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Highway Engineering

Lecture 1

Highway
Route
Location

Prepared by
A.L Rawand Mohammed Badri

Contents
Introduction

Steps in rout location


Principle of highway location

Reconnaissance survey
Preliminary location survey
Final location survey

Introduction
Alignment :-The position or the layout of the central line
of the highway.
Horizontal alignment includes straight and curved
paths.
Vertical alignment includes curves and gradients.
The aim of alignment selection process is to find a location
for the new road that will result in the lowest total
construction, land, traffic and environmental costs

Steps in Route location


Location of proposed highway is an important first step in
its design and the steps as follow:

1- known the termini point


2-identify and locate
3-reconnaissance survey
4-draw a corridor
5-possible center line
6-examine each of the alternative alignment
7-final design

Principles of Highway Route Location


Process
The basic principle for locating highways is that roadway

elements such as curvature and grade must blend with each


other to produce a system that provides for the easy flow of
traffic at the design capacity, while meeting design criteria
and safety standards.
The highway should also cause a minimal disruption to
historic and archeological sites and to other land-use
activities.
Environmental impact studies are therefore required in
most cases before a highway location is finally agreed upon.

Highway Location Process


The highway location process involves four
phases:
1. Office study of existing information.
2. Reconnaissance survey.
3. Preliminary location survey.
4. Final location survey.

1.Office study of existing information


The first phase in any highway location study is the
examination of all available data of the area in which the
road is to be constructed.

This phase is usually carried out in the office prior to any


field or photogrammetric investigation. All the available data
are collected and examined.
These data can be obtained from existing engineering
reports, maps, aerial photographs, and charts, which are
usually available at one or more of the states departments
of transportation, agriculture, geology, hydrology, and
mining.

Data Should Be Obtained On The


Following Characteristics Of The
Area:
Engineering, including topography, geology, climate, and traffic volumes.
Social and demographic, including land use and zoning patterns.
Environmental, including types of wildlife; location of recreational,
historic, and archeological sites; and the possible effects of air, noise, and
water pollution.
Economic, including unit costs for construction and the trend of
agricultural, commercial, and industrial activities.

2- Reconnaissance Survey
The purpose of the reconnaissance survey is to evaluate the
feasibility of one or more corridor routes for a highway
between specific points that may be many kilometers
away and can taking in to account the following:

1-topography,geology,climate,and traffic volume.


2-social and demographic , land use.
3-environmental.
4- economic(unit cost for construction and trends of
agricultural, commercial industrial activity).

3- Preliminary Location Survey


During this phase of the study, the positions of
the feasible routes are set as closely as possible
by establishing all the control points and
determining preliminary vertical and
horizontal alignments for each. Preliminary
alignments are used to evaluate the economic
and environmental feasibility of the alternative
routes.

4- Final Location Survey

The final location survey is the detailed


layout of the selected route, during which
time the final horizontal and vertical
alignments are determined and the final
positions of structures and drainage
channels are also determined.

Highway Engineering

Lecture 2

Highway
Classification

Prepared by
A.L Rawand Mohammed Badri

Arterial highway: a highway


primarily a continuous route.
Expressway highway: a divided
arterial highway for through traffic
with partial or full of access and
generally with grade separations at
intersections.
Freeway: an expressway with full
control of access.

Full control of access: is providing y access


connection with selected roads and crossing
at grade separation.
Rural areas: includes urban places less than
5,000 population.
Urban areas
Small urban areas

urbanized areas

Functional system for rural areas

1- rural principal arterial system


2- rural minor arterial system
3- rural collection system
4- rural local road system

Functional Highway Classification in


Urban Areas

Urban principle arterials system


Urban minor arterial system
Urban collector system
Urban local system

Cross section element


Carriageway
Shouldering
Roadway width
Right of way
Building line
Control line
Median
Camber
Side slope
Lateral and vertical
Clearance
Kerb
Guard rail

. Side drain
. Other facilities

Highway Engineering

Lecture 3

The Mass
Diagram

Prepared by
A.L Rawand Mohammed Badri

Earthwork Analysis
Average End Area Method
Consideration for shrinkage
Balance line Considerations
Limit of Freehaul (LFD)
Limit of Profitable Haul (LFH)

CUT

FILL

Special Terms
Free haul distance (FHD)- distance earth is moved
without additional compensation
Limit of Profitable Haul (LPH) - distance beyond
which it is more economical to borrow or waste
than to haul from the project
Overhaul volume of material (Y) moved X Stations
beyond Freehaul, measured in sta yd3, or sta- m3
Borrow material purchased outside of project
Waste excavated material not used in project

