APEuropeanHistoryKeyConceptsReviewChart

Period1:14501648

KeyConcept1.1:TheworldviewofEuropeanintellectualsshiftedfromonebasedonecclesiasticalandclassicalauthorityto
onebasedprimarilyoninquiryandobservationofthenaturalworld.

I.Arevivalofclassicaltextsledtonew
methodsofscholarshipandnewvaluesin
bothsocietyandreligion.

A. ItalianRenaissancehumanistspromotedarevivalinclassicalliteratureand
creatednewphilologicalapproachestoancienttexts.SomeRenaissance
humanistsfurtheredthevaluesofsecularismandindividualism.
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B. HumanistrevivalofGreekandRomantexts,spreadbytheprintingpress,
challengedtheinstitutionalpowerofuniversitiesandtheRomanCatholic
Churchandshiftedthefocusofeducationawayfromtheologytowardthestudy
ofclassicaltexts.
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C. AdmirationforGreekandRomanpoliticalinstitutionssupportedarevivalof
civichumanistcultureintheItaliancitystatesandproducedsecularmodelsfor
individualandpoliticalbehavior.
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II.Theinventionofprintingpromotedthe
disseminationofnewideas.

A. Theinventionoftheprintingpressinthe1450saidedinspreadingthe
RenaissancebeyondItalyandencouragedthegrowthofvernacularliterature,
whichwouldeventuallycontributetothedevelopmentofnationalcultures.
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B. Protestantreformersusedthepresstodisseminatetheirideas,whichspurred
religiousreformandhelpeditbecomewidelyestablished.
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III.Thevisualartsincorporatedthenew
ideasoftheRenaissanceandwereusedto
promotepersonal,political,andreligious
goals.

A. Princesandpopes,concernedwithenhancingtheirprestige,commissioned
paintingsandarchitecturalworksbasedonclassicalstylesandoftenemploying
thenewlyinventedtechniqueofgeometricperspective.
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B. Ahumancenterednaturalismthatconsideredindividualsandeverydaylife
appropriateobjectivesofartisticrepresentationwasencouragedthroughthe
patronageofbothprincesandcommercialelites.
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C. ManneristandBaroqueartistsemployeddistortion,drama,andillusioninworks
commissionedbymonarchies,citystates,andthechurchforpublicbuildingsto
promotetheirstatureandpower.
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IV.Newideasinsciencebasedon
observation,experimentation,and
mathematicschallengedclassicalviewsof
thecosmos,nature,andthehumanbody,
thoughfolktraditionsofknowledgeand
theuniversepersisted.

A. NewideasandmethodsinastronomyledindividualssuchasCopernicus,
Galileo,andNewtontoquestiontheauthorityoftheancientsandreligionandto
developaheliocentricviewofthecosmos.
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B. Anatomicalandmedicaldiscoveriesbyphysicians,includingWilliamHarvey,
presentedthebodyasanintegratedsystem,challengingthetraditionalhumoral
theoryofthebodyanddiseaseespousedbyGalen.
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C. FrancisBaconandReneDescartesdefinedinductiveanddeductivereasoning
andpromotedexperimentationandtheuseofmathematics,whichwould
ultimatelyshapethescientificmethod.
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D. Alchemyandastrologycontinuedtoappealtoelitesandtosomenatural
philosophers,inpartbecausetheysharedwiththenewsciencethenotionofa
predictableandknowableuniverse.Inoralcultureofpeasants,abeliefthatthe
cosmoswasgovernedbydivineanddemonicforcespersisted.
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KeyConcept1.2:Thestruggleforsovereigntywithinandamongstatesresultedinvaryingdegreesofpoliticalcentralization.

I.Thenewconceptofthesovereignstateand
secularsystemsoflawplayedacentralrole
inthecreationofnewpoliticalinstitutions.

A. Newmonarchieslaidthefoundationforthecentralizedmodernstateby
establishingamonopolyontaxcollection,militaryforce,andthedispensingof
justice,andbygainingtherighttodeterminethereligionoftheirsubjects.
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B. ThePeaceofWestphalia(1648),whichmarkedtheeffectiveendofthemedieval
idealofuniversalChristendom,acceleratedthedeclineoftheHolyRoman
Empirebygrantingprinces,bishopsandotherlocalleaderscontrolover
religion.
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C. AcrossEurope,commercialandprofessionalgroupsgainedinpowerandplayed
agreaterroleinpoliticalaffairs.
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D. Secularpoliticaltheories,suchasthoseespousedinMachiavellis
ThePrince
,
providedanewconceptofthestate.
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II.Thecompetitivestatesystemledtonew
patternsofdiplomacyandnewformsof
warfare.

A. FollowingthePeaceofWestphalia(1648),religionnolongerwasacausefor
warfareamongEuropeanstates;instead,theconceptofthebalanceofpower
playedanimportantroleinstructuringdiplomaticandmilitaryobjectives.
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B. Advancesinmilitarytechnology(i.e.,themilitaryrevolution)ledtonewforms
ofwarfare,includinggreaterrelianceoninfantry,firearms,mobilecannon,and
moreelaboratefortifications,allfinancedbyheaviertaxationandrequiringa
largerbureaucracy.Technology,tactics,andstrategiestippedthebalanceof
powertowardstatesabletomarshalsufficientresourcesforthenewmilitary
environment.
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III.Thecompetitionforthepowerbetween
monarchsandcorporategroupsproduced
differentdistributionofgovernmental
authorityinEuropeanstates.

A. TheEnglishCivilWar,aconflictbetweenthemonarchy,Parliament,andother
elitesovertheirrespectiverolesinthepoliticalstructure,exemplifiedthis
competition.
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B. Monarchiesseekingenhancedpowerfacedchallengesfromnobleswhowished
toretaintraditionalformsofsharedgovernanceandregionalautonomy.
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KeyConcept1.3:ReligiouspluralismchallengedtheconceptofaunifiedEurope.

I.TheProtestantandCatholicReformations
fundamentallychangedtheology,religious
institutions,andculture.

A. Christianhumanism,embodiedinthewritingsofErasmus,employed
Renaissancelearningintheserviceofreligiousreform.
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B. ReformersMartinLutherandJohnCalvin,aswellasreligiousradicalssuchas
Anabaptists,criticizedCatholicabusesandestablishednewinterpretationsof
Christiandoctrineandpractice.
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C. TheCatholicReformation,exemplifiedbytheJesuitOrderandtheCouncilof
Trent,revivedthechurchbutcementedthedivisionwithinChristianity.
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II.Religiousreformbothincreasedstate
controlofreligiousinstitutionsandprovided
justificationsforchallengingstateauthority.

A. Monarchsandprinces,suchastheEnglishrulersHenryVIIIandElizabethI,
initiatedreligiousreformfromthetopdown(magisterial)inaneffortto
exercisegreatercontroloverreligiouslifeandmorality.
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B. SomeProtestants,includingJohnCalvinandtheAnabaptists,refusedto
recognizesubordinationofthechurchandstate.
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C. Religiousconflictsbecameabasisforchallengingthemonarchscontrolof
religiousinstitutions.
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III.Conflictsamongreligiousgroups
overlappedwithpoliticalandeconomic
competitionwithinandamongstates.

A. Issuesofreligiousreformexacerbatedconflictsbetweenthemonarchyandthe
nobility,asintheFrenchWarsofReligion.
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B. TheeffortsofHabsburgrulersfailedtorestoreCatholicunityacrossEurope.
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C. Statesexploitedreligiousconflictstopromotepoliticalandeconomicinterests.
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D. Afewstates,suchasFrancewiththeEdictNantes,allowedreligiouspluralismin
ordertomaintaindomesticpeace.
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KeyConcept1.4:Europeansexploredandsettledoverseasterritories,encounteringandinteractingwithindigenous
populations.

