Problems
A Glencoe Program
Assessment:
Chapter Assessment
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CHALLENGE PROBLEMS
Contents
Chlorofluorocarbons, 1950–1992
400
C hlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were first produced in
350
(billion kilograms)
the laboratory in the late 1920s. They did not
Amount of CFCs
300
become an important commercial product until some
250
time later. Eventually, CFCs grew in popularity until 200
their effect on the ozone layer was discovered in the 150
1970s. The graph shows the combined amounts of two 100
important CFCs produced between 1950 and 1992. 50
Answer the following questions about the graph. 0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
Year
1. What was the approximate amount of CFCs produced in 1950? In 1960? In 1970?
2. In what year was the largest amount of CFCs produced? About how much was produced
that year?
3. During what two-year period did the production of CFCs decrease by the greatest
amount? By about how much did their production decrease?
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4. During what two-year period did the production of CFCs increase by the greatest
amount? What was the approximate percent increase during this period?
5. How confident would you feel about predicting the production levels of CFCs during the
odd numbered years 1961, 1971, and 1981? Explain.
6. Could the data in the graph be presented in the form of a circle graph? Explain.
United States
T he population of the United States is becoming more diverse. The circle graphs below show the
distribution of the U.S. population among five ethnic groups in 1990 and 2000. The estimated
total U.S. population for those two years was 2.488 108 in 1990 and 2.754 108 in 2000.
1. By how much did the total U.S. population increase between 1990 and 2000? What was
the percent increase during this period?
3. Make a bar graph that compares the population for the five groups in 1990 and 2000. In
what ways is the bar graph better than the circle graphs? In what way is it less useful?
Changes
P hysical and chemical changes occur all around us. One of the many places in which
physical and chemical changes occur is the kitchen. For example, cooking spaghetti in a
pot of water on the stove involves such changes. For each of the changes described below, tell
(a) whether the change that occurs is physical or chemical, and (b) how you made your choice
between these two possibilities. If you are unable to decide whether the change is physical or
chemical, tell what additional information you would need in order to make a decision.
2. As more heat is added, the water begins to boil and steam is produced.
3. The heat used to cook is produced by burning natural gas in the stove burner.
4. The metal burner on which the pot rests while being heated becomes red as its
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
temperature rises.
5. After the flame has been turned off, a small area on the burner has changed in color from
black to gray.
6. A strand of spaghetti has fallen onto the burner, where it turns black and begins to
smoke.
Percent abundance
25
mass. A substance is first heated in a vacuum and
20
then ionized. The ions produced are accelerated
through a magnetic field that separates ions of dif- 15
ferent masses. The graph below was produced 10
when a certain element (element X) was analyzed 5
in a mass spectrometer. Use the graph to answer
the questions below. 0
190 192 194 196 198 200 202 204 206 208 210
Atomic mass (amu)
8. Using the data given by the graph, calculate the weighted average atomic mass of
element X. Identify the unknown element.
2 2
Use the rules given above to complete the table listing the quantum numbers for each
electron in a boron atom. The correct quantum numbers for one electron in the atom is
provided as an example.
Boron (B)
Electron n m ms
1
1 1 0 0
2
O ne of the first somewhat successful attempts to arrange the elements in a systematic way
was made by the German chemist Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner (1780–1849). In 1816,
Döbereiner noticed that the then accepted atomic mass of strontium (50) was midway between
the atomic masses of calcium (27.5) and barium (72.5). Note that the accepted atomic masses
for these elements today are very different from their accepted atomic masses at the time
Döbereiner made his observations. Döbereiner also observed that strontium, calcium, and bar-
ium showed a gradual gradation in their properties, with the values of some of strontium’s
properties being about midway between the values of calcium and barium. Döbereiner eventu-
ally found four other sets of three elements, which he called triads, that followed the same pat-
tern. In each triad, the atomic mass of the middle element was about midway between the
atomic masses of the other two elements. Unfortunately, because Döbereiner’s system did not
turn out to be very useful, it was largely ignored.
Had Döbereiner actually discovered a way of identifying trends among the elements?
Listed below are six three-element groups in which the elements in each group are consecutive
members of the same group in the periodic table. The elements in each set show a gradation in
their properties. Values for the first and third element in each set are given. Determine the miss-
ing value in each set by calculating the average of the two given values. Then, compare the val-
ues you obtained with those given in the Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Record the
actual values below your calculated values. Is the value of the property of the middle element
in each set midway between the values of the other two elements in the set?
