MANAGEMENT
THESIS
Masters of Science
By
PRASHANT AMATYA
Stephenville, Texas
August, 2009
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Prashant Amatya
THESIS APPROVED:
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ACKNOWLEGEMENTS
It is difficult to overstate my gratitude to Dr. Mark Yu, who shared with me a lot
of his expertise and research insights. I am grateful for his guidance, encouragement, and
especially acknowledge the time and effort he has put into this project and the manuscript
preparation. Special thanks are due to other members of my advisory committee, Dr.
Frank Ewell and Dr. Jeffery K. Tomberlin, for their constructive criticism and direction.
I would also like to take this opportunity to thank to Dr. Tomberlin for sharing his
research data on the black soldier fly and allowing the completion of this study.
I am thankful for the support from the Department especially, Dr. Roger Wittie,
Ms. Linda Sanders and Ms. Jessica Richmond. Thanks are also due to Dr. Randy Rosier
for his valuable inputs in manuscript preparation and Dr. Sankar Sundarrajan for
continuous encouragement during my graduate studies.
I am indebted to many friends and family, Dr. Sharon Batenhop, Rosella and Dr.
Ervin, and Lanish and Jerry, who has helped in many ways to make my stay at
Stephenville wonderful.
I am also thankful to my brother Dr. Pradyumna, sister Pratishtha, father-in-law
Mrigrendra B Pradhanang and mother-in-law Sushma Pradhanang for their support.
I cannot finish without saying how grateful I am to my loving wife Shruti for her
support and for wonderful gift, "our daughter Sejal." Finally and most importantly, I wish
to thank my parents, Dr. Ananada Prasad Shrestha and Sagar Prabha Shrestha, for their
unconditional love, support and encouragement to bring out my best in all matters of life.
in
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF GRAPHICS
vii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Dairy Waste and Nutrient Excretion
1.3 Objectives
CHAPTER II
10
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Dairy Production in Erath County, Texas
10
11
15
16
20
21
24
25
iv
25
25
CHAPTER III
30
30
30
32
33
37
37
38
39
39
CHAPTER IV
42
42
44
44
4.2.2 Cost-saving
46
47
51
57
CHAPTER V
60
60
63
REFRENCES
65
APPENDIX
72
Abbreviations
73
vi
LIST OF GRAPHICS
TABLES
I.
II.
III.
IV.
18
Percent of Amino Acid Content in Black Soldier Fly Larvae Fed Beef and
Swine Manure
22
22
Average Weight of Black Soldier Fly Larvae at the Start and End of the
Trial
24
V.
34
VI.
35
43
IX.
45
X.
47
XI.
48
XII.
36
50
XIII. Correlation Coefficients Between the Variables, and Its Probabilities > |r|....
52
56
vii
FIGURES
1.
2.
3.
4.
32
5.
46
6.
54
7.
57
58
8.
vui
Amatya, Prashant, Economics of Black Soldier Fly in Dairy waste Management, Master
of Science (Agricultural Economics), March, 2009, 70 pp., 14 tables, 7 figures, 51
references, 37 titles.
The black soldier fly (BSF) has been recognized as an effective means to deal
with access manure accumulation at Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs).
Using BSF larvae to digest dairy manure can generate $100 to $279 income per cow
every year through (1) sales of harvested prepupae, which can be used as feed ingredient
($90 - $230) and (2) cost-savings in reduced manure bulk handling ($10 -$49). Thus, a
facility with low operating cost to maintain warm temperature throughout the year and a
market for harvested larvae could prove BSF an economically viable option for dairy
CAFOs to manage their wastes. Estimated models on larval yield as well as manure bulk
reduction suggest that outcomes can be improved by 17.45% in larval yield and 146.75%
in manure bulk reduction with a simple change in manure-feeding rate.
IX
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Dairy producers in the United States are under continuous pressure to reduce
production costs in order to become more economically competitive. The number of
concentrated animal feeding operations1 (CAFOs) has increased over the recent years. A
CAFO can be defined as a animal lot or facility, together with any associated treatment
works, where the following two conditions are met. First, animals have been, are, or will
be stabled or confined and fed or maintained for a total of 45 days or more in any 12month period. Second, crops, vegetation, forage growth, or post-harvest residues are not
sustained over any portion of the operation lot or facility. This definition is used as part
of waste management and environmental protection laws to deal with the concentrated
pollution from large quantities of animal waste (Speir et al., 2003). Growing popularity of
CAFOs in agriculture is due to financial opportunities in operating larger businesses.
However, these CAFO operations represent a greater risk for water pollution (Van Horn
et al., 2003; Burkholder et al, 2007).
Erath County is the largest dairy producing county in Texas. In 2002 it was
estimated that the county had nearly 78,800 milking cows (USDA-ARS, 2003) with dairy
herds above 500 cows constituting 39% of the total dairies in the area. Despite the fact
1
Also known as confined animal feeding operations, intensive livestock operations (ILOs) or factory
farming.
that the total number of dairy producers in Erath County has declined steadily in recent
years, both total milk production and number of dairy cows have exhibited a growing
trend (USDA-ARS, 2004; Jafri and Buland, 2006). These dairies are estimated to be a
$228,000,000 industry and estimated to contribute 36% of all goods produced in the
County (Jarfri and Buland, 2006).
CAFOs pose greater risks to water quality because they can increase both volume
of waste and concentration of contaminants, such as antibiotics and other veterinary
drugs. These waste and contaminants pose risks to both environment and public health.
There were also concerns regarding water contamination due to pharmaceuticals and
other compounds that were present in the dairy cattle feeds and resulting wastes
(Burkholder et al., 2007).
3
(Gill 1 and Meelul, 1982). However, it is often not feasible to transport the huge
quantities of manure to crop production areas and hence needs to be stored and spread
near by crop lands (Sheppard and Newton, 2000). This economic constraint resulted in
excessive accumulation of water-soluble phosphorus in the soil that runs off to streams or
leaches to ground water, thereby polluting the ecosystem (Dou et al., 2000; Burkholder et
al., 2007).
Among several dairy waste-handling systems, the liquid tank (slurry) and the
lagoon system were among the most popular especially with larger dairies with more than
100 cows (Van Horn et al., 2003). Both of these systems use hydraulic equipment, such
as pumps, pipelines, irrigation equipments, and various other appropriate equipments to
manage manure in liquid form (slurry or dilute), thereby reducing labor costs (Van Horn
et al., 2003). Generally, nutrient value of the manure was taken into account to estimate
the net cost of handling the manure. However, the average total cost of dairy-waste
handling (without accounting for nutrient value of the dairy manure) was estimated on a
per cow per year basis to range from $47 for 1,000 cows to $87 for 100 cows in lagoon
system while $121 for 1,000 cows to $219 for 100 cows in liquid talk system (Bennett et
al., 2007).
days for larval development into pupa, if reared in standard larval diet (Tomberlin et al.,
2002). It takes an additional 20 days for the adult to emerge from the pupa; and it will
live for 9 to 15 days (Tomberlin et al., 2002). However, the development rate of larvae is
dependent on temperature and feed provided (Tomberlin et al., 2008). Normally, they
utilized a wide variety of decomposing plant and even animal carcasses as a medium of
development (Sheppard et al., 2002).
The black soldier fly is of interest to agriculture for many different reasons. The
larvae significantly reduce manure accumulation and associated nutrient content
(Sheppard, 1983; Sheppard et al., 1994; and Erickson et al., 2004). Black soldier fly
larvae can also be used as a substitute for soybean or fish meal to formulate diets of
cockerels (Gallus domesticus) (Hale, 1973), swine (Sus domesticus) (Newton et al.,
1977) and fish (catfish Ictalurus punctatus and tilapia Oreochromis aureus) (Bondari and
Sheppard, 1987). The larvae have also been reported to reduce the development of
common house fly (Musca domesticd) larvae, the smell of the decomposing manure
(Sheppard, 1983; Sheppard and Newton, 2000; Newton et al., 2005) and elimination (or
reduction) of several harmful pathogens such as E. coli (Liu et al., 2008), salmonella and
helminth eggs (Eawag, www.Eawag.ch).