I.Europeannationsweredrivenby
commercialandreligiousmotivestoexplore
overseasterritoriesandestablishcolonies.

A. Europeanstatessoughtdirectaccesstogoldandspicesandluxurygoodsasa
meanstoenhancepersonalwealthandstatepower.
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B. Theriseofmercantilismgavethestateanewroleinpromotingcommercial
developmentandtheacquisitionofcoloniesoverseas.

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C. Christianityservedasastimulusforexplorationasgovernmentsandreligious
authoritiessoughttospreadthefaithandcounterIslam,andasajustificationfor
thephysicalandculturalsubjugationofindigenouscivilizations.
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II.Advancesinnavigation,cartography,and
militarytechnologyallowedEuropeansto
establishoverseascoloniesandempires.
III.Europeansestablishedoverseasempires
andtradenetworksthroughcoercionand
negotiation.

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A. ThePortugueseestablishedacommercialnetworkalongtheAfricancoast,in
SouthandEastAsia,andinSouthAmerica.
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B. TheSpanishestablishedcoloniesacrosstheAmericas,theCaribbean,andthe
Pacific,whichmadeSpainadominantstateinEurope.
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C. TheAtlanticnationsofFrance,England,andtheNetherlandsfollowedby
establishingtheirowncoloniesandtradingnetworkstocompletewith
PortugueseandSpanishdominance.
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D. ThecompetitionfortradeledtoconflictsandrivalriesamongEuropeanpowers.
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IV.Europescolonialexpansionledtoa
globalexchangeofgoods,flora,fauna,
culturalpractices,anddiseases,resultingin
thedestructionofsomeindigenous
civilizations,ashifttowardEuropean
dominance,andtheexpansionoftheslave
trade.

A. TheexchangeofgoodsshiftedthecenterofeconomicpowerinEuropefromthe
MediterraneantotheAtlanticstatesandbroughtthelatterintoanexpanding
worldeconomy.
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B. Theexchangeofnewplants,animals,anddiseasestheColumbianExchange
createdeconomicopportunitiesforEuropeansandfacilitatedEuropean
subjugationdestructionofindigenouspeoples,particularlyintheAmericas.
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C. EuropeansexpandedtheAfricanslavetradeinresponsetotheestablishmentofa
plantationeconomyintheAmericasanddemographiccatastrophesamong
indigenouspeoples.
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KeyConcept1.5:Europeansocietyandtheexperiencesofeverydaylifewereincreasinglyshapedbycommercialand
agriculturalcapitalism,notwithstandingthepersistenceofmedievalsocialandeconomicstructures.

I.Economicchangeproducednewsocial
patterns,whiletraditionsofhierarchyand
statuspersisted.

A. Innovationsinbankingandfinancepromotedthegrowthofurbanfinancial
centersandofamoneyeconomy.
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B. Thegrowthofcommerceproducedaneweconomicelite,whichrelatedto
traditionalelitesindifferentwaysinEuropesvariousgeographicregions.
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C. Hierarchyandstatuscontinuedtodefinesocialpowerandperceptionsinrural
andurbansettings.
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II.MostEuropeansderivedtheirlivelihood
fromagricultureandorientedtheirlives
aroundtheseasons,thevillageormanor,
althougheconomicchangesbegantoalter
ruralproductionandpower.

A. Subsistenceagriculturewastheruleinmostareas,withthreecropfieldrotation
inthenorthandtwocroprotationintheMediterranean;inmanycases,farmers
paidrentandlaborservicesfortheirlands.
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B. Thepricerevolutioncontributedtotheaccumulationofcapitalandtheexpansion
ofthemarketeconomythroughthecommercializationofagriculture,which
benefitedlargelandownersinwesternEurope.
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C. AswesternEuropemovedtowardafreepeasantryandcommercialagriculture,
serfdomwascodifiedintheeast,wherenoblescontinuedtodominateeconomic
lifeonlargeestates.
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D. Theattemptsoflandlordstoincreasetheirrevenuesbyrestrictingorabolishing
thetraditionalrightsofpeasantsledtorevolt.
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A. PopulationrecoveredtoitspreGreatPlaguelevelinthe16th

century,and
continuingpopulationpressurescontributedtounevenpriceincreases;
agriculturalcommoditiesincreasedmoresharplythanwages,reducingliving
standardsforsome.
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B. Migrantstothecitieschallengedtheabilityofthemerchantelitesandcraftguilds
togovernandstrainedresources.
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C. Socialdislocation,coupledwiththeweakeningofreligiousinstitutionsduringthe
Reformation,leftcitygovernmentswiththetaskofregulatingpublicmorals.
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III.Populationshiftsandgrowingcommerce
causedtheexpansionofcities,whichoften
foundtheirtraditionalpoliticalandsocial
structuresstressedbygrowth.

IV.Thefamilyremainedtheprimarysocial
andeconomicinstitutionofearlymodern
Europeandtookseveralforms,includingthe
nuclearfamily.

A. Ruralandurbanhouseholdsworkedasunits,withmenandwomenengagedin
separatebutcomplementarytasks.
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B. TheRenaissanceandReformationmovementsraiseddebatesaboutfemaleroles
inthefamily,society,andthechurch.
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C. Fromthelate16th

centuryforward,Europeansrespondedtoeconomicand
environmentalchallenges,suchastheLittleIceAge,bydelayingmarriageand
childbearing,whichrestrainedpopulationgrowthandultimatelyimproved
economicconditionoffamilies.
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V.Popularculture,leisureactivities,and
ritualsreflectingthepersistenceoffolkideas
reinforcedandsometimeschallenged
communaltiesandnorms.

A. Leisureactivitiescombinedtobeorganizedaccordingtothereligiouscalendar
andtheagriculturalcycleandremainedcommunalinnature.
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B. Localandchurchauthoritiescontinuedtoenforcecommunalnormsthrough
ritualsofpublichumiliation.
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C. Reflectingfoldideasandsocialandeconomicupheaval,accusationsofwitchcraft
peakedbetween15801650.

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Period2:16481815

KeyConcept2.1:Differentmodelsofpoliticalsovereigntyaffectedtherelationshipamongstatesandbetweenstatesand
individuals.

I.InmuchofEurope,absolutemonarchywas
establishedoverthecourseofthe17thand
18thcenturies.

A. Absolutemonarchieslimitedthenobilitysparticipationingovernancebut
preservedthearistocracyssocialpositionandlegalprivileges.
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B. LouisXIVandhisfinanceministerJeanBaptisteColbertextendedthe
administrative,financial,military,andreligiouscontrolofthecentralstateoverthe
Frenchpopulation.
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C. Inthe18th

century,anumberofstatesineasternandcentralEuropeexperimented
withenlightenedabsolutism.
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D. TheinabilityofthePolishmonarchytoconsolidateitsauthorityoverthenobility
ledtoPolandspartitionbyPrussia,Russia,andAustria,anditsdisappearancefrom
themapofEurope.
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E. PetertheGreatwesternizedtheRussianstateandsociety,transformingpolitical,
religious,andculturalinstitutions;CatherinetheGreatcontinuedthisprocess.
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II.Challengestoabsolutismresultedin
alternativepoliticalsystems.

A. TheoutcomeoftheEnglishCivilWarandtheGloriousRevolutionprotectedthe
rightsofthegentryandaristocracyfromabsolutismthroughassertionsoftherights
ofParliament.
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B. TheDutchRepublicdevelopedanoligarchyofurbangentryandrurallandholders
topromotetradeandprotecttraditionalrights.
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III.After1648,dynasticandstateinterests,
alongwithEuropesexpandingcolonial
empires,influencedthediplomacyof
Europeanstatesandfrequentlyledtowar.

