TELEMETRYTelemetry Principles D Patranabis Professor Department of Instrumentation Engineering Jadapur University Caleuna Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited NEW DELHI McGraw-Hill Offices New Delhi New York St Louis San Francisco Auckland Sogota Caracas Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal. San Juan Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto *Information contained in this work has been obtained by Tata McGraw-Hill, from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that Tata McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. ‘ata McGraw-Hill © 1999, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited Tenth reprint 2007 RXLYCRXYRCZQC No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the prior written permission of the publishers This edition can be exported from India by the publishers, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited ISBN 0-07-463795-9 Published by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008, typeset at Tej Composers, WZ 391, Madipur, New Delhi 110 063 and printed at’ AP Offset Pvt. Ltd., Naveen Shahdara, Delhi 110 032Contents Preface vii YS 1. introduction to Telemetry Principles | 1.1 Introduction | 1.2 The Basic System 2 L3_Classification _4 L4 Non-electrical Telemetry systems 5 1.5 Voltage and Current Telemetry Systems 9 L6 Local Transmitters and Cunverters 14 1.7 Frequency Telemetering 16 1.8 Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) 29 Review Questions 31 © 2. Signals and Transmission Basics 33 2.1 Introduction 33 2.2 Signals 34 2.3 Theorems 46 24 Exponential Fourier Series 50 2.5 Transmission Fundamentals 52 2.6 Amplitude Modulation 53 2.7 Frequency and Phase Modulations 60 2.8 Bandwidth 65 Review Questions _ 66 % 3. Symbols and Codes 69 3.1 Bitsand Symbols 69 3.2_Time-function Pulses _70 3.3 Line and Channel Codings 76 3.4 Modulation Codes _96 3.5_Intersymbol Interference 112 3.6 Error Rate and Probability of Error 115x Contents 3.7 Concluding Remarks 122 Review Questions 124 % 4. Frequency Division Multiplexed System 4.2_IRIG Standards 130 4.3 FM Circuits 139 44 Phase Modulation Circuits 144 4.5 The Receiving End 148 4.6 Phase Locked Loop 156 4.7 Mixers 159 Review Questions 163 & 5. Time Division Multiplexed System 5.1 Introduction 167 5.2_TDM-PAM System 168 5.3 PAM/PM System 175 5.4 TDM-PCM System 186 5.5 Digital Multiplexer 199 5.6 PCM Reception 202 5.7 Coding for Varying Levels 205 5.8 Differential PCM (DPCM) 213 5.9 Conclusion and Standards 216 Review Questions 219 % 6. Modems 6.1 Introduction 222 6.2 Modems 223 6.3 Quardrature Amplitude Modulation 247 6.4 Modem Protocol 249 65 Remarks 250 Review Questions 255 & 7. Transmitters and Receivers 7.1 Transmitters: An Introduction 257 7.2 Transmitter Techniques 259 7.3 Interstage Coupling 262 7.4 Receiver 265 “Review Questions 283 YS 8. Transmission Lines 8.1 Introduction 285 8.2 Concept of Line 285 8.3 RF Transmission Lines 289 8.4 Microwave Lines 297 8.5 Propagation Modes 303 8.6 Alternate Structures 308 8.7 Transmitted Power 310 127 222 257 285S10. ou. Sia Wis. Contents xi 8.8 Waveguide Components 311 8.9 Microstrip Lines 314 Review Questions 315 . Antennas 9.1 Introduction 317 9.2 The Ideal Structure 318 9.3 Dipoles 318 9.4 Arrays 327 9.5 Current Distribution and Design Considerations 335 9.6 Microwave Antennas 337 Review Questions 343 Wave Propagation 10.1 Space Propagation of Waves 346 10.2 Surface Wave 348 10.3 The lonosphere 349 10.4 Some Considerations on Space Wave Propagation 354 Review Questions 358 Filters ILE Introduction 360 11.2 Polynomial Filters 36! 11.3 Active RC Filters 370 11.4 Universal Filter Circuits 38! 11.5 Switched Capacitor Filters 383 11.6 Digital Filters 385 Review Questions 398 Basics of Satellite Telemetry 12.1 Introduction 400 12.2 General Considerations 400 12.3 TT&CServices 406 12.4 Digital Transmission System in Satellite Telemetry 408 125 TDM 410 12.6 The Antenna 411 12.7 Some Aspects of TT&C-subsystems 411 12.8 Satellite Telemetry and Communications: MA Techniques Review Questions 432 Fibre Optical Telemetry 13.1 Introduction 434 13.2 The Optical Fibre Cable 435 13.3 Dispersion 440 13.4 Losses 443 13.5 Connectors and Splices 444 13.6 Sources and Detectors 445 13.7 Transmitter and Receiver Circuits 450 7 346 360 400 422 434xii Contents 13.8 Coherent Optical Fibre Communication System 453 13.9 Wavelength Division Multiplexing 456 Review Questions 458 S 14. Related Topics 460 14.1 Introduction 460 14.2 Data Acquisition System (DAS) 460 14.3 Microprocessor-based DAS 469 14.4 Remote Control 472 14.5 Networking 477 14.6 BLANs 487 14.7 Computer Networks 488 14.8 Internet Based Telemetering 501 14.9 Wireless LANs 505 14.10 Random Access System 506 14.11 Principles of Telephony 513 14.12 Introduction to Multimedia 527 Review Questions 530 Bibliography 532 Indexne 1 Introduction to Telemetry Principles 1.1) INTRODUCTION The changing situations in industries and technoeconomic and/or techno- suprematic developments across the world have rendered simple measurement at the laboratories or working sites insufficient and incomprehensive. In industries, for example, monitoring and control of the entire plant is now being done from a centralized control room; the launching and flight of a rocket are controlled from the ground station; a satellite is monitored and data collected by its mea- surement systems are received and decoded at a specific ground station. Instances galore to show that specific variables measured at sites need be transmitted in some form over short to very long distances—from ground-to-ground, ground-to- orbital or even cosmic height and vice-versa—so that the information do not lose any of its content while being transmitted. The sent coded signals are decoded at the receiving centres to be used for various purposes. The variables sensed or measured at sites are treated as signals which require to be processed before being transmitted over a distance, using land link consist- ing of solid (wire) or air (pneumatic) media, or radio frequency link (air or vacuum), and then received at the receiving end for indication, recording or simply display. This is what is called telemetry system. In another system, close to this, known as the remote sensing system, the ‘sensing’ and ‘measurement’ is done from a remote place or distance, such as the position of clouds or types of clouds or flying aircrafts measured by radar sys- tems, or measurement of pollution by LIDAR system etc. The rapid developments in telemetry systems in the past couple of decades is mainly because of the facilities available for large scale real-time computation, and for monitoring and control of plants, processes, moving objects etc.2 Telemetry Principles In a plant, ‘data’ obtained in large quantities from tansducers and signal processors are now being easily handled by a computer—in the control room, for example, for storage and processing—and then it may be used for display or sent back with appropriate instructions for control operation. This is true for any other system. The ‘data’ to be received by a computer need appropriate transmission from the place of origin and the output from a computer, after due modification, need be transmitted to the appropriate location for further usage. What is now termed as data transmission involves digital data—coded follow- ing standard coding practices. This transmission may only be part of a class of telemetry system; since analogue signals can also be transmitted and received for metering purposes. Transducer outputs are generally termed as variables or measurands. When processed, they are termed as signals. The signals are en- coded into data for transmission. These signals or data are transmitted over a distance, for which a ‘link’ is chosen, such as wire, rf, microwave (air or vacuum), ultrasonic, laser beam, optical fibre etc. What is important is that the measured parameters when ultimately received and displayed or are ready for re- use should be accurate as per specification and the amount of error should also be predictable or cognizable for possible correction. 1.2. THE BASIC SYSTEM At the transmitting end, the equipment consisting of signal processor, multiplexer for a group of variables, and short ‘transmission lines’ is called a transmitter which takes the data to antenna for link (usually radio). At the receiving end, the equipment comprising of short ‘lines’ connected to the receiving antenna, and demultiplexer and signal processor or reprocessor, is called a receiver. The link or channel for short distances is usually a wire extended between the short lines as mentioned. The control room-based operation of plants also includes remote control facil- ity which is often integrated with telemetering systems. This is now followed in space science and technology as well, where a moving spacecraft and the fixed control station on the ground are linked continuously by measurement and con- trol. In fact, the data available from the spacecraft are continuously monitored and the deviation noted is immediately taken care of by a set of instructions which are all retransmitted to the spacecraft. These are applicable to terrestrial processes as well where remotely located plants and objects may thus be moni- tored and controlled. Transmitters and receivers consist basically of electrical/electronic circuits which are well developed areas, now contributing quite effectively to the telem- etry systems. The type of link, often called the channel, is very important as its characteristics and the type of transmission through it largely control the perfor- mance of the system. As is clear by now, a data transmission system can be represented by a block diagram of the type shown in Fig. 1.1. The source provides sequence of digits and the transmitter assigns an electrical waveform to each sequence of digits receivedaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4 Telemetry Principles For radio link, frequency is allocated by an international agency for avoiding interference—the International Frequency Registration Board controlled by Inter- national Telecommunication Union (ITU). 1.3 CLASSIFICATION Telemetry and consequent remote control form a package of the Instrumentation System of a plant/process. Its performance should, therefore, be at par with other packages in accuracy. The mode of telemetry system used is governed by the types of variables, their number, and distance. The telemetry system for long/medium distances can be broadly classified into (i) analogue, and (ii) digital. As mentioned, the transmission channel is a major factor to be considered—its capacity to carry information, power level, band- width, signal-to-noise ratio and reliability are some of the important aspects. Telemetering equipment at the transmitting and receiving stations are, how- ever, no less important. Their power levels, signal ‘conversion’ efficiency and noise immunity, size, weight etc. are some of the aspects that deserve consider- ation in these equipment. Another classification can be on the basis of (i) wired or (ii) wireless forms. While the latter is essentially for long distance service, the former is usually for short to medium-distance operation. If the signal is not available in electrical quantity, but in terms of air pressure requiring to cover a shorter distance before display, pneumatic channels may be used. A terrestrial pneumatic channel or wired channel is often called /andline. These telemetry systems involve direct transmission of ‘data’ from source to the receiving station through the above channels, i.e. one source is connected to the channel directly. In short-distance wired telemetry systems. electrical quantities like voltage and current are the transmitted variables, besides, non-electrical pneumatic variables. Position telemetry also involves electrical quantities but it is the position of a part of an equipment/component, in relation to a process variable, that is metered at a distance. Short or medium distance analogue telemetry systems also transmit frequen- cies, other than voltages or currents, the frequency being directly proportional to the magnitude of the variable to be transmitted. This is advantageous, in the sense attenuation of the voltage as well as its phase shift in the wired channel can be eliminated. This system often utilizes the low-cost telephone/telegraph lines or teletype communication channel which are available in commercial form. Pulse telemetering is usually employed in medium to long distance systems where the process variables are converted, in the transmitter area, as ¢lectrical pulses following certain coded patterns. The simplest of these are the pulses of equal time duration but of variable heights proportional to the variable values concerned, During transmission, however, they move as functions of time and advantage is that the system is largely independent of the electrical variations of the transmission channel. Besides these pulse amplitude (PA) types, otherIntroduction to Telemetry Principles 5 common forms of data conversion are the pulse duration (PD) type, pulse posi- tion (PP) type, pulse count and pulse code (PC) type. In wireless digital telemetry systems coding is done in any of these desired formats only after the variables are sampled at regular intervals of time. In majority of telemetry systems involving coding formats, a number of variables are transmitted as in data transmission system through radio link using the process of modulation and multiplexing. Sometimes, wireless/contactless telemetry becomes essential even for short distance systems. If the sources of variables, are in inaccessible places or are in hazardous areas like radioactive zones, transmitters and receivers may not be placed long away but still rf communication between them becomes necessary with specified frequency bands. In space science/technology, the launching pad of satellite or missiles are not far away from control/receiving stations but moni- toring and control is done using rf communication with the transmitters ‘at site’ and the receivers at control room. In hospitals, often a look after physician monitors patients using such a communication system. Radio link for short distances are finding increasing use because in many situations the ‘erection—commissioning’ costs of non-rf land lines are more ex- pensive and require more time than rf links. It is now almost a forgone conclusion that for data transmission separate ‘landlines’ are rarely used. Instead, telephone link and power lines are used, besides, rf link. 1.4. NON-ELECTRICAL TELEMETRY SYSTEMS In the non-electrical category two types may be considered both of which, how- ever, are being replaced fast enough because of easier electrical types providing more convenience and accuracy and scope. These two are the (i) Mechanical type, and (ii) Pneumatic type. 1.4.1. Mechanical Type Mechanical telemetry is now considered an archaic item. With the rapid growth of so-called ‘hi-tech’ systems, indication at a distance using mechanical transfer through assemblies of gears, links and levers has virtually become obsolete. A typical example can, however, be given with reference to industrial scales and weighers. Levers are systems which shift the load point to power point with gain or mechanical advantage. This shifting can be made long using a number of levers in cascade. The details of levers systems are available in literatures. Using the above transfer mechanism technique an indication of a load can be obtained at dial-pointer indication system as shown in Fig. 1.3, The A-lever system along with an extension lever and a pendulum type indicating scale com- pletes the system. The platform taking the load may be flushed with the ground level and, except for the pendulum scale, the rest may be put away from the sight by putting in a housing, for example. In recent times, the pendulum scale is also dispensed with and better indication facilities are available with the older lever- type weighing machines.6 Telemetry Principles Extension lever Fig. 1.3 Scheme of a mechanical telemetry system 1.4.2. Pneumatic Telemetry System The pneumatic telemetry system is a position telemetry system and can be used for any process variable, such as flow, pressure, level etc. A typical scheme is shown in Fig. 1.4(a) for level telemetering up toa distance of about 100 m. There are four bellows elements: A and B forming the transmitter block along with a stroke lever and the interface dise d; and C and D form the receiving and display block along with the link and the pointer-scale arrangement. The two blocks are Pneumatic lines a) a | Stroke lever | \L le Interface [YY Val disc d Fut Meter at a ulcrum distance | ye Push rod Pivot lever Float 2? arm pivot Float Tank Fig. |.4(a) A typical position telemetry schemeIntroduction to Telemetry Principles 7 connected by pneumatic lines. With the float rising or falling, the push rod via the float arm pivot lowers or moves up pressing bellows element B or expanding it and pressing element A, so that pressure increases in line 1 or 2 expanding element D or C at the receiving end which is displayed on the scale. \ Tran. channel + Eucrum Bee a 1, BEI BEAM J" Recaiver element | H ey FB bellows * Diaphragm Air Supply Orifice Flow line Fig. 1.4(b) The scheme of a beam and flapper-nozzle transmitter Figure 1.4(b) shows a beam and a flapper-nozzle system acting as transmitter. Bellows elements set BE] serves as the zero-set for an output of 0.2 kg/em? with zero flow rate. Bellows elements set BE2 consists of a feedback element and calibration/range set element. Feedback considerably linearizes the system. A fluid line is characterized, like its electrical counterpart, by capacitance, resistance and inductance, also called inertia. Capacitance arises because of the storage of energy due to fluid compression and flexure of the fluid-carrying system. A tubing carrying the fluid does not usually have flexure like a bellows element or other spring type elements. Any change in the fluid volume due to compression is manifested as a capacitance effect. If the flow is to a perfectly rigid chamber, bulk modulus B is given by B=V (dPidV) = V (dP/dt dvdV) qa) where F is the volume and P, the pressure. From above, dVidt = (ViB) (dP/dt) = q, (1.2) The capacitance due to compressibility is thus C= VB (13) For an isothermal flow, the ideal gas law is PV =nRT (4) where n is the number of moles. Again, for a gas of molecular weight MM, mass of the gas m, and specific gas constant Ry = R/M, m = (V(RoT))P (= MVPK(RT)) (1.5) The mass flow rate is thus8 Telemetry Principles In = dmldt = (VAR,T)) dPidt (1.6) For average pressure P,,, the average density p,, is used for converting g,, to g, as Pay = (VIP) (dPldt) (1.7) so that C= MiP, (1.8) The case to be considered is that the expansion is neither very rapid nor very slow and it is actually called polytropic expansion, so that C = VIKP,, (1.9) with 1 <& < y- Usually, & = 1.2. As the fluid accelerates or deccelerates, inertia or inductance effect develops. Because of low mass density, the effect is very small in gases, For a pipe of length ‘!' and cross section ‘a’, with a pressure difference of P, — P, and fluid density p, the total mass to be accelerated is por/, and the force on it f= (P, ~P,) @ If acceleration is ‘a’, then (P,— P:) @= pala (1.10) The volume flow rate with velocity v is qy= a= afa dt (ap) [R-R) ae (ayy This gives inductance L as L= plie (1.12) For long lines and smaller cross-section, even with low p, Z tends to increase and deserves consideration, Resistance arises due to viscous drag on the fluid by the pipe surface and from the loss of energy that occurs around bends, tees, orifices, valves, etc. For incompressible flow, resistance in a capillary is obtained as R = Pig, = 128 ypli(nD*) (1.13) where 1 is the viscosity, D the capillary diameter, length / and the fluid density p. For compressible flow, the relation is not that simple but if the pressure drop is not very large, less than 10 per cent, for example, the same relation can be used. The pneumatic transmission line can thus be modelled like the electrical type taking small sections as lumped units and the propagation of signal can be con- sidered in terms of amplitude and phase. Each section is as shown in Fig. 1.5. ‘The signal that is transmitted pneumatically lies between 0.2 and 1 kg/em? or 20 and 100 kPa. As such, pneumatic transmission is very simple but the thingsIntroduction to Telemetry Principles Fig. 1.5 Electrical analogue of a pneumatic line unit to be considered are: (a) quality and type of pneumatic fluid, (b) type and sizing of the piping to be used, (c) the time delay etc. Compressed air is the fluid used in general. Alternatively, nitrogen or natural gas is used in special cases. Air is required to be properly dried and filtered—dried usually to a temperature 20° C below the lowest temperature to be used at, and, filtered to 5 jim size for making it dust- and oil-free. Piping depends on length, response time, cost, environment and also tradition. Material is chosen, keeping in view the environment through which it would run, and the cost. The available materials are (a) copper, (b) stainless steel, (c) carbon steel, (d) nylon, (e) plastic coated aluminium, and (f) high-density polymer like polyethylene. Environment provides information relating to temperature, corro- siveness and also mechanical strength—the criteria required for material selec- tion, Of the two materials most commonly used—copper and polymer-based material—copper tends to get hardened with time and gets oxidized—the latter problem is partly overcome by using a plastic coat with prescribed colour that simultaneously solves the colour coding problem. Polymer-based materials are affected by temperature over a long period and also by other radiations, specially ultraviolet; protective coating often using a black pigment solves the problem to a certain extent. If high mechanical strain is to be withstood, stainless steel or carbon steel becomes the choice. Pipe diameter controls the response time which also is dependent on the pipe length and the volume at the receiving end. It has been shown earlier that the transmission line can be made analogous to an electrical line with a capacitance component (Eqn. (1.8)) proportional to the tubing volume and it is distributed along the length of the tubing as discussed. For the required time response. the calculation for sizing can be done but then it is very tedious and laborious and hence, it is better to refer to the manufacturers’ charts and graphs. Two such typical graphs are shown in Fig. 1.6. The response time is based on 63 per cent tise for a step change in input. Advantages with pneumatic transmission as com- pared to the electrical type are immunity to crosstalk and ability to transmit more power. 1.5 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT TELEMETRY SYSTEMS Electrical systems are also used for short distance telemetering. The distance is around a few hundred metres (300 m) only. Such systems can be classified as (i) voltage telemetering, and (ii) current telemetering. These may be two-wire type10 Telemetry Principles 80 60] émm¢ 40 amm¢ 20 Time of Response (s) 150 300 450 600 Distance (m) ———» Fig. 1.6 Response time versus distance of pneumatic lines or three-wire type. A typical voltage telemetry scheme is shown in Fig. 1.7, where a de system is shown. The receiver side can use a self-balancing potenti- ometer. A scheme that measures displacement using an LVDT as a primary sensor is shown in Fig. 1.8, The LVDT secondary coils are directly transmitting the differential voltage through a three-wire system over a certain distance. Wire channel : oO DC Potentiometer — $ Receiver Transmitter Fig. 1.7 A typical voltage telemetry scheme An important aspect of telemetering system is the signal to noise ratio (S/N). Signal is generally referred to as the power of the transmitted message and noise is the interference that occurs during the transmission, Noise is of special consid- eration in voltage telemetry system as in this the current is very low and the signal power (ie. voltage x current) is very small. The transmission system is to be specially designed to keep the interference to a minimum making the ratio S/N >> 2. The current telemetry system can develop higher signal power making it more immune to interferences arising mainly due to thermal and induced emf effects. The system of Fig. 1.7 can be converted into a current telemetry system as shown in Fig. 1.9. The receiver is a cross-coil current meter. [t must be mentioned thatIntroduction to Telemetry Principles 11 c] LVDT Transmitter Fig. 1.8 A telemetry scheme with LVDT as a transmitting element the current must have a non-zero minimum value or a live-zero for open circuit protection in the system. As would be noticed, the source on the receiver side is used to supply the transmitter system as well. »—4 Receiver (current) Level Transmission transmitter e fine Fi . 1.9 The current telemetry scheme derived from Fig. |.7 Current transmitters, used for quite a long time for process or any other vari- ables, use force-balance principle also called feedback system. A schematic diagram of the conventional such type is shown in Fig. 1.10. It should be men- tioned at this stage that such transmitters send the variable in the standard 4 to 20 mA range using a two-wire or a three-wire scheme. A two-wire scheme is shown in Fig. 1.10. The transmitter load must be kept within 600 ohms as per Or Position Detector or ~__ Ret eee Flexure pivot coxf Circuit Power |_[Recorder/ block supply Indicator t Dashpot By: f __ Input Foros inetd Line up to Input 30 km Fig. 1.10 A Force-balance type current transmitter12 Telemetry Principles standard. The three-wire scheme uses a separate wire for transmission with its retum path being one of the power lines. Figures 1.11 (a) and (b) show two schemes of a transmitter—receiver system using three-wite true zero loop and two- wire live zero loop. In the former, a three-wire cable supplies power to the transmitter and carries the output as well, as shown, the earth return (common) being the same or shared by both, while the live-zero type of Fig. 1.11 (b) uses a two-wire cable, the transmitter being given power by 4 mA live zero, This technique is suited better for intrinsic safety. Besides, it provides loop break detection and has lower cable and installation cost. The above analogue signals are specified by IEC 381 standard -— (Common) | 0-10/20 mA | 4-20 mA Transmitter Receiver | [Transmitter Receiver (a) (b) Fig. 1.11 (a) A three wire scheme of transmitter-receiver true zero loop (0) A two-wire live zero loop Voltage signal of 0 to 10V dc is now becoming contro! room standard for interconnecting instruments, specially recorders. Voltage signal can buffer failure of one instrument without affecting the others. The ISA specified control room signal of 1 to SV de is derived from the transmitted 4 to 20 mA signal across a 250 ohm resistor and is useful when the number of receivers is large and the loopmaking with them may be prohibitive as far as impedance values are con- cemed. The signal is initially selected from the 4 to 20 mA, 0 to 10 V ete. standards. The next step is to select the cable for which five criteria are specified: (a) cable length, (b) EM interference, (c) ES interference, (d) cable routing, and (e) intrin- sically safe circuit considerations. In fact, the cable routing would determine the cable length—this is very im- portant as this determines the line resistance which should be added to the re- ceiver load. As two wires form a loop the resistance becomes 2R,, where R, is the routed cable length, Electromagnetic interference is reduced by reducing the separation between the two wires of the loop which is accomplished by twisting the wires with a 25-50 mm lay. Electrostatic interference is a sort of capacitive coupling and is reduced by insulated screening. For intrinsic safety special cir- cuits are used, but along with that, for multicore cables, the cable capacitance/ induactance to resistance ratios are chosen as per specification for enahancing safety. Synchro transmitter-receiver system is a wired telemetry system and is in use since long. It is basically a position telemetry system used commonly in control and communication systems. The schematic of the system is shown in Fig. 1.12. The rotor with its axis oriented in a specific direction receives the ac supply toIntroduction to Telemetry Principles 13 set up alternating flux which links the star-connected stator windings S,,. 5,, and ‘S;,, and each has an induced emf proportional to the rotor voltage V,, and the angle between the rotor axis and the corresponding stator axis. If the rotor axis makes an angle @ with the stator winding 3, then (see Fig. 1.13), So Sar da, es) d, crt cre Sy} Sap Receiver Transmitter ~ AC tine Fig. 1.12 Synchro-position telemetry scheme Fig. 1.13. The roter axis with an angle E,,, = KV,, sin @t cos @ (1.14a) Ey, = KV, sin wi cos (a + 120°) (1.14b) Ey = KVy sin ot cos (at + 240°) (1.14¢) with the line voltages E jn, = VIKV,, Sin @t sin o (1.15ay E,5,, = V3KV,, sin or sin (of + 240°) (1.15b) and Ex, = V3KYV,, sin cot sin (@ + 120°) (1.15¢) where @ is the angular supply frequency and X is the transformer constant.14° Telemetry Principles Now, if the rotor rotates the voltages in the stator windings will also vary. With the receiver rotor having the same position as that of the rotor of the torque transmitter, the receiver stator windings generate same voltages as the transmitter stator voltages. If not, these receiver stator voltages would be different and cur- rent will flow through the interconnected transmission lines inducing torques on both the transmitter and receiver rotors tending to orient these two in the same direction. It the transmitter rotor is rotated by a mechanical system, the receiver rotor would only orient itself to coincide with the direction of the transmitter rotor. As has been mentioned, in voltage and current telemetry, often a single cable is used for short to medium distance transmission of the signal. Analysis of such transmission cables is available in literature. It is to be noted that the analysis approach is via distributed parameter system since the cable resistance, induc- tance and capacitance cannot be considered as lumped, localized units or ele- ments. The model is shown in Fig. 1.14 (a), where each section is a very small one of parameter values as marked. Often, 1/g =~ 0 so that the parallel conduc- tance path is ignored, For a low-frequency operation, low-frequency models are also developed; two such per unit models are shown in Figs. 1.14 (b) and (c). In 3000 metres of such a cable, about 9000 such units are considered to function with r= 0.03Q, C = 0.09 uF, assuming model of Fig. 1.14 (b). These 3 km cables have good frequency response, V, (sV/V; (s)= | and Z V, (s)/¥; (s) = 0° up to 8 kHz. In fact, low-level signals, up to about + 10 mV FS, have been successfully transmitted through such cables up to a distance of 2.5 km. AO (SS AO “ ugt__Te et Fo we To Vo (a) r a2 Hz nz ue aa 5 vy, oT Yo vy; T° Vo (b) te) Fig. 1.14 (a) Transmission cable model (b) Low frequency RC model (c) Low frequency RLC model 1.6 LOCAL TRANSMITTERS AND CONVERTERS Up to about 3km the current loop transmission is very popular in the industries. It is actually a hardwired cable data transmission technique for a current range of 4 to 20 mA. Readymade transmitters that produce output of 4 to 20 mA with inputs of mV from the thermocouple, resistance from RTD, frequency ofaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.22 Telemetry Principles Window comparator is a special type of comparator used to determine if the input voltage lies between two specified voltages. Only under such a condition there should be an output. A typical scheme with two comparators and an AND gate for such a purpose is shown in Fig. 1.25 (a) with its transfer characteristics in Fig. 1.25 (b). i > y | rt > vy - V, > % | a | oP mY (a) (b) Fig. 1.25 (a) A typical window comparator, (b) Its transfer characteristics Level comparators with hysteresis are basically Schmitt triggers. These are most versatile of all types and can be designed to change the output state when- ever the input changes through any selected reference voltage, The inverting type is shown in Fig. 1.26 (a) with transfer characteristics shown in Fig. 1.26 (b). A positive feedback via the voltage divider R, — R, ensures the hysteresis to come in. If a large negative V, is applied, output = V),..,.. At the positive input point the voltage is then ON Yo, maxA T J = ae TY vy, y, > V, ° “a, ‘o Vio | yR Vion 1 OFF Yo, min (a) (b) Fig. 1.26 Level comparator with hysteresis (a) The inverting type (b) its characteristicaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.26 Telemetry Principles Agitt Fig. 1.32 The frequency-Agy plot R, and C; are chosen for feedback stability and C,R, determines actual differen- tiation performed by the circuit, i.e. their sizes should be chosen as per con- straints, dV, Vmax) = CR (max) = Cy, = CyRSj, (max) (1.42) where = Sq (max) is the slew rate of 4). 1/(CsRs) chosen should be five times the maximum signal frequency. ‘The last stage is effectively the same as shown in Fig. 1.21. The filter capacitor Cy is provided for ripple reduction; this is particularly useful for modulated waves. The functioning of the entire circuit is graphically explained in Fig. 1.33 for different frequencies. 1.7.3. Pulse Generators As shown in Fig. 1.20, pulse generator is another component used in a transmit- ter/converter. A simple scheme of such a generator consists of a Schmitt trigger and an integrator in cascade and feedback mode as shown in Fig. 1.34. Constant output from the Schmitt trigger is integrated by the integrator the output of which gradually approaches the trigger level Vi, when its polarity changes instantly resulting in square wave. In consequence. the slope of the integrated voltage also changes polarity. This way V’; becomes a triangular wave and V a square wave output. /|-peak is determined by the trigger level of the Schmitt trigger. If Vo. inay is the output voltage limit of amplifier 4,, then Vi peak = (RR omax (1.43)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.34° Telemetry Principles be enhanced depending on the transmitting mode etc. During the above process- ing, it is essential that the content of the signal or the quantum of information should be retained. For transmission, the signal as processed above is further modified, particularly when the link is a high frequency one, i.e. radio, microwave or optical fibre. Modulation is one such modification. 2.2 - SIGNALS The nature of the signals to be transmitted is an important factor in designing a system. The commonly known signals are of two types: (a) Periodic and (b) Aperiodic. Both these can be characterized in terms of certain parameters which are usefull in processing of the signals. 2.2.1 Periodic Signals Periodic signals are characterized by amplitude, frequency and phase with respect to a reference in time frame and is represented by Vi) = agt+ Z a, coskar+ LT b, sinkar (2.1) pet) eer After period 7 the signal repeats itself so that v(¢) = (¢ + 7), the repetition frequency f is given by 1/7, as is indicated in Fig. 2.2. With @ = 2z/, the coefficients are obtained from the relations 7 a = A/T) L. (v(t) dt (2.2) T2 a = 2/7) £0 cos kar dt (2.3) 12 4, =anf htt) sin ker dt (2.4) for k = 1, 2,.... Equation (2.1) isthe well-known Fourier series representation of signals with a, representing the average value of the signal. A signal may have odd symmetry when v (1) = - v (— ) making all a,’s zero, Similarly, the signal is said to have even symmetry if v (1) = v (- #) making all b,'s zero. If the signal contains higher frequencies or harmonics, i.e. frequencies which are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency f,, it can be split up into components using Eqns (2.2) to (2.4) and the amplitude content of the har- monic components is given by 1, = Jaz +b; (2.5) with its per cent contribution to the signal in terms of the fundamental asaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.38_ Telemetry Principles Phase +— ® | (r= 1) lines 2, tw by Ait ~3ity 2it,, Bly Phase —+- Me? pani (r= 1) lines we v ar 2h i> ate -3/r se OT fe) 2h 4c Fig. 2.5(b)-(e) (b). (c) Phase line spectra for cases of Figs 2.3(c) and 2.4, (d) pulse train, (e) its frequency response,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.42. Telemetry Principles It must be remembered that an even signal, f (¢) = f (-#), the transform pairs are interchangeable in time and frequency domains, such as the ones shown in Figs 2.5 (n) and (0). The interchangeability is shown by labelling in brackets. Similarly for triangular and raised cosines, such interchangeable transform pairs can be drawn which lead to an interesting result that sudden changes in spectrum gives oscillatory behaviour in the corresponding signal output. 