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DoYouKnow...?TheJazzRepertoire:AnOverview
(withRobertR.Faulkner)
Westartwithasimpleproblem.Inthousandsofplaces,everynight,inEurope,North
America,andmanyotherplacesintheworld,thisscenetakesplace.Severalmusicianswho
maynotknoweachother,meettoplayamusicalengagement.Theyplayforseveralhours,
withoutrehearsal,withonlythemostrudimentarywrittenmusic(iftheyhaveanyatall,and
oftentheydont),andperformquitewell,tothesatisfactionoftheiremployersand
audiences.Ourquestionis:howcantheydothat?Whatknowledgeandskillsdotheyneedto
successfullyperformthiswonderfulfeatofcoordinatedactivity?Wesuppose,andwill
suggestlater,thatthesolutionofthisproblemprovidesamodelforsimilarproblemsina
varietyofotherareasofhumancollectiveaction.
Wethoughtthiswasasimplequestion,andwethoughtweknewthesimpleanswer,whichis:
thisfeatofcoordinatedactivitycanoccurbecauseeveryoneinvolvedalltheseplayersall
overtheworldknowthesamesongs,sothatonehasonlytosaythenameofthesong(call
atune)andalltheplayerspresent,whoalreadyknowit,willbeabletoplayit.Theywill
knowwhatkeytoplayitin,whatbackgroundfiguresmightconventionallyaccompanythe
melody,andtherighttempotoplayitat.Wethoughtofthiscollectionofsongsthat
everyoneknowsasthejazzrepertoire.
Notsofast.Likeallcommonsenseanswers,thishasanelementoftruth,butisnotthe
wholestory,andthereforeismisleading.Thisexpressionsupposesthatthereisone(and
onlyone)repertoireandthatitscontentsareknowntoeveryone,oratleasttoallcompetent
membersofthejazzcommunitywhoplaytheseengagements.Infact,asourfirstfieldwork
showedus,thepeoplewhoparticipateinthesemusicaleventsdonotallknowthesame
songs.Wewitnessedandheardaboutmultipleoccasionsonwhichoneormoreplayersdid
notknowasongtheotherplayerspresentknew,sothatthegroupcouldnotplaythe
proposedsong.Infact,wenoticed,assoonaswepaidattention,thatquiteoftenoneofthe
playersproposedplayingsomethingwiththisquestion:Doyouknow...?followedbythe
nameofatune.Andoftenenoughtheanswerwas:No,buthowabout...andthenameof
anothertune.Throughsuchinformalnegotiations,theyarrivedatthenameofthetunethey
weregoingtoplaynext,weedingoutthosewhichwerenotcommonproperty.
Therearefurthercomplications.Whatkey?Thesongswhosenamestheywerediscussing
havestandardkeys,thatis,keysknownbyeveryonetobetheproperkeytoplaythem
in.AndoneoftheplayersmaysaythatheknowsthetuneinG,butnotinotherkeys.Some
playershavenotroublewiththispotentialproblem,butsomedo.Whattempo?Players
maydisagreeonthisornotbeabletoperformthepiececomfortablyatthetemposomeone
elsethinksproper.
Iftherepertoireisnotknowntoeveryoneinvolvedinthecollectiveactivitywerestudying
musicalperformancesbygroupsofpeoplewhoneednotknoweachotherwelloratall
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thenalargenumberofquestionsneedfurtherresearch.Thispaperreportsourpreliminary
thinkingaboutsomeoftheseproblems.
Repertoireexistsatseverallevels,allrelatedtooneanother,eachwithitsownprocessesof
maintenance,renewal,andenlargement,whichwenowconsider.
TheLocalMusicalRepertoire
Thinkfirstofalltheplayerswhomightparticipateinthiscollectiveactivityascomprisinga
workcommunityapoolofpeoplewhomayonoccasionbecalledontoplaytogetherwith
minimalornorehearsal.Thiscommunitycanitselfbethoughtofatseverallevels.
Thelocalcommunityconsistsofalltheplayerswholiveincomfortableproximitytoa
particularcollectionofvenuesinwhichtheymightbecalledontoplay.Thevenuesinclude
barsandrestaurantswhichhavemusicalentertainment,nightclubsofvariouskinds,jazz
clubs,partiesheldtocelebrateweddings,barmitzvahsandotherfestiveoccasions,concerts,
andsoon.Eachvenuehasitsownkindofclienteleanditsown,somewhatspecificmusical
requirements.Insome,themusiciansplaysothattheaudiencecandance.Inothers,they
createbackgroundmusic,interestingifyoulistentoit,butnotsointrusiveastodisturb
dinerswhowanttotalktoeachother.