A. AsaresultoftheHREslimitationofsovereigntyinthePeaceofWestphalia,Prussia
rosetopowerandtheHabsburgs,centeredinAustria,shiftedtheirempire
eastward.
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B. AfterthedefeatoftheTurksin1683attheBattleofVienna,theOttomansceased
theirwestwardexpansion.
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C. LouisXIVsnearlycontinuouswars,pursuingbothdynasticandstateinterests,
provokedacoalitionofEuropeanpowersopposinghim.
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D. RivalrybetweenBritainandFranceresultedinworldwarsfoughtbothinEurope
andinthecolonies,withBritainsupplantingFranceasthegreatestEuropean
power.
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IV.TheFrenchRevolutionposeda
fundamentalchallengetoEuropesexisting
politicalandsocialorder.

A. TheFrenchRevolutionresultedfromacombinationoflongtermsocialandpolitical
causes,aswellasEnlightenmentideas,exacerbatedbyshorttermfiscaland
economiccrises.
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B. Thefirst,orliberal,phaseoftheFrenchRevolutionestablishedaconstitutional
monarchy,increasedpopularparticipation,nationalizedtheCatholicChurch,and
abolishedhereditaryprivileges.
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C. AftertheexecutionofLouisXVI,theradicalJacobinRepublicledbyRobespierre
respondedtooppositionathomeandwarabroadbyinstitutingaReignofTerror,
fixingpricesandwages,andpursuingapolicyofdeChristianization.
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D.

E.

F.

G.

V.ClaimingtodefendtheidealsoftheFrench
Revolution,NapoleonBonaparteimposed
FrenchcontrolovermuchoftheEuropean
continentthateventuallyprovokeda
nationalisticreaction.

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Revolutionaryarmies,raisedbymassconscription,soughttobringthechanges
initiatedinFranceandtherestofEurope.
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Womenenthusiasticallyparticipatedintheearlyphasesoftherevolution;however,
whiletherewerebriefimprovementsinthelegalstatusofwomen,citizenshipinthe
republicwassoonrestrictedtomen.
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RevolutionaryidealsinspiredaslaverevoltbyToussaintLOuvertureintheFrench
colonyofSaintDomingue,whichbecametheindependentnationofHaitiin1804.
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Whilemanywereinspiredbytherevolutionsemphasisonequalityandhuman
rights,othercondemneditsviolenceanddisregardfortraditionalauthority.
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A. Asfirstconsulandemperor,Napoleonundertookanumberofenduringdomestic
reformswhileoftencurtailingrightsandmanipulatingpopularimpulsesbehinda
faadeofrepresentativeinstitutions.
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B. Napoleonsnewmilitarytacticsallowedhimtoexertdirectorindirectcontrolover
muchoftheEuropeancontinent,spreadingtheidealsoftheFrenchRevolution
acrossEurope.
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C. NapoleonsexpandingempirecreatednationalistresponsesthroughoutEurope.
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D. AfterthedefeatofNapoleonbyacoalitionofEuropeanpowers,theCongressof
Vienna(181415)attemptedtorestorethebalanceofpowerinEuropeandcontain
thedangerofrevolutionaryornationalisticupheavalsinthefuture.
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KeyConcept2.2:TheexpansionofEuropeancommerceacceleratedthegrowthofaworldwideeconomicnetwork.

I.EarlymodernEuropedevelopedamarket
economythatprovidedthefoundationforits
globalrole.

A. Laborandtradeincommoditieswereincreasinglyfreedfromtraditional
restrictionsimposedbygovernmentsandcorporateentities.
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B. TheAgriculturalRevolutionraisedproductivityandincreasedthesupplyoffood
andotheragriculturalproducts.
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C. Theputtingoutsystemorcottageindustryexpandedasincreasingnumbersof
laborersinhomesorworkshopsproducedformarketsthroughmerchant
intermediariesorworkshopowners.
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D. Thedevelopmentofthemarketeconomyledtonewfinancialpracticesand
institutions.
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II.TheEuropeandominatedworldwide
economicnetworkcontributedtothe
agricultural,industrial,andconsumer
revolutionsinEurope.

A. EuropeanstatesfollowedmercantilistpoliciesbyexploitingcoloniesintheNew
Worldandelsewhere.
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B. Thetransatlanticslavelaborsystemexpandedinthe17th

and18th

centuriesas
demandforNewWorldproductsincreased.
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C. Overseasproductsandinfluencescontributedtothedevelopmentofaconsumer
cultureinEurope.
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D. TheimportationandtransplantationofagriculturalproductsfromtheAmericas
contributedtoanincreaseinthefoodsupplyinEurope.

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E. Foreignlandsprovidedrawmaterials,finishedgoods,laborers,andmarketsforthe
commercialandindustrialenterprisesinEurope.
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III.Commercialrivalriesinfluenced
diplomacyandwarfareamongEuropean
statesintheearlymodernera.

A. EuropeanseapowersviedforAtlanticinfluencethroughoutthe18th

century.
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B. Portuguese,Dutch,FrenchandBritishrivalriesinAsiaculminatedinBritish
dominationinIndiaandDutchcontroloftheEastIndies.
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KeyConcept2.3:ThepopularizationanddisseminationoftheScientificRevolutionandtheapplicationofitsmethodsto
political,social,andethicalissuesledtoanincreased,althoughnotunchallenged,emphasisonreasoninEuropeanculture.

I.Rationalandempiricalthoughtchallenged
traditionalvaluesandideas.

A. IntellectualssuchasVoltaireandDiderotbegantoapplytheprinciplesofthe
ScientificRevolutiontosocietyandhumaninstitutions.
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B. LockeandRousseaudevelopednewpoliticalmodelsbasedontheconceptofnatural
rights.

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C. DespitetheprinciplesofequalityespousedbytheEnlightenmentandtheFrench
Revolution,intellectualssuchasRousseauofferednewargumentsfortheexclusion
ofwomenfrompoliticallife,whichdidnotgounchallenged.
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II.Newpublicvenuesandprintmedia
popularizedEnlightenmentideas.

A. Avarietyofinstitutions,suchassalons,exploredanddisseminatedEnlightenment
culture.
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B. Despitecensorship,increasinglynumerousandvariedprintedmaterialsserveda
growingliteratepublicandledtothedevelopmentofpublicopinion.
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C. Naturalsciences,literature,andpopularcultureincreasinglyexposedEuropeansto
representationsofpeoplesoutsideofEurope.
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III.Newpoliticalandeconomictheories
challengedabsolutismandmercantilism.

A. Politicaltheories,suchasJohnLockes,conceivedofsocietyascomposedof
individualsdrivenbyselfinterestandarguedthatthestateoriginatedintheconsent
ofthegoverned(i.e.,asocialcontract)ratherthanindivinerightortradition.

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B. Mercantilisttheoryandpracticewerechallengedbyneweconomicideas,suchas
AdamSmiths,espousingfreetradeandafreemarket.
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IV.DuringtheEnlightenment,therational
analysisofreligiouspracticesledtonatural
religionandthedemandforreligious
toleration.

A. Intellectuals,includingVoltaireandDiderot,developednewphilosophiesofdeism,
skepticism,andatheism.
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B. Religionwasviewedincreasinglyasamatterofprivateratherthanpublicconcern.
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C. By1800mostgovernmentshadextendedtolerationtoChristianminorities,and,in
somestates,civilequalitytoJews.
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V.Theartsmovedfromthecelebrationof
religiousthemesandroyalpowertoan
emphasisonprivatelifeandthepublicgood.

