AND POLICY
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION AZARE
IN AFFILIATION WITH
UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI
COURSE OUTLINE:
The purpose of this course unit is to sensitize the students
with some of the developments in the politics of Nigeria
since independence.
TOPICS:
1. A critical appraisal of federalism and national question.
2. Constitutionalism, ideology and national integration
3. Party politics and political participation
4. Military incursion into politics.
1
A CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF FEDERALISM AND NATIONAL
QUESTIONS
In modern times, federalism is a type of polity operating as
constitution which works on two or more levels of government;
as a nation and as a collection of related but self-standing units.
Under such an arrangement, there exists a central government
whose power is supreme and covers all parts of the country. In a
federation, responsibilities are shared among the component
parts. The items for which the central government takes
responsibility are listed under the “EXCLUSIVE LIST” while that of
the subordinate states come under the “RESIDUAL LIST”. There
is also the “CONCURRENT LIST” of issues or items over which the
central government and the states could legislate. But whenever
there is friction in such cases the power of the central
government prevails.
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members to be known as Federal Council. However, the outbreak
of the Second World War in 1939 and his retirement militated
against the implementation of his proposals.
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FEATURES OF A FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
In a federal system of government the state is divided into
unequal parts or levels of government. Powers are shared from
the constitution among the levels of government. For example,
in Nigeria power is shared between the federal, the state and the
local government. The power of the federal government is
EXCLUSIVE which includes: defense, arms, ammunition and
explosives, currency coinage and legal tender, customs and
exercise duties, bankruptcy and insolvency, immigration,
deportation of persons who are not Nigerian citizens, diplomatic
consular and trade representation, drugs and poisons, export
duties, exchange control, external affairs, extradition,
incorporation, regulation and winding up of bodies, corporate
other than co-operative societies, local government councils and
bodies, corporate established directly by any law enacted by a
House of Assembly, insurance, maritime, shipping and
navigation, meteorology and mining. Under the 1979
Constitution, there are functions that both federal and state
governments can legislate upon and execute; this is known as
CONCURRENT POWER. Antiquities and monuments, archives,
collection of taxes, electoral laws, electric power, exhibition of
cinematograph films, industrial, commercial or agricultural
development, scientific and technological research, statistics,
university, post-primary education among others, but where a
state law is in conflict with that of the federal government on
these subject, the federal law will prevail.
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may be conferred on a local government council by the House of
Assembly of the state.
1. Written/Rigid Constitution.
2. Each level of government has co-ordinate supremacy with
regards to their respective functions.
3. States that practice federalism are likely to have multi-ethnic
groups (heterogeneous population).
4. There is duplication of ministries or dual public services.
5. It has very large land mass.
6. There must be an umpire (adjudicator), usually a supreme
court to resolve inter-governmental disputes over the
boundaries of their legal authority.
7. Once a federation is established, the component parts are
usually not allowed to secede or separate.
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protect the interest of all the diverse groups of people thus,
the slogan “UNITY IN DIVERSITY”.
E. LARGE LAND MASS AND POPULATION: -
F. DESIRE FOR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: -
natural and economic resources are not evenly distributed.
Therefore, the need by the federating units to pull resources
together for social and economic development of the state
necessitated federalism.
G. FEAR OF DOMINATION BY MINORITY ETHNIC GROUPS:
-
H. SIMILARITY OF POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS AND
HISTORICAL/COLONIAL EXPERIENCE
MERITS OF FEDERALISM
Federalism has a number of merits which makes it acceptable in
many countries. These include: -
1. It makes possible the exertion of local autonomy by allowing
the component states to develop at their own pace within the
limit of their natural and human resources.
2. It recognizes and preserves the diversity of the people by
allowing them to still maintain their ways of culture, religion
etc despite forming the federation.
3. It minimizes conflicts since there is unity in diversity and
resources are pulled together for common purposes.
4. It made governance of a large area and population easier by
devolution/decentralizing the process of governance.