Standard Larval Diet is formulated from constituents like Alfalfa meal, Wheat Barn, Corn Meal and
Brewers' dried grain etc (Table V).
(1)
(2)
(3)
f4)
Figure 3. Black Soldier Fly in Different Stages. (1) Black Soldier Fly Adult, (2)
Black Soldier Fly Larva, (3) Black Soldier Fly Larvae Digesting Manure,
and (4) Air Dried Black Soldier Fly Pupae5
Sheppard and Newton (2000) reported that using black soldier fly larvae to reduce
animal wastes could be an inexpensive method to transform manure to a 42% protein and
35% fat feedstuff at an 8% dry matter conversion rate with minor modifications on
currently designed CAFOs. The dry matter conversion rate was defined as number of
grams of prepupae that could be produced from every 100 g of manure both accounted in
dry matter basis. The research was carried out on swine manure.
Several researchers have previously tested the soldier fly larvae's suitability and
confirmed it as a substitute to conventional sources of protein and fat (Hale, 1973;
Bondari and Sheppard, 1987; Sheppard and Newton, 2000). Other benefits include a 50%
reduction in manure residue with less available nitrogen and phosphorus (24% in total
nitrogen concentration or 62% of total nitrogen mass and significant amount reduction in
P). It has also been reported that it suppressed house fly Musca domestica populations,
which are an annoying pest in production facilities. House fly females did not lay eggs on
the manure that had been colonized by black soldier fly (Sheppard and Newton, 2000).
Furthermore, treating manure with black soldier fly larvae substantially reduced its odor,
which could be of substantial considerations for public and environment near dairy
production sites. The research suggested that the economic value of the larvae produced
could be a strong incentive for the dairies to adopt the black soldier fly digested manure
handling system. Finally, the study also suggested that the value would be much higher if
it could be marketed as specialty feeds, or further processed for biodiesel, chitin, essential
fatty acids and/or other products.
1.3 Objectives
The general objective of the study was to assess economic implication of
incorporating black soldier fly larvae in dairy waste-managements. More specifically, it
includes the following specific objectives:
1. To determine the dry matter conversion rate, reduction in manure bulk and
duration required for black soldier fly larvae to digest cow manure.
2. To estimate cost and benefit of using black soldier fly in digesting the dairy
manure in CAFOs.
3. To establish a production function of black soldier fly larvae with respect to
quantity of manure fed, number of larvae harvested, average development time
and other variables.
4. To estimate a manure reduction function with respect to rate of manure feeding,
the larval growth, number of larvae harvested, average development time and
other variables.
5. To determine the optimal rate of manure feeding to maximize larval yield as well
as manure bulk reduction.
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
Literature was reviewed regarding dairy production in Erath County, TX; dairy
waste and nutrient excretion; dairy waste management systems; black soldier fly
research; benefit-cost analysis; and benefit-cost analysis in black soldier fly research.
Also reviewed were choices of production functions, and their applicability and
limitations.
10
11
in the North Bosque River watershed and downstream areas (Stephenville, Empire
Tribune, March 2, 2004).
CAFOs are considered a primary contributor to water pollution nationwide (Van
Horn et al., 2003; Burkholder et al., 2007). The number of CAFOs continues to increase
annually which is attributable to demand for associated products. Burkholder et al. (2007)
pointed out that CAFOs present greater risks to water quality due to increased volume of
waste along with contaminants such as antibiotics and other veterinary drugs. These
waste and contaminants were potential risks to our environment including public health.
He further raised the public concern towards the water contamination due to
pharmaceuticals and other compounds that are present in livestock feed and hence in their
wastes.
12
million tons6 of animal wastes annually in Erath County. If well-managed, these wastes
could serve as fertilizer for a variety of crops and could be a substantial substitute for
commercial fertilizers (Mader et al., 2002). However, it is not economically feasible to
transport this manure to crop production areas because of its bulkiness and distance to be
transported. Hence it is stored and eventually spread on nearby crop lands (Sheppard and
Newton, 2000). This restriction in application sites resulted in excessive accumulation of
water-soluble phosphorus in the soil that ultimately ran off into streams or leached to
groundwater polluting the ecosystem (Dou et al., 2000; Burkholder et al., 2007).
Van Horn et al. (1994) determined an average cow exerted 18 kg per yr of
phosphorus. However, the quantity of phosphorus in the manure excretion is variable and
depends on the dietary intake (Morse et al., 1994). Phosphorus is less volatile and
remains in the manure and the soil, which ultimately runsoff or leaches into streams
resulting in eutrophication impacts to stream flora and fauna (Van Horn et al., 2003;
Massey et al., 2007). The primary reason for high phosphorus in dairy waste is due to
feeds used (Klausner et al., 1998; Erickson et al., 2000). Earlier studies proposed using
low phosphorus excretion dairy diets. However, the practice was not adopted due to
producers being reluctant to use minimum level of phosphorus in the feed out of fear
milk production or reproduction efficiency would be compromised (CAST, 2002).
Inadequate documentation of phosphorus digestibility had been a major concern and
limitation.
13
The fecal excretion of a dairy cow mainly depends on the quantity of dry matter
intake. The quantity of dry matter intake is governed by the body weight as well as milk
productivity. The estimate for total waste in a day per 454 kg body weight of a cow
ranged from 36.3 to 39.0 kg. Similarly, total solid ranged from 4.5 to 5.4 kg, nitrogen
from 0.19 to 0.20 kg and phosphorus from 0.02 to 0.032 kg, respectively (Morse et al.
1994). Agricultural Engineering Year book (1993) estimated an average Holstein dairy
cow excreted a total 39 kg manure and 27.27 kg of feces per day per 454 kg of body
weight (ASAE, 1993). However, Morse et al. (1994) and Wilkerson et al. (1997) revealed
that these values are greater. Morse et al. (1994) studied production and characteristics of
manure from lactating dairy cows in Florida and estimated that an average Holstein cows
excreted 44.6 kg of raw waste and 6.08 kg of total solids in feces, and 0.16 kg of fixed
solids in feces daily per 454 kg of body weight. Also, total solid feces represented 36.4%
of the daily diet dry matter intake and feces to urine ratio (w/w) ranged from 1.4:1 to
1.9:1. They further noted that dry matter intake for dairy cows have increased from 30 to
50% during past 20 years.
Wilkerson et al. (1997) tried to predict excretion of manure and nitrogen by
Holstein cows by estimating it based not only on body weight but also on their daily
average milk production. The study also included concentration of crude protein and
neutral detergent fiber in the diet, days in lactation, and days of pregnancy to develop
regression equation. They reported cows producing 29 kg per day of milk excreted 40.45
kg of total manure including 27.27 kg of feces, while cows producing 14 kg per day milk
excreted 25.86 kg of total manure including 18.73 kg of feces per 454 kg body weight of
14
a cow. The study found that excretion was largely determined by average milk production
of cows. The increased excretion could be attributed to increase feed intake for increased
milk productivity. These researchers determined that estimation of excretion based on
body weight and daily average milk production had practical implications. The
measurements for excretion were given for growing and replacement cattle as well as
ASAE7 standard beef cattle. Furthermore, the study regressed aforementioned factors to
predict the excretion of manure and nitrogen for a dairy cattle herd.