A. Untilabout1750,Baroqueartandmusicpromotedreligiousfeelingandwas
employedbymonarchstoglorifystatepower.
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B. Artisticmovementsandliteraturealsoreflectedtheoutlookandvaluesof
commercialandbourgeoissocietyaswellasnewEnlightenmentidealsofpolitical
powerandcitizenship.
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VI.WhileEnlightenmentvaluesdominated
theworldofEuropeanideas,theywere
challengedbytherevivalofpublicsentiment
andfeeling.

A. Rousseauquestionedtheexclusiverelianceonreasonandemphasizedtheroleof
emotionsinthemoralimprovementofselfandsociety.
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B. Revolution,war,andrebelliondemonstratedtheemotionalpowerofmasspolitics
andnationalism.
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C. RomanticismemergedasachallengetoEnlightenmentrationality.
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KeyConcept2.4:Theexperiencesofeverydaylifewereshapedbydemographic,environmental,medical,andtechnological
changes.

I.Inthe17thcentury,smalllandholdings,
lowproductivityagriculturalpractices,poor
transportation,andadverseweatherlimited
anddisruptedthefoodsupply,causing

A. Bythemiddleofthe18th

century,higheragriculturalproductivityand
improvedtransportationincreasedthefoodsupply,allowingpopulationsto
growandreducingthenumberofdemographiccrises(aprocessknownasthe
AgriculturalRevolution).

periodicfamines.Bythe18thcentury,
Europeansbegantoescapefromthe
Malthusianimbalancebetweenpopulation
andthefoodsupply,resultinginsteady
populationgrowth.

II.Theconsumerrevolutionofthe18th

centurywasshapedbyanewconcernfor
privacy,encouragedthepurchaseofnew
goodsforhomes,andcreatednewvenuesfor
leisureactivities.

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B. Inthe18th

century,plaguedisappearedasamajorepidemic,andinoculation
reducedsmallpoxmortality.
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III.Bythe18thcentury,familyandprivate
lifereflectednewdemographicpatternsand
theeffectsoftheCommercialRevolution.

A. Thoughtherateofillegitimatebirthsincreasedinthe18th

century,population
growthwaslimitedbytheEuropeanmarriagepatternand,insomeareas,by
theearlypracticeofbirthcontrol.
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B. Asinfantandchildmortalitydecreasedandcommercialwealthincreased,
familiesdedicatedmorespaceandresourcestochildrenandchildrearing,as
wellasprivatelifeandcomfort.
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IV.Citiesofferedeconomicopportunities,
whichattractedincreasingmigrationfrom

A. TheAgriculturalRevolutionproducedmorefoodusingfewerworkers;asa
resultpeoplemigratedfromruralareastothecitiesinsearchofwork.

ruralareas,transformingurbanlifeand
creatingchallengesforthenewurbanites
andtheirfamilies.

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B. Thegrowthofcitieserodedtraditionalcommunalvalues,andcitygovernments
strainedtoprovideprotectionandahealthyenvironment.
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Period3:18151914

KeyConcept3.1:TheIndustrialRevolutionspreadfromGreatBritaintothecontinent,wherethestateplayedagreaterrole
inpromotingindustry.

I.GreatBritainestablisheditsindustrial
dominancethroughthemechanizationof
textileproduction,ironandsteelproduction,
andnewtransportationsystems.

A. Britainsreadyofcoal,ironore,andotheressentialrawmaterialspromoted
industrialgrowth.
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B. Economicinstitutionsandhumancapitalsuchasengineers,inventors,and
capitalistshelpedBritainleadtheprocessofindustrialization,largelythrough
privateinitiative.
Example1
Example2
Example3
C. Britainsparliamentarygovernmentpromotedcommercialandindustrial
interests,becausethoseinterestswererepresentedinParliament.
Example1
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 Example3

II.FollowingtheBritishexample,
industrializationtookrootincontinental
Europe,sometimeswithstatesponsorship.

A. FrancemovedtowardindustrializationatamoregradualpacethanGreatBritain,
withgovernmentsupportandwithlessdislocationoftraditionalmethodsof
production.
Example1
Example2
Example3
B. IndustrializationinPrussiaallowedthatstatetobecometheleaderofaunified
Germany,whichsubsequentlyunderwentrapidindustrializationunder
governmentsponsorship.
Example1
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C. Acombinationoffactors,includinggeography,lackofresources,thedominance
oftraditionallandedelites,thepersistenceofserfdominsomeareas,and
inadequategovernmentsponsorshipaccountedforeasternandsouthern
Europeslaginindustrialdevelopment.
Example1
Example2
Example3

III.DuringtheSecondIndustrialRevolution
(c.18701914),moreareasofEurope
experiencedindustrialactivity,and
industrialprocessesincreasedinscaleand
complexity.

A. Mechanizationandthefactorysystembecamethepredominantmodesof
productivityby1914.
Example1
Example2
Example3
B. Newtechnologiesandmeansofcommunicationandtransportationincluding
railroadsresultedinmorefullyintegratednationaleconomies,ahigherlevelof
urbanization,andatrulyglobaleconomicnetwork.

 Example1
Example2
Example3
C. Volatilebusinesscyclesinthelastquarterofthe19th

centuryledcorporationsand
governmentstotrytomanagethemarketthroughmonopolies,bankingpractices,
andtariffs.
Example1
Example2
Example3

KeyConcept3.2:Theexperiencesofeverydaylifewereshapedbyindustrialization,dependingonthelevelofindustrial
developmentinaparticularlocation.

I.Industrializationpromotedthe
developmentofnewclassesintheindustrial
regionsofEurope.

A. InindustrializedareasofEurope(i.e.,westernandnorthernEurope),
socioeconomicchangescreateddivisionsoflaborthatledtothedevelopmentof
selfconsciousclasses,suchastheproletariatandthebourgeoisie.
Example1
Example2
Example3
B. InsomeofthelessindustrializedareasofEurope,thedominanceofagricultural
elitespersistedintothe20th

century.
Example1
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C. Classidentitydevelopedandwasreinforcedthroughparticipationin
philanthropic,political,andsocialassociationsamongthemiddleclasses,andin
mutualaidsocietiesandtradeunionsamongtheworkingclass.
Example1
Example2

 Example3

II.Europeexperiencedrapidpopulation
growthandurbanization,leadingtosocial
dislocations.

A. Alongwithbetterharvestscausedinpartbythecommercializationofagriculture,
industrializationpromotedpopulationgrowth,longerlifeexpectancy,and
loweredinfantmortality.
Example1
Example2
Example3
B. Withmigrationfromruraltourbanareasinindustrializedregions,cities
experiencedovercrowding,whileaffectedruralareassuffereddeclinesin
availablelaboraswellasweakenedcommunities.
Example1
Example2
Example3

III.Overtime,theIndustrialRevolution
alteredthefamilystructureandrelationsfor
bourgeoisandworkingclassfamilies.

A. Bourgeoisfamiliesbecamefocusedonthenuclearfamilyandthecultof
domesticity,withdistinctgenderrolesformenandwomen.
Example1
Example2
Example3
B. Bytheendofthecentury,wagesandthequalityoflifefortheworkingclass
improvedbecauseoflawsrestrictingthelaborofchildrenandwomen,social
welfareprograms,improveddiet,andtheuseofbirthcontrol.
Example1
Example2
Example3
C. Economicmotivationsformarriage,whilestillimportantforallclasses,
diminishedasthemiddleclassnotionofcompanionatemarriagebegantobe
adoptedbytheworkingclasses.

