ANSI-AGMA 2004-B89-Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

ANSI/AGMA 2004---B89
(Revision of AGMA 240.01)

January 1989
Reaffirmed October 1995
AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD

Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual
Gear Materials And Heat Treatment Manual

AGMA 2004---B89
(Revision of AGMA 240.01)
[Tables or other self---supporting sections may be quoted or extracted in their entirety. Credit lines should
read: Extracted from AGMA 2004---B89, Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual, with the permission of the
publisher, the American Gear Manufacturers Association, 1500 King Street, Suite 201, Alexandria, Virginia
22314.]
AGMA Standards are subject to constant improvement, revision or withdrawal as dictated by experience.
Any person who refers to an AGMA Technical Publication should be sure that the publication is the latest available from the Association on the subject matter.
ABSTRACT
The Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual provides information pertaining to engineering materials
and material treatments used in gear manufacture. Topics included are definitions, selection guidelines, heat
treatment, quality control, life considerations and a bibliography. The material selection includes ferrous, nonferrous and nonmetallic materials. Wrought, cast, and fabricated gear blanks are considered. The heat treatment section includes data on through hardened, flame hardened, induction hardened, carburized, carbonitrided, and nitrided gears. Quenching, distortion, and shot peening are discussed. Quality control is discussed as
related to gear blanks, process control, and metallurgical testing on the final products.
Copyright E, 1989
Reaffirmed October 1995
American Gear Manufacturers Association

1500 King Street, Suite 201
Alexandria, Virginia 22314
February 1989
ISBN: 1---55589---524---7
ANSI/AGMA
ii
2004---B89
FOREWORD
[The foreword, footnotes, and appendices, if any, are provided for informational purposes only and should
not be construed as part of AGMA Standard 2004---B89 (Formerly 240.01), Gear Materials and Heat Treatment
Manual.]
The Standard provides a broad range of information on gear materials and their heat treatment. It is intended to assist the designer, process engineer, manufacturer and heat treater in the selection and processing of
materials for gearing. Data contained herein represents a consensus from metallurgical representatives of member companies of AGMA.
This Standard replaces AGMA 240.01, October 1972. The first draft of AGMA 240.01, Gear Materials
Manual, was prepared in October 1966. It was approved by the AGMA membership in March 1972. Reprinting
of AGMA 240.01 for distribution was discontinued in 1982 because it had been decided in 1979 by the Metallurgy and Materials Committee to revise its format. The initial draft of AGMA 2004---B89 (formerly 240.01) was
completed in April, 1983. Work continued on the Standard with numerous additional revised drafts within the
Metallurgy and Materials Committee until it was balloted in 1988. It was completed and approved by the
AGMA Technical Division Executive Committee in September 1988 and on January 23, 1989 it was approved as
an American National Standard.
Suggestions for the improvement of this standard will be welcome. They should be sent to the American
Gear Manufacturers Association, 1500 King Street, Suite 201, Alexandria, Virginia 22314.
ANSI/AGMA
iii
2004---B89
PERSONNEL of the AGMA Committee for Metallurgy And Materials

Chairman: L. E. Arnold (Xtek, Inc.)
Vice Chairman: G. J. Wiskow (Falk)
ACTIVE MEMBERS
N. P. Milano (Regal Beloit Corporation)
A. G. Milburn (The Gear Works --- Seattle)
P. Rivart (CLECIM)
R. H. Shapiro (Arrow Gear)
W. L. Shoulders (Reliance Electric) (Deceased)
M. Starozhitsky (Outboard Marine)
A. A. Swiglo (IPSEN)
S. Tipton (Caterpillar)
D. Vukovich (Eaton)
L. L. Witte (General Motors)
M. Abney (Fairfield Manufacturing)

R. J. Andreini (Earle M. Jorgensen)
E. S. Berndt (C and M of Indiana)
J. Bonnet (WesTech)
N. K. Burrell (Metal Improvement Co. Inc.)
R. J. Cunningham (Boeing)
P. W. Early, Jr. (Gleason)
A. Giammarise (General Electric)
J. P. Horvath (G. M. Chevrolet --- Muncie)
J. Bruce Kelly (General Motors)
D. R. McVittie (The Gear Works --- Seattle)
ASSOCIATE MEMBERS
R. L. Leslie (SPECO Corporation)
B. L. Mumford (Alten Foundry)
G. E. Olson (Cleveland)
J. R. Partridge (Lufkin)
E. M. Rickt (Auburn Gear)
H. I. Sanderow (Supermet)
R. L. Schwettman (Xtek, Inc.)
L. J. Smith (Invincible Gear)
Y. Sueyoshi (Tsubakimoto Chain)
M. Tanaka (Nippon Gear)
R. E. Vaglia (Farrel Connecticut)
T. L. Winterrowd (Cummins Engine)
T. Bergquist (Western Gear)

J. D. Black (General Motors)
E. R. Carrigan (Emerson Electric)
P. E. Cary (Metal Finishing)
H. B. Gayley (IMO Delaval)
J. F. Craig (Cummins Engine)
T. C. Glew (Prager)
D. K. Guttshall (IMO Delaval)
W. H. Heller (Peerless Winsmith)
D. L. Hillman (Westinghouse, Air Brake)
B. A. Hoffmann (Dresser)
L. D. Houck (Mack Trucks)
A. J. Lemanski (Sikorsky)
ANSI/AGMA
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2004---B89
Table of Contents
Section
Title
Page
1.
Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.
References and Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2.1
2.2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Information Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
4.
Materials Selection Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
5.
5
6
7
7
7
8
9
9
19
19
25
25
Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
6.
Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Grade and Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dimensional Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cost and Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hardenability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Machinability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ferrous Gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Selection Criteria for Wrought, Cast, or Fabricated Steel Gearing . . . . . . . . . . . .
Copper Base Gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Non---Ferrous Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Non---Metallic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Through Hardening Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flame and Induction Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Carburizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Carbonitriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nitriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Heat Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shot Peening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Residual Stress Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
28
34
38
39
41
42
42
47
51
Metallurgical Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
Incoming Material Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Incoming Material Hardness Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Incoming Material Mechanical Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heat Treat Process Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Part Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Metallurgical, Mechanical and Non---Destructive Tests and Inspections . . . . . . . .
Microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mechanical Property Test Bar Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
52
53
53
55
56
61
63
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
ANSI/AGMA
2004---B89
Table of Contents
Section
Title
Page
Appendices
Appendix A
Appendix B
Plastic Gear Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Approximate Maximum Controlling Section Size Considerations for
Through Hardened Gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Case Hardenability of Carburizing Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Service Life Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
Table 4---6
Table 4---7
Table 4---8
Table 4---9
Table 4---10
Table 4---11
Table 4---12
Table 4---13
Typical Gear Materials --- Wrought Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Typical Brinell Hardness Ranges and Strengths for Annealed,
Normalized & Tempered Steel Gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typical Brinell Hardness Ranges and Strengths for Quenched
and Tempered Steel Gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Machinability of Common Gear Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mechanical Property Requirements --- Cold Drawn, Stress Relieved
Steel Bars (Special Cold Drawn, High Tensile) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typical Chemical Analyses for Though Hardened Cast Steel Gears . . . . . . . . . . .
Tensile Properties of Through Hardened Cast Steel Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Minimum Hardness and Tensile Strength Requirements for Gray Cast Iron . . .
Mechanical Properties of Ductile Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chemical Analyses of Wrought Bronze Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typical Mechanical Properties of Wrought Bronze Alloy Rod and Bar . . . . . . . . .
Chemical Analyses of Cast Bronze Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mechanical Properties of Cast Bronze Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
14
14
16
17
22
22
23
24
Table 5---1
Table 5---2
Table 5---3
Table 5---4
Table 5---5
Table 5---6
Test Bar Size for Core Hardness Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Typical Effective Case Depth Specifications for Carburized Gearing . . . . . . . . . .
Approximate Minimum Core Hardness of Carburized Gear Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . .
Approximate Minimum Surface Hardness --- Nitrided Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Commonly Used Quenchants for Ferrous Gear Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typical Shot Size and Intensity for Shot Peening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
38
39
41
43
50
Appendix C
Appendix D
67
69
70
Tables
Table 4---1
Table 4---2
Table 4---3
Table 4---4
Table 4---5
ANSI/AGMA
vi
7
8
10
2004---B89
Table of Contents
Section
Title
Page
Figures
Fig 4---1
Fig 4---2
Typical Design of Cast Steel Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Directionality of Forging Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Fig 5---1
Fig 5---4
Fig 5---5
Fig 5---6
Fig 5---7
Fig 5---8
Variation in Hardening Patterns Obtainable on

Gear Teeth by Flame Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Variations in Hardening Patterns Obtainable on
Gear Teeth by Induction Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recommended Maximum Surface Hardness and Effective Case Depth
Hardness Versus Percent Carbon for Flame and Induction Hardening . . . . . . .
General Design Guidelines for Blanks for Carburized Gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typical Distortion Characteristics of Carburized Gearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shot Peening Intensity Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Residual Stress by Peening 1045 Steel at 62 HRC with 330 Shot . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Depth of Compressive Stress Versus Almen Intensity for Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
45
46
48
49
50
Fig 6---1
Fig 6---2
Fig 6---3
Fig 6---4
Circular (Head Shot) Magnetic Particle Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Coil Shot Magnetic Particle Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ultrasonic Inspection Oscilloscope Screen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Distance---Amplitude Reference Line for Ultrasonic Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
59
61
62
Fig 5---2
Fig 5---3
ANSI/AGMA
vii
29
30
2004---B89
(This page is intentionally left blank)
ANSI/AGMA
viii
2004---B89
1. Scope
ASTM A290---82, Carbon and Alloy Steel Forgings for Rings for Reduction Gears
ASTM A310---77, Methods and Definitions for
Mechanical Testing of Steel Products
This Manual was developed to provide basic information and recommend sources of additional information pertaining to gear materials, their treatments, and other considerations related to the
manufacture and use of gearing.
ASTM A311---79, Specification for Stress Relieved

Cold Drawn Carbon Steel Bars Subject to Mechanical
Property Requirements
Metallurgical aspects of gearing as related to rating (allowable sac and sat values) are not included,
but, are covered in AGMA rating standards.
ASTM A356---84, Heavy---Walled Carbon, Low

Alloy, and Stainless Steel Castings for Steam Turbines
ASTM A370---77, Methods and Definitions for
Mechanical Testing of Steel Products
2. References and Information
ASTM 388---80, Recommended Practice for Ultrasonic Examination of Heavy Steel Forgings
2.1 References.
Abbreviations are used in the references to specific documents in this Standard. The abbreviations
include: AGMA, American Gear Manufacturers
Association; ASNT, American Society of Nondestructive Testing; ASTM, American Society for Testing Materials; SAE, Society of Automotive Engineers.
ASTM A400---69(1982), Recommended Practice

for Selection of Steel Bar Compositions According to
Section
ASTM A534---87, Standard Specification for Carburizing Steels for Anti---Friction Bearings
ASTM A535---85, Standard Specification for Special ---Quality Ball and Roller Bearing Steel
The following documents contain provisions

which, through reference in this Standard, constitute
provisions of this document. At the time of publication, the editions were valid. All publications are subject to revision, and the users of this Standard are encouraged to investigate the possibility of applying the
most recent editions of the publications listed.
ASTM A536---80, Specification for Ductile Iron

Castings
ASTM A833---84, Indentation Hardness of Metallic Materials by Comparison Hardness Testers
ASTM A609---83, Specification for Steel Castings,
Carbon and Low Alloy Ultrasonic Examinations
Thereof
AGMA 141.01---1984, Plastics Gearing --Molded, Machined, And Other Methods, A Report on
the State of the Art
ASTM B427---82, Specification for Gear Bronze

Alloy Castings
AGMA 2001---B88, Fundamental Rating Factors

and Calculation Methods for Involute Spur and Helical
Gear Teeth
ASTM B505---84, Specification for Copper---Base

Alloy Continuous Castings
ASTM E8---83, Methods of Tension Testing of Metallic Materials
AGMA 6033---A88, Standard for Marine Propulsion Gear Units, Part 1 Materials
ASTM E10---78, Test Method for Brinell Hardness

of Metallic Materials
ANSI/AGMA 6034---A88, Practice for Single and

Double Reduction Cylindrical ---Worm and Helical --Worm Speed Reducers
ASTM E18---79, Test Methods for Rockwell Hardness and Rockwell Superficial Hardness of Metallic
Materials
ASNT---TC---1A (June 80), Recommended Practice by American Society for Nondestructive Testing
ASTM E54---80, Method for Chemical Analysis of

Special Brasses and Bronzes
ASTM A48---83, Specification for Gray Iron Castings
ASTM E112---84, Methods for Determining Average Grain Size

SAE J434---June 86, Automotive Ductile (Nodular) Iron Castings
ASTM A148---84, Steel Castings, High

Strength, for Structural Purposes
ASTM A220---76, Specification for Pearlitic Malleable Iron Castings
SAE J461---Sept 81, Wrought and Cast Copper

Alloys
ASTM A255---67, Method for End---Quench Test

for Hardenability of Steel
ANSI/AGMA
SAE J462---Sept 81, Cast Copper Alloys
2004---B89
SAE J463---Sept 81, Wrought Copper and Copper

Alloys
American Society for Testing and Materials

ASTM Standards
Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
SAE Handbook
American Iron and Steel Institute
AISI Steel Products Manuals
American National Standards Institute
ANSI Standards
Naval Publications and Forms Center
Military Standards and Specifications
Metal Powder Industries Federation
MPIF Standard 35
Copper Development Association
CDA Data books
Iron Castings Society
Gray and Ductile Iron Castings Handbook
Steel Founders Society
Steel Castings Handbook
SAE J808a---SAE HS 84, Manual on Shot Peening

MIL---S---13165 B (31 Dec 66 Amendment 2---25
June 79), Shot Peening of Metal Parts
MIL---STD---271F, Requirements for Nondestructive Testing Methods
ASTM E709---80, Magnetic Particle Examination
ASTM E125, Reference Photographs for Magnetic Particle Indications on Ferrous Castings
ASTM E186---8,
Standard Reference Radiographs for Heavy Walled (2 to 4 1/2 inch)(51 to 114
mm) Steel Castings
ASTM E280---81, Standard Reference Radiographs for Heavy Walled (4 1/2 to 12 inch)(114 to 305
mm) Steel Castings
3. Definitions
ASTM E399---83, Test Method for Plain ---Strain

Fracture Toughness of Metallic Materials
Annealing --- Full. Full annealing consists of

heating steel or other ferrous alloys to 1475---1650_F
(802---899_C) and furnace cooling to a prescribed
temperature, generally below 600_F (316_C). This
treatment forms coarse lamellar pearlite, the best
microstructure for machinability of low and medium
carbon steels. Unless otherwise stated, annealing is
assumed to mean full annealing.
Annealing --- Spheroidizing.
Spheroidize
annealing is a process of heating and cooling steel
that produces a globular carbide in a ferritic matrix.
This heat treatment results in the best machinability
for high carbon (0.60 percent carbon or higher) and
alloy steels.
Austempering. Austempering is a heat treat process consisting of quenching a ferrous alloy (steel or
ductile iron) from a temperature above the transformation range in a medium having a rate of cooling
sufficiently high to prevent high temperature transformation products, and maintaining the alloy temperature within the bainitic range until desired transformation is obtained. The bainitic transformation
range is below the pearlitic range, but above the martensitic range. Austempering is applied to steels and,
more recently in the development stage for ductile
iron gearing (refer to 4.8.4.3).
Austenite. Austenite in ferrous alloys is a microstructural phase consisting of a solid solution of carbon and alloying elements in face---centered cubic
crystal structured iron.
ASTM E446---81, Standard Reference Radiographs for Steel Castings Up to 2 inch (51 mm) in
Thickness
ANSI/SAE AMS 2300 F, Magnetic Particle Inspection, Premium Aircraft ---Quality Steel Cleanliness
ANSI/SAE AMS 3201 G, Magnetic Particle Inspection, Aircraft ---Quality Steel Cleanliness
2.2 Information Sources.
Design of gears is concerned with the selection
of materials and metallurgical processing. This
Manual cannot substitute for metallurgical expertise, but is intended to be a basic tool to assist in the
selection and metallurgical processing of gear materials. The material information and metallurgical
processes contained herein are based on established
data and practices which can be found in the appropriate publications. It is necessary that the designer use a source of metallurgical knowledge of materials and processing.
Material specifications are issued by agencies,
including the government, large industrial users, and
technical societies, some of whom are:
ASM International
ASM Metals Handbooks
ASM Heat Treaters Guide
ASM Metals Reference Book
ASM Standard
ANSI/AGMA
2004---B89
Austenitizing Temperature. The temperature at

which ferrous alloys undergo a complete microstructural phase transformation to austenite.
case. Hardness survey is preferred for contral purposes.

(3) Total case depth. The total case depth is the
depth to which the carbon level of the case has decreased to the carbon level of the base material. This
is approximately 1.5 times the effective case depth.
(4) Case depth to 0.40 percent carbon. Effective
case depth is less frequently referred to as the depth
to 0.40 percent carbon. This depth may be measured
by analyzing the carbon content or estimating based
on microstructure. Estimating based on microstructure ignores the hardenability of the base material
and is not as accurate a measurement as directly analyzing the carbon level. There is poor correlation between microstructure readings and material strength
gradients using this method.
Bainite. Bainite is a microstructural phase resulting from the transformation of austenite, and
consists of an aggregate of ferrite and iron carbide.
Its appearance is feathery if formed in the upper portion of the bainite transformation range, and acicular
if formed in the lower portion.
Carbon. Carbon is the principal hardening element in steel, and its amount determines the maximum hardness obtainable. Generally as carbon is increased, tensile strength and wear resistance increase; however, ductility and weldability decrease.
Carbonitriding. A modified form of gas carburizing, in which steel (typically plain carbon and very
low alloy) is heated between 1450---1650_F
(788---899_C) in an ammonia enriched carburizing
atmosphere. This results in simultaneous absorption
of carbon and nitrogen, which results in the formation of complex nitrides in a high carbon case.
Case Depth of Flame or Induction Harden Components. This is defined as the depth at which the
hardness is 10 HRC points below the minimum specified surface hardness.
Case Depth of Nitrided Components. Nitrided
case depth is defined as the depth at which the hardness is equivalent to 105 percent of the measured
core hardness. The case depth is determined by a microhardness tester and measured normal to the tooth
surface at 0.5 tooth height and mid face width.
Carburizing--- Gas. Gas carburizing consists of

heating and holding low carbon or alloy steel (less
than 0.30 percent carbon) at 1650---1800_F
(899---982_C) in a controlled carbonaceous atmosphere, which results in the diffusion of carbon into
the part (0.70---1.00 percent carbon is typically obtained at the surface). Temperatures above 1800_F
(982_C) may be ultilized in specialized equipment
such as vacuum carburizers. After carburizing, parts
are either cooled to 1475---1550_F (802---843_C) and
held at this temperature to stabilize and then direct
quenched; or slow cooled and reheated to
1475---1550_F (802---843_C) and quenched.
Case Hardness. Case Hardness is the micro--hardness measured perpendicular to the tooth surface at a depth of 0.002 to 0.004 inches (0.05 to 0.10
mm) at 0.5 tooth height and mid face width.
Cementite. Cementite is a hard microstructure
phase otherwise known as iron carbide (Fe3C) and
characterized by an orthorhombic crystal structure.
Case Depth of Carburized Components. The

case depth for carburized gearing may be defined in
several ways including effective case depth, etched
case depth, total case depth, and depth to 0.40 percent carbon. The carburized case depth referred to in
this Manual will be effective case depth. Carburized
case depth terms are defined as follows:
Combined Carbon. The amount of carbon in

steel or cast iron that is present in other than elemental form.
(1) Effective case depth. The effective case

depth is the hardened depth to HRC 50 at 0.5 tooth
height and mid face width, normal to the tooth surface.
D.I. (Ideal Critical Diameter). Ideal critical diameter is the diameter which, when quenched in an
infinite quench severity (such as ice brine), will result
in a microstructure consisting of 50 percent martensite of the center of the bar.
Core Hardness. Core Hardness for AGMA

tooth design purposes is the hardness at the intersection of the root diameter and the centerline of the
tooth at mid face width on a finished gear.
(2) Etched case depth. Etched case depth is determined by etching a sample cross---section with nitric acid, and measuring the depth of the darkened
area. The etched case approximates the effective
ANSI/AGMA
Decarburization. Decarburization is the reduction in surface carbon content of a gear or test piece
during thermal processing.
2004---B89
Ferrite (alpha). Ferrite is a microstructural

phase consisting of essentially pure iron, and is characterized with a body centered cubic structure.
Flame Hardening. Flame Hardening of steel
gearing involves oxyfuel burner heating to
1450---1650_F (788---899_C) followed by quenching
and tempering.
sorbed into the surface of a ferrous material at a temperature below the austenitizing temperature
[1000---1150_F (538---621_C)], while submerged in a
gas stirred and activated molten chemical salt bath.
These processes are used mainly for improved wear
resistance and fatigue strength.
Nitriding (Gas). Surface hardening process in
which alloy steel, after machining following quench
and tempering, is subjected to a cracked ammonia
furnace atmosphere at 950---1060_F (510---571_C)
causing nitrogen to be absorbed into the surface,
forming hard iron nitrides.
Grain Size. Grain size is specified as either

coarse (grain size 1 through 4) or fine (grain size 5
through 8), determined according to ASTM E112.
Graphite. Graphite is carbon in the free state
with a shape described as either flake, nodule, or
spheroid. The graphite shape classifies the type of
cast iron as either gray, ductile, or malleable.
Nitrocarburizing. Nitrocarburizing is a gaseous

heat treatment in which both nitrogen and carbon
are absorbed into the surface of a ferrous material at
a temperature below the austenitizing temperature
[1000---1150_F (538---621_C)]. Nitrocarburizing is
done mainly for antiscuffing and to improve surface
fatigue properties.
Hardenability. An indication of the depth to

which a steel will harden during heat treatment (see
4.6).
Hardening. The process of increasing hardness,
typically through heating and cooling.
Normalizing. Normalizing consists of heating

steel or other ferrous alloys to 1600---1800_F
(871---982_C) and cooling in still or circulated air.
Normalizing is used primarily to obtain a uniform microstructure.
H--- Band Steels. H---Band steels are steels which

are produced and purchased to a specified Jominy
hardenability range.
Induction Hardening. Induction hardening of
gearing is the selective heating of gear teeth profiles
to 1450---1650_F (788---899_C) by electrical inductance through the use of a coil or single tooth inductor to obtain the proper heat pattern and temperature, followed by quenching and tempering.
Pearlite. Pearlite is a microstructure consisting

of lamellar layers of ferrite and cementite, with a
body centered cubic crystal structure.
Quench and Temper. The quench and temper
process on ferrous alloys involves heating a part to
the austenite transformation state at 1475---1650_F
(802---899_C), followed by rapid cooling (quenching). The part is then reheated (tempered) to a specific temperature generally below 1275_F (690_C) to
achieve the desired mechanical properties for the
gear application.
Jominy End Quenching Hardenability Test.

The standard method for determining the hardenability of steel. The test consists of heating a standard
one inch (25 mm) diameter test bar to a specified
temperature, placing the specimen in a fixture so
that a stream of water impinges on one end, cooling
the specimen to room temperature, grinding flats,
and measuring the hardness at 1/16 inch (1.6 mm) intervals starting at the quenched end.
Stress Relief. Stress relief is a thermal cycle used

to relieve residual stresses created by prior heat
treatments, machining, cold working, welding, or
other fabricating techniques. Maximum stress relief
is achieved at 1100_F (593_C) minimum.
Martensite. Martensite is the diffussionless

transformation of austenite to a body centered tetragonal structure, characterized by an acicular
needle---like appearance.
Surface Hardness. Surface Hardness is the

hardness measured directly on the surface. To obtain
accurate results on shallow case hardened parts, a superficial test must be used.
Microstructure. Microstructure is the material

structure observed on a sample polished to a mirror
finish, etched, and viewed at 100X or higher magnification.
Tempering. Tempering is reheating a hardened

part to a specified temperature, generally below
1275_F (690_C) to reduce hardness and increase
toughness.
Nitriding (Aerated Salt Bath). This term includes a number of heat treat processes in which nitrogen and carbon in varying concentrations are abANSI/AGMA
2004---B89
crostructure, material cleanliness, surface conditions

and residual stresses.
Test Coupon. A test coupon is an appropriately

sized sample(often a bar) used generally for surface
hardening treatments. It should be of the same specified material grade, with regard to composition and
hardenability limits, as the gear it represents. The
test coupon should be heat treated along with the
gear(s) it represents.
4.1.3 Tensile Strength. Tensile strength predicts

the stress level above which fracture occurs. It is not
recommended for use in gear manufacturing specifications.
4.1.4 Yield Strength. Yield strength determines
the stress level above which permanent deformation
occurs.
Through Hardening. Through hardening is a

term used to collectively describe methods of heat
treatment of steel other than surface hardening techniques. These include: annealing, normalizing (or
normalizing and tempering) and quenching and tempering (refer to 5.1). Depth of hardening is dependent upon hardenability, section size and heat treat
considerations.
4.1.5 Toughness. Toughness is determined by

impact strength, tensile ductility and/or fracture
toughness testing. Although not directly considered
in gear rating, toughness may be important for high
impact or low temperature applications or both.
Toughness of steel gearing is adversely affected by a
variety of factors such as:
NOTE: Through hardening does not imply that

the part has equivalent hardness throughout the entire cross section.
(1) Low temperature

(2) Improper heat treatment or microstruc--ture
(3) High sulfur
(4) High phosphorus and embrittling type
residual elements
(5) Nonmetallic inclusions
(6) Large grain size
(7) Absence of alloying elements such as
nickel.
NOTE: Gear toughness is adversely affected by design or manufacturing considerations (such as notches, small fillet radii, tool
marks, material defects, etc., which act as
stress concentrators).
Transformation Temperature. The temperature

at which a change in microstructure phase occurs.
4. Material Selection Guidelines

Many factors influence the selection of materials
for gears, and the relative importance of each can
vary. These factors include:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Mechanical Properties
Grade and Heat Treatment
Cleanliness
Dimensional Stablility
Availability and Cost
Hardenability and Size Effects
Machinability and Other Manufacturing
Characteristics
4.1.6 Heat Treatment. Most wrought ferrous

materials used in gearing are heat treated to meet
hardness and/or mechanical property requirements.
Round and flat stock can be purchased in numerous
combinations of mechanical and thermal processing,
such as hot rolled, cold rolled, cold drawn, stress relieved, pickled, annealed, and quenched and tempered. Gear blanks are generally given an annealing
or normalizing heat treatment, which homogenizes
the micro--- structure for machinability and mechanical property uniformity. Gear blanks can also be
quenched and tempered.
4.1 Mechanical Properties. It is necessary for the

gear designer to know the application and design
loads and to calculate the stresses before the material
selection can begin.
4.1.1 Hardness. The strength properties are
closely related to material hardness, which is used in
AGMA gear rating practice. Surface hardness is an
important consideration for gear wear. Core hardness is an important consideration for bending and
impact strength.
4.1.7 Stock Removal. All rough ferrous gear

castings, forgings and barstock have a surface layer
containing decarburization, nonmetallic inclusions,
seams, and other surface imperfections. This layer
should be removed from critical gearing surfaces.
The minimum surface stock removal varies with
stock size and type of mechanical working. Minimum
4.1.2 Fatigue Strength. Contact and bending fatigue strengths are used to predict, at a given stress
level, the number of cycles that gearing can be expected to endure before pitting or fracture occurs.
Contact and bending fatigue strengths are influenced by a variety of factors such as hardness, miANSI/AGMA
2004---B89
stock removal tables can be found in most machining

and materials handbooks.
quired as a function of subsequent heat treatment;

such as quench and temper or case hardening. See
Tables 4---1, 4---2, and 4---3 for grades and recommended heat treatments.
4.2 Grade and Heat Treatment. The specific gear

design will usually dictate the grade of material re-
Table 4---1
Typical Gear Materials --- Wrought Steel
Common Alloy
Steel Grades
Common Heat 1
Treat Practice
General Remarks/Application
1045
4130
4140
4145
8640
4340
T---H, I---H, F---H

T---H
T---H, T---H&N, I---H, F---H
T---H, T---H&N, I---H, F---H
T---H, T---H&N, I---H, F---H
T---H, T---H&N, I---H, F---H
Low Hardenability
Marginal Hardenability
Fair Hardenability
Medium Hardenability
Medium Hardenability
Good Hardenability in Heavy Sections
Nitralloy 135 Mod.