In a similar effort, researchers (Roseler et al., 1993; Ciszuk and Gebregziabher,
1994) reported a positive correlation between amount of urinary urea excreted by a cow
to concentration of urea in blood as well as the concentration of urea in the milk. Jonker
et al. (1998) attempted to develop and evaluate a mathematical model predicting
excretion, intake, and utilization of efficiency of nitrogen in lactating dairy cows based
on milk urea nitrogen. Other variables under consideration were milk production, milk
protein, and dietary crude protein. The developed model predicted nitrogen excretion and
efficiency with no significant mean or linear bias for most predictions. Model prediction
error was approximately 15% of mean predictions. The majority of unexplained error in
the model was due to variation among cows, including cattle breed. Jonker et al. (1998)
suggested caution in interpreting such model predictions. They concluded that milk urea
nitrogen was a simple and noninvasive measurement that could be used to monitor
nitrogen excretion from lactating dairy cows. The model could also be useful for
15
16
on per cow per year basis to be from $47 for 1,000 cows to $87 for 100 cows in lagoon
system. It was $121 for 1,000 cows up to $219 for 100 cows using liquid tank systems.
This study also suggested that liquid tank systems preserve more nutrients in manure than
lagoon systems. Lagoon systems for more than 300 milking cows were recommended to
use an on dairy traveling gun irrigator rather than hiring custom irrigation system at $60
per hour (Bennett et al., 2007). The study was conducted in Missouri with statewide
liquid tank and lagoon system. It was also concluded that lagoon or liquid tank systems
were the two most likely alternatives for upgrading manure handling systems for any
dairy with more than 100 cows.
17
larvae and harvesting the prepupae. This required no movable parts or external energy for
operation (Olivier, www.esrla.com).
Sheppard and Newton (2000) studied the by-products of a manure management
system using the black soldier fly. Their research found that using black soldier fly could
be one of the most inexpensive ways to transform manure into a 42% protein and 35% fat
feedstuff. This system resulted in an 8% dry matter conversion rate that required only
minor modifications of the waste management system currently designed for CAFOs.
The percentage dry matter conversion rate has been defined as number of grams of
prepupae that could be harvested from every 100 g of manure, both taken in dry matter
basis. The experiment was carried out using poultry and swine manure digestion. Other
benefits reported were 50% reduction in manure residue with less available nitrogen and
phosphorus (62% in total nitrogen mass and 53% in phosphorus reduction) in the residue
(Table I). House flies population control is another benefit associated with the black
soldier fly. House flies do not lay eggs on manure that has been colonized by black
soldier fly larvae. Furthermore, treating manure with black soldier fly larvae significantly
reduced the odors, which could be of substantial benefits for health and public and other
environmental considerations. These larvae were also reported to change the microflora
of manure thereby potentially reducing harmful and undesirable species like bacteria
(Erickson et al., 2004).
18
Table I. Concentration of Selected Elements and Other Factors in the Dry Matter of
Black Soldier Fly Digested and Fresh Swine Manure.
Elements
Pig manure
ppm
SEM
ppm
SEM
Change
%
Nitrogen
923.70
44.40**
414.52
6.17
-55.1
Phosphorus
676.20
37.90**
378.00
13.10
-44.1
Potash
358.70
19.80**
169.34
7.07
-52.8
Calcium
969.30
62.50**
425.00
19.40
-56.2
Magnesium
299.30
16.90**
175.96
7.08
-41.2
80.31
4.33**
44.44
1.38
-44.7
6.63
0.3 l ns
6.80
0.54
+2.6
Manganese
12.80
0.75**
6.02
0.23
-53.0
Zinc
23.53
1.09**
12.91
0.39
-45.1
Copper
14.85
1.45**
8.05
0.32
-45.8
Boron
0.32
0.02**
0.16
0.00
-50.0
497.00**
4232.60
36.8
-62.4
5.59**
48.15
2.04
51.8
Sulfur
Iron
Carbon
Sodium
11248.0
0
99.93
Note: ** significant at P<0.001, One way ANOVA, Minitab 1997; ns= not significant
Source: Newton et al., 2005. Using the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens, as a value-added tool for the
management of swine manure.
Black soldier fly larvae have been used as a substitute for soybean or fish meal to
formulate diets of cockerels (Hale, 1973), swine (Newton et al., 1977) and fish (catfish
Ictalurus punctatus and tilapia Oreochromis aureus) (Bondari and Sheppard, 1987).
Currently, live black soldier fly larvae are sold as Phoenix worms (Pheonix worms,
Tifton, GA, USA) to feed amphibians, reptiles, and tropical fish (Tomberlin et al., 2008).
Newton et al. (2005) argued the economic value of the larvae produced could be a strong
19
incentive for dairies to adopt the black soldier fly digested manure handling system. This
value would be much higher if marked as specialty feeds, or further processed for
biodiesel, chitin, essential fatty acids and/or other products. In furthering their research
Newton et al. (2005) proposed a simple facility that could be successfully incorporated on
hog farms. The full scale black soldier fly manure digestion system used a conveyer belt
to separate hog urine from feces. It was then sprayed to black soldier fly larvae-rearing
chamber by means of a compressed air-driven piston pump. The manure was digested by
the larvae and at the pre-pupal stage they climbed up the 40 sloped walls of the rearing
chamber to a self collection site. Despite the usefulness of these flies, lack of adaptation
has been recognized due to difficulties in adapting insect culture to modern animal
production facilities, difficulties in producing eggs or larvae consistently on a year-round
basis, and effective, low-cost methods for cold weather operations (Newton et al., 2005).
While studying the effects of temperature on development of black soldier fly,
Tomberlin et al. (2008) noticed that temperature had a significant effect on growth rate of
black soldier fly larvae as well as the survival and longevity in adults. Larvae were reared
under three temperatures 27, 30 and 36C on grain-based diet. Parameters included
were duration required for larval as well as pupal development, pre-pupal and adult
weights, and adult longevity. The larvae showed highest survival rate to adulthood at 27
and 30C (74% to 97% respectively), while the upper limit for the development of these
larvae was identified to lie between 30 and 36C. Increasing temperature was associated
with smaller adults with shorter life spans at adulthood. Further, larvae required 1 -9 days
longer to complete larval and pupal development at 27C than 30C. Though, larvae
20
showed 73.4% probability of becoming pupae at 36C, its survival rate to adulthood was
only 0.1%. The reduced survival to adulthood at high temperature was attributed to larvae
being unable to attain necessary critical weight.
21
Physical constraints prevent the use of LEPA; or SDI installation cost are lower than
$800 per ac.
22
Table II. Percent of Amino Acid Content in Black Soldier Fly Larvae Fed Beef and
Swine Manure.
Essential Amino Acids
Beef
Swine
Beef
Methionine
0.9
0.83
Tyrosine
2.5
2.38
Lysine
3.4
2.21
Aspartic Acid
4.6
3.04
Leucine
3.5
2.61
Serine
0.1
1.47
Isoleucine
2.0
1.51
Glutamic Acid
3.8
3.99
Histidine
1.9
0.96
Glycine
2.9
2.07
Phenylalanine
2.2
1.49
Alanine
3.7
2.55
Valine
3.4
2.23
Proline
3.3
2.12
1-Arginine
2.2
1.77
Cystine
0.1
0.31
Threonine
0.6
1.41
Ammonia
1.3
..
Tryptophan
0.2
0.59
Swine
Source: Newton et al., 2005. Using the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens, as a value-added tool for the
management of swine manure.
Table III. Mineral Content and Proximate Analysis of Dried Black Soldier Fly
Prepupae Raised on Poultry and Swine Manure (ppm).
Minerals
Poultry
Swine
Proximate
Analysis
Poultry
Swine
1.511
0.881
Crude protein
42.1 1
43.2'
0.69'
1.161
Ether extract
34.8
28.0
Ca
5.001
5.361
Crude fiber
23
Mg
0.391
0.441
Mn
246
348
Fe
1370
776
Ash
14.6
16.6
Zn
108
Sr
53
Na
1325
1260
Cu
26
Al
97
Ba
33
__
271
~
St-Hilaire et al. (2007) studied fish offal recycling by the black soldier fly and
concluded that the protein and fat content of black soldier fly could be altered through
their diet. The study found that larvae fed on fish offal diet had 8% more lipid than those
fed solely on cow manure. Larvae put on a fish offal diet had lipids with greater
concentrate of omega-3-fatty-acid after 24 hour (hr) feeding. This additional nutrition
made them more suitable as a substitute for fish meal in various animal diets. It was also
observed that larvae grew more robustly on fish offal mixed with cow manure than cow
manure alone (Table IV).