 Example1
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D. Leisuretimecenteredincreasinglyonthefamilyorsmallgroups,concurrentwith
thedevelopmentofactivitiesandspacestousethattime.
Example1
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Example3

IV.Aheightenedconsumerismdevelopedas
aresultoftheSecondIndustrialRevolution.

V.Becauseofthepersistenceofprimitive
agriculturalpracticesandlandowning
patterns,someareasofEuropelaggedin
industrialization,whilefacingfamine,debt,
andlandshortages

A. Industrializationandmassmarketingincreasedboththeproductionanddemand
foranewrangeofconsumergoodsincludingclothing,processedfoods,and
laborsavingandleisure.
Example1
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B. Newefficientmethodsoftransportationandotherinnovationscreatednew
industries,improvedthedistributionofgoods,increasedconsumerism,and
enhancedthequalityoflife.
Example1
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Example1
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KeyConcept3.3:Theproblemsofindustrializationprovokedarangeofideological,governmental,andcollectiveresponses.

I.Ideologiesdevelopedandtookroot
throughoutsocietyasaresponseto
industrialandpoliticalrevolutions.

A. Liberalsemphasizedpopularsovereignty,individualrights,andenlightened
selfinterestbutdebatedtheextenttowhichallgroupsinsocietyshouldactively
participateinitsgovernance.
Example1
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B. RadicalsinBritainandrepublicansonthecontinentdemandeduniversalmale
suffrageandfullcitizenshipwithoutregardtowealthandpropertyownership;
somearguedthatsuchrightsshouldbeextendedtowomen.
Example1
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C. Conservativesdevelopedanewideologyinsupportoftraditionalpoliticaland
religiousauthorities,whichwasbasedontheideathathumannaturewasnot
perfectible.
Example1
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D. Socialistscalledforafairdistributionofsocietysresourcesandwealth,and
evolvedfromautopiantoaMarxistscientificcritiqueofcapitalism.
Example1
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E. Anarchistsassertedthatallformsofgovernmentalauthoritywereunnecessary,
andshouldbeoverthrownandreplacedwithasocietybasedonvoluntary
cooperation.
Example1
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F. Nationalistsencouragedloyaltytothenationinavarietyofways,including
romanticidealism,liberalreform,politicalunification,racialismwitha
concomitantantiSemitism,andchauvinismjustifyingnationalaggrandizement.
Example1
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G. AformofJewishnationalism,Zionism,developedinthelate19th

centuryasa
responsetogrowingantiSemitisminbothwesternandeasternEurope.
Example1
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II.Governmentsrespondedtotheproblems
createdorexacerbatedbyindustrialization
byexpandingtheirfunctionsandcreating
modernbureaucraticstates.

A. Liberalismshiftedfromlaissezfairetointerventionisteconomicandsocialpolicies
onbehalfofthelessprivileged;thepolicieswerebasedonarationalapproachto
reformthataddressedtheimpactofIndustrialRevolutionontheindividual.
Example1
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B. Governmentreformstransformedunhealthyandovercrowdedcitiesby
modernizinginfrastructure,regulatingpublichealth,reformingprisons,and
establishingmodernpoliceforce.
Example1
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C. Governmentspromotedcompulsorypubliceducationtoadvancethegoalsof
publicorder,nationalism,andeconomicgrowth.
Example1
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III.Politicalmovementsandsocial
organizationsrespondedtotheproblemsof
industrialization.

A. Massbasedpoliticalpartiesemergedassophisticatedvehiclesforsocial,
economic,andpoliticalreform.
Example1
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Example3
B. Workersestablishedlaborunionsandmovementspromotingsocialandeconomic
reforms.
Example1
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C. Feministspressedforlegal,economic,andpoliticalrightsforwomen,aswellas
improvedworkingconditions.
Example1
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D. Variousprivate,nongovernmentalreformmovementssoughttoliftupthe
deservingpoorandendserfdomandslavery.
Example1
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KeyConcept3.4:Europeanstatesstruggledtomaintaininternationalstabilityinanageofnationalismandrevolutions.

I.TheConcertofEurope(orCongress
System)soughttomaintainthestatusquo
throughcollectiveactionandadherenceto
conservatism.

A. Metternich,architectoftheConcertofEurope,useditsuppressnationalistand
liberalrevolutions.
Example1
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Example3

B. ConservativesreestablishedcontrolinmanyEuropeanstatesandattemptedto
suppressmovementsforchangeand,insomeareas,tostrengthenadherenceto
religiousauthorities.
Example1
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C. Inthefirsthalfofthe19th

century,revolutionariesattemptedtodestroythestatus
quo.
Example1
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D. Therevolutionsof1848challengedtheconservativeorderandledtothe
breakdownoftheConcertofEurope.
Example1
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II.ThebreakdownoftheConcertofEurope
openedthedoorformovementsofnational
unificationinItalyandGermany,aswellas
liberalreformselsewhere.

A. TheCrimeanWardemonstratedtheweaknessoftheOttomanEmpireand
contributedtothebreakdownoftheConcertofEurope,therebycreatingthe
conditionsinwhichItalyandGermanycouldbeunitedaftercenturiesof
fragmentation.
Example1
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B. Anewbreedofconservativeleaders,includingNapoleonIII,Cavour,andBismarck,
cooptedtheagendaofnationalistsforthepurposesofcreatingorstrengthening
thestate.
Example1
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C. ThecreationofthedualmonarchyofAustriaHungary,whichrecognizedthe
politicalpowerofthelargestethnicminority,wasanattempttostabilizethestate
byreconfiguringnationalunity.
Example1
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D. InRussia,autocraticleaderspushedthroughaprogramofreformand
modernization,whichgaverisetorevolutionarymovementsandeventuallythe
Revolutionof1905.
Example1
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III.TheunificationofItalyandGermany
transformedtheEuropeanbalanceofpower
andledtoeffortstoconstructanew
diplomaticorder.

A. Cavours
Realpolitik
strategies,combinedwiththepopularGaribaldismilitary
campaigns,ledtotheunificationofItaly.
Example1
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B. Bismarckemployeddiplomacy,industrializedwarfareandweaponry,andthe
manipulationofdemocraticmechanismsofGermany.
Example1
Example2
Example3
C. After1871Bismarckattemptedtomaintainthebalanceofpowerthrougha
complexsystemofalliancesdirectedatisolatingFrance.
Example1
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D. Bismarcksdismissalin1890eventuallyledtoasystemofmutuallyantagonistic
alliancesandheightenedinternationaltensions.

 Example1
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E. NationalisttensionsintheBalkansdrewtheGreatPowersintoaseriesofcrises
leadinguptoWorldWarI.
Example1
Example2
Example3

KeyConcept3.5:AvarietyofmotivesandmethodsledtotheintensificationofEuropeanglobalcontrolandincreased
tensionsamongtheGreatPowers.

I.Europeannationsweredrivenby
economic,political,andculturalmotivations
intheirnewimperialventuresinAsiaand
Africa.

A. Europeannationalrivalriesandstrategicconcernsfosteredimperialexpansionand
competitionforcolonies.
Example1
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B. Thesearchforrawmaterialsandmarketsformanufacturedgoods,aswellas
strategicandnationalisticconsiderations,droveEuropeanstocolonizeAfricaand
Asia,evenasEuropeancoloniesintheAmericasbrokefreepolitically,ifnot
economically.
Example1
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Example3
C. Europeansjustifiedimperialismthroughanideologyofculturalandracial
superiority.
Example1
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II.Industrialandtechnologicaldevelopments
(i.e.,theSecondIndustrialRevolution)
facilitatedEuropeancontrolofglobal
empires.