Nitralloy G
4150
T---H&N
T---H&N
I---H, F---H, T---H, TH&N
4142
I---H, F---H, T---H&N
4350 @
T---H, I---H, F---H
Special Heat Treatment

Special Heat Treatment
Quench Crack Sensitive
Good Hardenability
Used when 4140 exhibits
Marginal Hardenability
Quench Crack Sensitive, Excellent
Hardenability in Heavy Sections
1020
C---H
Very Low Hardenability
4118
4620
8620
C---H
C---H
C---H
Fair Core Hardenability

Good Case Hardenability
Fair Core Hardenability
4320
8822
C---H
C---H
Good Core Hardenability

Good Core Hardenability in Heavy
Sections
3310 @
4820
9310
C---H
C---H
C---H
Excellent Hardenability (in Heavy

Sections) for all three grades
1 C---H = Carburize Harden

T---H = Through Harden
F---H = Flame Harden

I---H = Induction Harden
T---H&N = Through Harden then nitride
2 Recognized, but not current standard grade.
ANSI/AGMA
2004---B89
Table 4---2
Typical Brinell Hardness Ranges and Strengths for
Annealed, Normalized and Tempered Steel Gearing
Normalized & Tempered #
Annealed Heat Treatment @

Typical
Alloy Steels
1
Specified
1045
4130
8630
4140
4142
8640
4145
4150
4340
4350 Type
Brinell
Hardness
Range
HB
Tensile
Strength
min
ksi (MPa)
Yield
Strength
min
ksi (MPa)
Brinell
Hardness
Range
HB
Tensile
Strength
min
ksi (MPa)
Yield
Strength
min
ksi (MPa)
159---201
80
(550)
50
(345)
159---201
80
(550)
50
(345)
156---197
80
(550)
50
(345)
167---212
90
(620)
60
(415)
187---229
95
(655)
60
(415)
262---302
130
(895)
85
(585)
197---241
100
(690)
60
(415)
285---331
140
(965)
90
(620)
212---255
110
(760)
65
(450)
302---341
150
(1035)
95
(655)
1. Steels shown in order of increased hardenability.

2. Hardening by quench and tempering results in a combination of properties generally superior to that
achieved by anneal or normalize and temper; i.e., impact, ductility, etc.
See Table 4---3 for quench and tempered gearing.
3. Hardness and strengths able to be obtained by normalize and tempering are also a function of
controlling section size and tempering temperature considerations.
increase in cost and reduced machinability, however,
must be fully evaluated with respect to the need for
improved properties for other than critical gearing
applications.
4.3 Cleanliness. Alloy steel manufactured with electric furnace practice for barstock and forged steel
gear applications is commonly vacuum degassed, inert atmosphere (argon) shielded and bottom poured
to improve cleanliness and reduce objectionable gas
content (hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen). Improved
cleanliness (reduced nonmetallic inclusion content)
results in improved transverse ductility and impact
strength, but machinability may be reduced; for example, with sulfur content less than 0.015 percent.
Vacuum degassed steel may be further refined by
vacuum arc remelting (VAR) or electroslag remelting (ESR) of the steel. These refining processes further reduce gas and inclusion size and content for improved fatigue strength to produce the highest quality steel for critical gearing applications. Significant
ANSI/AGMA
NOTE: For more information see ASTM

A534 and A535, and AMS 2301 and 2300.
4.4 Dimensional Stability. The process to achieve
the blueprint design may require material considerations such as: added stock, die steps, restricted
hardenability, etc. to minimize distortion and possible cracking (see 5.8).
4.5 Cost and Availability. The specific material
selection is often determined by cost and availability
factors such as standard industry alloys and procurement time.
2004---B89
Table 4---3
Typical Brinell Hardness Ranges and Strengths for Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steel
Gearing
Alloy
Steel *
Grade
4130
8630
4140
8640
4142
4145
4150
4340
4350
Tensile
Strength
minimum
ksi (MPa)
Yield
Strength
minimum
ksi (MPa)
Heat Treatment
Hardness
Range
HB [
Water
Quench &
Temper
212---248
up to
302---341
100
(690)
75
(515)
145
(1000)
125
(860)
Oil
Quench &
Temper
241---285]
up to
341---388
120
(830)
95
(655)
341---388
170
(1170)
277---321
up to
363---415w
135
(930)
180
(1240)
Oil
Quench &
Temper
150 (1035)
110
(760)
145 (1000)
* Steels shown in order of increased hardenability, 4350 being the highest. These steels can be ordered
to H Band hardenability ranges.
[ Hardness range is dependent upon controlling section size (refer to appendix B) and quench severity.
] It is difficult to cut teeth in 4100 Series steels above 341 HB and 4300 Series steels above 375 HB.
(4340 and 4350 provide advantage due to higher tempering temperatures and microstructure
considerations)
w High specified hardness is used for special gearing, but costs should be evaluated due to reduced
machinability.
The standard wrought carbon and alloy steels

such as 1020, 8620, 4320, 4820, 9310, 4140, 4150 and
4340 are available from service centers and steel
mills. Service centers can usually furnish these materials in small quantities and with short delivery time
from their inventories. Steel mill purchases require
mill quantities (several thousand pounds) and long
delivery time. However, the mill quantity cost may
be substantially lower, and non---standard steels can
be supplied on special request.
When specifying parts with small quantity requirements, standard alloys should be specified or
engineering drawings should allow optional materials. In the case of steel and iron castings and nonferrous materials, SAE and ASTM designations should
be used wherever possible.
by quenching from the austenitizing temperature.

The as quenched surface hardness is dependent primarily on the carbon content of the steel part and
cooling rate. The depth to which a particular hardness is achieved with a given quenching condition is a
function of the hardenability, which is largely determined by the alloy content of the steel grade.
4.6.1 Determination. Hardenability is normally
determined by the Jominy End Quench Test (ASTM
A255) or can be predicted by the Ideal Diameter
(DI) concept.
4.6.1.1 Jominy Test Method. A one inch (25
mm) diameter bar, four inches (102 mm) in length is
first normalized then uniformily heated to a standard
austenitizing temperature. The bar is placed in a fixture, then quenched by spraying room temperature
water against one end face.
4.6 Hardenability. Hardenability of steel is the property that determines the hardness gradient produced
ANSI/AGMA
2004---B89
4.6.1.2 Jominy Analysis. Rockwell C hardness

measurements are made along the length of the bar
on ground flats in one sixteenth of an inch (1.6 mm)
intervals. Jominy hardenability is expressed in HRC
obtained at each interval starting at the water
quenched end face.
Example: J5 = 40 is interpreted as a hardness
of 40 HRC at a distance of 5/16 inch (8 mm)
from the water quenched end.
4.6.1.3 H--- Band Steel. Jominy hardenability has
been applied to standard steels. For a given composition the Jominy hardenability data falls within a predicted range. Steels purchased to predicted hardenability ranges are called H---Band steels. These
Bands are published by ASTM, AISI, and SAE.
Steels can be purchased to H---Band, or restricted
H---Band, specifications.
4.6.1.4 Ideal Critical Diameter. The Ideal Critical Diameter Method (DI) is based on chemical analysis described in AISI, SAE, Modern Steels and Their
Properties by Bethlehem Steel, and other hardenability reference publications.
4.6.2 Application. Hardenability is constant for
a given steel composition; however, hardness will
vary with the cooling rate. Therefore, the hardness
obtained at any location on a part will depend on carbon content, hardenability, part size, configuration,
quench media, and quenching conditions. Typically a
steel composition is selected with a hardenability
characteristic that will yield an as quenched hardness
above the specified hardness so that toughness and
machinability can be attained through appropriate
tempering. As the section thickness increases, the
steel hardenability must be increased in order to
maintain a given hardness in the part section.
(4) Characteristics of the cutting fluid used.

There is abundant material published on machinability. The mechanics of the cutting operation
will not be considered here. Only metallurgical factors will be discussed.
Chemical composition and microstructure of
steel have major influences on machinability, since
they affect properties and structures. Metallic oxides
like alumina and silica form hard oxide inclusions
and contribute to poor machinability. Elements such
as sulfur, lead, selenium, and tellurium form soft inclusions in the steel matrix and can benefit machining. Calcium additions (in steel making) form hard,
irregular inclusions and can also benefit machining.
However, sulfur, lead and calcium inclusions which
improve machinability can decrease mechanical
properties, particularly in the transverse direction.
Calcium treated steel, when used in high stress gear
and shaft applications, may significantly reduce fatigue life compared to conventional steelmaking
practices. Carbon content over 0.30 percent decreases machinability due to increased hardness. Dependent on carbon and sulfur levels, higher manganese also decreases machinability. In general, alloys
which increase hardness and toughness decrease machinability. The more common gear materials are
listed in Table 4---4 on the basis of good, fair, and
poor machinability. With good machinability as a
base, a fair rating would add 20 to 30 percent to the
machining cost, and poor would add 40 to 50 percent.
4.8 Ferrous Gearing. Ferrous materials for gearing
include carbon and alloy wrought and cast steels, cast
iron and ductile irons. Gearing of alloy and carbon
steel is manufactured from different forms of rough
stock depending upon service, size, design, quantity,
availability, and economic considerations. These
forms include wrought steel, weld fabrications and
castings.
4.7 Machinability. Several factors influence the machinability of materials and in turn affect the economy and feasibility of manufacturing. These factors
must be considered at the design stage, particularly
when high strength levels are being specified. Factors influencing machinability are:
(1) Material being cut, including composition,
microstructure, hardness, shape, and size.
(2) Cutting speeds, feeds and cutting tools.
(3) Condition of machine tools, including
rigidity, precision, power, etc.
ANSI/AGMA
4.8.1 Wrought Steel. Wrought steel is the generic term applied to carbon and alloy steels which are
mechanically worked into form for specific applications. The standard wrought steel forms are round
stock, flat stock and forgings. Forgings reduce machining time, and are available in a wide range of
sizes and grades.
2004---B89
Table 4---4
Machinability of Common Gear Materials
Material Grades
Low--- Carbon Carburizing Steel Grades --- Remarks
1020
Good machinability, as rolled, as forged, or normalized.
4118
4620
8620
8822
Good machinability, as rolled, or as forged. However, normalized is

preferred. Inadequate cooling during normalizing can result in gummy
material, reduced tool life and poor surface finish. Quench and temper
as a prior treatment can aid machinability. The economics of the
pretreatments must be considered.
3310
4320
4820
9310
Material Grades
Fair to good machinability if normalized and tempered, annealed or

quenched and tempered. Normalizing without tempering results in
reduced machinability.
1045
1141
1541
Good machinability if normalized.
4130
4140
4142
Good machinability if annealed, or normalized and tempered to

approximately 255 HB or quenched and tempered to approximately
321 HB. Over 321 HB, machinability is fair. Above 363 HB,
machinability is poor. Inadequate (slack) quench with subsequent low
tempering temperature may produce a part which meets the specified
hardness, but produces a mixed microstructure which results in poor
machinability.
4145
4150
4340
4345
4350
Remarks for medium carbon alloy steel (above) apply. However, the
higher carbon results in lower machinability. Sulfur additions aid the
machinability of these grades. 4340 machinability is good up to 363
HB. The higher carbon level in 4145, 4150, 4345, and 4350 makes
them more difficult to machine and should be specified only for
heavy sections. Inadequate (slack) quench can seriously affect
machinability in these steels.
Medium Carbon Through Hardened Steel Grades --- Remarks
NOTE: Coarse grain steels are more machinable than fine grain. However, gear steels are generally
used in the fine grain condition since mechanical properties are improved, and distortion during heat
treatment is reduced. Increasingly cleaner steels are now also being specified for gearing. However, if
sulfur content is low, less than 0.015 percent, machinability may decrease appreciably.
Material Grades
Gray Irons
Other Gear Material --- Remarks

Gray cast irons have good machinability. Higher strength gray cast irons
[above 50 ksi (345 MPa) tensile strength] have reduced machinability.
Ductile Irons
Annealed or normalized ductile cast iron has good machinability. The

as cast (not heat treated) ductile iron has fair machinability. Quenched
and tempered ductile iron has good machinability up to 285 HB and
fair machinability up to 352 HB. Above 352 HB, machinability is poor.
Gear Bronzes
and Brasses
All gear bronzes and brass have good machinability. The very high
strength heat treated bronzes [above 110 ksi (760 MPa) tensile strength]
have fair machinability.
Austenitic
Stainless Steel
All austenitic stainless steel grades only have fair machinability. Because
of work hardening tendencies, feeds and speeds must be selected to
minimize work hardening.
ANSI/AGMA
10
2004---B89
are manufactured to a size larger than can be formed

with rolling dies or rolls. Forged round bars can be
purchased in a variety of heat treat conditions depending upon application.
4.8.1.1 Round Stock. Round bars can be purchased in various diameters for standard carbon and
alloy grades. They are typically available as hot
rolled, hot rolled---cold drawn, hot rolled---cold finished and forged rounds. Cold drawing produces a
close tolerance bar with improved mechanical properties (higher hardness and yield strength). Low to
medium carbon steels are normally available as cold
drawn bar for gearing. Hot rolled---cold finished bars
are machined (turned, ground and/or polished) for
improved size control, but show no improvement in
mechanical properties over hot rolled or annealed
bar. Hot rolled bars are mechanically worked at
approximately 2100---2400_F (1150---1315_C) and
may be subsequently annealed, straightened and
stress relieved. Forged round bars are forged round
under a press or hammer at the same approximate
temperature as hot rolled bars (higher temperature
for lower carbon content carbon or alloy steel) and
Hot rolled bars are also now manufactured from

continuous cast steel bar manufactured with continuous casters. Continuous cast bar is subsequently hot
rolled with sufficient reduction in cross sectional
area (7 to 1 minimum) during hot deformation to
produce densification and quality bar for many gearing applications.
Approximate maximum diameter of the various
types of round stock, depending upon steel mill capacity, is as follows:
Hot Rolled:
Cold Drawn:
Cold Finished:
Forged Round:
8.0 inch (205 mm)

4.0 inch (100 mm)
5.0 inch (125 mm)
16.0 inch (405 mm)
Table 4---5
Mechanical Property Requirements --- Cold Drawn, Stress Relieved Steel Bars
(Special Cold Drawn, High Tensile)
Size
included
inch (mm)
Steel
Designation
Mechanical Properties for Rounds, Squares and Hexagons

Minimum
Minimum
Elongation in
Nominal
Tensile Strength
Yield Strength
2 inches (50 mm)
Hardness
percent, min
ksi (MPa)
ksi (MPa)
HRCw
1137 SR *
1045 SR
1141 SR
1144 SR
1144 SS[
4145 SS]
95
115
115
115
140
150
(655)
(795)
(795)
(795)
(965)
(1035)
90
100
100
100
125
130
(620)
(690)
(690)
(690)
(860)
(895)
11
10
11
10
10 w
10 w
24
24
24
24
30
32
3.001 (76.1)
to
3.500 (89)
4145 SS]
150
(1035)
130
(895)
10 w
32
3.001 (76.1)
to
4.000 (102)
1045 SR
1141 SR
1144 SR
105
105
105
(725)
(725)
(725)
90
90
90
(620)
(620)
(620)
9
9
9
24
24
24
0.375 (10)
to
3.000 (76)
* Stress Relieved.
[
Special steel. Additional requirements: Hardness, Rockwell C 30, min. 1144 SS not available above
2.5 in (64 mm).
] Special steel. Additional requirements: Hardness Rockwell C 32, min. 4145 SS not available above
3.5 in (89 mm).
w Typical value, not a requirement.
NOTE: Some cold finish steel companies furnish many of the above steels under various trade names.
ANSI/AGMA
11
2004---B89
4.8.1.2 Flat or Plate. Commercial flat or plate

steel of numerous carbon and alloy grades is available in standard thicknesses in a wide range of widths
and lengths. Flat stock is typically available in hot
rolled or hot rolled and annealed conditions.
(3) Rolled Ring Forging. This method produces

a donut---shaped work piece. Typically the process involves piercing a pancake---shaped billet with a mandrel and shaping the ring by a hammer action between the mandrel and the press anvil. Large diameter rings are rolled on a roller press from circular billets containing a central hole.
For additional information on wrought steel
manufacture and steel making refining practices, reference should be made to the following sources:
American Society for Metals (ASM International), Metal Handbooks
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), Steel
Products Manual
Forging Industry Handbook, by the Forging Industry Association
4.8.1.3 Forgings. Forgings are made by hot mechanical deformation (working of a steel billet into a
specific form) which densifies the structure, and may
provide improved inclusion orientation. Typically,
deformation is done while the billet is at temperatures generally above 1900_F(1038_C).
Cast ingots, from which blooms and billets are
manufactured prior to forming forgings and barstock, are now also bottom poured as well as conventional top poured. Bottom poured ingots are poured
with a bottom ingate and runner which provides molten steel to the ingot mold, much like steel castings
are produced. Bottom poured ingots show improved
macro---cleanliness and ingot yield (more usable ingot metal after conventional cropping or removal of
the top pipe cavity and bottom discard of top poured
ingots).
4.8.2 Weld Fabrications. Weld fabricated gears

generally consist of rolled or forged rings, formed
plate or castings for the rim (tooth) section, a forged
or cast hub and mild steel plate for the web or arm
support sections.
The rim or tooth section is heat treated to obtain
specified hardness (mechanical properties) prior to
weld assembly. After weld assembly, using appropriate preheat and postheat temperatures, welded assemblies are furnace stress relieved at 950---1250_F
(510---675_C) depending upon the previous tempering temperature used to obtain the specified hardness of the rim section. ASTM A290 should be referenced for ring forgings for fabricated gears.
Alloy steel, manufactured by electric furnace

practice using part or all of the cleanliness techniques
discussed in 4.3, can result in improved transverse
ductility and impact strength. Forging stock is always
fully killed steel to minimize the occurrence of fissures due to dissolved gases during the forging process.
The standard forging classifications are:
4.8.3 Cast Steels. Carbon and alloy steel castings

are used for a wide variety of through hardened gearing and, to a lesser degree, for case hardened applications. The size of cast gearing varies from 10.0 inch
(254 mm) outside diameter with a 2.0 inch (51 mm)
face width for solid rim gears, to split ring gears about
480 inch (12 192 mm) outside diameter with a 40 inch
(1016 mm) face. Smaller gears generally have a solid
web and hub design, with possible cored holes in the
web or flange for weight reduction. Larger gears are
usually solid hub, split hub, or split hub and rim design, which incorporate cast arms rather than the
heavier solid web design used for smaller gears. Still
larger ring gears are solid or split ring design with bolt
holes at the splits and on the inside diameter flange
for gear assembly and mounting purposes. Split gears
are cast in two or four segments. Typical cast gear designs are shown in Fig 4---1.
4.8.3.1 Manufacture. Cast steel is manufactured
by the open hearth, electric arc, or induction furnace
(1) Open Die Forging. This method produces a

rough dimensioned piece by mechanical deformation between an upper and lower die (hammer and
anvil) in an open frame press or hammer.
Open die forgings may be specified to be upset
forged to increase center densification. An upset
forging is produced when the billet is initially hot
worked in one direction, and then is rotated 90 degrees and hot worked again. Upset forgings are often
used for critical high speed gearing, greater than
30,000 feet/minute (152 m/sec) pitch line velocity,
which develop high centrifugal stress at the center.
(2) Closed Die Forging. This method produces a
closer toleranced piece, generally smaller than an
open die forging. The upper and lower dies trap the
steel billet in a closed (confined) cavity and the press
action deforms the metal to fill the die cavity, producing a more exact contoured forging.
ANSI/AGMA
12
2004---B89
melting processes, using both acid or basic lined furnace steel making practices. Secondary refining processes can be used for reducing the gas, phosphorus,
and sulfur levels of cast steel.
type steels. Carburizing grades are usually 1020,

8620 and 4320 types. As with wrought steel, care
must be taken to ensure that the specified cast analysis for through hardened gearing has sufficient
hardenability to obtain the specified minimum hardness.
4.8.3.2 Material Grades of Cast Steel. The material grades used for cast gearing are generally modifications (silicon, etc) of standard AISI or SAE designations. Through hardened gearing applications
generally use 1045, 4135, 4140, 8630, 8640, and 4340
Typical chemical analyses and tensile properties

of through hardened cast steels are shown in Tables
4---6 and 4---7, respectively.
SOLID WEB
CORED WEB
SMALLER GEARS
SOLID RING
SOLID HUB
SPLIT RING
SPLIT HUB
SPLIT HUB AND RING
LARGER GEARS INCLUDING OPEN GEARING

(NOTE: Each design above can be made by forging or weld fabrication.)
Fig 4---1 Typical Design of Cast Steel Gears
ANSI/AGMA
13
2004---B89
Table 4---6
Typical Chemical Analyses for Through Hardened Cast Steel Gears
Alloy Percent for Cast Steel Types
Element
Carbon
Manganese
Phosphorus, max.
Sulfur, max.
Silicon, max.
Nickel
Chromium
Molybdenum
1045 Type
4140 Type
8630 Type
8642 Type
4340 Type
0.40---0.50
0.60---1.00
0.050
0.060
0.60
--- ----- ----- ---
0.37---0.43
0.70---1.00
0.030
0.040
0.60
--- --0.80---1.10
0.15---0.25
0.27---0.37
0.70---1.00
0.030
0.040
0.60
0.60---0.90
0.60---0.90
0.30---0.40
0.38---0.45
0.70---1.00
0.030
0.040
0.60
0.60---0.90
0.60---0.90
0.40---0.50
0.38---0.43
0.70---1.00
0.030
0.040
0.60
1.65---2.00
0.70---0.90
0.20---0.30
GENERAL NOTES:
1. Type designations indicate non---conformance to exact AISI analysis requirements.
2. When basic steel making practice, ladle refining or AOD (argon oxygen decarburization) processing
are used, lower phosphorus and sulfur contents to less than 0.020 percent are commonly achieved.
3. Vanadium content of 0.06---0.10 percent may be specified for grain refinement.
4. Aluminum content of 0.025 percent maximum may be specified for low alloy cast steel (per ASTM
A356) for ladle deoxidation to improve toughness, cleanliness and machinability.
5. Other AISI Type and proprietary chemical analyses are used for carbon and low alloy cast gears
according to ASTM A148 or customer specifications, depending upon specified hardness (mechanical
properties), type of heat treatment and controlling section size (hardenability) considerations.
6. Source: AGMA 6033---A88, Standard for Marine Propulsion Gear Units, Part 1 Materials.
Table 4---7
Tensile Properties of Through Hardened Cast Steel Gears!
Brinell
Hardness
Range
Minimum
Tensile
Strength
ksi (MPa)
Minimum
Yield
Strength
0.2 percent Offset
ksi (MPa)
Percent
Minimum
Elongation
in 2 in
(50 mm)
Percent
Minimum
Reduction
in Area
A
B
C
223---269
241---285
262---311
100 (690)
110 (760)
118 (810)
75 (480)
80 (550)
90 (620)
15.0
13.0
11.0
35.0
31.0
28.0
D
E
285---331
302---352
130 (900)
140 (970)
100 (690)
115 (790)
10.0
9.0
26.0
24.0
F
G
321---363
331---375
145 (1000)
150 (1030)
120 (830)
125 (860)
8.0
7.0
20.0
18.0
AGMA@
6033---A87
Class
NOTES:
1. Above tensile requirements for seven classes are modifications of three grades of ASTM A148
(Grades 105---85 through 150---135).
2. Source: AGMA 6033---A88, Standard for Marine Propulsion Gear Units, Part 1 Materials.
ANSI/AGMA
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4.8.3.3 Repair Welding of Cast Steel. Repair

welding of castings prior to heat treatment is routinely performed by the casting producer. Repairs in
the rim (tooth) portion and other critical load bearing locations should be performed only prior to heat
treatment. Heat treatable electrodes (4130, 4140 and
4340 Types) should be used for repairing prior to
heat treatment in order to produce hardness equivalent to the base metal after heat treatment. Repair
welding, if allowed after heat treatment, shall be followed by reheat treatment, whenever possible. If reheat treatment is not possible, localized preheat and
post heat are recommended to avoid or minimize unfavorable residual tensile stress or high hardness in
the heat affected zone. All welds should be inspected
to the same quality standard used to inspect the casting.
Recommended ASTM specifications for nondestructive inspection test procedures are:

ASTM E709---80, Magnetic Particle Examination
ASTM E125---63 (1980), Reference Photographs
for Magnetic Particle Indications on Ferrous Castings
ASTM A609---83, Ultrasonic Examination of
Carbon and Low Alloy Steel Castings
ASTM E186---80, Standard Reference Radiographs for Heavy Walled [2 to 41/2 inch) (51 to 114
mm)] Steel Castings
ASTM E280---81, Standard Reference Radiographs for Heavy Walled [4 1/2 to 12 inch(114 to 305
mm)] Steel Castings
ASTM E446---81, Standard Reference Radiographs for Steel Castings Up to 2 inch (51 mm) in
Thickness
4.8.3.6 Additional Information for Cast Steel.
Information is available in:
ASM Handbook series, Volume 5, 8th edition,
Steel Founders Society of America (SFSA) Publication
ASM Handbook, Volume 11, 8th edition, Nondestructive Inspection and Quality Control
4.8.4 Cast Iron. Cast Iron is the generic term for
the family of high carbon, silicon, iron alloys. The
family of cast irons is classified by the following categories.
4.8.4.1 Gray Iron. Gray iron contains (typically
over 3.0 percent) carbon, which is present as graphite
flakes. It is characterized by the gray color occurring
on a fracture surface. Refer to Gray and Ductile Iron
Castings Handbook for additional information.
(1) Material considerations. Cast irons for gears
are made by the electric arc furnace, cupola, or induction practice and should be free of shrink, porosity, gas holes, entrapped sand and hard areas in the
tooth portion.
Repair welds in areas to be machined should
have machinability equivalent to the casting. Repair
welds in the tooth portion should only be performed
with the approval of the gear purchaser.
(2) Heat Treating. Cast iron castings are generally furnished as cast unless otherwise specified.
Stress relieving may be deemed necessary to hold
close dimensional tolerances. It is recommended
that castings be heated to 1000 to 1100_F
(538---593_C), holding at temperature up to one
hour per inch of maximum section and furnace
cooled to below 600_F (315_C).
NOTE: Weld repair in the tooth portion may

require notification of the purchaser.
4.8.3.4 Heat Treatment of Cast Steel. Castings
are heat treated to either a specified hardness or to
specified hardness and minimum mechanical properties. The minimum number of hardness tests required on both rim faces of gear castings is generally
based on the outside diameter. The number of tests
increases with OD size. Mechanical property tests
(tensile and impact) are generally required only
when specified. Reference should be made to 6.2 and
6.3 for additional information.
4.8.3.5 Quality of Cast Steel. Castings should be
furnished free of sand, scale, extraneous appendages, and hard areas resulting from arc---airing, gas
cutting, and repair welding which could adversely affect machining. Casting should also be free of cracks,
hot tears, chills, and unfused chaplets in the rim section. Castings must meet the nondestructive test requirements in the rim section. The quality specified
in other than the rim (tooth) section is often less
stringent. Minor discontinuities in finish machined
teeth, if present, are often contour ground for removal, in preference to cosmetic weld repair. Approval by the customer may be required.
Dry or wet fluorescent magnetic particle inspections are routinely performed to meet specified surface quality requirements. Other nondestructive
testing, such as radiograph and ultrasonic inspection,
is performed to evaluate internal integrity of the rim
(tooth) section when specified. Methods of testing,
test locations, and acceptance standards are established between the purchaser and manufacturer.
ANSI/AGMA
15
2004---B89
(3) Chemical Analysis. Unless otherwise specified, the chemical analysis is left to the discretion of
the casting supplier as necessary to produce castings
to the specification.
1
ASTM
Class
Number
20
30
35
40
50
60
(4) Mechanical Properties. Cast iron gears are

rated according to AGMA practice based on hardness. Therefore, hardness determines the rating of
the gear.
Minimum hardness requirements for the classes
of cast iron are shown in Table 4---8.
4.8.4.2 Ductile Iron. Ductile iron, sometimes referred to as nodular iron, is characterized by the
spheroidal shape of the graphite in the metal matrix,
produced by innoculation with magnesium and rare
earth elements. A wide range of mechanical properties are produced through control of the alloying elements and subsequent heat treatments. (Refer to
Gray and Ductile Iron Handbook.)
(1) Material Considerations. Ductile iron castings are made by the electric arc furnace, cupola or
induction practice and should be free of shrink, porosity, gas holes and entrapped sand and hard areas
in the tooth portion.
Repair welds in areas to be machined should
have equivalent machinability as the casting. Repair
welding in the tooth portion should only be performed with the approval of the gear purchaser.
(2) Heat Treating. Ductile iron castings shall be
heat treated by annealing, normalizing and tempering or quenching and tempering or as---cast as required to meet the specified mechanical properties.
These heat treatments produce ferritic, pearlitic or
martensitic structures.
Tensile tests should only be required when specified. Tensile test requirements are shown in Table
4---8, and testing should be performed in accordance
with ASTM A48, Standard Specifications for Gray
Iron Casting.
Tensile test coupons are cast in separate molds in
accordance with the provisions of ASTM A48. The
size of the cast test coupon is dependent upon the
thickness of the tooth portion of the casting as follows:
0.25---0.50
(6.4---12.7)
0.51---1.00
(12.8---25.4)
1.01---2 incl.
(25.5---50.8)
As Cast Machined
Diameter, Diameter, ASTM A48
Test Bar,
in (mm)
in (mm)
0.88
(22.4)
1.20
(30.5)
2.00
(50.8)
0.50
(12.7)
0.750
(19.0)
1.25
(31.8)
(3) Chemical Analysis. Unless otherwise specified, the chemical analysis is left to the discretion of
the casting supplier as necessary to produce castings
to the specification.
(4) Mechanical Properties. Typical mechanical
properties are shown in Table 4---9. Other properties
may be as agreed upon by the gear manufacturer and
casting producer.
A
B
C
NOTE: See ASTM A48 for tolerances on as

cast and machined diameter and retest considerations if bar fails to meet requirements.
Tensile test coupons should be poured from the

same ladle or heat and be given the same heat treatments as the castings they represent. Test coupon
mold design shall be in accordance with ASTM A536.
Size of the Y---block mold, if used, is at the option of
the producer unless specified by the gear manufacturer.
Table 4---8
Minimum Hardness and Tensile Strength
Requirements
for Gray Cast Iron
ANSI/AGMA
155
180
205
220
250
285
Tensile
Strength
ksi (MPa)
20 (140)
30 (205)
35 (240)
40 (275)
50 (345)
60 (415)
1 See ASTM A48 for additional information.
Hardness tests should be made in accordance

with ASTM E10. Hardness tests should be made on
the mid rim thickness or mid face width of the tooth
portion diameter. At least one hardness test should
be made on each piece, and sufficient hardness tests
should be made to verify that the part meets the minimum hardness specified. Specified minimum hardness must be maintained to the finish machined dimensions for acceptance.
Thickness
of Tooth
Section,
in (mm)
Brinell
Hardness
16
2004---B89
When eight hardness tests are specified, they shall be

made 90 degrees apart on both cope and drag side.
Tensile tests should be performed in accordance

with ASTM Designation E8, Standard Method of Tension Testing of Metallic Materials. The yield strength
is normally determined by the 0.2 percent offset
method. For required retesting, if tensile bar fails to
meet requirements, refer to ASTM A536.
For solid cylindrical pieces, with length over diameter of one or more, the number of hardness tests
should be as follows:
Diameter of
Tooth Portion, in(mm)
To 3 (76) incl.
Over 3 (76) to 6 (152) incl.
Over 6 (152)
Hardness tests should be performed in accordance with ASTM Designation E10, Standard Method of Test for Brinell Hardness of Metallic Materials.
Hardness tests should be made on the mid rim thickness or mid face width of the tooth portion diameter.
Number of hardness tests per piece is based on the
diameter of the casting as follows:
Outside Diameter
of Casting, in(mm)
To 12 (305 )
Over 12 (305) to 36 (915)
Over 36 (915) to 60 (1525)
Over 60 (1525)
Number of
Hardness Tests
1
2
4
NOTE: The hardness tests shall be spaced

uniformly around the circumference.
When many small pieces are involved, all poured
from the same ladle or heat, and heat treated in a
single furnace load, a sample testing plan is generally
used with the approval of the
gear manufacturer.
Number of
Hardness Tests
1
2
4
8
4.8.4.3 Austempered Ductile Iron. Austempered Ductile Iron (ADI) is a ductile iron with higher
strength and hardness than conventional ductile
irons. The higher properties of ADI are achieved by
closely controlled chemistry and an austempering
heat treatment. This treatment results in a unique
microstructure of bainitic ferrite and larger amounts
of carbon stabilized austenite. With variation in austempering temperature and transformation time,
several ranges of engineering properties can be
achieved.
When two hardness tests are required, one

should be made on the cope side over a riser and the
other on the drag side approximately 180 degrees
away between risers. When four hardness tests are
required, two tests should be made on the cope side,
one over a riser and the other approximately 180 degrees away between risers, and two tests on the drag
side 90 degrees away from the tests on the cope side.
Table 4---9
Mechanical Properties of Ductile Iron
1
ASTM
Grade
Designation
60---40---18
65---45---12
80---55---06
100---70---03
120---90---02
Former
AGMA
Class
Recommended
Heat Treatment
Min. Tensile
Brinell
Strength
Hardness Range
ksi (MPa)
A---7---a Annealed Ferritic

A---7---b As---Cast or Annealed
Ferritic---Pearlitic
A---7---c Normalized Ferritic---Pearlitic
A---7---d Quench & Tempered Pearlitic
A---7---e Quench & Tempered
Martensitic
Min. Yield
Strength
ksi (MPa)
170 max.
156---217
60 (415)
65 (450)
40 (275)
45 (310)
187---255
241---302
Range
Specified
80 (550)
100 (690)
120 (830)
55 (380)
70 (485)
90 (620)
Elongation
in 2 inch
(50 mm)
percent min
18.0
12.0
6.0
3.0
2.0
1 See ASTM A536 or SAE J434 for further information.

NOTE: Other tensile properties and hardnesses should be used only by agreement between gear manufacturer
and casting producer.
ADI has been utilized in several significant applications, such as automotive ring gears and pinions,
but is still an emerging technology. ADI permits lowANSI/AGMA
er machining and heat treat cost and replacement of

more costly forgings for certain applications.
17
2004---B89
Test programs are currently underway which will

more clearly define operational properties of ADI.
4.8.4.4 Malleable Iron. Malleable iron is a heat
treated white (chilled) iron which can be produced
with a range of mechanical properties depending on
the alloying practice and heat treatment. This has
generally been replaced by ductile iron. (Refer to
ASTM A220.)
rately determined using special microhardness measurement techniques.

Parts can be heat treated after sintering, but
must be processed in a controlled atmosphere to prevent changes in surface chemistry. Carburizing and
carbonitriding can be performed, but products with a
density under 6.8 g/cm# will not develop a definite
case due to the ease of diffusion through the more
porous lower density material. Penetration hardness
testing cannot be correlated to material strength, but
parts will achieve a file hard surface. Salt baths and
water quench systems should be avoided.
4.8.5 Powder Metal (P/M). Powder metal parts

are formed by compressing metal powders in a die
cavity and heating (sintering) the resultant compact
to metallurgically bond the powder particles. Secondary operations such as repressing or sizing may be
used to obtain precise control of shape and size or to
improve mechanical properties.
The powder metal process is used to reduce cost
by eliminating machining operations, provide accurate dimensional control over large production runs,
and obtain characteristics and shapes difficult to obtain by other methods. However, because of molding
die costs, high production quantities are usually necessary to realize savings.
Further improvements in strength can be

achieved by the use of hot forming powder metal.
Powder metal preforms are heated to forging temperature and finished forged to final shape and density. Parts processed in this manner have strengths
and mechanical properties approaching the properties of wrought materials. Although this process is
much more costly than the conventional powder metal process, it can still be cost effective for high production parts requiring higher mechanical properties
than achievable using the standard process.
Although several powder metal materials are

available, alloy steel is usually specified for gear applications.
The controlled porosity in powder metal parts

permits their impregnation with oil to provide a self
lubricating part, especially for the internal type of
gears.
As sintered alloy steels have a tensile strength

range of 40---80 ksi (275---550 MPa), with an elongation of 4.0 percent or less and an apparent hardness
of HRB 60---85. Heat treated powder metal alloys
have tensile strengths of 100 to 170 ksi (690---1170
MPa) with elongations of 1.0 percent or less, depending on density and alloy selected.
The powder metal process is well---suited to the

production of gears for several reasons:
(1) Carbide dies provide consistent part accuracy over long runs.
(2) Retention of some porosity contributes to
quietly running gears and allows for self---lubrication.
Density is the most significant characteristic of

powder metal materials. For a given composition,
mechanical properties are proportional to density;
i.e., higher strengths are achieved at higher density
levels. In recent years, powder metal processes have
improved to the point where a typical density of 7.0
to 7.4 g/cm# can be achieved using secondary operations.
(3) Powder metal gears can be made with blind

corners, thus eliminating undercut relief that is needed with cut gears, and have extra support strength at
the blind end.
(4) Powder metal gears can be combined with
other parts such as cams, ratchets, other gears, and
assorted components.
The ductility of powder metal parts is substantially lower than for wrought steels. Hardness specifications can be developed for powder metal parts, but
must be specified as apparent hardness since the
hardness value obtained using a standard tester (either HRB or HRC) is a combination of the powder
particle hardness and porosity. The actual hardness
of the powder metal material will be higher than the
apparent hardness reading and can be more accuANSI/AGMA
Spur gears are the easiest to produce out of powder metal because of the vertical action of the press
and ease of ejection of the preform from the die cavity before sintering. Bevel, miter, helical, and other
special gear forms are, however, possible in powder
metal with sufficient development. True involute
gears are less difficult and may be less costly to pro-
18
2004---B89
duce in sufficient quantities than by other methods

because tooth configuration is not a limitation.
and non---destructive inspection (magnetic particle

and ultrasonic or radiograph) practices.
4.8.6 Other Ferrous Materials. In addition to

materials used for gears which are described in this
Manual there are other ferrous materials used for
gears. These include hot work tool steel (H series),
high speed steels, austenitic, martensitic and precipitation hardening stainless steels, etc. Special gear
analyses are frequently used in applications with very
high strength requirements.
Fabricated (welded) gears are generally

manufactured when they are more economical than
forged or cast gears. Gear rims are normally forged
or rolled rings, formed alloy plate, or, less frequently,
cast. Hardenability of the gear rim steel must be adequate to enable a 1000_F (540_C) minimum tempering temperature to obtain hardness. The welded assembly should, therefore, be stress relieved at
950_F(510_C) minimum [50_F(28_C) below the
tempering temperature]. Gear rims used in the annealed condition can be stress relieved at 1250_F
(675_C).
4.9 Selection Criteria for Wrought, Cast, or Fabricated Steel Gearing.

Selection of the gear blank producing method
for most applications is primarily a matter of economics, with quality becoming increasingly important as tooth loads, down time costs and safety considerations increase. Critical application gearing,
such as for aerospace and special high speed, is commonly manufactured of vacuum degassed alloy steel,
further refined at premium cost by vacuum arc remelt (VAR) or electroslag remelt (ESR) processing.
These and other more economical refining processes
(AOD, ladle refined, etc.) improve cleanliness and
produce higher quality steel.
Forged or hot rolled die generated gear teeth,

with the direction of inclusion (metal) flow parallel
to the profile of teeth, result in the optimum direction of inclusions for gearing. Application is limited
because quantities or critical application considerations must justify the increased development and
die costs.
4.10 Copper Base Gearing. Non---ferrous gears are
made from alloys of copper, aluminum, and zinc. Alloys of copper are in wide use for power transmission
gearing. Most of these are used in worm gearing
where the reduced coefficient of friction between
dissimilar materials and increased malleability are
desired.
Wrought or forged steel is generally considered

more sound than castings because the steel is hot
worked. Wrought steel is anisotropic, however,
meaning that the mechanical properties (tensile ductility and fatigue and impact strength) vary according
to the direction of hot working or inclusion flow during forming (see Fig 4---2). Improved steel cleanliness has the effect of improving the transverse and
tangential properties of forged steel in order to approach, but not equal, the longitudinal properties.
Inclusions in wrought steel forgings, barstock, rolled
rings and plate are perpendicular to the root radius
or profile of machined gear teeth.
4.10.1 Gear Bronzes. A family of four bronzes

accounts for most of the nonferrous gear materials,
mainly because of their wear resistance characteristics for withstanding a high sliding velocity with a
steel worm gear.
(1) Phosphor or Tin Bronzes. These bronzes are
tough and have good corrosion resistance. They possess excellent rubbing characteristics and wear resistance which permits use in gears and worm wheels for
severe wear applications. This alloy is the basic gear
alloy and is commonly designated as SAE C90700
(obsolete SAE 65) and is referred to as tin bronze.
(2) Manganese Bronzes. This is the name given
to a family of high strength yellow brasses. They are
characterized by high strength and hardness and are
the toughest materials in the bronze family. They
achieve mechanical properties through alloying
without heat treatment. These bronzes have the
same strength and ductility as annealed cast steel.
They have good wear resistance but do not possess
the same degree of corrosion resistance, wearability
NOTES: Mechanical properties in the transverse direction will vary with inclusion type
and material form.
Mechanical property data is normally
measured in the longitudinal direction.
Castings generally being isotropic (non---directionality of properties), when sound in the rim tooth
section, can provide comparable mechanical properties to those of forgings. Casting quality involves controlled steel making, molding, casting, heat treating
ANSI/AGMA
19
2004---B89
or bearing quality as phosphor and aluminum

bronzes.
(3) Aluminum Bronze. Aluminum bronze materials are similar to the manganese bronzes in toughness, but are lighter in weight and attain higher mechanical properties through heat treatment. As the
strength of aluminum bronze is increased, ductility is
reduced. This bronze has good wear resistance and
has low coefficient of friction against steel. Bearing

characteristics are better than for manganese bronze
but are inferior to the phosphor bronzes.
(4) Silicon Bronzes. Silicon bronzes are commonly used in lightly loaded gearing for electrical applications because of their low cost and nonmagnetic
properties.
DIRECTION OF
METAL AND
INCLUSION
FLOW
ROLLED
RING FORGING
LONGITUDINAL TENSILE
TEST BAR OR PROPERTIES
TRANSVERSE
TENSILE TEST BAR
DIRECTION OF METAL
AND INCLUSION FLOW
PINION FORGING
TRANSVERSE TENSILE
TEST BAR
LONGITUDINAL
TENSILE TEST BAR
TANGENTIAL
TENSILE TEST BAR
NOTE: ASTM E399 may be used if impact testing is required.
Fig 4---2 Directionality of Forging Properties

er strength, but they are more difficult to machine.
Wear resistance of these brasses is somewhat lower
than for the higher strength manganese bronzes.
4.10.2 Gear Brasses and Other Copper Alloys.

Gear brasses are selected for their corrosion resistant properties. The most common gear brass is yellow brass, used because of its good machinability.
Other brass materials are used because of their highANSI/AGMA
20
2004---B89
4.10.3 Wrought Copper Base. Wrought copper

base materials is a general term used to describe a
group of mechanically shaped gear materials in
which copper is the major chemical component. This
group of gear materials includes bronzes, brasses,
and other copper alloys. Table 4---10 presents chemical analyses of common wrought bronze alloys, while
Table 4---11 presents typical mechanical properties of
these wrought bronze alloys in rod and bar form.
4.10.4 Cast Copper Base. Copper base castings
are specified by melting method, heat treatment,
analysis or type, hardness and tensile properties.
4.10.4.1 Cast Worm Bronzes. Specifications describe type of bronzes according to chemical analysis.
Refer to Table 4---12 for chemical analyses of common cast copper bronze alloys, including phosphor
or tin bronze, leaded tin bronze (improved machinability) and higher strength manganese bronze and
aluminum bronze. Mechanical properties of separate cast test specimens are shown in Table 4---13.
as agreed to by the gear manufacturer and casting

producer.
The chemical analysis shall be determined from
a sample obtained during pouring of the heat.
The gear manufacturer may perform a product
analysis for chemistry. In the event of disagreement
in chemical analysis, ASTM Designation E54, Standard Methods of Chemical Analysis of Special Brasses
and Bronzes, may be used as the referee method.
(4) Casting Hardness. Hardness tests are normally made in accordance with ASTM E10, Method
of Test for Brinell Hardness of Metallic Materials. The
load in kilograms force listed in Table 4---13 should be
used.
Hardness tests are to be made on the tooth portion of the part after final heat treatment, if required.
The number of hardness tests made should be specified by the gear manufacturer.
(5) Casting Tensile Properties. Tensile tests are
only required when specified. Tensile tests when specified are made in accordance with ASTM E8, Tension Testing of Metallic Materials. Tensile test bars for
sand castings may be attached to casting or cast separately. Tensile test bars for static chill castings may be
cast separately with a chill in the bottom of the test
bar mold. Tensile test bars for centrifugal castings
may be cast in a separate centrifugal mold for test
bars or cast in a chill test bar mold.
4.10.4.2 General Information for Copper Castings. Additional information regarding manufacturing, chemical analysis, heat treating, tensile properties, hardness and hardness control, cast structure
and supplementary data for cast copper alloys is as
follows:
(1) Casting Manufacture. Cast copper base gear
materials may be melted by any commercially recognized melting method for the composition involved.
Castings should be free of shrink, porosity, gas holes
and entrapped sand in the tooth portion. Castings
should also be furnished free of sand and extraneous
appendages.
NOTE: An integral or separately cast test bar

does not necessarily represent the properties
obtained in the casting. The properties in the
casting are dependent upon the size and design of the casting and foundry practice.
Repair welding in other than the tooth portion

may be performed by the casting supplier. Repair
welds in the tooth area should be performed only
with the approval of the gear manufacturer.
Three test coupons shall be poured from each

melt of metal or per 1000 lbs (454 kg) of melt except
where the individual casting weighs more than 1000
lbs (454 kg).
(2) Casting Heat Treating. Copper Base castings

are heat treated as required to obtain the specified
mechanical properties.
Heat treated castings should have the test coupons heat treated in the same furnace loads as the
casting they represent.
(3) Casting Chemical Analysis. Chemical analysis shall be in conformance with the type specified or
ANSI/AGMA
21
2004---B89
Table 4---10
Chemical Analyses of Wrought Bronze Alloys
Bronze
1
Alloy
UNS NO.
Former
AGMA
Type
Composition, Percent Maximum (unless shown as a range or minimum)

Cu
(incl Ag) Pb
Fe
Sn
Zn
Al
As
Mn
Si
Ni
(incl Co)
C62300
--- ---
Rem.
--- ---
2.0
to
4.0
0.60
--- ---
8.5
to
11.0
--- ---
0.50
0.25
C62400
--- ---
Rem.
--- ---
2.0
to
4.5
0.20
--- ---
10.0
to
11.5
--- ---
0.30
0.25
C63000
ALBR 6
Rem.
--- ---
2.0
to
4.0
0.20
0.30
9.0
to
11.0
--- ---
1.50
0.25
4.0
to
5.5
C64200
ALBR 5
Rem.
0.05
0.30
0.20
0.50
6.3
to
7.6
0.10
1.5
to
2.2
0.25
C67300
--- ---
58.0
to
63.0
0.40
to
3.0
0.50
0.30
Rem.
0.25
2.0
to
3.5
0.50
to
1.5
0.25
0.15
--- ---
1.0
--- ---
1 Unified Numbering System. For cross reference to SAE, former SAE & ASTM, see SAE Information
Report SAE J461. For added copper alloy information, also see SAE J463.
Table 4---11
Typical Mechanical Properties! of Wrought Bronze Alloy Rod and Bar
Bronze2 Alloy
UNS NO.
C62300
C62400
C63000
C64200
C67300
Former
AGMA
Type
Tensile Strength
ksi
(MPa)
Yield Strength
ksi
(MPa)
Elongation in
2 in (50 mm)
percent, min.
Hardness
HB and HRB
--- ---
90
(620)
45
(310)
25
180HB (1000kgf)
--- ---
95
(655)
50
(345)
12
200HB (3000kgf)
ALBR 6
90
(620)
45
(310)
17
100 HRB
ALBR 5
93
(640)
60
(415)
26
90 HRB
70
(485)
40
(275)
25
70 HRB
--- ---
1 Typical mechanical properties vary with form, temper, and section size considerations.
Report SAE J461. For added wrought copper alloy information, also see SAE J463.
ANSI/AGMA
22
2004---B89
Table 4---12
Chemical Analyses of Cast Bronze Alloys
Bronze
Former
Alloy * AGMA
UNS NO. Type
Composition, Percent Maximum (unless shown as a range or minimum)

Cu
Sn
Pb
Zn
Fe
Ni
Sb (incl Co) S
Al
Si
Mn
C86200
MNBR 3
60.0
to
66.0
0.20
0.20
22.0
to
28.0
2.0
to
4.0
--- ---
1.0
--- ---
--- ---
3.0
to
4.9
--- ---
2.5
to
5.0
C86300
MNBR 4
60.0
to
66.0
0.20
0.20
22.0
to
28.0
2.0
to
4.0
--- ---
1.0
--- ---
--- ---
5.0
to
7.5
--- ---
2.5
to
5.0
C86500
MNBR 2
55.0
to
60.0
1.0
0.40
36.0
to
42.0
0.4
to
2.0
--- ---
1.0
--- ---
--- ---
0.5
to
1.5
--- ---
0.10
to
1.5
C90700
MNBR 2
88.0
to
90.0
10.0
to
12.0
0.50
0.50
0.15
0.20
0.5
0.05
0.30{
0.005
0.005 --- ---
C92500
MNBR 5
85.0
to
88.0
10.0
to
12.0
1.0
to
1.5
0.50
0.30
0.25
0.8
to
1.5
0.05
0.30{
0.005
0.005 --- ---
C92700
MNBR 3
86.0
to
89.0
9.0
to
11.0
1.0
to
2.5
0.70
0.20
0.25
1.0
0.05
0.25{
0.005
0.005 --- ---
C92900
--- ---
82.0
to
86.0
9.0
to
11.0
2.0
to
3.2
0.25
0.20
0.25
2.8
to
4.0
0.05
0.25{
0.005
0.005 --- ---
C95200
ALBR 1
86.0
min
--- ---
--- ---
--- ---
2.5
to
4.0
--- ---
--- ---
--- ---
0.50{
8.5
to
9.5
--- --- --- ---
C95300
ALBR 2
86.0
min
--- ---
--- ---
--- ---
0.8
to
1.5
--- ---
--- ---
--- ---
--- ---
9.0
to
11.0
--- ---
--- ---
C95400
ALBR 3
83.0
min
--- ---
--- ---
--- ---
3.0
to
5.0
--- ---
2.5
--- ---
--- ---
10.0
to
11.5
--- ---
0.5
C95500
ALBR 4
78.0
min
--- ---
--- ---
--- ---
3.0
to
5.0
--- ---
3.0
to
5.5
--- ---
--- ---
10.0
to
11.5
--- ---
3.5
* Unified Numbering System. For cross reference to SAE, former SAE & ASTM, see SAE Information
{
For continuous castings, phosphorus shall be 1.5 percent maximum.
ANSI/AGMA
23
2004---B89
Table 4---13
Mechanical Properties of Cast Bronze Alloys!
Copper
Alloy
UNS.2
NO.
Former
AGMA
Type
C86200 MNBR 3
Casting Method
& Condition #
Minimum Typical Hardness %

Percent
Minimum
Minimum
4
4
HB
HB
Tensile Strength Yield Strength Elongation
in 2 inch
ksi (MPa)
500
3000
ksi (MPa)
(50 mm)
kgf
kgf
Sand, Centrifugal
Continuous
Sand, Centrifugal
Continuous
90
(620)
45 (310)
18
--- ---
180
110
110
(760)
(760)
60 (415)
62 (425)
12
14
--- ----- ---
225
225
C86500 MNBR 2
C86500 MNBR 2
Sand, Centrifugal
Continuous
65
70
(450)
(485)
25 (170)
25 (170)
20
25
112
112
--- ----- ---
C90700 BRONZE 2
C90700 BRONZE 2
C90700 BRONZE 2
Sand
Continuous
Centrifugal
35
40
50
(240)
(275)
(345)
18 (125)
25 (170)
28 (195)
10
10
12
70
80
100
--- ----- ----- ---
C92500 BRONZE 5
C92500 BRONZE 5
Sand
Continuous
35
40
(240)
(275)
18 (125)
24 (165)
10
10
70
80
--- ----- ---
C92700 BRONZE 3
C92700 BRONZE 3
Sand
Continuous
35
38
(240)
(260)
18 (125)
20 (140)
10
8
70
80
--- ----- ---
C92900
Sand, Continuous
45
(310)
25 (170)
90
--- ---
C95200 ALBR 1
C95200 ALBR 1
Sand, Centrifugal
Continuous
65
68
(450)
(470)
25 (170)
26 (180)
20
20
--- ----- ---
125
125
C95300
C95300
C95300
C95300
ALBR 2
ALBR 2
ALBR 2
ALBR 2
Sand, Centrifugal
Continuous
Sand, Centrifugal
Continuous (HT)
65
70
80
80
(450)
(485)
(550)
(550)
25
26
40
40
(170)
(180)
(275)
(275)
20
25
12
12
---------
---------
140
140
160
160
C95400
C95400
C95400
C95400
ALBR 3
ALBR 3
ALBR 3
ALBR 3
Sand, Centrifugal (HT)