5. The tendency of the central government becoming autocratic
is checked by the component government. There is
constitutional balance of power to avoid the usurpation of
powers or function of one by the other.
6. It reduces the fear of domination usually expressed by
minorities.
DEMERITS OF FEDERALISM
Federalism has a number of disadvantages, they are as follows: -
i. In its attempt to strengthen unity, federalism tends to
encourage and entrench disunity through local disputes such
as ethnic conflicts, boundary crisis etc.
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ii. Federalism encourages sectional consciousness, such that
national consciousness is reduced, individuals become loyal to
their states than the nation at large.
iii. Federalism operates with a complex administrative structure,
which duplicates or multiplies areas on which meager
resources may be spent. Thus, it is expensive in both money
and manpower.
iv. There is always likely to be tension between the state and
federal government on a number of policy issues and their
implementation. For example, who controls local government,
resource control, revenue sharing etc.
v. Constitutional amendment is difficult because of rigidity of the
constitution; this creates delay in the process of decision
making, brings conservation even if it does not auger well for
change desired in the policy.
vi.Threat to secede may jeopardize the federation as in Nigeria
in 1967 (civil war).
vii. Discrimination of citizen of “other” state “non-indigenes” has
become a common phrase when it comes to employment,
education, religion and socio-cultural events. The situation is
worsened by the introduction of quota system and federal
character.
TYPES OF CONSTITUTION
There are basically six (6) types of constitution, these are: -
1. Written constitution
2. Unwritten constitution
3. Rigid constitution
4. Flexible constitution
5. Unitary constitution
6. Federal constitution
SOURCES OF CONSTITUTION
The laws of the constitution are derived from many sources.
These sources include the following:
1. Parliamentary Acts or Statutes
2. Conventions
3. Constitutional Conferences
4. Judicial decisions or precedents
5. Charters
6. Customs and norms
7. Writings/commentaries of prominent persons
8. International laws
9. Treaties by civil government
10. Past experiences.
CONSTITUTIONALISM
Constitutionalism simply refers to a regime of constitutional
order, that is, the process of carrying out government business
in accordance with laid down fundamental laws of the land; be it
written or unwritten. Constitutionalism is thus, a government
based on rules rather than caprice and arbitrariness. It implies
essentially a constitutional or limited government, a system of
restraints on both the rulers and the ruled. A country is said to
be practicing constitutionalism when the power of government is
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limited so that human rights such as freedom of speech, free
press, due process of law, security of persons and the likes are
formally and infact protected from abridgement by either
officials or private individuals.
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4. Application of the theory of separation of power and check and
balances of the arms of government.
FUNCTIONS OF IDEOLOGY
Political ideology performs a number of functions for movements
and societies for which it provides under structure. These
include:
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1. LEGITIMATION OF LEADERSHIP: - those who occupy
positions of authority often justify their positions and actions
by reference to certain ideological tenets. By so doing,
ideology provides government with legitimacy and helps it to
obtain compliance from citizens without constant resort to the
threat or actual use of force. For instance, the liberal
democratic ideology was used by pro-democracy organizations
in Nigeria to challenge continued military rule.
2. PROMOTION OF SOCIAL COHERENCE: - ideology
promotes unity among members of the society by specifying
the collective goals and designating appropriate mechanisms
for actualizing individual and group aspiration.
3. FACILITATES CONFLICT MANAGEMENT: - by specifying
the collective purpose and means of attaining them, ideology
enables political struggles to become contestations over
principles and not personalities.
4. GUIDE TO POLICY CHOICE AND ASSESSMENT OF
CONDUCT: - ideology provides the framework for making
policy choices by the government and the parameters for
assessing the conduct of officials and the performance of
government.
5. DYNAMIC FORCE IN LIFE: - every ideology provides an
explanation of reality to its adherence and seeks to motivate
them to action.
