HISTORY

PHILOSOPHY.
FROM

THALES

TO

PRESENT

THE

TIME.

BY

DR

lUTB

FRIEDETCH

PB0FES80B

OF

UEBEEWEG,

PHILOSOPHT

IN

ffiranglatrtJfrom

OF

UNIVERSITY

THE

tf)eJfourtt) ffietman

KONIGSBEEO.

ffiUition,

BY

GEO.
PBOFESSOB

OF

MODEBN

LANGUAOES
OF

VOL.

S. MORRIS,
IN

THB

THE

VXCTOEIA

II.-HISTORY

A.M.,

UNIVEBSITY

OF

OF

MICHIGAN,

ASSOCIATE

AND

LONDON.

INSTITUTE,

PHILOSOPHY.

MODERN

JKSttf) Stitiittong
BY

THE

AN

TRANSLATOR,

PHILOSOPHY,
YALE

BY'

NOAH

PHILOSOPHY,

BY

D.D.,

AN

THE

LL.D.,
ON

APPENDIX

VINCENZO

PROFESSOR
IN

ENGLISH

ON

PORTER,
AND

COLLEGE,

LATE

APPENDIX

BOTTA,
OF

AND

PRESIDENT
ITALIAN

PH.D.,

PHILOSOPHY

UNIVERSITY

OF

TURIN.

NEW
CHARLES

YOEK:

SCRIBNER'S
743

AND

745

Broadway.

SONS,

AMERICAN
OF

eiEB 1 9 1953

TRANSLATION,

AUTHORIZED

Entered

according

By
In

the

Office

the

Confess,

ARMSTRONG

SCEIBNEK,
of

of

Act

the

to

AUTHOR.

THE

BY

REVISED

Librarian

of

Congress,

in

the

"

CO.,

at

Washington.

Trow's
Printing
printers

Co.,

Bookbinding

and
and

bookbinders,
X2th

Rast

205-213
NEW

YORK.

St.,

year

1873.

OF

CONTENTS

THIRD

PERIOD

"

The

THE

OF

PHILOSOPHY

SECOND

THE

THE

OF

VOLUME.

CHRISTIAN

PHILOSOPHY.

MODERN

ERA."

PAGE

107.

Three

Divisions

of

Modem

FIRST

THE

EPOCH

"

108.

Character

"

109.

The

"

110.

Protestantism

of

the

First

of

Renewal

DIYISTOK

TRANSITION

OP

1-4

Philosophy

TO

INDEPENDENT

INVESTIGATION.

Division

Platonism

and

4-5
of

other

Ancient

Philosophies

5-15
.

"'111.

and

Beginnings

of

Independent

^112.

OP

EMPIRICISM,

Character

of

the

15-19

113.

"114.

Bacon,

Hobbes,

AND

DOGMATISM,

Second

Descartes,

and

SKEPTICISM

AS

RIVAL

SYSTEMS

Division

31-83

Malebrauche,

"

Philosophers

English

other

Geulinx,

19-31

DIVISION.

"

Investigation

SECOND

PERIOD

Philosophy

and

33-41

Contemporary

Philosophers

41-55
.

"

115.

Spinoza

"

116.

Locke,

"

117.

Leibnitz
of

?
^

118.

French

1 19.

Hume's

the

55-78

"

Berkeley,
and

18th

and

English

other

Contemporary

Philosophers

Philosophers

and

79-93

the

German

Century

Philosophy
Skepticism

in

and

Philosophy
92-122

the

18th
its

Century

122-130

Opponents

130-135
.

CONTENTS

Vlll

OF

DIVISION.

THIRD

PHILOBOPHY

IN

ITS

RECENT

MOST

VOLUME.

SECOND

THE

THE

TIME

OF

AND

CRITICISM

OR

PERIOD,

SPECULATION

PROM

KANT.

PAGE

"

120.

Characterization

"

121.

Kant's

"

122.

Kant's

"

123.

Kant's

"

124.

Kant's

"

125.

Disciples

"

126.

Life

Natural

gl27.
"

128.

"129.

Third

Division

135-187

Writings

and

of

Critique

137-154

Pure

and

Reason

Metaphysical

Principles

Science
Ethics

of

and
and

of
154-180

Philosophy

Religious

and

Critique

Fichte

the

of

the

of

Faculty
of

Opponents

180-187

Judgment

187-194

Kant

194-304

Fichteans

204-213

ScheUing

213-225

Disciples

of

Fellows

and

ScheUing

225-231

Hegel

231-243

"

130.

Schleiermacher

244-254

"

131.

Schopenhauer

255-264

"

132.

Herbart

264-281

"

133.

Beneke

281-292

134.

The

"

135.

Present

Philosophy

Appendix

I.

Appendix

II.

Addenda

State

of

Outside

On

English

Historical

of

and

Sketch

Philosophy

in

Germany

292-337

Germany

337-347

American

of

Philosophy

Modem

Philosophy

348-460

in

Italy

461-516

517-535

PERIOD

THIED

PHILOSOPHY

OF

PHILOSOPHY.

MODEEIS"

Modern

By

" 107.
of
it in

Philosophy
of

its condition

its scholastic

mind,

for

influence

an

and

social

renewal

from

Hume

3.

; and

from

Besides

the

Tiedemann,

authors

the

neueren

Philosophie
sixth

SitVs
L.

des

Heeren,

Fichte,

A.

de

ed.,

Penhoon,

Leipsic,
von

Epoche

Genchlchte

der

Kastner,

Cliarakteristik

zur

einer
cf.

J.

N.

bis

1854

la

1836.

Paris,

1845.

second

de

of

Oischinger,

Hegel,
3d

Erdmann's

TJlrici,

Grtcndriss

Geschichte

und

Entwickelung

Kuno
and

above,

sett

which

I., " 4,

Vol.

Reinhold,
Gottlieb

the

systems

J.

der

jusqiC

Kritik

der

Fischer,
Vol.

2d

der

Philosophie,

Principien

Geschichte

le

par

bis
A.

Eichhorn,

BT.

Hermann

Philosophie,

nosjottirs,

der
forma:

derselben

G'.

ib., 1841.

ed.,

and

GescMchte

Immanuel

neuern

Hatcptsysteme

der

J.

Fiorillo.

Geschichte

der

2, ib., 1865;

D.

by

(Bruckcr,
Hegel,

1800-1805,

Gottingen,

1829,

Sulzbach,
Geschichte

seq,

Eitter,

Buhle,

prepared

and

p.

Wiederherstelhing

der

were

Leibnitz

depuis

1853-54.

I., Parts

der

of

and

Johann

Gmelin,

F.

and

Wissenschaften,

Philosophie,

Speculative

Schaffhausen,

ed., Vol.

of

Darstellung

allemande

Hermann

P.

seq.;

Vol.

philosophie

J.

Hoyer,

neuern

wisseymchaftlichen

the

Ristoire

der

Q-.

Encyclopedists

"

der

divisions

the
and

Ernst

Wisnensclutfteii

und

other
J.

Murhard,

philosophy:

modern

Kuaste

cited

Tennemann,

Wiederherstellung

der

F.

Descartes

Mannheim,

'"'"

the

of

treat

with

time.

works

Philos.,

Its

these.

Dogmatism,

Criticism

present

historical
der

science

beginning

the

to

nature

positive
by

Empiricism,

Kantian

the

Gesch.

G.

ia34-53;
1870.

particular,
der

Descartes

comprehensive
der

of

of

exerting

upon

Period,

pendent
inde-

an

and

prior growths,

reacted

ized
character-

laws

in

tinuance
discon-

into

and

essence

turn

and

till the

Jahrhunderts,''''

Versuch

Leipsic,

in

sett
of

the

Lehrhuch

in

epoch

Kant

(which

investigations

The

of

ejDOch

achtzeJinten

Beitr'uge

Erdmann,

2d

his

following,

division

Ende

of

in

others),

the

The

theology

development

the

Transitional

Bacon

since

to

by

the

philosophy

gradual

subject

being

2.

it, from

Buhle

its

deepened

The

1.

are:

Skepticism,

issuing

and

Platonism

of

its

life, and

divisions

in

contemporaneous

upon

upon

chief

enriched

as

"

is meant

subserviency

form),

science, having
and

ERA.

CHRISTIAN

THE

Joh.

Ed,
und

Riga
Bdrlin.

baron

1866';
Barchou

der

neuern

Philosophie,

der

neuern

Philosophie,

der

II., t"i,. 11867.

7ieuern

Carl

Philosophie,

Schaarschmidt,

PIIILOSOniT

Der

OF

Entijoickelungsfiang

since

I'hilosophy
in

der

1857.

dargentellt, Bonn,

the

modern

time

of

185;3),and

(Konigsberg
Haitpole

Lecky,

London,

18(55;

Oeschichte
York
.

and

und

Recht,

Slaat

1855.

Lectures

1868.

Simon

S.

Robert

von

of

Jahrh.

bis

of

View

of

theories
Gesch.

Wiss.

Gerviilus'

as

J. C. Bluntschli

to the

Leibnitz

auf Lessing" s Tod,

bis

Rerolution

seit der
Herm.

Hettner's
Karl

by

to

Ce-vcA.

Karl

Abundant

and

others,

1851, as
the

particular epochs, especially to

; F.

H.

matics
mathe-

Ileformation

Die

Ilintoire

Matter,

Gesch.

der

philos. Lehren

von

philos.

der

Marburg,

1862; Phil., 1832;

Science, 2d

Mor.

Theories

of Morals,

Monograjj/den

Slaatsrechts

title:

the

Oeschichte

of

in

under

Hinrlchs,

ed.,

British

Edw.

2d eds.,

MacchUivell,

des
8d

J.

by

Vorlander,

Hist,

Will.

of Civilization, New-

W.

rind
also

the

W.

ed.,
burgh,
Edin-

dargestellt.

ralitik

der
of

the

Lotze, occupies

in various

Oeschichte

.seit dc-m

philosophical

seventh

Tode,

in

be

of

volume

found

in

philosophy,

Gesch.

Nation

of

since

Litteratur

pedagogics,
on

Die

philos.

above.
time

the

der

Vol.

of

i^on

allitteratur,

and

Gumposch,
cited

Oeschichte

derfranz.

(see above),

works

of literature,

history

in Deutschland

deutschen

history

the

law

other

in the

Lebens

and

der

on

and

modern

most

works

State

may

also

Gesch.

the

on

Hillebrand's

desgeistigen

der

also
the

"

works

Deutschen,

der

t4ru7ulriss

references

literary

1850, Regensburg

bis

F.

Fichte,

Blakey,

contained

are

18. Jahrhunderts,

Schmidt,

H.

Certain

by

and

1st and

Europe,

Sciences, etc.) treat

of

Natural

Fhiloxophie,

the

Jolowicz,

EinschlusH

R.

on

of

age

Uistory

; I. Herm.

Litt. seit Lessin^s

deutschen

der

Tlie

Staatswissenschaften,

Schmidt's

Koberstein's

gesch. des

Raumer,

1400

von

and

Heinr.

1836

time,

neueren

specially discussed

mit

Germany,

philosophy

Julian

Lessing,

1789, Aug.

Litteratur
von

sciences.

natural

Deutschen

relating

Jahr

im

of

is

po'etischen NationalUtte.ratur

der

seit

in

der

in

Phil., etc., Lond.,

Hist,

I.

space,

in

IcriUsch
of

(Bern, 1853-55);

Dean,

Leipsic, 1850

der

of

History

1868.

Munich,

history

Oeschichte

H.

1852;

the

the

Rationaliam

{Gesch. jies allgem.

Vol.

Esthetics

of

History

Deutschland,

Cf.

Critical

and

since

Mystics

times

Eth.

Litt.

doctrines

Genchiehte

der

of

Mathematik

Free-Thinkers

Franzosen

of

und

1864;

the

translation, by

Eng., Lond.,

Gesch.

especially

sicclea,Paris,

und

DIVISIONS.

Philosophie

die

und

Leipsic, 1848-52

progress
in

of

Spirit of

in modem

Erpositoi^y

(in his
Munich

Nationallitteratnr

deutschen

those

in

contributions

Important
such

The

politics.
der

the

Jahrhunderts,

Phil,

Notes

Laurie,

Gegenwart,

zur

Grcrman

derniers

Euglunder

Mor.

Mohl

IS.

des

dar

I.-III.,Erlangen, 1855-58),and

Vols.

the

Milt:

Gen.

Hist,

Ethics
troix

Reformation,

seit der

seit der

on

Christian

and

York, 1865] ; (German

des

in

Zeit

the

Injtueiice of

history of

Staatslehre

und

Edin,, 1"J6.]

the

The

[SirJ. Mackintosh,

Whewell,

16.

Sitte

und

on

French,

and

[New

StaatspiHncipien

Rechts-

Rise

et politiques

morales

written

English,

PRINCIPAL

treats

treats

Raum,

von

etc., 2 vols., Leipsic, 1867-68).

1869.

London,

Rechts-

Moral,

ed., 1866

3d

Eiklurung,

der

doctrines

des

the

Baumann

Lehren

die
has

the

on

Hi",toi'yof

Julius

Bacon.

Noack

Berlin, 18("8-fi9).Ludwig

(Lcipnu;, 1841-44)

Schaller

( Ueber

THREE

FAnleltvng

als

Speculation,

neuern

Julius

philosophy

ITS

TIMES

MODERN

such

"

Litt.

I., " 4.

der

Works

will

Kant,

as

and

theology

be

tioned
men-

below.

Unity, servitude, freedom

-of the
of
to

Christian

freedom

of

the

of

independent
mind.

was

was

characterized
based

the

confident
attainable

on

prepared
founded

by

way

result

real world

beyond
denied

of

arrived

the

in

by

nature,

the

belief

by

it

period

that

means

marked

the

to

is,that
that

by the following systems,

and

knowledge
experience

thought
moral

for
is
be

to

all

The

stage

which

seeks

Then

of

natural

of modem

in

than

tions,
condi-

changed
in

and

that

the

the

era

realm

of philosophy

and

thought

secured

followed

finally,also,
endeavor

Empiricism

or

been

consisted

systems
and

new

to

Dogmatism,

systems,

which

spiritualreality
Skepticism

alone.

philosophy,

philosophy, the

critical
basis

ancient

comprehensive

of

it must

is man's

of

epoch

history

and
the

by

has

direction

Aristotle.

the

in the

necessary

and

only guide

of

era,

substance
this

adaptation

of nature,

realm

stadium

and

other

such

modem
.

reproduction of
system

the philosophy

theology.

unity (cf above. Vol, I. , ""5

in

investigations

is the
at

form

epoch, the

second

third

of

in the

the

According

man

in its trae

which

the

Criticism.

cognitive faculty
the

for

of

first movement

and

effected

methodical

independently
the

and

The

by

in the

transitional

ecclesiastical

character

respect
The

modification

had

independent

were

in

or

investigation

There

become
was

of authorities,
such

stag-es through which

to

antagonisms, harmonious

thought

scholastics

relation

general

the

three

the

are

its

in

philosophy.

without
Aristotle,
as

of

of

modem

exchange

mere

with

of mediseval

Freedom

72).

gradually by

these

"

passed,

corresponds

restore,in place

and

has

era

which

was

investigation of

the

strictlyscientific philosophizing,

incompetent
restricted

consciousness.

although these systems

are

to

to the

the
world

This

cognition
of

of

the

phenomena,

result

has

all lineal descendants

been

from

philosophy of

the

for

There

only

religion, the
iiuleed

the

State,

whole,

ent

1863.