Usually,theownerormanagerofthevenuehiresthemusiciansandwillhavehisorherown
ideasaboutwhatshouldbeplayed.Thiscanbeaconstraintorabenefit.Thus,apianistwho
toldusthathetellshisaudiencesthatheplaysrequests,butonlyforsongswrittenbefore
1954(thusnopopmusicoftheSixtiesorlater),saysthathecanmakealivingthisway
becausethereisagenerationofrestaurantownerswholikejazzandwanttohearitplayedin
theirestablishments.Theirpreferencescreateashelterforthemusicheprefers.
Theyperformtogethermoreorlessfrequentlyandthoughaparticipantmaynothave
originallyknownallthetunesthatothersknow,theycomeeventuallytoshareasubstantial
bodyofmaterialthatismoreorlessknowntoall,materialthathasprovedtobeacceptable
forthejobstheyplayandthepeopletheyworkfor.Thislocalcultureisavailabletobe
drawnoninspecificperformances.
Thelocalrepertoirecanbeevenmorelocalized,beingspecifictoaparticulargroupand/or
venue.Astheyplayinthesamevenuerepeatedly,eachcontributeswhathecanorisallowed
tobytheotherstotheefforttomeetthatjobsrequirements.Thus,agroupplayingtogether
repeatedlyinthesamesettingmayacquireaspecialized,sitespecificrepertoirewhich
respondstotherequirementsofthatplaceandthatemployer,andisnotnecessarilyknown
tootherplayersinthelocalcommunity.Thisrepertoiremaybeusefulonlyinthisone
setting,butthebandwilleventuallyworkinothervenuesandbringtheirbandrepertoire
withthemtoplayinthenewvenue.Thebandsmemberswillworkwithothermusiciansin
othersettingsandmayproposetunesfromthesiteandbandspecificrepertoiretotheir
newcolleagues.Ifthesecolleaguesdontknowthenewmaterial,theplayerwhoproposesit
mayoffertoteachittothemortoprovidealeadsheet.Playersoftenmakesuchoffersand,
becausetheplayersareeasilyboredbyplayingthesamesongsagainandagaintheywill
oftenaccepttheofferandincorporatethesongintotheirownrepertoire,atleastforthe
nightandoftenbeyond.Inthatway,themoreorlessidiosyncraticcomponentsofasite
specificrepertoirefeedintothelocalcommunitysrepertoire.
NationalandInternationalMusicalRepertoires
Butplayersoftentravelandtheyoftenmovebetweencommunities,sothattheywillfind
themselvesworkingwithplayersfromothersuchlocalcommunitiesinaregional
community.AplayerfromMassachusettsmightoccasionallyworkinNewYorkorMaine,
withplayersfromthoselocalcommunities.OrhemightmovetoChicagoorSanFrancisco,
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andhavetofindaplaceintheworkingarrangementsofthatlocalcommunity.The
repertoiremaydifferbetweenthesecommunities,asaresultofhistoryandcoincidenceas
wellasregionaldifferencesinpublictasteandemployerrequirement,sothenewarrivalwill
notimmediatelyknowalltherepertoirerequired.Butnewplayersusuallylearnunfamiliar
repertoirequickly,sinceitisthepriceofeasyintegrationintothenewlocalcommunity.
Asaresultofcontinualmovementofthiskind,therealsoexistsanationalandeven
internationalcommunitywhichistherepositoryofanationalandinternationaljazz
repertoire.AlthoughtheUnitedStateshashistoricallybeenthelocusofjazzperformance
andthesourceofmostoftherepertoire,theincreasingintegrationoflocalandregional
worldshasmadethejazzrepertoireitselfmoreinternational,drawingonmorethanwhatis
sooftencalledTheGreatAmericanSongbook.TheintegrationofBrazilianbossanova
intotheworldrepertoireisamajorcaseinpoint.Thisprocesshasbeenhastenedbyso
calledfakebooks,sometimesknownasTheRealBook,whichcontainthemelody,
harmony,andwordsforalargenumberofsongsinthecontemporaryrepertoire.Aplayer
whohasacopyoftheRealBookisseldomatalosstoplaythemostcommon,andmanyless
common,songs.