INTEGRATION THEORY
Integration is a voluntary process in which independent units
overlook all or part of one’s steps in order to achieve one’s aims
within a unify framework. Integration takes place in the set of
independent and separate organs and units. As a result of
amalgamation of several units, one large unit is created which
actors voluntarily give up their powers and choose new
techniques to mutually and jointly solve their differences and
issues.
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system. An integrated political community Deutch posits is a
collection of political actors whose interdependence is sufficient
to make a substantial difference to the outcome of some of each
other relevant decisions.
PARTY POLITICS AND POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
Political participation is the involvement of the citizens of a
country in the activities concerning politics and government of
that country. It is the disposition, ability and willingness of the
citizens to take active part in political activities with the implicit
or explicit aim of influencing the decisions of government. It
includes all those activities of citizens that attempt to influence
the structure of government, the selection of government
authorities, or the policies of government (Conway, 1991).
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iv) Commenting on political issues and debates through mass
media, public for a, writing or conversation with people or
phone calls.
v) Sponsoring political parties and candidates financially and
morally.
vi) Attending political rallies, meetings and campaigns.
vii) Performing of ad-hoc duties during elections.
viii)Protest behavior and interest group activity expressed by way
of demonstrations, rebellion or revolution.
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party, controlled the government of the western region from
January 1963 until 1966.
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Ali, Chief Adekunle Ajasin and M.C.K. Ajuluchukwu, based
primarily in the Yoruba-speaking of the west. Alhaji Ibrahim
Waziri as founder for Nnamdi Azikwe as presidential candidates
and A. Ogunsanya as chairman led the Nigerian Peoples Party
(NPP) based solidly in the Igbo speaking east.
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not authorize the registration of any of these associations on the
excuse that they did not met the laid down criteria and all very
closely related to the banned political parties of first and second
republics which characterized personality cults and money-bags.
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and national assemblies and were manipulated by the
government. However, winners of the states and national
assembly elections were yet to be sworn into office at the death
of the mentor of the ill-fated republic.
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jointly presented Chief Olu Falae as its presidential candidate to
contest under the platform of APP. The PDP won the presidential
election and emerged the dominant party in all the elections. It
won governorship elections in 21 states of the 36 states of the
federation and secured majority seats in the local, state and
national assemblies. The APP and AD did not have wide national
support. In particular, political events showed the AD to
behaving support limited to the southwest where it won six
states Oyo, Ogun, Lagos, Ekiti and Osun. Thus the PDP reputed
to be the “Largest political party in Africa” had the widest
geographical spread followed by the APP while the AD had been
seen as a tribal and ethnic party.
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MILITARY INCURSION INTO POLITICS
CONCEPT OF MILITARY
The concept of military is used to define an institution which is
characterized by the legitimate use of force in modern societies.
In other words, the military as an institution is synonymous with
organized violence and its legitimate use. Military as a term also
connotes the various arms of the armed forces, i.e. Navy, Army
and Air Force.
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Before the formation of the West African Frontier Force, the
Royal Niger Commercial Interests were protected by Royal Niger
Constabulary Force and Gold Coast Constabulary in the Gold
Cost area. All of these were merged in creating West African
Frontier. In forming this force, Lugard recruited the Africana’s as
the ranks and files and British Volunteers as officers. The total
cost of forming these forces was 100,000 pounds. The Africans
recruited were organized into companies and were trained with
Lokoja as their Headquarters. In December 1898 there were
battalions.
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MILITARY RULE is the involvement of the armed forces as a
direct and active participant in policy making and governance in
a state. It is the unconstitutional takeover of the machinery of
administration of the state by members of the armed forces
based on martial laws – decrees and edicts. Military comes in to
power through coup d’état which could be either bloodless or
bloody.
The reasons for military intervention in politics are many and
varied. Normally, each coup may have its own peculiar reasons.