Berlin,

essential

an

modern

theology,

on

influence,

consisted

who

"

find

Modern
in

nature

in

then,

Geschichte

Kant

in

l)eculiarity, but
theoretxal
which

under
The

the

of

the

on

Hegel

than

hand

other

it

represents
the

as

involved,

the

bring

In

of

the

(in
and

"three
the

his

in

antiquity

of

"'

thought

Sophists,
and

the

by
second

as

Socrates
third
the

by

the

* '

the

Neo-Platonists

disciples

the

the

by

the

Hume,

of

class

first

of

period,
and

of the
the

and

which
Fichte

and
from

philosophy
to the

belong,

the

sphere

must

compromise.
Thales

drawn

the

last

the

'"

by

This

while

poston

knowledge.
v.

Keichlin-

distinguishes

and

recognizable

the

stand-point

author

regards

; the

and

Hume

as

of

tion
revolu-

the

second

is, he

by subjectivism ;

' '

in the

other

Stoics, Epicureans,

before

still more

founded

Kuno

and

to Democritus

philosophers

methods

the
and

author

each
The

while

Hegelians

irabili'ation,s.schrift,

objective tendency

is characterized

of

of ascertained

akadem.

succeed

by

knowledge,

cognitive facult}%

Plato, Aristotle,

extends

exact

trines,
doc-

existence,

investigation

by

senses.

objective truth;

an

doctrine,

eminrical

formula

respective

in respect

subjective stand-points

philosophers

modem

But

is the

"

different

conception

Platonic

interesting.

nature

their

and

individual

common

very

parisons)
com-

Kant,

Socrates

his

transcendent

favorite

parallels

human

development,

Socrates, by
in

plausible

arbitrary

the

thought

Philoaophies

peoples)philosophizes,

natural

; but

Kant,

is

nature

the

neuen

objectiveand

of commencement,

and

to which

the

: the

people (or a

stadia

that

from

philosophy,

altenund

with

and

within

mind

in

that

external

to

in his

of

of

of

said

Zusammenhang

man

although
each

an

form

Plato, Aristotle;

elements

to

the

chiefly

cos^

to

finally (especiallyin

by others) between

one).

contrast

dualism,

and

of

der

much

times

philosophy

subjectivein

period,

development

in modern

whenever

this

in nature

law

Parallelismiis

1865) contain

and

in Grreek

represented

of

in dualistic

of

measure

many

individual

idea

dialectic, like

82) seeks

p.

fairly be

; and

contains

to

tlje

(as Kuno

problems

greater

substance

to the

appropriate

more

overcome

also

(whence

the

an

has

development

18fi5,I., 1,

Socrates,

the

of

prxijma'ische

also

concede

gives

world

Der

applies

both

as

Hegelian

'""

abiding

to

mind

line

directed

their
to

were

philosophy

modem
the

far

God

to

the

not

brought

Plato

as

the

the
Ideas

the
to

stand-points, derivable

identity,''''
which,

as

Der

Heidelberg.

necessary

same

of

historical

whole

opuscule:

far

so

as

appears

reign

rational

the

in

and

and

reference

phenomenal

just, since

strives

be

can

with

far, namely,

so

the

knowledge

Empiricism

to

Leipsic

in

in

is indeed

the

indeed,

pertinent,

Aristotle

modern

experience
respect

is

first

was

unmistakably,

analogj^exists

philosophers

two

universal

the

to

The

under

hand,

Still it may

notice:

"

modem

intere.?t

ecclesiastical
specifically

the

noticed

man

of

its

confined

all its

developed

filled,to

in

however,

of

worthy

thinkers,

in

(in his

work,

(often previously

; the

things

existence

nature

Hermann

is

it is

sometimes,

development,

then

other

ed., Manheim,

times,
to

of

the

with

Neo-Platonisra.

ancient

which

"

these

reference

Plato

it is not

comparison

scientific

Meldegg

the

to

"

which

of

of

relation

Conrad

analogy

both

of

immanent

as

latter,places

the

Hegelian

The

his

1863

parallel,

partially justified;only

only

Hegel

Absolute.

with

of

Hegel

in

time

in

as

Dresden,

measure

doctrines

modem

such,

2d

which

interest

an

spirit.
order

Grab,
dei"end-

that

so

and

was

on

progress

reverse

its

owed

to

the

to

in

with

world,

beginning

previous

as

the

part

; the

Philos.,

neuerew

of

most

in

for

that

viewed

of

der

the

the

to the

to-day.

fact

man

comparison

while

of

the

practical

and

man

following

the

Empiricism

the

is found

to

Philosophies

der

indicates

Hegel,

inquiry,

Hegel)

and

for

philosophy

addition,

Spinoza, ScheUing,
ill der

Gesch.

which,

philosophizing

parallelism

and

existing

Church,

and

Ficlite's

progress

cosmology

tems,
sys-

before

appearance

substantially concentrating

philosophy

of the

deepening

from

has
not

(though

philosophical

independent

of ancient

whole

with

began

already
and

of their

may

later

subject specially

auf

influences,

in the

which

to the

pursued

itself, is

order

external

on

last

at

of State

transition

is the

diverse

the

arisen,
give

Gedtnkblabt

ein

measure

philosophy

branches

forms

theological conception

the

ancient

did

and
of

period

philosophy

theology

theology) than

the

justly remarks,

"

of

out

way

mology."
interest

for

these

all

and

slight

physics,

with

influence

the

in

only

have

studies

philosophy

systems,

through

which

the

the
have

reaction, especially by

and

problems

between

without

been,

pre-suppositions

itself,and

but

ment
develop-

philosophical

same

has

these

action

arose,

this

and

isolated

ancient

existing

emancipation

gradual

philosophy

ancient

"to

While

first

Philosophies

philosophies

earlier

found

by

of

but

which

period,
der

in

character
of

of the

that

assumes

g' en

philosophy

of

progress

the

solution

both

reciprocal

(The analogy

given

any

ethics, together

determined

in the

Fischer

the

philosophy

under

extent

important

of

also

as

and

logic

to

of

their

But

philosophical

new

those

stamp.

Anal.

Die

is manifest.

agreement

chiefly

attention

of

the

essentially

at

same.

of

between

that

attempts

the

relations

with

way

single systems,

of

parallelism
general,

all

essentially

it in

different

non-existence

or

of

result

with

general

than

more

succession

in the

indeed,

still

But

the

positive sciences,

the

in

in

i^rogressing development

philosophy

the

complete

(not merely of historical)significance

asserting,

cause,

stand

materially

with

existence

the

on

same

HelfEerich,

A.

by

and

the

very

contemporaneously
discussed

arts,
in

designated

be
as

forces which

the

by

the

Through

truth.

assumed

that

special modifying

some

limited

forms

and

recurred,

always
of

intervention

discover

to

philosophy,

modern

of

PHILOSOPHY.

immediate

present day.

the

sought

have

that

and

have

X^roblems

who

some

arc

of aucient

MODERN

OF

is still of

philosophy, which

Kantian

the

DIVISIONS

THREE

THE

first

by

the

Skeptics

says,

panied
accom-

and

Kant

; the

and

the

third.

FIRST

DIYISION

THE

the

the

from

transition

of

and

authorities, and
founded

the

in

particular,

Carneades,

and

Idealism,"

while
and

not

universal

Herbart
which

philosophy

the

limit

mind.

philosophical
inquiry

various

besides
of

to the

in

Socrates

offers

forwards.

But

with

with
the

Bacon

of

the
of

institution

true,

of

itself.

systems

is to
which

to

the

unity),

Descartes

inevitably

critical

inquiry,

however

may,

reflection

in

follow

out

certain

of

an

analogy

between

much

positive

to

with

if

into

Democritus
the

priests
did

points

value,

of

but

concerning

trivial.

the

the

Socrates,
to

with

difference
mark
the

(on

of

not
The

are

rather
same,

than

also

the

Orphic

necessarily

out

with

stage

the
from
of

of

if, for

care

the

historical

the

that

Ethics

Telesius

the

same

the

should

to

Platonists,

much

which

and

of

Skeptics

the

from

mysteries,

to

and

Kant

with

involve

with

Hegel

blending

Florentine

the

comparisons

transition

and

accoiint

philosophers

natural

the

his

of

than

that

cognition

; and

pointed
the

of
account

the

doctrine,

backwards

on

cribed
as-

which

Socrates

seem

be
towards

distinguished

Schelling

it would

"

doctrine

his

Megarians

the

with

say,

in

and

religion,

nearly

cannot

Kant's

analogies

it, chiefly

at least

or

interest

in

of

nothing

"

physics,

with

common

recommend

to

skilfully executed,

degenerate

scientific

more

to

Object,
admit

identity,"

most

were

illustrated

as

has

Thales

from

who

prevalent
the

again,

this

in

but

prevalent

(complete

with

for

German

the

mmd,

of

of

developed

Kant

Stipes,

of

philosophers

philosophical

high

wdth

Spinoza

gives occasion,
a

reference

independently

identity,

in

philosophical

possible

has

with

of

philosophers

very

and

assertion

certainly

Plato,

parallelisms,

they

the

with

natural

is

direction

mind."

of

the

"

but

stand-point

homogeneous

"Subjectivism,"

to

it

with

end

of the

"

the

nothing

representatives

are

doctrine

is

the

the

source

doctrines,

which

"

itself

instructive,

stand-point
its

was

in

point

of

simply

has

point
stand-

finite

attainable

understood

there

besides

prevalent

again

analogy.

an

starting-point

; but

case

up

Subject

of

and

suggestive

Subject

the

the

stand-point

completion

to
trospective,
in-

opposition

from

contained

highest

the

also,

the

Hume

"objective

an

Hegel

the

"subjective

assertions:

for

he

to the

grown

the

solve

and

the

the

Hume

only

background;

philosophy

principle

such

have

Leibnitz

independent

parallel! sras

similarity,

as

the

took

in

was

to

"Heraclitus

is cither

period,
times

being"

E,.-M.,

that

by

source

doctrine

in the

also

and
doctrine

way

exclusive

who

than

contrast

practical

whereby

in

assertion

ancient

of

left

definite

was

is

again,

namely,

yet

"pure

adds

imperfect;

modem

same,
;

termination

distinguished,

but

least

was

be

certain

the

Hegel's

only

Spinoza,

doctrine

Absolute

parallelism

extreme

philosophy,

parties compared

metaphysical

with

such

his

Greek

its

the

should
in

and
of

has

to

the

stand-point''

the

is

philosophers,

Sophistic
of

compares,

Greek

Socrates,

Aristotelian

Hegel

the

was

world,

former,

Object

doctrines

parallelism

the

external
the

intensified

sense

of

fact

an

"

Aristotle,

forerunners

of

the

of

in

paralleled

Locke

the

if

attitude

this

Neo-Platonists,

similar

the

had

rather

the

Aristotle,

and

from

and

by

Fichte,

tendency

and

Aristotle

half

which
Plato

Aristotle,

the

in

the

be

both

and

period

period,

Sophists

be

middle

Subject,
this

Kant

Subjectivism

complete)

the

; from

matter

to

; or,

of

uncontrolled

finally, attempted

Since,

general

of

to the

scientifically impossible,

"objective

choice

oldest

Aristotle

attempted

Eleatics.

is

of

and

the

of
"

the

the

contrary,

philosophy

the

that

development.
the

discover

to

that

may

and

knowledge,

By

the

authority

similarity

the

disciples

Schelling,

philosophy

on

to

Kantian

mind

and

Dualism.

were

inqtiiry

doctrine

modifications

exists
that

the

latter,

motion

attempt

the

to

infinite;

here

it were,

and
"

the

Reichlin-Meldegg

v.

to

enlightenment
as

Neo-Platonists

Schelling's

of

convincing.

of

was,

mind,"

the

Atomists
human

of

"

K.

Bacon,

to

that

"

of

Criticism

which

the

the

This
not

of
the

of

of

direction

by

from

the

Subjectivism

field

original

imperfect

period

Kant

ideal

completed

what

is

the

in

principle

Spinoza

respects

in

way

Hegel

confessing

the

that

adds

of

down

to the

characterized

independent

identity.

preparation"

Stoics,

subjective

same

direction

and

; but

of

stand-point
of

first Cartesians

to the

declension

transcends

philosophy

numerous

the

immanent

is to

"

was

and

unexplained

an

the

in

identity,

of

the

experimenter

Kant's

the

by

on

the

beginnings

"period

is

Philosophy

dependence

Eleatics," though

the

to Aristotle

great

real

the

Locke

Plato,

to
Kant

the

ideal

of
to

the

to

Socrates,

to

Leibnitz

Eleatics,

of

Bruno

Descartes

compares

mediaeval

Hegel,

and

philosophers

Modern

Aristotle, first, to

then

Schelling

by

separately,

of

INVESTIGATION.

INDEPENDENT

TO

first division

Church

and,

TKANSITION

OF

The

108.

"

by

EPOCH

PIIILOSOPIIY,

MODERN

OF

as

rest,

is

only

institution
as

historical

points
preciation
ap-

appreciation

RENEWAL

THE

investigation,
yet

without

efforts from
no

the

Of

intellectual

the

au

"" 109,110, and

"

109.

Middle

Idme

the
la

pendant

the

Among
to

This

and

the

of the mediaeval

sophical
philo-

new

and with
spirit,

transition-period,

Jules

premiere

du

pariie

Joly treats,

Ytme^

in

Histoire

Paris, 1860.

Of.

du
the

mouvement
works

cited

111.

Ages

studies.

et

complete emancipationof

domination

in

movement
siecle

ETC.

PLATONISM,

development of independentsystems.

rigidlymethodical

intellectuel

OF

the

events

introduced

times, the earliest

modern

revival

which

was

the transition
the revival

from

of

the

classical

acter
by the one-sided charof scholasticism,
and positively

negativelyoccasioned

was

gradual self-dissolution

were
Italy which
and more
and by
more
appreciatedas material prosperityincreased
of the Western
the closer contact
world, especiallyof Italy,with
of learned
after the flightof large numbers
Greece, particularly
Greeks
when
the Turks
at the time
to Italy,
were
threateningEurope
the art of printing
of
invention
The
and had taken
Constantinople.
first important result
The
facilitated the spread of literary
culture.
connection
of Western
rope
Euin the field of philosophyof the renewed

by

remains

the

of

ancient

and

art

literature

in

"

"

with

Greece,

was

the

introduction

of

the

Platonic

Xeo-

and

into the West, their enthusiastic

and
philosophies
reception,
the attempt by means
of these to supplant the scholastic- Aristotelian
totelian
Pletho, the passionatedisputant of the Arisphilosophy. Gemistus
moderate
and MarPlatonist,
doctrine,Bessarion, the more
Flatonic

silius

Ficinus, the

the most

important

meritorious

of the

renewers

translator

of Plato

of Platonism.

and
On

Plotinus,were
the other

hand,

originaltext, and by preferringGreek to Arabian

educated
Aristotelians were
enabled
to precommentators,
classically
sent
in greater purity than
of Aristotle
the doctrine
the Scholastics
in Northern
done.
In particular,
since the fourhad
teenth
Italy,where
had
been
terpreta
customarilyfollowed in the incentury Averroes
of
was
Aristotle,the authority of this commentator
of
in
the
Aristotelians
favor of the Greek
disputed by a portion
of Alexander
it coninterpreters,
tinued
particularly
Aphrodisiensis
; but
to
assert
limited
itself,
especiallyat Padua, though in more
by returningto

measure,
roistic
entire

until

the

near

the middle

of the seventeenth

century.