Continuous
Continuous (HT)
75
85
90
95
(515)
(585)
(620)
(655)
30
32
45
45
(205)
(220)
(310)
(310)
12
12
6
10
---------
---------
160
160
190
190
C95500
C95500
C95500
C95500
ALBR 4
ALBR 4
ALBR 4
ALBR 4
Sand, Centrifugal
Continuous
Continuous (HT)
90
95
110
110
(620)
(655)
(760)
(760)
40
45
60
62
(275)
(290)
(415)
(425)
6
10
5
8
---------
---------
190
190
200
200
C86300 MNBR 4
--- ---
1 For rating of worm gears in accordance with AGMA 6034---A87, the Materials Factor, k s , will depend
upon the particular casting method employed.
3 Refer to ASTM B427 for sand and centrifugal cast C90700 alloy and sand cast C92900.
4 Minimum tensile strength and yield strength shall be reduced 10% for continuous cast bars having a
cross section of 4 inch (102 mm) or more (see ASTM B505, Table 3 footnote).
5 BHN at other load levels (1000 kgf or 1500 kgf) may be used if approved by purchaser.
ANSI/AGMA
24
2004---B89
One test specimen should be tested from each

group of three test coupons cast. If this bar meets the
tensile requirements, the lot should be accepted. If
the first bar fails to meet the specified requirements,
the two remaining specimens shall be tested. The average properties of these two bars must meet specified requirements for acceptance of the lot.
(6) Casting Hardness Control. The gear
manufacturer can select at random any number of
castings from a given lot to determine the hardness at
or within 1 inch (25mm) of the cast OD or as indicated on gear manufacturers drawing. The lot
should consist of all gears produced from one melt of
metal. Determination of hardness at or near the root
diameter is optional and should be agreed upon by
the purchaser and gear manufacturer.
The minimum hardness, using a 500 kg load,
shall be 80 HB for static chill and centrifugal chill
castings, and 70 HB for sand castings. The minimum
hardness at or near the root diameter shall be agreed
upon by the purchaser and the casting producer. Failure of any gear to meet hardness requirements specified is subject to rejection.
castings and, in particular, the tooth section. It may

be advisable to specify by use of photomicrographic
standards both acceptable and non---acceptable
phase distributions in the gear rim section.
4.11 Other Non--- Ferrous Materials. In addition to
the more common non---ferrous materials used for
gears, several wrought aluminum and beryllium copper alloys are occasionally used. Specifications are
specialized and should be resolved between the user
and supplier.
4.12 Non--- Metallic Materials. Many gears, particularly those used to transmit motion rather than power, are produced from non---metallic materials. Because of the wide range of non---metallic materials,
engineering data on the various types of non---metals
is usually most easily available from the producers.
Plastics are being used at a rapidly increasing
rate as gear materials in the fine pitch range. Improved materials, advances in gear mold design and
molding technology, development of engineering
data, and the successful use of plastic gears in many
applications have all contributed to the establishment of certain plastics as engineering material suitable for fine pitch gears.
(7) Cast Structure. When required, the producer

should furnish specified microspecimens or photomicrographs for each melt with the certificate of
hardness, chemistry, and mechanical properties.
Non---metallic gears are usually selected for

properties such as low friction, ability to operate with
no lubricant, resistance to water absorbtion, and
quietness of operation. (See Appendix A and
AGMA 141.)
(8) Supplemental Data. The following supplementary requirement should apply only when specified by contractual agreement. Details of this supplementary requirement should be agreed upon by
the casting producer and gear manufacturer.
(a) With proper foundry technique, the properties of static chilled and centrifugal cast separate test
bars should be the same.
5. Heat Treatment
Heat treatment is a heating and cooling process
used to achieve desired properties in gear materials.
Ferrous gearing may be through hardened or surface
hardened when gear rating or service requirements
warrant higher hardness and strength for improved
fatigue strength or wear resistance. Common heat
treatments for ferrous materials include:
(b) An integral or a separate test bar simply signifies the melt quality poured into the mold to make
the casting. It does not express the specific properties and characteristics of the casting which are greatly dependent on design, size, and foundry technique.
(1) Preheat treatments--Anneal

Normalize and temper
Quench and temper
Stress relief
(c) The grain size of cast copper base alloys varies as a function of cooling rate and section thickness. Recommended maximum grain size for centrifugal castings is 0.035 mm in the rim, 0.070 mm in the
web and 0.120 mm in the hub. The grain size for copper base alloys is determined per ASTM E112 at 75X
magnification.
(2) Heat treatments--Through harden (anneal, normalize, or

normalize and temper, and quench and
temper).
(d) The grain size of static cast copper base alloys

should be mutually agreed upon by the consumer and
producer with reference to the various sections of the
ANSI/AGMA
Surface harden profile heated (flame and

induction harden) and profile chemistry
25
2004---B89
modified (carburize, carbonitride, and nitride)
Typical specified hardness ranges for normalized

and tempered steels are shown in Table 4---2.
(3) Post heat treatment--Stress relieve
5.1.3 Normalizing and Annealing for Metallurgical

Uniformity. The normalizing and annealing processes are frequently used, either singularly or in
combination, as a homogenizing heat treatment for
alloy steels. These processes are used in wrought
steel to reduce metallurgical non---uniformity such as
segregated alloy microstructures (banding) and distorted crystaline microstructures from mechanical
working.
Specialized heat treatment for nonferrous materials should be recommended by the producer.
5.1 Through Hardening Processes. Through hardened gears are heated to a required temperature and
cooled in the furnace or quenched in air, gas or liquid. Through hardening may be used before or after
the gear teeth are formed.
Cycle annealing is a term applied to a special

normalize/temper process in which the parts are rapidly cooled to 800---1000_F (427---538_C) after
normalizing at 1600---1750_F (871---954_C), followed by a 1200_F (649_C) temper with controlled
cooling to 600_F (316_C).
There are generally three methods of heat treating through hardened gearing. In ascending order of
hardness for a particular type of steel they are;
annealing, normalizing (or normalizing and tempering), and quenching and tempering. Modifications
of quench hardening, such as austempering and martempering, occur infrequently for steel gearing and
are, therefore, not discussed. Austempering is used,
however, for through hardened (approximately 300
to 480 HB) ductile cast iron gears.
5.1.4 Quench and Temper. The quench and temper process on ferrous alloys involves heating to form
austenite at 1475---1600_F (802---871_C), followed
by rapid quenching. The rapid cooling causes the
gear to become harder and stronger by formation of
martensite. The gear is then tempered to a specific
temperature, generally below 1275_F(691_C), to
achieve the desired mechanical properties. Tempering reduces the material hardness and mechanical
strength but improves the material ductility and
toughness (impact resistance). Selection of the tempering temperature must be based upon the specified hardness range, material composition, and the
as quenched hardness. The tempered hardness varies inversely with tempering temperature. Parts are
normally air cooled from tempering temperatures.
Table 4---3 gives hardness guidelines for some steel
grades.
NOTE: Through hardening does not imply

equal hardness through all sections of the
part. See 4.6 for discussion of hardenability.
5.1.1 Annealing. Annealing consists of heating
steel or other ferrous alloys to 1475---1650_F
(802---899_C), and furnace cooling to a prescribed
temperature [generally below 600_F (316_C)].
Annealing may be the final treatment (when low
hardness requirements permit) or is typically a pretreatment applied to the cast or wrought gear blank
in the rough. It results in low hardness and provides improved machinability and dimensional stability (minimum residual stress). Typical hardness for
annealed gearing is shown in Table 4---2.
The hardness and mechanical properties

achieved from the quench and temper process are
higher than those achieved from the normalize or anneal process.
5.1.2 Normalizing. Normalizing consists of

heating steel or other ferrous alloys to 1600---1800_F
(871---982 _C) and cooling in still or circulated air.
Normalizing results in higher hardness than annealing, with hardness being a function of grade of steel
and the part section thickness. However, with plain
carbon steels containing up to about 0.4 percent carbon, normalizing does not increase hardness significantly more than annealing, regardless of section
size.
5.1.4.1 Applications. The quench and temper

process should be specified for the following conditions:
(1) When the gear application stress analysis indicates that the hardness and mechanical properties
for the specified material grade can best be achieved
by the quench and temper process.
Alloy steels are normally tempered at

1000---1250_F (538---677_C) after normalizing for
uniform hardness, dimensional stability and improved machinability.
ANSI/AGMA
(2) When the hardness and mechanical properties required for a given gear application can be
achieved more economically by quench and temper
26
2004---B89
of a lower alloy steel, than by normalizing or annealing.
with the tempering embrittlement phenomenon from tempering in a lower range

(500---600_F) often referred to as 500_F or
A---Embrittlement.
5.1.4.4 Designer Specification. The designer
should specify the following on the drawing.
(1) Grade of steel
(2) Quench and temper to a hardness range.
The hardness range should be a 4 HRC or 40 HB
point range. The designer should not specify a tempering temperature range on the drawing. It is best
to specify a hardness range and allow the heat treater
to select the tempering temperature to obtain the
specified hardness. Specifying both tempering temperatures and hardness ranges on a drawing causes
an impractical situation for the heat treater. Tempering below 900_F(482_C) should be approved by the
purchaser.
(3) Any testing required. For example, hardness
tests, or any non---destructive tests such as magnetic
particle inspection or dye penetrant inspection, including the frequency of testing.
5.1.4.5 Specified Hardness. The specified hardness of through hardened gearing is generally measured on the gear tooth end face and rim section. Historically, this has been interpreted to mean that the
specified hardness must be met at this location. Designers often interpret this to mean that minimum
hardness is to be obtained at the roots of teeth for
gear rating purposes. Since depth of hardening depends upon grade of steel (hardenability), controlling section size (refer to Appendix B) and heat treat
practice, achieving specified hardness on these surfaces may not necessarily insure hardness at the roots
of teeth. If gear root hardness is critical to a specific
design criteria, the gear tooth root hardness should
be specified. However, care should be taken to avoid
needlessly increasing material costs by changing to a
higher hardenability steel where service life has been
successful.
(3) When it is necessary to develop mechanical

properties (core properties) in sections of the part
which will not be altered by subsequent heat treatments (for example nitriding, flame hardening, induction hardening, electron beam hardening, and laser hardening).
5.1.4.2 Processing Considerations. The major
factors of the quench and temper process that influence hardness and material strength are:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Material chemistry and hardenability

Quench severity
Section size
Time at temperature
The steel carbon content determines the maximum surface hardness which can be achieved, while
the alloy composition determines the hardness gradient which can be achieved through the part. Refer
to 4.6 for more information on hardenability.
5.1.4.3 Tempering. Tempering lowers hardness
and strength, which improves ductility and toughness
or impact resistance. The tempering temperature
must be carefully selected based upon the specified
hardness range, the quenched hardness of the part,
and the material. The optimum tempering temperature is the highest temperature possible while maintaining the specified hardness range. Hardness after
tempering varies inversely with the tempering temperature used. Parts are normally air cooled from the
tempering temperature.
Tables in the appropriate reference are available
as guidelines for the effect of tempering temperature
on hardness.
CAUTION: Some steels can become brittle
and unsuitable for service if tempered in the
temperature
range
of
800---1200_F
(425---650_C). This phenomenon is called
temper brittleness and is generally considered to be caused by segregation of alloying
elements or precipitation of compounds at
ferrite and prior austenite grain boundaries.
If the part under consideration must be tempered in this range, investigate the specific
materials susceptibility to temper brittleness
and proceed accordingly. Molybdenum content of 0.25---0.50 percent has been shown to
eliminate temper brittleness in most steels.
Temper brittleness should not be confused
ANSI/AGMA
5.1.4.6 Maximum Controlling Section Size. The

maximum controlling section size is based upon the
hardenability of alloy steel for through hardened
gear blanks. Appendix B illustrates the controlling
section for various gear configurations whose teeth
are machined after heat treatment.
5.1.4.7 Additional Information. For more information, consult the following:
The ASM Handbook, Volume 4, Heat Treating,
8th or 9th edition.
27
2004---B89
Military specification MIL---H---6875 and Mil--STD---1684.
the gear element within the heat source (flame or induction coil) which envelopes the entire face width.
Gearing is removed from the heat source and immediately hardened by the quenchant. Shafting and
gearing can also be progressively spin hardened by
spinning the shaft or tooth section within the heat
source and following quench head. The heat source
and quench head traverse axially along the length to
be hardened.
5.1.5 Stress Relief. Stress relief is a thermal cycle

used to relieve residual stresses created by prior heat
treatments, machining, cold working, welding, or
other fabricating techniques. The ideal temperature
range for full stress relieving is 1100---1275_F
(593---691_C). Lower temperatures are sometimes
used when 1100_F (593_C) temperatures would reduce hardness below the specified minimum. Lower
temperatures with longer holding times are sometimes used.
Gearing can also be tooth to tooth, progressively

hardened by passing the flame or inductor and following quench head between the roots of teeth. Inductor or flame heads or burner may be designed either to pass in the root diameter between flanks of
adjacent teeth, to heat the root diameter and opposite flanks of adjacent teeth, or may fit or encompass
the top land to heat the top land and opposite flanks
of each tooth.
NOTE: Stress relief below 1100_F(593_C) reduces the effectiveness. Stress relief below
900_F(482_C) is not recommended.
5.1.6 Heavy Draft, Cold Drawn, Stress Relieved
Steel Bars. Heavy draft, cold drawn, stress relieved
bars may be used as an alternative to quench and
tempered steel. However, fatigue properties of this
steel may not be equivalent to quench and tempered
steel with the same tensile properties. Size limitations and mechanical properties are listed in Table
4---5. For further details see ASTM A---311.
Heat sources designed to pass between adjacent

teeth followed by quenching are desirable from both
endurance or bending strength and wear considerations, because both the flanks of teeth and root diameter are hardened. Only the non---critical top
lands of teeth are not hardened. An inductor or
flame head which encompasses only top lands of
teeth and adjacent flanks followed by quenching provide wear resistance to the flanks, but endurance or
bending strength in the roots is not enhanced. Residual tensile stress in the roots of teeth may also prove
detrimental. It is, therefore, recommended that both
the designer and heat treater know what type of
hardening pattern is desired.
5.2 Flame and Induction Hardening. Flame or induction hardening of gearing involves heating of gear
teeth to 1450---1600_F(788---871_C) followed by
quench and tempering. An oxyfuel burner is used for
flame hardening. An encircling coil or tooth by tooth
inductor is used for induction hardening. These processes develop a hard wear resistant case on the gear
teeth. When only the surface is heated to the required depth, only the surface is hardened during
quenching (see Figs 5---1 and 5---2). Material selection and heat treat condition prior to flame or induction hardening significantly affects the hardness and
uniformity of properties which can be obtained.
Gearing may also be tooth to tooth, progressively hardened by passing the inductor between the
roots of adjacent teeth, while the gear element is submerged in a synthetic quench (termed Delapena
Process). This process, like other tooth to tooth
hardening techniques, is time consuming and is not
economical for small, finer pitch gearing (finer than
10 DP). Spin hardening is more economical for
smaller gears.
5.2.1 Methods of Flame and Induction Hardening. Both of these methods of surface hardening can
be done by spin hardening, or by tooth to tooth hardening.
Spin hardening of gearing involves heating all of
the teeth across the face simultaneously by spinning
ANSI/AGMA
28
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SPIN FLANK FLAME HARDENING

FLAME HEAD
FLAME HEAD
FROM THIS
TO THIS
FLANK FLAME HARDENING
FLAME HEAD
FLAME HEAD
FROM THIS
TO THIS
FLANK AND ROOT FLAME HARDENING

FLAME HEAD
FLAME HEAD
FROM THIS
TO THIS
FLAME HEAD
FLAME HEAD
FROM THIS
TO THIS
THE HARDENING PATTERNS SHOWN ARE NOT POSSIBLE FOR ALL SIZES AND DIAMETRAL
PITCHES OF GEARING, AND ARE DEPENDENT UPON THE CAPACITY OF THE EQUIPMENT.
Fig 5---1 Variation in Hardening Patterns Obtainable on Gear Teeth by

Flame Hardening
ANSI/AGMA
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SPIN HARDENING
INDUCTION COIL
OR FLAME HEAD
INDUCTION COIL
OR FLAME HEAD
FLANK HARDENING
INDUCTOR OR FLAME HEAD
FLANK AND ROOT HARDENING

Fig 5---2 Variations in Hardening Patterns Obtainable on Gear Teeth by

Induction Hardening
ANSI/AGMA
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Three basic gases are used for flame heating,

which include MAPP, acetylene and propane. These
gases are each mixed with air in particular ratios and
are burned under pressure to generate the flame
which the burner directs on the work piece.
used in place of more costly nitriding which cannot

economically generate some of the deeper cases required.
Contour induction is preferred over flame when
root hardness and closer control of case depth is required. Contour flame hardening of the flanks and
roots is not generally available. The general application of flame hardening is to the flanks only, except
when spin flame hardening is applied. The spin flame
process generally hardens below the roots, but hardens teeth through the entire cross section, reducing
core ductility of teeth and increasing distortion (see
Fig 5---2).
Simple torch type flame heads are also used to

manually harden teeth. Since there is no automatic
control of this process, high operator skill is required.
Induction hardening employs a wide variety of
inductors ranging from coiled copper tubing to forms
machined from solid copper combined with laminated materials to achieve the required induced electrical currents.
If high root hardness is not required, flame hardening is more available and more economical than induction hardening for herringbone and spiral bevel
gearing.
NOTE: AGMA quality level will be reduced
approximately one level (from the green
condition) after flame or induction hardening
unless subsequent finishing is performed.
Coarser pitch teeth generally require inductors

powered by medium frequency motor generator sets
or solid state units. Finer pitch gearing generally utilizes encircling coils with power provided by high frequency vacuum tube units.
Wide faced gearing is heated by scanning type
equipment while more limited areas can be heated by
stationary inductors. Parts are rotated when encircling coils are used.
Quenching after flame or induction heating can

be integral with the heat source by use of a separate
following spray, or separate by using an immersion
quench tank. Oil, water or polymer solutions can be
used, in addition to air, depending upon hardenability of the steel and hardening requirements.
5.2.3 Material. A wide variety of materials can

be flame or induction hardened, including (cast and
wrought) carbon and alloy steels, martensitic stainless steels, ductile, malleable and gray cast irons.
Generally, steels with carbon content of approximately 0.35---0.55 percent are suitable for flame or
induction hardening. Alloy steels of 0.5 percent carbon or higher are susceptible to cracking. The higher
the alloy content with high carbon, the greater the
tendency for cracking. Cast irons also have a high
tendency for cracking.
Selection of the material condition of the gearing can affect the magnitude and repeatability of
flame and induction hardening. Hot rolled material
exhibits more dimensional change and variation than
hot rolled, cold drawn material because of densification from cold working. A quench and tempered material condition or preheat treatment, however, provides the best hardening response and most repeatable distortion.
5.2.2 Application. Flame and induction hardening have been used successfully on most gear types;
e.g., spur, helical, bevel, herringbone, etc. These
processes are used when gear teeth require high surface hardness, but size or configuration does not lend
itself to carburizing and quenching the entire part.
These processes may also be used when the maximum contact and bending strength achieved by carburizing is not required. These processes are also
5.2.4 Prior Heat Treatment. For more consistent

results, it is recommended that coarser pitched gears
of leaner alloy steels receive a quench and temper
pretreatment; for example, 4140 steel with teeth
coarser than 3 DP.
In both carbon and alloy steels, normalized or
annealed structures can be hardened. These structures do, however, require longer heating cycles and
a more severe quench which increase the chance of
Induction heating depth and pattern are controlled by frequency, power density, shape of the inductor, workpiece geometry and workpiece area being heated.
Contour or profile hardened tooth patterns for
4---12 D.P. gearing can be obtained by dual frequency
spin coil induction heating using both low (audio)
frequency (AF) of 1---15 kHz and higher (radio) frequency (RF) of approximately 350---500 kHz. Initially low audio frequency is used to preheat the root
area, followed by high radio frequency to develop the
profile heated pattern, followed by quenching.
ANSI/AGMA
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cracking. The annealed structure is the least receptive to flame or induction hardening.
5.2.6 Process Considerations. Several areas

must be considered when processing. Some of the
more critical requirements are outlined below.
Successful induction hardening of either gray or

ductile cast iron is dependent on the amount of carbon in the matrix. The combined carbon in pearlite
will readily dissolve at the austenitizing temperature.
Pearlite microstructures are desirable. Pearlite promoting alloy additions such as copper, tin, nickel or
molybdenum may be necessary to form this microstructure.
5.2.6.1 Repeatability. Repeatable process control is essential for acceptable results. With induction, this is usually not a problem with properly maintained equipment since electrical power characteristics, inductor movement and integral quench intensity can be readily controlled.
Repeatabiltiy becomes more difficult with flame
hardening. Equipment varies from hand held
torches to tailor made machine tools with well controlled movement of burner heads. Equipment must
be such that heating rates across the burner face are
consistent from cycle to cycle. Gas pressure and mixing of heating gases must be uniform. Burner head
location must be precise from cycle to cycle.
5.2.5 Hardening Patterns. There are two basic

methods of flame or induction hardening gears, spin
hardening and tooth to tooth hardening. See Figs
5---1 and 5---2 for variations of these processes and
the resultant hardening patterns.
The hardening patterns shown are not possible
for all sizes and diametral pitches. For coarser
pitches, requirements should be worked out with the
supplier. For induction hardening, the kW or power
capacity of the equipment limits the pattern which
can be attained. Root flame hardening by the tooth
by tooth process is difficult and should be specified
with care.
5.2.6.2 Heating with Flame or Induction. Accurate heating to the proper surface temperature is a
critical step. Burner or inductor design, heat input
and cycle time must be closely controlled. Underheating results in less than specified hardness and
case depth. Overheating can result in cracking.
Flame hardening may also cause burning or melting
of tooth surfaces.
The induction coil method is generally limited to

gears of approximately 5 DP and finer. The maximum diameter and face width of gears capable of being single shot induction coil hardened is determined
by the area of the outside diameter and the kW capacity of the equipment. Long slender parts can be
induction hardened with lower kW capacity equipment by having the coils scan the length of the part
while the part is rotating in the coil.
5.2.6.3 Quenching. Heat must be removed

quickly and uniformly to obtain desired hardness.
The quenchant should produce acceptable as
quenched hardness, yet minimize cracking. Quenchants used are: water, soluble oil, polymer, oil and
air.
Parts heated in an induction coil are usually
quenched in an integral quench ring or in an agitated
quench media. When the part is scanned while rotating in a coil, a spray quench usually follows behind
the coil.
Flank or root and flank induction scan hardening (contour) can be applied to almost any tooth size
with appropriate supporting equipment and kW capacity. However, for pitches of approximately 16 DP
and finer, these methods are not recommended. Spin
hardening in an induction coil is recommended. Spin
hardening of finer pitches is also required when using
flame burners.
Flank hardened teeth usually have an integral

quench following the inductor, or the gear is submerged in liquid during heating.
Quench time and temperature are critical and
in---spray quenching, pressure velocity and direction
of the quench media must be considered. When
localized or air quenching is used, a coolant is used
on a portion of the metal away from the heating zone
to maintain the base metal near ambient temperature so the part mass can absorb heat from the heated
zone.
The allowable durability and root strength rating

for the different hardening patterns should be obtained from appropriate AGMA rating practices.
These bending strength ratings are lower at the roots
of teeth when only the tooth flanks are hardened.
ANSI/AGMA
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5.2.6.4 Tempering. Tempering is mandatory only

when specified. However, for particular processes,
judgment should be exercised before omitting tempering. It is good practice to temper after quenching
to increase toughness and reduce residual stress and
crack susceptibility. Tempering should be for a sufficient time to insure that hardened teeth reach the
specified tempering temperature. Flame hardened
parts which are air quenched are self tempered, and
separate tempering is unnecessary.
depth does not apply. When root is also to be hardened, depth of case at the root may be specified.
5.2.7 Rating Considerations. Designers should be
aware that AGMA decreases load ratings for gears
which do not have hardened roots. AGMA gear rating standards should be consulted for appropriate
stress numbers.
5.2.7.1 Heat Affected Zone. In flame hardening, the
heat affected zone (HAZ) is a region that is heated to
1300---1400_F, (704_C---760_C) but does not get
hardened and thus has lower strength. This zone
should be located either a minimum of 1/8 inch up the
flank from the critical root fillet or well below the
root diameter.
5.2.6.5 Surface Hardness. Surface hardness is

the hardness measured on the immediate surface
and is primarily a function of the carbon content (see
Fig 5---3). Hardness may be lower as a result of prior
heat treatment, alloy content, depth of hardening,
heating time, mass and quenching considerations.
Contour induction hardening results in case

depth at the root to be approximately 60 percent of
the depth at the pitchline due to mass quench and
hardenabiltiy effect. Profile hardening of fine
pitched gearing using a submerged quench decreases
the difference between pitchline and root case
depth.
5.2.6.6 Effective Case Depth. Effective case

depth for flame and induction hardened gears is normally defined as the distance below the surface at the
0.5 tooth height where hardness drops 10 HRC
points below the surface hardness (see Fig 5---3).
When a tooth is through hardened, effective case
60
MAXIMUM SURFACE HARDNESS
50
H= 10
EFFECTIVE CASE DEPTH HARDNESS
40
30
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
CARBON CONTENT --- PERCENT
0.80
0.70
Fig 5---3 Recommended Maximum Surface Hardness and Effective Case Depth
Hardness Versus Percent Carbon for Flame and Induction Hardening
ANSI/AGMA
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2004---B89
(3) Results of magnetic particle inspection, if

required.
5.2.7.2 Case Depth Evaluation (Hardness Pattern). Although it is not always practical, particularly
on larger gearing, the only positive way to check case
depth is by sectioning an actual part. For tooth by
tooth hardening, a segment of a gear can be hardened and sectioned. Case depth should be determined on a normal tooth section, using an appropriate superficial or micro---hardness tester. When a
gear cannot be sectioned, hardness pattern and
depth can be checked by polishing end faces of teeth
and nitric acid etching. Grit blasting is also occasionally used. Hardness can also be checked on end faces
at flank and root areas.
5.3 Carburizing. Gas carburizing consists of heating

and holding low carbon alloy steel (0.07---0.28 percent
Carbon) at
normally
1650---1800_F
(899---982_C) in a controlled atmosphere which
causes additional carbon to diffuse into the steel
(typically 0.70---1.10 percent carbon at the surface).
Gear blanks to be carburized and hardened are
generally preheated after the initial anneal by a subcritical anneal at 1100_F---1250_F (590---675_C),
normalize, normalize and temper or quench and
temper to specified hardness before carburize hardening. This is done for machinability, dimensional
stability and possible grain refinement considerations. An intermediate stress relief before final machining before carburizing may be used to remove residual stress from rough machining.
NOTE: During tooth by tooth induction

hardening, power is lowered and travel is
sometimes increased as the inductor approaches the end faces. This is to prevent
edge burning and cracking. In these
instances, hardness may be lower at the ends,
particularly at the root area. In this case, existence of a hardness pattern can be demonstrated by acid etching, but actual depth cannot be accurately measured.
After carburizing for the appropriate time, gearing will usually be cooled to 1475---1550_F
(802---843_C), held at temperature to stabilize while
maintaining the carbon potential, and direct
quenched. Gearing may be atmosphere cooled after
carburizing to below approximately 600_F (315_C)
and then reheated in controlled atmosphere to
1475---1550_F (802---843_C) and quenched. After
quenching, gearing is usually tempered at
300---375_F (149---191_C). Gearing may be subsequently given a refrigeration treatment to transform
retained austenite and retempered.
5.2.8 Specifications. The drawing, order, or written specification should include the following information:
(1) Chemical analysis range of the material or
designation.
(2) Prior heat treatment.
(3) Hardening pattern required.
(4) Minimum surface hardness required.
(Maximums may be specified for induction hardened parts).
(5) Those areas where the surface hardness is to
be measured and the frequency of inspection.
(6) Depth of hardening required and the location(s) at which the depth is to be obtained.
(7) Whether destructive tests are to be used for
determining the depth of hardening and the frequency of such inspection.
(8) Tempering temperature, if required.
(9) Magnetic particle inspection, if required.
5.3.1 Applications. Carburized and hardened

gearing is used when optimum properties are required. High surface hardness, high case strength, favorable compressive residual stress in the hardened
case, and suitable core properties based on selection
of the appropriate carburizing grade of steel, result
in the highest AGMA gear tooth ratings for contact
stress, pitting resistance and root strength (bending).
Carburized gear ratings are higher than the ratings
for through hardened and other types of surface
hardened gearing because of higher fatigue strength.
Improved load distribution can be obtained by subsequent hard gear finishing. Conventional hard gear
finishing (skiving and grinding) results in some sacrifice of beneficial compressive stress at the surface
and substantially increases costs.
5.2.9 Documentation. The heat treater should

submit the following information:
(1) Surface hardness range obtained and the
number of pieces inspected.
Carburized gearing is used in enclosed gear units

for general industrial use, high speed and aerospace
precision gear units and also large open gearing for
mill applications. Carburized gearing is also used for
(2) Depth of hardening obtained at each location specified when destructive tests are required,
and the number of pieces inspected.
ANSI/AGMA
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improved wear resistance. Specified finish operations after hardening depend upon accuracy and contact requirements for all applications.
carburized helical and spur gearing to 4 1/2 DP. The

test bar should have minimum dimensions of 5/8 inch
(16 mm) diameter by 2 inch (50 mm) long. One inch
(25 mm) diameter 2.0 inch (50 mm) long bar may
be used for coarser pitch carburized gearing to 1.5
DP. The size of the bar for coarser than 1.5 DP gearing should be mutually agreed upon, and should
approximate the inscribed diameter at mid height of
the tooth cross section. The bar length should be
2---3 times the diameter.
When specified, core hardness and core microstructure can be determined at the center of the
round bar size shown in Table 5---1 according to diametral pitch.
Carburizing technology is well established and

the available equipment and controls make it a reliable process. Surface hardness, case depth, and core
hardness can be specified to reasonably close tolerances, and the quality can be audited.
Some gearing does not lend itself to carburize
hardening because of distortion. Gearing which distorts and cannot be straightened without cracking,
rack gears, thin sections, complex shapes, parts not
designed for finishing or where finishing is cost prohibitive, present manufacturing problems. Press
quenching after carburizing can be used to minimize
distortion. Selected areas of gearing can be protected from carburizing (masked) to permit machining after hardening, or can be machined after carburizing and slow cooling before hardening.
Table 5---1
Test Bar Size for Core Hardness
Determination
Gearing beyond 80 inch (2032 mm) diameter is

difficult to carburize due to the limited number of
available furnaces for processing. Maximum size of
carburize gearing is currently in the 120 inch (3048
mm) diameter range. Most of this large gearing requires tooth finishing (skiving and/or grinding) after
carburizing and hardening.
5.3.2 Materials. Material selection is an integral
part of the design process. Selection should be made
on the basis of material hardness and hardenability,
chemistry, cleanliness, performance, and economical
considerations. Performance criteria include, but are
not limited to, the following: toughness, notch sensitivity, fatigue strength, bending strength, pitting
wear resistance, and operational characteristics.
Reference should be made to Table 4---1 for a list of
typical carburizing materials and Appendix C for
case hardenability considerations.
BAR SIZE
4 1/2 DP
and finer
1.25 inch (32.0 mm)