24
Table IV. Average Weight of Black Soldier Fly Larvae at the Start and End of the
Trial.
Group
100% cow manure
10% fish offal/ 90% cow manure
25% fish offal/ 75% cow manure
50% fish offal/ 50% cow manure
Average weight
of larvae at the
start of the trial
(g)
0.09
Average weight
of larvae at the
end of the study
(g)
0.10
(0.003)
(0.008)
0.10
0.14
(0.005)
(0.003)
0.09
0.16
(0.008)
(0.004)
0.10
0.15
Increase
in
Weight
(g)_
0.01
0.04
0.07
0.05
(0.010)
(0.006)
Note: The numbers in parentheses represent the standard error of the samples.
Source: Fish offal recycling by the black soldier fly produces a foodstuff high in omega-3 fatty acids (StHilaire et al., 2007).
2.6.1 Dry-matter Conversion Rate of Black Soldier Fly: The dry matter conversion
rate (DMCR) has been defined as the proportion of soldier fly larvae that could be
produced while digesting one unit of manure (or organic waste) on dry matter basis. The
formula is derived from the definition of feed conversion ratio. Hence, DMCR indicates
the efficiency of these insects in converting manure to larval biomass of higher economic
values. There are two important economic aspects in the conversion process: dry matter
conversion rate and duration required for conversion. Both of these factors were affected
by manure type used for feeding larvae, temperature during digestion, and moisture
content of the manure (Newton et al., 2005). The dry matter conversion rate for poultry
manure was estimated to be 8% and swine manure conversion ranged from 12 to 16%
(Newton et al, 2005).
25
2.6.2 Reduction in Manure Bulk: Manure bulk reduction rate (MBR) in this study has
been defined as the proportion of manure left over after digestion to the raw volume of
the manure (weight) due to larval digestion. The reduction in manure bulk saves money
through reduction in handling cost. Larval digestion reduces not only the volume of
manure but also its nutrient contents. The reduction in manure bulk as well as the nutrient
contents could be subjected to economic evaluation of incorporating soldier flies in dairy
manure management systems, where reduction of nutrients exports and mining of
phosphorus are prime focus. Thus, estimation of both of these factors could prove
instrumental in evaluating the benefit of incorporating the black soldier fly into CAFOs
manure management system.
2.6.3 Economic Value of Harvest Pupae: Since the market for the prepupae is yet to be
developed, the valuation of the prepupae has to be done indirectly. The most appropriate
method would be using the market price for its substitutes. The larvae have been widely
tested and proposed for feed ingredients for several livestock, poultry and fisheries.
Hence, taking market price for fish meal or soybean meal would be a good alternative
(Newton et al., 2005). Current fish and soy meal prices can be obtained from USDA's
Agricultural marketing service website.
26
on the basis of observation, experience, and ease of calculation (Heady and Dillon, 1961;
Melsted and Peck, 1977; Colwell, 1978). The relationship was based on nature of
diminishing rate return of fertilizer and many other inputs equations such as quadratic,
Cob-Douglas and other polynomial functions. The polynomial models were popular
because they were readily linearized facilitating computations (Heady and Dillon, 1961;
Colwell, 1978). The Mitscherlich function was an exponential model that was based on
the law of diminishing return and many times gave better prediction of the relationship;
however, such function was difficult to fit to least squares and instead required iterative
procedures (Barreto and Westerman, 1987).
The economic optimality of input use not only depends on physical relations as
defined by the functions but also on the price structures of inputs and output. The
optimum input rate for maximum economic yield can be estimated using profit
maximization (i.e., solving profit function by taking its first derivative and equating with
the zero) (Heady and Dillon, 1961; Colwell, 1978). However, while developing a
computer program called "YIELDFIT" to determine economic fertilization rates Barreto
and Westerman (1987) argued that the statement held true for a situation of unlimited
resource availability. For limited capital, the quantity of fertilizer that maximizes the rate
of investment required determination of profit maximization. The optimum fertilization
rate can be obtained from crop value function by the total cost function, differentiated
with respect to fertilizer and solved for rate of fertilization. The program used functional
equations like Mitscherlich, quadratic and square root to predict the yield and estimated
economic fertilization rate using least square techniques.
27
28
Extension Farm, New Jersey from 1992 to 1995 using a typical cropping sequence where
corn following soybean. Soil types in the experiment were sandy loam and silt loam
respectively. The selection of appropriate functional form was crucial in fertilizer
response studies. It was suggested that the procedure suggested by Bullock and Bullock
(1994) was appropriate to calculate the economic optimum rate of nitrogen. Statistical
results showed that transcendental model was a better predictor of economic optimum
nitrogen fertilizer rates than the quadratic, square root, and Cobb-Douglas production
functions.
Clark et al. (1991) attempted to find economic optimum fertilization rates for subirrigated meadow hay production. They included values of hay quality when investigating
the interactive effect of phosphorus and sulfur nutrients along with nitrogen fertilizer.
The study found all three fertilizers to influence hay yield production but could not find
significant interaction effect among the nutrients. Thus, they calculated the forage
response to economic optimal rate for each nutrient independently. The study was carried
out on the data obtained from the research plots for 4 years at University of Nebraska's
Gudmundsen Sandhills Laboratory. They estimated that the optimum dose of nitrogen as
70 lbs per acre for given average price of hay at $50 per ton and nitrogen at $0.30 per lbs.
However, taking CP into account the optimum dose recommended at 77 lbs per acre
provided hay price or values $65 per ton. Similarly, with the prices of $0.25 per lbs P2O5
plus application cost, 40 lbs of P2O5 was profitable at hay value exceeding $51 per ton. If
S was to be applied alone at prices ($ 0.17 per lbs plus application cost), hay values
exceeding $34 per ton would bring more return than the cost.
29
many text books . Literature shows that the empirical model like linear, multi-linear and
polynomial functions (including quadratic, square root, linear von Liebig, MitscherlichBaule, nonlinear von Loiebig, Cob-Douglas, and transcendental) are commonly used to
construct input-output relationships in agriculture. Since there was no fundamental
theoretical model to represent the effect of inputs on crop yield, the selection of a
particular mathematical model is generally made on the basis of observation, experience,
and ease of calculation (Barreto and Westerman, 1987). Some factors were more
important for yield than others. Thus, a model should be simple and use minimum,
readily available information that has a potential to predict with a certain given precision
(Baier, 1977). Attempts have been made to identify and incorporate factors that are likely
to have statistical significance.
Heady and Dillion (1961) studies on the characteristics of the production functions constructed for
agricultural crop grown in USA for detail.
CHAPTER III
This chapter is divided into five sections: (1) conceptual framework, (2) data
considerations, (3) dry matter conversion rate (DMCR) and manure bulk reduction rate
(MBR) estimation, (4) benefit-cost analysis, and (5) model estimation.
TT = TB-TC
(1)
^ = ^{TB-TC)
ax ax
(2)
(TB-TC) = 0
dx
(3)
30
31
(TB) = (TC)
dx
or
MB=MC
(4)
dx
where, n represents the profit, TB is total benefit, TC is total cost, MC is marginal cost,
and MB is marginal benefit. It can be expressed in Figure 4, in which AC represents
average cost and all other variables are same as mentioned in above equations. Si is the
optimal scale of operation to maximize the profit. At this level of production marginal
cost equals marginal benefit (as shown in lower graph), which is also maximum possible
difference between the TB and TC (shown in upper graph). The S2 is the scale of
operation, where average cost attains its minimal level9, which many times mistaken with
the profit maximizing levels of production. OA is a line of tangency to TC, which meets
TC curve at its minimum.