The

Aver-

universal
doctrine,that only the one
to the
reason
common
human
is immortal, agreed with
race
the Alexandristic,which

divine mind
recognizedonly the world-ordering
the active
as
in
the
denial
of
individual
most
reason,
immortality; still,
of
representatives
Averroism, especiallyin the later years

tal
immor-

of the
of

the

enabled

school,were
of

OF

KENKWAL

TUE

to avoid

orthodoxy as

the Church.

conflict with

to the

this doctrine

accoinmodate

to

bo

ETC.

PLATONISM,

ments
require-

The

Alex-

Pomponatius is the most noteworthy,inclined

from philosophical
truth
and Xaturalism, but distinguished
to Deism
the theological
truth taught by the Church, to which
they professed
whom

andrists,among

Beside

of truth.

nature

Platonic

the

Aristotelian

and

fold
two-

d(^ctrines,

Telesius

renewed.

also
of antiquity
were
philosoj[)hies
of
independent investigators
relatively
other

of the

the doctrine

submission; the Church, however, condemned

and

other

considerablyinHuenced
phers.
by the doctrines of the earlier of the Greek natural philosoand developed by Lipsiusand
renewed
othei-s.
Stoicism was
Epicureanism by Gasseiidi,and Skepticism by Montaigne, Charron,

An

Letteratura

Herm.

Ludw.
2

Wisseiischaften,
Gesch.

Erhard,

Heeren,

edited

his

by

Fricdr.

Herman

des

GescJdcMe

des

wiss.

XI.

of

Favre,

third

section

Lit.

Class.

Die

on

; Jacob

Wiedererweckutig

Wiederaufblilhen der

class.

in

1868;

the

Middle

Ernest

see

esp(^-

treated

Ernst

Ages);

1841-44;

1856
Cultnr

tAver-

et

15. und

im

IHe

Voigt,

Georg

K.

edition,

new

Averrois

Renan,

Aug.

Renaissance

der

in

Alterthums), Basel, 1860, 2d ed., 1^69;

des

by
dcr

1828-32;

Magdeburg,

Die

Burckhardt,

also

Wiederaujlebeti

dem

Utt., Geneva,

in Deutschland

Siudien

seit

szeitulter, Erlangen,

d'Msi.

Melanges

1822-26

subject is

same

Deutschland,

in

Reformation

Berlin, 1859

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classischen

of

varnehmlich

Tiraboschi's

Girolamo

Vols., Milan,

Litteratur

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; Guillaume

seq.

Hist,

16

in

edition); the

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der

im

is contained

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; edition

Milan

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relig. Verhdltnisse

Hagen,

255

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Das

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and

Bildung,

the
(particularly

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1772-82

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roisine, Par., 1852,

Wiederbelebung

(Vols.VII.

in

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classical

Vols., Modena,

Wiederaufbluhens
Utt. und

son,

13

Vols., Gott., 1797-1802

des

Deictschlands

Hagen,

VII.,

of

renewal

Italiana,

VI., 1, and

cially Tom.
Arnold

of the

history

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Anfang

des

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siicle,Paris,

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; De

Incer

RENEWAL

THE

in

1(500,and
Die

Bianco's

De

Rudolph

De

1649;

Leyden,

Florence, 1727.

Michel

multxira

de

Trois
; this

period

activity resulted
citizens

nobility and

the

at

in 1550

L;^on8

first part

the

of

F.

J.

controversial

1864.

V. Le

la philos.

v.

work

1480, and

in

Petri

Bimbenet,

M.

sur

Essais

M.

de

Sagesse,

la

is

than

dogmatic

more

the

Vienna,

1860.

Horatius

Tubero,

Mons,

Franfois

"

former.

de

1673, etc,

la

de

totis

lexers rapports

dans

1601.

ed.

Iieretiques

Francis

"

le

et

Sanchez.

; Tractatus

Mothe

(Euvres

vita

Prevost-

par

Bo*irdeaux,

1581, etc.

scitur, Lyons,

nihil

Gerkrath,

de

Lyons,

les notes

acec

elude

Les

De

L.

opera,

Steele,Paris, 1840.

recently,

noxwelle

une

II,, Hague^

Diog.

Gasnendi

XVII.

au
;

Vol.

in

athees, idoldtres,juij's,Mahometans,

ten

work

et

Charron,

scientia, quod

par

AiiimaUversiones

1655, 1659;

de

Clerc,

Pierre

"

tous

earlier

and

philoso-

Vayer,

Cinq

(not including

the

etc.

have

we

existence

the

among

indu.strial and

arrived, increased

now

of

material

the

State

increase

an

J.

Hist,

1624,

I., Grenoble,

1656;

frequently reprinted

others, Eugene

among

contre

anciens

which,

in

M.

Ludwig

cf,

des

at

into

came

see,

itniversali

Dialogues), Paris, 1653,

the

1580, very

Orleans,

latter

him

on

fails d P imitation

In

in the

inventions, published

dialectica

Hague,

in his

Damiron,

par

verite-

prima

et

1649;

phici, Rotterdam,

Ph.

moderne,

Paris, 1594

schismatiques,

him

on
.

Montaigne

on

legislation

la

2}hilos. Epicuri,

Syntagma

et completees

by Renoiiard, Dijon, 1801:

"

De

1647, Hague,

JEpicuri, Leyden,

Essais, Bourdeaux,

choisies

Paris, 1865;

ave-

Cf

Montaigne,

de

les commentateurs,

aboTe

printed

were

earlier

printed

were

Aristoteleos, Vol.

adv.

paradoxicarum

et doctrina

1658,

dialogues

works

single

Alarcli, Cologne, 1539;

cura

Exercitutionum

Epic,

Tractatus

Basel, 1540-43

Agricola, Opera,

etpMloa.

Paradol,

his works
is contained

Agrippa

Aristo'xleo.% Venice, 1409.

contra

vita, moribus

and

of

biography

1515, Strasburg, 1521, Cologne, 1L27, Paris, 1538,

Gassendi,

P.

1659;

Cologne, 1855.

Koln,

Valla, Works,

dlaleciica

Louvain,

at

Univertdt'at

alte

Laurcntius
entitled

Stuttgard, 1856.

German,

ETC.

PLATONISM,

(Col.,1527, Par., 1529,Antw., 1530) ;

Scientiarum

Vanitatt

et

titudine
and

OF

prosperity ; cities
the

citizens,notwithstanding

and

arose,

and

consolidated,

was

the

at

commercial

of

existence

continued

of

class

free

courts, among
wars
^

and

feuds,

same

time

leisure
and

by
manly

feeling which
fire of

the
moral

the

struggles

knowledge

which

of

capture
Greek

for

der

not

fled thither

the

had

Dante

the

Francesco

the

most

heart.

and

literature

the

was

first to

the

leisure

remains

of

desire

to know
still

was

had

long
led

p,

283)

the

of

the

before

the

In

would

approach

emigration
der

have

of

the

of

taste

necessary

of the

Turks

scholars

to

who

paid

to

Greeks,

hope of satisfying

the

Greek

brought

; with

early Roman

class. Litt. sett dem

been

had

attention

literature

largely preserved.

and

which

families

noble

The

culture.

in

opened

there
in

the

and

world

the

reawakened

cultivated

more

Gescli. des Studiums

I,

be

of

and

and

ancient

to the

of

intelligentinterest

an

of

devotion,

expression

sentiment

"

of

culture

conceptions

and

force

natural

found

humane

tinguished
dis-

as

delicacy

every

"

man,

This

ancient

art

treason

the

and
to

the

Italy ;

Wiederaufle-

Italy, if they had

refuge.

combination

speculative

for

"

visited

Alighieri (12G5-1321),

Virgil.

move

culture,

fervor

love, the

with

man

of

At

extolled

contests, the

of

ignominy

connected

itself
been

(says Heeren,

for

form
Poets

severe

of

of peace.

arts

secular

pains

the

Italy

in

rising burgher-class

extant

forth

and

and

provided

power
the

Vol.
Wissenschaften,

scholastic

to

ancient
in

Constantinople (1453)
Muses

ben

the

of

itself

society of

the

in

poetry

love

in Greece

desire, Greece

this

the

of
called

literature

the

by

up

grew

loyalty, the

deeply

ancient

life
and

resuscitation

Roman

of

politicalparties was

to wealth

attained

raptures

developed

The

social

the

history ;

in the

fitted

for

of

there

approves

entirelyextinguished

been

never

for

in terms

sense

of life

adornment

which

nobility
is

affairs.

of human

the

conspicuous

which

poetry

also

the

previous prevailingly religious type.

courage

hate, the

feeling

secular
up

is

for

parallel movement

the

from
; the

beauty

found

was

of

Christian

basis, cultivated
Petrarca
enthusiastic

for

whose

theology
his

sense

(July 20, 1304,

passion

for

daring
with

of
to

the

poem

on

the

Aristotelian

poetic form

especially by

July 18, 1374), the

ancient

Last

Literature;he

singer
was

the

Judgment

philosophy
the
of

furnished

study of

love,

tained
enter-

intimately

ac-

ETC.

quainted with

the

Roman

and
literature,

by his

labors

own

in the

collection

of MSS.

the

of

and

the

by

ancients,he
Petrarch

did

was

and

popular

from

In

Calabria, in whose
whence

he

Benedict

Pope
the

1839,

it

of Petrarch

Giovanni

was

from

thoroughly

more

Boccacio

and

only relativelytrue,
contains

(I. Nov.

NatJuin)

of
of

as

He

university.

given

was

of Ravenna,

more

works.

Manuel

Pletho, was

language

Aretinus,

142G,

llaume

above

1493) to

for

the

the

Aldine

At

the

of

court

on) Georgius

Gemistus

had

from

who

of the

come

Platonic

into
FfjLKCTTo?

he wrote

the

he
Aristotle,

(bom

Neo-Platonic

on

rejected with

the

pupil,

(born 1389.

and

more

effecting

his

Johannes

from

Philelphus
work

Milan

At
Greek

(bom
Gui-

of

other

and

His

language.

de' Medici

purchase

(born 1448,
of

numerous

labored

Musurus,

1355,

A.D.
was

the

Attic

1464)

died

most

in the

died

lived

in the

vehemence

for

zealously

Occident.

Peloponnesus

and

the

the

He
of

of

changed
IlA

Categoriesand

Aristotelian

1438

(from

time

influential renovator

suggestive
nA"')flfor,

Isagoge of Porphyrj'
greatest

Marcus

the

Greek
him

From

cf. the

Lorenzo

pupU

classics.

philosophy

and
the

in

His

about

Constantinople

synonymous

commentaries

of Greek

de' Medici

Pletho

from

ambassador

Library.

edition

Cosmo

and

as

nected
con-

of classical

Italy),Leonardus

Marius

the

taught

more

studies

of the

teacher

education.

the

but

Constance),

at

him

the

their

Malpighi

reading

others, and
of

losophy
phi-

became

for

also in

on

his

great success,

Florence).

and

and

their

received

instrumental

was

him,

Johannes

by the

at

of Verona,

Constantinople,

(1446-1535),

Medicean

in

afterwards

in

the

salary, at

of

love

public

(1398-1481),the father
in 1480, at Mantua"

others

^, and

Bajesid II.,

manuscripts
preparing

died

as

Constantinople

Guarinus

Lascaris, from

Lascaris

Johannes

died

taught

at

fixed

1415,

a.d.

appeared

Italy (at Venice,

Philelphus

cited

Favre,

who

Greek

Constantinople,

places. Constantinus
son.

Constantinople (died

was

appointed by

was

the

circles

widening

ever

in

literature,with
and

the

him,

to

by Lessing,

universities.

powerful,

In

in

Demmerone

collectingof manuscripts

and

Greek

belief

expected

in Latin

friend

1300-63.

is found

with

was

at other

The

rich

in

Barbarus.

Francis

at

all that

Boccacio's

Leontius

language,

instruction

the

of

Chrysoloras (who

Franciscus

Chrysoloras,
A.D.

with

first native
in

Greek

therefrom

learned

years
with

which

in

continued,

was

who

to

younger

results.

modified

underlying

imitated

gave

kindled

was

the

at Florence.

on,

and

recommendation,

speedily

was

the

religions.

revived

to

Petrarch,

religion,according

other

accomplish

Petrarch,

literature

and

Joh.

nephew,

indeed

Chrysoloras
the

Christian

with

par

in

important

Pilatus,in

unknown,

received

Certaldo,1313-1375),

conception

instructor

pride

antiquity

the

it

Petrarch

led

to

gave

(died
had

the

which

already accompanied

was

Boccacio's

1397
of

matter

of

from

and

Padua,

on

here

during

which

pupil, Leontius

thus

not

and

pupil

with

of

On

did

of

(John

he

Aristotelic

EucHd

Andronicus

which

preferred

become

never

extremely

story (subsequently

public

of

Plato,

little

Barlaam

and

the

works.

but

the

to

by Bernard

had

time

He

Seneca,

Emperor

brief

source

rings, the

Averroes.

Florentines

and

the

3)

the

stimulus

Christianity;

was

three

the

the

antiquity

of

character

non-absolute

example

in

and

these

had

Averroism.

Homer,

instruction

the

Boccacio

of

he

but

works

of

propagation

instructed

was

study

taste

of

language

of

to

Barlaam's

interest

the

he

and

and

his

Cicero

works

The

the

others,

to

of

Greek

became, through

communicated

and

that

and

the

indeed, owing

was

doctrines

language

Avignon.

at

infidel

ambassador

as

year

Greek

language

convents

came

XII.

but
insufficient;

at

the

for the

love

preservation
suited

like

for

to search

; Plato

the

hated

He

parenetic philosophy,

whom

Greece,

for the

Aristotle

of

either.

inspired others

service

friend

Bchool-philosophy.
1348),

he

invaluable

no

knowledg-e of

which

with

zeal

.)i'.

in

1452),

the

study

his

name

Although

Annli/ticsof

doctrine

that

the

ETC.

it substances

farded

argued

perhaps

the

only

year

fragments
the

naturalism,
from

the

found

to

of

Platonic

of the

In

atonic

entitled

into

of

souls

certain

filled

Academy

of

has

of

the

with

stars,

to

distinguishing
the

tion
devia-

the

(in

before

soul

its

ethical

numerous

which

us

towards

philosophemes

world).

love

warm

of

"

Plato

down

come

human

eternity of

Florence,

at

and

and

"/d/iCJi^
avyypacpfi,which, in

Platonic

the

of the

theory

treatise,

Platonic

special consideration

pre-existence

became

his

the

tendency of Aristotelianism

taking

the

pertinent,

of Zoroaster

Gennadius,

the

to

ethics.