D. 3.0 inch
(76 mm) long
2 1/2 DP
to less than
4 1/2 DP
2.25 inch (57 mm)

D. 5.0 inch
(130 mm) long
1 1/2 DP
to less than
2 1/2 DP
3.0 inch (76 mm)

D. 7.0 inch
(180 mm) long
1 1/2 DP
and coarser
3.5 inch (89 mm)

D. 8.0 inch
(205 mm) long
Test discs or plates may also be used whose minimum thickness is 70 percent of the appropriate test
bar diameter. The minimum inscribed diameter on a
test disc (or plate dimensions) should be a minimum
of three times its thickness.
The recommended test bar diameter for bevel
gearing is to be approximately equal to the inscribed
diameter of the normal tooth thickness at mid face
width.
5.3.3 Control With Test Bars. Test bars are used

to show that the case properties and, when required,
core properties meet specifications. Test bars should
be of the same steel type as the gear(s), but not necessarily the same heat. Bars should accompany gearing
through all heat treatments, including all post hardening treatments. Consideration should be given to
evaluation of that portion of the case that is not removed during tooth finishing.
When disagreement exists as to the properties

obtained on the test bar and the parts, an actual part
may be sectioned for analysis.
5.3.3.1 Case Hardness. Case hardness should be
measured with microhardness testers which produce
small shallow impressions, in order that the hardness
values obtained are representative of the surfaces or
area being tested. Those testers which produce Diamond Pyramid or Knoop hardness numbers (500
gram load) are recommended. When measuring di-
A section, with a ground and polished surface

(normal, at mid length of a test bar), is considered
satisfactory for determining effective case depth of
ANSI/AGMA
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35
2004---B89
rectly on the surface of a case hardened part or test

bar, superficial or standard Rockwell A or C scale
may be used. Other instruments such as Scleroscope
or Equotip are also used when penetration hardness
testers can not be used. Consideration must be given
to the case depth relative to the depth of the impression made by the tester.
(0.13 mm) is used. Care should also be exercised in

establishing the perpendicular to the mid tooth point
when starting the traverse. Effective case depth at
roots are typically 50---70 percent of mid tooth height
case depths, and tips may be 150 percent of mid tooth
height case depths.
NOTE: See definition of case depth of carburized components, Section 3.
Low readings can be obtained when the indentor

penetrates entirely or partially through the case.
Microhardness tests for surface hardness should
be made on a mounted and polished cross---section at
a depth of 0.002 to 0.004 inch (.05 to .10 mm) below
the surface. Care must be taken during grinding and
polishing not to round the edge being inspected and
not to temper or burn the ground surface.
When steels of high hardenability such as 4320,

4327, 8627, 4820, 9310, and 3310 are used for fine
pitches, the high through hardening characteristics
of the steel may prevent obtaining a hardness less
than 50 HRC across the tooth section. The case
depth should then be determined in the following
manner: Measure the base material hardness at mid
tooth height at the mid face. For each one HRC point
above 45 HRC, one HRC point should be added to
the 50 HRC effective case depth criterion (example,
core hardness equals 47 HRC, effective case depth
should be measured at 52 HRC). Case depth in these
instances may also be measured on a test bar, if bar
size has been previously correlated to the gear tooth
section (refer to 5.3.3).
NOTE: Direct surface hardness readings

(ASTM E18---79) or file checks at the tooth
tip or flank will generally confirm the case
hardness. However, if secondary transformation products are present below the first several thousandths of the case, direct surface
checks will not necessarily indicate their presence. Microhardness inspection 0.002 to 0.004
inch (.05 to .10 mm) from the edge on a polished cross section of the tooth is more accurate. This type of inspection may be necessary
for accurate micro---hardness readings near
the surface.
NOTE: Through carburized fine pitch teeth

have several disadvantages. Favorable compressive surface stresses are lowered. Excessive tooth distortion and a loss of core ductility can also occur. Parts of this type should be
carefully reviewed for case depth specifications and for use of lower hardenability steels
such as 4620 and 8620.
5.3.3.2 Core Hardness. When required, core

hardness may be determined by any hardness tester,
giving consideration to the size of the specimen as
discussed in 5.3.3.
5.3.3.4 Case Carbon Content. Surface carbon

content may be determined from a round test bar by
taking turnings to a depth of 0.005 inch (0.13 mm).
Spectrographic techniques have also been developed
for this purpose. Carbon gradient can also be determined on the bar by machining chips at 0.002 to
0.010 inch (0.05 to 0.25 mm) increments through the
case, depending on accuracy desired and depth of
case. Grinding in steps through the case would be
used with spectrographic techniques.
Test specimens should be carburized with the
parts. Care should be exercised to maintain surface
integrity during cooling or in tempering for subsequent machining. Bar should be straightened to within 0.0015 inch (0.038 mm) (TIR) before machining.
Test specimens must be clean and machined dry.
Care must be taken to ensure that the turnings are
NOTES: See definition of core hardness,

Section 3.
Occasionally banding, which results from
the steel melting practice, can cause variations in core hardness during testing with a microhardness tester. These variations should
not fall below the minimum, when core hardness is specified.
5.3.3.3 Case Depth --- Effective. The procedures
used to prepare the cross sectioned specimen for
case hardness (refer to 5.3.3) should be used to prepare the specimen for case depth evaluation. The microhardness traverse should be started 0.002 to 0.004
inch (.05 to .10 mm) below the surface and extend to
at least 0.01 inch (.25 mm) beyond the depth at which
50 HRC is obtained. Usually an interval of 0.005 inch
ANSI/AGMA
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free of any extraneous carbonaceous materials prior

to analysis.
continuous atmosphere control is preferred, but other approved methods may be used.
5.3.3.5 Microstructure. The microstructure may

be determined on a central normal section of the test
bar or tooth, preferably mounted, after being properly polished and etched.
(3) Subzero Treatment (Retained Austenite

Conversion Treatment). When the surface hardness
is low due to excessive retained austenite in the case
microstructure, it may be necessary to refrigerate the
parts to transform the retained austenite to martensite. The refrigeration treatment may vary from 20_F
(---7_C) to ---120_F (---84_C). To minimize microcracking, parts should be tempered before and after
refrigeration.
Microstructure will vary with the core hardness

as related to steel hardenability, section size and
quench severity.
5.3.4 Specifications. To aid in obtaining the
above characteristics, the heat treater should be given the following as a minimum:
NOTE: Caution should be exercised in the

use of refrigeration treatment on critical
gearing. Microcracks can result which can
reduce fatigue strength to a moderate degree. Use of refrigeration may require
agreement between the customer and supplier.
(1) Material.
(2) Case depth range (refer to Table 5---2).
(3) Surface hardness range.
When additional characteristics are required,
the following additional items may be specified in
whole or part:
(4) Carbide Control. When high surface carbon

results in a heavy continuous carbide network in the
outer portion of the case, parts should be reheated to
typically 1650_F(900_C)in a lower carbon potential
atmosphere, typically 0.60 percent carbon, to diffuse
and break up the excess carbide. Carbide networks
should be avoided whenever possible as they tend to
reduce fatigue strength of the material.
(5) Decarburization. Surface decarburization as
defined for carburized gearing is a reduction in the
surface carbon in the outer 0.005 inch (.13 mm) below the specified minimum. This is characterized by
an increase in carbon content with increasing depth;
for example, when the peak carbon content is subsurface.
(1) Core hardness. Approximate minimum

tooth core hardness, which can be obtained from
some typical carburizing grades of steel and good agitated oil quenching, are shown in Table 5---3.
(2) Core microstructure.
(3) Case microstructure.
(4) Surface carbon content.
(5) Subzero treatment.
(6) Areas to be free of carburizing by appropriate masking by copper plating or use of commercial
stop---off compounds.
5.3.5 Carburizing Process Control. Precision
carburizing requires close control of many factors including:
Gross decarburization can be readily detected

microscopically as a lighter shade of martensite and
clearly defined ferrite grains. Hardness in this area
will be substantially lower.
(1) Temperature Control. Furnace equipment

with temperature uniformity, close temperature control, and accuracy of temperature recording and control instruments. Controls should be checked and
calibrated at regular intervals.
Partial decarburization will result in a lighter

shade of martensite, but may not show discernible
ferrite. It will result in reduced hardness if the carbon content falls below approximately 0.60 percent.
(2) Atmosphere Control. Furnaces should be capable of maintaining a carburizing atmosphere with
controllable carbon potential. Instrumentation for
ANSI/AGMA
37
2004---B89
Table 5---2
Typical Effective Case Depth Specifications for Carburized Gearing
Normal
Diametral
1
Pitch
Normal
Tooth 2
Thickness
16
14
12
10
8
7
6
5
4
3.5
3.0
2.75
2.5
2.25
2.0
1.75
1.5
1.25
1.0
0.75
0.098
0.112
0.131
0.157
0.198
0.224
0.251
0.314
0.393
0.449
0.523
0.571
0.628
0.698
0.785
0.897
1.047
1.256
1.570
2.094
Range of
Normal
Diametral
Pitch
17.5 --- 13.7
17.5 --- 13.7
13.7 --- 10.5
10.5 --- 8.5
8.5 --- 7.5
7.5 --- 6.5
6.5 --- 5.2
5.2 --- 4.3
4.3 --- 3.7
3.7 --- 3.1
3.1 --- 2.8
2.8 --- 2.6
2.6 --- 2.3
2.3 --- 2.2
2.2 --- 1.9
1.9 --- 1.6
1.6 --- 1.3
1.3 --- 1.1
1.1 & less
1.1 & less
Range of
Normal
Circular
Pitch
0.180 --- 0.230
0.180 --- 2.300
0.230 --- 0.300
0.300 --- 0.370
0.370 --- 0.480
0.370 --- 0.480
0.480 --- 0.600
0.600 --- 0.728
0.728 --- 0.860
0.860 --- 1.028
1.026 --- 1.200
1.026 --- 1.200
1.200 --- 1.400
1.200 --- 1.400
1.428 --- 1.676
1.676 --- 1.976
1.976 --- 2.400
2.400 --- 2.828
2.828 & more
2.325 & more
Effective Case Depth (inches) to RC 50

Spur, Helical
Bevel & Mitre 6
0.010
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.025
0.025
0.030
0.040
0.050
0.060
0.070
0.070
0.080
0.080
0.090
0.105
0.120
0.145
0.170
0.170
-----------------------------------------
0.020
0.020
0.025
0.030
0.040
0.040
0.050
0.060
0.070
0.080
0.090
0.090
0.105
0.105
0.125
0.140
0.155
0.180
0.205
0.205
3, ,4 5
Worms with
Ground 7
Threads
0.020 --- 0.030
0.020 --- 0.030
0.025 --- 0.040
0.035 --- 0.050
0.040 --- 0.055
0.040 --- 0.055
0.045 --- 0.060
0.045 --- 0.060
0.045 --- 0.060
0.060 --- 0.075
0.075 --- 0.090
0.075 --- 0.090
0.075 --- 0.090
0.075 --- 0.090
0.075 --- 0.090
0.075 --- 0.090
0.075 --- 0.090
0.075 --- 0.090
0.075 --- 0.090
0.075 --- 0.090
1 All case depths are based on normal diametral pitch. All other pitch measurements should be
converted before specifying a case depth.
2 Gears with thin top lands may be subject to excessive case depth at the tips. Land width should be
calculated before a case is specified.
3 Case at root is typically 50---70 percent of case at mid tooth.
4 The case depth for bevel and mitre gears is calculated from the thickness of the tooths small end.
5 For gearing requiring maximum performance, detailed studies must be made of the application,
loading and manufacturing procedures to determine the required effective case depth. For further
details refer to AGMA 2001---B88.
6 To convert above data to metric, multiply values given by 25.4 to determine mm equivalent.
7 Worm and ground---thread case depths allow for grinding. Un---ground worm gear cases may be
decreased accordingly. For very heavily loaded coarse pitch ground thread worms, heavier case depth
than shown in table may be required.
5.4 Carbonitriding. The purpose of this Section is to
establish methods for specifying carbonitrided gearing. Information in 5.3 on carburizing will generally
apply to carbonitriding, with noted exceptions.
Typically carbonitriding is carried out at lower
temperatures, 1550---1650_F (843---899_C), and for
shorter times than gas carburizing. Shallower case
depths are generally specified for carbonitriding
than is usual for production carburizing. Its effect on
steel is similar to liquid cyaniding and has replaced
cyaniding because of cyanide disposal problems.
ANSI/AGMA
Normally 2.5 to 5 percent anhydrous ammonia is

added to the carburizing atmosphere when carbonitriding. Specified case depths are usually from 0.003
to 0.030 inch (0.076 to 0.76 mm) maximum.
5.4.1 Applications (Advantages and Limitations). Use of carbonitriding is more restricted than
carburizing. It is limited to shallower cases for finer
pitch gearing since the process must be conducted at
lower temperatures than carburizing. Deep case
depths require prohibitive time cycles. One of the
38
2004---B89
spection of nitrided gearing. This section covers the

selection and processing of materials, hardnesses obtainable, and definitions and inspection of depth of
hardening.
advantages of carbonitriding is better case hardenability in lower alloy or plain carbon steels. The carbonitrided case has better wear and temper resistance than a straight carburized case. Carbonitriding
can be used to minimize distortion in finer pitch
gearing because lower austenitizing and quenching
temperatures can be used along with less severe
quench techniques and still achieve hardness. These
facts, along with lower alloy steels, result in the lower
core hardness mentioned previously, thus reducing
tooth growth and distortion. However, if higher core
hardness and deeper case depths are required for
bending resistance, carbonitriding may not be applicable.
Conventional gas nitride hardening of gearing,

which has had a quench and temper pretreatment
and is usually finish machined, involves heating and
holding at a temperature between 950---1060_F
(510---571_C) in a controlled cracked ammonia atmosphere (10 to 30 percent dissociation). Nitride
hardening can also be achieved with the ion nitriding
process. During nitriding, nitrogen atoms are absorbed into the surface to form hard iron and alloy nitrides. The practical limit on case depth is about
0.040 inch (1.0 mm) maximum, which requires a thorough stress analysis (for other than wear applications) of the effectiveness of the case for coarse pitch
gearing.
Table 5---3
Approximate Minimum Core Hardness of
Carburized Gear Teeth
Grade
Hardness HRC Minimum

Pitch 2---3
3316
9315
3310
9310
4820
8822
4320
8620
4620
1020
34
32
31
28
27
25
23
18
-----
5---6
7 & UP
36
34
33
31
33
30
27
24
18
14
37
36
35
33
35
32
30
26
22
16
38
37
36
34
36
34
33
28
25
18
NOTE: The above processes (5.4 and 5.5)

should not be confused with aerated salt
bath nitriding or nitrocarburizing in which
nitrogen is absorbed into the steel surface at
approximately 1060_F(570_C) for short
cycles of 2.5 to 4.0 hours in an aerated salt
bath or atmosphere. These processes result
in a wear resistant surface layer of 0.001 inch
(0.025 mm) or less, with a nitrogen compound layer to a depth of 0.015---0.020 inch
(0.38---0.50 mm) which enhances fatigue
strength.
1 Depending upon the Jominy curve of the

particular material, maximum hardness will
typically be 8---10 points higher than the
minimums listed. Use of H band steel is the
normal method of hardenability control.
5.5.1 Applications. Nitrided gears are used

when gear geometry and tolerances do not lend
themselves to other case hardening methods because
of distortion, and when through hardened gears do
not provide sufficient wear and pitting resistance.
Nitrided gears are used on applications where thin,
high hardness cases can withstand applied loads. Nitrided gears should not be specified if shock loading
is present, due to inherent brittleness of the case.
5.4.2 Materials. Typically carbon and low alloy

steels such as 1018, 1022, 1117, 4022, 4118 and 8620
steels are used for carbonitriding.
5.4.3 Specification and Inspection. Case depth,
microstructure, hardness, etc. for carbonitrided
parts can all be specified and evaluated as prescribed
in the section for carburized gearing. Case depth is
specified and measured as effective or total, depending upon application. Cases shallower than 0.010
inch (0.25 mm) are generally specified as total case
depth. The advantages and limitations as described
herein should be fully understood before specifying
carbonitriding for industrial gearing.
5.5.2 Materials. Steels containing chromium,

vanadium, aluminum, and molybdenum, either singularly or in combination, are required in order to
form stable nitrides at the nitriding temperature.
Typical steels suitable for nitriding are 4140,
4150, 4340, the Nitralloy grades, and steels with chromium contents of 1.00 to 3.00 percent. Aluminum
containing grades such as Nitralloy 135 and Nitralloy
N will develop higher case hardness.
5.5.3 Pre--- treatments. Parts to be nitrided must
be quenched and tempered to produce the essential-
5.5 Nitriding. The purpose of this section is to

provide information, means of specifying, and inANSI/AGMA
39
2004---B89
ly tempered martensitic microstructure required for

case diffusion. Microstructure must be free of primary ferrite, such as is produced by annealing and
normalizing, which produces a brittle case prone to
spalling. The nitriding process will cause a slight uniform increase in size. However, residual stresses
from quench and tempering may be relieved at the
nitriding temperature, causing distortion. This
should be avoided by tempering at approximately
50_F (28_C) minimum above the intended nitrided
temperature after quenching. In order to minimize
distortion of certain gearing designs, intermediate
stress relieving after rough machining at 25---50_F
(14---28_C) below the tempering temperature may
also be required prior to finish machining to relieve
machining stresses before nitriding.
part by dimensional analyses both prior to and after

nitriding.
5.5.4 Nitriding Process Procedures. Variables in
the nitriding process are the combined effects of surface condition, degree of ammonia dissociation,
temperature, and time of nitriding. Nitrogen adsorption in the steel surface is affected by oxide and surface contamination. In order to guarantee nitrogen
adsorption it may be necessary to remove surface oxidation by chemical or mechanical means.
The nitriding process affects the rate of nitrogen
adsorption and the thickness of the resultant brittle
white layer on the surface.
A two stage nitriding process (two temperatures
with increased percent of ammonia dissociation at
the second higher temperature) generally reduces
the thickness of the white layer to 0.0005---0.001 inch
(0.013---0.026 mm) maximum. The white layer thickness is also dependent upon the analysis of steel.
In alloys such as series 4140 and 4340 steels, nitrided hardness is lessened appreciably by decreased
core hardness prior to nitriding. This must be considered when selecting tempering or stress relieving
temperatures.
The ion nitride process uses ionized nitrogen gas

to effect nitrogen penetration of the surface by ion
bombardment. The process can provide flexibility in
determining the type of compound produced. The
process can also be tailored to better control nitriding of geometric problems, such as blind holes and
small orifices.
If distortion control is very critical, the newer ion

nitriding process should be considered. Nitriding
can be accomplished at lower temperatures with ion
nitriding than those used for conventional gas nitriding.
5.5.5 Specific Characteristics of Nitrided Gearing. Nitriding does not lend itself to every gear application. The nitride process is restricted by and specified by case depth, surface hardness, core hardness
and material selection constraints.
Nitriding over decarburized steel causes a brittle

case which may spall under load. Therefore, nitrided
surfaces subject to stress should be free of decarburization.
Sharp corners or edges become brittle when nitrided and should be removed to prevent possible
chipping during handling and service.
5.5.5.1 Material Selection. Selection of the

grade of steel is limited to those alloys that contain
metal elements that form hard nitrides as discussed
in 5.5.2.
Where it is desired to selectively nitride a part,

the surfaces to be protected from nitriding can be
plated with dense copper 0.0007 inch (0.018 mm)
minimum thickness, tin plate 0.0003 to 0.005 inch
(0.008 to 0.13 mm) thick, or by coating with proprietary paints specifically designed for this purpose.
5.5.5.2 Core Hardness. Core hardness obtained

in the quench and temper pretreatment must provide sufficient strength to support the case under
load and tooth bending and rim stresses. Core hardness requirements limit material selection to those
steels that can be tempered to the core hardness
range with a tempering temperature that is at least
50_F (28_C) above the nitriding temperature.
Approximate core hardness
Nitrided parts will distort in a consistent manner

when all manufacturing phases and the nitriding process are held constant. The amount and direction of
growth or movement should be determined for each
ANSI/AGMA
40
2004---B89
most specifications only specify a minimum case

depth requirement.
obtained on typical nitrided steels are as follows:

Steel Type
Minimum Surface
Hardness, HRC
4140
4150
4340
Nitralloy 135
Case depth should be determined using a microhardness tester. At least three hardness tests should
be made beyond the depth at which core hardness is
obtained to assure that the case depth has been
reached.
28
30
32
34
A test bar, for example 1/2 to 1 inch (13 to 25

mm) diameter with a length 3 the diameter, disc or
plate section, can be used for determining case depth
of nitrided parts. The test section must be of the same
specified chemical analysis range and must be processed in the same manner as the parts it represents.
5.5.5.3 Surface Hardness. Surface hardness is

limited by the concentration of hard nitride forming
elements in the alloy and the core hardness of the
gear. Lower core hardness does not support the hard,
thin case as well as higher core hardness. Lower core
hardness will result from less alloy, larger section
size, reduced quench severity and a greater degree of
martensite tempering. Lower core hardness results
in a microstructure which causes a lower surface
hardness nitrided case, since it limits the ability to
form high concentration of hard metallic nitrides.
Surface hardness will also increase with increasing
nitride case depth.
Sectioning of an actual part to determine case

depth need only be performed when the results of the
test bar are cause for rejection, or the surface hardness of the part(s) is not within 3 HRC points of the
surface hardness of the test bar.
5.5.6 Specifications. Parts which are to be nitrided
should have the following specified:
Approximate minimum surface hardness which

can be obtained on nitrided steel is shown in Table
5---4.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Material grade
Preheat treatment (see 5.5.5.2)
Minimum surface hardness
Minimum total case depth
Maximum thickness of white layer, if
required
(6) Areas to be protected from nitriding by
masking, if required
(7) Nitriding temperature
(8) Metallurgical test coupons
Table 5---4
Approximate Minimum Surface Hardness
--- Nitrided Steels
Steel Type
4140
4150
4340
Minimum Surface
Hardness
R15N
HRC!
85
48
85
48
84
46
Nitralloy (contains Al)
90
60
2 1/2 percent Chrome

(EN 40B & 40C and
31CrMoV9)@
89
58
5.6 Other Heat Treatments. Gearing may also be

heat treated by other means, including laser heat
treating and electron beam heat treating.
Both laser and electron beam surface hardening
of gears are selective in nature and are generally applied to gears smaller than those routinely hardened
by other methods. The production quantity of any
gear must be sufficient to justify the cost of capital
equipment and set---up to surface hardened by either
process, such as quantity production for the automotive industry. These processes are not available from
commercial heat treaters. Thermal energy for heating the surface to the austenitizing temperature is
supplied by either the laser (light amplification by
stimulated emission of radiation) or electron (kinetic energy of electrons) beam, while the underlying
mass provides the heat sink to quench harden the
surface. Use of electron beam heat treating for gear
1 Converted to HRC
2 British and German analyses, respectively
NOTE: Data infers a 269HB minimum core hardness.
5.5.5.4 Case Depth. The specified case depth for
nitrided gearing is determined by the surface and
sub---surface stress gradient of the design application. Surface hardness and core hardness will influence the designs minimum required case depth.
Since the diffusion of nitrogen is extremely slow,
ANSI/AGMA
41
2004---B89
por bubbles and restrict the flow of quenchant should

be avoided.
teeth is restricted, however, to full gear tooth contours, and is better suited for flat than curved surfaces. This is true because the stream of electrons
must have line of sight access to the surface to be
hardened with a beam impingement angle of at least
25 degree (25---90 degrees
impingement angle
range). Dual laser beam optics have been developed,
however, for flank and root contour surface hardening of gear teeth.
There are a variety of quenchants to choose from

such as: oil, polymer, molten salt, water, brine and
gases. Each variety is available with a wide range of
quench characteristics. Table 5---5 associates some
material grades and their normally used quenchants.
Agitation is externally produced movement of
the quenchant past the part. The degree and uniformity of agitation greatly influences its rate of heat removal. Agitation can be provided by propellers or
pumps in the quench tank or by moving the parts
through the quenchant.
Reference should be made to the ASM Metals