IndividualRepertoire
Repertoireexistsatthepersonalleveltoo.Individualplayersfindthemselvesinaworld
whichwastherebeforetheirarrival,inwhichthousandsandthousandsofsongsfromall
sortsoflocalandnationalcommunities(butthemajorityofthisrepertoirealways,itmust
besaid,American)areknowntomost,butnotnecessarilyall,ofthecurrentparticipants.To
findjobsandotheropportunitiestoplaywithothers,theymustlearnwhattheothersknow
andtakeforgrantedthatacompetentplayerwillbeabletoperform.Nooneisborn
knowingallthismaterial.Itmustbelearned,andthatcanbedoneinmanyways:learningon
thejob,learningfromprintedmusic,andlearningfromlisteningtorecordingsarethe
principalmethods.
Individualplayersworkontheirownrepertoire.Faulkner,reportingelsewhereonhowjazz
playerspractice,saysthatmostplayersdevoteasubstantialamountoftheirpracticetimeto
learningnewmaterial.Fromtheearliestexposuretopopularmusicandjazz,playersbegin
toacquiretunes,oftensimplybyvirtueofbeingateenagerinterestedinmusic,andusually
wellbeforetheyhaveanyideathattheywillbecomeprofessionalplayers.Theycontinueto
enlargetheirrepertoireovertheyears,andalsolosesomeelements(thoughitslikelythat
theyneverloseanysongcompletely,andcanrecoverlostmaterialfromtheirmemories
whenitsessentialorinteresting).
Asplayersmeetinspecificworksettings,eachofwhichhasitsownperformance
requirementswhatyouhavetoplaythere,whatyoudonthavetoplaybutcanifyouwant,
whatyoumustntplaynomatterwhatandtheylearnthejobspecificrepertoire
appropriatetothatsetting.Theylearnwhatweplayhere.Theylearnthingstheydidnt
knowfromthepeopletheyareworkingwithinthisplaceandaddthisnewmaterialtotheir
personalrepertoire.Thisdoesntmeantheynecessarilylikethesesongsorwanttoplay
them,onlythattheirworkinteractionshavetaughtgthemthismaterialtoo.Sincetheyoften
(becauseoftheinstabilityofmusicemployment)changewhotheyworkwith,theyoftenfind
themselvesplayingwithotherplayersinotherplaceswithotherrequirements.

Theyenlargetheirrepertoires,also,becausemusicianscharacteristicallydonotliketoplay
thesamethingagainandagain.Thoughmanykindsofwork(manycrafts,forinstance)prize
themasteryandcalmthataccompanyrepetitivework,jazzplayersquicklytireofsongs,
keys,tempi,etc.,andactivelyworktoaddnewmaterialtotheirrepertoires.Someplayers
dothismorethanothersandoftenactivelyteachnewtunestotheircolleagues(sometimes
theyarecalledtunehounds).

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Asaresult,everyplayerhasasomewhatuniquecollectionoftunesinhisrepertoire.They
comefromwhathelearnedgrowingupinamilieuwherepopularmusicwasubiquitous(this
variesforeveryplayer,dependingonhisfamilyoforigin,somefamiliesbeingmore
involvedwiththismusicthanothers)fromwhathehaslearnedplayingwithdifferent
peopleindifferentvenuesandgroupsandfromwhathehassearchedouthimselfinwritten
musicorrecordingsandlearnedthatway.
TheLevelsInteract
Theselevelsofrepertoireinvention,maintenance,andtransmissionconnectbyaseriesof
feedbackloops,eachprovidingfeedbacktoandreceivingitfromtheotherlevels.Thus,
individualplayerscanstarttheprocessofanewsongenteringtherepertoirebyhearingitor
seeingitsomewhereandlearningit,thusputtingitintotheirpersonalrepertoire.Sincethey
likeitwellenoughtohavelearnedit,theymaythentrytoteachittoothers,friends,players
theyworkwithoccasionalyorregularlyorevenjustonce.Inthisway,itcanenterthe
repertoireofaparticulargroup,perhapsforjustanightbutperhapsasamoreregularpart
ofthesetliststheyconstruct.Sinceplayersplaywithmanydifferentpeople,mostofthe
playersinthatlocalemightlearnit.Andsinceplayersmovefromcommunitytocommunity,
theymaytakesomeofthatlocalrepertoirewiththemtoanewcommunityandanewgroup
ofplayers.
Conversely,whenaplayermovestoanewcommunityorworkswithanewgroupofplayers
hewillprobablybeintroducedtotherepertoireofstandardstheyallknowandtakefor
grantedand,ifhecontinuestoplaywiththem,willbeexpectedtolearnthem.
Inthisway,individuallearningandexperimentationfeedsnewmaterialtolargergroupsand
whatiscommonknowledgeinthelargergroupsfeedsintotherepertoireeachplayer
accumulates.Inthiscontinuousprocessoflearning,teaching,andcommunication,the
repertoirecanbeseennotasafixedentity,butassomethingwhichchangesallthetime.