He

nature.

not

as

between

Dogmas

work

dogmas
the

and

de' Medici

the

ideas

Platonism, without, however,

or

Christian

Neo-Pl

secondary

of

for

and

Through

Platonism, and

Marsilius

Ficinus

was

first Director.
A

of

Archbishop

which

Latin

his

master,

Churches,

of

Platonis

19, 1462,

May

of

George

and

fought

addressed

Aristotle

{iui

'5t

he

and
LaTF-pu))^

rejoinder

Pletho, whom

with

moderation,
of

translations
the

strict

their

making

and

to

conduct

used

of

and

the
the

Aristotle,

Aristotle,

and

often, through

are

better

to

of

great

Bessarion's

degree

same

(Jt36jxe.vov

those

invectives.

way

and

violence

of

example

Theophrastus,
led

to

Metaphysics of

the

to

not

they

the

Plato

the

respect

of

than

arguments

but

up

disputes, after

(though

Scholastics);

with

fender
de-

Aristotelian

both

(Tixhoirarui

w?

dated

passionate

for
ku'l

attack

letter

great esteem, for

look

of
Meta^'thysics

the

of

the

by

of

Pletho's

the

Gaza,

iriXri

the

Platonis''''

and

reverence

Wptar
in

held
to

aU

Memorabilia

Xenophon's

literalness,un-Latin

translations

he

Michael

rather

use

fragment

extant

exhorts

; he

philosophers of antiquity,

Theodore

Like

Compai'atioAristotells

the

still young

and

with

earlier
later

by

ones

translators.
Ficinus

Marsilius
teacher

of

philosophy

lasting credit
also
it

of

was

then

Pico

like

He

of

he

character

was

(died 1533).

his

both

of

and

other

faithful

hundred
to

of the

philosophy

of

he
of

works

Neo-Platonists

"

died
Plato

translations

Cosmo

de

1499.

in
and

Medici
He

won

Plotinus,
which,

so

and

far

as

elegant.
blended

theses

dispute

appointed by

Florence, where

and

(1463-94)

1433, and

in

transla.tions

nine

thought
the

Florence,

Academy

Mirandola

propounded

which

concerning

the

at

by Porphyry

possible,were

doctrines.

Of

at

especially by
works

some

John

born

was

at
his

Rome

with

his

Neo-Platonism

(printed, Rome,
; but

nephew,

the

John

"

Greek

defended

In

Apostolius,a

the

1472.

died

by

IlAdrtjyf/,
(ptXovvra6'

blames

and

of

Calumniatorem
to

1395,
"

union

moved

i'j-S-i

"pi'\ovi"ra
p"^
even

his opposition to Aristotle

of

Advcrsus

in

Constantinople,

passionately against Platonism.

Michael

to

the

IV.,

'"''

work,

151G), was

of

impartiality,Bessarion

had
reviled
of Platonism, who
Aristotle and
affirms his love
opponent of Pletho, Bessarion

and

of

Trebizond, the Aristotelian,who,

had

Aristotelianism,

on

best-known
and

in favor

bom

was

Patriarch

by Pope Eugene
and

who

Trebizond,

leaning

Cardinal

of

subsequently

his

through

His

[14()9],Venice, 1503

(Rome

and

greater moderation

of Platonism.

doctrines

1436,

made

was

"

with

yet

to him

Bessarion

was

in

Nicaea

lost

position was

and

Pletho

G-emistus

of

pupil

became

et

the

also

doctrine

Patriarch

of

Neo-Platonic,

world-soul

Cosmo

lectures

led

the

opposition

doctrines

the

of

only

difiference

comprehensive
by

corresponding
Platonic

politicaldicta, and

was

the

life,of

terrestrial

the

his

the

on

Compendium

theosophic tendency

particular, the

Pletho's

"

in his

exalts, in

from

doctrine

Plato's

he

is

theology, psychology, and

of its condemnation
"

Platonic

Florence,

at

integrant part of

an

the universal
the

to

Aristotelian

1440,

and
philosophies,

consequence
in

the

against

Aristotelian

that

objections of Aristotle

ritten about

"

individuals, and

are

the

cabalistic

1486, Cologne, 1619),

disputation
Francis

Pico

was

forbidden.
of Mirandola

10

Ficinus

Through
of the

His

Cornelius

Lullus,

Raymundus

the

rius,with

died

"

ethnicism, especially

Gennadius

destroyed).

and

defended

also

his

to influence

De

the

this

designated,

Greek

unchristian

find

Aristotle,

and

wrote

Theodoras

Gaza

there

the

of

opponent

on

Laurentius

physical

Valla

of Herodotus

method

employed

and

afterwards

on

by

(born at Rome
and

of

history

Quintilian he

borrowed

Agricola (1442-85)
Italy the

and

prayers

indignation

Categ.

the

"

of Gilber-

serving

as

to him

; but

according

Greek,

into
Greek

about

in another

text

century), from

Hispanus

he

and

and

not

in

of BesCom-

his

of Pletho

religion, neither
him

treats

Plato,
in

given

translated

In

doctrine

new

and

heathen,

only,

the
a

been

work

Rome.

censures

to found

have

must

as

if the

which,

above-mentioned
and

to

of (the greater

translation

at Venice

intended

died

1478)

in

1415,

the

as

does

new

George

the

1430

to

of

form

systematic
of

several

and
where

about

went

was

of

works

He

and
in

translated,

an

ticular,
par-

Theophrastus.
he

died

in

1465),the

successful

vigorous

vapid

subtleties

prevalent

rhetorical

principles.

scholastic

Italy, and

Aristotelian

leamed

Bessarion.

made

logicaland
of

He

with

terms

Aristotle

studied

instruction

accepted

same

Petrus

the

literature.

Thucydides,

in

in

and

friendly

science

the

Prindpiis

translated
the

but

(in imitation

them.

on

language

Pletho,

writings, especially

Sex

was

11th

the

Trebizond

Thessalonica,

at

De

philosophical theorems,
of

George

commentaries

Greek

and

Rudolph

tenable

Pletho, though

works

Cicero

and

(bom

having

; in Aristotle

teaching.

' '

also, the

Venice, 1523)

at

of

to

dogma,

Porphyry,

is attributed

philosophy

Neo-Platonic

but

Mohammed

definite

for

suitable

with

of

of

sentenced

Christian

scholastic

hand,

(livingin

and

he

hammed
Mo-

accused

published by Ehinger (Wittenberg, 1597)

Compendium

(printed

him

charges

dangerous

Trebizond

Psellus

the

other

hence

was

rhetoric

Mohammedan,

nor

the

he

to excite

Isagoge

been

already

I., " 95, p. 404).

(1396-1480), against whom

et Aristotells
; he

On

and

true,

directed,taught

paratio Platonis

more

is

MS.

of Trebizond

was

had

Gen-

against offerings and

which

Hispanus

Schola-

Sultun

under
whom

his utterances

and

various

MSS.

and

monk)

the Platonism
from

calculated

399),

p.

Pletho,

deviations

of Petrus

philosopher

(see above. Vol.

Hiad,

of

things, the

In several

Planudes.

translated

Christian

1., " 04,

Compendium

of this

George

other

among

Ulrich

Reuchlin

avyypacjjfi (which

the

of
ture.
litera-

also

followed

becoming

combated

on

Greek

which

Patriarch

on.

of monasticism

into

Categ.of Aristotle.

is

of the

taught

only Pletho's

translated

statement

and

work,

Jewish

"

v6,iu"v

commentaries

wrote

Maximus

1350, by
(Munich) MS,

and

"

things not right,were

logicalCompendium

A.D,

as

do

to

(see above, Vol.

authorities

to other

sarion

Not

Aquinas, and,

Porretcnus

complete

God

and
Interpret.,

of Thomas

work

1453

previously already

degenerate system

Gennadius

Be

part of) the

the

on

of Gennadius.

those

had

who

on

polemic against the Orphic priests of atonement)

intended

the

of his

canonical

centuries, Georgius

opponent

an

as

joined

Dominicans

scepticism.

assumed

from

time,

forward

AristoteHanism,

attacks

of Plato's

and

for

"

account

on

be

appears

with

Reuchlin

the

in

Neo-

to

over

Reformation,

the

sixteenth

to have

of

Obscurants,
for

magic

won

languages
the

except
or

way

and

was

fanaticism

(1480-1535),

fifteenth

he

1404), came

about

all

the

and

mysticism

Constantinople

at

(bom

classical

the

flames

the

of Nettesheim

of the

(which

surname

the

"Dunkelmilnner,"

Agrippa,
combined

(1455-1522)

from

part, prepared

Aristotelians

the

Among

study of

saved

to

the

took

(1488-1523)

Heinrich

nadim

to commit

ETC.

I'LATONIfeM,

Reuchlin

the
he

latter

against

contest

Hutten

von

the

intended

Cologne, who

With

Cabala.

Hebrew;

OF

Pico, Johann

and

the

and

Platonism
that

tus

RENEWAL

THE

and

philosophy

classicallyeducated

at

in

translator

war

on

the

philosophy.

Louvain.

but

of the

cal
uncritiFrom

enjoyed

that
Greeks, especially'

of

RENEWAL

THE

he

Valla,

Aristotle

litings of
i

Like

Gaza.

^lieodore

fought

work, entitled I)e Dialectica

lyico-rhetorical

Cicero.

tices meliora

He

of

Florence,

in

Nichom.^
of

and

ein Oulturhild

Themistius,

and

prepared
to

belongs
"

of

the

and

dialee-

et usu

favorable

ment
judg-

Hellenistic

the

he

Greek

of

De

Chalco-

Aristotle,

Gcdo^ De
of

lectures

Anima^

and

Landinus

Florence

at

Plato's

and

Johannes

them.

pupU of Christopher

structed
in-

language

by Demetrius

Cf. Jacob

Venice

works

on

Gharmides^ but

was

Miihly,Angelus PoUtianus^

(1454-1493),a
of Aristotle

works

Scientice

Anti-

philosophers,"in

barbarian

of the

works

1486)

in

Lorenzo

Leipsic, 1864.

Compendium

at Rome

earlier translations

philosopher.

died

grandson

Phys.,

Epictetus

Guarinus, translated

pupil

Averrol'S,

Of

literature, gave

(Ermolao Barbaro) of
of

and

He

than

and

succeeded

was

AuscuUationes

Enchiridion

the

poet

Barbarus

Hertnolaus

he

at least revised

Renaissance,

der

Barbarus

1547).

expressed

1479, teacher

year

Gaza.

in Greek

Argyropulus

cms

till the

(Angelo Poliziano,1454-1494),

philologistand

he

Latin, or-

Peter

son

of Theodore

Organon,

translated

of Aristotle, and
rather

into

Pohtianus

Roman,

also

the
His

Aristotle

on

scriptade locu

Constantinople,and

office

in which

pupU
the

translated

from

came

afterwards,

was

condylas (1424-1511),a
Argyropulus
Angelus

Ubris ; Ramus

from
Latin.

purer

founded

recentia

extant

Medici, whose

de'

of Cosmo

court

Academy

Ethica

(who

Argyropulus

in Creek.
at the

in

philosophized

work.

Johannes
at the

insipidity,drew

Inventione^was

ulla

vero

nee

iocapletioraRudolpM

et

this

on

lived

said of it

Melancthon

scholastic

against

11

ETC.

PLATONISM,

Aristotelianism, and

purer

OF

Naturalis

Scholastics

his

; Albert

Commentaries

Aristotele

ex

and

cis
of Fran-

nephew

and

by
in

(printed

Thomas

like

were,

opinion.
^

derived

Aristotelianism

An

James

much

amid
Latin

applause,
Aristotle

restored

''he

and
whose

of

of

of

stUl

the

of

in

of
He

the

Aristotle's

influence

on

He

Reuchlin

time,
works

mind

the

wrote
that

says

zealous

he

of

by

Stapulensis)

1500.

year

same

whose

Cusanus,

taught

was

Faher

works.

the

at

was,

Nicolaus

sources

Picardy,

about

Paris,

some

greater

original

Etaples

Gauls."

the

to

were

from

University

admirer

an

doctrines

the

at

elucidation

in

paraphrases

directly

Lefevre,

(Jacques

Faber

from

matician
matheand

published

Faber's

Bovillus

pupil

(see below, " 111).

Desiderius
on

edition

of Aristotle

having

laid

sius, and

assisted

of

and

Vives

of

friend

and

in

his

by

of

history

philosophy, both

and, positively,on

editing, and

Marius

the

his

and
Ciceronia/nus^

phihsophandi
and

way

of

of

account

particularlyon

more

editions

1674).

things are

real

of

which

proceed from

the

the

of his

account

Jerome, Hilarius, Ambro-

The

Antibarharus

maintained

substances,
several

that

species

objects are

sensation,which

the

alone

and

has

did

are

ed.

of

(Antw.

only through direct

G.

W.

doctrines

vestigation
in-

in

his

Thesaurus
ratione

mra

Leibnitz, Frankfort,
that

only

individual

only subjective conceptions by

together,

immediate

younger

Artium

et
princlpiis

sive de veris

genera

opponent

an

disciples of Aristotle,

scholasticism

norainalistic

considered

genuine

1540),

as

Gorruptarum

also

(Parm., 1553,
pseudo-philosophos

Nizolius

influence

known.

be

(1498-1576), combated
his

in

Bruges

at

Causis

ancients

Nature

can

died

considerable

1782).

herself,as

particularlyin

contra

1492,

entitled De

Valenc,

experiment

Bersello

in

exerted

work

1555;

of

Nizplius, of

at Valencia

Erasmus,

especiallyby

Bas.
0?96?^a,

by

1670

barbarism,

Patrology

(born

Vives, interrogateNature

says

means

he

in

mention

deserves

scholastic

to

Augustine.

Scholastics,

1531,

which

foundations

the

contemporary
the

opposition

Ludovicus

Joh.

(1467-1536)

Erasmus
of his

account

and

that

certainty.

all

knowledge

must

12

THE

Petrus

of

followed

of little

logic,but

ses

France,

sa

16.

Jahrh., in
The

by

and

to the

deistic

But

For

this

of the

naturalistic

there

of the
both

Christian

of Greek

replace

to

that

members

reason,

that

and

leave

of

truth, and
also

theory

predominant

who

of

pure

of

Both
to

the

human

that

Averroism
middle
the

of the

17th

in

appeared,

comparison

teaching

of the

confined

to

Aristotelian

being
of the

the

Church.
careful

writings, the

rendered

controlled

teachings

the

school

at

century, though

down

less

; the

the

by

others.