However, some of the common reasons for coup are as follows: -
1. INDISCIPLINE AND GENERAL POLITICAL INSTABILITIES
BY CIVILIAN POLITICIAN: - civilian politicians created and
sustained indiscipline and political instabilities, which threaten
the territorial integrity of their country. The cause of political
instability in Nigeria has been traced to indiscipline among the
political actors. Many politicians of successful republics saw
politics as a matter of life and death. Every contestant believed
that he must either win an election or heaven will fall. Cases of
victimization, intimidation or elimination of political opponents
were ripe. Each of the political parties kept thugs who served
as bodyguards to top party leaders. During election campaign
these thugs use to break up the rules of opposing parties or to
beat up opponents. Whenever two opposing groups of thugs
meet, a battle is ensured. Electoral malpractices were also
common, election officials and the police were bribed to inflate
election results in favour of the candidate of the ruling party.
To cap it all, there was the tendency to cling tenaciously to
power even when the electorates have rejected them. The
results of all these negative behaviors were chaos and
disorder, which the police were often incapable of handling.
The outcome of this was the intervention of the military, which
invariably marked the end of another era in order to arrest
chaos, to protect the territorial integrity of these countries and
in order to provide stability required for political and economic
development.
2. CORRUPTION AND NEPOTISM: - some scholars have argued
that, military intervened in order to stop corruption by civilian
government and introduce discipline and culture adaptability.
Loss of integrity and popularity of the civilian political leaders
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due to their incompetency, resulted in corrupt practices, such
as bribery, embezzlement of public funds through inflation of
contracts, kick back, over invoicing, theft, the diversion of
public funds for party activities, mismanagement of the
economy, indiscipline, squander mania, insensitivity to
people’s needs and aspirations, nepotism, sectionalism etc
were common phenomena of which resulted in to political
chaos.
3. PHENOMENON OF CONTAGIOUS EFFECT OR BAND
WAGON EFFECT: - this theory has it that military intervention
is brought about as a result of successful military coups in
other countries. The demonstration or contagious effect pre-
supposes that events in one country could influence events in
another. In other words, the phenomenon of military
intervention in Nigeria particularly in 1960 could be explained
by what is called phenomenon of contagious effect; a situation
of military intervention in a neighboring country seems to
aspire a take power in other country leading to chain reaction.
4. ECONOMIC HARDSHIP: - other scholars attempt to explain
military rule in relation to dis-satisfaction about socio-economic
condition within the armed forces. And quite often on the basis
of disagreement between officers in the armed forces and
civilian governors. In other words, these scholars have argued
quite a number of military coups can be explained because the
armed forces felt ignored or marginalized particularly in the
distribution of offices and resources in the society.
Furthermore, past experiences have shown that economic
hardship could precipitate political instability. When people are
pushed to the wall, they may express their discontentment to
the authority by creating civil disobedience. Newspapers could
champion the move by writing inciting and provocative
articles, all of which could provide a fertile ground for staging a
coup.
5. POLITICIZATION OF THE MILITARY: - military were
politicized through the inspirations they got from either former
colonial powers or in particular the USA, in order to remove
from power nationalist post independent regimes which were
identified by these foreign forces as either too radical, too
Marxist or too pro-soviet to be left in power in their countries.
Beside foreign forces, the politicians themselves encouraged
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the military in this direction. It is not surprising that the
activities of the first republic in Nigeria reminded military to
see themselves as the only viable opposition. As such, the first
military coup of 15th January, 1966 gave military a taste of
political power, haven tasted power, and they found it difficult
to relinquish it to politician totally. Even when they handed
such power to politicians as we have witnessed in 1979, the
military only waited for the least opportunity to strike again as
we saw in 1983.