The scale of operation, where minimum average cost would be attained, should not be mistaken with
profit maximizing levels (Sassone and Schaffer, 1978).
32
TC,
TB
'/
S\
S?
<s
/
y
/
Scale of Operation
S,
S2
Scale of Operation
XK | XL
XN)
(5)
where, Y represents the output; X] .... XN are the quantities of the inputs used in the
production in which X], X 2,
represent the fixed factors.
XN
33
The goal of any commercial producer would be to maximize profit through the
optimal production. Thus, economical optimal level of input is obtained by maximizing
the profit function. However, in case of abundant resource that cost no money,
maximizing the production would be the economic goal following the same procedure
that is adopted to attain the maximum profit.
In order to maximize production function, the first order derivative of Equation
(5) would be taken with respect to input and equated with zero,
MPP =
dY
=0
(6)
dx
dY
where, MPP = represents the marginal physical productivity of the input. Solving
dX
Equation (6) for single variable factor X would give the optimal rate of the input use that
maximizes the production and the revenue.
3.2 Data Considerations
Examination of the suitability of black soldier fly in dairy waste-management was
carried out at Texas A&M AgriLife Research and Extension Center, Stephenville, Texas
in 2006. Black soldier fly larvae were first reared for 14 days on standard larval diet (also
called Gainesville diet), which is a mixture of several grains that poses a definite
proportion of fiber, nutrients and minerals. Detail constituents are presented in Table V.
34
1
2
3
4
Constituents
Alfalfa Meal
Wheat Barn
Corn Meal
Brewers' Dried Grain
1
2
3
4
5
Compositions
Protein
Fat
Fiber
Ash
Calcium
Gainesville Diet (/
30.0
50.0
20.0
15.3
3.8
12.6
6.3
4.9
Source: A comparison of selected life history traits of the black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) when
reared on three diets (Tomberlin et al., 2002).
One thousand larvae were then released into a container for manure digestion and
further growth. The experiment was carried out from mid-June to mid-October.
Observations were taken from 18 different containers. Each container represented a
replicate, which was defined as egg clutches from individual female flies maintained in a
colony at the TAES. The colony was maintained using methods described by Sheppard
et al. (2002). These containers were divided into three cohorts (generations): containers
1-6 as a 1st cohort, containers 7-12 as 2 nd cohort, and containers 13-18 as 3 rd cohort.
th
th
Cohorts 1 and 3 had started on June 20 and July 24 , respectively. However, containers
in 2n cohort had three starting dates, July 10th for containers 7 and 8, July 27th for
containers 9 and 10, and July 22nd for containers 11 and 12.
During the experiment, quantities of manure fed to larvae, duration of digestion,
total number and weight of the harvested prepupae (or larval yield), and residue left after
35
digestions were obtained from the experiment. The summary of data observed for the
three cohorts are presented in Table VI.
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
Standard
Error
5 n
6 Q?
?4J6
19.60
28.50
23.15
1.37
1500.00
1800.00
1625.00
60.21
435.10
734.00
636.12
42.58
826.00
871.00
843.00
9.27
29.01
67.04
48.64
6.53
1440.00
2700.00
2256.00
226.57
390.80
1206.60
899.54
163.09
g2
3 2Q
36
m o Q
42.35
69.58
58.07
4.94
2490.00
3060.00
2730.00
108.17
882.30
1432.30
1201.57
83.16
Statistical parameters for each variable were estimated by pooling data obtained
from these 18 containers. Unless mentioned specifically, all the data for the study used
these pooled parameters. A summary of these variables in all containers are presented in
Table VII.
Total
Mm
Max
Mean
Standard
Error
920.59
37.19
68.07
51.14
1.63
14,511.00
511.00
927.00
806.17
29.06
19.60
69.58
43.69
4.22
Average Development
Time (d)
Manure Feeding (MFdm) (g)
40,620.00
1,440.00
3,060.00
2,256.67
139.06
15,523.80
390.80
1,432.30
913.16
80.31
73.54
73.54
73.54
0.00
Moisture Content of
Digested Manure (%)
44.90
55.60
47.98
0.01
(MRdm) (g)
37
Data and information were also looked for daily manure excretion of a cow,
mineral content in their dung, dry matter content of a black soldier fly larvae and their
nutrient constituent, and prices of fish and soy meals. Other sources of information used
were Agricultural Marketing Service website (USDA, June 2008); Year Book (American
Society for Agricultural Engineers, 1993); and various other research papers and
literature.
10
Z^MBR (%) = ^
J^~^
(7)
* 100
(8)
LMFdm
where, X^Fis the collective weight of the harvested prepupae for each container, DMC
represents the dry matter content of the larvae, YMF dm is the total quantity of the manure
fed to the larvae (on DM basis) in each container, and YMRdm is the manure residue left
after larval digestion (on DM basis) in each container. The mean values and the standard
errors (SE) for both these parameter are estimated following statistical procedures.
3.4 Benefit-Cost Analysis
Incorporating black soldier fly larvae into dairy waste-management system could
bring two tangible benefits: benefits from the sale of harvested larvae and cost-saving in
38
manure handling due to reduction in the volume of manure as a result of larval digestion.
The total costs, which comprises fixed and variable costs, include the development of
facility to incorporate the larvae into system results in fixed costs, while labor
requirement, maintenance of the facility and equipments, and others would constitute
variable costs.
3.4.1 Benefit Estimation: The benefit estimation is divided into two components: benefit
from the sales of harvested larvae (i.e., prepupae) and cost-saving in reduced manure bulk
handling. The procedure started with the estimation of dairy cattle excretion on both per
day and per annum basis (60.3 kg manure per cow per day). Information was cited from
the literature and Agricultural Engineering Year Book (1993).
Based on per annum excretion of a cow and estimated DMCR of the larvae,
volume of prepupae that could be produced in a year was calculated. Since the harvested
pupae can substitute the fish or soy meals to formulate poultry, swine or fish feeds, the
market value of fish and soy meals were taken into account to estimate the value of the
prepupae that could be harvested annually from cow manure.
The estimated MBR rate was used to calculate the reduction of manure bulk
produced by a cow in a year. The cost of handling manure ranged from $47 for 1,000
cows to $87 for 100 cows in lagoon system, while $121 for 1,000 cows to $219 for 100
cows in liquid talk system of manure management (Bennett et al., 2007). The information
was used to estimate the cost-saving due to reduced bulk of manure handling. The
estimation is done by assuming that these flies would be incorporated into the existing
dairy system. Adding these two values (i.e., value of harvested larvae and cost saving in
39
manure hauling) gave the total economic benefit of using black soldier fly in dairy
manure management.
3.4.2 Cost Estimation: The total cost includes fixed and variable costs. Estimation of
these costs could have facilitated in the estimation of the cost of incorporating black
soldier fly into the system. Tools such as extrapolation or taking a fraction of cost per
unit in the lab condition could have been used to represent the field condition. However,
the experiment was conducted in controlled conditions to meet its research objectives.
Thus, this study was unable to provide required information to estimate cost constituents
except labor. There was 10 hours of labor spent each week for the research with six
containers been handled at a time. The major portion of the labor was spent on feeding
and hand-picking the mature larvae from the containers. The equation for total labor cost
can be seen in Equation (9).
LN*CT*WL*D/
TLC =
O-
(9)
where, TLC is total labor cost, LN represents the number of labor hours required each
week, CT is the total number of containers, Wi is wage rate, D is average larval
development time in days, and CN represents the number of containers handled at a time.
Then, average labor cost to produce one kg of larvae (on DM basis) was estimated by
dividing total cost by total larvae produced from 18 containers.