1. What percent of all atoms in the universe are either hydrogen or helium? What percent of
all atoms in the solar system are either hydrogen or helium?
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2. Explain the relatively high abundance of hydrogen and helium in the universe compared
to their relatively low abundance on Earth.
3. Only the top four most abundant elements on Earth and in Earth’s crust are shown in the
table. Name two additional elements you would expect to find among the top ten ele-
ments both on Earth and in Earth’s crust. Explain your choices.
4. Name at least three elements in addition to those shown in the table that you would
expect to find in the list of the top ten elements in the human body. Explain your choices.
Shown below are the Lewis electron dot structures for five elements: sulfur (S), chlorine (Cl),
argon (Ar), potassium (K), and calcium (Ca). Answer the questions below about these structures.
S Cl Ar K Ca
1. Write the atomic number for each of the five elements shown above.
4. Which of the above Lewis electron dot structures is the same as that for the ion Cl?
Explain your answer.
5. Which of the above Lewis electron dot structures is like that for the ion K? Explain
your answer.
6. Name an ion of calcium that has chemical properties similar to those of argon. Explain
your answer.
T he octet rule is an important guide to understanding how most compounds are formed.
However, there are a number of cases in which the octet rule does not apply. Answer the
following questions about exceptions to the octet rule.
Equations
E ach chemical equation below contains at least one error. Identify the error or errors and
then write the correct chemical equation for the reaction.
Conversions
T he diagram shows three containers, each of which holds a certain mass of the
substance indicated. Complete the table below for each of the three substances.
UF6(g)
CCl3CF3(l)
Pb(s)
1. Compare and contrast the number of representative particles and the mass of UF6 with
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
the number of representative particles and mass of CCl3CF3. Explain any differences
you observe.
2. UF6 is a gas used in the production of fuel for nuclear power plants. How many moles of
the gas are in 100.0 g of UF6?
4. Lead (Pb) is used to make a number of different alloys. What is the mass of lead present
in an alloy containing 0.15 mol of lead?
Chemical Reactions
T he mole provides a convenient way of finding the amounts of the substances in a chemical
reaction. The diagram below shows how this concept can be applied to the reaction
between carbon monoxide (CO) and oxygen (O2), shown in the following balanced equation.
Use the equation and the diagram to answer the following questions.
Moles of 1 Moles of
3 7
CO CO2
Particles of Particles of
2 6
CO CO2
4 5
Grams of Grams of
CO CO2
5. Why is it not possible to convert between the mass of a substance and the number of
representative particles, as represented by double-arrow 4 of the diagram?
6. Why is it not possible to use the mass of one substance in a chemical reaction to find the mass
of a second substance in the reaction, as represented by double-arrow 5 in the diagram?
Boiling Points
T he boiling points of liquids depend partly on the mass of the 100 H2O Group 6A
1. How do the boiling points of the group 4A hydrides change as the molecular masses of
the hydrides change?
2. What are the molecular structure and polarity of the four group 4A hydrides?
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3. Predict the strength of the forces between group 4A hydride molecules. Explain how
those forces affect the boiling points of group 4A hydrides.
4. How do the boiling points of the group 6A hydrides change as the molecular masses of
the hydrides change?
5. What are the molecular structure and polarity of the four group 6A hydrides?
6. Use Table 9-4 in your textbook to determine the difference in electronegativities of the
bonds in the four group 6A hydrides.
Mercury
column
the simple mercury barometer shown here.
1. What occupies the space above the mercury column in the Bowl of
barometer’s glass tube? mercury
2. What prevents mercury from flowing out of the glass tube into the bowl of mercury?
5. Suppose the liquid used to make the barometer was water instead of mercury. How would
this substitution affect the barometer? Explain.
6. Suppose a tiny crack formed at the top of the barometer’s glass tube. How would this
event affect the column of mercury? Explain why.
P P0X
Solution
The solution shown at the right was made by adding 75.0 g of
sucrose (C12H22O11) to 500.0 g of water at a temperature of 20°C.
Answer the following questions about this solution. Water Sucrose
molecule molecule
1. Why do the sugar molecules in the solution lower the vapor pressure of the water?
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5. What is the vapor pressure of the solution if the vapor pressure of pure water at 20°C is
17.54 mm Hg?