At

of

in different

time

by

as

of the

liberal

of

doctrine

the

one

with

interpretation.
of

intellect
as
meaning merely the identity
of
etc. ). The Averroists
principle of contradiction,

the

at

also

men.
seem

have

to

tillnear

Many

the

by

in

few,

Averroism

variance
was

the
While

times.

century

it

Church

of Averroes

in disaccord

all

they

prominent

least

in the

reaction
Commentaries

were

in

14th

of the

16th

the

former

The

at different

made

were

beginning

of the

tics,
Peripate-

"

master.

first half

acceptations

doctrine

the

which

doctrines

the

silius
Mar-

without

not
the

by

and

providence,

divine

from

Alexandrism,
the

contend

ander's
Alex-

on

of Averroism,

though

the

time

based

religion,especiallybecause

Aristotle, their

Padua

At

employment

offensive

by

Averroistic

of

with

all

at that
was

tliat it is

the

Thomgeus

Averroists.

the

There

adopted

but

was

occupied

is

orders

two

revelation.

which

interpreted,

Leonicus

Plotinus,

and

latter

its foundation

are

in the

elements

toned

were

from

away

reigned

heterodox

they

affairs

Alexandrists

mortal

to be
from

of

by

Professors

all
be

to

Peripatetic opponents
world

present

defenders

between

Averroism

Naturalism,

whole

the

works

Nicolaus

was

Averro-

was

such

of

Alexandrists,

But

totle
Aris-

Ficinus, J. A. Marta,

distinction

not

translation

his

to

Nearly

the
text

personal immortality.

in conflict with

was

was

as

the

Alexander

the

this

required

in the

the

on.

the

among

to

condemned
officially

which

these

Italy, as

and

were

found

were

1497

that

Marsilius

as

they

be

barous.
bar-

as

of

those

together opposed by

19, 1512),

Among

sects,the

two

overturn

human

fallen

equally

into

"

miracles

condemned

from

preface

intellect

parties alike

deny

the

divided

are

believe

in

intellect,and

and

which

back

agreed, however, with

Plato

who

in Northern

exaggeration

of

false

souls.

at Padua

taught

says

rhetorical
who

dea

Averroism

them

pantheistic interpretation of

were

might

Aristotelians

philosophy

Ficinus

College de

Averroism

went

especiallyto

and

denying

Dec.

which

interpretation of Aristotle,

some

"

Averroists

everything

immortality

1456),

(bom

in

council

same

pronounced

of the

proved
im-

vie,ses

sa

au

all,the

of

most

of Averroism

men

Sirmond,

errors,

The

Padua

at

professeur

was

an

(and Quin-

Ramus,

Venice), regarding

immortal

doctrines

session

no

refutation.

were

provide

Cicero

Platonists, opposed

These
one

race

the

(at the

should

they

the

mystical

but

the

and

and

opponents

one.

was

human

they

faith

Council

without

P. B. ;

commentators,

the

Casp. Contarini, and, later, Anton

Lateran

Padua

other

soon

works

and

affirmed

in all the

to

Waddington,

Aristotelianism, and,

also, particularly

them

religiousfaith.

who

"

Ch.

Desmaze,

Italy (especiallyat

of Aphrodisias,in order

ists

him

Charles

scholastic

hated

of

Many
of Aristotle

sought,
on

opponent,

of

imitation

in

the

Char-

(Paris, 1534, etc.), which

positive attempt

during

sa
mort, Paris, 1864; M. Cantor, P. li.,einwiss. Mdrtyrer
Icrits,
QqXzqx'b
P rot. Monatsbl, Yol
XXX., No. 2, August, 1807.

in Northern

of

enemy

Cf.

scholastic

his

himself, was

ses

Humanists

prevalent

1855

of

Aristotle
murdered

1515,

in

Ari^stotelis

He

of

doctrine

born

instigation

(Par.,1543),

rhetoric.

opinions,Paris,
me,

Ramee,

the

importance.

logic with

blend

icrits et

Dial

Infititatmies

his

dialectical

la

ETO.

PLATONISM,

in DidlecUoam

AnuiuiilrcrHiones

his

hy

to
tilian),

the

de

(Pierre

Ramus

r.jirtlioloiJicw,
1573, at

St.

pentier) in

OF

also

only scholasticisin,but

Not

opposed hy
night

RENEWAL

with

the

reduced

and

explaining

the

faith of the Church

interpreted

the

unity

highest logical principles (the

this later

period pretended

to

be,

at

14

TIIE

great interest

Defensorium

his

at that

court
'"

"

imbelief

the

of the

direction

his work
like

followed
to the

1555

the

on

latter,in agreement

with

the

the

morals,
of

the

part of subsequent

Popes,

in

the

causes

Church,

distinguished from

Alexandrists

laxity of

man
Ro-

division

who

Naples,

general

the

politicalinterest
of that

faith of the

be

; to

with

of the

one

and

abled
en-

himself) tb

philosophical subjects led

Pope, coupled

became

Pope

waa

and

is

the

on

unable

the

eminent

celebrated
of

pupil

was

remedy.

to

physicist,

especially for

Pomponatius,
of

question

wrote,
{De

immortality

naturalihus

de anima
et merite
princijnis,
humana, Flor., 1551), Gasparo Cona
(1483-1542),likewise
pupil of Pomponatius, opposed his doctrine.
Zimara,

rerum

tarini

Neapolitan scholar

in

lived
1540-1G15,
Mo^gia Naturalis, Naples, 1589, etc),

entitled

the

of

Interest

of the

soon

Naples (died

court, Pomponatius

of its ecclesiastical

rigid adherence

Porta

Giambattista

that

Koman

(and indirectly of the

limits

others, and

reaction

of

the

court

and

most

Porta

Simon

at the

at the

Bembo

Nipfmm.

contra

ETC.

PLATONISM,

transactions

beyond

to Luther

which

Church,

time

prevalent

offence

gave

felt in these

was

OF

the protection of Cardinal

under
prepare

RENEWAL

and

his

(bom

at

Averroes

(died 1532), contributed

Notes

included

were

to the

in

the

elucidation

later

of the text -of Aristotle

editions

of

Averroes.

Jacobus
,

Zabarella

for

1589) foUowed
he

partaker

of

rather

Padua,

taught philosophy from

views

in the

of

Zabarella

Alexander,

Andreas

but

took

soul"

the

that

thought

Francis

till his death

Aristotle.

In

the

divine

perfected by

opposed by

was

1564

interpretation of

perishable by nature, became, when

in

chology
psy-

indiAddual

illumination,

Piccolomini

(1520-1604),

Caesalpinus (1509-1603, physician-in-ordinary to Pope

step from

easy

A verroism

to Pantheism

; his

God

the

was

anima
{'"''

Cesare

Cremonini

of Averroistic
An

Dcemo-

to revive

attempt

Casp. Schoppe
the

1552,

(bom

the

1631),

Stoic philosophy

the

was

last

Alexandristic
made

was

important

(Scioppius), Thomas

Daniel

and

Gataker,

at

tive
representa-

psychology.
Lipsius (1547-1606)

Justus

by

phihsophiam, Physiohgia Stoicorum, and

Stoicam

ad

died

tempered with

Aristotelianism

in his Manuductio

Heinsius

other

also

works.

contributed

to

exegetical literature of Stoicism.

Gassendi

to show

than

(1592-1655) sought

that it contained

with

it Christian

is that

just as

earth

is of

far

Michel

of

de

F.

does

be

styled

line

A.

The

to doctrines
or

of

merely

weakness

tendency

the

and

than

p. 118

in modem

scepticism

prudent

of human
were

of this

Christianity,but

Pierre

"

Charron

approach

into

the

man

of

the

harmony

other

any

(1541-1603),who

its

Epicureanancient

Kritik

und

proach
ap-

of the

From

of

Gassendi

as

sdner
the

one

systematic materialism.
of the

necessity
with

and

earth.

further

peculiar manner

clever

Nature

way

of

Materialismus

of

his

bine
com-

sensation:

even

renewal

seq.) consider
times

to

dead

by the influence

generally brought

was

recognition

reason,

moved,

renewal

the

{Gesch. des

Lange

renewer

to

of

from

times, Gassendi's

in modern

revived, and, in part, in

was

Montaigne.

of the
like

the direct

nature

Gegentcart, Iserlohn, 1866,

skepticism

sincere

of

out

pass

air is

the

into

aside

turn

time

same

doctrine

force, and

atoms

to

apple

an

thrown

stone

the

to

greater historical importance

in der

less directed

account

it,to

properly

Ancient

whether

to

ascribed

image of

investigationof

unjustly

not

Bedeutung
may

the

apple-tree, so

to the

system;

by the

is less

Atomism

Gassendi's

yet at the

and

physics,

of

doctrine

Gassendi

against unjustifiedattacks, and

Epicureanism

to defend

best

theology.

is moved

reaching

relation

the

of Epicurus.

boy

the

who

he

universalis,''^
QucestionesPerip., Venice, 1571;
in the
successor
Investigatio
professorial chair
Peripat.,ib.,1583). Zabarella's

7ium

Ism

the

immortality.

VIII.)

"universal

where

part Averroes

most

disciple of Zimara,

Clement

by

the

adopted

intellect, though
a

Padua, 1532,

world
in

the

of

defined

it

more

or

end, by

"

revelation,on

theology.

developed

was

Other
as

man's

ers
supportprov-

AND

PEOTESTANTISM

(Sanctius,

la Mothe

Francois de

died

1562,

bom

truth, which

for the

to search

merely

ince

le

at

skeptics especiallyto theology, limiting the

pupils

of

rhonem

latter, Sam.

of the

who

wrote

Hlstoire

1692), and

Glanvill

Daniel

Huet

"

attention

110.

of

charuyme

Side

will

be

his

directed

de

sphere

Himhaym

la

ancient

; and

the

HyijotyposesPyrcf

on

de

la

Virite ;

and

also

by

Prague, 1679), and Pierre

Pierre
Bayle (1647-1706),

following, second, principal division.

in the

by side with this

the

faith

Dijon, Dijon, 1867),

Academica
depliilos.
(Pax.,

de
at

chez
San-

philosophy;

of

Dijon (1644-96

chapdle

(died

Francis

;
and

simple
the

of

contemporary,

younger

of

translated

RecherGhe

Malebranche's

(died 1680), Hieronymus

(1633-1721),and

to the

latter

God

ar^ments

(Par., 1690), a Dissert,

Acadtmiciens

skeptical critique

Joseph
to whom

des

the

applied

of

of medicine

Foucher, Canonicus

Foucher,

Simon

TJabbe

him, F. Rabbe,

Simon

and

who

teacher

(1615-1670),who

Sorbiere

Empiricus,

Sext.

in the bosom

dwells

Toulouse, 1632),

Vayer (1586-1672),

l5

PHILOSOPHY.

of learned

return

cuhure

from

ticism
scholas-

and Greek
literature,
stands,as its analogue,
earlyRoman
the doctrines
of the religiousconsciousness
from
of the
the return
To the participants
in this
Catholic Church
to the letter of the Bible.
the original,
after the authorityof tradition
had
been
movement,
denied
ever
by them, appeared as the pure, genuine,and true, and whatadditions had been made
to it were
regarded not as constituting
real advance
the original,
but rather as the result of emascua
lation
upon
and degeneration. Yet they did not, in point of fact,rest satisto the

tied with

the

mere

renewal

of earlier

forms, but

went

forward

to

reformatorydevelopment,for which the negationof the (till

then)
of
form
cleared
culture
the
prevalent
way*. Ackno\v]edging the
in
and of the dogmas of the Church
authorityof the Holy Scriptures,
its earliest days.Protestantism
rejectedthe mediaeval hierarchy and the
scholastic tendency to rationalize
Christian dogmas. The
individual
new

found

conscience
out

peace

by

the

and

itself in

Church.
reconciliation

By

conflict with

this way
w^ith G-od.

it

was

the way

of

salvation marked

unable

to

attain

It could

not

advance

to

inward

beyond

that

life in which
of the law and of
the sentiment
religious
sentiment
sin,and of their antagonism,is predominant. This religious
minated
culrendered
invincible by that form of Christian morals which
was
in the monastic
of labor,
significance
vows, whereby the moral
marriage,independence,and of all the natural bases of the spiritual
life was
of proother means
underestimated
pitiation
; and by indulgences and
this same
than
sentiment
rather concealed
of antagonism was
of the individual
removed.
was
Further, the religiousconviction
found to be rather prejudicedthan confirmed
by the reasoningof the
schools.
It was
felt that not
the work
prescribedby the Church, but
was
reason
personal faith alone possessedbeatifyingvirtue; human
stadium

in the

16

PROTESTANTISM

believed
Ill the
the

conflict with

to

iirst heat

Catholic

of

that

the

Churcli

PHILOSOPHY.

AND

faith which

conflict the

the

Holy Ghost produces.

regarded the head of

Reformers

Antichrist,and Aristotle,the chief of the

"
of the Papists."
as
a
School-philosophy,
godless bulwark
of
The logicalconsequence
these conceptions would
liave been the annihilation
of all philosophyin favor of immediate, unquestioningfaith ;
but in proportionas Protestantism
sity
gained fixed consistence,the necesof a determinate
order of instruction became
equally apparent
with that of a new
ecclesiastical order.
ciate,
Melanchthon, Luther's assoof Aristotle as the master
of
perceived the indispensableness
as

Catholic

scientific

writings,when

from

the naturalistic

of

the

burg,

wanting,
in

complete

most

after

the

publication
Of

Melanchthon's

republished

Bretschneider

28

volumes,

Argumenti

Augusti,
Lehen

Friedr.

Wirken,

una

Planck.

Mel.

Utterice

reformatore

nature
in

of

1865

the

particular

fortuna

logic
of

reformed,

3rel.

Pansch,
and

Ledderhose,

annexei
Vol

his

edition

be

10,

at

which

may

correct,

mention,

1845.

1860) form

ones,

Die

and

and

Halle

be

found

On

; Karl

s.

iiusfiern

Phil,

Protestants,

in

(Wittenb. 1720)

De
als

W.

L.

Peripateticians

pure

innern

Melanchthon

1866.

Eutin,

u.

Schlottman,

De
of

varia

Launoy's

G.

v.

1562-64, have
Vol.

Scripta

compare,

among
and

Strobel, 1777,
Ph.

Mathematiker
Eberstein

; Adolf

in

scholis

ArUt.

varia

reip.

of

written

J. H.

sein

Physiker,

unci

has

by

M.,

Melanchthone

Philippo

(Halle 1800), and

De

; the

Matthes,

seq.,

contains

XIII.

XVI

been

1834

Leben, Heidelb., 1847

Aristotells

most
their

of

Brunswick,

Melanchthon,

Theologen., Halle, 1840

more

the

account

in Vol.

Theod.

ten

also

Christologie Luthe^-^s,

supplement;

and

but

on

Wittenberg,

(republ. by Georg.

nach.

1483-Feb.
He

reformed.

Taurellm.^p. 4):

without

here

1867

to

up

most

Alten-

Halle, 1740-53

ab.

the

Elswich

P/otentantium
Acad.

in

Jortuiia

I, " 89, p. 356).

(Nov.
to

M.

the

only
may

we

1860 ; Constant.

so-called

the

among
to

als

Schulmann,
of the

not

Reformatorum,

1566

1860 ; Bernhardt,

aid

metaphysics

Luther

Nic

Bonn,

com'"i.,

Aristotelianism

religion,needed

Schmid,

1841

be

berg,
Witten-

:"

Frankfort-on-the-Main,

and

appeared

philosophical writings.

M.'s

Charakteristik

Leipsic, 1729-40

had

follows

as

Eisleben, 1564-65;

at

lastly,Erlangen

Luth.., Leips,

Corpus

narratio,

published,

publ.

Carriere

especially, Mor.

compare,
been

1702

Latin

ized
general-

later time.

son-in-law, Peucer,

ethical

some

Mel.

vita

will

{Bvnnswick,

of the

(iermanice.,
Nordlingen,

(see above.

Martin

De

in

Luther,

his

in their

include

30

{Mart.
by

and

time),

on

Weisse

published

exception

also

Altenburg,

schediasma,

Parisiensi

XX.

Galle,

preceptor

Wittenberg,

the basis of the

volumes
in

The

itself scholastic.

have

Halle

edition

this
works

H.

Works

with

harmonize

them

Reformation

the

at

and

Vitce. et Indicefi

the

publ.

that

to

which

of

supplementary

German

in

Bindseil

Anjiales

Camerarius.