40
manure management system. The objective of these estimations is to maximize the larval
production as well as manure bulk reduction. Estimation of both larval production and
manure reduction models started with the estimation of correlation among the variables
under study that included larval weight, manure volume reduction (on dry matter basis),
quantity of manure fed, number of larvae (or prepupae) harvested, and average larval
development duration (Table VII). Then, the regression was done between the dependent
factors with respect to above mentions factors. The dependent factors were larval weight
and manure bulk reduction. Thus, two separate regressions models were estimated. The
iteration started with SAS generalized linear model (GLM) procedure using various
function formats to determine the best fit, beginning with simple linear regression. Each
time the fit of the model was evaluated on the basis of coefficient of multiple
determinations (R ), signs of included factors, and significance of the t statistics for the
regression coefficients estimated of each variable. The larval production model
estimation started with the single variable, i.e., manure feeding rate, and gradually
included the other variables, such as, number of larvae harvested and larval development
duration. To capture the effect of temperature of growing season, another variable was
inserted with values ranging from one to five for each starting date with a numerical
progression order.
The same procedure was repeated for the multiple regression model and nonlinear regression models by inserting quadratic, contradictory, interactive, and cubical
terms into the model. The interactive term were tried among the pair of variables which
showed highest correlations. This was done by attempting several combinations
41
separately and sequentially. Running linear and non-linear models for various
combinations of factors resulted in estimation of parameters as well as for goodness of fit
for each model. The R2 tended to increase as more variables added. However, some of
them were not included in the model because they were statistically insignificant.
All of the above mentioned factors of production were taken into account
including the larval production rate as one of the determining factors in estimating
manure bulk reduction model. It was assumed that vigorous growth of the larvae could
contribute to rapidly reduce manure bulk.
Once these models were estimated, the functions were maximized, using the
'Solver' program in Microsoft Excel, to obtain the maximum potential levels of each
dependent variable, that is to say, maximum potential larval yield with respect to manure
feeding, and maximum manure bulk reduction with respect to manure feeding.
CHAPTER IV
The purpose of this chapter is to present the results of this research. It includes
four sections. Dry matter conversion rate of black soldier fly in digesting cow manure
and manure bulk reduction rate are presented in the first section. The benefit-cost
estimations are presented in second section. The third section presents larval production
model and its optimal values. Section four presents manure bulk reduction model and the
optimal values under the different scenarios.
4.1 Dry Matter Conversion Rate (DMCR) and Manure Bulk Reduction Rate (MBR)
The total number of prepupae harvested during the experiment (from all 18
containers) was 14,511, which collectively weighed 920.59 g. The average rate of
survivorship of these larvae was 80%. The larvae were fed 40,620 g of manure (on fresh
weight basis) (Table VII). The moisture content in manure observed was 73.54% (Table
VII), while black soldier fly larvae were reported 44% dry matter (Sheppard et al., 2002).
The dry matter conversion rate (DMCR) of black soldier fly in cow manure
digestion was calculated to have a mean value of 3.99% with a standard error of 0.25%
(Table VIII). These flies were observed to be indolent towards cow manure digestion.
The estimated DMCR rate of these flies for cow manure digestion was reduced to half
42
43
compared to their performance on poultry manure digestion and almost one-third to onefourth to swine manure digestion (Newton et al., 2005).
The larvae reduced the manure bulk to 15,523.8 g after digesting 40,620 g of raw
manure collectively. The manure residue, after larval digestion, had an average moisture
content of 47.98% (Table VII). However, it ranged from 44.9 to 55.6% in different
containers. The manure bulk reduction rate (MBR) of black soldier fly in digesting cow
manure was estimated to be 22.18% with standard error of 3.19% (Table VIII). The
average manure bulk reduction rate for each cohort ranged from 16.73% to 28.49%
(Table VIII). The low MBR at dairies could be the results of unfavorable temperature as
well as difficulty in digesting cow manure compared to that of poultry or swine manure.
Table VIII. Calculation of DMCR and MBR of Black Soldier Fly in Cow Manure
Digestion.
Variables
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
Standard
Error
Cohort 1
Dry Matter Conversion Rate
(DMCR)
Manure Bulk Reduction Rate (%)
19
17.70
6.29
5.17
0.32
39.59
28.49
3.68
5.05
3.64
0.33
43.49
20.05
8.32
Cohort 2
Dry Matter Conversion Rate
(DMCR)
_Q
6.05
Cohort 3
44
All 18 Containers
Dry Matter Conversion Rate
(DMCR) (%)
Manure Bulk Reduction Rate
(MBR) (%)
7.82
26.21
16.73
3.53
2.82
6.29
3.99
0.25
6.05
43.49
22.18
3.19
The average development time required for these larvae ranged from 19.6 to
69.58 days with an average of 43.69 days (Table VII). These soldier fly larvae also
required longer duration to digest cow manure comparing to 14-22 days reported for
poultry or swine manure (Newton et al., 2005). However, the average development time
of these larvae in digestion cow manure in summer months of mid-June to early July
(cohort 1) was observed to be 23.15 days.
45
equivalent. The price of fish meal and soy meal considered in the study were $900 and
$350 per ton, respectively (i.e., $0.99 per kg for fish meal and $0.39 per kg for soy meal)
(Table IX). Both of these prices were obtained from USDA-AMS website on June 20,
2008. However; taking into account of fly being active for only 8 months a year, total
larval yield can be extrapolated to two-thirds of explained above i.e. 155 kg of larval
yield with economic value ranging from $59.72 to $153.57.
Unit
kg/day
%
%
kg
kg
Quantity
60.30
73.53
26.47
15.96
5825.91
kg/cow/yr
3.99
232.68
$/ton
$/ton
350.00
900.00
$/cow/yr
$/cow/yr
89.58
230.36
Consequently, the value of harvested larvae can change with the changes in price
of soy meal or fish meal. A sensitivity analysis was performed by using different prices
of soy meal or fish meal and the results are presented in the Figure 5. It was observed that
soy meal prices fluctuated from $250 to $450 per ton, total revenue would range from
$64 to $115.18. If fish meal prices varied from $800 to $1050 per ton, total revenue
would range from $204.76 to $268.75.
Revenue ($/ton)
350.00 Fishmeal
Substitute
-Soymeal
Substitute
Price (S/ton)
0.00 0.00
200.00
400.00
600.00
800.00
4.2.2 Cost-saving: Based on the estimated results in Section 4.2.1, a Holstein cow
produced 22,010 kg of manure waste per year. With the average manure bulk reduction
rate (MBR) of 22.18% (Table VIII), the volume of manure could be estimated to reduce
by 4,881.71 kg after larval digestion. The cost of manure handling for a dairy with 100 to
1,000 cows in a lagoon system ranged from $87 to $47 per cow per year. While in liquid
tank system, it ranged from $219 to $121 per cow per year (Bennett et al., 2007). Since a
cow excretes 22,010 kg of manure waste per year, the cost of manure handling for a dairy
with 100 to 1,000 cows in lagoon system can be calculated to range from 0.21 cents to
0.40 cents per kg per year, while the cost 0.55 cents to 0.99 cents per kg per year in liquid
tank system, depending upon dairy size (Table X). Therefore, the total cost-savings of
47
manure hauling estimated to range from $10.42 to $19.30 per cow per year in lagoon
system, while $26.84 to $48.57 in liquid tank system (Table X). If one accounts for the
fly being active for only 8 months, the total cost savings would be two-thirds of what has
been explained above i.e. the total cost savings range from $6.83 to $13.02 in the case of
lagoon system while $17.90 to $32.22 in the case of liquid tank system.
Cost-Savings in Manure
Handling ($/cow/yr)
Lagoon
Liquid Talk
100
0.395
0.995
19.30
48.57
200
0.309
0.682
15.08
33.27
300
0.273
0.654
13.31
31.94
500
0.245
0.572
11.98
27.95
750
0.223
0.554
10.87
27.06
1000
0.214
0.550
10.42
26.84
4.2.3 Labor Cost: The research required 10 hours of labor per week to handle 6
containers at a time. The labor was paid on the basis of $7 per hour. As mentioned in
Chapter III (Equation 9), the total labor cost incurred to handle 18 containers and to
produce 920.59 g of live larvae (or 405.06 g in DM basis) that had average development
time of 43.69 days was estimated to be $1,310.70. In other words, $3,236.14 of labor was
spent to produce one kg of larvae on dry matter basis.