Mass Diagram Development


1) Place FHD and LPH distances in all large loops
2) Place other Balance lines to minimize cost of movement
(theoretical)
3) Calculate borrow, waste, and overhaul in all loops
4) Identify stations where each of the above occur

Highway Engineering

Lecture 4

Prepared by
A.L Rawand Mohammed Badri

Definition of Geometric Design :


geometric design of highways deals with the
dimensions and layout of visible features of the
highway.
Geometric design fulfills the requirements of the driver
and the vehicle, such as comfort, efficiency and safety.
Proper geometric design will help in the reduction of
accidents and their severity.

Goals of geometric design


Maximize the comfort, safety and economy of
facilities.
Provide efficiency in traffic operation.
Provide maximum safety at reasonable cost.
Minimize the environmental impacts.

Factors affecting geometric design :


Design speed.
Topography.
Traffic.

Environmental factors.
Economical factors.

Vehicles properties (dimensions, weight, operating characteristics, etc.).


Humans (the physical, mental and psychological characteristics of the driver and
pedestrians like the reaction time).

Highway alignment

First of all lets understand the


meaning of the word alignment by
itself.
alignment :
is an arrangement in a straight
line or in correct relative positions.

Highway Alignment is a three-dimensional problem


Design & Construction would be difficult in 3-D so
highway alignment is split into two 2-D problems

Components of Highway Design


Horizontal Alignment

Plan View
Vertical Alignment
Profile View

Stationing
Horizontal Alignment

Vertical Alignment

Road alignment :
The position or the
layout of the central line
of the highway on the
ground is called the
alignment.
Horizontal alignment
includes straight and
curved paths.
Vertical alignment
includes level and
gradients.

Alignment decision is important because a


bad alignment will enhance the construction,
maintenance and vehicle operating cost. Once an
alignment is fixed and constructed, it is not easy to
change it due to increase in cost of adjoining land
and construction of costly structures by the
roadside.

Horizontal alignment :
Horizontal alignment in road design consists of straight sections of
road, known as tangents, connected by circular horizontal curves.

Horizontal Alignment

Tangents

Curves

More about horizontal alignment :


It is the design of the road in the horizontal plane.
Consists of a series of tangents (straight lines), circular curves and
transition curves.
Should provide safe travel at a uniform design speed.

Highway Engineering

Lecture 5

Prepared by
A.L Rawand Mohammed Badri

Tangents & Curves


Tangent

Curve
Tangent to
Circular Curve

Tangent to
Spiral Curve to
Circular Curve

Layout of a Simple Horizontal Curve


R = Radius of Circular Curve
BC = Beginning of Curve
(or PC = Point of Curvature)
EC = End of Curve
(or PT = Point of Tangency)
PI = Point of Intersection
T = Tangent Length
(T = PI BC = EC - PI)
L = Length of Curvature
(L = EC BC)
M = Middle Ordinate
E = External Distance
C = Chord Length
= Deflection Angle

Circular Curve Components

Properties of Circular Curves


Degree of Curvature
Traditionally, the steepness of the curvature is
defined by either the radius (R) or the degree of
curvature (D)
Degree of curvature = angle subtended by an arc of
length 100 feet
R = 5730 / D
(Degree of curvature is
not used with metric units
because D is defined
in terms of feet.)

Properties of Circular Curves


Length of Curve
For a given external angle (), the length of curve
(L) is directly related to the radius (R)

L = (R) / 180
= R / 57.3
R = Radius of Circular Curve
L = Length of Curvature
= Deflection Angle

In other words, the longer the curve, the larger the


radius of curvature

Properties of
Circular Curves
Other Formulas

Tangent:

T = R tan(/2)

Chord:

C = 2R sin(/2)

Mid Ordinate:

M = R R cos(/2)

External Distance: E = R sec(/2) - R


Circular Curve Geometry

Superelevation :
is the slope across pavement surface and is fully developed
in the circular curve.
(or)
Super-elevation (banking) is the transverse slope provided at
horizontal curve to counteract the centrifugal force, by
raising the outer edge of the pavement with respect to the
inner edge, throughout the length of the horizontal curve.