2.2.2 Aperiodic Signals Aperiodic signals are non-time-recurring signals, i.e. they occur once over a finite time and effectively they are considered as infinite time-period signals, They are characterized by their amplitude, width and position on the time axis with respect to a reference point of time. This infinite time-period proposition effectively means that frequency spacing between spectral lines becomes narrower, in fact, zero, as T approaches infinity. Thus, there is no line spectra but a continuous spectrum. The Fourier transform of a unit impulse function is Fg GO) = Lim Viyty = 1 (2.22) ate | so that its frequency spectrum is flat of magnitude unity as shown in Figs 2.6 (a) and (b). vty (a) Fig. 2.6 (a) Unit impulse, (b) its frequency response A single rectangular pulse of magnitude V,, and duration /,. as shown in Fig. 2.7(a), has a Fourier transform F,(jo) = V,,t,. sin (@t,/2)/(@r,/2) (2.23) so that its spectrum is as shown in Fig. 2.7(b) tv y, 7 F (jo) Amplitude —>/ >t © melt (a) (b) Fig. 2.7(a)-(b) (a) A single rectangular pulse, (b) its spectrumaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.46 Telemetry Principles 2.3 THEOREMS Sampling theorem is the most widely used one in signal transmission. It has a time domain version that involves the transmission system bandwidth. Although a continuous signal is supposed to contain infinite amount of infor- mation because of the infinite number of points on it, the values change gradually and slowly (sufficiently) so that its value at any point of time can be predicted with sufficient accuracy from the values at preceding points. This has been con- sidered earlier (Fig. 2.5). An approximate value of the time between independent signal values is determined by what is known as bandwidth. The line spectra obtained are said to have a frequency range beyond which their contribution to the signal power is negligibly small. This frequency range is known as the signal bandwidth. If the signal consists of or assumed to contain the component frequen- cies that contribute significantly and others are neglected, it is said to be band- limited. If the bandwidth is wide, the time between independent signal values is small and vice-versa. If a signal function v(/) contains frequencies not higher than f, Hz, it is com- pletely determined by a series of ordinates spaced 1/(2f,) s apart over the time domain. If the frequency spectrum of v (¢) is F, (@), then v(t) = (12m) f F,(w) exp (jax) do (2.24) = (12m) fre exp (jax) dw (2.25) oe: as F{@) is taken to have effectively zero values outside the frequency range fo With k any positive or negative integer and making the transformation, 1 = K(2fo) (2.26) Eqn (2.25) changes to 2m v(k/2f) = (1/27) J F,(@) exp (aki2f,) do (2.27) -iy, If F{@) = a(@) — jb(@), with a(@) and b(@) real, a(a) =f Ay exp (-j2akea(4nf), and a) = YB, exp(-j2nkar Any) ken kone withaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.50 Telemetry Principles sin(@T/2- mk) F,(@) = > F(QRk/T) ae io (2.39) if 7, = - 7/2 and T, = 7/2. In fact, v(t) can be expressed as a Fourier series as given by Eqn (2.36) which is valid only in the interval 7, < ¢< T. It can also be expressed as Fourier integral in the form = (12m) YF, (@) expG@) do (2.40) where it is valid everywhere. Also, the Fourier series expansion of v(#) is an expression of 1(¢) in terms of its sampling values in the frequency domain. Spe- cific examples have already been given earlier. 2.4 EXPONENTIAL FOURIER SERIES Trigonometric Fourier series is very popular for easy manipulation. The exponen- tial form follows from the equation cos = 1 (e+ 07%) (2.41) so that a signal v(¢) is now written as, for a, = 0 and for any two corresponding terms, V(t) = ay cos (2mkit) + by sin (2mkfyt) = Ay COS (27Kfot + %) = (Ag2) {exp( ig) exp(j2mkfyt) + exp(— joy) exp(—J/2mkfot) = Cy exp japkt) + Cy exp(japkr) (2.42) with C. , = (4/2) exp(+ jo) The compact form double-sided series is then given by KO = YG explj2mk fat) (2.43) kane with C= (Wt j, v(t) exp(—j2a fot) dt (2.44) 7 This exponential Fourier series forms the basis of Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) computer programmes for determination of the coefficients. If a periodic wave is sampled N number of times over a period of the wave with a sampling time 7, and with the value of the sampled wave at the rth instant f(T,), then the total area under the curve (see Fig. 2.10) isaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.54 Telemetry Principles Spectra of e,, Spectra of ep f of h 0 it aaa fr | hth hth (e) fot Spectra of en, Spectra of 9 f —> 0 0 ft ' (c) Fig. 2.12 Locations of the sidebands For retrieval of the signal at the receiving end, any one of the sidebands is filtered out and the carrier from the other component eliminated. The carrier is chosen as a constant frequency, constant amplitude sine (cosine) wave so that the modulated wave amplitude becomes proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating wave (see Eqn (2.50)), and this modulation transposes the baseband signal around the carrier frequency as shown in Fig. 2.12—the band- width of the upper and lower sidebands remains same as the baseband of the signal. Such modulated signals are common with measurement involving, for example, straingauge bridge network excited with an ac source, which acts as the carrier, and the variation in resistance in one arm of the bridge provides the modulating signal. Likewise, LVDTs, microsyns, synchros etc. also provide modulated outputs. However, the full amplitude modulation where the modulated output also con- sists of the carrier frequency can be obtained from certain schemes, such as the one of Fig. 2.11, by introducing bias in it or a reference voltage at the amplifier stage as shown in Fig. 2.13. In this scheme the output from the multiplier is €y = (K,/10) (eg + E,, cos @,,t) E, cos wt = (K,e,/10) (1 + (E,,/eg) cos @,,0)E. cos Wt (2.52) t = ra e yi R Ay > 9 = Kem + eR)2, R Kem + ep) Br BES - A im R Te (2 Fig. 2.13 Full-amplitude modulation schemeaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.58 Telemetry Principles so that mM, = (4,71) 1) (2.65) It is very unlikely that a single sinewave would modulate the carrier. In fact, a number of them would be there and the modulation index and power would then be calculated taking each individual component into consideration. If individual component of the modulating voltages has rms value £, then the total rms voltage is £, = yE £? and the modulation index is m, = E/E,= 42 EP fe, = (EERIE? = JZme, (2.66) However, the total modulation index must not exceed 1 for avoiding distortion. Example 2.2. A 100 W carrier is modulated to a depth of 80%, calculate the power of the modulated wave. Solution P, = P, (1 + m?/2) = 100 (1 + 0.87/2) = 132 W Example 2.3 For transmission of the carrier alone the antenna current is 5 A, becoming 5.5 A when sinusoidal modulation occurs. (a) Find depth of modulation in percentage. (b) If the depth of modulation is 80% by what percentage the current would increase? Solution (a) //,, = 5.5/5 = 1.1, hence, m, 2fa 1? - 1} = 65%. = ym2/2 +1 = 1.32, hence, J, = ¥1.32 x 5 = 5.75 Therefore, increase in current is (5.75 — 5) x 100/5 = 15%. (b) For m, = 0.8, f/f, Example 2.4 The antenna current of an amplitude modulated transmitter modu- lated to a depth of 50 per cent by a sinewave is 10 A. It increases to 11 A when it is simultaneously modulated by another sinewave. Calculate the depth of modulation due to the second sinewave. Solution From Eqn (2.65), 4, = 10/ J+ (05)?/2) = 8.9 A L Again, Mo = V20(E Tew)? — 1) = y2 (1.0/8.9) - 1} = 0,98 Now using Eqn (2.66), me, = 0.5? + my Hence, (0.98) = 0.25 + maa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.62 Telemetry Principles ie Saka LE Ri wD “7 Te Rs t (e,) cy Pd 4 (Co (RF) Cy > TO Shere | RFC ISon Fig. 2.20 Collector modulation scheme + Fig. 2.21 (a) Collector supply, (b) the collector current, (c) the collector-modulated output voltage so that the carrier frequency f, changes to an instantaneous carrier fre- quency /;, given by Sic = So * k V(t) (2.70) where k is known as the frequency deviation constant in Hz/V. Hence the carrier wave is given by ic = Veamax COS 27 (fol + kvq()) (2.71a) =V, COS Wf (2.71b) maxaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.66 Telemetry Principles a compromise needs be made. In analogue telemetry systems, it is the baseband that determines the bandwidth as in cases of speech, video, music, audio etc. However. as would be seen later, the baseband, in case of process variable telem- etry, can be shifted in the frequency spectrum for convenience of transmission changing the bandwidth requirement—the requirement would be discussed in appropriate places. It is, however, important to remember that although it is true that with greater bandwidth of a channel, greater amount of information can be transmitted in a given time, if the channel is narrower, the time would increase for the same amount of information to be sent. This is known as Hartely’s law. In case of binary data transmission, as is the case now resorted to, higher the bit rate, wider is the bandwidth needed to transmit the information without dis- tortion, The channel bandwidth must be wide enough to pass all the harmonic contents in a pulse to maintain its shape. But as would be seen later, telephone lines that often are used to transmit the pulses have upper cut-off frequency, around 3.4 kHz: this ‘low-pass filter’ filters out the higher harmonics and pulses get rounded off. It would be seen that this changed form of the pulse—approxi- mately sinewave form—retains the information as the shape can be restored on the receiver side using trigger, comparator or other waveshapers. The approximate channel bandwidth is the upper cut-off frequency of the channel and this also determines the information capacity of the channel. This channel capacity. in bits per second. C, is twice the bandwidth BW in Hz. Thus, C=2BW (2.89) This is the maximum theoretical limit which is modified, however, permitting more bits per symbol using multiple level encoding. If V is the number of encod- ing levels per time interval, then C =2 BW log,N (2.90) Thus, for a two-level system (0,1) with C = 1000 bits/s, BW = 1000/(2log,2) = 500 Hz and for a four-level system (00, 01, 10, 11), with C = 1000 bits/s, BW = 1000/ (21og,4) = 250 Hz Conversely, for same bandwidth 500 Hz, bits/s for N = 4, C = 2 x 500 x log,4 = 2000 bits/s. More considerations on bandwidth would be made later in the book. REVIEW QUESTIONS 2.1 Sketch an odd-symmetry rectangular bipolar waveform. If its amplitude is given by V,, and time period by 7, how is it mathematically represented? Write the form of the even-symmetry case as well.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.70 Telemetry Principles or, Ryn = Ry/n (3.3b) A pulse width or duration 7, may be different from 7, ‘ym: It is, however, nec- essary that TS Vive (3.4) 3.2. TIME-FUNCTION PULSES The binary system is supported by pulses, specifically rectangular ones, and symbolic notation may be used to represent this pulse, p(¢), as a function of time. An important part is played by the transmission channel in telemetering sys- tems of the type—current, voltage, position, frequency etc. as has been discussed in Chapter 1. There occurs variation in electrical parameters in the channel so that, \ltimately, the transmitted ‘data’ are affected. Electrical pulses with their variations in types and as function of time (see later) can be transmitted indepen- dent of the variations in the channel. These time-function pulse types usually are pulse duration, pulse rate, and pulse code. 3.2.1 Pulse Duration System The pulse duration system generally is a wired telemetry system and operates intrinsically on time cycle basis. There is, in fact, a time base which is provided by a ramp generator. The signal input, a de usually, is compared in a switching comparator to produce a pulse per cycle, the duration of which is proportional to magnitude of the signal. The schematic is shown in Fig. 3.1. The ramp is de- signed to have an output of a specified voltage, V,,, at time ¢ = (f) + T,), that would energize the switching comparator for a steady output V,. At this point, however, the signal should be zero, that is minimum signal value, Vin > Vi When the ramp output reaches the signal level, the comparator output becomes zero. Figure 3.2 shows the transmitted pulse forming diagram for two different signal levels V,’ s. Time duration of the pulses in the two cases are fp, and fy, for de signals V,, and V,,, respectively. Typically, for a 15 s ramp cycle, f corresponding to 0% input is 3 s and ¢,, corresponding to 100% input is 12 s with a widest pulse width af 9s. With comparator switch on, relay contact in R, is closed and on the receiving side rplay, R,, capacitance C, is connected via switch S, to the constant current source (CCS) which is charged to a value dependent on fp (Fig. 3.2) and on the current output of the CCS, At the end of duration ,, S; flips over to connect C; to A, and the voltage across C, is now compared with the reference voltage Vi¢¢- During the de-energized phase of relay R,, 5; flips to connect C, to the Veer source so that during the on phase (V, = 0) also, Vy, the 4, output remains the same giving an uniform de V proportional to V, Sawtooth generators are the time-base circuits usually employed. A typical relaxation sawtooth generator is shown in Fig. 3.3 which employs an SCR. Gate potential to the SCR is derived from the voltage divider R; — R;. At the conditionaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.74° Telemetry Principles (iii) American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). This is also known as ISO-7 bit code and is a very important coding system for serial data transmission to and from a teletypewriter or a CRT terminal other than telemetering systems. It is a 7-bit plus parity code and can generate 2” or 128 characters. A typical transmission code for alphabet £ in ASCII using a bit rate of 110 baud is shown in Fig. 3.5. Symbol £ is given by the bit word 1000101 (Hex 45). In transmission, the least significant bit moves first, and the start bit is a space. There is a parity bit; for even parity it is mark and stop bit is a double pulse (bits), both mark. Hence, for 110 baud. pulse width is ¢, = 1/110 = 0.009 second. In total there are 11 pulses with a frame time of 0.009 x 11 = 0.1 s. The ASCTI code as used in a teletype- writer is shown in Table 3.1. Similar to this is the ARQ and is used for reliable transmission. jx _ 91s ———__ >| | ol by 04 02 bz D4 Ds dg ei Sa Parity Stop (2) Fig. 3.5. A typical transmission ASCII code for E It may be noted that rows 0 and 1 (HEX) show special instructions needed in a teletypewriter operation, Signal levels may be chosen to suit the specific purpose and/or governed by special standards. For example, 1 bit may be 0 mA or a voltage between — 3 V and - 25 V, while a 0 bit may be 20 mA or a voltage lying between +3 V and + 25 V. The above specifications are for current loop and voltage interfaces, respectively, for a teletypewriter. The parity bit to be associated with each word is generated by what is known as the parity generator circuit which consists of several stages or levels of EXOR gates as shown in Fig. 3.6. This is useful in all systems requiring parity bits, including ASCII. Other miscellaneous codes include 2 out of $ code, sign plus magnitude, one’s complement, two's complement, offset binary. These are well covered in litera- ture but are of not much consequence in present day telemetry and data commu- nication services. In comparison ARQ is more useful because of its error correct- ing property. It is a 7-bit binary word code, each containing exactly three 1'saa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.78 Telemetry Principles 2A;/9 141 0701414 (a) UNIPOLAR +AjO 44°04 014 -A (b) BIPOLAR Fig. 3.8(a)-(b) (a) Unipolar representation of the sequence 01101011 (b) Bipolar waveform of the above sequence The power spectrum density is, correspondingly, PS) = GIT) VAY = Ty (A sin AT, f) eT PY (3.11b) The bipolar NRZ-L code will have equal probability of having 0 and 1 with zero de level. The total signal power across 1 ohm resistor load would then be A’ and not 24? as in unipolar case. The spectrum densities both for unipolar (ac part) and bipolar NRZ-L are shown in Fig.3.9. /~ 1 Ph) un Fig. 3.9 The spectral densities for unipolar and bipolar NRZ-L pulses DC wander is the name given to a chain of identical pulses decaying in ac coupled line, as this process fails to maintain a zero mean de level at the output. The decay may be large enough to bring the level below the detection level of the detector system in the receiver and hence it is necessary that a de restorer circuit be incorporated in the receiver. There are other-considerations as well-for a long string of identical symbols. The output waveform at the receiver side isaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.82 Telemetry Principles = Oe, (3.13) The arithmetic rules for modulo 2 adder as shown is given by 0@0=-0.0@1=1.190=1.101=0 The differential coding is explained in Table 3.2 with d, bits representing the information bits. The initial «, bit is the reference bit and is always taken as 1, while the initial state of e, , is generally taken as 0. Fig. 3.17 Differential coding technique Table 3.2 Information bits The e, string is to be decoded again differentially using a modulo 2 adder but the situation now is shown in Fig. 3.18 from which Ge = (3.14) Table for decoding is shown in Table 3.3 below, again with reference as 1 and initial state e,., = 0. Table 3.3 Message retrievedaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.86 Telemetry Principles 45h 43 -—— +1 ab —a 5h Fig. 3.21 2BIQ waveform Information per symbol available (IPSA) — Information per symbol used (IPSU) Redund. = a eee Information per symbol available Gin Redundancy (AMI) = (1.58 ~ 1.00) / 1.58 = 0.367 Thus, as Red. = (IPSA — IPSU) /IPSA, efficiency is defined as Efficiency = 1 — redundancy = IPSU/IPSA (3.18) Example 3.2 Calculate the efficiency of 24B1P code and of AMI code. Solution Eff, = (1 — (25 —.24)/25) = 0.96 = 96%, Eff, = 1 - 0.367 = 0.633 = 63.3%. 