48
TLC =
10*18*7*43.69/
^ - = $1,310.70
A change in labor wage or average larval development time could result in the
variation in total labor cost of handling the larvae. The variations in total labor cost of
handling one kg of larvae are presented in Table XI. It can be seen that labor cost ranged
from $6 to $10 and average larval development time ranged from 3 to 7 weeks. The labor
cost would range from $540 for labor wage at $6 per hour and average larval
development time of 3 weeks to $ 2,100 for labor wage of $10 per hour and larval
development time of 7 weeks.
Table XI. Total Labor Cost of Larval Production ($/kg of Larvae on DM basis).
Labor
Price
$6/hr
$540
$720
$900
$1,080
$1,260
$7/hr
$630
$840
$1,050
$1,260
$1,470
$8/hr
$720
$960
$1,200
$1,440
$1,680
$9/hr
$810
$1,080
$1,350
$1,620
$1,890
$10/hr
$900
$1,200
$1,500
$1,800
$2,100
However, the labor cost estimated here would not reflect field reality because of
two main reasons. First, the labor required for any research cannot directly translate to
commercial level production. Second, the matured larvae were hand-picked during the
research which would not feasible for mass production. Besides, facilities like selfharvesting or collecting, as proposed by Newton et al. (2005), would not require any
49
labor at all for harvesting. The only labor that would be required in such facility would
be collection of self-harvested bins at the end of the day. Thus, use of such facility could
drastically reduce the labor cost in handling the larvae
The benefits that the black soldier fly can bring into a dairy system depend on the
market value for the harvested prepupae, manure handling system, and size of a dairy.
The range of benefits for three different dairy sizes (with 100, 500, and 1000 cows), with
two popular manure management system are presented (Table XII). The minimum
benefit of $99.92 per cow per year would be realized for dairies with 1,000 cows using
lagoon system and harvested larvae fetch price equivalent to soy meal. The maximum
benefit could reach $278.70 per cow per year for dairies with 100 cows using liquid tank
system and harvested larvae fetch the price of fish meal. For a dairy with 500 cows (the
average size of dairy in Erath County) using a lagoon system can reap the benefit of
$101.47 - $242.11 per cow per year, while with liquid tank system the range vary from
$117.44 to $258.08 per cow per year, depending upon the price the larvae are able to
fetch (Table XII).
Table XII. Total Benefit of Incorporating Black Soldier Fly in Dairy Waste
Management System ($ per cow per year).
Value
of
Larvae
($)
Cost-saving in manure
handling
(Dairy Size)
100
500
1000
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Total Benefit
(Dairy Size)
100
500
1000
A. Lagoon System
Soy meal
89.58
19.30
11.98
10.42
108.79
101.47
99.92
Fish meal
230.30
19.30
11.98
10.42
249.43
242.11
240.55
89.58
48.57
27.95
26.84
138.07
117.44
116.33
Fish meal
230.30
48.57
27.95
26.84
278.70
258.08
256.97
51
infected harmful microorganism, such as E. Coli, thus making it more desirable for the
policy-makers to support through subsidies or other credit facilities.
In the scenario of pre-achieved success to maintain black soldier fly colonies
year-round in a greenhouse condition10 (Sheppard et al., 2002), the biggest challenge to
translate above theoretical estimation into field reality, would be to develop a facility that
could provide constant warm temperature (above 27 C) all round the year especially in
winter months. These flies have been described as tropical insects (Sheppard et al., 1994).
And their effectiveness has been found to drop drastically with plunging temperatures
(Tomberlin et al., 2008). The favorable range of temperature for these insects falls
between 27 to 36 C (Tomberlin et al., 2008). Similarly, as the voracity and growth of
the larvae could be altered through the nutrient contents of the feeding materials
(Tomberlin et al., 2002; St-Hilaire et al., 2007), finding appropriate and cost-effective
manure mix could drastically improve the results and the benefits. Research has shown
that addition such as fish offal to cow manure by a small proportion could substantially
influence the larval growth (Table IV).
10
A new study has also indicates that the black soldier fly could be mass produced indoors, which could
eliminate the need for a greenhouse.
52
container, D is the average development time (in days) of the prepupae, MF is quantity of
manure fed to the larvae in each container, and MR is the manure bulk reduction (on DM
basis) due to larval digestion observed per container.
Table XIII. Correlation Coefficients Between the Variables, and Its Probabilities >
|r|W
Num
MF
1.00000
0.83584
(<.0001)
0.21043
(0.4020)
-0.23981
(0.1430)
0.35936
(0.3710)
Num
0.83584
(<.0001)
1.00000
0.42943
(0.0753)
0.53562
(0.0220)
-0.31196
(0.2395)
0.21043
(0.4020)
0.42943
(0.0753)
1.00000
0.89414
(<.0001)
-0.58751
(0.0167)
MF
0.35936
(0.1430)
0.53562
(0.0220)
0.89414
(<.0001)
1.00000
-0.70747
(0.0022)
MR
-0.23981
(0.3710)
-0.31196
(0.2395)
-0.58751
(0.0167)
-0.70747
(0.0022)
1.00000
MR
53
rate. The other two pairs of variables that showed more than 0.5 of correlativity were MR
and D; and MF and Num. These two estimates were significant at 98% or higher (Table
XIII).
Based on the above observations, several predefined functional forms including
linear, multi-linear, quadratic, cubical, Cobb-Douglas, and other polynomial forms were
examined by introducing contradict and interaction terms in the model. The following
polynomial form was found to best fit the statistical observed data:
7 = 25.33 + 0.3192*10" 4 *7VMW*MF-0.609*10- 5 *MF 2 (15.22)
(14.60)
(-6.40)
12.016*>HIB + 0.1504*Z>
(-3.70)
(3.13)
(10)
R2 = 0.984
where Y represents pre-pupal yield in kg (live weight); Dum is the dummy variable to
represent starting date (0 was assigned to cohort 1st while 1 assigned to 3rd); and other
variables are same as above. The values in the parenthesis below the coefficients are the
^-statistics.
All estimated coefficients except D were significant at 99% or greater levels. The
D was significant at 98%. The statistical significance for both intercept and Num*MF
terms were less than 0.0001, MF*MF was 0.0007, and Dum was 0.0101. The goodness of
fit of the model was 98.4%. In other words, the model explained 98.4% of variation in
larval production in terms of independent factors included in the polynomial regression
Equation (10). The model also suggested significant interaction between number of
harvested larvae and quantity of manure fed.
54
The data collected in the experiment showed that on average 806.17 prepupae
were harvested from each container, which had an average development time of 43.69
days, weighed 51.14 g per container and was fed 2,256.67 g of manure per container
(Table VII). The dry matter conversion rate of larvae was 3.99% (Table VIII). Three
different scenarios of production with respect to manure feeding are presented in Figure
6, where the likely scenario is the result of the average values taken into consideration for
all the variables mentioned in Equation (10). The best scenario assumes the highest (most
favorable) values, while the worst scenario takes into account of minimum (most
unfavorable) values. Using the 'Solver' in Microsoft Excel, the potential larval yield can
range from 42 g per container with 1,350 g of manure feeding in the worst scenario to 68
g per container with 2,400 g of manure feeding in the best scenario (Figure 6).