A. Thedevelopmentofadvancedweaponryinvariablyensuredthemilitary
superiorityofEuropeansovercolonizedareas.
Example1
Example2
Example3
B. Communicationandtransportationtechnologiesallowedforthecreationof
Europeanempires.
Example1
Example2
Example3
C. AdvancesinmedicinesupportedEuropeancontrolofAfricaandAsiabypreserving
Europeanlives.
Example1
Example2
Example3

III.Imperialendeavorssignificantlyaffected
society,diplomacy,andcultureinEurope
andcreatedresistancetoforeigncontrol
abroad.

A. ImperialismcreateddiplomatictensionsamongEuropeanstatesthatstrained
alliancesystems.
Example1
Example2
Example3
B. ImperialencounterswithnonEuropeanpeoplesinfluencedthestylesandsubject
matterofartistsandwritersandprovokeddebateovertheacquisitionofcolonies.
Example1
Example2
Example3
C. AsnonEuropeansbecameeducatedinWesternvalues,theychallengedEuropean
imperialismthroughnationalistmovementsand/orbymodernizingtheirown
economiesandsocieties.
Example1

 Example2
Example3

KeyConcept3.6:Europeanideasandcultureexpressedatensionbetweenobjectivityandscientificrealismononehand,and
subjectivityandindividualexpressionontheother.

I.Romanticismbrokewithneoclassical
formsofartisticrepresentationandwith
rationalism,placingmoreemphasison
intuitionandemotion.

A. Romanticartistsandcomposersbrokefromclassicalartisticformstoemphasize
emotion,nature,individuality,intuition,thesupernatural,andnationalhistoriesin
theirworks.
Example1
Example2
Example3
B. RomanticwritersexpressedsimilarthemeswhilerespondingtotheIndustrial
Revolutionandtovariouspoliticalrevolutions.
Example1
Example2
Example3

II.Followingtherevolutionsof1848,Europe
turnedtowardarealistandmaterialist
worldview.

A. Positivism,orthephilosophythatsciencealoneprovidesknowledge,emphasized
therationalandscientificanalysisofnatureandhumanaffairs.
Example1
Example2
Example3
B. CharlesDarwinprovidedarationalandmaterialaccountofbiologicalchangeand
thedevelopmentofhumanbeingsasaspecies,andinadvertentlyajustificationfor
racialisttheoriesknownasSocialDarwinism.
Example1
Example2

 Example3
C. Marxsscientificsocialismprovidedasystematiccritiqueofcapitalismanda
deterministicanalysisofsocietyandhistoricalevolution.
Example1
Example2
Example3
D. Realistandmaterialistthemesandattitudesinfluencedartandliteratureas
paintersandwritersdepictedthelivesofordinarypeopleanddrewattentionto
socialproblems.
Example1
Example2
Example3

III.Anewrelativisminvaluesandthelossof
confidenceintheobjectivityofknowledge
ledtomodernisminintellectualandcultural
life.

A. Philosophylargelymovedfromrationalinterpretationsofnatureandhuman
societytoanemphasisonirrationalityandimpulse,aviewthatcontributedtothe
beliefthatconflictandstruggleledtoprogress.
Example1
Example2
Example3
B. Freudianpsychologyprovidedanewaccountofhumannaturethatemphasizedthe
roleoftheirrationalandthestrugglebetweentheconsciousandsubconscious.
Example1
Example2
Example3
C. DevelopmentsinthenaturalsciencessuchasquantummechanicsandEinsteins
theoryofrelativityunderminedtheprimacyofNewtonianphysicsasanobjective
descriptionofnature.
Example1
Example2
Example3

D. Modernart,includingImpressionism,PostImpressionism,andCubism,moved
beyondtherepresentationaltothesubjective,abstract,andexpressiveandoften
provokedaudiencesthatbelievedthatartshouldreflectsharedandidealized
valuessuchasbeautyandpatriotism.
Example1
Example2
Example3

Period4:1914Present

KeyConcept4.1:Totalwarandpoliticalinstabilityinthefirsthalfofthe20thcenturygavewaytoapolarizedstateorder
duringtheColdWar,andeventuallytoeffortsattransnationalunion.

I.WorldWarI,causedbyacomplex
interactionoflongandshorttermfactors,
resultedinimmenselossesanddisruptions
forbothvictorsandvanquished.

A. Avarietyoffactorsincludingnationalism,militaryplans,thealliancesystem,and
imperialcompetitionturnedaregionaldisputeintheBalkansintoWorldWarI.
Example1
Example2
Example3
B. Newtechnologiesconfoundedtraditionalmilitarystrategiesandledtomassive
trooplosses.
Example1
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Example3
C. Theeffectsofmilitarystalemateandtotalwarledtoprotestandinsurrectionin
thebelligerentnationsandeventuallytorevolutionsthatchangedthe
internationalbalanceofpower.
Example1
Example2
Example3

D. ThewarinEuropequicklyspreadtononEuropeantheaters,transformingthewar
intoaglobalconflict.
Example1
Example2
Example3
E. TherelationshipofEuropetotheworldshiftedsignificantlywiththeglobalization
oftheconflict,theemergenceoftheUnitedStatesasaworldpower,andthe
overthrowofEuropeanempires.
Example1
Example2
Example3
II.Theconflictinggoalsofthepeace
negotiatorsinParispitteddiplomatic
idealismagainstthedesiretopunish
Germany,producingasettlementthat
satisfiedfew.

A. Wilsonianidealismclashedwithpostwarrealitiesinboththevictoriousandthe
defeatedstates.Democraticsuccessorstatesemergedfromformerempiresand
eventuallysuccumbedtosignificantpolitical,economic,anddiplomaticcrises.
Example1
Example2
Example3
B. TheLeagueofNations,createdtopreventfuturewars,wasweakenedfromthe
outsetbythenonparticipationofmajorpowers,includingtheUnitedStates,
Germany,andtheSovietUnion.
Example1
Example2
Example3
C. TheVersaillessettlement,particularlyitsprovisionsontheassignmentofguiltand
reparationsforthewar,hinderedtheGermanWeimarRepublicsabilityto
establishastableandlegitimatepoliticalandeconomicsystem.
Example1
Example2
Example3

III.Intheinterwarperiod,fascism,extreme
nationalism,racistideologies,andthefailure
ofappeasementresultedinthecatastrophe
ofWorldWarII,presentingagrave
challengetoEuropeancivilization.

A. FrenchandBritishfearsofanotherwar,Americanisolationism,anddeepdistrust
betweenWesterndemocratic,capitalistnationsandthecommunistSovietUnion
allowedfasciststatestorearmandexpandtheirterritory.
Example1
Example2
Example3
B. GermanysBlitzkriegwarfareinEurope,combinedwithJapansattacksinAsiaand
thePacific,broughttheAxispowersearlyvictories.
Example1
Example2
Example3
C. AmericanandBritishindustrial,scientific,andtechnologicalpowerandtheallout
militarycommitmentoftheUSSRcontributedcriticallytotheAlliedvictories.
Example1
Example2
Example3
D. FueledbyracismandantiSemitism,GermanNazismsoughttoestablishanew
racialorderinEurope,whichculminatedwiththeHolocaust.
Example1
Example2
Example3

IV.AsWorldWarIIended,aColdWar
betweentheliberaldemocraticWestandthe
communistEastbegan,lastingnearlyhalfa
century.