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Babangida once lent some weight to this assertion in his
message to the 1990 graduating cadets of the Nigerian
Defence Academy (NDA) during their Passing out Parade (POP)
in Kaduna on Saturday, 22nd September 1990. In the message
read on his behalf by General Sani Abacha, the president said
inter alia “from 1966 to date, our involvement in politics has
adversely affected our peculiar organizational ethos,
professional discipline, dedication and above all esprit de corps
…”, that was why we have had cases of relatively junior
military officers staging coups against their superiors. Coups
were also staged to alter the status quo as in the case of Major
Orkar led coup of 22nd April 1990; it might also be to restore
the status quo or redress tribal imbalance as in the case of the
counter coup of 29th July 1966. All these coups were
manifestations of clearages within the armed forces based on
ethnicity, religion and class related.
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Commander took over and became the first military Head of
State of Nigeria. The government of Ironsi faced the crisis of
legitimacy as the North was not happy with the non-trial of the
coup plotter of January 1966, with the feeling that the coup was
anti-north in execution. Moreover, the Ironsi’s change of federal
structure of government with Unitary System was interpreted by
the North as calculated attempt to bring the Northern Region
under Southern control and Igbo domination. The agony of these
three phenomena resulted into massacre of southerners mostly
Igbos that were living in the North. On 26th July 1966, the army
mutinied. This resulted in the death of Ironsi and numerous other
officers of southern origin including Lieutenant Colonel Fajuyi, a
Yoruba. A second coup had taken place in less than a year;
Lieutenant Colonel Yakubu Gowon middle belter from Angas
tribe emerged as the new Head of State.
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The third coup détats produced General Murtala Ramat
Mohammed as the third military Head of State and Commander
in Chief of the Nigerian Armed Forces. The new regime of
Murtala was welcomed with a great sense of relief by the general
Nigerian populace. Murtala had proved that “one crowded hour
of glorious life is worth an age without a name” (Sidi H. Ali). He
wasted no time in ordering inquiry into corruption and
inefficiency. This exercise led to many dismissal and compulsory
retirement and confiscation of ill gotten assets. He increased the
number of states from 12 to 19. He went further and announced
a new date for the return to civilian rule. This was to be 1979. He
also faced boldly the issue of demobilization so as to cut
Nigerian army to size. His announcement of plan to affect this
led to an abortive coup of 13th February 1976 in which he was
regrettably assassinated.
The fourth coup led by Lieutenant Colonel B. Dimka was
unsuccessful in spite of its bloody nature both in planning and
execution. On Murtala’s death the mantle of leadership fell on
his Chief of Army Staff, General Olusegun Obasanjo, who
pledged himself to complete his predecessor’s reforms and
return the country to civilian rule as planned. By 1 st October
1979, the country returned to civilian rule after a number of
preparatory activities and series of elections ending in the
prudential election of 11th August 1979.
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when the nation was yearning for someone to deliver her from
economic, social and political troubles. He quite indeed
determined to deal with those problems and those who
threatened the nation’s survival. He somehow attempted to beat
the same path with Murtala. In due regard, the government had
no problem of legitimacy with the people, but with the military
as they were divided. In August 27th 1985, General Ibrahim
Badamasi Babangida who became the next Nigerian President
overthrew Buhari in a palace coup. The first Nigerian military
leader to assume the title of president; Babangida had assumed
power to give Nigerian more liberal and democratic government.
Though he ruled by decree in the military government tradition;
in September 1986 he announced the Structural Adjustment
Programme (SAP) and put to bed the IMF loan. The application of
what brought mixed feeling and reactions from people.
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itself in power. Haven discovered the “maradonic” movement of
Babangida, he stepped aside in a historic manner, without
concluding the election of June 12 that was believed to have
been won by Alhaji Moshood Abiola. An Interim National
government led by Chief Earnest Shonekan was quickly put in
place. The government faced a major crisis of legitimacy; in fact,
the Lagos High Court declared the government a “bastard”
having no legal backing and people supported it, thus, social
uprising and complete disorder (Ukaej, 2000).
