling. 193.

cua, system, 6, 34, ISO.

Orain boundatiflll, 7 ,
Hardnese teet , eigni.6.0&nCtI of, 2/18-61.
H ole, ~ Cavity .
Hyd~tatic 8t..-. infIueneEI on necking ,
12 , influen ce on yielding, 16, 294--/1.
H yetereeie loo p, 10.
Indents.tion, by cone, 218 ; by flat cylinder
281 : by rectangular die . 2/1'-8. 33~:
by sphere, 281 : b y wedge, 216-20.
I ntemal8t ~, 24. 35, 37. 60 , 328 .
Invariante, 15, 30, 343.
I roning, 178-81 .
180tropy, con ditions for. 7 ,
Lat t i! imperfeetiolUl, 6.
Lode's va ria blee, 18, 36, 44.
Llid en ba.nda. 10. /1 2, 265-t1.
Machining, 206-9.
Maximum plaatic work, principle of, 66.
Mild steel, y ieldpo int in, 10. 23,62, 123--4.
Neck ing in tenaion, of cy lindrical bar,
272--7; o( th in strip. 323-5.
Neutral loading , 33.
_ su rface in bending. 19 , 82, 288-91 ,
Notc hed bar under tension, 245-52.
Orierits.t ion, preferred, 8, 317.
Piercing, 106, 188-8.
Plane plaBtic .train. 77- 8, Chap. VI ,
_ - .trees, 300-1.
P l&IItic potential,5O.
PI&IItio.e lll'lt io boundary, conditiol18 a long,
56. 132, Chapll.IV, V, IX .
Pla8tic. rigid body , 38-9, 58, l:!8,Chap. IX.

Priamat ic beam, bending of, 81-4 , tens ion

and tenion of, 75-6 ; to eeion 0(, 84-94 ;
tel'llion, tel18ion, and bending of, 313-6.

Reduced .t~, 16.

Residual .t~ in ovel'lltrained shell,
102-3, 121.
R iem&nJI rnethod, ll'i3-4.
Rolling. efficie ncy of, 199 ; empirical
formu lae in theory of, 199 : influence of
.triptenllion on, 202 , infl uence of wo rkhardening on, 200- 1 ; pressure dia .
tJ'ibution in, 199-20 J , roll.dietortjon in ,
189-90.
Shear, deformation in, 326--7.
Si~ effeetll, 23, 124.
Slip band..8, 6.
Slip-linflll, definition 0 (, 134 , Hencky '.
theorems on, 138-8 , in ani80tropic
mets.I8, 336; in alli&lIY''')'JllIIletric state ,
278; numerical calculation of, 140-9 ;
varia tion of cu rv a t u"" of, 138--9, va ria
tion of pressure along. 135 ; va ri&t ion o(
velocity along, 136.
Soil meehaniCll, 294-300.
Spherical cav ity in infinite m ed ium , 103-4,
106.
Spherical ehell, under interna l preeeure,
91- I03,1~ .

Sts.tieally determined problema, 87, 100,

111.131, 242-6.
Strain, tmgineering, 9 ; equiva lent, 30 ;
in crement o f, 26 i loga ri thm ic or natural,
9,28,

'"

Strainhardening, M e Work _hardening.

Stre6ll, de v iateric or reduced, 16 ; equiva.
lent, 28.
8trM8-.train eu rvee, com parillOn 0(, 27- 31 ;
signifi cance of, 8- 13.
- ,..,lat iolUl, expeeimentel, 44-5, 1 1- 2 ;
geometrical nlprellentation of, 41. 301,
inve n ion 0 ( , 68 ; theoretical, 38-40.
Suffix notation and 8ununa t ion convention.
342.
Thermal p henomena, lol.
To rs ion, me mbraneroo( &I18ology for, 86--7.
93; of aniaotropic tube, 326-8 ; of
annealed bar, 93 ; of no n-uniform bar,
94-6 ; of uniform bar, 85-92 , warping
o f eect ion in , 88--9.
Tube drawing and ainking, 269-12.
Un iq uen _
theorelTlll, for pl&lltic-EIlaati c
body, 53-8, 242-5 ; (or pl&lltic.rigid
body , 68-60.
Un it d iagram, 213.
Variational princip lee, .ee- E.tremum
p ri neiplee.
Vi800U8 8uid, contrallt to plaBtic eolid , 38.
Work-hardening, dependence on p lBlltio
8train, 28-32 , p hy.ical mechanism 0(. 5.
Yielding, Me Criwrion of.
Yield .point, in annealed mild.teel, 10 , 23,
52, 123-4.