A. Despiteeffortstomaintaininternationalcooperationthroughthenewlycreated
UnitedNations,deepseatedtensionsbetweentheUSSRandtheWestledtothe
divisionofEurope,whichwasreferredtointheWestastheIronCurtain.
Example1
Example2
Example3

B. TheColdWarplayedoutonaglobalstageandinvolvedpropagandacampaigns;
covertactions;limitedhotwarsinAsia,Africa,LatinAmerica,andtheCaribbean;
andanarmsrace,withthethreatofanuclearwar.
Example1
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Example3
C. TheUnitedStatesexertedastrongmilitary,political,andeconomicinfluencein
WesternEurope,leadingtothecreationofworldmonetaryandtradesystemsand
geopoliticalalliancessuchastheNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization(NATO).
Example1
Example2
Example3
D. CountrieseastoftheIronCurtaincameunderthemilitary,political,and
economicdominationoftheSovietUnionwithintheCouncilforMutualEconomic
Assistance(COMECON)andtheWarsawPact.
Example1
Example2
Example3
E. ThecollapseoftheUSSRin1991endedtheColdWar,andledtotheestablishment
ofcapitalisteconomiesthroughoutEasternEurope.Germanywasreunited,the
CzechsandSlovaksparted,Yugoslaviadissolved,andtheEuropeanUnionwas
enlargedthroughadmissionofformerEasternbloccountries.
Example1
Example2
Example3
V.Inresponsetothedestructiveimpactof
twoworldwars,Europeannationsbeganto
setasidenationalisminfavorofeconomic
andpoliticalintegration,formingaseriesof

A. AstheeconomicallianceknownastheEuropeanCoalandSteelCommunity,
envisionedasameanstospurpostwareconomicrecovery,developedintothe
EuropeanEconomicCommunity(EECorCommonMarket)andtheEuropean

transnationalunionsthatgrewinsizeand
scopeoverthesecondhalfofthe20th

century.

VI.Nationalistandseparatistmovements,
alongwithethnicconflictandethnic
cleansing,periodicallydisruptedthepost
WorldWarIIpeace.
VII.Theprocessofdecolonizationoccurred
overthecourseofthecenturywithvarying
degreesofcooperation,interference,or
resistancefromEuropeanimperialiststates.

Union(EU),Europeexperiencedincreasingeconomicandpoliticalintegrationand
effortstoestablishasharedEuropeanidentity.
Example1
Example2
Example3
B. OneofthemajorcontinuingchallengestocountriesintheEUisbalancingnational
sovereigntywithresponsibilitiesofmembershipinaneconomicandpolitical
union.
Example1
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Example3
Example1
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Example3

A. AttheendofWorldWarI,PresidentWoodrowWilsonsprincipleofnational
selfdeterminationraisedexpectationsinthenonEuropeanworldforfreedom
fromcolonialdomination,expectationsthatledtointernationalinstability.
Example1
Example2
Example3
B. TheLeagueofNationsdistributedformerGermanandOttomanpossessionsto
FranceandGreatBritainthroughthemandatesystem,therebyalteringthe
imperialbalanceofpower,creatingastrategicinterestintheMiddleEastandits
oil.
Example1
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Example3

C. Despiteindigenousnationalistmovements,independencefrommanyAfricanand
Asianterritorieswasdelayeduntilthemidandeventlate20th

centurybythe
imperialpowersreluctancetorelinquishcontrol,threatsofinterferencefrom
othernations,unstableeconomicandpoliticalsystems,andColdWarstrategic
alignments.
Example1
Example2
Example3

KeyConcept4.2:ThestressesofeconomiccollapseandtotalwarengenderedinternalconflictswithinEuropeanstatesand
createdconflictingconceptionsoftherelationshipbetweentheindividualandthestate,asdemonstratedintheideological
battleamongliberaldemocracy,communism,andfascism.

I.TheRussianRevolutioncreatedaregime
basedonMarxistLeninisttheory.

A. InRussia,WorldWarIexacerbatedlongtermproblemsofpoliticalstagnation,
socialinequality,incompleteindustrialization,andfoodandlanddistribution,all
whilecreatingsupportforrevolutionarychange.
Example1
Example2
Example3
B. Militaryandworkerinsurrections,aidedbytherevivedsoviets,underminedthe
ProvisionalGovernmentandsetthestateforLeninslongplannedBolshevik
revolutionandestablishmentofacommuniststate.
Example1
Example2
Example3
C. TheBolsheviktakeoverpromotedaprotractedcivilwarbetweencommunist
forcesandtheiropponents,whowereaidedbyforeignpowers.
Example1
Example2

 Example3
D. Inordertoimproveeconomicperformance,Lenincompromisedwithfreemarket
principlesundertheNewEconomicPolicy,butafterhisdeathStalinundertooka
centralizedprogramofrapideconomicmodernization.
Example1
Example2
Example3
E. StalinseconomicmodernizationoftheSovietUnioncameatahighprice,including
theliquidationofthekulaks,famineintheUkraine,purgesofpoliticalrivals,
unequalburdensplacedonwomen,andtheestablishmentofanoppressive
politicalsystem.
Example1
Example2
Example3

II.Theideologyoffascism,withrootsin
preWorldWarIera,gainedpopularityinan
environmentofpostwarbitterness,therise
ofcommunism,uncertaintransitionsto
democracy,andeconomicinstability.

A. Fascistdictatorshipsusedmoderntechnologyandpropagandathatrejected
democraticinstitutions,promotedcharismaticleaders,andglorifiedwarand
nationalismtolurethedisillusioned.
Example1
Example2
Example3
B. MussoliniandHitlerrosetopowerbyexploitingpostwarbitternessandeconomic
instability,usingterrorandmanipulatingthefledglingandunpopulardemocracies
intheircountries.
Example1
Example2
Example3
C. FrancosalliancewithItalianandGermanFascistsintheSpanishCivilWarin
whichtheWesterndemocraciesdidnotintervenerepresentedatestingground

forWorldWarIIandresultedinauthoritarianruleinSpainfrom1936tothemid
1970s.
Example1
Example2
Example3
D. Afterfailurestoestablishfunctioningdemocracies,authoritariandictatorships
tookpowerinCentralandEasternEuropeduringtheinterwarperiod.
Example1
Example2
Example3
III.TheGreatDepression,causedby
weaknessininternationaltradeand
monetarytheoriesandpractices,
underminedWesternEuropeandemocracies
andfomentedradicalpoliticalresponses
throughoutEurope.

A. WorldWarIdebt,nationalistictariffpolicies,overproduction,depreciated
currencies,disruptedtradepatterns,andspeculationcreatedweaknessin
economiesworldwide.
Example1
Example2
Example3
B. DependenceonpostWorldWarIAmericaninvestmentcapitalledtofinancial
collapsewhen,followingthe1929stockmarketcrash,theUnitedStatescutoff
capitalflowstoEurope.
Example1
Example2
Example3
C. Despiteattemptstorethinkeconomictheoriesandpoliciesandforgepolitical
alliances,WesterndemocraciesfailedtoovercometheGreatDepressionandwere
weakenedbyextremistmovements.
Example1
Example2
Example3

IV.Postwareconomicgrowthsupportedan
increaseinwelfarebenefits;however,
subsequenteconomicstagnationledto
criticismandlimitationofthewelfarestate.

A. MarshallPlanfundsfromtheUnitedStatesfinancedanextensivereconstructionof
industryandinfrastructureandstimulatedanextendedperiodofgrowthin
WesternandCentralEurope,oftenreferredtoasaneconomicmiracle,which
increasedtheeconomicandculturalimportanceofconsumerism.
Example1
Example2
Example3
B. Theexpansionofcradletogravesocialwelfareprogramsintheaftermathof
WorldWarII,accompaniedbyhightaxes,becameacontentiousdomesticissueas
thebudgetsofEuropeannationscameunderpressureinthelate20th

century.
Example1
Example2
Example3

V.EasternEuropeannationsweredefinedby
theirrelationshipwiththeSovietUnion,
whichoscillatedbetweenrepressionand
limitedreform,untilMikhailGorbachevs
policiesledtothecollapseofcommunist
governmentsinEasternEuropeandthefall
oftheSovietUnion.