Handbook, 9th Edition, Volume 4 on Heat Treating
for additional information on laser and electron
beam heat treating, as well as other modifications of
heat treatments applied to gearing.
The temperature of the quenchant may affect its

ability to extract heat. Each quenchant should be
used within its appropriate range of temperature.
The temperature of a water quenchant is more critical than that of an oil.
5.7 Quenching. Quenching is the rapid cooling of

steel from a suitable elevated temperature. The
quenching process is one of the major operations
that influences the microstructure, hardness, mechanical properties and residual stress distribution,
assuming the gear has been properly heated before
the quench. The preferred microstructure after
quenching is primarily martensite.
5.8 Distortion. Distortion of gearing during heat

treatment is inevitable and varies with the hardening
process. The part design and manufacturing process
must consider movement during heat treatment. Tolerancing must consider these changes. Section size
modification may be required along with added stock
for grinding or machining after heat treatment.
The designers or heat treaters responsibility is

to select the quench variables to obtain the required
properties in the gear. The quench needs to be fast
enough to avoid secondary transformation products,
but slow enough to reduce distortion and avoid
cracking. The material hardenability will determine
how severe the quench has to be for a particular part
geometry.
5.8.1 Causes. Dimensional changes of gearing

resulting from heat treatment occur principally when
steel is quenched. These changes occur in both
quenched and tempered and surface hardened gears.
Distortion is due to mechanical and thermal stresses
and phase transformation. Process variables and design considerations have a significant effect upon the
amount of distortion. High induced stress can result
in quench cracking. Thermal processes such as
annealing, normalizing, and diffusion controlled surface hardening processes such as nitriding, which do
not require liquid quenching, result in less distortions than processes that require liquid quenching.
Quench cracks usually originate at sharp corners

or substantial section size changes. However, even
with perfectly uniform sections, parts can easily crack
if made of high---carbon, high---hardenability steels
and the quench is too severe. Delayed quench cracks
can occur hours or days after quenching, especially if
improperly tempered or stress relieved. It is good
practice to immediately temper after quenching if
quench crack problems are a concern.
5.8.2 Quenching and Tempering. Quenched and

tempered gearing changes size and distorts due to
mechanical and thermal stresses and microstructural
transformations. Quenching the structure to martensite prior to tempering results in steel growing in size.
Tempering of the hardened structure reduces the
volume, but the combined effects of quenching and
tempering still result in a volume and size increase.
The main factors which control the quench rate

are: part geometry, type of quenchant, degree of
agitation and quench temperature. The geometry
will affect how quickly and uniformly the quenchant
will circulate around the part. Pockets which trap va-
ANSI/AGMA
42
2004---B89
Table 5---5
Commonly Used Quenchants for Ferrous Gear Materials
Material Grade
Quenchant
Remarks
1020
Water or Brine
Carburized and quenched with good quench agitation.
4118
4620
8620
8822
4320
Oil
Carburized and quenched in well agitated conventional

oil at 80---160_F(27---71_C) is normally required. For
finer pitched gearing, hot oil at 275---375_F(135---190_C)
may be used to minimize distortion. Some loss in core
hardness will also result from hot oil quench.
3310
Oil
Carburized and quenched in hot oil at 275---375_F

(135---190_C). This is the preferred quench.
In larger sections, conventional oil can be used.
1045
4130
8630
Water, Oil or
Polymer
Type of quenchant depends upon chemistry and section

size. Large sections normally require water or low
concentration polymer. Smaller sections can be
processed in well agitated oil.
1141
1541
Oil or Polymer
Good response in well agitated conventional oil or

polymer. Induction or flame hardened parts normally
quenched in polymer.
4140
4142
4145
Oil or Polymer
Same as above; however, thin sections or sharp corners

can represent a crack hazard. Hot oil should be
considered in these cases. With proper equipment, air
quench can be used for flame hardened parts.
9310
These are high hardenability steels which can be crack

sensitive in moderate to thin sections. Hot oil is often
used. High concentration polymer should be used with
caution.
4150
4340
4345
4350
Oil or Polymer
Gray or
Ductile
Iron
Oil, Polymer
or Air
If conventional oil is used, parts are often removed warm

and tempered promptly after quench.
Crack sensitivity applies also to flame or induction
hardened parts with high concentration polymer being
the usual quenchant. Oil is sometimes used and air
quench can be applied for flame hardening with proper
equipment.
Quench media depends upon alloy content. High alloy
irons can be air quenched to moderate hardness levels.
Unalloyed or low alloy irons require oil or polymer.
In this section parts and flame or induction hardened
surfaces can be crack sensitive.
ANSI/AGMA
43
2004---B89
Distortion of quenched and tempered gearing

occurs generally as follows:
(1) Gears
(a) Outside and bore diameters grow larger
and go out of round.
(b) Side faces become warped, and exhibit
runout.
(2) Pinions. Pinions become bowed, with the
amount of bowing increasing with higher length/diameter ratios and smaller journal diameters; amount
of bowing or radial runout is often confined to journal diameters and shaft extensions for integral shaft
pinions.
5.8.3.1 Carburized Gearing. Distortion of carburized gearing makes it one of the least repeatable
of surface hardened processes. Lack of repeatability
is due to the greater number of variables which affect
distortion. Close control is, therefore, required. Distortion results from microstructural transformation,
and residual stress (from thermal shock, uneven
cooling, etc.) considerations. Transformation in the
case results in growth which sets up residual surface
compressive stress. This stress is balanced by corresponding residual tensile stress beneath the case.
Principal variables affecting the amount of
growth, distortion, and residual stress include:
(1) Geometry.
Normally, rough gear blanks (forging, barstock,

or casting) have sufficient stock provided so distortion can be accommodated by machining. High L/D
ratio pinions may require straightening and a thermal stress relief prior to finish machining. In some
exceptional instances, straightening, thermal stress
relief, rough machining, and a second stress relief
prior to finish machining may all be necessary to keep
the pinion dimensionally stable during finish machining. Sequence of manufacture is dependent
upon design considerations and the temperature
used for stress relief. Stress relief temperature is dependent upon specified hardness and temper resistance of the steel.
(2) Hardenability (carbon and alloy content) of

the base material. Higher hardenability increases
growth and distortion.
(3) Fixturing techniques in the furnace and during quenching.
(4) Carbon potential of the carburizing atmosphere.
(5) Carburizing temperature and temperature
prior to quenching.
(6) Time between quench and temper for richer
alloys.
(7) Quenchant type, temperature and amount
of agitation.
Modified methods of quench hardening, such as

austempering of ductile iron, reduces distortion and
forms a modified hardened structure at higher quenchant temperatures than those conventionally used
(refer to 4.8.4.3).
(8) Resultant metallurgical characteristics of the

case, such as carbon content, case depth, amount of
retained austenite, carbides, etc.
NOTE: Direct quenching generally results in
less distortion than slow cooled, reheated and
quenched gears, providing gears are properly
cooled from the carburizing temperature to
the quench temperature before hardening.
5.8.3 Surface Hardened Gearing. Distortion

must be minimized, controlled and made predictable
to minimize costly stock removal (lapping, skiving, or
grinding), when tooth accuracy requirements dictate.
Once a component is designed to minimize distortion, processing techniques should be optimized

to make distortion consistent. At times, redesign of
components may be required to reduce distortion.
Selective surface hardening of gear teeth by

flame and induction hardening results essentially in
only distortion of the teeth because only the teeth are
heated and quenched. Amount of distortion increases with case pattern depth and increases as
more of the tooth cross section is hardened,
compared to profile hardened tooth patterns. Distortion is not limited to gear teeth, however, when
the entire gear is heated and quenched as with carburizing.
ANSI/AGMA
Stock removal by grinding after carburize hardening should be limited to approximately 0.007 inch
(0.18 mm) per tooth surface or 20 percent of the case
depth, whichever is less. Exception may be made for
coarser pitch gearing with cases 0.080 inches (2 mm)
or greater. Surfaces other than the tooth flanks and
roots may tolerate greater stock removal.
44
2004---B89
General design considerations of carburized

gearing related to distortion include the following
(refer to Fig 5---4):
Distortion of carburized gearing also exhibits the following typical characteristics (refer to Fig 5---5):
(1) Reduction in tooth helix angle (helix unwind), which often requires an increased helix angle
to be machined into the element prior to carburizing
(more prevalent in pinions). Teeth on larger diameter, smaller face width gears may exhibit helix
wind---up after hardening.
(1) Larger teeth (lower DP) distort more.

(2) Rim thickness should be the same at both end
faces.
(3) Radial web support section under the rim
should be centrally located. Web support section
thickness under the rim is recommended to be not
less than 40---50 percent of the face width for precision gears. Near solid pancake gear blanks, designed with moderate recess on both sides of the web
section, distort less. The recess is provided to enable
clean---up grinding of the rim and hub end faces after
hardening.
(2) End growth on gear teeth at both ends of the

face due to increased case depth (carburizing from
two directions, 90 degrees apart, followed by improved quench action for the same reason) may appear as reverse tooth crowning on narrow face gearing. Teeth are often crown cut prior to hardening to
compensate for reverse crown or are chamfered at
the ends of teeth. Teeth may also be both crown cut
and chamfered.
(4) Holes in the web section close to the rim, to

reduce the weight or provide holes for lifting, may
cause collapsing of the rim section over the holes.
(3) Eccentricity (radial run---out) of gears and

their bores is dependent upon how they are fixtured
in the furnace.
(5) High length/diameter ratio pinions distort

more. Journals may be required to be masked in order to prevent carburizing and then be finish machined after hardening with sufficient stock for
clean---up. Masking can also be used for ease of
straightening.
(4) Taper across the face (tapered teeth), bore

taper and hour---glassing of the gear bore can occur due to non---uniform growth of teeth across the
face and non---uniform shrinking of the bores.
(6) Cantilever pinions, with teeth on the end of

the shaft, and blind ended teeth on pinions, where
the adjacent diameter is larger than the root diameter, present problems from both distortion and finishing standpoints.
(5) Bowing of the integral shaft pinions. Integral shaft pinions should, whenever possible, be hung
or fixtured in the vertical position (axes vertical) to
minimize bowing.
CANTILEVER PINION
BLIND ENDED TEETH
HIGH L/D RATIO

CONCENTRIC BLANKS
Fig 5---4 General Design Guidelines for Blanks for Carburized Gearing
ANSI/AGMA
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2004---B89
STRAIGHT
HELICAL
UNWIND
TAPER
HOURGLASSING
BOWING
END GROWTH
(REVERSE CROWN)
ECCENTRICITY
Fig 5---5 Typical Distortion Characteristics of Carburized Gearing

Gears may be fixtured vertically through the
bores or web holes on a support rod (axes horizontal), or fixtured horizontally (individually or stacked)
to minimize distortion, depending on size and face
width. Larger ring gears are positioned horizontally
with sufficient stock for clean---up of the teeth. Bores
and web sections can be masked to prevent carburizing, and enable subsequent machining.
(2) Increased growth of the teeth (greater than

for carburized gearing) because the entire tooth
cross section may be hardened in finer pitch gearing.
(3) Crowning or reverse crowning of the teeth
across the face dependent upon the heat pattern.
Crowning is more desirable from a tooth loading
standpoint.
(4) Taper of teeth due to varied heat pattern and
case depth across the face.
Distortion of the teeth from spin induction hardening is often considered more repeatable than with
spin flame hardening, because of fewer human error
factors involved during machine and inductor set--ups with induction hardening. Spin flame hardening
involves more manual set---up factors, which include
positioning of the flame, gas flows, etc. However,
spin flame hardening can be engineered with special
flame heads and fixtures for required control.
Thin section gears, such as bevel ring gears, may

be press quenched to minimize distortion.
5.8.3.2 Flame and Induction Hardened Gearing.
Flame and induction hardened gearing generally distort less than carburized gearing because only the
teeth are heated and subsequently quenched. Contour induction hardening of tooth profiles produce
less distortion and growth than spin hardening methods.
CAUTION: Deep spin hardening of gear

teeth may cause excessive tooth growth and
may affect bore size.
5.8.3.3 Nitrided Gearing. Nitriding of gearing
results in less distortion, compared to carburize,
flame, and induction hardening. Prior quench and
temper heat treatment, which results in distortion, is
done before machining and nitriding. Parts are also
not heated above the transformation temperature or
previous tempering temperature of the steel during
nitriding, and are not quenched, as occurs during carburizing, flame or induction hardening. Therefore,
nitrided gear teeth are not generally required to be
During both spin flame and spin induction hardening, the entire tooth cross section is often hardened to the specified depth below the roots of teeth.
For high bending strength applications, it is not
desirable to have the hardening pattern terminate in
the roots of the teeth because of residual tensile
stress considerations. Distortion increases as a
greater cross---section of a tooth is hardened. Spin
flame and spin induction hardening generally produce the following distortion characteristics:
(1) Helical unwinding of the gear teeth, as with
carburized pinions.
ANSI/AGMA
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ground or lapped after hardening to meet dimensional tolerance requirements. Bearing diameters of
shaft extensions are often ground after nitriding with
only minimum stock provided. Surfaces can also be
masked for subsequent machining.
5.9.2 Process Control. Because it is difficult to

directly measure the effects of shot peening on a
part, a high degree of process control is essential to
assure repeatability.
5.9.2.1 Intensity Control. Intensity refers to the
kinetic energy with which the peening media strikes
the part. This energy controls the depth of the peening effect. It is measured by shot peening a flat, hardened steel strip called an Almen Strip, in the same
manner as the part will be peened. The strip is held
flat on an Almen block placed in the representative
location during the peening operation. When released from the block, the strip will bow convexly on
the peened surface. The amount of bow is measured
in inches with a gauge and is called the arc height (see
Fig 5---6). There are three classifications of Almen
Strips, N, A, and C, which have thicknesses of 0.031
inch (0.8 mm), 0.051 inch (1.3 mm) and 0.0938
inch(2.4 mm) respectively. Strips are SAE 1070 cold
rolled spring steel, hardened and tempered to 40---50
HRC. Flatness tolerance is +
--- 0.0015 inch
+
( --- 0.04mm). Figure 5---6 also shows the dimensions
for the Almen strips and holding fixture. An intensity
determination must be made at the beginning, at intervals of no more than four hours and at the end of
each production run.
Whenever a processing procedure is developed
for a new part, an intensity curve must be developed
which establishes the time required to reach peening
saturation of the Almen strip. This is accomplished
by shot peening several strips at various times of exposure to the shot stream and plotting the resulting
arc heights. Saturation is defined as that point at
which doubling the time of exposure will result in no
more than a 10 percent increase in arc height.
When close tolerances are required, gearing can

be rough machined and stress relieved at
50_F(28_C) below the prior tempering temperature
to relieve rough machining residual stress prior to
finish machining and nitriding.
During nitriding, outer surfaces grow approximately 0.0005---0.001 inch (0.013---0.025 mm). Bores
size may shrink up to 0.0015 inch (0.04 mm) depending upon size.
5.9 Shot Peening. Shot peening is a cold working
process performed by bombarding the surface of a
part with small spherical media which results in a thin
layer of high magnitude residual compressive stress
at the surface. This stress may improve the bending
fatigue strength of a gear tooth as much as 25 percent. It is becoming an accepted practice to specify
shot peening on carburized and other heat treated
gears. Because the process increases bending fatigue
strength, it may be used either to salvage or upgrade
a gear design. Contact fatigue strength may also be
improved in some instances by shot peening, but
quantitative data to substantiate this condition is
limited. Shot peening should not be confused with
grit and shot blasting, which are cleaning operations.
5.9.1 Equipment. Machinery used for shot
peening should be automatic and provide means for
propelling shot by air pressure or centrifugal force
against the work. Mechanical means for moving the
work through the shot stream by either translation or
rotation, or both, should be provided. Machinery
must be capable of consistently reproducing the shot
peening intensity and coverage required.
5.9.2.2 Shot Control. Shot size and shape must

be carefully controlled during the shot peening process, to minimize the number of fragmented particles
caused by fracturing of the shot. These fragmented
particles can cause surface damage. Also, as a result
of lower mass, fragmented shot particles will lengthen the time to reach a specified peening intensity. Periodic inspection of the shot is required to control
shot size and shape within specification limits. When
these limits are reached, the shot should be classified
and separated to restore size and shape integrity as
shown in MIL---S---13165B.
5.9.2.3 Coverage Control. Coverage refers to
the percentage of indentation that occurs on the surface of the part. One hundred percent coverage is de-
Regardless of the type of equipment used, the

gear must be rotated on its axis while exposed to the
shot stream.
For optimization of shot peening of gears, nozzle
type equipment is generally preferred because of the
ability to vary the angle of shot impingement and,
therefore, achieve more uniform intensity along the
toothform. This type of equipment is generally used
for high performance gearing, although centrifugal
wheel equipment is often used for very high volume
production.
ANSI/AGMA
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fined as uniform dimpling of the original part surface

as determined by either visual examination using a
10X magnifying glass or by using a fluorescent tracer
dye in a scanning process. In the latter process, full
coverage has been achieved when no traces of the dye
remain when viewed under ultraviolet light. A minimum of 100 percent coverage is required on any shot
peened part.
quired to obtain multiples of 100 percent coverage is

that multiple times the time to reach 100 percent coverage (200 percent, 300 percent, etc.).
5.9.3 Design Consideration. The following sections describe items that the designer should include
in a shot peening specification.
5.9.3.1 Governing Process Specification. A commonly referenced shot peening specification is
MIL---S---13165B which identifies materials, equipment requirements, procedures, and quality control
requirements for effective shot peening. The SAE
Manual on Shot Peening, SAE---J808a---SAE HS84,
may also be used.
Coverage must be related to the part, not the Almen strip. The actual part must be examined for
complete coverage in all areas specified to be shot
peened. The peening time required to obtain 100
percent coverage should be recorded. The time re-
3.0 +
---0.015 in
(76+
--- 0.4mm)
+
0.031 +
---0.001 in (0.79 0.02mm)
--+
0.051 +
---0.001 in (1.30 0.02mm)
---
N STRIP
+
0.0938 +
---0.001 in (2.38 0.02mm)
---
A STRIP
PEENING NOZZLE
C STRIP
0.745 to
0.750 in
(18.9 to
19.0 mm)
ALMEN STRIPS
SHOT STREAM
4 to 6 in
(102 to 152 mm)
MEASURING DIAL
10--- 32
SCREWS
ALMEN TEST STRIP
HARDENED
BALL
SUPPORTS
0.75 in
(19.0 mm)
3.0 in
(76 mm)
1.5 in
(38.1mm)
3.0 in
(76 mm)
ARC HEIGHT
0.75 in
(19.0 mm)
HOLDING
FIXTURE
PEENING TEST
(a)
STRIP REMOVED, RESIDUAL

STRESSES INDUCE ARCHING
(b)
STRIP MOUNTED FOR

HEIGHT MEASUREMENT
(c)
Fig 5---6 Shot Peening Intensity Control

5.9.3.2 Shot Size and Type. Shot type and size
selection depends upon the material, hardness, and
geometry of the part to be peened. Shot types available are cast steel (S), conditioned cut wire (CW),
glass bead, and ceramic. Most shot peening of ferANSI/AGMA
rous materials is accomplished with cast steel shot.

Cast steel shot is available in two hardness ranges:
45---55 HRC, and 55---62 HRC. When peening gears
higher in hardness than 50 HRC, the harder shot
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2004---B89
should be specified to achieve higher magnitudes of

compressive stress (refer to Fig 5---7).
5.9.3.5 Masking. At times, it is desirable to mask

finished machined areas of the part from shot impingement. Typical masked areas would be finished
bores or bearing surfaces. If masking is required, this
should be stated in the shot peening requirements
and defined on the drawing, with masked area tolerances given.
5.9.3.6 Drawing Example. A typical example of
drawing or blueprint specification for shot peening
would be as follows:
5.9.3.3 Intensity. The intensity governs the

depth of the compressive layer and must be specified
as the arc height on the A, C, or N strip (see 5.9.2.1).
The range of arc height is generally 0.004 inch (0.10
mm) wide, but it can be specified to a closer tolerance
for more repeatable results. Figure 5---8 illustrates
the depth of the compressive layer on steel at 31 and
52 HRC hardness according to intensity.
Shot peen area(s) indicated with S170 cast steel

shot to an intensity of 0.010---0.014A per
MIL---S---13165B;
Mask area(s) indicated (if necessary). Other
areas optional.
Use 55---62 HRC shot, 100 percent minimum
coverage.
5.9.3.4 Coverage. In most cases, 100 percent

coverage is adequate. In some instances, it may be
desirable to specify multiples of 100 percent in an attempt to achieve more blending of a poorly machined
surface. A typical statement in a blueprint specification is 100 percent minimum coverage.
0
HRC 46 SHOT
--- 50
--- 500
---100
---1000
---150
HRC 61 SHOT
---200
---1500
---250
0
0.004
0.008
0.012
0.016
DEPTH IN INCHES
Fig 5---7 Residual Stress by Peening 1045 Steel at 62 HRC with 330 Shot
ANSI/AGMA
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1.0
.040
HRC 31
.035
.75
.030
.025
.50
.020
HRC 52
.015
.25
.010
.005
.002
.005
.004
.010
.015
.006
.020
.008
.025 A
.010C
INTENSITY
Fig 5---8 Depth of Compressive Stress Versus Almen Intensity for Steel
Table 5---6 gives shot size and intensity for various diametral pitches.
The plastic flow of the surface as a result of peening

will tend to obscure minute cracks.
Table 5---6
Typical Shot Size and Intensity for Shot
Peening
(2) All heat treating operations must be performed prior to shot peening as high temperatures
[over 450_F(232_C)] will thermally stress relieve the
peening effects.
Diametral
Pitch
8 --- 16
4 --- 7
2 1/2 --- 3 1/2
1 3/4 --- 2
3/4 --- 1
Shot Size
S110
S170
S230
S330
S550
(3) Generally all machining of areas to be

peened are complete prior to shot peening. It is possible to restore surface finish in peened areas (and
retain beneficial effects) by lapping, honing, or polishing, if material removal is limited to 10 percent of
the depth of compressive layer.
Intensity
0.006
0.010
0.014
0.016
0.006
-----------
0.010A
0.014A
0.018A
0.020A
0.008C
(4) Compressive residual stress levels produced

by shot peening can be quantitatively measured by
X---ray diffraction. Currently this must be measured
on a cut sample in a laboratory X---ray diffraction
unit. Portable units are under development.
NOTE: The values for shot size and intensity

should be considered typical and not mandatory. Variables such as gear geometry, hardness, and surface condition in the root may
make other specifications more desirable.
(5) When there are significant machining marks

in the tooth roots, it is desirable to achieve an intensity sufficient to produce a depth of compressive stress
to negate the stress riser effect of the machining
mark. However, shot diameter should not exceed 50
percent of the fillet radius.
5.9.3.7 General Comments. Additional comments for shot peening include the following:
(1) All magnetic particle or dye penetrant inspections should be performed before shot peening.
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5.10 Residual Stress Effects. Residual stresses play

an important role in the manufacture and performance of gears. Residual stresses created by machining and heat treating operations are responsible for
much of the distortion that occurs during manufacture. The residual stress distribution in finished
gears can determine whether or not the gears will
survive in service. Residual stresses (either favorable
or unfavorable) are induced mechanically, thermally,
by phase transformation, or by modification of surface chemistry (such as by nitriding). Each of these,
singularly and in combination (such as by carburizing), can affect the degree of in---process distortion
and the residual stress state present in the finished
parts. The following sections briefly discuss the
causes of each type of induced residual stress.
induced. Thermal, phase transformation and modification of surface chemistry stresses result from heat
treatment of steel.
5.10.2.1 Thermal and Phase Transformation
Stresses. Thermal stresses result from the heating
and cooling of materials. Quenching, one type of
thermal stress, can also be considered a phase transformation stress. Quenching, particularly fast
quenching to form martensite, generates both thermal and phase transformation stresses. For example,
two types of residual stress patterns can form on
quenching of a round bar. The most common type of
residual stress pattern in small diameter bars is a tensile stress at the surface and a compressive stress at
the center. This stress pattern results from the surface of a bar cooling faster than the center. The phase
transformation to martensite creates volume expansion producing tensile stress at the surface. This in
turn creates a compressive stress at the center.
5.10.1 Mechanically Induced Residual Stresses.

There are two types of mechanically induced residual
stresses, machining stresses and finishing operation
stresses. Machining stresses are created by the cutting of the gear shape and can be either beneficial or
detrimental. Parts given a final heat treatment after
finish machining may have the gross residual stresses
from milling, turning, and hobbing minimized by intermediate stress relief heat treatments in order to
prevent significant distortion during the final heat
treatment. Machining cuts taken just prior to final
heat treatment must be light enough so as not to
create significant residual stresses. Grinding after final heat treatment must be performed very carefully
since it can create residual tensile stresses in the surface of the gear which can adversely affect performance. Lapping, honing or careful grinding of gears
after final heat treatment maintains beneficial compressive residual stresses. Finishing operations such
as shot peening (refer to 5.9) and roller burnishing
also impart beneficial compressive residual stresses
when properly controlled. These operations are typically performed on finished gears to improve the pitting and surface bending fatigue resistance.
The second and opposite type of residual stress

pattern occurs during quenching of large diameter
bars. In this situation, the surface hardens but the
center remains at an elevated temperature for some
extended period of time. The thermal contraction
exceeds the expansion of the transformation to martensite, setting up residual tensile stress at the center
and residual compressive stress at the surface.
These two types of stress patterns are determined by two variables, size of the bar and speed of
the quench. When the sum of these two variables is
large, for example large diameter bar with a fast
quench, the stress pattern will be of the second type
with residual tensile stress at the center and residual
compressive stress at the surface. When the cooling
rates of the surface and center are similar, the thermal contraction can not overcome the expansion
from the martensitic formation and residual tensile
stress will form at the surface, while the center will
consist of residual compressive stress.
5.10.2.2 Residual Stresses by Modification of
Surface Chemistry. This type of residual stress must
also be considered in conjunction with thermal residual stress because modification of surface chemistry
requires heating, and heating can introduce thermal
stresses, which must be taken into account. Carburizing, the most common type of surface chemistry
modification, will serve as a good example of these
types of residual stresses. In quenched carburized
steels, the transformation temperature of austenite
to martensite in the core occurs at a much higher
Use of cubic boron nitride (CBN) grinding may

have a favorable effect on the residual stresses in the
finished gear. Under extreme grinding conditions,
however, CBN grinding may also induce surface tempering residual tensile stresses. Other hard gear finishing methods (e.g. skiving) will need to be individually evaluated as to effect on residual stress levels.
5.10.2 Metallurgically Induced Residual Stress.
The other types of residual stress, although quite different, can all be categorized as being metallurgically
ANSI/AGMA
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temperature than the case, and as discussed in the

previous section, the austenite to martensite transformation creates a volume expansion. Therefore,
as the part is cooling, transformation begins in the
core and moves outward toward the case setting up
tensile stresses in the core. The expansion of the case
is opposed by the previously transformed core imparting beneficial compressive stresses in the case.
Compressive stresses in the case help reduce surface
pitting caused by tooth contact stress above and below the pitchline. They help counteract tensile
stresses caused by bending in the root.
ASTM A370, are normally surface hardness tests

made using:
(1) Rockwell
(2) Brinell
(3) Rebound Tests (Equotip & Shore)
Hardness testing, using any method or instrument, must be made with calibrated instruments with
data substantiated and documented to insure reliability. Statistical process control (SPC) is an accepted method of control.
Minimum number of hardness tests on both rim
or edge faces of through hardened cast and forged
gear blanks is generally based on the outside diameter and increases with size. Hardness tests are made
on the rim edge at mid rim thickness after final heat
treatment.
6. Metallurgical Quality Control

Metallurgical information should be available
regarding:
(1) incoming material grade information
(2) incoming material hardness and
mechanical tests
(3) heat treat process control
(4) part characteristics
(5) metallurgical testing (final product)
(6) microstructure
(7) test coupon considerations
6.2.1 Cast Gears. Recommended number of

hardness tests are as follows:
Outside
Diameter,
inches (mm)
0 --- 40 (1020)
Over 40 _ 80 (1020 to 2030)
Over 80 _ 120 (2030 to 3050)
(3050)
Over 120
Refer to Appendix D on Service Life Considerations.
When four hardness tests are specified, two tests

shall be on the cope side, (one over a riser and the
other approximately 180 degree away between risers) and the other two tests shall be on the drag side
90 degrees away from the tests on the cope side.
Spectrographic Analysis
X---Ray Analysis
Atomic Absorption
Wet Chemistry
When eight hardness tests are specified, four

tests shall be on the cope side, (two over risers
approximately 180 degrees apart, two between risers
also approximately 180 degrees apart, 90 degrees
away from tests over the risers) and the other four
tests shall also be on the drag side, 90
degrees
apart.
Iron casting grades are identified by their mechanical properties such as tensile strength, yield
strength, and elongation. Hardness may be specified
but cannot be used to identify grade.
Bronze material grades are normally qualified
using chemical analysis and hardness tests.
When sixteen hardness tests are specified, eight

tests shall be on the cope side (four over risers and
four between risers around the gear), and the other
eight tests shall be on the drag side equally spaced
around the gear. Large segmented gears shall be
hardness inspected on the cope and drag rim edge of
each segment per agreement between the customer
and supplier.
Brass material grades are identified by chemical

analysis.
NOTE: Source certification is commonly accepted for analysis certification.
6.2 Incoming Material Hardness Tests. Material
hardness tests, often specified in accordance with
ANSI/AGMA
2
4
8
16
When two hardness tests are specified, one shall

be on the cope side, preferably over a riser; the other
on the drag side, approximately 180_ away.
6.1 Incoming Material Quality Control. Material

grade is certified by chemical test. Generally this is a
destructive process. The following types of tests are
commonly used and are listed in ascending order of
cost for ferrous materials:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Number of Tests
Recommended
(Rim Face)
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2004---B89
6.2.2 Forged Pinions and Gears. Forged pinions

and gears include cylindrical shapes, disc shapes and
rings.
each ring edge, 90 degrees apart from one edge to

the other.
(3) When a total of six hardness tests are specified, they shall be 120 degrees apart on each rim
edge.
6.2.2.1 Cylindrical Shaped Forgings.