3.3.2. Channel Coding Channel coding is basically intended to detect and correct error. In this respect differential coding can be considered as channel coding. The others in the cat- egory to be considered here briefly are (i) Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC), (ii) Hamming, and (iii) Convolutional Coding. Block codes with enough parity tests included can also be considered in this category. Scrambling is another coding process which is used to randomize dataaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.90 Telemetry Principles Solution LDextexitxtix ix’ +x” (1101111001) + (1010...) Thus, the obtained code sequence is 1101111001. If, however, the storage stages are non-zero initially, such polynomial division does not yield the desired result, and in such a situation one has to prepare a table or make use of a computer program. It would be worthwhile to remember that for scrambler with m taps, a single error in the coded data would result in (m + 1) error in the output. It is said to have an error extension of (m + 1). As a single error artives at the descrambler, an ‘error’ in the symbol provides a wrong output to the EXOR for the output, thereby causing an error which then enters the shift register and moves stagewise and at every tap il causes an error into the feedback causing another error on the output, This way the error goes on increasing to (m + 1). Input > -OR xo cm Output L—.[a[2}3 ot a Fig. 3.25 Scrambler for polynomial | + x! + gb 9209481612262. X-OR Fig. 3.28 Scheme of a convolution coding explained Table 3.7 Convolution Coding Input bit Shifi registers Output symbols t content a © a 0 0 1 I 1 0 Thus the input word 111001 is encoded into 111 100 101 010 001 111. In general, when a new input bit arrives the shift registers already contain the previous two bits in them so that the output depends on all these three bits. The shift registers may exist in one of four possible states corresponding to the four possible combinations of the two bits in the two stages. The states are 00, 01, 10 and 11. The outputs and the next states. of the registers can be obtained graphi- cally with specific inputs. Figure 3.29 shows the representation. From each cur- rent state of the pair of registers two lines are drawn, one caused by input 0 and the other by input 1. The former is upper and the latter is the lower line. As the next states are the new states for use now as current states for the next bit, the graph can be extended and for any number of bits, as shown in Fig. 3.30. This graph is known as the Trellis diagram which basically is an encoding dia- gram. The coding for a particular word consisting of a few bits can be found by appropriate path in this encoding diagram. For input | the lower path of the two from a point is to be followed and for input 0, the higher path. For the input data of Table 3.7, 111001, the output 3 bit sequence 111 100 10! 010 001 111 is traced as a path shown by the parallel lines drawn.Symbols and Codes 95 Stages Current Next Stage 2 Stage 1 state state ojo o;}1 11/0 1]4 Fig. 3.29 Operation of convolution coding explained States 01 10 " Fig. 3.30 A typical trellis diagram Decoding and Error Correction Different approaches are there for decoding of convolution encoded data. Some of these are (i) sequential decoding, (ii) threshold decoding, and, (iii) Viterbi decoding—the last being extensively used in modern day systems. For explaining a decoding (Viterbi) process, a simpler encoder is shown in Fig. 3.31. For each input bit it provides two output bits, so that there are only two. states instead of 4 in the earlier diagram of Fig. 3.30. The trellis diagram for all possible encoding for input data is shown in Fig. 3.32. Input | Delay element Outout > ab ’ X-OR Fig. 3.31 A simple encoder96 Telemetry Principles States 00 00 00 00 00 0 ~ ~ ~ 2%, 2 % 2 a > oh 1 > 10 10 10 10 10 Fig. 3.32. Trellis diagram corresponding to a simple two-state encoding If there is no error in transmission, the path in the trellis diagram of the trans- mitter and the receiver remains the same; otherwise, in the receiver an impossible path may be followed or attempted to be followed for the received data. At this stage the receiver would flag an error and may be able to detect the correct (likely) path on the basis of what is known as minimum distance criterion. Considering the transmitted data 110101 plotted on a trellis diagram of Fig. 3.33, the path being shown by the bold arrows and the received and decoded data graph shown in Fig. 3.34, the path again shown by bold lines with arrow- heads. A discrepancy is noted in the decoding diagram. In fact, in time interval 1, the decoded data shows a zero bit instead of a 1, so that the corresponding symbol changes from 10 to 01 resulting in a discontinuous trellis path. Obvi- ously, over time ¢, the possible two paths differ and are shown by dotted arrows aa’ and ab with symbol! representation 01 and 10, respectively. One thus has Total distance Received sequence i ol ol path ayaa’a” sequence ih or n 1 distance 0 0 1 path a,aba” sequence in) 10 ol distance 0 2 0 2 path ajaa’a” sequence iW o1 00 distance 0 0 1 1 path a,aba” sequence i 10 10 0 2 2 4 Continuing this way till time 4, the total distance can be found out and the minimum may be taken as intended one with the corresponding path the correct path. If distance of different paths are found to be low and equal (including 0), these are known as survivor paths and the correct one can be found from the completed path when the minimum distance might be available. 3.4 MODULATION CODES The most important modulation codes are the pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), and pulse code modulation (PCM). Others of less importance are pulseSymbols and Codes 97 frequency modulation (PFM) and pulse time modulation (PTM). The last one can be distinguished in width and position, yielding the PWM and PPM systems. Input data 1 4 Encoded Symbols 11 0 n "1 ot 4 (Transmitted) Time th tp ty ly ts & Fig. 3.33. Trellis diagram for data 110101 Receiveddata 11 01 01 11 01 11 Decodeddata 1 0 0 41 O 14 (Output) Time 4h bh ft & ts ts Fig. 3.34 Decoded data corresponding to that of Fig. 3.33 3.4.1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) In PAM, the carrier is a train of pulses of amplitude 4, of duration 7, and period T, as shown in Fig. 3.35. Pulses are rectangular in nature so that one can write the train as V(t) = A= ptt) (3.22) where knw pid= ¥) rect (¢-k7,)/7, (3.23) kooe a notation specifically chosen for the purpose. In PAM the pulse amplitudes are varied in relation to the modulating signal v,(t) and as in analogue case modulation is obtained by multiplying the carrier V,(t) by v,,(). The outputs are obtained as shown in Fig. 3.36. In natural PAM the tops of the modulation pulses are not rectangular but follow the shape of the modulating signal. The flat top pulses are obtained by switching, using a sample- hold circuit.98 Telemetry Principles el __I ~—7,—>| Fig. 3.35 Carrier pulse train t Fig. 3.36 The PAM output pulses The Fourier transform of the pulse train alone is V,() = a+ S) a, cos(2nkt/T,) (3.24) tol and that of the modulated pulse train is ei) = valt) y(t) = ag Vp lt) + y ap (1) cos (2kt/T,) (3.25) k=l Equation (3.25) shows that the modulated wave consists of a series of double-side band suppressed carrier type components (see Section 2.6) because of the har- monic contents in the pulse waveform, alongwith a modulated de term ayv,,(1). For transmitting the higher double-side band suppressed carrier (DSBSC), PAM requires a wide bandwidth transmission system. However, all the modulating signal spectrum is contained in the baseband part of the spectrum and transmit- ting only this should be necessary. More about PAM would be taken up later. It should be remembered that to make the modulated pulses amenable for analysis flat-top pulses are generally considered. For generating PCM data, PAM is used as an intermediate step. Also, the sampling frequency should be properly chosen. If the modulating signal spectrumaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Symbols and Codes 101 Output voltage Input voltage Vig (a) Fig. 3.41 (a) Mid-tread AD conversion technique Input voltage (b) Fig. 3.41 (b) Mid-rise AD conversion techniques102 Telemetry Principles (SIN), = (3.32) If one has Ey.g/Emns = 1/p. for low distortion the maximum peak signal level should be less than or equal to half the total input voltage range (7, AV/2). ie. Even Sm, AV/2 (3.33) so that (SIN) = Fgys/Eng” = (Pn, AVI2Y 1MAV YP = 3p'n? (34) Example 3.6 If a PCM system has to have an S/N ratio of 48 dB and the ratio of its rms to peak value is ~4 dB, what number of bits should be used in a codeword? Solution From Eqns (3.31), (3.32) and (3.34). (SIN), = 3p? ny = 3p" 2" Hence, (S/N) 4B = 10 log(S/N), = 10 log3 + 20 log p + 20m log 2 = 4.77 + p (dB) + 6.02n or 48 = 4.77 — 4 + 6.02n, giving. n= 7.845 = 8 Example 3.7 A signal with a cut-off frequency of 5 kHz is digitized at the Nyquist rate into 8 bit samples. What should be the bandwidth (baseband trans- mission) and the quantization signal-to-noise ratio? Solution From Eqn (3.32), (SIN 2°", giving (S/N), dB = 6.02n a For f, = 2fm (= 2.x 5 kHz) and 1 bits (= 8 bits) per sample. the bit rate is Ry, = 2nf,, (80 k bits/s). Theoretically, the channel bandwidth would be Nyquist bandwidth or half the bit rate. thus, BW = nf,, = 40 kHz and the quantization signal/noise ratio is (SIN), = 6.02 x 8 = 48 dB But, for avoiding intersymbol interference noise (see later in the chapter). the bandwidth is increased to BW = (1 + b)RJ2 = (1 + Bthinax (ii) where b,, called the roll-off factor, has a maximum value of 1. Using this value of 4,, BW is 80 kHz." Since from Eqn (ii) BW/f,,, = (1 + 6,n, using Eqn (i) (SIN), = 6.02/(L + 1), BWifyy, = 3.01 x 80/5 = 48 dB ‘There is a differential PCM technique as well in which the difference between samples is encoded in binary as this requires fewer bits, particularly if the samples do not widely vary between sampling instants.Symbols and Codes 103 3.4.3 Pulse Frequency Modulation (PFM) If the train of pulses maintains its amplitude but undergoes change in pulse period 7, and pulse duration 7, in proportion to the modulating signal. it is called pulse frequency modulation, Here. it is obviously 1,/T, = constant. The modulat- ing signal is sampled at the time when the modulated pulses occur. Its spectrum contains a fixed de level and a frequency-modulated cartier and sidebands at the harmonics of the unmodulated carrier (f, = 1/T,), whose ampli- tudes are constrained by the envelope sin nfT,(7fT,). As the spectrum does not contain any baseband component, frequency demodulation should be used for recovery of the signal. 3.4.4 Pulse Time Modulation (PTM) Pulse time modulation has two specific types: pulse position modulation and pulse width modulation (PWM). These are basically pulse phase modulation. In unmodulated pulse train there occurs a pulse of width 7, at the centre of the ‘window’ of width 7,, in a recurrent way. If the modulating signal varies this fixed width pulse within the window, changing its position across the window, pulse position modulation is said to occur. This requires a phase detector for recovery of the signal as the baseband components are absent in the spectrum. The PPM, signal is shown in Fig. 3.42. Fig, 3.42 The PPM signal sketched Pulse width modulation results if the width of the pulse varies in proportion to the modulating signal amplitude keeping the pulse frequency and amplitude constant. Figure 3.43 shows the situation. The signal can be recovered from the modulated output using a low pass filter.104 Telemetry Principles Fig. 3.43 The PYM signal sketched 3.4.5 Modulation Techniques—A Comparison The comparison of modulation techniques is taken up at this stage because modulations discussed in the previous sections have not been considered earlier. All modulation techniques basically refer to a nonlinear operation in which message/information data are used to modify some characteristics of another signal which is designated as carrier. This is for transmission of the message over a long distance. The carrier may be of any form but the cases where it is cither sinusoidal or a periodic, sequence of pulses are of prime consequence and are considered here. Often, the latter case is referred to as coding. Modulation is, in general, necessary for raising the frequency level for ease of transmission and for multiplexing. Modulation and multiplexing are very much interrelated and are important for performance enhancement with reference to certain aspects, such as (i) frequency spectrum in telemetry tansmission, (ii) signal-to-noise ratio as a function of transmitted power, (iii) threshold above which the system should operate and its improvement, and (iv) the efficiency of transmission specially with respect to information capacity. In case of amplitude modulation, the average unmodulated carrier power is P,= 442 (3.35) where V, is the carrier wave amplitude. Also, if the message mean value and mean squared value are m and i’, respectively, the average signal power is given by =4Vi (1+ 2 (3.36)Symbols and Codes. 105 For sinusoidal message, 77 = 0, and then P, < P, < (3/2)P., the upper bound is accepted for all practical purposes. For generalized case, however. P.S PS 4P, (3.37) It is tentatively assumed that full modulation occurs in the system. In frequency modulation, with full modulation, P. and P, are given as P.=P,= 42 (3.38) Phase modulation is not suitable where m (1) has a non-zero mean as this requires to be preserved in transmission and hence, a constant phase deviation appears which is indistinguishable from the phase-shift caused by transmission system. The average power, however, is similar to frequency modulated system. For pulse amplitude modulated signal that is band limited as required with respect to sampling and for full modulation, with energy contained in cach pulse, E, the average power of unmodulated pulse sequence is P= (W/T)E* (3.39) where 7 is the sampling time. Also. the average signal power for bipolar pulses Is given as Py, = (i /T)E (3.40a) and for unipolar pulses, Poy = (EIT) (1 + it + i?) (3.40b) In case of pulse width modulation for pulse height # and width of unmodulated pulse as A, for rectangular type, average power of unmodulated pulse sequence is given by PL= AIT (3.41) with the average signal power given by P,=(1+ mW) AIT (3.42) For pulse position modulation with same pulse height and width as in case of PWM the carrier and signal power are same and is given by the relation (3.41) for same nomenclatures. PAM, PWM and PPM all are essentially analogue techniques as the modula- tion produces a continuous variation in some characteristics of the pulses. Pulse code modulation, in contrast, is a digital one where only a finite number of message levels represented by appropriate binary codes can be transmitted. In this system it is difficult to calculate the power but it can be assumed that over a long time of transmission the probability of occurrence of pulses is half, so that Pate =e G43) for rectangular pulses of height /: with no space between pulses. The average power in absence of modulation is usually zero.106 Telemetry Principles Frequency Spectra Frequency spectrum produced by modulation of any type is important for system design and for calculation of signal-to-noise ratio. The spec- tral density method is the most convenient approach to specify the above for periodic as well as random functions. The spectral density of a stationary random process x(t) is defined in terms of the autocorrelation function R(t) = fim (127) f. x()x(t+t) dt (3.44) as 0,0) = f. R,(t) edt (3.45) It has a value that indicates the average power per unit bandwidth (W/Hz). For random time functions with zero mean the spectral density is continuous. bounded, real, positive and even with respect to @. In case of periodic time func- tions, such as sine and cosine functions, the spectral density contains Dirac 6&functions at discrete frequencies of appropriate values as mentioned in Chapter 2. For AM and FM, spectral densities of modulated signals with sinusoidal car- riers are listed in Table 3.8. The notation used are: Psn = S@/@,, = maximum deviation ratio; A@ = maximum deviation angular frequency; @,, ~ message frequency ; @, ~ fundamental squarewave frequency; a . «tion rati (4@)* BW = message bandwidth (Hz); ps, = mean square deviation ratio = ———_ (22BW) JP) = Bessel function of the first order; and 9,,(P%,,) = remainder spectral density of message. Table 3.8 Modulated signal spectral density |Modu- Message tpe Modulated signal spectral density lation O, (@) ype AM |General spectral density x sre + mY [6(@— @,) + Pam) = 2 (TY 5(@) + o,, (@) B(w+ o)] +E [a,(@~ a) + 9(@ + ©, J] FM [Sinusoidal nl) = F [5(@~ a) Je (Pon) [5(@~ 0, ~ 20) + 8(@ + @, )] + 5 (m+ @, + @,)) (Contd)Symbols and Codes 107 Table 3.8 (Contd) \Modu- Message type Modulated signal spectral density lation 9. (0) Type FM] Squarewave sin(nm/2) nue (O) = 20 “yee alo) } [5(@- n@p,) + 8 (@ + nj,)] [6(@- @,- 10%) + 6(@ + @, + NGy)} Band-limited square law Gaussian (BSG) -{_@ BW |< 2726302 Pl) (37): 5 VEO Pi). ai 3h W i. >2nBi [a 0) +8.o+0,)+ 28k for |o-@,|<2a BW for pg, << 1 = 0, for |o-,|>2n BW for ps, << 1 v2 4v2"(2n BW px) ep (@z w= 0.)P pone) 2anBW psy 22a BW’p5,)° for p5,>> 1 The other message that is of some consequence is the band-limited white 1 Gaussian (BWG) with, = ==, |o| $ 22 BW 20 BW > 2nBW having the same ¢,,,(@) for ps, >> 1, whereas for ps, << 1, it is given by ve 1 pi, BW mp3, BW Pry (@) = ne te eee 2 |(@-@,) +(a’° py BWY = (@+@,)° + (tps, BW) In amplitude modulation there is only shifting of the spectral density without any change in shape. In FM, similarity between BWG and BSG for p5, >> 1108 Telemetry Principles shows that the message amplitude probability density function is more significant than the message spectrum and it leads one to conclude that in FM of a carrier by a stationary random message the modulated signal spectral density is propor- tional to the first order probability density of the message for slow frequency deviations. The message spectral density for PM is dmnypny(@) = rer) this is used to obtain ¢,,(@). The significant result is that the BSG message