1819) :

Chr.

and

Vol.

in

Joachim

others,

make

to

Luther's

vol.

numerous

of

with

philosophical works,

Vara

the

of

time

of

two

up

writings

Works,

"w'hich

to

of

those

Leips., 1852).

the

with

one

vols,

philosophical bearings,

in

complete

(67

by

editions

supplementary

1826

existence).

to the

peculiar

complete

with

1661-64, together

(Walch's edition, the

were

Six

1555-58, together

Jena,

in

to

in its measure,

became,

notions

Tiib., 1847.

commenced

simplicityand freedom
the necessity
of modifying
philosophy,and especially

independent philosophyon
reserved
for a
was
principle,

philosophical

1539-58;

which
Aristotelianism,

its

by

as

There

commentaries.

new

new,

Protestant

and

in the Aristotelian

psychology,so

religiousfaith, soon

On

Scholasticism

elements

in the Aristotelian

Stuttg.

scholastic

universities

of Aristotelian

of the text

use

but which, owing

subtilties,

empty

erection

the

with

Protestant

distinguishedfrom

was

allowed

burdened

not

at the

thus

arose

Luther

and

form,

"I

18, 1546)
says

believe

held

that

phUosophy,

[Epist.Vol. 1.,64, ed.

it

completely eradicating canons,

impossible that

de

the

decretals,scholastic

Wette;
church

as

well

cl

as

F. X.

should

be

theology,philoso-

AND

PROTESTANTISM

they

logic,as

phy, and
place."
The

should

philosophy

new

propounded the
true
in philosophy,must
by

was

means

no

former

of

fere

should

the

xphonious by
I, but

He

in

could

jcessity. By merely appealing

indeed

been

jgation of

the

later

built

attempt

and

instruction
without
not

nature

was

antiquity.

Said

be

of the

infected

too

indefinite
young,

he

as

cannot

that if Aristotle,who

great
leader

confusion
and

also

can

useful
"

seeks

out

sometimes

Unterricht

Unterricht

thum

had

in

der

do

is the

d'r

the

unique

some

and

the

from

In

subject.

instruction

in

logic and

he,

as

Kurfilrstenthum

common

opinions

an

die

Pfarrherrn

edition

; cf

rhetoric.
2

But

of
in

he

form,

either
wants

Melanchthon

fessed:
con-

plainly perceive

shall

be

neglected,

Aristotle

and

that

as

revised

the

scholastic

his

In

(1^528;

Melanchthon)

instruction

logical instruction

by
and

Sachsen

zu
zu

den

only

be
be

the

lanchthon,
Me-

in the

Filrsten-

Elementen

should
could

of

additions, be

written

Herzog HeinHcfi's

his

books

preaching."

and

8ac?isen

Luther

grammatical

their

the

met

Luther, too,

without

speaking

zu

correct

at

fatalistic in

admitted

Trendelenburg Erlimt.
the

retains

possible,unsophistical doctrine,

if read

in ccorrect

people

since

which

philosophy,

chieflyfollows

authors."

other

of

of method,

far

could

Neo-Platonists

the

of

philosophies of

the

too

"

Melanchthon's

Consequently,

of

Stoics

sects
order

philosophy

which

and

the

unattainable

were

new

from

and

1526, already,

Aristot. Logik^ Preface) it is required that

by

so

but
a

teacher

who

im

X. in Walch's

regulated

Aristotle"; "I

author

poetics, might,

young

Visitatoren

Visitatoren

only
; "Yet

adopt something
on

fanatical

Accordingly
of

could

was

kind

some

in its

Church

no

and

choose

to

the

actual

the

state ; whenever

productive.

Church.

simple and,

one

than

monuments

follow"

will

its

authority

result

Yet

sophistry,

old

the
But

torpidity (like

philosophical,and

not

choose

of

that

Church,

norms.

-ethics,Plato
alone,as the

the

more

in

Reformation

the

embryonic

atheistic,the

too

their

of

without

expressing the

(1539,Vol.

and

with

; Aristotle

those

discipline for

name

excused

since

state

which

Protestant

must

possible

heretical

with

the
principle,

necessary

was

Epicureans

logic,rhetoric, and

on

"as

and
"

the

to the

regulative

"We
as

in doctrine

previous opinions
Aristotle

it

extravagant
too

or

"We

and

But

development.

religious,and

was

Melanchthon:

found

and

theology
too

genius

indispensable,

He

method."

this

for

even

be

feeling of Luther.

developed theological system

reproductive

little

as

should

of

been

Melanchthon

his Grrecized

interval,it followed
return

out

not

of Christianityan

conwisted

philosophical conceptions

; Luther's

philosophy
shall

of

rather

was

vitallynecessary

aid

created

be

simple

help from

no

philosophy; experience taught

JJieCaraites),from

world-wide

to carry

Anabaptists.

were

the

of

in

justifyto the religiousconsciousness

to

have

only

religiouslife

seriously made

was

Iconoclasts

sufficient

could

the

without

original ecclesiastical

non-

ch,

time

earliest documents

the

to

the principle of

on

continue

was

separated by

was

up

or

in the

that illustrated
first stadium

which

decayed forms

of

jstoration

found

for

shared

practice)

it

real

naturalistic

was

devil."

making

letters

that

metaphysical subtleties

truly

of

says,

the

to

"if Aristotle had

been

idea

of the

omission

his

he

held

only expected

not

have

to

while

affirmed:

he

curious

; his

long

not

him

affirm

ungrammatical

Reformation

le

soul,

to

perpetuated

not

of the

Luther

latter

their

is demonstrated

Scholastics

the

the

Papists,

nature.

April 19, 1560

"

the

horror, that

of

in

Sorbonne,"

theology."

Aristotle

of

hesitate

not

in

true

as

the

of

science

in such

him

(Feb. 16, 1497

30

from

immortality

the

to

held

but
istotle,

ssh,I

the

service

no

accepted

be

weapon

was

denied

and

tendency

also

sufficient to return

Aristotle; the

be

institutingothers
"The

theology.

control

not

and

taught,

and

extremely reprehensible doctrine, that whatever

"has
as

received

now

are

IT

PHILOSOPHY.

der

followed
founded

18

on

TKOTESTANTISM

Melanchthon

Aristotle.

AND

prepared

lleuchlin, and

to

Dominicans

he

of

subtilties

insipid

Jjoci

in

than

the

DlalGctica

ab

Lihri

Dialecta

Catholic

of

"

; he

as
principles or by revelation),

of

the

works

in

Analyt.^ Top.)
Interpret..,
proprium.,accidens

of

species

-of

Topica (Book IV.).

He

He

argumentation.
iledbcatoria p. VII.

Rhetor.

lays principal

extols

Ut

''

horn, vitm,itaveram
"doctrina

Tres

Epitome, ibid.,1537;
of

Aristotle's

doctrinm

elementa

logic,Melanchthon
rather

work,
law

of

In
also

in his Initia

adopts

was

friendly, and
of

atheistic

that

in

the

opinion."
Natural

other

civil

{ortii^ Pleiadum
destinies.

the

To

the

stars

Hyadvm

ac

causes,

he

{interrumpit)the
defends

the

false

he

ascribed

of

finallyto

classified' by

Melanchthon,

leave

Wittenberg
after

there

presented

Aristotle,as

ethics

the

in

as

last-named
the

as

the

confessed

of

ideas

period

to

with

action.

and

Ethicce

highest

Witebergensi (ibid.

Acadernia

in

Copemican

an

regular
reading IvhUx^^f^ against Amerbach

ivTE\"^tia led

de

single

on

work:
In

subject, in

influence

not

to

only

defining the

Catholic.

vegetative (the

the temperature

also
when

soul
the

human

on

God

terrupts
in-

Melanchthon

quarrel

Psychical

Qo^-KriKOv

even

wicked

"so

on

but

(1504-57), whom
become

ness
sound-

and

new

necessity, except
In

to

astronomy,
the

suppress

which

Reformation,

the

eminence

the

lanchthon
Me-

Aristotle.

System,

of

Aristotelico-Ptolemaic

operate

mode

the

{AriMotelis).

regulariter pluvias affert,etc.),

says,

Mel.

moi'alls
Philosophice

the

of

bound

were

exponenda

commentaries

of the

himself

the

respects)

iiecessaria

necessariam'''' ).

exposition the

theologians

authorities

the

(Wittenberg, 1540, 1542, 1548, 1558,

Anima

that he

of the

with

et in

esse

to the

being

promulgation

Lutheran

notwithstanding

Copernicus

maintaining
and

(even after

greatest of the

to the

Book)
ends

est et vakle

donum

1519, and

in

gives

of his

basis

of innate

and
definition,division,

ingens

Dei

dictata
physicce,

doctrince
the

as

Dei

Ethicorum

chieflyAristotle,but
de

mvestigation

form

second

(Witt., 1550) appeared

quinti

Commentarius

his

retained
the

libri

art

{Erotemata Dialectices,
epist.

God

aliis rebus

in

et

Subsequently

enarratio

of

previously published

had

as

the

(conformably

(in the

; next

sciamus

viam

Wittenberg

at

of

Dia-

''

Isagoge

giftof

theological turn, the will of (rod

1549), Melanchthon

Osiander,

published

the

Erotemata

the

treats

the doctrines

on

noble

in

He

liotitia et d"num

Melanchthon

follows

morals.

15G0, etc.),as

as

et ratiocinandi

Ethics.

et

stress

method

other

1527

edition, entitled

syllogisms (Book III.),and

of

Deritatis
inquisitione

were

books

dialectic
numerorum

docendi

codesti et in
Libri

then

the

is taken
and

; in

taken)

either

the

of
Porphyry, Categ. De
species.,
genus., differentia.,
PrcBdicainenta
: substantia, quantUas.,

categories or

propositions, and

Trinity

third

his

of

Pucedioribilia:

five

habitus
actio,passio,quando, ubi, situs.,
qualitas,
relatio,
various

is

the

with

given

are

Organon:

the

the

ideas

Reformation,

{Dial., I. I. init.)dialectic

of instruction.

Aristotle's

first

to the

in 1547, the
finally,

much

so

truths

that

of the ten

then

not

important
with

and

defines

is concerned

most

of

1529

in

the

appeared

rigid ground

doctrine

the

Rud.

first edition

peculiar

the

in

and

down

1520

the

rigid ground

recogiiita;

ct

quatuor (also in 1533, etc.) ;

teaching

order

less

Valla

year

1522

dogmas

to the

Church,

adaucta

auotore

(since,in his view, the

serial

reference

in

of

predestination,more

1550, 1552, etc.). Melanchthon

lec. (also in
way

M.

Ph.

the

in

with

pleasure

toned

the

Rotterdam,

contest

find

and

In

profound.

to

should

modified

of

whose

example

dialcctices ratio;

original sin and

the

from

than

reference

editions,while

later

but
Aristotle,

in

he

the

of infitructors.

use

by ErasmuB

him,

that

Following

elegant

with

with

impossible

of

text

more

of

doctrines

derived

dogmas

and

is

(in which,
theologici

especiallythe

De

to the

for the

early youth

friendship

was

Compendiaria

entitled

his

Scholastics.

the

Agricola,he went back

of Aristotle;his style
first manual

part, it

took

also

of

terms

on

of manuals

number

Classically educated, publicly i)raisedin

related

PIIILOSOPTIY.

of

about
life

is

Aristotle),

AND

PROTESTANTISM

sensitive
T

rational

) and

'T-)

innate,

the

through
Cicero,

would

he

Of

senses.

for

tamen

principles of

the

senses,

contained

the

is

unfriendly

God

persons

in

voluntas

{in qua

Rudolf

in the

the

immortality

theory

principles, are

excited

the

to

criterion

revelation

of

the

Reformation

"pious

and

lanchthon
Me-

three

the

cogitatioand

mens^

or

sed

truth.

interpretation of
will"

and

experience of
of

containing

activity

to

divine

as

was

like

cogitareprodeM,

addition

and

ideas

Plato, Xenophon,

by

highest

tributed
at-

moral

only

Luther

Servetus

highest
necessary
it

every

truths
that

might

sphere,

the

development

partiallypertinent

the

approved

memorable

example

(1500

1574),Jacob

resumed

who

these

we

the

Protestant

the
extend

beyond

and
was

the

on

should

and

111.

The

back

to the

the

the

basis

with

concur

the

way
of

this

remarks

modern

principle
of

one

under

sphere, and

114

and

of the

be

the

within

and

which

of the

was

of

also directed
antiquity,

its endeavors

of the
independent investigation
the
of
to
self-determination
moral
problem

that

result.

Cf
.

nature

only

antiquityand

revelation,but, settingout

realities of

siastical
eccle-

genesis of Cartesianism.

classical literature of ante-Christian

biblical

and

necessary

desired

so

it. Such

development
it

the
was

this

more

from

removed

mind, dissatisfied with Scholasticism,not

the
writingsconstituting

first

at

Taurellus

deepened,

that, even

beginnings;

production
on

had

emancipation

burdened,
might

merely immanent

for the

"

the

to

generalized

was

its historical

Philip Scherbius.
Luther

positive replenishment with

spheres of spiritual life,it

become

reformatory movement,

impossible by
the

should

merely religious

which

with

falsified

to its

and

which

its

Among

particular Nicolaus

impulse

in all the

its work

principle
the

in

few, including

against it.

Schegk,

mention

may

which

to

"

opposition

external,unspiritual power,
accomplish

Ramus

slight headway

the

might

of

but

and

in particular " 111

the sciences

made

"

the Peripatetic doctrine

philosophies,
of

doctrine

that

Protestantism

factors

The

order, however,

In

lim.itations

checked

Leibnitzian

and

Camerarius
men

some

were

spiritfrom

went

esse.

admits

with

of

concessions

made

below, "111).

"

In

will.

that

being

as

the

(herein departing

the

hcec argumenta

and

he

"

author

burning

against it;*among

directed

other

in

syllogisticinference,the

and

fourth

schools.

Joachim

were

there

more

intellect

says

intuendas

intellect

Cartesian

Protestant

Goclenius,

teachers

that

joint

; the

rise of the

the

Until

reigned

(see

the

theological speculations; the

to

The

share

acutA

Ktvnrocovj
and

posterity."

all

Still

the

intellect

The
notriTiKdi).