A. CentralandEasternEuropeannationswithintheSovietblocfollowedaneconomic
modelbasedoncentralplanning,extensivesocialwelfare,andspecialized
productionsamongblocmembers.
Example1
Example2
Example3
B. After1956,SovietleaderNikitaKhrushchevsdeStalinizationpoliciesfailedto
meettheireconomicgoalswithintheSovietUnionandpromotedrevoltsin
EasternEurope.
Example1
Example2
Example3
C. Followingalongperiodofeconomicstagnation,MikhailGorbachevsinternal
reformsofperestroikaandglasnost,designedtomaketheSovietsystemmore
flexible,failedtostaveoffthecollapseoftheSovietUnionandtheendofits
hegemoniccontroloverEasternandCentralEuropeansatellites.

 Example1
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D. TheriseofnewnationalismsinCentralandEasternEuropebroughtpeaceful
revolutioninmostcountries,butresultedinwarandgenocideintheBalkansand
instabilityinsomeformerSovietrepublics.
Example1
Example2
Example3

KeyConcept4.3:Duringthe20thcentury,diverseintellectualandculturalmovementsquestionedtheexistenceofobjective
knowledge,theabilityofreasontoarriveattruth,andtheroleofreligionindeterminingmoralstandards.

I.Thewidelyheldbeliefinprogress
characteristicofmuchofthe19th

century
thoughtbegantobreakdownbeforeWorld
WarI;theexperienceofwarintensifieda
senseofanxietythatpermeatedmanyfacets
ofthoughtandculture,givingwaybythe
centurysendtoapluralityofintellectual
frameworks.

A. WhenWorldWarIbegan,Europeansweregenerallyconfidentintheabilityof
scienceandtechnologytoaddresshumanneedsandproblemsdespitethe
uncertaintycreatedbythenewscientifictheoriesandpsychology.
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B. Theeffectsofworldwarandeconomicdepressionunderminedthisconfidencein
scienceandhumanreason,givingimpetustoexistentialismandproducing
postmodernisminthepost1945period.
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II.Scienceandtechnologyyielded
impressivematerialbenefitsbutalsocaused

A. ThechallengetothecertaintiesoftheNewtonianuniverseinphysicsopenedthe
doortouncertaintyinotherfieldsbyunderminingfaithinobjectiveknowledge,

immensedestructionandposedchallenges
toobjectiveknowledge.

whilealsoprovidingtheknowledgenecessaryforthedevelopmentofnuclear
weaponsandpower.
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B. Medicaltheoriesandtechnologiesextendedlifebutposedsocialandmoral
questionsthateludedconsensusandcrossedreligious,political,andphilosophical
perspectives.
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C. Militarytechnologiesmadepossibleindustrializedwarfare,genocide,nuclear
proliferation,andtheriskofglobalnuclearwar.
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III.Organizedreligioncontinuedtoplaya
roleinEuropeansocialandculturallife,
despitethechallengesofmilitaryand
ideologicalconflict,modernsecularism,and
rapidsocialchanges.

A. ThechallengesoftotalitarianismandcommunisminCentralandEasternEurope
broughtmixedresponsesfromChristianchurches.
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B. ReformintheCatholicChurchfoundexpressionintheSecondVaticanCouncil,
whichredefinedtheChurchsdogmaandpracticesandstartedtoredefineits
relationswithotherreligiouscommunities.
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C. IncreasedimmigrationintoEuropealteredEuropesreligiousmakeup,causing
debateandconflictovertheroleofreligioninsocialandpoliticallife.

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IV.Duringthe20th

century,theartswere
definedbyexperimentation,selfexpression,
subjectivity,andtheincreasinginfluenceof
theUnitedStatesinbotheliteandpopular
culture.

A. Newmovementsinthevisualarts,architectureandmusicdemolishedexisting
aestheticstandards,exploredsubconsciousandsubjectivestates,andsatirized
Westernsocietyanditsvalues.
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B. Throughoutthecentury,anumberofwriterschallengedtraditionalliterary
conventions,questionedWesternvalues,andaddressedcontroversialsocialand
politicalissues.
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C. IncreasedimportsofUnitedStatestechnologyandpopularcultureafterWorld
WarIIgeneratedbothenthusiasmandcriticism.
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KeyConcept4.4:Demographicchanges,economicgrowth,totalwar,disruptionsoftraditionalsocialpatterns,andcompeting
definitionsoffreedomandjusticealteredtheexperiencesofeverydaylife.

I.The20th

centurywascharacterizedby
largescalesufferingbroughtonbywarfare
andgenocideaswellastremendous
improvementsinthestandardofliving.

A. WorldWarIcreatedalostgeneration,fostereddisillusionmentandcynicism,
transformedthelivesofwomen,anddemocratizedsocieties.
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B. WorldWarIIdecimatedagenerationofRussianandGermanmen,virtually
destroyedEuropeanJewry,forcedlargescaleethnicmigrations,andundermined
prewarclasshierarchies.
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C. Massproduction,newfoodtechnologies,andindustrialefficiencyincreased
disposableincomeandcreatedaconsumercultureinwhichgreaterdomestic
comforts,suchaselectricity,indoorplumbing,plastics,andsyntheticfibers
becameavailable.
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D. Newcommunicationandtransportationmultipliedtheconnectionsacrossspace
andtime,transformingdailylifeandcontributingtotheproliferationofideasand
toglobalization.
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II.Thelivesofwomenweredefinedby
familyandworkresponsibilities,economic
changes,andfeminism.

A. Duringworldwars,womenbecameincreasinglyinvolvedinmilitaryandpolitical
mobilization,aswellasineconomicproduction.
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B. InWesternEuropethroughtheeffortsoffeminists,andinEasternEuropeandthe
SovietUnionthroughgovernmentpolicy,womenfinallygainedthevote,greater
educationalopportunities,andaccesstoprofessionalcareers,evenwhile
continuingtofacesocialinequalities.

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C. WitheconomicrecoveryafterWorldWarII,thebirthrateincreaseddramatically
(theBabyBoom),oftenpromotedbygovernmentpolicies.
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D. Newmodesofmarriage,partnership,motherhood,divorce,andreproductiongave
womenmoreoptionsintheirpersonallives.
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E. Womenattainedhighpoliticalofficeandincreasedtheirrepresentationin
legislativebodiesinmanynations.
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III.Newvoicesgainedprominencein
political,intellectual,andsocialdiscourse.

A. GreenpartiesinWesternandCentralEuropechallengedconsumerism,urged
sustainabledevelopment,andbythelate20th

century,cautionedagainst
globalization.
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B. Gayandlesbianmovementsworkedforexpandedcivilrights,obtaininginsome
nationstherighttoformcivilpartnershipswithfullbenefitsortomarry.
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C. Intellectualsandyouthreactedagainstperceivedbourgeoismaterialismand
decadence,mostsignificantlywiththerevoltsof1968.
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D. Becauseofeconomicgrowthofthe1950sand1960s,numerousguestworkers
fromsouthernEurope,Asia,andAfricaimmigratedtoWesternandCentralEurope;
however,aftertheeconomicdownturnonthe1970s,theseworkersandtheir
familiesoftenbecametargetsofantiimmigrationagitationandextreme
nationalistparties.

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