spectrum in FM becomes BWG spectrum for PM. It should be stressed here that square-law spectrum is the one that is significant in multiplex systems. For spectral densities in pulse modulation methods, it is assumed for conve- nience that the message samples are mutually independent implying that the message spectral density 9,,,,(@) is band-limited and white. This makes @,,,, (@) dependent only on the pulse shape and the message amplitude probability density function p(m). It the Fourier transform of the single pulse is given by F(@) =F ult) edt (3.46) the spectral densities of modulated pulses are as shown in Table 3.9. Table 3.9 Spectral densities of modulated pulses Modulation Type Modulated signal spectral density @,,(@) PAM +1A@P fi ="? + se x 40-72) PWM (single-edge)} += \Fol +2 428 EEC x (oF) PPM Ninwr [1-|a4y olf + Bagel So ao -2m) PCM int +2 y o-#)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.110 Telemetry Principles white and Gaussian, while for FM-FM the frequency tapering for the sub-carrier makes the modulating signal to be approximated as band-limited, square-law and Gaussian and hence, the results of Table 3.8 can be adopted. With appropriate band-limiting filter for the PCM pulses before final modulation the PCM-FM case can also be BWG. The PWM-FM is not that easy to analyze as the modu- lating signal before final modulation is not band limited or Gaussian. Calculation with single edge shift pulse shows, however, that the spectral density drops off in proportion to 1/|@— @,? unlike the bandlimited case when it is exponential in nature. PPM-FM is not adopted in practice because of the presence of a continu- ous carrier which increases power requirement. Bandwidth Bandwidth has been discussed in Chapter 2, Message bandwidth BW for continuous case is kept limited by filtering, or for pulses by the sampling requirement preserving, however, the information content. If modulating signal bandwidth is (BW), its value is seen to depend on the type of modulation. It must be such that the spectrum must be able to give back the message with reasonable accuracy. Table 3.10 gives the relationship between BWV and (BW), Table 3.10 Pertaining to bandwidth Modulation Message details Modulated signal Type bandwidth (BW), AM Bandlimited, BW Hz 2 BW FM (i) Sinusoidal, freq: f, () 2 Pin Sa * Fu) (ii) Band-limited BW Hz (ii) 28.3 ps, BW + BW Gaussian PAM, PWM, Sampled, pulse-width = 2 WA PPM, PCM PAM-AM, PAM-AM| Sampled dA PPM-AM, PCM-AM PAM-FM Sampled at a rate (one channel) | 2(3.3 ps, BW + BW) PCM-FM 2 BWIN,, N, = No of channels PWM—FM Sampled, peak frequency 2s, + deviation = Af, Signal-to-Noise Ratio Signal-to-noise ratio is a very important item as the telemetry system is affected by a small value of it in the output. Specification must, therefore, be complied with. The output of the system is received by a receiver and it, therefore, has an S/N threshold which should be attained also in relation to the S/N ratio at the input. The figure of merit, insofar as S/N ratio is concerned, is obtained by a ratio comparison with the output signal to noise ratio of a single channel AM systemSymbols and Codes IIE and assuming that all channels are fully modulated with sinusoidal message at its highest frequency. The output S/N ratio of the system to the above ratio is known as the wideband gain or the improvement ratio. This, in general form, is given as Po = MSING) sar ynst! (SIN Darat (3.49) where X and ¥ stand for first modulation and second modulation type, respec- tively. These py's are dependent on BW, (BW), N, etc, except for PCM systems, as in such cases, the S/N ratio is dependent on the number of quantization levels mas shown later. Information handling How efficient is a telemetry system in transmitting in- formation is a prime issue to be considered. This is appreciated in terms of the efficiency of the bandwidth utilization (EBU) which compares the information capacity of the system output with the information capacity of the transmission channel. Thus, EBU = n, [(BW log(1 + S,/N,))/(BW), log(1 + S/N))] (3.50) where suffix i refers to the receiver input and suffix o refers to the output of each channel »,. This is, however, a theoretical estimate. Another figure of merit, information efficiency, IE, is given as IE = r/c = r((BW), log (1 + S/N)) 51) where r; = information rate and ¢ = channel capacity. Since r; is always less than the information capacity of the system output, IE < EBU. With the system output having continuous range of amplitudes, the information rate may be given, for white, band-limited and Gaussian output message as Yr n, BW log (S,/N,) (3.52) Thus, if S,/N, is large IE > EBU, while if S/N, > 1, IE + 0 but EBU remains finite non-zero. However, for PCM systems, r, = 2Nn, BW [1 ~ exp (~ kS/N,)] (3.53) Where N is the number of digits per code group, 5,/N, is the signal-to-noise ratio of the detected pulses. This 7; has been determined from the rate at which pulses are transmitted and the probability of receiving them incorrectly. In practice, coding is of finite length and redundancy has to be incorporated; signals in transmission channels are not Gaussian or white and only one charac- teristic of a signal is used for modulation leaving out others, such as in FM only frequency is considered and not amplitude, All these reduce the information handling efficiency of the modulation systems in general. Conclusion AM is extensively used in broadcasting. It is easily generated and easily received and demodulated with inexpensive receiving systems. It is the most efficient112 Tetemetry Principles modulation system, but, as is known, is more affected by noise than FM. Power can be saved by suppressing carrier and one of the sidebands but at the cost of increased complexity and expense of receiver system. FM has more immunity to noise and interference. Modulation index can be arbitrarily increased providing additional noise immunity but then the system bandwidth should also be increased. Wide-band FM is used for broadcast trans- mission, while narrow-band FM is used for communications, especially in vari- ous forms of mobile communications at frequencies above 30 MHz. FM in con- junction with SSB is used in frequency division multiplexing thereby combining a number of channels for terrestrial as well as satellite communications. All pulse modulation systems are used in communication areas. Since PAM system does not keep the amplitude constant, it is on way out of application. PWM has varying width of pulses and hence varying power content, requiring the transmitter to be capable of handling the larger width pulses. However, the PWM system works even if synchronization between transmitter and receiver fails, whereas PPM will not work in such a situation. Demodulation of PWM signals is done simply by using an integrator circuit, while demodulation of PPM needs to be converted to PWM and then proceeded as above. PCM, a digital system, is now used in almost all types of communication systems including telephony and telemetry. PCM can tolerate worse signal-to- noise ratio than other types. It has, however, large bandwidth requirement and hence is suitably used with fibre optic systems which can have large bandwidth. It has been shown that the bandwidth requirement of the PCM system is 16 times larger than that of an FDM system for the same number of channels. PCM is being used in space communications as well. High noise immunity but high transmitting time are special features. Low power requirement and high fidelity cover up the apparent deficiencies. 3.5 INTERSYMBOL INTERFERENCE The frequency response characteristics of a transmission channel introduces into the transmitted waveform a type of distortion called linear distortion which ac- tually changes the shape of the waveform without introducing or generating any new frequency component. The lines consisting of inductances and capacitances, i.e. storage elements, can be resonating at some frequencies with a pulse input resulting in a so-called tail or ringing as shown in Fig. 3.44. When a bipolar binary digital waveform is being transmitted, ringing produced by the pulse in the waveform may combine to produce an inversion of a pulse at some ‘downstream’ time. With this inversion occurring at any sampled instant for detection of 0 or 1, a bit error is likely to be produced. Therefore, there is an interference caused by the distortion which is often referred to as intersymbol interference. The ideal solution is to preserve the waveform during transmission. It would be understood, however, that if the waveform can be sampled at suitable instants to generate a new waveform, the waveform need not be preserved. However, synchronization is essential for sampling at proper times and it is necessary that pulse shaping is done for avoiding intersymbol interference.Symbols and Codes 113 A Input (puisey ' Channel ouput Fig. 3.44 Demonstration of a pulse producing tail in passing through a channel In a telemetry system, other than the spectrum of the input pulse. the frequency responses of the transmitter, the channel and the receiver would determine the shape of the pulse at the receiver output. With the input pulse spectrum function given by vf), the transmitter, the channel and the receiver frequency response functions by hf), h{f) and h,(f), the output pulse spectrum function v,((f) would be given by VLD = VAP) ALD) ALLY bP) = vi PIS) (3.54) where S(f) is the system frequency response. The distortion occurring is mainly due to delay in the transmission of the frequency constituents, as proposed, in the function h( f) and is attempted to be corrected for by adjusting /,(f) and/or h,(/). Because of the pulse/digital nature of the signal, this shaping process does not alter the information content of the signal. Using pulse shaping technique, to avoid the intersymbol interference, the sam- pling instants are arranged such that the zeros in the tails of the output pulses occur at these instants although the tails do overlap. Figure 3.45 shows the scheme for a symbol of these pulses 101 and its shaping. eg Na-->t eget t Fig. 3.45 Scheme for shaping of pulses by proper sampling When pulses are shaped so that intersymbol interference is absent, they are called Nyquist pulses. The raised cosine response or spectrum is a kind of pulse response used to eliminate such interference (shown in Fig. 3.46). For a pulse height A and symbol time period 7,,,, (often equal to 7;), bandwidth f, and a frequency f as shown in figure, it is seen that WS) = AT ym FS fo = AT yy, 008 ((R(\F| ~ SV OSs fy) So <\4\ So (3.55)114 Telemetry Principles fo Fig. 3.46 The raised cosine spectrum A ‘raised cosine’ pulse consists of one cycle of cosine wave raised by adding a de level equal to its amplitude. If 2T.y,,)' is the symbol frequency f,, the bandwidth f, and frequency f, from where the roll-off starts, a parameter },, called the roll-off factor, relates these frequencies as fo= (1 - b)f, (3.56a) and fr= (1+ bf, (3.56b) where b, lies between 0 and |. It would be interesting to note that with b, = 0, the response of Fig. 3.46 becomes that of an ideal low-pass filter, as, then, fo = fa =Ip= V2T 55m G57) For the time response of vp(/), its inverse Fourier transform is obtained as SIN (1/Tyym) — COS(b, T/T, 1 — (26,2/T, ) y() = A (3.58) Plots for various values of b, from 0 to 1 may be obtained to see the shapes of the pulses obtained at the output. A typical response is given in Fig, 3.47. Obviously, the pulse is maximum at ¢ = 0, its value being vot), o =A (3.59) and it has periodic zeros at times which are integral multiples of 7,,,,, i.e. at 1 = KD guy. AS SINT yy, Mt/Toyyy) & L for IT yyy > 0 and sin(t/T ey, (t/T yy.) > 0 for /T,,,, > k. k being integral values. Also. if k = 0, cos(b,k) = 1. This indicates that sampling at k = 0 gives v,(/) = v,(0) = A, while at other f, integral of Ty Would give MkT,,,,) = 0, ie. waveform consisting of sequences of pulse would be free of intersymbol error,Symbols and Codes 115 Fig. 3.47 The time response with raised consine function From Eqn (3.57), for ideal response Sa = WT ym) = Rey! 2 (3.60) or Rom = fa B6b indicating that signalling rate in symbol/s is twice the bandwidth of f, (ideal). If the bit rate to bandwidth ratio is given by B, i.e. B = R,/f,, then from Eqn (3.56b). BH RSQ. + B27 yy) = (RYRoyu) QM + B,)) = Ani + b) (3.62) As b, becomes smaller and smaller, from a maximum value of 1, bps/Hz be- comes larger and larger, ideally becoming 2n for b, = 0, indicating that most efficient use of bandwidth can be made then. The pulse outputs do not have well-defined rectangular shapes as are expected (Fig. 3.47), also, noise in the system corrupts the output distorting it still further. The pulse regenerator in the receiver, therefore, becomes quite essential on such counts. 3.6 ERROR RATE AND PROBABILITY OF ERROR Probability of error in a message depends on the probability of occurrences of 1's and 0’s in it, An overall probability of error is then given by P= PyX Py + Pi X Py (3.63) where, P, = probability of occurrence of binary 0, P, = probability of occurrence of a binary 1. P. = probability of misreading/misinterpreting a 0, and P., = probability of misreading a 1 It should be remembered that probability of occurrences of 0 or 1 in a long stream of data sequence is 0.5 In the presence of noise voltage exceeding a given value or threshold, the binary 0, corresponding to zero volts may be interpreted as 1. Thus the probability116 Telemetry Principles of the bit or symbol being misinterpreted will be equal to the probability of the noise voltage exceeding the threshold. The probability of bit error P, is often referred to as bit error rate (BER). This must be low enough—the highest al- lowed is in speech signal transmission with a value 10° meaning that there is an error of 1 bit in 10° bits. As would be evident that the bit error probability would require the knowledge of the noise statistics and the detection process, Figure 3.48 shows a typical scheme with the waveforms generated after the filter, V; (1), S/H block, V,(¢), and output V,(¢) after comparison with the threshold voltage V,,(1), once in absence of noise and once in presence, AT, is sampling instant. At) Vg(t) r)—| iPr —>{ SiH Voit) | vo Vale) Mint) vat) v(t) 4 Voth +Vy ~t (b) Fig. 3.48(a)-(b) (a) Scheme of waveform generation, (b) Waveform at different stages without noiseaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.118 Telemetry Principles This is available in terms of V,/V,, as shown in Fig. 3.49. Often a Q-function is defined to denote the bit error probability. The relation is 0 10 b B10" ’ L 10) 10 1 2 3 4 «8 Vl V,-—> Fig. 3.49 P,, vs V,/V, plot Pre = AMV) (3.66) This shows that Q(x) = 4 erfe ( } (3.67) It must be noted that erfe (x) = 1 as erf (x) and the series form of erfe (x) is given erfe (x) = (eo (Ve x)ja = 2x) + (1322) - (1.3.52) and erf (x) is given as erf (x) = (2Vz) fev du Q-function, applicable for Gaussian distribution of a random variable, is de- fined in terms of the ratio of the variable (x) and the standard deviation o. Thus Q(3) is the probability that the random variable will have a positive value more than thrice its standard deviation, i.e. probability that x/o >3. Hence, if a noise has zero mean, the probability that the noise exceeds a threshold V,. is Q(,/0). Figures 3.50 (a) and (b) show the probability density function of a received voltage when binary 0 is transmitted and Figs 3.51 (a) and (b) show the correspond- ing curves for bit 1 transmitted. The normalized curve is shown in Fig. 3.52. For (x/0},, > 4, the approximate relation is given by OQ (wiohgt = exp { — @/0)5/2M(a/ oy v2) (3.68) It is easy to see that the area of the tail in Fig. 3,50(b), for example, gives the probability for noise voltage greater than M%j,, and Fig. 3,51 (b) shows that the area of the tail is the probability that the noise voltage is less than — ¥,. These areasSymbols and Codes 119 Probability density A Low rms noise Ve =Vy Vin Voltage (a) Probability density t High rms noise ma G ~ Voltage vj =A= th VEARV, o=Vpy (b) Fig. 3.50 (a) and (b) Probability density function of a received voltage with transmitted 0 Probability density | /\\oee Vin V=A=Y, Voltage (a) Probability density High noise Voitage 3.51 (a), (b) Probability density function of a received voltage when | is transmitted are same (for given V and Vy, and in the same transmission line), and hence QU, /s) = Q(V/26) (3.69) Hence, P, is obtained as120 Telemetry Principles Probability density x) x a o 2 Jt Fig. 3.52 The normalized curve P, = 0.5 x O(H/26) + 0.5 x Q(F/26) = Q (¥/20) (3.70) This is often written in terms of the signal-to-noise ratio of the system. One very common technique of writing this ratio is in terms of the voltage ratio or power ratio. The peak signal-to-noise voltage ratio is defined as (S/N), = Peak signal voltage/rms noise voltage. so that (SIN), = Vio or Alo (3.7la) and P, = QVI20) = 9 [4(S/N),) (G.71b) In power form, (S/N), = (peak voltage)’/mean sq. noise voltage = (SIN? For a bipolar system the excursion is between + 1/2 to — 1/2 instead of V and 0. For a bipolar scheme, therefore. (SIN), = Vi20 (3.72a) and = Q(Vi20) = O(SIN), (3.72b) For a bit duration 7, and average power in the received signal Pp, bit energy is given as E, = Pel; = Pa/R,. where R, is the bit rate For white noise, noise en constant and @,, the temperatur is given by N, = ky 9, where ky is Boltzmann so that for unipolar and bipolar cases (VV pusvax = (Eo! Ny )t and (FAV dimax = 2Ey/N)* (3.73) respectively, so thatSymbols and Codes 121 Phe, = 4 erfe (£,/2N,,)? and Prey = 4 erfe (Ey/N,)° (3.74) The probability of arrangement of having exactly r errors in n bit codeword and hence (n ~ r) correct bits is P(r) = Pi, (1 - Py)" (3.75) making the probability of receiving any codeword with r errors is P(r, n) ="C, Pv) (3.76) Simplifying notations, if p is the probability of one bit being in error and g = (1 — p). and since "C, = nli(r! (n — r)!), one writes P(r, n) = (nel Qn = rj] p! = py? (3.77) An approximation may be made by putting P(r) = P’,, since Py. << 1, so that P(r, n) = [Al (a = DIP he (3.78) Example 3.8 Ina digital data transmission system the codeword is of 8 bit and the bit error probability is 10 *, Calculate the probability that the codeword would have 2 errors and 3 errors. Solution P/,. = (10 -?)