{vovs

soul, he

Imtitia et amor)

sunt

heretics

of

intellect

the
a

representing intellect,thought,

as

comparison.
execution

the

of the

constitutes

Bible

in

of

philosophical proofs offered

the

immortality

the

the

latter

the

yet represents

up,

belong

of geometrical, physical, and

divinas
sciamus, patefactiones

the

give

not

for

intellect

order, a,nd

and

number

active

the

to

{ilaBin-riKov^
ope^riKov^

soul

functions

the

among

vindicates

thus

Aristotle

by
of

those

for

memory

Aristotle),and

hcomotwa

rational

the

(uoriTtKdv)
; to

includes

Melanchthon
from

und
a/ppetitiva

vis

including the

"

19

PHILOSOPHY.

more

and

aiid

more

mind,

as

to

from
to

also

independentlyof external
norms.
mathematics, mechanics, geography,and astronthe science and speculationof the ancients
first restored,
were
d then, partlyby a gradual
bold
progress, and partly by rapid and
With
the assured results of investiicoveries,
materiallyextended.
tion were
connected
manifold
and
largely turbulent attempts to
In the fields of

Piy,

20

BEGINNINGS

establish

OF

the basis

on

of

INDEPENDENT

the

science

new

sophicalconceptions,in

which

later and

doctrines.

matured

more

period was
wliicli rested

Cabala, but

more

first upon

at

the

theologicaland

new

attempts

less

or

INVESTIGATION.

involved

were

the

Physicalphilosophyin
blended

w^ith

foundation

of

form

philo^

of
germs
tional
the transi-

of

theosophy

I^eo-Platonism

and

the

^vhich

the soil of Protestantism,

on
gradually,and especially
attained
A
a
more
independent character.
physicalphilosophy
with theosophy,not yet freed from
thus blended
scholastic notions
nor
the affirmations
of ecclesiastical theology,and yet resting
contradicting

the

on

tained

basis

new

in whom

the

Giordano
and

the

about

of mathematical

derived

independent
to
theosophy,continued
more

fessors
and

century,

and

was

doctrine.
be

also

century by Nicolaus

renewed, and from

fundamental

the

in the

even

features

Physics, in

taught,and

studies,was

of

astrologer; Bernardinns
for

the

Telesius,the founder
and

bolder

own

with

developed in
Among its

seventeenth.

of nature,
investigation

Cusanus,

its combination

further

was

mair-

whom, later,

his

Paracelsus,the physician; Cardanns, the

were

Cosentina

astronomical

of the fifteenth

middle

mysticism of Eckhart

Bruno

sixteenth

and

pr("'

matheniaticiaT\

of
his

the

the

Academia

followers,Fran-

CmPatritius,the Platonizingopponent of Aristotle,Andreas

the Averroistic Aristotelian,
Nicolaus
the opponent
salpinus,
Taurellus,
cescus

of the

latter and
of

an

the

independent
Catholic

German

Church

thinker,Carol

us

Bovillns,

and

of
discipleof Nicolaus
Bruno
and
Lucilio
Cusa, Giordano
Yanini, the anti-ecclesiastical
free-thinkers,and Thomas
Campanella, the Catholic
opponent of
Aristotle.
The
Schwenckfeldt
religiouselement
prevailed with
and Valentin
and with Jacob
Weigel, Protestant theologians,
Bohme,
the theosophist,
whose
followers
have
TI.
been
More, John
among
a

supporter

modern
Pordage,Pierre Poiret,and, in more
times, St. Martin, and
whose
and
principleswere
by Schelling by
employed by Baader
the latter on the occasion
from
in his speculations
of his passingover
physical philosophy to theosophy. The theories of law and civil
without
erence
defdeveloped in an independent manner,
government were
and
in a form more
to Aristotelian or to ecclesiastical
authority,
of modern
conditions
adapted to the changed political
times, by the
estimate
who placed an undue
on
: Machiavelli,
cal
politifollowingmen
"

power,

other aims
who

to the attainment

in life subordinated

sought

the

diminution

and

retention

; Thomas

of social

of which

he would

have

all

Morus, the Utopian theorizer,

inequalityand

mitigationof

22

Pi.sa///

loniict, (Ic P.ori^anl (or r.aiirntrrinlVClrcuU

\i\\:\

i;,

DriiiorrUn.^
Mrwlaii:,
tus

I'llni"s,"i"h
i"i'

raiiivUus,

,, 1,1-

ap,

q/t'
ver"-

'.."ii:

"'

,:

in-ni:,i,i

i"

philoHophia

veritate

ejus

hU, sed

(llvenda

Kcsvivo

il I im.

K,

,.

superba

et
It.uli ,i/i'/i.^//'"/.s!t
rs,;,Ai/,//-iic (',r";!iipiiii,

eoescp.,hoc

nobis

revelata

cum

philOHophla

Hepulta fait authoritate

ijkUomphorum

(lilt

""f, quibun

KKJ.'i;
/"e 7nM?irfo,Arnberg,
^Wv-v'. MctapJi.,llaiiaii,1.1!)();
polemical*S//'"'y'''v
univerHaUs

metuph.

LX'terndate:

rum

CtKsalpini,societatls

ConimbjHceusis

On

written, specially,Jac.

N.

Taurellus

have

AUdorfl'.ioatheUimi

On

Carolus

The

Italian

1808.

above-cited

On

ilher das

Oder

Bruno

natiirliche

have

1824

(written in the form

Falkson, G. Bru)w
Paris, 1840"47, F. J. Clemens, Giordano
Giordano

Bruno,

1808. Cf.

also

to that

cf

edition

of the

d'Ancona, prefaced by
above-cited
in his
della

an

essay

Beitrl'tge
; also

Dialoghi di

cum

Philosoph,
C. B.

des

iiebst

Tommaso

di

Vita

XVI.

181

43"76,

Br.,

ence,
Flor-

365

seq.,

of his doctrine

seq.

have

ti-eat llixner

Paris

Siber

and

in

6 of

Part

the

Mamiani,

Carattere

Svilupjoo

Briefe Lber

Strater's

thor
au-

Alessandro

Campanella, Xaples, 1840"43

in

their

by

published by

been

Cimento, 1854, and

Cf.
Modena, 1800.

Tempo,

di G.

relation

the

on

(never comi)leted) at

him

in the

Spaventa,
ITostre

al

sino

Of

and,

1850,p.

Filosofla di Tommaso

Bcrti, Vita

Domenico

Campanella,

doctrine.

C."s life and

titled
en-

in the

Siber

neformationszeit, Stuttg.,1849,p.

der

commenced

was

Dialogue

and

1840, Chr. Bartholm^ss, Jordano

Bruno,
Cusa.,Bonn, 1847, Joh. Andr. Scartazzini,

von

Spinoza, Bonn,

und

his

part

Salva-

cur.

not.

JSfachgel.Schriften,Berlin, 1846,pp.

his

Nicolaus

%ind

Schelling in

in

Latin,

edit.

idearum

Dinge (Berlin 1802), llixner

(a lecture),
Biel, 1807 ;

Opere

Baldachini,

Secole

dal

de umbris

romance), Hamburg,

Campanella

Prima, Par., 1840

Scienza

Filosofla Pal.

on

Philosoplde

(citedbelow), and
der

StefEens,in

;
a

Bruno

of

recently (Turin,1854) the

; but

of

Descartes

works

recu^sa

erste deutsche

Wagner, Leipsic,1829, the

Br.

series,54, 1. Halle, 1809,pp. 128-134

f. Philos.,new

Spinoza, Schaarschmidt,

complete

Jacobi

F. H.

Ad.

by

: Jord.

Carriere,Die pJdlos. Weltanscliauung

M.

in tlie Zeitschr.

edited

been

Wissens

Blutseiige des

ein

metaphysices

der

syst. Barstellung der

einer

Princip
g'ittliche

uml

5, Sulzbach,

Beltrage. Part

Taur.,

pMloHopho

ed. ib., 1864.

Versuch

cf.,besides

Bruno

Nic.

1604.

Marburg,

Taiirello

Nic.

pro

Arist.

Synopsis

Schwarzenberg,

Gfrorer,Stuttg.,1834

A. F.

Logic),by

on

Torgini, Berl..
Bnoio

of Giordano

works

those
(especially

and

of

re-

1S65.

Lebensabriss, Wurzbiirg,

kurzen

eineni

Joseph Dippel,

Bovillus,see

ijysius TaurelU

et

Schmid

; F. X.

Quellen daryestellt,
Erlangen, 1800, new

au^den

tor

1734

rcfuUnanr,

et

Feuerlin, Diss, apologetica

Wilh.

injuste aamsato

et deismi

editoris,Nuremberg,

annot.

discuti2i7itur,examinantur

aliorumqne

a
Frankf., 15!)7,

Amb., 1603, De

mologia,

r(

Basel, 1573; Alpes

excrcssa,

'

erumpat

videbatur, adeo

Piccolominei,
quibus placita AristolcUs, I'/zlfr-.^u,

in

partes quutuor,

et

divini-

qua

viclrix

pugnare

fun damentum,

ewe

dogm/iiudi^cuHt^iL

1073.

LyODH,

demo7c"tratlo7dbun

iiide coriHtructiH

JlnnlHsimis

ut

di'iUti-iuUur.

a"

Maytieni

etc."

philosophandt methodua,

hoc
i.riiiiii.phJi.\,
cM, melaphyHtca

rnHoiwn

hinnmiic.

i.w.ii'.'s J, /,'"/"; iniiii.hs

dlalogi,TJdine,

0//////V/, Venice, 1041

cyyvw/

1652,and
pluli).si"]jlu"u.s,
'I'wuluu.se,

ciirNii.s
M(u"jii(iiii

i'\r.-~
K'lii,

l'a.via.

nrir/.srr/is,

ICls:

pcriixilrilni phUo^ophin

it.

,/,:vrl.erioii.

.sr//

/'////.svVif.
Witlcnh.TK,

,ii

I'll,Ilia,.If.Cil. -^st'iiiK

investigation.

ini)i;i'i:.\'I)1':nt

OP

iJiaiiNNiNGS

ital.

Camp.
u. seine politischen Ideen, in the
Sigwart, TJiomas
Berlin, 1804"65;
Gedanle,''''
Preuss.
Cenfcofanti in the Archivo
storico Italiano,Vol. I. p. 1, 1866.
Jahrb., 1860, No. 11, and SHvestro
nature
Lucilio
reginm
ceternm
provide7itim, Lyons, 1615; De admirandis
Vanini, Amphitheatrum

Philos.

in

"Der

demque

mortalium

Mei:iU7igen

und

v., sa

vie.

Of

principal work,
1034

menschl.

by Betke,
K.

Heidelberg, 18':5 ;

B.,

sein

Leben

christlicher
works

der

p. 210 ; J. G.

Wilh.

Ludw.

translated

Parqualio,

and

et leurs

Macchiavellis

by

TJieol.

avec

une

notice

Paris, 1862,2d

grovpes,

Lst07Ha

C. E.

1847.- Tr.] : cf. A. Ranke.

I'rincii:"e,
by J.

first
also

S.

published

repeatedly

at

Peip,

J.

seq.

On

B.'s

aus

Ferd.

Philosoph,

der

St. Martin

(whose
so7i

der

Mysiik,
Zur

Eaur,

J.

Pechner,

Vo7'ldufer
of

several

la triple

le x"hllosop)heinc07mu,

M.,

Gesch.

; L^mbreit, ./. i?.,

A.

divine, Be

etc. ; and

1682

85 seq. ; H.

translated
(l'743-1804)

0.e T essence

B., Paris, 1800.

St.

1849,p.

His

etc.

in his

Adelung

treat

deutsche

der

B.,

St. Martin

J.

sur

1531-32,have

Home,

translated

neuerer

by Gichtel, iMd.,

him

1056

Amst.,

at

Schriften,Leipsic,1829

Jah7'b.,1848, p. 453

Claude

Fioi^entine,Florence
Kritik

form

epitome

an
Aufgang,''''

i7n

vie de
poems

Bcihme's

Thomme,
F.

Beck

matti-e Marti7iez

de

ed., 1804.

Lester, 2 Vols.,New
Zur

Toulo7ise.

de

Lehre, Stuttg., la^O, BVathen

1844; Chr.

und

; Alb.

Louis

Schicksale,Charakter
Emile
Vaiisse,L.

wid

Philosophe7i J. B., Munich,

7Uiissante, Les trois prHncipes

Fame,

Works,

Carlsruhe, 18;-52-41.
translation

Leben

ed.
Of

seq.

J. B.'s

sc.

Morgenrbthe

complete

aus

annotated, Munich, 1863) cf. Matter,

frequently republished,

of n

Mystilc,in

Aurore

Q7iarante questio7is sur

has

B.'s

J.

Gorlitz,1857
Schrifie7i,

sei7ie

des
i}7i2jeriale

nearly complete

more

des deutschen

Lehre

Wissenschaft,Leipsic,1800.

into French

in

Lebe7i

F., Leips.,1800,and

D.

die

Oder

P^atze,Blumenlese

WiiUen.

Die

protestantischen
imd

Aw^ora

published

was

PAcad.

de

'"'"

entitled

Vanini, cf.
W.

von

published, Amst., 1075, more

were

Stuttg.,1838; Hamberger,
Geschichte

On Lucilio

Jahrh.,

Schiebler,Leips. 1831"47, 2d ed., 1801

W.

Narrheit, II,

work

; the

17

im

des Memoires

inort, Extrait

sa

recentlyby

more

Atheisten

Bohme's

collected

Works,

eines

doctri7ie,

printed in

first

was

sa

Jacob

V..

L.

Par., 1610.

libri quatuor.

arcanis
des

into

1532

since

been

and

English, and

French
German

York, 1845

translation

; another

The

literature

and

to the

most

into

by Ecmmont,

translation

Geschichtsschreiber, Berl.

Eyerley, London, ISlO.-Tr.]

up

was

recent
German

times

verj-

by Ziegier,

Leipsic,1840

published

Leipsic, 1821.

relating to Macchiavelli

In

fEnglish
is

lish
[Eng-

London

in

transl.

brought

to-

OF

BEGINNINGS

Robert

gcther by

Especially noteworthy
Anti-MdcchiavellL
in

Frederick

in this

to his

25.

future

own

1855

Ja7i.
I'Vs

und

conduct

in

Da

optimo

contained

Vol.

Th.

Sir

Gennan

G.

in the

Vogel,

On

Grotius

Hugo

Die

Mohl,

Gesch.
in

1850, and
par

War

of

in the

Cusanus

of

Treves,

of

of

the

member
died

and

the

the

work

German

am

vomFurnten

etc..

transl.

1566.

"Works, Louvain,
M.'s

English

by
This

works,

was

Life oj

Mackintosh,

R.

; cf.

H.

des

Ad.

Vol.
p.

annotated

Von

by

droit

and

titid
Grotius

und

I, p. 174, seq.; Stahl,

37 seq.

Robert

la guerre

de

of

work

principal

Kirchmann

des

Schicksalen

Luther

sdcfis. Gesellsch.

der

Du

tableau

(president du

seinen

Volkerrechts,

The

in

by

1858.

Volkerrechts,

Franck,

428-441.

MS.

published

temps,

sou

Creuzer,

in Abh.

from

was

Planchenault

nach

Friedr.

1826;

Litt. des

G.

Colloquixcm

edition

work

J. B. et

audlsT.

IT.

Hartenstein,
;

of the

Baudrillait,

Luden,

Kritik

seq.

1584);

cuthor,

publiciste, Angers,

et

Ompteda,

July, 1867, pp.

and

history

the

H.

Gr., London,

p. 229

the

by

Berl., 18-41 ; complete

et

la paix

de
""

Grotius,

published

von

Wiss.,

der

in

his

On

the

Philos.

Krebs),

youth

at

Padua,

then

of

the

Modern

Council
Todi

at

the

him,

he

of

by

Bocta

to

the

affirms

in

conceptions

to

occupies

with

Common

theology,

in 1448

He

the

In

that

the

middle

that

of

position

former, he,
the

which

like

His

reason.

he

treats

subsequent work, De

human

knowing

the

difficulties

the

theory

of

man's

the

fundamental

subject

and

all

theology, by

"

Life,

filled ecclesiastical

Cardinal, in 1450
a

scholasticallyeducated

ignorance

doubt

overcome

of the

its conviction

Ignorantia.
he

above,
seeks

himself

familiar

his

shopric
Cusa, in the archbi-

at

Brothers

Basel, became

lacked

of

knowledge

to the

applied

Philosophy,
before

the

among

1401

in

bom

in Umbria.

demonstrable

were

human

intuition

or

is

mere

Conjecture.
con-

arising from
immediate

of

God
or
{intuitio,
speculatio, visio sine comprehensione, eampredoctrine
that
the
Neo-Platonic
the
incomprehensibilis).^
a
theory grounded
on

hemiG

in the

teaches

state

that

of

ecstasy {raptus)

by intellectual

has

intuition

power

Dionysian mystical philosophy,

was

of

again
Cusa

on

the
his

up

basis

the
of

transcend

(which

all finite

principle,

already reappeared

by Bruno).

combined

was

on

practice

taken

had

to

the unity
{intuitiointeUectualis)

{coiacidentia contradictorium) is perceived

laus

1516

containing

si'cle,Paris, 1853,

in his

Nominalists

Mystics

of

inadequacy

knowledge

and

Buch

2d ed., 1855, and

version

on

Bodin,

on

Kaltenbom,

v.

in 1464

and

affirmed, was

With

soul

notice

writers,

recent

translated

educated

was

jectui'is^
complementary
the

Savants,

(written in 1440), De

work

Bodin, magistrat

more

(Nicol. ChrypfEs

Brixen,

greater part

in his

(Latin

seq.,

mathematics

and

he

p. 158

been

propositions of theology
wisdom,

1829.

in part,

Cf,

Butler, Life of

des

Scholasticism

between

and

reference

G., gehalten

d.