6. How much is the vapor pressure of the solution reduced from that of water by the
addition of the sucrose?
C(s) O2(g)
H ess’s law allows you to determine the
standard heat of formation of a compound
when you know the heats of reactions that lead H 110 kJ/mol
to the production of that compound. The first
1
diagram on the right shows how Hess’s law can CO(g) O (g)
2 2
be used to calculate the heat of formation of
CO2 by knowing the heats of reaction of two
steps leading to the production of CO2. Use this
H 393 kJ/mol
diagram to help you answer the questions below
about the second diagram.
Enthalpy
H 283 kJ/mol
The equations below show how NO2 can be
formed in two ways: directly from the elements
or in two steps.
1
N2(g) O2(g) 0 NO2(g) H 33 kJ/mol
2
or
1 1 CO2(g)
N2(g) O2(g) 0 NO(g) H 91 kJ/mol
2 2
B NO2(g)
3 H 33 kJ/mol
Concentration (mol/L)
nitrogen dioxide and oxygen as represented 1.4
by the following equation. 1.2
1.0
2N2O5(g) 0 4NO2(g) O2(g)
0.8
The graph on the right represents the concen- 0.6
tration of N2O5 remaining as the reaction proceeds 0.4
over time. Answer the following questions about 0.2
the reaction.
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (h)
1. What is the concentration of N2O5 at the beginning of the experiment? After 1 hour?
After 2 hours? After 10 hours?
2. By how much does the concentration of N2O5 change during the first hour of the
reaction? Calculate the percentage of change the concentration undergoes during the
first hour of the reaction.
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4. What is the instantaneous rate of reaction for the decomposition of N2O5 between the sec-
ond and fourth hours of the reaction? Between the third and eighth hours of the reaction?
5. How long does it take for 0.10 mol of N2O5 to decompose during the tenth hour of the reaction?
6. What is the average rate of reaction for the decomposition of N2O5 overall?
Concentrations in a Reaction
8
Concentration (mol/L)
7
SO2
condition in which the concentrations of all reactants 6 SO2
and products are constant. Equilibrium can be disturbed, 5
however, by the addition or removal of either a reactant or 4 O2 O2
product. The graph on the right shows how the concentra- 3
tions of the reactants and product of a reaction change 2 SO3
when equilibrium is disturbed. Use the graph to answer the SO3
1
following questions. 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (sec)
1. Write the equation for the reaction depicted in the graph.
3. Explain the shapes of the curves for the three gases during the first 2 minutes of the
reaction.
7. Describe the change made in the system 4 minutes into the reaction. Tell how you know
the change was made.
1. Write an equation that shows the reaction between hypochlorous acid and water. Identify
the acid, base, conjugate acid, and conjugate base in this reaction.
2. Write an equation that shows the reaction that occurs when the hypochlorite ion (OCl),
in the form of calcium hypochlorite or sodium hypochlorite, is added to water. Name the
acid, base, conjugate acid, and conjugate base in this reaction.
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3. What effect does the addition of hypochlorite ion have on the pH of swimming pool water?
4. The effectiveness of hypochlorite ion as a bactericide depends on pH. How does high pH
affect the equilibrium reaction described in question 2? What effect would high pH have
on the bacteria?
5. In the presence of sunlight, hypochlorite ion decomposes to form chloride ion and oxygen
gas. Write an equation for this reaction and tell how it affects the safety of pool water.
Reduction Equations
1. In the absence of a sacrificial metal, oxygen dissolved in water may react with the iron
casing of the heater. One product formed is iron(II) hydroxide (Fe(OH)2). Which element
is oxidized and which is reduced in this reaction?
4. Suppose the sacrificial rod in the diagram above is coated with aluminum metal. Write
the balanced equation for the reaction of aluminum with oxygen dissolved in the water.
(Hint: The product formed is aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)3).
6. Suppose that some iron in the casing of the water heater is oxidized, as shown in the
equation of question 2 above. The sacrificial metal (aluminum, in this case) immediately
restores the Fe2 ions to iron atoms. Write two half-reactions that represent this situation.
Cell Potential
I n a voltaic cell where all ions have a concentration of 1M, the cell potential is
equal to the standard potential. For cells in which ion concentrations are greater or
less than 1M, as shown below, an adjustment must be made to calculate cell potential.