(1) A minimum of four hardness tests shall be
taken on the major (tooth) diameter of forgings up to
fifteen inches. Two readings, 180 degrees apart,
shall be taken at the center of the length of the major
diameter (center of tooth section at mid face). One
reading shall be taken approximately 1 inch (25 mm)
from each end of the major diameter, 180 degrees
apart.
(4) When a total of eight hardness tests are specified, they shall be made 90 degrees apart on each
rim edge.
6.3 Incoming Material Mechanical Tests. Mechanical property test bars, for tensile testing and less frequently impact testing, are only required when specified. Refer to 6.8 for merits and limitations of mechanical test bars.
(2) A minimum of five hardness tests shall be

taken on the major diameter of forgings over 15 inches (380 mm) in diameter. Three readings, 120 degrees apart, shall be taken at the center of the length
of the major diameter (center of the tooth section at
mid face). One reading shall be taken approximately
2 inches (50 mm) from each end of the major diameter, 180 degrees apart.
Test bar stock for gearing manufactured from

forgings and bar stock are normally obtained from a
prolongation or extension of the rough stock, in the
axial or longitudinal direction with respect to the
component and the direction of metal flow during
forging. Refer to ASTM A291 for mechanical test
certification of forged gearing.
6.2.2.2 Disc Shape Forging.
Test bar stock, approximately 1.5 5 6.0 inch

(38 127 152 mm) long, are normally attached to
the drag (bottom) rim edge of the casting or are cast
as separate test blocks from the same heat of steel.
Refer to ASTM A148 for mechanical test certification of cast gearing.
(1) A minimum of two hardness tests, 180 degrees apart with one on each side, shall be taken at
the mid radius on forgings of up to 18.0 inches (457
mm) in diameter, inclusive.
(2)A minimum of four hardness tests, two on
each side 180 degrees apart, shall be taken at the
mid radius on forgings over 18.0 inches (457 mm) in
diameter.
Test bar stock should remain attached to or accompany the rough stock until all thermal treatment
is completed.
6.2.3 Forged Rings (Reference ASTM A290).

Recommended number of hardness tests is as follows:
Diameter of Ring,
in (mm)
Up to 40
(1016)
Over 40 to 80
(1016 to 2032)
Over 80 to 120
(2032 to 3048)
Over 120
(3048)
Minimum tensile properties for steel gearing are

shown in Tables 4---2, 4---3 and 4---7, and also in
ASTM A290, A291 and A148.
Number of Tests
Recommended
2 (180_
apart)
4 (180_
apart)
6.4 Heat Treat Process Control. The many variables

involved in the heat treatment of gear materials
makes process control complex. Process variables include: time, temperature, rate of heating and cooling, heating media, cooling media, types of controls,
base material composition, condition of process
equipment, evaluation techniques, and part geometry.
6 (120_ apart)
8
(90_
apart)
Heat treat processes change the microstructure

and mechanical properties of the gear material. Any
dimensional change, such as distortion or part
growth, and any cosmetic change, such as coloration
or surface texture, are characteristics of a specific
heat treat process, but are not primary factors for
process control. Process parameters used to control
the heat treatment of gear materials are as follows:
(1) When a total of two hardness tests are specified, they shall be made 180 degrees apart, one on
the ring edge and the other on the opposite ring edge.
(2) When a total of four hardness tests are specified, they all shall be made 180 degrees apart on
ANSI/AGMA
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6.4.1 Temperature. Temperature selection and

control is an important parameter in the heat treatment of gear materials. In carburizing and nitriding,
the rate of diffusion into steel is dependent on temperature. The carbon concentration in the furnace
atmosphere is also temperature dependent. Specific
temperature ranges are required to harden the various grades of steel. Hardness and mechanical properties of a material grade are dependent on the tempering temperature after hardening.
commonly used methods for measuring and controlling carbon potential in a furnace atmosphere:
(1) Water Vapor Concentration. For a given
temperature, the carbon concentration on the surface of the part is related to the water vapor concentration (dew point) in a furnace atmosphere. The
water vapor concentration is measured using a dew
cell or dew pointer. The water vapor concentration is
expressed as the atmosphere dew point measured in
degrees fahrenheit.
6.4.1.1 Temperature Uniformity. Since the

properties obtained in gear materials are dependent
on the temperatures at which they are treated, the
uniformity of the temperature within the working dimensions of the furnace equipment should be measured. The amount of variation allowed is dependent on the type of heat treatment and the material
properties desired.
(2) Carbon Dioxide Concentration. The concentrations of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide
in a furnace atmosphere at a given temperature are
related to the carbon concentration on the surface of
the part.
The carbon dioxide concentration is measured
with an external infrared gas analyzer and expressed
as a percentage.
6.4.1.2 Thermal History. It is advisable to make

a time temperature plot of the heat treat processes as
a monitoring device and as process documentation.
This is usually accomplished with strip chart recorders.
(3) Oxygen Concentration. The concentration of

carbon on the part surface is related to the oxygen
concentration in the furnace atmosphere at a given
temperature and carbon monoxide level. The oxygen concentration is measured with an oxygen probe
positioned in the furnace heat chamber.
6.4.2 Time. The duration of each segment of the

heat treat process is critical to achieving the desired
material properties. For example, the depth of carbon penetration during carburizing is dependent on
how long the part was held at the carburizing temperature.
6.4.5 Quench Control. Control of the quenching

operation involves monitoring the variables which
affect the rate and uniformity of part cooling. This includes inspecting the condition, cleanliness and concentration (if applicable) of the quenchant; the proper operation of any device used for agitation; and ensuring that the quenchant stays at the proper temperature (refer to 5.7).
When the furnace temperature instrument indicates that the furnace chamber has recovered its
heat, the part in the chamber may not be up to temperature. It is important that the part be held at temperature long enough for the entire part to be at temperature. Time at temperature for through hardening is generally 0.75 hour per inch (25.4 mm) of section.
There are several methods available to monitor

and quantify the cooling rate of the quenching process. These include the standard nickel ball test,
magnetic test, hot wire test and interval test. Sample
parts or test coupons can also be used as long as the
test piece hardenability is accounted for (refer to 5.7
on quenching).
6.4.3 Rate. The rates of heating and cooling are

important considerations. For example, if an induction hardened part is heated too slowly, the core material will get too hot and lose its mechanical properties. If a steel gear is cooled too quickly, it will have
high internal stresses and possibly crack.
6.4.6 Tempering Temperatures. It is important

that the tempering temperature be controlled to
achieve the desired hardness. It is prudent to select
an initial tempering temperature which is on the low
side of the tempering range. It is easier and more
cost effective to retemper a part that is too hard, than
reharden and retemper a soft part.
6.5 Part Characteristics.
6.4.4 Atmosphere Control. The composition of

the furnace atmosphere is an important part of process control. Control of carbon potential in the furnace atmosphere is critical to carburizing and the
protection of surfaces from carbon pickup or depletion during the hardening process. There are three
ANSI/AGMA
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Part characteristics such as hardness, micro--structure and test coupon results can provide valuable information.
6.5.1.4 Carburize and Harden Examination.

Surface hardness and core hardness measurements
are used to monitor the carburizing process. If the
core hardness of a part is within the expected range
regardless of the other hardness measurements, the
part was satisfactorily quenched. If the part hardness
is low, this is an indication of decarburization, inadequate quenching, excessive retained austenite, undissolved carbides, too high tempering temperature,
inadequate case depth, or low surface carbon.
6.5.1 Hardness. Hardness is the most common

characteristic used to measure results of the heat
treat process. There are numerous types of hardness
testing devices which can be used, but each type has
its own application limits and must be used correctly.
Statistical process control (SPC) is an accepted
method to insure reliability using hardness testing.
6.5.1.5 Case Depth Examination. Carburized

case depth is typically measured by making a microhardness traverse across a sectioned part or test coupon to find the depth from the surface where the
hardness is equivalent to Rockwell C 50.
6.5.1.6 Retained Austenite Examination. If the
surface hardness of a carburized part is low, it may be
due to the presence of retained austenite in the carburized case. Retained austenite can be transformed
to martensite by freezing the carburized part. If the
surface hardness improves after freezing, there was
retained austenite in the carburized case which is an
indicator of high surface carbon concentration or too
high of a quench temperature.
6.5.1.1 As Quenched Hardness. As quenched

hardness of a part is a good indicator of the heat treat
process. Many factors determine the as quenched
hardness such as decarburization and retained austenite. High as quenched hardness is the result of good
heat treatment. Low as quenched hardness usually
results from one or more of many factors such as deteriorating quenchant, malfunctioning quench agitators, or too low an austenitizing temperature.
6.5.1.2 Decarburization. If a surface has been
decarburized, hardness will be low. If the surface
hardness is low, it is advisable that two hardness
checks be made on a qualifying test part to insure
that the hardness below the decarburized zone meets
blue print requirements. The two hardness checks
should be made using the following sequence: grind
surface for hardness measurement, regrind surface
until the hardness indentation is removed, and then
make another hardness measurement near the original location. If both measurements are the same,
there is no decarburization. If the hardness increases, there is possible decarburization. To determine the depth of decarburization, a test coupon or
part that was run with the load should be sectioned,
mounted, polished and etched. It should be noted,
however, that in most cases decarburization is not
permissible.
6.5.1.3 Post Temper Hardness Examination.
Tempering parts reduces hardness. As tempering
temperature increases, hardness decreases. Tempering temperature is determined by many factors,
mainly type of steel and as quenched hardness. A
hardness measurement technique can be used to
monitor furnace soak time and uniformity. If the part
hardness is greater in a heavy section compared to a
light section, or if the hardness increases as surface
metal is removed, these are good indicators of insufficient soak time. If the part hardness varies from the
specified range between pieces in a furnace load, this
is a good indication of a processing problem.
ANSI/AGMA
6.5.2 Microstructure. The composition of the

various phases in the microstructure of a gear will tell
a lot about the heat treat process. It is recommended
that a trained metallographer or metallurgist perform the microstructure analysis.
6.5.2.1 Tempered Martensite. If a hardened gear
has been correctly hardened and tempered, the microstructure will be composed primarily of tempered
martensite provided that the hardenability of the
steel was adequate.
6.5.2.2 Bainite. If a gear has been improperly
quenched, the microstructure might be interspersed
with bainite, which is characterized by a feathery appearance if severely under quenched, or a darker
acicular pattern for marginal quenching.
6.5.2.3 Retained Austenite. All carburized case
microstructures will contain some retained austenite, usually less than 5 to 30 percent by volume.
However, if the carbon content of the carburized
case is high, a larger percentage of retained austenite
will be present and will reduce the case hardness. Retained austenite is characterized by a white background in a matrix of other structures (see 6.5.1.6).
6.5.2.4 Undissolved Carbides. If a carburized
part has an excessively high carbon concentration,
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the microstructure will contain undissolved carbides

usually populating the case. Undissolved carbides
are characterized by blocky white regions in a matrix
of martensite and retained austenite. A normal
structure will consist of light, scattered pinpoint carbides, while a structure of excessively high carbon
concentration will have carbides contained in a network at the grain boundary. Continuous intergranular carbide network is not desirable for gearing.
table Brinell and Rockwell test machines provided

that the following are met:
(1) Surface to be inspected provides access and
has the required surface finish, generally 64 microinches (5 microns), or:
(2) If the size of the hardness impression on the
test surface is permitted, or:
(3) Mass of the test surface will support the test
load.
6.5.3 Test Coupons. Test coupons of representative geometry are frequently used for destructive
testing in lieu of destroying gearing. Microstructure
and hardness testing of test coupons can be correlated to gearing characteristics.
Through hardened gearing is commonly inspected on the faces of gear rims, top lands of teeth
where size permits, gap of herringbone (double helical) gearing and on adjacent diameters of pinions
other than bearing journals. Through hardened
gearing is rarely inspected for hardness on the flanks
of teeth or in root radii because hardenability of the
steel selected should insure obtaining the specified
hardness at these locations. When hardness testers
are not available for accurate measurement at roots
of teeth, destructive sectioning and testing may be required.
6.6 Metallurgical, Mechanical and Non--- Destructive Tests and Inspections. Tests and inspections
which may be made on the final or near final product
are fatigue testing, hardness testing, surface temper
inspection, magnetic particle inspection, and ultrasonic inspection.
6.6.1 Fatigue Testing. Fatigue (life) testing of
the final product is the proof of the suitability of the
design for the intended purpose.
Other portable hardness testing instruments are

available (ASTM A833). One tester uses a hammer
to simultaneously impact a known hardness test bar
and the unknown workpiece with a hardened ball between the two test surfaces. Comparison is made of
the ball diameter on each to determine hardness of
the unknown. Other portable instruments measure
the recoil or rebound height or velocity of a dropped
hardened ball, or use a high ultrasonic frequency activated indenter to measure hardness.
It is desirable to expedite this testing while maintaining validity of the test data. This can be done by
running the test at some overload ratio and evaluating the damage with time for the test conditions.
Damage can be compared with that for the product
design conditions. This comparison must be made
for both the beam strength and the surface durability
of the teeth. Miners Rule is a widely accepted method of making these comparisons.
It is desired that surface hardened gearing be

hardness inspected, non---destructively, so as not to
leave an objectionable impression. Portable testers
which measure the rebound height or velocity of a
dropped hardened ball or use a high ultrasonic frequency activated hardness indenter, may be used.
Conventional Rockwell test machines can be
used to hardness inspect surface hardened gearing
when size of the gearing permits and where a visible
impression is permitted. Hardened files, including
those tempered to lower hardness than 60---64 HRC,
can also be used to approximate hardness by the
scratch test (Reference SAE J---864). Inspection of
the hardness on the flanks of surface hardened
coarse gearing with non---destructive portable hardness testers can be improved when the instrument
can be fixed for perpendicularity to the test surface.
Hardness measurement in the roots of teeth may not
When damage value accumulated on the test

equals the damage value of the design, the test specimen survived the minimum specified product life.
Due to the statistical nature of fatigue failure
there is a wide distribution of data. In low cycle fatigue where most high overload and damage fractures occur, this scatter band from the lower threshold to the upper threshold is approximately 100 to 1
wide. Since the distribution may be considered a log
function, it is necessary for about half the test units to
run at ten times the threshold life to validate the
product design. This would constitute a Miners
Rule damage of ten.
6.6.2 Hardness Testing on the Gear Product.
Through hardened finish machine gearing can be
conventionally hardness tested by standard and porANSI/AGMA
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be reliable due to accessibility in the radius of curvature and surface roughness.

For improved accuracy and where permitted,
through hardened steel and cast iron gearing should
be hardness inspected directly in Brinell (not converted). Hardness of surface hardened gearing
should be directly measured in Rockwell (C or A
scale) or converted to Rockwell with suitable portable instruments.
be used in some instances. Caution should be exercised if the heavier load C scale is used.
6.6.4 Magnetic Particle Inspection. Magnetic
particle inspection is a non---destructive testing
method for locating surface and near surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic material. When a magnetic field is introduced into the part, discontinuities
laying approximately transverse to the magnetic field
will cause a leakage field. Finely divided ferromagnetic particles, dry or in an oil base or water base suspension, are applied over the surface of the material
under test. These particles will gather and hold at the
leakage field making the discontinuities visible to the
naked eye.
Portable instruments vary in accuracy and reliability. Users, therefore, should take precautions to
insure accurate calibration and test results.
Hardness testing equipment manufacturers
should be contacted and literature searched for additional information on principles of hardness inspection, available test equipment and their capabilities.
Statistical process control is a useful tool to be used
with hardness testing.
Use of electric current is, by far, the best means

for magnetizing parts for magnetic particle inspection. Either longitudinal or circular fields may be
introduced into parts. There are basically two types
of electric current in common use, and both are suitable for magnetizing purposes in magnetic particle
testing. The two types of current are direct current
and alternating current. The magnetic fields produced by direct and by alternating currents differ in
many characteristics. The main difference, which is
of prime importance in magnetic particle testing, is
that fields produced by direct current generally penetrate the entire cross section of the part, whereas the
fields produced by alternating current are confined
to the metal at or near the surface of the part under
test. From this, it is evident that when deep penetration of field into the part is required, direct current
must be used as the source of magnetizing force. By
far, the most satisfactory source of D.C. is the rectification of alternating current. Both single phase and
three phase A.C. are furnished commercially. By the
use of rectifiers, reversing A.C. is rectified and the
delivered direct current is entirely the equivalent of
straight D.C. for magnetic particle testing purposes.
6.6.3 Surface Temper Inspection. Surface temper inspection is used to detect and classify localized
overheating on ground surfaces by use of a chemical
etch method. Details of the process are covered in
AGMA 230.01, Surface Temper Inspection Process.
Inspection criteria includes a class designation
for critical and non---critical areas. To evaluate the
severity of surface temper, grinding burns are classified by intensity of color from light gray to brown to
black. Severe burning or re---hardening is indicated
by patches of white in the darkened areas. Cracking
may also be present. Re---hardening or cracking are
cause for rejection.
Tables I and II in AGMA 230.01 cover temper
classes ranging from Class A (Light temper) to Class
D (Heavy temper). Class C (Moderate temper) for a
limited area and hardness reduction may be permitted.
Rework for excessive temper is generally permitted by mutual agreement between customer and
supplier.
Sources of alternating current are single phase

stepped down to 115, 230, or 460 volts. This is accomplished by means of transformers to the low voltages
required. At these low voltages, magnetizing currents up to several thousand amperes are often used.
The trend in Europe is to use A.C. current for magnetic particle testing because the intent of their testing is location of surface discontinuities only. Subsurface discontinuities are best detected by radiography
or ultrasonic non---destructive test methods. A.C.
currents tends to give better particle mobility, and
Case depth shall be determined on a normal

tooth section. Hardness testers which produce small
shallow impressions should be used in order that the
hardness values obtained will be representative of
the surface area being tested. Microhardness testers
which produce Diamond Pyramid or Knoop Hardness number are recommended, although other testers such as Rockwell superficial A or 15 N scales can
ANSI/AGMA
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demagnetization is more complete than with a D.C.

field.
(7) For prod magnetization with direct current, a

minimum of 60 amperes per inch of prod spacing will
produce a minimum magnetizing force of 20 oersteds
at the midpoint of the prod line for plate 3/4 inch
thick or less. A safer figure to use, however, is 200
amps per inch, unless this current strength produces
an interfering surface power pattern. Prod spacing
for practical inspection purposes is limited to about
eight (8) inches maximum, except in special cases.
There are two essential components of magnetic

particle testing, each of equal importance for reliable
results. The first is the proper magnetization of the
part to be tested, with proper field strength in the appropriate direction for the detection of defects. The
second is the use of the proper magnetic particles
type to secure the best possible defect indications under prevailing conditions.
6.6.4.1 General Principles. Some general principles and rules on magnetizing means, field
strength, current distribution and strength requirements are listed below (refer to Figs 6---1 and 6---2).
(8) All parts should be demagnetized after magnetic particle inspection.
FIELD
(1) Fields should be at 90 degrees to the direction of defects. This may require magnetizing in two
directions.
HEAD
BATH
(2) Fields generated by electric currents are at 90

degrees to the direction of current flow.
(3) When magnetizing with electric currents,
pass the current in a direction parallel to the direction of expected discontinuities.
CURRENT
DISCONTINUITY
(4) Circular magnetization has the advantage

over longitudinal magnetization in that there are
few, if any, local poles to cause confusion in particle
patterns, and it is preferred when a choice of methods is permissible.
HEAD SHOT
CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATION LOCATES
DISCONTINUITIES OCCURRING 45 --- 90
DEGREES TO THE DIRECTION OF THE
FIELD.
(5) Circular magnetization specifications generally require from 100 to 1000 amps per inch of part
diameter. Amperage requirements should be incorporated into the magnetic particle procedure.
INSPECT FOR PARTICLE INDICATIONS

SHOWING LONGITUDINAL DISCONTINUITIES
--- MARK DISCONTINUTIES.
Fig 6---1 Circular (Head Shot) Magnetic

Particle Inspection
(6) For coil magnetization, a widely used formula for amperage calculations is:
NI = 45 000
L/ D
6.6.4.2 Magnetic Particles. The particles used

are finely divided ferromagnetic material. Properties
vary over a wide range for different applications including magnetic properties, size, shape, density,
mobility and visibility or contrast. Varying requirements for varying conditions of test and varying
properties of suitable materials have led to the development of a large number of different types of available materials. The choice of which one to use is an
important one, since the appearance of the particle
(Eq 6.1)
where
NI = ampere turns required,
L/D = length to diameter ratio.
NOTE: The 45 000 constant may vary with
specifications.
ANSI/AGMA
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patterns at discontinuities will be affected, even to

the point of whether or not a pattern is formed.
FIELD
methods is in the range of 60 to 40 microns. Particles

larger than this tend to settle out of suspension rapidly. In general, wet method materials exhibit a greater
sensitivity than dry powders. Fluorescent particles
have the greatest contrast of the wet method materials. Although fluorescent wet particles have the
greatest sensitivity and contrast, they can provide a
confusing background on surfaces with a finish greater than 250 RMS.
CURRENT
THROUGH
COIL
BATH
6.6.4.3 Documented Procedures. Written procedures for magnetic particle testing should as a minimum include:
(1) Which ASTM, ASNT or agency specifications the procedure meets.
(2) Qualifications--(a) Indicate that the operators are qualified
and tested to ASNT---TC---1A Level II, MIL--STD---271F, etc.
(b) Indicate type of equipment used for inspection, A.C. and D.C. full wave rectified, etc.
(c) Indicate type of particles used for inspection, fluorescent or black visible, wet or dry particle.
For the wet method, particle concentration should
also be indicated.
(3) General--(a) State when inspection is to be done; after
heat treat, finish machining, etc.
(b) State what the surface will be; for example, 250 RMS, black forge, etc.
DISCONTINUITY
COIL SHOT
LONGITUDINAL MAGNETIZATION LOCATES
TRAVERSE DISCONTINUITIES.
INSPECT FOR PARTICLE INDICATIONS

SHOWING TRANSVERSE DISCONTINUITIES.
NOTE:
EFFECTIVE LENGTH MAGNETIZED BY
COIL SHOT IS A FEW INCHES ON EITHER
SIDE OF COIL. MAXIMUM LENGTH OF
ARTICLE COVERED BY ONE SHOT IS
18 INCHES (46 CM). ON LONG ARTICLES,
REPEAT SHOTS AND BATHS DOWN THE
LENGTH OF ARTICLE. PLACE ARTICLES
CLOSE TO THE COIL BODY.
Fig 6---2 Coil Shot Magnetic Particle

Inspection
(1) Dry Powders. It is evident that size plays an
important part in the behavior of magnetic particles.
A large, heavy particle is not likely to be arrested and
held by a weak field when such particles are moving
over the surface of the part. On the other hand, very
fine powders will be held by very weak fields, since
their mass is very small. Extremely fine particles may
also adhere to the surface where there are no discontinuities, especially if it is rough, and form confusing
backgrounds. Most dry ferromagnetic powders used
for detecting discontinuities are careful mixtures of
particles of all sizes. The smaller ones add sensitivity
and mobility, while the larger ones not only aid in locating large defects, but by a sweeping action, counteract the tendency of fine powders to leave a dusty
background. Thus, by including the entire size range,
a balanced powder with sensitivity over most of the
range of sizes of discontinuities is produced.
(c) State amps per inch of diameter for circular magnetization and the formula used for calculation of longitudinal magnetization.
(d) State what method will be used for determining field magitude; such as pie gage, etc.
(e) State demagnetization, if required, and
level of demagnetization required.
(4) Standard of Acceptance
(a) Indicate maximum size and density of
indications permitted.
(b)Indicate reporting procedures if
needed.
For further information on magnetic particle
testing, refer to:
Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing, C.E. Betz
Metals Handbook Volume II Eighth Edition
Nondestructive Inspection and Quality Control
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Edited by
Robert C. McMasters for the Society for Nondestructive Testing
(2) Wet Method Materials. When the ferromagnetic particles are applied as a suspension in some
liquid medium, much finer particles can be used. The
upper limit of particle size in most commercial wet
ANSI/AGMA
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6.6.5 Ultrasonic Inspection. Ultrasonic inspection is a nondestructive test method to determine the
internal soundness and cleanliness of gearing by
passing sound (ultrasound) through the material.
Very short sound waves of a frequency greater than
20,000 cycles per second (audible limit) are voltage
generated and transmitted into the part by a transducer. In the method most often used, returning
sound waves are transformed into voltage and monitored on an oscilloscope screen.
Scanning sensitivity and indication limitations

are often determined using test blocks by establishing a distance---amplitude reference line on the oscilloscope screen as illustrated in Fig 6---4. As an example, sensitivity may be adjusted to establish the specified indication height [2 1/2 inch (63 mm)] from the
flat bottom hole (FBH) in the 4 inch (102 mm) block,
and at the same sensitivity, the indication from the
same size FBH in the 12 inch (305 mm) block is noted
on the oscilloscope screen. A straight line is drawn
between the two points. Any indication noted must
not exceed the determined distance---amplitude reference line.
Also, indications are often specified not to exceed a certain magnitude and length on the scanning
surface or result in loss in back reflection height exceeding specified limits, both expressed in a percent
of the back reflection height established during calibration for scanning sensitivity.
There are two test methods used, depending

upon the media, for coupling the ultrasonic transducer to the heat treated work piece. Untreated coarse
grained structures do not lend themselves to ultrasonic testing. Surfaces to be scanned, such as the outside diameter and ends or end faces of cylindrical or
disc shaped rough stock are generally machined to
125---250 micro---inch maximum surface roughness.
This provides improved contact for the transducer
with the work piece. One method uses a couplant:
oil, glycerin or a commercial paste spread evenly on
the surfaces to be inspected. The second method uses
water as the couplant, with the transducer and work
piece submerged in a tank.
Reference can be made to the equipment

manufacturers literature, or to the American Society for Metals (ASM) Metals Handbook, Volume 11
on Non---Destructive Testing (SNDT), for additional information. Important considerations include appropriate transducer frequency, operator
requirements and qualification, application limitations, work piece requirements (grain size), instrument calibration, test block requirements, test specifications and interpretation of test results.
With the most common technique of ultrasonic

inspection, namely, the pulse echo technique, the
transducer both emits sound waves and receives the
returning signals from the back surface and possible
defects. The returning signals are subsequently monitored on an oscilloscope screen as shown in Fig 6---3.
The indication to the left of the oscilloscope screen in
Fig 6---3 is caused by the sound wave entering the
steel and is called initial pulse or contact interference. The indication to the right is caused by sound
reflecting off of the back surface and in the middle is
the signal reflecting from any defects shown. The
horizontal line, called the sweep line, provides a
measure of distance or depth in the work piece, as related to the rate of travel of sound in the material.
The sweep line can be calibrated by use of a test block
or section of known thickness in the work piece in order that each marker shown on the sweep line represents a standard distance or depth. Depth of the defect from the transducer contact point on the scanning surface can, therefore, be determined.
The American Society for Testing Materials and

AGMA specifications which follow may be used for
ultrasonic inspection of wrought and cast gearing.
Forgings and bar stock:
(1) AGMA 6033---A88, Section 10.
(2) ASTM A388, Ultrasonic Examination of
Heavy Steel Forgings.
Castings:
(1) AGMA 6033---A88, Section 11.
(2) ASTM A609, Steel Castings, Carbon and
Low Alloy, Ultrasonic Examination Thereof.
6.7 Microstructure. The major function of the material selection and heat treating process is to achieve
the desired microstructure at the critical locations so
that the part will have the desired contact and bending strength capacity. Hardened steel gearing microstructure should be tempered martensite at the entire tooth surface.
The microstructure will vary around the gear
tooth flank and throughout the tooth cross section.
The tooth mass will have a significant effect on the
resulting microstructure and hardness throughout
the tooth section. The heat treatment variables will
Before testing, the instrument must be calibrated according to the test specification. Scanning
sensitivity is often established as either the sensitivity
to just obtain a specified back reflection height, or at
the sensitivity to obtain an indication of specified
height from a flat bottom hole drilled into test blocks.
ANSI/AGMA
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significantly effect the microstructure achieved.