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country was close to a state anarchy, when some people were
strongly calling for secession. There was intense fear that there
could be an outbreak of crisis. Abdulsalami had series of
meetings with various associations and some pressure groups
such as traditional rulers, trade unions, NADECO leaders,
Ohanaeze and other professional associations. At the end of the
day, the outcome of these meetings was an unfolded time-table
for the transition to civil rule that terminated the eleven months
old Abdulsalami’s regime on May 29th 1999. Abdulsalami
honestly followed the time as it was planned and elections were
finally conducted and he handed over the mantle of leadership
to the elected democratic government of Chief Olusegun
Obasanjo on May 29th, 1999 and sisnce then till now the Nigeria
is in the hand of civilian democratic government.
A. ACHIVEMENTS
i. By defeating the Biafrans and suppressing forces of
disintegration, the military have succeeded in keeping the
Nigeria one.
ii. The promulgation of the 1978 land use decree and the
establishment of river basin development authorities and
agricultural development programmes which facilitated
reforms in agriculture and encouraged integrated and large
scale farming.
iii. The establishment of Aladja and Ajaokuta Steel Complexes
and the refinaries at Kaduna, Warri etc which were designed
to reduce Nigeria’s dependence on foreign imports.
iv. The creation of 36 states and over 700 local governments
reduced the fears of ethnic domination prevalent during the
first republic and brought government closer to the people.
v. Reforms of the local government system aimed at
democratizing the local government and making them more
efficient and responsive to the needs of the people at the
grassroots level.
vi. Communication was given priority, good road networks and
airports were constructed. Improvements were made in
railways and water ways. Port facilities were increased
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considerably; the same applies to telephone and
telecommunication system.
vii. Large number of institutions from primary, secondary to
tertiary education was established in many parts of the
country.
viii. The NYSC scheme was introduced to bring greater national
awareness among the youths.
ix. The setting up of the PTF assisted greatly in the
reconstruction, rehabilitation and renovation of roads, water
work, water ways, education and health facilities, public
utilities etc nationwide.
x. Relocating the federal capital territory to Abuja.
xi. The making of the 1999 constitution which improved the
legal framework for the present democratic system of
government.
xii. The establishment of other government agencies and
programmes for developments and awareness e.g. WAI,
MAMSER, NOA, ethical revolution, FEAP, Better Life
Programmes etc.
B. FAILURES
i. Despite the series of transition programmes conceived and
implemented under various military regimes, military rule
has not succeeded in establishing a stable democracy in the
country. By frequently intervening, the military did not give
the civilian politicians sufficient time to nurse democracy to
maturity.
ii. Military rule has not succeeded in achieving true national
integration and the inculcation of partriotism in Nigerians.
iii. The military was not able to manage the huge oil revenue
obtained during the oil boom year to efficiently industrialized
the country, modernize agriculture, eliminate illiteracy
among Nigerians, reduce poverty considerably, provide free
medical and educational services to Nigerians and improve
the quality of life for the vast majority of Nigerians.
iv. The military instituted mass retrenchments and dismissal of
about 10,000 public servants for incompetence and
corruption without following due process. This great flush out
that took place later bred insecurity and corruption in the
public service. The purges also led to the loss of esprit de
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corp, the mutuality of corporation which is vital to an
effective and efficient working of the public service.
v. Military leaders could not change the monocultural nature of
the Nigerian economy. Governments continue to rely heavily
on the sale of oil for revenue and foreign exchange.
vi. The economic measures taken by the military regimes to
restore the economy led to devaluation of the naira, heavier
debt burden, more inflation, high level of unemployment,
higher rate of corruption and embezzlement in the public
service, higher rate of crime, decline in industrial growth,
near collapse of public education and health care facilities
and mass poverty. Nigeria’s status change from a middle
income country to one of the 30 poorest nations in the world.
vii. Military involvement in politics has deprived the armed
forces of its fine officers, and reduced the level of
professionalism in the armed forces; soldiers are poorly
housed. Furthermore, the military did not succeed in
reducing its independence on imported weapons and
equipments.
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