So super elevation helps the vehicle to over come the


centrifugal force on the curves on pavements

The need for super-elevation on road


curves, to ensure safety against skidding
and over turning with the advent of fast
moving traffic.
In the past, roads were constructed
without any regard to super-elevation on
curves and had generally a cambered
section for drainage purposes. It was little
realised then that a vehicle moving on a
curve had to overcome a centrifugal force
to enable it to follow the curved path
instead of a straight line, but, in justice to
the early designers of roads, it must be
said that there was no fast traffic in those
days.

Side friction :
is the lateral friction, specifically its the Friction
between tyre and road surface which is taken at right
angles to the line of movement of the vehicle.

Generally there are two types of friction :


1. longitudinal friction (tangential to the curve of
the road).
2. lateral friction.

Highway Engineering

Lecture 6

Prepared by
A.L Rawand Mohammed Badri

Vertical
Alignment

Vertical alignment :
Vertical alignment is the longitudinal section (shown on
the y-axis of a road, it consists of straight grades joined
by vertical curves.

Vertical alignment specifies the elevations of points


along the roadway.

Vertical Alignment
Objective:
Determine elevation to ensure
Proper drainage
Acceptable level of safety

Primary challenge
Transition between two grades
Vertical curves
G
G1

Crest Vertical Curve


Sag Vertical Curve

G1

G2

Vertical Curve Fundamentals


Parabolic function
Constant rate of change of slope
Implies equal curve tangents

y ax bx c
2

y is the roadway elevation x stations


(or feet) from the beginning of the curve

Vertical Curve Fundamentals


Choose Either:
G1, G2 in decimal form, L
in feet

PVC

G1

PVI

G2

G1, G2 in percent, L in
stations

PVT

L/2
L
x

y ax 2 bx c

Where: G1: Initial roadway grade( initial tangent


grade)
G2: Final roadway grade
A: Absolute value of the difference in grades
L: Length of vertical curve measured in a
horizontal plane
PVC: Initial point of the vertical curve
PVI: Point of vertical intersection ( intersection of
initial and final grades)
PVT:
Final point of the vertical curve

Vertical curves are almost arranged


such that half of the curve length is
positioned before the PVI and half
after and are referred as equal
tangent vertical curves.
A circular curve is used to connect
the horizontal straight stretches of
road, a parabolic curve is usually
used to connect gradients in the
profile alignment.

It provides a constant rate of change of slope and implies equal curve


lengths.

CREST VERTICAL CURVES

+
+

Level

SAG VERTICAL CURVES

+
-

Level

Vertical Curve
For a vertical curve, the general form of the
parabolic equation is;
1
Y = ax2 + bx + c
where, y is the roadway elevation of the curve at a
point x along the curve from the beginning of the
vertical curve (PVC).
C is the elevation of the PVC since x=0 corresponds
the PVC

dy
b
dx

Slope of Curve
To define a and b, first derivative of equation 1 gives the slope.

At PVC, x=0;

dy
2ax b
dx
dy
b
dx

or

dy
G
dx

Where G1 is the initial slope.

G1 b

Taking second derivative of equation1, i.e. rate of change of slope;

The rate of change of slope can also be written as;

dy 2
2a
2
dx

dy 2 G2 G1

2
dx
L

2a

G2 G1
L

Equating equations 4 and 5

G2 G1
2a
L

or

G2 G1
a
2L

Fundamentals of Vertical Curves


For vertical curve design and construction, offsets which are vertical
distances from initial tangent to the curve are important for vertical
curve design.

PVI

PVC
PVC

PVT

PVT

PVI

PVC

PVC

PVT
PVI

PVC

PVT
PVT

A vertical curve also simplifies


the computation of the high and
low points or crest and sag
vertical curves respectively, since
high or low point does not occur
at the curve ends PVC or PVT.
Let Y is the offset at any
distance x from PVC.

Ym is the mid curve offset & Yt is the offset at


the end of the vertical curve.
From an equal tangent parabola, it can be
written as;

A
2
y
x
200 L

where y is the offset in feet and 8A is the


absolute value of the difference in grades(G2G1, in %), L is length of vertical curve in feet
and x is distance from the PVC in feet.

Putting the value of x=L in eq. 8

A L 2
ym
( )
200 L 2

AL
ym
800
A
yf
* L2
200 L

AL
yf
200

First derivative can be used to determine the location of the low


point, the alternative to this is to use a k-value which is defined as

where L is in feet and A is in %.

L
k
A

This value k can be used directly to


compute the high / low points for crest/
sag vertical curves by
x=kG1
where x is the distance from the PVC to
the high/ low point. k can also be
defined as the horizontal distance in
feet required to affect a 1% change in
the slope.