° and (10-7 in the two cases, whereas the values of "C, are 28 and 112. Hence, P(2,8) = 10 4, 28 = 28 x 10° 4, and P(3,8) = 107%. 112 =1.12 x 10° 4, respectively In some texts P(r, 1) is also represented as P,,,, Also, error control coding with BER,, standing for bit error rate coded, has superiority as far as BER,, standing for bit error rate uncoded, is concerned. Error control coding basically is for reduction in the probability of bit error and more efficient it is, less would be this probability. Transmission error is hardly reduced by it because of the signal-to-noise ratio but the coding-decoding be- comes more efficient and BER, is improved. It is required to know the codeword with at least error, the probability of codeword error is given by Powe ™ >, Fin (3.79) j= However, probability of getting more than / errors is very small compared to P;,,,, ie.122 Telemetry Principles PB Tejon << P, “1 Hence, Pove * Pi (3.80) Some codes for forward error correction (FEC) can correct all errors up to a certain specified number, say r. The probability of receiving a codeword with errors of more than r is obviously Le ee 8h ‘ewe If there are n,. words (7, >> 1) ina signal, the number of words in error which would not be detected is »,P,,,. and the number of bit errors that would not be detected in the signal is iv,,P,,... If distribution of error is assumed uniform in the n codeword bits, the fraction of errors expected is again p = Mn. The signal. however, contains kn, data-bits and hence, the bit error rate is hae BER, = ip 1, Poy¢/ (An,) (3.82) Using Eqn (3.78), BER, = (i/n) {nMi! DD] Pree (3.83) Since i =r +1, BER, = [(# — 1)! Ar! (n- 1 = ))] Pte (3.84) There often occurs a 10 times improvement as far as BER is concemed. In fact, the plot BER, and BER, against £,/N,, (in dB) shows that over a specified BER, = BER, there always is saving in decibel gain for a given BER which is known as coding gain (CG). Figure 3.53 shows the situation. With coding BER log scale) Mactale Without coding BER (given) ST EyNy(dB) Fig. 3.53. Coding gain vs BER 3.7. CONCLUDING REMARKS For successful communication of serial data, certain rules and procedures are followed which are called protocols. The simplest form of protocol is the use of start and stop bits in asynchronous transmission where usually a character con- sisting of a few bits is transmitted.Symbols and Codes 123 In synchronous data communication, a biock consisting of a fixed number of characters becomes a basic unit. A block is identified by transmitting special characters before and after it, These additional special characters are usually 7 to 8 bit codes generally used to identify (i) signal beginning and end of transmission (ii) a specified block of data, (iii) and provide means of error detection and checking. Sometimes, at the beginning and end of each block, some characters are used to provide “handshaking” facility to give the transmitter and receiver the status information. Many coding techniques are known which are meant for message transmission and not just telemetering system, such as (i) repetition coding, where the bits *1” or *0° coming as single entity in datawords are repeated a number of times and error detection is done on what is known as majority vote; (ii) convolution en- coding where the binary source data are combined in a known manner using modulo 2 adders. Block codes are designed to detect and correct errors. Some of them are Ham- ming, Golay, Bose—Chaudhuri—Hocquenghem (BCH), Reed—Solomon (RS) ete. which have already been discussed earlier. It must be clear by now that the greatest enemy of signals, coded or not is noise which comes in various kinds. There are ways, however, to ascertain the influ- ence of noise on the signals as aiso means of minimizing the same as has been considered in the text. Digital signals or coded ones are affected by noise, intersymbol interference, time jitter etc. and means have been considered for making these as less as possible in systems. The effect of these can be examined on a CRT screen by what is known as eye-diagram which is produced when the time base of the scope is synchronized with bit rate and the digital waveform becomes the deflecting signal to the CRT. For bit rate, usually, a width of two symbol periods is considered which become bit periods when a binary signal is considered. The triggering point is the centre of the waveform peaks, i.e. sam- pling points. A typical binary waveform to the deflecting plates of the scope is shown in Fig. 3.54(a) with the bitword shown atop. Figure 3.54(b) shows the eye diagram. The time base input, in view of its two symbol form, is not shown, Small letters mark the binary waveform, the eye diagram which can be obtained on the screen is drawn with the tracing provided by these letters; for example, a—e is trigger cycle. With first trigger at a, retriggering occurs at e,/,4,p and so on. The eye diagram of Fig. 3.54(b) shows the ideally obtained one when no noise or interference is present in the system and pulses overlap to form a sharp diagram. The presence of intersymbol interference and noise will not permit this sharp overlapping as these alter the shapes of the pulses. This in fact cause blurring of the diagram resulting in what is called ‘closing the eye’ and reducing the noise margin which is actually the difference between the 0 V and the lower limit at the peaks, i.e. the sampling point value. This reduction is associated with more distortion due to noise or interference.$24 Telemetry Principles The intersymbol interference, noise and timing error change the eye diagram to one that is approximated by the figure given in Fig. 3.54(c), The timing error tends to shift the sampling instant away from the ‘ideal peak’ or centre causing level change and change in the sampled value. This is all the more important if the slope is large. The zero-cross over (4,f,d,j,0,..) get blurred causing uncertainty in the sample timing range, 1,¢ timing jitter occurs and, in general, it reduces the timing range. On the receiver side detection reference time also becomes uncer- tain, causing error. For m-ary waveforms the eye diagram undergoes changes without any change in the nature. In fact, in that case m/2 vertical eyes are formed. The noise ete causes, however, similar distortions. (a) ae, k,n, Ln akin, Ap (b) () Fig. 3.54 (a) A typical binary waveform, (b) The eye diagram without distortion, (c) The eye diagram with distortion REVIEW QUESTIONS 3.1 Explain with suitable sketches the operation of a pulse duration system as used in telemetering. How are time function pulses generated? A cyclic ramp generator has an excursion from 2 volts to 10 volts with a slope of 1.25 volts/ms in a ramp cycle. If the de signal of 4 volts is compared in a switching comparator of base-bias of 2.5 volts, what would be the pulse duration? (Hint : fp = {(4 — 2.5) / 1.25} ms]aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.126 3.12 3.14 Telemetry Principles (Hint: Levels a, = + (2k- 1) A, A= 1 V,and k= 1, 2, ..., 4] With rectangular input pulse train, the output response is to be raised cosine curves with a roll-off factor of 0.5. If bit rate is 3 kb/s what would be the cut-off frequency /, and the frequency where roll-off starts, f,? (Hint: f, = (1 — 0.592). 3 x 10° = 750 Hz ; fy (1 + 0.5/2). 3.x 10° = 2250 Hz] What do you mean by error correcting codes? How are they used for cor- rection purposes? What are coding gain, bit error rate and block code? In a digital data transmission 8 bit codewords are used, if the bit prob- ability error is 10~?, calculate the probability of having 3 errors in the codeword (see Example 3.4). What is forward error correcting code? How is it implemented in a ‘two- dimensional’ case? Define longitudinal redundancy and vertical redundancy checks. What are their functions in correcting probable errors in data transmission? A process variable available in 4 to 20 mA format is encoded into a 7-bit information word. What resolution can you obtain in it? Write the bit word for 5.5 mA and draw the waveform."e 4 Frequency Division Multiplexed System 4.1 FDM: AN INTRODUCTION The telemetry systems can, in general be classified into two broad types: (i) the frequency division multiplexed type (FDM), and (ii) the time division multi- plexed type (TDM). The frequency division multiplexed type comprises a number of data channels, each of which modulates a separate sub-carrier oscillator. FDM is more of an analogue type system and the conventional frequency modulation in association with other analogue modulation methods is used in transmission of information. The outputs from all the above sub-carrier oscillators are mixed/summed to form a composite signal which modulates a high frequency carrier and the resultant wave is transmitted by an appropriate FM transmitter system through a radio link. At the receiving end, this wave is received by an FM receiver which is then FM- demodulated and amplified. The amplified output is passed through the same number of channels as the transmitting side data channels consisting of band-pass filters of frequencies of the sub-carriers. Output of each such channel is further demodulated or detected to obtain analogue output that has originally been trans- mitted, ‘This is then stored or displayed or monitored as necessary. Such a system is often known as FM/FM system. A scheme of the transmitting side is shown in Fig. 4.1(a) and that of the receiving side in Fig. 4.1 (b). Frequency division actually means separation of individual carrier channels in the frequency domain. These separate carriers are termed as sub-carrier frequen- cies which, in turn, modulate a higher carrier frequency in the RF range. The sub- carriers can be modulated in amplitude, single side band (SSB), phase or fre- quency for transmission of information, In telephone systems, usually SSB modu- lation is used, whereas for telemetry frequency modulation is most common,128 Telemetry Principles uy O1peY, uuoisks WWQY Jo apis Summusuen arp jo aways (ep “Bla soyeq980 1 ren je — a oos | ~« LoVenpOY oos | if ron) | T| oos [1 gp es —— io ‘ TT oy sabuel > ' L AW OIL sopusuen soye|npous = yoxius : 2 OWS +“ obneb wi W4 geoury 1 ! s 1 urns ' { sjeubis i ‘ mi Janay Mo7) || GHA v0) l. - | 098 t os sindui Bojeuy jal L Wo sexaydnin129 Frequency Division Multiplexed System sindino anBojeuy worshs Way Jo apts Buyyores ap jo aways (q)I“y “Bt Jaxeidqinweg | (2100) yo, JojeNpoweg Ws (9b =u) : z Jeyydury }« secesiea “ Saas (2H v0) a130 Telemetry Principles mainly because of better de response and low-cost equipment needed for the purpose The selection of multiplex baseband is dependent on the given number of channels, the data bandwidth, making, however, in the process, some trade-off between ‘data accuracy’ and ‘spectrum efficiency’, At the expense of bandwidth FM provides high fidelity in transmission, acquisition and reduction. It is true that channel accuracy can increase with increase in total multiplex bandwidth that can be availed of, which means baseband is selected making some trade-off in data accuracy for total occupied bandwidth. The sub-carrier frequencies are usually equally spread over a specified fre- quency range called the overall bandwidth, This effectively means that each input is given a portion of the bandwidth as schematically shown in Fig. 4.2. |+—______—overat bandwidth wae [| t fot fea fom \ Single channel bandwidth Fig. 4.2 Division of channel bandwidths The mixer, usually a linear, adds all the modulated sub-carrier oscillator fre- quencies algebraically along with the sidebands. The resultant output signal of the mixer then becomes a composite of all the sub-carriers with modulations. This composite signal then (i) modulates a radio-frequency carrier and transmit- ted as already stated, or (ii) is transmitted over a single transmission channel, or (iii) becomes an input to another multiplexer system. 4.2 IRIG STANDARDS As is well-known, a sinewave modulating signal V,,(¢) when frequency-modulates a carrier V_.., COS @,t, the modulated output is enlt) = Veman 008 (61+ | kpFrnmax COS Dnt dt) (4.1) where Vt) = Fninax 008 Ont (42) Hence Crt) = Vemax COS (Wet + ky! Vinswax fn) Si Ont) (43) where kf = (1/271) ky, Writing kf Vinmadfm = Sn = mp, Eqn (4.3) can be writtenFrequency Division Multiplexed System 131 as EO = Ve nay 608 (O,C-> My SiN Opt) (44) It has been shown in Chapter 2 that analysis of Eqn (4.4) yields a series solution to it and the modulation frequency is extended during this process of modulation. For transmitting a sinewave signal by FM the bandwidth is extended by twice the peak deviation k/ I’,,.,., over the modulation frequency /,. Also. for avoiding cross talk, a finite guardband between adjacent channels must be there These considerations have led to some acceptable basebands which are consid- ered optimum for standard multiplex configuration. Consequently, Inter Range Instrumentation Group (IRIG) developed in 1975 two telemetry standards of baseband configurations: the proportional bandwidth (PBW) and the constant bandwidth (CBW) configurations. The standards are given in Table 4.1 and 4.2 with deviation allowed. Table 4.1 IRIG Standard PBW Telemetry Channels — Data cut-off 7.5% Deviation channel Channel frequency Hz — LBEF CF (tkHz) HBEF | 1 6 0.370 0.400 0.430 2 8 oss 0.560 0.602 3 1 0.675 0.730 0.785 4 14 O.888 0.960 1.032 5 20 1.202 1.300 1.398 6 25 1.572 1,700 1,828 7 35 2.127 2.300 2473 8 45 2.175 3.000 3.225 9 59 3.605 3.900 4.193 10 81 4.995 5.400 5.805 i 110. 6.799 7.350 7.901 12 160 9.712 10.500 11.288 13 220 13.412 14.500, 15.588 14 330 20.350 22.000 23.650 15 450 27.150 30.000 32.250 16 600 37.000 40.000 43.000 17 790 48.562 $2.500 56.438 18 1050 64.750 70.000 75.250 19 1395 86.025 93.000 99.975 20 1860 114.700 124.000 133,300 21 2475 152.625 165.000 177.375 (Contd)132 Telemetry Principles Table 4.1 (Contd) Data cut-off 15% Deviation channel Channel frequency Hz [SS LBEF CF (kHz) HBEF 15% deviation Channel A 660 18.700 22.000 25.300 B 900 25.300 30.000 34.500 C 1200 34.000 40.000 46.000 D 1875 44.625 $2.500 60.375 E 2100 59.500 70.000 80.500 F 2790 79.050 93.000 106.950 G 3720 105.400 124.000 142.000. H 4950 140.250 165.000 189.750 LBEF: — Low Band Edge Frequency HBEF: High Band Edge Frequency Cr Centre Frequency Table 4.2 IRIG standard CBW telemetry channels Deviation De Deviation Nominal Nominal: Nominal. Channel CFtkHz) Channel CFtkH2) Channel CF (kH:) 1A 16 2A 24 3A 32 3B 32 3c 32 4A 40 5A 48 5B 48 6A 56 7A 64 7B 64 7C 64 8A 72 9A 80 OB 80 10A 88 HA 96 1B 96 lic 96 12A 104 13A M12 13B 12 14A 120 ISA 128 15B 128 15C 128 16A 136aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.134 Telemetry Principles The modulation index mg 1s also standardized at 5 for +7.5% deviation from centre frequency of each channel in PBW-FDM system so that for channel 1, f, should have a maximum value as calculated below: Suser = 430 Hz, Se + Mg Jy = 400 Hz + Sf, giving f,, ~ 6 Hz. This is the signal cut-off frequency. Similarly, for channel 16 it is (43 x 10° - 40 x 10°V5 = fing giving f;,16 = 600 Hz. Thus, the signal baseband in the two cases are 0-6 Hz and 0-600 Hz, respectively. As seen in Table 4.1, there are 8 channels designated as 4 to H which have centre frequencies identical with those of channels 14 to 21. But, these A to H channels have 15% deviation and allow effectively no guardband at all. To allow enhanced bandspread. however, adjacent bands are to be chosen selec- tively. Main advantage with these optional channels is the higher data cut-off frequency, i.e. a higher frequency response. Thus for channel 16, it is 0 to 600 Hz, while the alternate C channel gives 0 to 1200 Hz. For a given signal baseband, the sub-carvier oscillator centre frequency and the main carrier oscillator frequency are chosen keeping in mind that the modulation index has to be 5 and deviation +7.5 per cent. In the FM-FM system the receiving antenna receives the transmitted signal and sends the same to an FM receiver. Then an FM demodulator demodulates it to reform the composite signal which, after amplification, is passed through a set of band-pass filters with their centre frequencies identical with those of sub- carrier oscillator. Each filter passes only the content of a specific channel reject- ing all others. The output from the band-pass filters is again frequency-demodu- lated and passed through appropriate low pass filters with bandwidths same as those of the basebands (signals), The output from the low-pass filters is stored in a tape, disc or displayed on a monitor or other appropriate display units. In telemetry, different process parameters are required to be monitored when sensors are used to generate electrical signals in proportion to or as functions of physical characteristics of the processes, Considering the case of a thermistor or an RTD, one derives a de voltage connecting it in a resistive network with a supply, representing the temperature of a process. The de voltage varies with the temperature. If it is required to be transmitted to a remote receiver for read-out, recording or to take control action, this device becomes a sensor of one of the FDM system channels. Different such devices can be put into different channels, some providing varying de voltage as a function of process variable, some pro- viding ac signal. Each of these signals is amplified, filtered and conditioned to be amenable to being used to modulate a carrier (sub). All these carriers are then added together as shown in Fig. 4.4 to form a single ‘multiplexed’ channel. This is what is known as frequency multiplexing, The outputs of the different signal conditioners are used to modulate sub- carrier frequencies which are derived from oscillators called valtage controlled oscillators. Thus the sub-carrier oscillators are nothing but voltage controlled oscillators (VCO) and outputs of these oscillators are added or summed as shown. The circuits of voltage-controlled oscillators are known and over the frequencyaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.136 Telemetry Principles amplifier 4). The feedback from ST to CS controls the charge-discharge of the capacitor, in the process a free-running astable multivibrator oscillator is pro- duced, The ST input rises with C charging: when a specific level is reached, it triggers and its output initiates CS to discharge capacitor C. VCO’'s are, therefore, astable multivibrators with their frequency controllable by outputs from the sig- nal