Thismeans,amongotherthings,thatanynotionofthestandardsorTheGreatAmerican
SongBookasafixedentityisempiricallyunfounded.
PuttingTheRepertoireToWorkOnTheJob
Sofarwehavespokenofwhatmusiciansknow,haveplayed,andarepreparedtoplayagain.
Everythingwehavetalkedaboutispreparationforthemomentofperformance.Andthis
bringsustoanotherkindofdeterminationofwhatactuallygetsplayed:theinteractionsand
negotiationsatthemomentwhentheworkhastobedone,thesongschosen,theirorder
determined,andthenplayed.Thisiswhereastrongelementofchanceor,ifnotchance,
coincidenceandrandomnessentersintotheprocess.
Wheneverthebandisinfrontoftheaudience,theyhavetodosomething,playsomething
andthenplaythenextsomething,andsoonforthedurationofthejob.Theleader,ifthe
grouphassuchaperson,maydecidethisunilaterally,andmayarriveattheworkplacewitha
list(asetlist,perhapsmorecommonamongrockthanjazzmusicians)ofwhatwillbe
playedalreadywrittenout,achoiceamongthetunesheknowshismusicianscanplay.
But,quiteoften,musiciansfindthismomentofchoice,collectivelyaswellasindividually,
difficult.Theycantthinkofwhattheywanttoplay,theycantchoosebetweenthingsthat
areavailable,andwillspendalotoftime(itseemslongertotheband,probably,thantothe
audience)arrivingatadecision.Someoneoffersasuggestion,someoneelsesayshedoesnt
knowitordoesntlikeit,someoneelsesuggestssomethingelse,andonandonuntilthey
agreeonwhattodo,oftenjumpingatasuggestionjusttobeabletostart.
Enactingtherepertoiretakesplaceinthreesteps.Theplayersfirstselectelements(songs)
fromthepoolofavailableresources,thearrayofsongstheyallknoworthinktheothers
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mightknow.Eachplayerbringsadifferentpersonalrepertoiretothisnegotiation,butmost
ofthemwillhaveinmindsomecoreofwhattheythinkitlikelyeveryoneelseknows.(Ifthe
bandhasplayedtogetherbefore,theymayhaveasitespecificrepertoiretheycancallon.)It
oftenhappens,however,thatsomeonedoesntknowwhatothersthinkheshouldknow,and
sotheyhavetokeepmakingoffersuntilsomethingisfoundthatwillwork.
Thisprocessisstillmorecomplex,becausetherearedegreesofknowingasong.Without
goingintotoomuchdetail,wecansaythatapersonmayknowandhavepracticedrepeatedly
themelodyandharmonyofasong,ormayknowthemelodyandharmonybutperhapsnot
wellenoughtoimproviseonatlength,ornotknowitbutfeelcapableofplayingitif
someoneelseplaysitfirst,ortellsthemtheharmoniesastheyplay,orfeelsurethatthey
willbeabletofindwhatisappropriatejustbylistening.
Thosearenegativeprinciplesofchoice,whichtellyouwhatcannotbeplayedbutdonottell
youwhatyoushouldplay.Attimestheywillsearchforsomelinkexternaltothemusicitself
tochoosetheset:playingasetoftuneswhosetitlesarefemininefirstnames(StellaBy
Starlight,NancyWiththeLaughingFace,WhenSunnyGetsBlue,etc.),orcontaining
thenamesofmonths(AprilinParis,SeptemberSong,SleighrideinJuly,etc.),or
havingbeenwrittenbythesamecomposer(DukeEllington,JeromeKern,HaroldArlen,
etc.).
Inasecondstage,enactingtherepertoireconsistsoforderingtheselectedsongsintoa
workingset,alistofwhatwillactuallybeplayed.Thistypicallyconsistsofinvokingsome
commonrulesofsetconstruction.Forexample,mostmusicianswouldseeitassoobvious
astonotrequirediscussionthattheyshouldfollowatuneplayedatafasttempowith
somethingslowertheoriginofthisprinciplemaylieinthemusichavingonceandperhaps
stillbeenplayedfordancing.Mostplayerswouldalsoagreethattheyshouldnotplay
severalsongsinsuccessioninthesamekeytheoriginofthisprinciplemaylieintheidea
thatamusiciansideasforimprovisationtendtobelinkedtoakeyandthatitisagoodidea
toavoidrepetitionofideasbyavoidingrepeatingkeys.