Best Scenario
-Likely Scenario
-Worst Scenario
600
1000
1400
1800
2200
2600
3000
55
56
Unit
kg/day
%
%
kg/day
kg/yr
Quantity
60.30
73.53
26.47
15.96
5825.91
kg/cow/yr
4.69
273.24
$/ton
$/ton
350.00
900.00
$/cow/yr
$/cow/yr
105.20
270.50
A sensitivity analysis of the increased benefit from the sale of harvested larvae
was presented in Figure 7, where the two possible scenarios of of black soldier fly larvae
substitution as a feed ingredient (i.e., soy or fish meals equivalents) have beeen
presented. Prices are given in the x-axis and corresponding revenue that would be
generated are presented in the y-axis. The revenue would range from $74.14 to $135.25
for soy meal price fluctuating from $250 to $450 per ton. Similarly, the revenue would
range from $240.45 to $315.59 for fish meal price ffuctuaing from $800 to $1050 per ton.
57
Rvenue ($/ton)
400.00
-Fishmeal
Substitute
350.00 H
300.00
-Soymeal
Substitute
250.00
200.00
150.00
100.00
50.00
Pric e ($/ton)
0.00
0.00
200.00
400.00
600.00
(1.45)
(-2.63)
(2.48)
(-3.27)
(2.26)
(11)
R2 = 0.8297
where, MBR is manure bulk reduction rate (in percentage), and W is the total weight of
harvested larvae, and other variables are the same as explained earlier in Equation (10).
The model predicted 82.97% of the variability in MBR with respect to the independent
factors considered in the Equation (11). The estimated coefficients for factors Dum, MF,
58
MF2*W were significant at 95% level, intercept and D were significant at 90%, and Num
was significant at 80%. The equation also showed significant interaction between the
manure feeding rate and the larval weight.
Three different scenarios of manure bulk reduction with respect to manure
feeding are shown in Figure 8. The likely scenario is the result of the average values
taken into consideration for all the variables mentioned in Equation (11). The best
scenario assumes the highest (most favorable) values, while the worst scenario takes into
account of minimum (most unfavorable) values.
Best Scenario
- Likely Scenario
Worst Scenario
1400
1800
2200
2600
3000
3400
Using 'Solver' in Microsoft Excel, the result indicated that under the likely
scenario, 54.73% of manure bulk reduction rate (MBR) could be achieved by feeding
larvae with 2689.92 g of manure as explained above. Under the worst scenario, the
59
potential manure bulk reduction rate (MBR) could drop to 46.61% by feeding 2,600 g of
manure. And in the best scenario, the MBR could go as high as 58.71% by feeding with
2,800 g of manure (Figure 8).
CHAPTER V
This chapter is divided into two parts. The first part summarizes the whole study,
while the second part presents conclusions and implications of the results obtained from
this research.
5.1 Summary
CAFOs pose a risk of impacting surrounding streams due to excess nutrient runoffs, especially nitrogen and phosphorus, from a huge accumulation of manure waste
produced in CAFOs. The excess leach or run-offs of these nutrients causes eutrophication
in streams polluting the ecosystem. The current challenge for the dairy industry is to
identify cost-effective manure management strategies and technologies that will not only
help them to comply with environmental regulations, but also make them competitive in
the market. Thus, this study examined the benefits-costs of using black soldier fly larvae
as a viable and economically sound option to reduce waste in dairies. More specifically,
the objectives were to estimate benefit-cost of incorporating black soldier fly in existing
dairy in their waste management systems and find optimal feeding rate to maximize
larval yield and/or manure bulk reduction rate (MBR). Erath County, which is on the
upper North Bosque River watershed and the largest dairy producing county in Texas, is
60
61
facing similar problems. Several management practices such as low phosphorus content
dairy feed, land area requirement (LAR) for nutrient utilization, vegetative buffer strip
along the affluent, and phosphorous based manure application and etc., have already been
proposed and implemented.
The black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) is a wasp like large fly. It is a beneficial
insect and normally utilizes wide variety of decomposing plant and even animal carcasses
as their medium of growth. The larvae have been found to significantly reduce both
manure accumulation and its nutrient content. Besides, the fly larvae have been used as a
substitute for soybean or fish meal to formulate diets of poultry and livestock animals.
The use of black soldier fly larvae to digest dairy manure is another such attempt
to mitigate the problem. Black soldier flies have been successfully tested and proposed
for poultry and hog manure digestion. Simple and sustainable facility has already
designed that could incorporate the black soldier fly into existing manure management
systems of poultry and hog CAFOs. Researchers working with these flies strongly argued
that incorporating black soldier fly larvae would not only bring environmental benefits
but also the economic profitability to farm operators.
Incorporating the black soldier fly in dairy manure waste management system
could bring two economically tangible benefits. The benefit from sales of harvested
larvae and the cost-savings due to reduced manure bulk handling. Black soldier fly larvae
can be used as a substitute of fish or soy meals to formulate feed of poultry, swine and
several other livestock animals. Similarly, the live larvae can also be used as specialty
feed for poultry, fish or even pet animal such as iguana lizards etc.
62
The main experiment data for the study was obtained from Texas A&M AgriLife
Research and Extension Center, Stephenville, Texas. The parameters estimated were: dry
matter conversion rate (DMCR) of these larvae while digesting the cow manure, duration
required for larval development while digesting cow manure, percentage manure bulk
reduced (MBR) during digestion, and per unit cost of manure handling in each dairy
waste-management systems. Estimation of these parameters helped to quantify the
potential benefits of using the black soldier fly in dairy waste-management systems.
Similarly, attempts were made to estimate the maximum potential larval yield as well as
manure bulk reduction rate with respect to manure feeding, larval concentration, number
of larvae harvested, and rearing season (temperature) during digestion on empirical basis.
This study shows that with the dry matter conversion rate (DMCR) of 3.99%;
manure bulk reduction rate (MBR) at 22.18%; duration of larval development of 43.69
days; and market value of the pupae ranging from $350-$900 per ton, black soldier flies
can generate an income of $99.92 to $278.70 per cow per year depending upon size of a
dairy (100 to 1000 cows) and manure management system adopted in a dairy (lagoon or
tank system). Out of which $89.49 to $230.13 would be generated through sale of
harvested prepupae and remaining $10.42 to $48.57 would be contributed through costsavings in manure handling due to manure bulk reduction after digestion. Increasing
number of cows in a dairy reduced per unit cost of manure management and the lagoon
system is cheaper than liquid tank.
Black soldier fly larvae were found to be sensitive to temperature and nutrient
availability in a feeding material during its growth. As revealed by the data, the
63
64
affluent and phosphorus based manure application practice need to be followed. Also, its
use as a manure management system is warranted due to the economic assessment
conducted in this study. However, incorporating black soldier flies into dairy waste
management system would require a facility that could maintain warm temperature year
around and have a low cost of operation, and as suggested by earlier researchers, using a
bio-thermal heat that is generated by the larvae during digestion of wastes could be one
of the most economically feasible options.
The larval production and manure bulk reduction models indicate there is room
for improvement including a field trial to confirm these results. Furthermore, improving
larval productivity and/or manure bulk reduction rate is needed as is a market for the
prepupae. This study focused on incorporating black soldier flies in existing dairy system
but considerations could equally be given to use these flies in cow manure digestion out
side of dairy as a separate waste management operation.
In conclusion, using black soldier fly larvae in dairy waste management system
can be an economically viable practice. It can serve dual objectives of dairy producers:
the requirement to comply with environmental regulations, and the economic benefits for
its sustainability. Black soldier fly larvae were observed to be less efficient in digesting
dairy manure and wastes compared to the aggression reported for hog or poultry manure
digestion. In existing situation, these flies would generate 50% less benefit from dairy
waste-management compared to benefits that have been realized in pig or poultry manure
management. However, the clear picture of benefit-cost will only be visible when the full
information (or the data) on both costs as well as benefits would be available.
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65
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APPENDIX
72
ABBREVIATIONS
ASAE
BSF
CAFO (s)
CAST
CWT
DM
DMCR
GLM
hr
K
LAR
lbs
MBR
MR
Mt
N
P
ppm
SAS
SAS-GLM
TNRCC
USDA
USDA-ARS
USDA-AMS
w/w
yr
=
=
=
73