Sight Distances
Sight Distance is a length of road surface which a
particular driver can see with an acceptable level of clarity.
Sight distance plays an important role in geometric highway
design because it establishes an acceptable design speed,
based on a driver's ability to visually identify and stop for a
particular, unforeseen roadway hazard or pass a slower
vehicle without being in conflict with opposing traffic.
As velocities on a roadway are increased, the design must
be catered to allowing additional viewing distances to allow
for adequate time to stop. The two types of sight distance
are:
(1) stopping sight distance and (2) passing sight distance.

Stopping Sight Distance


At every point on the roadway, the minimum sight distance provided should be
sufficient to enable a vehicle traveling at the design speed to stop before
reaching a stationary object in its path. Stopping sight distance is the aggregate
of two distances:
brake reaction distance and braking distance.
Brake reaction time is the interval between the instant that the driver
recognizes the existence of an object or hazard ahead and the instant that the
brakes are actually applied. Extensive studies have been conducted to
ascertain brake reaction time. Minimum reaction times can be as little as 1.64
seconds: 0.64 for alerted drivers plus 1 second for the unexpected signal.
Some drivers may take over 3.5 seconds to respond under similar
circumstances. For approximately 90% of drivers, including older drivers, a
reaction time of 2.5 see is considered adequate. This value is therefore used in
Table on next page

Vehicle Stopping Distance

Vehicle stopping distance is calculated by the


following formula
2

where V1
f
G

v1
2 g ( f G)

initial speed of vehicle


friction
percent grade

Distance Traveled During


Perception/ Reaction Time
It is calculated by the following formula
dr = V1* tr
where
V1
Initial Velocity of vehicle
tr time required to perceive and react to the need to stop

Hence formula for the Stopping sight distance will be;

V1
SSD
V1t r
2 g ( f G)

SSD and Crest Vertical Curve


In providing the sufficient SSD on a vertical curve, the length
of curve L is the critical concern.
Longer lengths of curve provide more SSD, all else being
equal, but are most costly to construct.
Shorter curve lengths are relatively inexpensive to construct
but may not provide adequate SSD.
In developing such an expression, crest and sag vertical
curves are considered separately.
For the crest vertical curve case, consider the diagram.

SSD and Crest Vertical Curve


S
H
1

PVI
PVT

PVC
L

H2

S = Sight distance (ft)


H1= height of drivers eye above roadway surface (ft)
L = length of the curve (ft), H2= height
of roadway object (ft) ,
A = difference in grade
Lm= Minimum length required for sight
distance.

Minimum Length of the Curve


For a required sight distance S is calculated as follows;
If the sight distance is found to be less than the curve length
(S>L)

for sight distances that are greater than the curve length (S<L)
Lm 2S

200(

H1
A

H 2 )2

AS 2
Lm
200( H1 H 2 ) 2

For the sight distance required to provide adequate SSD, standard


define driver eye height H1 is 3.5 ft and object height H2 is 0.5 ft. S is
assumed is equal to SSD. We get

SSD > L

1329
Lm 2SSD
A

SSD < L

ASSD 2
Lm
1329

Working with the above equations can be


cumbersome.
To simplify matters on crest curves computations,
K- values, are used.

L = K*A
where k is the horizontal distance in feet, required
to affect 1 percent change in slope.

SSD and Sag Vertical Curve


Sag vertical curve design differs from crest vertical
curve design in the sense that sight distance is
governed by night time conditions, because in daylight,
sight distance on a sag vertical curve is unrestricted.
The critical concern for sag vertical curve is the
headlight sight distance which is a function of the
height of the head light above the road way, H, and the
inclined upward angle of the head light beam, relative
to the horizontal plane of the car, .

The sag vertical curve sight distance problem is illustrated in the


following figure.

H
PV
C

P
L VI

PV
T

By using the properties of parabola for an equal tangent curve, it can


be shown that minimum length of the curve, Lm for a required sight
distance is ;
200( H S tan )
For S>L

Lm 2S

For S<L

AS 2
Lm
200( H S tan )

For the sight distance required to provide adequate SSD, use a head
light height of 2.0 ft and an upward angle of 1 degree.
Substituting these design standards and S = SSD in the above
equations;
400 3.5SSD
For SSD>L
Lm 2SSD
A

For SSD<L

ASSD 2
Lm
400 3.5SSD

As was the case for crest vertical curves, Kvalues can also be computed for sag vertical
curves.
Caution should be exercised in using the kvalues in this table since the assumption of
G=0 percent is used for SSD computations.

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