conditioners. Frequency Temperature (a) (b) Fig. 4.6 (a) A simple temperature to frequency converter, (b) Its f-t characteristic A very simple scheme of converting temperature directly to frequency using thermistor as a transducer is shown in Fig. 4.6(a). Figure 4.6(b) shows the fre- quency versus temperature relation which is linear over a certain range of tem- perature. The thermistor resistance R, can be written as R, = Roe (4.5) with a=- pir for a thermistor and AT = T - T,. Also, with R,/Ry = k and R/Ry = 1 frequency fis given by Ifyo= (n+ Dnt k+ eV [a +k + 1) (n+ ee) (4.7) where fo = V2R,C In(24 ~ 1)) (48) Generally, for a practical system, k = 2 and n = 1, so that Sify = 4B + e471 + e@87) (4.9) For high frequencies, above 10 kHz for SCO’s, a transistor switch is used instead of an FET switch. The circuit of a VCO of this type is shown in Fig. 4.7 For the two transistors to operate as saturated complementary emitter followers, it is required that [P| D5 Yo, | ¥ 4 Ry ¢ OO—— mm Ry —— Fig. 4.8 High frequency VCO The summer/mixer is shown in Fig. 4.4 which is reproduced in Fig. 4.9(a). It is a modified form of the summer of Fig. 4.9(b). Summing is done in the circuit of Fig. 4.9(b) with considerable attenuation since its output Vy is given by the relation Vo = Ry E VIR MI + Ry Z VR), i = 1,2, ...,m (4.13) Thus, for the jth signal alone Voy = ¥; (R/RVC + Ry EWR) (4.14) while for the scheme of Fig. 4.9(a), the output is Vo = - RX VIR, (4.15) indicating that a gain for each channel signal can be obtained on the choice of R,and R,. The gain for the jth channel is R,/R,. The composite output from the summer is used to modulate a radio-transmitter. Telemetry systems generally use frequency modulation in both subcarrier and main carrier levels, therefore, they are known as the FM/FM system, ‘The [RIG standard used in telemetry as given in Table 4.1 is the PBW FM/FM system as stated already. Here, higher the carrier, wider is the bandwidth over which the modulating signal can occur as explained by a short calculation. In CBW FM telemetry, a fixed deviation of + 2 kHz is specified in channels 1A to 21A such that all channels have a constant 4 kHz bandwidth. Guard-space is, however, provided for preventing interference. Re vp vy vs on re {ve Yay “Ay R Ri yay Ga Vo rap eR, Yura oh oe (a) (b) Fig. 4.9 (a) Summer with an OA, (b) Passive summerFrequency Division Multiplexed System 139 4.3, FM CIRCUITS Of a number of FM circuits commercially available, some are direct, while others produce FM via phase modulation. The direct types vary the frequency of a cartier by the modulating signal. Some are discussed here briefly. The carrier is generated by an LC-tuning or a crystal-tuning oscillator. In either case the object of obtaining modulation is by using a circuit component—an inductance or a capacitance, that changes with the modulating signal. A varactor diode, basically a voltage variable capacitor, can be used for such a purpose. It is a semiconductor junction diode operated in a reverse-biased condition. It is the width of the depletion layer that shows the capacitance and the width is controlled by reverse-bias. The p- and n-type materials on the two sides of the junction act as the electrode plates. The depletion layer width acts as the dielectric width. If this width is w, and the semiconductor material area is @, then the capacitance is Cyg = kath, (4.16) with reverse bias w, increases, hence, C,_, decreases. The order of the capaci- tance is small in the pF range. The relation between reverse-bias voltage V, and junction capacitance C,_ , is shown in Fig. 4.10, The approximate mathematical elation is given by 2 Coa = Col = V,/9)" (4.17) where Cy is the capacitance at zero bias, V’, is the bias (reverse), @ is the contact potential of the junction which roughly is a constant of about 0.5 V, and 7, an index which depends on junction formation and has a value 4 for abrupt junction and 1/3 for linearly developed graded junction. Using this diode the FM modu- lator circuit produced is schematically shown in Fig. 4.11 (a). The tuned circuit is formed by L-C combination for producing carrier fre- quency. A very large capacitance C, is connected as shown so that at the oper- ating frequency 1/(@c) approaches zero. Effectively, then the varactor diode having variable capacitance C, is applied across the tuned circuit. The centre frequency of the carrier oscillator is thus set as f= WanfLiC + C)) (4.18) 100 90 Junction capacitance (pF) 8 iO 30 60 Reverse bias voltage (V) Fig. 4.10 The V, - C,_4 characteristic of a varactor diode140 Telemetry Principles RFC ? - | si 1 — +t | oe é R, oz a ot Q f {LAA v | RF a = <- Amplifier choke > /\ VDIC3 Ry rh a) At L t | RFc Roy F C, Faiby ’ 2 Rid) 0.9% m (b) Fig. 4.11 (a) The modulator with a varactor diode, (b) Clapp oscillator with a varactor diode A fixed de bias produced by R, — R, chain keeps C, at a value say, Cy), the modulating signal applied through C, which blocks the de bias and impedance of RFC (radio frequency choke) being high at high frequencies, blocks the carrier from going to the modulating circuit, A modulating signal adds the reverse bias by being positive, C, then becomes less thereby increasing the f, and vice versa. The commonly used Clapp oscillator using a varactor diode is shown in Fig. 4.11 (b). The analysis of such a circuit is available in standard texts. Capacitor C, effectively grounds the base of transistor 7, and L — C, in conjunction with C, — C, forms the tuned circuit. R, provides the feedback. The effective inductance with the varactor diode capacitance C, is Leg = L -— WC) (4.19)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.142 Telemetry Principles to provide negligible impedance at the radio frequency but blocks de so that R, does not become a parallel resistance to R, as far as biasing is concerned. Nor- mally, C, and R, are chosen such that |1/(j@, C,)| > 10R,, where @, is the carrier oscillator frequency, the circuit thus effectively behaves as a capacitance circuit and the current through the circuit (C, ~ R,) will lead the applied voltage by about 90° and hence, the voltage at the base of 7 developing across R, leads the voltage V, from the oscillator. This voltage across R, produces a base current that is in phase with the collector current and this collector current would lead V, by 90° In other words, the reactance modulator effectively projects a capacitor across the tuned circuit as leading means a capacitive action. wo PA r vy, , REC R, 1 ‘Si I) ch. (Signal) Rey Cy cor ae | am RF oscillator tuner Fig.4.13 The reactance modulator circuit The input signal V; varies the base voltage and hence, the base current of J and collector current would vary accordingly in proportion. As the collector current amplitude varies, the phase shift angle changes with respect to V, which oscilla- tor looks upon as a variation in capacitance and the oscillator frequency, in effect, changes. C, and R,~ C, may interchange position when the current in the phase shifter still leads , by 90°. But with the voltage across C, now being allowed across the base, it lags the oscillator voltage with the reactance modulator acting like an inductor and this also leads to radio frequency control with signal voltage. The reactance modulator has least distortion and the circuit can be imple- mented very conveniently with an FET. The equivalent circuit with an FET to show how capacitance changes across the tuner is shown in Fig, 4.14. From the figure it is seen that eg * ig, = RVo/(R, — jXer) (4.23) Drain current i is given by i rm Og = SR VaR, — iXe) (4.24)Frequency Division Multiplexed System 143 ly | | rd Fig. 4.14 Equivalent reactance modulator circuit with a FET Hence, impedance Z looking into the terminals A-4’is J = Voli= (Ry — XM Sm) = (Wn) 1 = 7Xe/R)) (4.25) If X,, >> R,, as already stipulated, Xe = Z = —jiX lS Rd) = WQS B~RC,) = W2nF.C,,) (4.26) where X,,, is the equivalent capacitive reactance and C,, is the effective capaci- tance. The device transconductance is varied with input signal so that C,, varies. Obviously, with increase in capacitance frequency would decrease. Example 4.1 A reactance modulator with an FET, whose characteristic curve lies from 320 ps to 30 us for V,,=— 2 V to V,,=— 0.5 V, has to be uséd with a tuned LC carrier of frequency 80 MHz and frequency deviation of 70 kHz. What are the modulating signal voltage and the tuned circuit C and Z value? Assume R&,. = 1/X,,. Solution Vi pp 7-05 -(-2)=1.5V Vin ams = 1.5(2¥2) = 0.53 V Now, X_ = 1M@,C,) = 10R,; C, = V2zf,- 10R,) Also, as, Ce = BCR Cre = Sm/ (2A, 10) Hence, Crecmin = Sm,min!(27He~ 10) = 320 x 10°(6.28-80 x 10°. 10) = 0.065 pF and Cyesmax = Sn.max!(2%f,* 10) = 0.167 pF Also, SeaarMfecwin = {2H JTC Comin} / fl 2a LAC + Cremax ))} YC + Ce rma (€ + Cre.enin)144 Telemetry Principles or, Cem Femi eon = (Cresnax ~ Crsris(C + Crema) so, that, Geax * Seana) Memax ~ SeswioS canin = fe AMG e = ole = (Cremax ~ Cremin (C+ Cre min) Where f; stands for frequency deviation. From above, © + Cre smin = (Cremax — © re,mindfe/(4fs) Putting values now, C = [(0.167 - 0.065)-10"'? - 80 - 10°%(4 x 70.10°)] — 0.065107 = (29 — 0.065) pF = 29 pF Also, f= 1(2nVEC) or L = 14m fC) = W(4 - (3.18) - (80.10° - 29 - 10°") = 0.14 pH. 4.4 PHASE MODULATION CIRCUITS The frequency modulation can be obtained indirectly via phase modalation. A crystal oscillator or crystal-controlled frequency synthesizer produces stable and accurate carrier frequency which is then fed to a phase modulator whose phase is shifted or modulated in relation to the modulating signal. The phase variation produces frequency variation and thus an indirect FM generation takes place. Simple passive RC integrators and differentiators shown in Figs 4.15 (a) and (b) can produce phase lag or lead between 0° and 90°. By varying the capacitor or resistor in these lag or lead networks by the modulating signal, a PM circuit Canter K. Output Carrier, Output Cc E tr A A (a) (b) Fig. 4.15 (a) Passive RC integrator, (b) Passive RC differentiator is obtained. The transistor-PM or the varactor-PM circuits shown in Figs 4.16 (a) and (b) make use of this technique. With more and more positive signal, the transistor becomes more and more conducting with R decreasing, the phase shift given by ¢, = 90° - tan™'@CR then increases thus increasing frequency. Similarly, for the circuit of Fig. 4.16 (b) increase in modulating signal lowers capacitance of the diode causing the reactance to increase and the circuit producesFrequency Division Multiplexed System 145 Ay R. 5 J c c Carrier. PM aver —— yet —|__pM dt ope ‘Output Signal , L Signal N R ® c A TR, i I (a) (b) Fig. 4.16 (a) The transistor-PM circuit scheme, (b) The varactor-PM circuit scheme A lar, Fig. 4.17 Reactance variation type PM circuit less phase shift. A more workable version of a phase modulator uses the reactance variation of a FET and a capacitor for the purpose. The scheme of the circuit is shown in Fig. 4.17. The carrier passes to the output directly via C,-C{, and via C\-R, it goes to FET gate. RFC, blocks its entry to modulating signal source and RFC, blocks its entry to supply. Modulating signal, however, comes to FET gate. C, is a bypass capacitor. The carrier passing via C\-C{—Rpg lead network pro- duces a phase lead in the output. The C,-R, network allows the carrier to enter gate, change the FET current and generate a leading phase shift less than 90°. As the FET current is controlled by the carrier in two ways, the resultant is the phasor sum of the two. The modulating signal also controls the FET current by changing the amplitude due to the carrier incident and a phase-shift proportional to the modulating amplitude is produced; thus making the output (carrier) to change in phase and amplitude. The output when passed through a proper ampli- fier (class C) or frequency multiplier, keeps the phase and frequency variation only. Linearity of a transistor or a varactor diode is very limited making the phase shift range very smal} in the above schemes. A maximum of + 20° is usually obtained in these circuits. Consequently, the frequency shift is also limited.146 Telemetry Principles Assuming R, — ©, the carrier voltage v,, output vy and C, = C4, = C the current from the carrier source i, is easily obtained as i, = (v, — vg) ja.C/2 (4.27) The drain current i, is ig = BaYg (4.28) where g,, and v, have the usual meaning for FET. Also, it is easy to see that the carrier at the gate, Vg = (We + vg)/2 (4.29) Also, if RFC, blocks rf well and the FET gate current is zero, i= iy (4.30) so that Bm (Ve + Vy l2 = (v, — Vg) JO.C/2 (4.31) from which Va = Ve (Sn — JQ¢CV Em + JO-C)] (4.32) giving Zyv, = = 180° - 22 tan '(w,C/g,,) (4.33) The modulating voltage controls g,, and hence, the output phase angle changes with modulating voltage. In a parallel tuned circuit, between off-resonant and resonant condition, the circuit is inductive/capacitive and resistive making a phase-shift between applied voltage and consequent current varying over a wide range. For a high-Q resonant circuit, pronounced phase-shift can be obtained by changing C or L from the values at resonance. Many phase modulation circuits are based on this principle. The tuned parallel LC circuit is made to be driven by RF amplifier Carrier > os 3||E ouput 7 T 1 “EB A Ry Cy a 73 Signal ro RFC, oT R, "4 Ro Fig. 4.18 A typical scheme of a PM circuit using a varactor diodeFrequency Division Multiplexed System 147 a carrier and a part of the capacitor of this tuned circuit is varied with the help of a varactor diode for variation in phase output. Such a scheme is shown in Fig. 4.18 (cf. Fig. 4.11(a)). Capacitor C, is kept large and C, effectively controls tuning at rf carrier. The biasing chain reverse biases diode D.C, blocks de and RFC, blocks rf which also is large. The low-pass R,~C, network is often used for amplitude processing and potentiometer R, for appropriate input to diode via capacitor C,, With higher modulating voltage, frequency diviation is larger. With negative modulating signal, there occurs reduction in reverse bias and D has a larger capacitance, This produces leading phase shift and the parallel LC circuit looks like a capacitor to the rf amplifier output resistance and if modulating signal is positive, the situation is revered and the amplifier resistance looks into an inductor in the tuned circuit. Large phase-shift is obviously obtained and correspondingly a large frequency shift. All said and done, for linearity reason, phase shift cannot be made large in any of the circuits and amplitude output undergoes changes with change of these. The phase nonlinearity is compensated by operating the system at lower carrier and frequency multiplying the output. The amplitude change is compensated by using an automatic gain control (AGC) circuit. Class C amplifiers used as frequency multipliers may serve for both these aspects. In the tuned circuit shown in Fig. 4.19, the collector circuit resonates at its resonant frequency and if it is chosen as an integer multiple of the input fre- quency, frequency multiplication can be performed. Input__y}__ m Fig. 4.19 A collector tuned circuit schemated The class C amplifier is biased such that its collector circuit receives short pulses. The resonant circuit at the collector, receiving such short pulses of current every half cycle, would develop the voltage across the tuned circuit as a constant amplitude sinewave at its resonance frequency as shown in Fig. 4.20. Cascaded frequency multiplication is also possible with such an amplifier as shown schematically in Fig. 4.21, However, impedance matching networks in between steps are necessary. This is often accomplished by tansformer coupling as shown in Fig. 4.22.148 Telemetry Principles 4.5 THE RECEIVING END The constituents at the receiving end of an FM/FM telemetry system have already been shown in Fig. 4.1(b) in blocks. The FM receiver circuit is often the circuit of a standard superheterodyne receiver tuned to the RF carrier of the transmitter. This would reproduce the original multiplexed (composite) signal. The signal so ‘co Output of the ° collector (b) Fig. 4.20 (a) Class C amplifier collector current pulse, (b) Collector output voltage +h +h ” xs 37g OF DB T SME apt 4 MHz t2MHz |_[~ somnz 1 L = > a Fig. 4.21 Cascaded amplifiers for frequency multiplication # 3 315 os rir 114 Fig. 4.22 Cascaded frequency multipliers with impedance matchingFrequency Division Multiplexed System 149 received is fed to m number of channels of a demultiplexer, each of which is designed with an appropriate band-pass filter and a demodulator. Each bandpass filter is tuned to the centre frequency of one of the specified channels so that it passes only that subcarrier and the related sidebands rejecting all others. Output of each band-pass filter is thus a specified subcarrier oscillator frequency with its modulation. The FM demodulator in each channel of the demultiplexer is also called discriminator and it reconstructs the original signal from the FM signal. The discriminator output may be recorded on a data recorder, graphically displayed on a stripchart recorder/printer/CRT monitor or converted into other useful forms including storage in a computer memory. The FM demodulator in the demultiplexer uses two basic techniques: (i) the pulse averaging type, or (ii) the phase locked loop (PLL) discriminator. The latter has superior noise performance but is more complex and costly. It is preferred to the former in most applicaticns because of better noise-immunity. PLL discrimi- nator can also be used to demodulate the FM receiver output. The scheme of Fig. 4.1(b) is then restructured as shown in Fig. 4.23. There are a variety of circuits for detecting or demodulating frequency-modulated or phase-modulated signals. A very commonly known circuit is the Foster-Seeley discriminator shown in Fig. 4.24. Such a circuit is, of course, replaced now with a sophisticated IC version. The other detectors are, as already mentioned, the pulse averaging type, the quadrature detector and the PLL discriminator. Antenna (receiving) | BPE oiserim, | Original Superhet FMPLLtype |_| | gop || PLL LS aioe receiver *| Discriminator Discrim. display units PLL BPE Diserim. |" Le Composite multiplexed Fig. 4.23 The receiving end scheme for an FOM system 4.5.1 Pulse Averaging Discriminator In the puise averaging discriminator, the frequency-modulated carrier is applied to a zero