Playersdonotnecessarilyarriveatthislistfirstandthenperformit.Oftenenough,they
constructthelistastheymovefromsongtosong,pickingsomethingtoplaynextonlyafter
theyhavefinishedthelastone,takingintoaccountanyfeedbacktheymayhavereceived
whiletheywereplayingit.
Finally,theplayersadapt,tailor,andassimilatetheworkingsettothedemandsofthe
situation.requirementsoftheorganizersenvironment,suchasaudiences,regulators,and
otheragentsofsocialcontrol.Atthisstage,allkindsofexternalforcescomeintoplay.A
drunkenguestatapartymayinsistonhearingaspecificsong(acrisisoccurswhennoone
knowstherequestedsongandthedrunkwillnotacceptthatexcuse).Theownerormanager
ofabarinsiststhatthebandplaysomethingeventhoughthecustomerspresentwant
somethingelse.Whateverthesedemandsare,theplayerswilltakethemintoaccount
(althoughtheymaynotgiveintothem)whentheychoosewhattheywillplayandplayit.
GeneralizingtheProcess
Whyshouldasociologistwhohasnointerestinjazzrepertoiresbeinterestedinthe
processesthatmakethejazzrepertoirewhatitis?
Theprocessofrepertoireformationfocusesonwhatpeopleknow,whattheythinkothers
know,andwhattheyhavetoknowincommontoworktogether.Thesecanbethoughtofas
basicelementscommontoallactivities,fromhunting,gathering,andagriculture,through
craft,manufacturingandallothercontextsofwork.Doyouknowandtheprocessesthat
invokesarecloselylinkedtowhatdowedoandwhatdowedotogetherleadstowhat
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doweknowandcandoinordertodothings.Thatleadstothegeneralprocessesof
playing,performing,andimprovisingtogether,butalsotoavarietyofotheractivities,
suggestedbythislistofwords:
play,perform,organize,buy,rent,move,hire,heal,help,write
Seeingrepertoireasprocessandpracticeleadstounderstandingthefoundationsof
business(tobuy,tosell,toproduce,asinWhitesproductioninterfacemarkets),of
collectiveaction(torevolt,getpissedoff,stageahungerstrike,petitionTheHouseof
Commons,asinTillysexplanationsofcollectiveaction),ofdiscriminationagainst
stigmatizedcitizens,ofresidentialmobility(asinRossisWhyPeopleMove),ofpoliticsand
voting,ofsicknessandhealing,andofwritingandotgherformsofcommunication.Allthose
behaviors,formsofconcertedactivity,arecenteredonactualdecisionsmadebysocial
actorsinrealisticsocialcontexts,andallinvolveselectionsfromapoolofpossible
resources,mobilizationofthoseresources,prioritizing,andmakingupsetlistsand
blueprints,andmore.Theprocessesweareoutlininganddeepeningarethususefulto
sociologistsnottrainednorinterestedinjazzmusiciansandtheirmusic.
Wehavemadethisargumentregardingrepertoireinavarietyofcontexts,aswellata
numberofdifferentlevelsofanalysis.Theargumenthastwobasicimplicationsfor
researchers.First,tounderstandthedynamicsofsocialorganizations,intheartsand
elsewhere,itisimportanttoseehowresources,suchastunes,arethoughtabout,used,and
enactedinconcretesituations.Further,theargumentraisesamethodologicalissue.Itis
unwisetorestrictanalysisofrepertoiretoeventsthathavealreadyoccurredandinfer
decisionmakingprocessesoftheactorsfromthoseevents.Often,itcanbequiterevealing
toobservearepertoireinactionandtheninterviewinformantsandrespondentsandget
theirinterpretationsofthesocialbehaviorstheyhavejustbeenpartofproducing.
Manystudiesofrepertoireformationandmaintenancearefarremovedfromtheactual
decisionsactorsmakeandtheprocessesthosedecisionsinvolve,astheyoccurintheirfull
socialcontexts.Studyingrepertoireinactioncanpointusinthedirectionofstudyingnot
onlythejazzrepertoirebutalsotherepertoiresofmedicalpractice,ofrevolutionary
activities,andofsucheconomicactivitiesasbuying,selling,andinvesting.E.g.,recentwork
showsthatfirmshavetoconformtoaparticularbusinessprofileandgroovebeforetheywill
becoveredbyanalysts(aniceexampleofhowpooling,selecting,ordering,prioritizing,and
setlistguidecapitalflowsintheeconomy).Tillysanalysesofcontentiouspoliticalactivities
inBritainandFranceisbetterunderstoodfromthepointofviewadvocatedhere.

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