Gear tooth quality control must include microstruc-
ture considerations as well as hardness control.
TRANSDUCER
SUITABLE COUPLANT ON SURFACE
X
Y
DEFECT
BACK REFLECTING SURFACE
INITIAL PULSE
BACK REFLECTION
3 in (76 mm)
X
DEFECT
MARKERS
Fig 6---3 Ultrasonic Inspection with Oscilloscope Screen
ANSI/AGMA
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INDICATION FROM FBH

IN 4 in (102 mm) BLOCK
INDICATION
D ---A REFERENCE LINE FROM
FBH IN 12 in (306
2 1/2
mm) BLOCK
(63 mm)
3 in
(76 mm)
11 in
(279 mm)
TEST BLOCKS: 12 AND 4 in (306 AND 102 mm) TEST BLOCKS

CONTAINING SAME SIZE FLAT BOTTOM HOLE DRILLED TO A DEPTH OF 1
in
Fig 6---4 Distance --- Amplitude Reference Line for Ultrasonic Inspection
austenite. Some research has shown that microcracks are produced by subzero treating.
Control of the microstructures in flame and induction hardened steel gears must also consider the
width and location of heat effected zones which will
always exist at the ends of the hardened pattern.
In carburized and hardened steel gears, carbide

forms and distribution are an area of microstructure
concern. Continuous network carbide is generally
considered to be unacceptable microstructure. Discontinuous carbide network is generally allowed
within limits.
Microstructure evaluation must include the existence of structures other than tempered martensite
at the gear tooth surface and at core positions. In
carburized and hardened steel gears, retained austenite will exist in the case after the heat treating operations. Data and opinions vary as to the allowable
limits for retained austenite. Subzero treatment is
specified for some applications to reduce retained
ANSI/AGMA
Bainite, pearlite, and ferrite are undesirable at

the gear tooth surface of surface hardened gearing.
These structures will exist in core microstructures of
coarse tooth gearing.
62
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(e.g. shaft extension), has an effect on mechanical

properties. This variance is due mainly to the increased degree of mechanical working and increased
response to heat treating, as compared to larger
forged sections. Generally, smaller section test bars
and sections show improved mechanical properties.
(2) Castings--(a) Mass effect. Small section of the test bar
being tested, such as standard impact test bars, results in improved properties compared to larger cast
sections. Also, the smaller section of the standard integral or separate cast test coupons, and its effect related to improved solidification mechanism (reduced micro---segregation and micro---unsoundness)
and increased response to heat treating, causes mechanical property variance compared to larger cast
sections.
(b) Location of the test coupon. Test coupon
may be better located during heat treatment, causing
increased response to heat treating and improved
mechanical properties.
6.8 Mechanical Property Test Bar Considerations.

Test coupons are specified by company and industry
standards for evaluating mechanical properties of
wrought and cast steel and non---ferrous materials
used for gearing.
NOTE: It should be realized, however, that
mechanical properties obtained from test
coupons for wrought and cast steel, cast iron
and non---ferrous alloys are not equivalent to
the actual properties of gearing from which
the test coupons were obtained or associated.
Smaller section test coupons are typically specified for economic considerations and instrument testing limitations.
6.8.1 Reasons for Mechanical Property Variance. The reasons for mechanical properties obtained from test coupons not being equivalent to
those of gearing include the following considerations:
(1) Wrought Forgings and Bar stock--(a) Test coupon orientation and location.
Mechanical properties of forgings and bar stock are
anisotropic (refer to 4.9) which means that properties vary in the longitudinal and transverse (or tangential) directions. These directions are defined with
respect to direction of metal flow and inclusion
orientation induced by mechanical working. Unless
otherwise specified, test results from shaft extensions in the longitudinal direction are those typically
reported by forging manufacturers for solid on shaft
gearing. The longitudinal direction, however, provides optimum properties compared to properties
from the transverse (or tangential) direction. The
transverse (or tangential) direction is more representative of gear teeth depending upon helix angle.
6.8.2 Mechanical Properties Affected. Mechanical properties obtained from test coupons, especially
tensile ductility (percent elongation and reduction of
area measured after tensile testing), impact strength
and fatigue strength, are generally higher for test
coupons than for actual forged or cast gearing. Tensile and yield strengths of test coupons, however, better represent actual corresponding properties of
gearing, provided hardness of the test coupons is
within the specified range.
6.8.3 Interpretation. Mechanical properties obtained from test coupons should be considered as an
indication of the quality of gear materials, but should
not be interpreted as representing the precise mechanical properties of gearing for the reasons cited in
6.8.1 and 6.8.2. Specified mechanical properties for
test coupons should be minimum properties, not typical properties. Designers should incorporate appropriate factors of safety based on experience for
design of gearing to accommodate variance between
measured and actual properties of gearing. In addition to test coupons providing indications as to the
metallurgical quality of gear materials, test coupons
provide a comparison of steel quality between different orders and can often help identify problems in
steel making and heat treating.
Location or depth of the test coupon from the

forged section (e.g. from the outside diameter, mid--section or from the center) and its effect with respect
to the degree of mechanical working and segregation, causes variance in mechanical properties. Segregation is increased and degree of mechanical working is reduced towards the center of hot worked or
wrought sections.
(b) Mass effect. Small section of the test bar
being tested, and the smaller section of the gearing
from which the test coupon may have been obtained
ANSI/AGMA
63
2004---B89
Bibliography
ASTM A148---83,
Specifications for Steel Castings for High Strength Structural Purposes
ASTM A291---82,
Specification for Carbon and Alloy Steel Forgings for Pinions and Gears for Reduction
Gears
ASTM A356---83,
Specification for Steel Castings, Carbon and Low Alloy, Heavy---Walled, for Steam
Turbines
ASTM E125---63 (1980), Reference Photographs for Magnetic Particle Indications on Ferrous Castings
ASTM E186---80,
Standard Reference Radiographs for Heavy Walled (2 to 4 1/2 inch)(51 to 114 mm)
Steel Castings
ASTM E280---81,
Standard Reference Radiographs for Heavy Walled (4 1/2 to 12 inch)(114 to 305 mm)
Steel Castings
ASTM E446---81,
Standard Reference Radiographs for Steel Castings Up to 2 inch (51 mm) in Thickness
ASTM E609---83,
Ultrasonic Examination of Carbon and Low Alloy Steel Castings
ASTM E709---80,
Magnetic Particle Examination
MIL---H---6875G (Feb 86), Process for Heat Treatment of Steel
Reference Addresses
American Society for Metals
Metals Park, OH 44073
(216) 338---5151
Metals Handbooks
Heat Treaters Guide
Metals Reference Book
American Iron and Steel Institute

1000 16th Street, NW
Washington, D.C. 20036
(202) 452---7100
AISI Steel Products Manuals
Naval Publications and Forms Center
5801 Tabor Avenue
Philadelphia, PA 19120
(215) 697---3321
Military Standards
American Society for Testing and Materials

1916 Race Street
Philadelphia, PA 19103
(215) 299---5400
ASTM Standards
Metal Powder Industries Federation

105 College Road East\Princeton, NJ 080540
(609) 542---7700
MPIF Standard 35
Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.

400 Commonwealth Drive
Warrendale, PA 15096
(412) 776---4841
SAE Handbook
AMS Standards
ANSI/AGMA
Other:
Gray and Ductile Iron Castings Handbook
Cast Steel Handbook
Modern Plastics Encyclopedia
64
2004---B89
Appendix A
Plastic Gear Materials
[This Appendix is provided for informational purposes only and should not be construed as part of AGMA
Standard 2004---B89, Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual.]
A1. Purpose. The purpose of this Appendix is to provide information on plastic materials which have
been used for gearing. For physical properties, refer
to appropriate product standards.
moplastic material are used, with the latter being by

far the most prevalent.
A5.1 Phenolic(T/S --- indicates thermosetting).
Phenolics are invariably compounded with various
fillers such as woodflour, mineral, glass, sisal,
chopped cloth, and such lubricants as PTFE (polytetrafluorethylene) and graphite. Phenolics are generally used in applications requiring stability, and when
higher temperatures are encountered.
A5.2 Polyimide (T/S). Polyimide is usually
40---65 percent fiber glass reinforced and has good
strength retention when used at high operating temperatures.
A5.3 Nylon(T/P --- indicates thermoplastic). Nylon is a family of thermoplastic polymers. The most
widely used of any molded gearing material is nylon
6/6, but nylon 6 and nylon 12 are also used. Some nylons absorb moisture which may cause dimensional
instability. Nylon may be compounded with various
types and amounts of glass reinforcing materials,
mineral fillers, and such lubricants as PTFE and
MoS2 (molybdenum disulfide).
A5.4 Acetal (T/P). Acetal has a lower water absorption rate than nylon and, therefore, is more
stable after molding or machining. Acetal polymers
are used unfilled or filled, with glass and minerals
with and without lubricants, such as PTFE and
MoS2, as well as one version with fibrous PTFE.
A5.5 Polycarbonate (T/P). Polycarbonate is generally used with the addition of glass fiber and/or
PTFE lubricant and is a fine, low shrinkage material
for producing consistently accurate molded gears.
A2. Tolerances. Under certain operating conditions,

the tolerances for plastic gears may be less critical
than for metal gears for smooth and quiet performance. Ordinarily, however, the same care in
manufacturing, testing, measuring, and quality level
specifications should be utilized in plastic gearing as
in metal gearing. The inherent resiliency of some of
the plastic used may result in better conjugate action.
The resiliency of many plastic gears gives them the
ability to better dampen moderate shock or impact
type loads within the capabilities of the particular
plastics materials.
A3. Operating Characteristics. Generally, plastic
gearing materials are noted for low coefficient of
friction, high efficiency performance, and quiet operation.
Many plastic gearing materials have inherent lubricity so that gears require little or no external lubrication. They can perform satisfactorily when exposed to many chemicals which have a corrosive effect on metal gears.
Plastic gearing, when operating at low stress levels in certain environments, have been known to outwear equivalent metal gears.
A4. Load Carrying Capacity. The maximum load
carrying capacity of most plastic gears decreases as
the temperature increases more than with metal
gears. The upper temperature limit of most thermoplastic gears is 250_F(121_C) at which point they
lose approximately 50 percent of their rated
strength. The upper operating temperature limit of
thermosetting gears now exceeds 400_F(250_C).
Very little degradation of mechanical properties in
certain thermosetting materials occurs at temperatures up to 450_F(232_C).
A5.6 Polyester (T/P). Polyesters are both unfilled and with glass fiber, and are finding their way
into more markets as a molded gearing material in
competition with nylon and acetal.
A5.7 Polyurethane (T/P). Polyurethane is generally noted for its flexibility and, therefore, has the
ability to absorb shock and deaden sound.
A5.8 SAN (Styreneacrylonitrile) (T/P). SAN is a
stable, low shrinkage material and is used in some
lightly loaded gear applications.
A5. Plastic Materials. Many different plastics are

now used for gearing. Both thermosetting and ther-
ANSI/AGMA
65
2004---B89
A8.3 Burrs. Feather edge burrs, if not eliminated by back up discs or subsequent removal by other means, will impair inspection of gearing and possibly contribute to noise during operation.
A5.9 Polyphenylene Sulfid (T/P). When compounded with 40 percent glass fiber with or without
internal lubricants, it has been found in certain gear
applications to have much greater strength, even at
elevated temperatures, than most materials previously available.
A9. Laminated Phenolics Plastics.
A5.10 Polymer Elastomer (T/P). Polymer elastomer is a newcomer to the gearing field, and has excellent sound deadening qualities and resistance to
flex fatigue, impact, and creep, among other advantageous characteristics.
A9.1
Industrial Laminated Thermosetting
Products. These products, whether in sheet or rod
form, contain laminations or plies of fibrous sheet
materials such as cellulose, paper, asbestos, cotton
fabric, glass fabric, or mat. These materials are impregnated or coated with a phenolic resin and consolidated under high pressures and temperatures
into various grades which have properties useful for
gearing.
A6. Part Combinations. Several plastic gears can be

molded together as a gear cluster. Combinations of
gears, pulleys, sprockets, and cams can also be produced as a single part.
Fabric base grades are chosen to withstand severe shock loads and repeated bending stresses, and
to resist wear. Fabric base grades are tougher and
less brittle than paper base grades. The linen grades
made with finer textured lightweight fabrics will machine with less trouble. Gears of linen base phenolic
are abrasive, and thus may require a hardened steel
mate and adequate lubrication.
A7. Gear Blanks. Many of these plastic materials, notably unfilled nylon and acetal, are available in standard extruded shapes, such as rounds, squares, and
rectangles of various sizes from which gears can be
machined. Gears can be molded at less cost if large
quantity warrants the cost of the mold.
A8. Machined Plastics Gears. The quality of machined gears may be generally better than their
molded counterparts, but the molded tooth surface is
superior to the machined surface in smoothness and
toughness. Final tooth strength is generally better in
a molded gear, than an equivalent machined gear,
because of the flow of the material into the tooth cavity of the mold. Gear cutting is done on standard machines and with standard tools. The following considerations will assist in obtaining higher quality machined parts.
Asbestos---phenolic grades have excellent thermal and dimensional stability.

The glass fabric base grades have good heat resistance and very high tensile and impact strength.
A9.2 Performance Characteristics.
Phenolics are used for fine pitch gears due to economy, high resiliency, and high wear resistance. Lower
density than metals often provides higher strength to
weight ratios. It should be noted that all grades have
some dimensional change due to humidity.
A9.3 Chopped Fabric Molding Compound.
Chopped fabric impregnated with phenolic resin is
capable of being molded as a gear but may require
finish machining to meet most commercial quality
requirements.
A8.1 Inspection. The modulus of elasticity is so

low in plastics that errors in measurements are very
difficult to control. The use of controlled load checking equipment is almost mandatory to avoid errors in
measurements.
A10. Plastic Gearing References.

AGMA 141.01, Plastics Gearing --- Molded, Machined
and Other Methods.
A8.2 Tools. Sharp cutting tools are necessary to

avoid tooth profile and size variation due to deflection.
ANSI/AGMA
66
2004---B89
Appendix B
Approximate Maximum Controlling Section Size Considerations
for Through Hardened Gearing
B1. Purpose. This Appendix presents approximate maximum controlling section size considerations for through hardened (quench and tempered)
gearing. Also presented are factors which affect
maximum controlling size, illustrations as to how
maximum controlling section size is determined for
gearing, and recommended maximum controlling
section sizes for several low alloy steels from AGMA
6033---A88, Marine Propulsion Gear Units, Part 1, Materials.
B2. Definition. The controlling section of a part
is defined as that section which has the greatest effect
in determining the rate of cooling during quenching
at the location (section) where the specified mechanical properties (hardness) are required. The maximum controlling section size for steel is based princi-
pally on hardenability, specified hardness, depth of

desired hardness, quenching and tempering temperature considerations. Reference should be made to
4.6 of the Standard for hardenability considerations.
B3. Illustrations. Figure B---1 illustrates controlling
sections for quenched gear configurations whose
teeth are machined after heat treatment.
NOTE: Evaluation of the controlling section
size for the selection of an appropriate type
of steel and/or specified hardness need not
include consideration of standard rough
stock machining allowances. Other special
stock allowances such as those used to minimize distortion during heat treatment must
be considered.
Table B---1
Approximate Maximum Recommended Controlling Section Size*
Specified
Brinell Hardness
223---262
248---293
262---311
285---311
302---352
321---363
341---388 w
363---415 w
**
Alloy Controlling Section Size, in (mm)

AISI 4140
AISI 4340
To 8.0(203) included
To 3.0 (76) included
Not recommended
Not recommended
Not recommended
No restriction ]
No restriction
No restriction
4350 Type [
No restriction ]
No restriction
No restriction
No restriction
No restriction
No restriction
No restriction
To 23.0 (585) incl.
NOTES:
* Maximum controlling section sizes higher than those above can be recommended when substantiated
by test data (heat treat practice).
Maximum recommended controlling section sizes for nitrided gearing are less than those above for the
same hardness range because of higher tempering temperature required for nitriding gearing (refer to
5.5). Maximum recommended sizes for flame or induction hardening gearing would be same as
above, dependent upon specified core hardness.
[ 4350 Type Steel is generally considered equivalent to AISI 4340 for chemical analysis, except that
carbon is 0.48---0.55 percent.
] No restriction indicates maximum controlling section size is not anticipated to provide any
restrictions for conventional size gearing
w 900_F(482_C) minimum temper may be required to meet these hardness specifications.
** Higher specified hardnesses (e.g. 375---415 HB, 388---321 HB and 401---444 HB) are used for special
gearing, but costs should be evaluated due to reduced machinability.
ANSI/AGMA
67
2004---B89
B4. Recommendations. Table B---1 provides approximate recommended maximum controlling section
sizes for oil quenched and tempered gearing (H =
0.5) of several low alloy steels based on specified
hardness range, normal stock allowance before hardening, minimum tempering temperature of
900_F(482_C) and obtaining minimum hardness at
the roots of teeth.
and published tempering response/hardenability

data.
Maximum controlling section sizes for rounds
greater than 8.0 inch (205 mm) O.D. generally require in---house heat treat experiments of larger sections followed by sectioning and transverse hardness
testing.
Normalized and tempered heavy section gearing
may also require maximum controlling section size
considerations if the design does not permit liquid
quenching. Specified hardnesses able to be obtained
with the same type steel (hardenability) is considerably lower, however, and higher hardenability steel
may be required. In---house normalized and tempered/hardness testing experiments are required.
B5. General Comments. Maximum controlling section sizes versus specified hardness for section sizes
to 8.0 inch (203 mm) diameter rounds can also be
approximated by use of the Chart Predicting
Approximate Cross Section Hardness of Quenched
Round Bars from Jominy Test Results published in
Practical Data for Metallurgists by Timkin Steel Co.,
TEETH
TEETH
2 inch
(50)
--- --- --- --- --- --1.5 inch

(38)
8
inch
(203)
--- --- --- --- --- ---
10
inch
(254)
6 inch
(152)
Controlling Section: 8 in (203 mm)

Diameter

Face width
TEETH
TEETH
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --4

inch
(102) 8
inch
(203)
36
inch
(914)
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --12 inch

(304)
Controlling Section: 2 in (50 mm) Wall

Thickness (If the bore diameter is less
than 20% of the length of the bore, then the
outside diameter)
32
inch
(813) 36
inch
(914)

Rim Thickness
Fig B---1 Illustrations of Controlling Section Size
ANSI/AGMA
68
2004---B89
Appendix C
Case Hardenability of Carburizing Steels
can be used for carburized gearing considerations
without regard to the fact that gear teeth are machined prior to carburize hardening. The controlling
section size in both instances is the section related to
the location of gear teeth which governs the rate of
heat removed during quench hardening.
C3. Selection of Steel. To ensure that the steel under
consideration has sufficient case hardenability to be
capable of satisfactorily hardening the case in the
roots of teeth, Fig C---1 should be used. Figure C---1
is based on hardenability and controlling section size
considerations. Steels are presented in order of
hardenability on the ordinate of Fig C---1. Steels not
shown on Fig C---1, therefore, can be evaluated by
comparing hardenability to those steels presented to
determine the approximate maximum recommended controlling section size (as indicated by the
solid line in Fig C---1).
C1. Purpose. This Appendix assists in the selection

of a grade of carburizing steel to insure that the carburized case has sufficient hardenability to be capable of hardening roots of teeth to meet specified surface hardness requirements. The method used is
based on steel hardenability considerations and standard hardening procedures used for carburized gearing. It may be used in conjunction with design and
other considerations to select the appropriate grade
of steel.
C2. Method. The controlling section size of carburized gearing can be determined using the same general principles described in Appendix B for through
hardened gearing. Figure B---1 in Appendix B describes examples of how the controlling section size is
determined for through hardened gearing when the
teeth are cut after heat treating. The same examples
Approximate Controlling Section Size, mm

400
600
800
1000
200
AISI 9310
AISI 4820
1200
1400
ADEQUATE
CASE HARDENABILITY
AISI 4320
CASE MAY OR
MAY NOT
HARDEN
AISI 8822
AISI 8620
NO CASE
HARDENABILITY
Source:
The Influence of Microstructure on the
of Case ---Carburized Components
by Geoffrey Parrish, ASM Text (1980)
AISI 4118
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Approximate Controlling Section Size, inch
50
55
60
Fig C---1 Effect of Controlling Section on the Case Hardenability of Carburizing Grades
of Steel
ANSI/AGMA
69
2004---B89
Appendix D
Service Life Considerations
D1. Purpose. Gears are generally removed from service due to wear, pitting, plastic flow, or breakage. If
the service life is less than expected, an in---depth investigation should be initiated. This Appendix deals
briefly with the causes of gear failures and the types
of failures encountered.
tion criticals in the system causing vibration, inadequate grounding, etc.

D2.7 Material Causes. Although materials rarely are the principal cause of failure, they can contribute to failure if material selection results in less than
the required combination of properties compatible
with the design and application. Improper selection
of material can result in inadequate hardness (surface or subsurface) and toughness, or improper microstructure after heat treatment. Wrought materials such as hot rolled bars can have serious banding,
which is alloy and carbon segregation in banded
form. Banding can affect properties, particularly in a
carburized case and core.
D2.7.1 Forging Defects. Forging defects
which can contribute to premature failure include excessive forging temperature, inadequate reduction,
improper grain flow, flakes, and bursts from insufficient forging temperature.
D2. Causes of Lower than Expected Life. When

shorter than expected life is obtained, a number of
factors should be reviewed. These factors are gear
design, manufacture, heat treatment, assembly and
installation, maintenance, service conditions and
material causes.
D2.1 Gear Design. Failures related to gear design may be due to improper geometry or tolerances;
i.e., pressure angle, tooth thickness, gear class or
type, etc.
D2.2 Manufacture. Manufacturing practices
which could shorten service life include grinding
burns, insufficient or excessive stock removal after
heat treatment, straightening, cracks, stress risers
(tool marks and surface finish), poor radii, etc.
D2.7.2
Casting Defects. Casting defects
which can contribute to premature failure include
shrinkage, porosity, slag, chemical deviation, cracks,
sand, improper weld repair, core shift, cold shuts, etc.
D2.3 Heat Treatment. Heat treat factors which

could affect service life include under or over heating, secondary transformation products, surface decarburization, inadequate quench, improper hardness, microstructure, case depth, decarburization,
and quench cracks.
D2.7.3 Inclusions. An infrequent cause of

fracture initiation is internal non---metallic inclusions which relate to melting practices. Steels can be
specified to varying cleanliness levels. Inadequate
stock removal can leave undesirable surface defects.
D3. Types of Gear Failures. Types of gear failure are
pictured in AGMA 110, Nomenclature of Gear Tooth
Failure Modes.
D2.4 Assembly and Installation. Improper assembly and installation are major contributors to
premature failures and manifest themselves in excessive loading, wear, and misalignment.
D3.1 Wear. The most common wear failure

modes are adhesion, abrasive scoring, corrosion, and
flaking. These usually occur at or above the pitch
line. Wear is influenced by surface hardness and microstructure.
D2.5 Maintenance. Failures related to inadequate maintenance include: contamination of the

system; improper lubrication; vibration due to inadequate rigidity, faulty gaskets, seals, and bearings; and
corrosion.
D3.2 Pitting. Pitting modes are initial pitting,

destructive pitting, and spalling, and result from excessive sliding and rolling contact stresses. Pitting resistance is influenced by surface finish, surface hardness, surface residual stress, microstructure, case
depth, and core hardness.
D2.6 Service Conditions. Service conditions

which could adversely effect gear life are excessive
temperatures, overload, shock or impact loading,
contaminants, loss of lubrication, corrosion, vibra-
ANSI/AGMA
70
2004---B89
D3.3 Plastic Flow. Plastic flow modes are rolling,

peening, rippling, and ridging. Bending plastic flow
occurs when the load exceeds the yield strength of
the material.
ANSI/AGMA
D3.4 Breakage. The majority of breakage failures (90 percent) are due to low and high cycle fatigue. Brittle failures may occur in low temperature
service, in heat affected zones of welds or in notch
sensitive materials. Overload failures result from
misapplication, misalignment, and impact loading.
71
2004---B89

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ANSI/AGMA 2004---B89

(Revision of AGMA 240.01)

AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD

Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

Gear Materials And Heat Treatment Manual

American Gear Manufacturers Association

Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

PERSONNEL of the AGMA Committee for Metallurgy And Materials

M. Abney (Fairfield Manufacturing)

T. Bergquist (Western Gear)

Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

References and Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Materials Selection Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Metallurgical Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Incoming Material Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

Plastic Gear Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Typical Gear Materials --- Wrought Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Test Bar Size for Core Hardness Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

Typical Design of Cast Steel Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Variation in Hardening Patterns Obtainable on

Circular (Head Shot) Magnetic Particle Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

(This page is intentionally left blank)

Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

ASTM A311---79, Specification for Stress Relieved

ASTM A356---84, Heavy---Walled Carbon, Low

2. References and Information

ASTM A400---69(1982), Recommended Practice

The following documents contain provisions

ASTM A536---80, Specification for Ductile Iron

ASTM B427---82, Specification for Gear Bronze

AGMA 2001---B88, Fundamental Rating Factors

ASTM B505---84, Specification for Copper---Base

ASTM E10---78, Test Method for Brinell Hardness

ANSI/AGMA 6034---A88, Practice for Single and

ASTM E54---80, Method for Chemical Analysis of

ASTM A48---83, Specification for Gray Iron Castings

ASTM E112---84, Methods for Determining Average Grain Size

ASTM A148---84, Steel Castings, High

SAE J461---Sept 81, Wrought and Cast Copper

ASTM A255---67, Method for End---Quench Test

SAE J462---Sept 81, Cast Copper Alloys

Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

SAE J463---Sept 81, Wrought Copper and Copper

American Society for Testing and Materials

SAE J808a---SAE HS 84, Manual on Shot Peening

ASTM E399---83, Test Method for Plain ---Strain

Annealing --- Full. Full annealing consists of

Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

Austenitizing Temperature. The temperature at

case. Hardness survey is preferred for contral purposes.

Carburizing--- Gas. Gas carburizing consists of

Case Depth of Carburized Components. The

Combined Carbon. The amount of carbon in

(1) Effective case depth. The effective case

Core Hardness. Core Hardness for AGMA

Gear Materials and Heat Treatment Manual

Ferrite (alpha). Ferrite is a microstructural

Grain Size. Grain size is specified as either

Nitrocarburizing. Nitrocarburizing is a gaseous

Hardenability. An indication of the depth to