crossing detector or a limiter circuit which provides an output of binary level voltage. With the level changing each time the FM carrier changes from minus to plus sign or vice versa. Thus, a rectangular waveform, does not have amplitude variation but contains all the frequencies. It is now fed to a one-shot multivibrator which produces a fixed amplitude, fixed width de pulse and the150 Telemetry Principles c if Dy c Ke f ‘Output R. au ay tc, f° Ww so, RFCHem 0 5 LEY A OF d 02 4.24 The Foster-Seeley discriminator multi is designed to provide these pulses on the leading edge of each FM cycle as shown in Fig. 4.26, while the scheme is shown in Fig. 4.25. The pulse width is fixed to be less than the period of the highest frequency, i.e. 14 f, + Af). The output from the one-shot multi passes through low pass RC filter which averages the de pulses to recover the original modulating signal. With the pulses from the multi wider apart, average voltage falls while reverse situation occurs when they are close or when the frequency deviation is more from the above. During pulse gaps, the capacitor discharges through the load resistor R, and during the pulse period, capacitor C gets charged. For a large RC time constant, the charge on the capacitor will not decrease much even in the pulse-off situation. With long time interval between pulses (less frequency deviation) the capacitor Detected output a LPF Z FM Input Zero crossing »| One-shot — detector multi R i Cx eR rh 4.25 Pulse averaging detector will lose some charge into R, giving low output. When deviation is more, pulses are close; the capacitor does not have enough time to discharge between pulses, the average value of output. thus, is higher. Low cost ICs are now readily available for designing pulse averaging discrimi- nators. Basic circuit schemes of ZCDs and monostable multi’s have already been given in Chapter 1.Frequency Division Multiplexed System 151 FM 4 Input fr V U ZcD A Input ~t Multi- A “LL LL. A Final detected output ee re Fig. 4.26 Input FM-wave and waveforms at different stages in the circuit of Fig. 4.25 4.5.2 Quadrature FM detector ‘The quadrature FM detector uses an LC tuner and a phase detector. The scheme is shown in Fig. 4.27. The FM signal is fed to a carrier resonating LC tuner through a small capacitor Cy, The output from the tuner and from the line are both fed to a multiplier or a phase detector. The reactance of Cy is quite large compared to the resonating LC tuner at the carrier frequency in particular and hence, output from the tuner would be leading by 90° with respect to the line FM input to the 6-detector. When frequency deviation occurs, there will be increase or decrease in phase shift between the two inputs to the phase detector rather than 90°. When a multiplier is used, one obtains the average output V,.4,) from it as FM Input Output o | tPF signal Vq | detector L__ L c sane j Lit faa Fig. 4.27 Quadrature FM detector circuit152 Telemetry Principles Voam = kV,V, cos (90° - 0) = kV, sin @ (434) while for 90° phase shift as shown in the scheme, this becomes Voum = kV\V, (435) From Eqn (4.34) it is easy to see that output voltage is proportional to the phase ¢ only when ¢ is small, such that sin 9 = ¢. i.e. when frequency change is small. When a phase detector is used it produces a series of pulses with width varying in proportion to the phase shift between the two inputs to the detector. The output from the detector is averaged with a low pass filter as usual. There are a number of ways a phase detector can be designed. A very convenient way is to use two zero-crossing detectors in the two lines and their outputs are AND-gated. The scheme is shown in Fig. 4.28(a). Figure 4.28(b) shows AND-gated output as well FM oro 1 [zep A : PLL] \ FM 90° | oe87 | 2 (a) Fig. 4.28(a) A phase detection scheme as ZCD1 and ZCD2 outputs with FM0°-phase and FM90°-phase inputs without frequency deviation. If now fj, > fs input to ZCD2 has a phase shift less than 90° Similarly, with fj, f-and L-C, forms a tuned series network for a frequency f,,, fo L-C, tesonates and has high impedance at the base of 7, so that voltage here is now maximum which charges C, to the peak value, but, C,, providing low reactance, effectively makes input to 7, low. Thus demodulator output again gives a high current but in the opposite direction. For intermediate frequencies f,. -f., the straight-line curve of Fig. 4.30(b) is obtained with zero output at f.. 4.5.3 PLL Demodulator ‘The phase-locked loop demodulator is, perhaps, the best of the lot. It is a versatile circuit used in frequency and phase demodulation, frequency synthesizers and various other filters and detectors. It consists of a mixer or a phase detector for154 Telemetry Principles b>“) °} <4 (@) sapuanbay andr auaiayip oma Joy sunrojaaem ancdhng 6" “Big (@) @ yoy % 4% Foes nach feng eminp fia nanan speeaee 2 wfeenge-dan fee fe dt 9 Vi) Ww i} wv mo} aBeiany ‘ bly aBesany. y atone en ee eee sian eso ears Sgn — a a 7 9 1 W z w 06 < NJ v 206 > 4 v sentes: a-=- eon nee mtvsenses os a--- oo ? Vv a v W w 0.0 WS ' °.0 Wd yFrequency Division Multiplexed System 155 Output IC chip Output Fig. 4.30 (a) Chip-version of 2 balanced demodulator, (b) Frequency-output characteristic of the demodulator comparing the FM input with a reference obtained from a voltage controlled oscillator which is controlled by the de output from a low pass filter which receives its input from the phase detector itself. The scheme is shown in Fig. 4.31. If the phase or frequency of the VCO is different from the input FM wave, the phase detector provides an output proportional to this difference. This output filtered by the low-pass filter would adjust the VCO for achieving zero error. The output from the LPF is known as the zero signal which, for an FM system, is the frequency deviation and is thus the desired output.156 Telemetry Principles Mixer / phase detector Output Inpat >| LPF ~ |(Demodulated signal) vco fe Fig. 4.31 The basic scheme of a PLL The mixer basically is an amplitude modulator and hence, performs the func- tion of multiplication to generate sum and difference frequencies. Mixers are now available in IC chips such as NE 602. Let the input FM wave be denoted by V, sin ws and the VCO output, V;sin Ot, then the mixing produces an output Vo = $kV,V; [cos (@, — @)1 — cos (W, + @,)t] (4.36) where & is the mixing constant. The LPF filters the high frequency component (kV,/;/2) cos(@, + @,)t and passes only the difference frequency component. Even when @, = @;, but there is a phase difference @ (say), such that @,t = (@,t — 6), then the mixer output would be vo = 4kV.V, [cos @— cos {(@, + @,) t= O}} (437) Filtering the high frequency component, an output in proportion to the phase difference, is sent to the mixer for making the error signal zero. 4.6 PHASE LOCKED LOOP The phase locked loop has an important application of feedback control in com- munication systems. It is used to control the frequency /, of an oscillator such that it is same as frequency f; of a reference oscillator as has already been described briefly in the previous section. This is done accurately enough so that the phase difference between the two signals remains constant. Figure 4.32 shows the scheme in blocks. The tracking oscillator is basically a voltage controlled oscil- lator (VCO) whose frequency is varied by the controller output V,, called the correcting signal and with frequency f, being the operating frequency, So * KV. (4.38) In most VCOs, either for high or low frequencies, linearity is limited around the point of operation, so that gain K, is given by K, = df/dV, (4.39) and is somewhat dependent on the point of operation. The phase detector pro- duces an output voltage V,, proportional to the phase difference between V, and V,, ie.Frequency Division Multiplexed System 157 f t isan] Frequency ‘1 2 Tracking Reference y, |S Detector | asclator Ke K 2 Vo (Correcting Controfer signal) Phase Ka Reference Vy + Vy~ Vp (Error signal) Fig. 4.32. The generalized version of a PLL V,=K,o (4.40) With f; deviating from the reference frequency f;, phase shift increases in propor- tion with time, thereby increasing error signal (V ~ V,), till f) comes back to f\. Also, (My ~ Vi) Ka = Ve (4.41) At f, = 4, from Eqn (4.38), ¥o= (fi — fo, (4.42) Using Eqn (4.41) now, (Vy - ¥,) = fi ~ SMB Ke) (4.43) But, from Eqn (4.40), o=V,/K, (4.44) so that v- 9= (Vy —V,VK, (4.45) Combining Eqns (4.43) and (4.45), Y~ O= fi — fy EaK Ky) (4.46) wis the phase shift that has to be kept constant and, at this value, quite precisely. As V,, in proportion to y, is also constant, error signal is often designated Y,. The phase @ is given as oM= eo at (4.47) since the phase detector shows integrating behaviour. Usually, fj, ic. @), is modulated with modulating frequency, say, @,, so that AW (1) = AO COS Opt (4.48) Using Eqn (4.47), 0(t) = (A@/a,) sin @, (4.49)158 Telemetry Principles There is, thus, a 90° phase lag and hence. in complex notation. G/S@ = 170, (4.50) Now from Eqns (4.40) and (4.42) VV, = KK Wt - fo) = [K, Kf (a, ~ @y)) (9277) = K,K, ¢2nbo = KK, 2H JQn,) = KK! ifn) (4.51) The usual delay in phase shift measurement (by any technique whatsoever) makes K, a complex quantity raising the system order. It is thus the phase detec- tor that is most important in the operation of PLL. The commonly used phase detector circuits used in PLL are (i) sample-hold circuit, (ii) synchronous demodulator, and (iii) frequency sensitive type. Many of the phase detectors have limited capture range which is specified in terms of frequency offset. If the initial frequency offset exceeds a certain limiting value, the phase detectors cannot pull in. This occurs because signal V,, a func- tion or effectively equivalent of phase @ for a frequency deviation, is a sinusoidal voltage symmetric about zero and hence, voltage V’. causes a periodic frequency modulation of the VCO and a systematic tuning towards lock-in frequency is not effected. The frequency sensitive type is a little different in this respect. It is schemati- cally shown in Fig. 4.33. The RS flip-flops FF, and FF, are operated with short pulses, as shown, obtained from voltages V, and V, at their positive going zero- Al -Y, é LPF |}—»V, v2 Fig. 4.33 The scheme of a frequency-sensitive phase detector circuitFrequency Division Multiplexed System 159 crossing instants. With both FFs starting from reset conditions and one voltage V, , leading the other V,,, such that either @ < 0 or @ > 0, respectively, the sequences of pulses in the two cases are shown in the pulse diagrams in Fig. 4.34. With ¢ > 0, ie. V, leading V,, first pulse would be at x, (V) to set FF, Next, a pulse at x, (¥,) would arrive and set FF,, and FF, and thereafter they are jointly reset by gate g. V.. ~ V,, has positive pulse sequence for @ > 0 and negative pulse sequence for 0 <0, i.e, V; leads V;, and lags V,, respectively. The output pulses remain for an interval between the positive-going zero crossing of V,, and V,, (see Fig. 4.35) giving the mean value of the output voltage V, as Vy, = VAtT = Vol2x (4.52) Since the value of @ may change from zero to +360°, a linear phase measure- ment up to 360° is obtained. Beyond this the output jumps to zero and start increasing again. Thus, the @ ~ V, curve is a sort of sawtooth wave as shown in Fig. 4.36. The scheme is called frequency sensitive as for all @ > 0. ,, is positive and for all ¢ < 0, ¥,, is negative If f, > f, @ decreases continuously and in proportion with time so that V, is obtained as a sawtooth wave with a negative mean. With this, in the PLL, there is an indication of a lagging phase and the PI controller used would be pulling up f, so that it coincides with f,. The capture range is, therefore, limited only by the input voltage range of the VCO and nothing else. The circuit, however, fails to recognize very small phase deviations. The FFs should then have to produce extremely short output pulses which may be lost due to finite reset time. To avoid this, this circuit may be combined with the sample- hold detector. After the lock-in has been accomplished, the sample-hold circuit takes over from the frequency sensitive type. 4.7 MIXERS Of the various types of mixer circuits a few are discussed here. A simple diode mixer is shown in Fig. 4.37(a). The input feeds the diode through transformer Tr, the local oscillator (LO) or the VCO signal is fed to the diode by capacitor C,. The output signal consisting of f. and f, in sum or difference tuned by the L-C tuner is obtained as shown. The modified two-diode and four-diode versions are also shown in Figs 4.37 (b) and (c), respectively. As RFCs are provided in two-diode type, it is assumed that the VCO has a very high frequency. In fact, in one-diode and two-diode types the VCO signal is assumed very large compared to the FM signal so that the diodes are turned on and off like switches by the VCO. The balanced modulator of Fig. 4.37(c), known as the doubly balanced mixer is very useful in UHF and VHF application. Mixers using a single transistor, bipolar, JFET or dual gate MOSFET have also been developed which provide advantages like high gain and low noise. The transistors are biased to operate in the non-linear region. GaAs-FETs are superior in this respect to Si-FETs. Two schemes using JEFT and a dual-gate MOSFET160 Telemetry Principles 4 < “VPS > “5 40) BE By Jo wndUD ay UI qUIOd ruavayp I suOJAEA HE"p Bid one o fi. fn | Fig. 5.1 The five-signal time frame explained The basic scheme of a TDM telemetry system is shown in Fig. 5.2, where eight inputs are shown to be put into channel sequentially by what is known as a rotary switch multiplexer. It is something like the commutator of a de machine. For retrieval on the receiving side, similarly, an identical rotary switch has to be sequentially and synchronously operated for the outputs corresponding to the individual inputs. A sort of decommutator demultiplexer has to be there. The two sides are linked by a wired or an rf channel.168 Telemetry Principles Filters Analogue Inputs Channel (link) Transmitting end Receiving end Fig. 5.2 The basic scheme of a TDM telemetry system 5.2. TDM-PAM SYSTEM Time division multiplexing may be used with both analogue and digital input signals. For digital signals, serial data words are formatted such as sequential bytes—one byte of which may be transmitted during the time interval allocated to a particular signal slot. If there are 20 signals to be covered per frame, each frame has to have at least 20 slots and during the coverage of each slot 1 byte or 8 bit-word of that signal is transmitted, Thus, per time frame, there would be 8 x 20 = 160 bits at least. Each channel, however, is scanned only after other 19 channels have been covered. The receiving side arrangement should be such that 8 bits after every 152 bits be made to form a single digital bit stream to be interpreted as the signal from a single source or line. The analogue signal is sampled at a high rate over the entire period of trans- mission. The sampled signal forms a series of pulses of height proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the signal (see Chapter 3). The sampled pulses and the envelope are shown in Fig. 5.3. The process of production of pulses of very short intervals T, at regular intervals T, basically becomes the pulse amplitude modulation (PAM). As mentioned earlier, for retrieval of the signal without loss of content/infor- mation, the sampling interval T, should be very small. In fact, it has been proved that for a pure sinewave signal of frequency f, the frequency of sampling should be atleast f, = 1/7, = 2, However, if the signal is made up of harmonics as well and the highest harmonic frequency is f,, the sampling rate would be greater than 2f,, A sampling frequency f, given by f= 10 f, (5.1) is a good choice for excellent representation and consequent retrieval.Time Division Multiplexed System 169 ‘Amplitude Sampling interval, T, Pulse time, Tp {if Analogue envelope beat al Tp << Ts Fig. 5.3 The sampled-pulses with envelope The multiple analogue signals can be transmitted over a single link/channel when PAM is combined with TDM. Multiplexer is a single pole, multiple posi- tion switch—for very low switching rate it can be of mechanical (rotary) type as shown in Fig. 5.2, and for high rate this is of electronic type, to be discussed later in the chapter. This switch samples the multiple analogue signals sequentially at arate determined by the system. One complete cycle of switching—one complete revolution in case of mechanical commutator—is called a frame, the time frame, and the number of switches closed in a cycle or revolution is called the number of samples per frame, N,. The number of frames completed in one second is the frame rate, F,. The multiplex rate N,, is the product of the above two, i.e. N,=N,°F, (5.2) This is the pulse frequency in the multiplexed signal. It has been mentioned already that a TDM format requires a time frame. A five-signal channel format has been shown in Fig. 5.1 Also, for transmission purposes synchronization is important. The format, thus, incorporates along with bits of information a frame sync bit at the end of each time frame and this bit is included in the total time. Thus, for a 20 channel (8 bit per channel) time frame there would be 161 bits and not 160 bits. For a sampling frequency of 8 kHz, for example, T, = 10/8 = 125 p's which is time-frame period and hence the bit rate is 161 x 10°/125 = 1.288 mbps. The process of producing PAM is shown in Fig, 5.4, While astable clock and one shot multi are well covered in literatures, the gate here may be constructed with diodes, transistors—bipolar or field-effect type. The clock drives the multi to keep the gate open per cycle when the magnitude of the analogue signal is available at the output as a short time pulse. If 4-signal channels are commutated by a multiplexer its N, = 4, and if the number of frames per second, F,, is 50, then multiplex rate is 200, the period for one frame is 1/50 s = 20 ms and the possible sampling time is 1/200 s = 5 ms although actually T, may be more. The basic frequency of transmission channel would, for the above example, be 200 pulses/s. Taking four channels of different analogue signal waveforms one can obtain the single composite transmission channel pulses as shown in Fig. 5.5(a). Figure 5.5(b) shows the multiplexing process with the sync. control.