That adjustment is expressed by the Nernst equation:
[product ion]x
0.0592 log
Ecell E 0cell n [reactant ion]y
Voltmeter
Ag Cu
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Ag Cu2
1.0 102M 1.0 103M
1. Write the two half-reactions and the overall cell reaction for the cell shown above.
2. Use Table 21-1 in your textbook to determine the standard potential of this cell.
4. Calculate the cell potential for the ion concentrations shown in the cell.
CH3
CH3
d. CH3 h. CH3
1. In the spaces provided, write the correct name for each of the structural formulas, labeled
a–j, above.
a. e. i.
b. f. j.
c. g.
d. h.
2. How many different compounds are represented by the structural formulas above? What
are their names?
Families
1. For any one family, what is the relationship between molecular mass and boiling point?
2. For compounds of similar molecular mass, which family of the four shown in the graph
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has the lowest boiling points? Which family has the highest boiling points?
3. Find and list the boiling points for ethanol (molecular mass 46) and dimethyl ether
(molecular mass 46) on the graph. Why would you expect these two compounds to
have relatively similar boiling points?
4. Find the aldehyde with a molecular mass of about 58. Name that aldehyde and write its
chemical formula.
5. Can this aldehyde form hydrogen bonds? Can other aldehydes form hydrogen bonds?
Explain.
First base
Third base
thesis of proteins. The table shows the mRNA codons CUA
CUG
CCA
CCG
CAA
CAG } Gln CGA
CGG
A
G
that make up the genetic code. To use the table, read
the three nitrogen bases in sequence. The first base is
AUU
AUC Ile
ACU
ACC
AAU
AAC } Asn AGU
AGC } Ser
U
C
A Thr
shown along the left side of the table. The second base
is shown along the top of the table. The third base is
AUA
AUG
ACA
Met ACG
AAA
AAG } Lys AGA
AGG } Arg
A
G
shown along the right side of the table. For example, GUU
GUC
GCU
GCC
GAU
GAC } Asp GGU
GGC
U
C
the sequence CAU codes for the amino acid histidine G Val Ala Gly
(His). The table gives abbreviations for the amino
GUA
GUG
GCA
GCG
GAA
GAG } Glu GGA
GGG
A
G
acids. Answer the following questions about the
genetic code.
2. Write the sequence of amino acids for which the following mRNA sequence codes.
-C-A-U-C-A-C-C-G-G-U-C-U-U-U-U-C-U-U-
3. Errors sometimes occur when mRNA molecules are synthesized from DNA molecules.
Nitrogen bases may be omitted, an extra nitrogen base may be added, or a nitrogen base
may be changed during synthesis. The two mRNA sequences shown below are examples
of such errors. In each case, tell how the mRNA sequence shown differs from the correct
mRNA sequence given in question 2.
a. -C-A-U-C-A-C-C-G-G-U-U-C-U-U-U-U-C-U-U-
b. -C-A-U-U-A-C-C-G-G-U-C-U-U-U-U-C-U-U-
4. Write the amino acid sequence for each of the mRNA sequences shown in question 3.
a.
b.
Plutonium-239
45p
75n B
0
neutrons C
The diagram shows the process by which plutonium-239
1n
is made in nuclear reactors. Answer the questions about the 0
–1
0
diagram.
D
–1
0
1. Identify the isotope whose nucleus is labeled A in the
F
diagram. 48p
77n E
2. Name the type of nuclear reaction that occurs when a G
4. Besides fragmented nuclei, what else is produced when a neutron strikes nucleus A?
6. Write the nuclear equation for the reaction that occurs when a neutron strikes nucleus C.
Identify the product D formed in the reaction.
7. Write the nuclear equation for the decay of nucleus D. Identify isotope E formed in the
reaction.
8. Write a balanced nuclear equation for the decay of nucleus E. Identify isotope F formed
in the reaction.
9. Name the type of nuclear reaction that occurs when a neutron strikes nucleus F.
10. Write the nuclear equation for the reaction that occurs when a neutron strikes nucleus F.
Identify isotope G formed in the reaction.
Phosphate
rocks
4. In what way is the phosphorus cycle different from the carbon and nitrogen cycles you
studied in the textbook?
5. The phosphorus cycle has both short-term and long-term parts. Use different colored
pencils to show each part on the diagram.