Macchiavelli's

Complete

volume,

text

Jlist.-philos.Abh.., Leipsic, 1870

offices,was
Bishop

in ethical
with

considering

F.'s

of
his

16, Berlin, 1869.

Nicolaus

law

of More's
other

only

s?izieme

dii

Staatsiciss.,I,

Peace,"''has

and

BibliotJiek,Vol.

studied

the

der

Jouriial

although

conduct,

in

errs

UtoiJia, Louvain,

II.

1577

Latin

8-10.

Jean

sxtr

Charles

Litt.

und

Bernhardt,

Nuremberg,

Schvvcrin, 1857.

18-10,Nos.

cf., among

Hartenstein's

Grotius,

Laio

the

eaojwmiques

Eeclitsphilosophie,

der

the

Rudhart,

Wissenscliaft, Heidelberg, 1846

Glauheund

Gesck.

; Mohl

and

reflections

Geddchtiiiss

zum

Theod.

in Vol.

first, and

with

Noack,

idess

Schriften, Berlin, 1806;

Oder

L.

civil ct Angers), Etudes

tribunal

Vortrag

insula

nova

repuhlique, Paris,

la

de

Serapeum,
et des

politiqnes

theories

of attention

wort.hy

of the
of his

and

intention

cd., 1844.

2d

ed.

views

author's

Great;

the

was

Machiavelli,

authors.

the

18G4.
deque

cf.

More

abridgment,

Giessen,

at

Library

The

On

of the

of

519-591),

pp.

different

Frederick

it

although

refutation

and

the

of

composition

unfairly;

1858,

of

opinions

already secured,

A.-M.,

uiid

is contained

above

works.

Uvres

is

is well

M.

Brunswick

-Tr.]

1830,

Six

Bodin,

Iieptaplomeres.

E.

1559.

M., London,

Jean

tlie

Latin

all his

London,

at

work

reip. statu

[The

Oettinger, Leips., 184(5.

printed

dominion

Wias., Berlin, 1855, and

der

AntimacchiaveUi,

Morus,

estimate

Ill, Erlangen

manifold

youthful

judges

expression

an

as

whose

ruler, the

h. Akad.

der

Gr.

d.

Thomas

weak, yet
prince

as

historical

an

aspect), Trendelenburg,

former

in the

befits

is the

here

(who

Mohl

to furnish

of the

summary

at refutation

attempts

is very

light

Staatswisaenschqften,Vol.

der

luminous

cf. besides

work

the

political regards, which

only

the

which

on

TJtt.

gives

talent

among

writing

viewed

work

{Gesch. u.

Mohl

von

p:reat organizing

with

who

23

INVESTIGATION.

INDEPENDENT

But

with

spiritand

observation

philosophic thought

the

practice

and

arises

with

Eckhart

skepticism
of

mechanical

mathematics.

the

founded

essential

From

and

limitations.

contradictories

of

in
and

the
his

mysticism
and
the

community

He

pseudodisciples,
of

astronomical
influence
of his

of

Mco-

vestigatio
inthis

doctrine

24

BEGINNINGB

with

philosophy.

modem

in which
Calendarii^

tione

His

Gregory.

In

had

already,Mcolaus
14136,

he

proposed

doctrine

astronomical

INVESTIGATION.

INDEPENDENT

OF

of the

reform

the idea

included

written

calendar

of the

work, De .Reparasimiliir to

rotation

of the

that
earth

of
on

Copernicus (whose work on the paths of

other works, Franz
the celestial bodies appeared in 1543 ; cf. among
Hipler,Nkolaus^
,
Coperrdcus^unci Martin Luther,Braunsberg, 1808). In connection with his doctrine of
of the
of the earth Nicolaus
advanced
to the theory of the boundlessness
the motion
of
the
limits
val
mediethe
universe
in both time and space, thus essentially
transcending
its

axis,whereby

he

became

fore-runner

of

bounded
were
by the apparent
conxjeptionsof the universe
of his theology and cosmology
sphere of the fixed stars. In the philosophicaldeduction
follows
Nicolaus
Cusanus
chieflythe numerical
speculationof the Pythagoreana
natural
reason
and the Platonic
{ratio
philosophy. Number, he teaches,is unfolded

imagination,whose

and
explicata,
defines

rationalis fabriccenaturale
quoddam puUulans
God

unity,which

the

as

otherness

is without

principium).Nicolaus
(the

eV,the

rairov

sanus
Cu-

without

and (with Plato) holds the world to be the best of generated things. The world
zrepov),
articulate whole.
and
is a soul-possessing
Every thing mirrors forth in its place the
existence
its
universe.
by virtue of its commtmity with all
Every being preserves
others.
Man's ethical work is to love every thing according to its place in the order of
God is triune,since he is at once
the whole.
thinking subject,object of thought, and
and connexio,he
intdligere)
thought {inteUigeiu,
intelUgibile,
; as being unitas,wgucditas,
ah
vero
; connexio
Father, Son, and Spirit{ab unitate gignitur unitatis cequalitas
maximum
the
world
God
the
absolute
unitatis
is
ab
et
cequalitate).
;
procedit
becomes
is the unfolded
maximum, the image of God's perfection. In love to God man
reconciled.
infinite
and
the
finite
is
of
the
In the God-man
the opposition
with God.
one
of the next followingtime, and
The
Platonists
especiallythose of them who made
of Mirandula, Reuchlin, and
of the Cabala
Pico
such
much
as
especiallyAgrippa
of Nettesheim, and
also Franciscus
(F. G. Zorzi of Venice), author
Georgius Venetus
in their
mundi
totius cantica (Yen., 1525) give evidence
De harmonia
of the work

is

imitate

"

"

of the

works

spiritof

natural

attempts
most

influence

to

part

upon

of the

them

which
investigation,

make

of natural

use

(as notably in the

case

were

new

of mathematics

being developed in

science
of

science

for

the

Agrippa), the

control
form

of

of the

and

the

new

their
Still,
nature
assumed, for the
practiceof magic.

their times.

ality
clothing itself in the forms of mysticism of a natural causof
the
then
the
bottom
to things,also lay at
widely-extended
imparted by
of the independBut the union
belief in astrology(a belief ^shared by Melanchthon).
ent
in the works
study of nature with theosophy appears in this period most marked
of PhilippusTheophrastus (Bombast) Hohener, or von
Hohenheim, who called himself
Aureolus
the
Hohener
"von
Hohenheim")
name
Theophrastus Parrt^or
(translating
1541
at
died
in
celsus (bom 1493 at Einsiedeln
in Switzerland,
Salzburg). He intended

The

consciousness

"

"

God

to reform

the

science

of medicine

; diseases

to be healed

were

rather

by

an

excitation

principle{Archeus) in its strugglewith the principleof

Cold was
reactions.
of obstacles,
than by direct chemical
disease and by the removal
of a
the
noxious
but
working
not to be opposed by heat, nor
dryness by moisture,
of
the
pathic
homeoits
neutralized
salutaryworking (an anticipation
principlewas to be
by
of chemistry
contain an extravagantmixture
doctrine). The doctrines of Paracelsus
Paracelsus
school with
and theosophy. To the same
belonged Robert Fludd {de
Helmont
Joh. Baptistavan
(1577-1664)and his son. Franc. MerFluctibus,1574-1637),
and

strengtheningof

curius

von

Helmont

the Platonic

doctrine

the

vital

Marci
Marcus
(1618-'99),
and
of idem operatrices,

of

Kronland

others.

(died 1676),who

renewed

Nicolaus
^^^Pfollowed

ascribed

do

but

to

this

confesses

he

ideally condemned,

laws,

' '

true,

Truth

is to

legibus). For

adcersaH

His
him

Judges

qiiovispuero
things

Telesius

of

of

science, founded

(but only

view,
at

Naples

the

of

which

Platonic

him

by

for

authority

Platonism, the
the

and

the

those

Among

who

of

and
the

Ramus,

He

of

of

with

and

Ar'istotdem.
about
As

the

year

Gassendi

Democritus
followed

Among

libr. diiodecim, and

held

1667,

(above, " 109,

in their

endeavors

the

ophy
philosNeo-

and

at the

would

Pope
of

the

Aristotle,and

were

employ
modified
He

also

lated
trans-

Hermes

developed by

was

him

in

attempt

15), from
reform

opposition

reform

these

to the

totelian
Aris-

doctrines, were

of the Logic of Aristotle,and

his antagonist, Jac. Carpentarius, of a Descrip1562) IScJwlarum

pliys.libr. octo^ and ScTwlarum

Sebastian

Claude

for

founded

blended

developed.

in their
to

109,p. 12) opponent

of

Basso, author

Guillermet

Professorship
p.

doctrine

own

Patritius

and

in

also

Metaphysics

; his

He

pounded
proin his

to Aristotle

favor

had

of

that

were,

explains

the

in

he

ing
undertak-

to

etc.
pliilosophia,

("

that
and

in

not

natural

Platonic
He

attributed

wish

light,which

the

on

Aristotde, Par.

metaphyf, libr. quatuordedm

the

of

Cosentina,after

the

in 1597.

works

ers
found-

the

in this

or

Peripat. he

Many

of

Telesius

metaphysics,

ex

most

formed.

been

Rome

at

Biscussiones

Zoroaster

above-named

naturm

minui

philosophy,

especially

1529, taught

in

died

of

interest

Telesiana
have

Aristotelianism,

published (afterthe publication by

tio universes

stitions.
super-

in

but

of cognition.

Academia

entertained

universis

agreed

puerile

Syllogisms

matter

societies

doctrine.

Philoponus
de

ciple
prin-

of truth

'propter illcmi

man,

support

Parmenides.

Dalmatia

his

emanations

Oracles

the

who

physics
Petrus

of

entitled,Nova

work

In

suppression

commentary

Trismegistus

1576-93,

opinions.

the

These

the

sake

one

the

and

philosophy,

and

in

for

; but

nature

learned

at Clissa in

years

doctrine

Aristotelian
but

system,

natural

other

spurious.

as

than

the

combat

sensation, in the

Aristotelian

the

combats

considered
his

Telesian

with

time

same

the

fact, every

in 'plurimis

sapere^

to

investigators,the

natural

numerous

in

Ferrara

full of

ib. 1588) became

appearances) by

for

Patritius,bom

Franciscus
at

of

substitute

society of

model

for the

1508, died
ancient

other

any

doctrine

as

imperfect

an

at Cosenza

ante-Socratic

the

to

with

it.)

follows

dux"rim

plus homine

interdam

original investigation of

on

resorted

of

upon

visionary, and

the

boy."

any

(bom

or

those

morals

openness

impium

things occasionally wiser

some

Platonism,

acted

are

Scaliger (1484-1558),a jjupil of Pomponatius,

Caesar

philosophy by undertaking

modem

interest

he

was

the

Cardanus

neque

who

people reflect

the

matter

as

is it wrong

things, nor

public

(Only

he

Truth,
those

others, and

of

"When

has

himself

He

number.

warmth.

deceive

it.

dominant,

of

classes

ends

Cardanus;

to

antepmienda

quibusdam

intelligentthan

less

Bemardinus

the

in

eum

who
for

from

wise ; for
all

and

penalties.

arise

peculiar

doctrine

three

and

useful

outwardly
the

on

Julius

"in
intelligere^

light

into

severe
can

rest, Cardanus

the

opponent,
thus:

is

still

but

{Veritasomnibus

"

laws

the

to oppose

and

preferred before

be

the

men

Dogmas

tumults

but

binding

not

are

with
with

deceived

are

laws

doctrine

which

it is

who

by rigid

concerning religion,nothing

power

divided

deceive.

nor

to maintain

ought

he

deceive, those

deceived

identified

He

few.

25

INVESTIGATION.

blending theology

soul, which

only

not

neither

are

State

world

accessible

deceived
who

in

Cusanus

the

to

said, was

INDEPENDENT

OF

BEGINNINGS

at

de

Padua),

Epicurus, so
in the

Fhihsopliimnaturalis

Berigard
in

his

Sennert

department

work,
and
of

adv.

(or Bauregard,
CirciiU

Magnenus

who,
Pisani^ etc.
drew

from

physics,while Maignan

Empedocles.
the

above-named

Andreas
(109, pp. 10-15) Aristotelians,

Caesalpinus (1519-

26

as

for

iudebted

are

As

of

ism

CEesalpinus, but
maxima?
{'"'"

philosophy
frame

as

heathen,

holds

res

est

that

fall,revelation
which

origin of

atomic

in

doctrine
the

or

is

view,

the

died

for

them

confined

work
will

his

Professor

logic,

sympathy

human

be

saved,

thinker,

about

and

his

all

Brano,
of

Nicolaus

in

the

youth

in the

year

Cusanus

in

bom

humanities
it upon

of the

Church,

and

afterwards

to

Lyons

to

theory

than

Toulouse,

delajo,written

of

Paris

the

In

in

is,in

that

Christ

triumph
is

theology,
other

works.

Aristotelians, defended
but

of

Goclenius,

Ramus

general,
him

highly

into

found

vigorous

as

his

little

of Cardanus.

1475,

at Sancourt

Amiens,

near

oped
above, " 109, p. 11) devel-

Stapulensis, see

catholic

Christ

in

Taurellus

or

his

Lutheran

with

doctrine;

opponent
1470

But

The

and

logical,
theo-

and

through

doctrines

esteemed

about

called

harmony

this

eternity),as

themselves

Altdorf

founded

spirit,and

by

Bruno

that

of

the

on

principles

by
to

the

mouth

of

the

Wittenberg, thence

material
Danish
to

He

Naples, developed
He

in conflict with

the

thence

to

Genoa,

orthodoxy

of

Geneva, however,

from

289)

and

to Oxford

Paris
and

of

with

of the ideas

elements

and
From

the

Bruno

and

Venice,
proved

soon

more

no

by way

went

of

According
{Shakespeare's

entitled

perhaps

relativityof

ings
teach-

dogmatic

particularly on

"

London

Prague, Helmstadt,

and

Dominican

the

London

comedy

(1583-1586),

London

Prince.

and

Tschischwitz

Benno

acquainted

some

city he

that

leaving

instructed

was

entered

of

became

them

direction.

of

Republic

residing in

from
the

p.

province

Naples.

at

convictions

Catholicism,

Bruno

while

indestructiblityof

dialectic

Paris, and

to

{O.

derived

in

the

to

in the

at Nola

anti-ecclesiastical

reformed

The

thence

of Falkson

writings, and

expresses

in

an

arriving at

Hamlet^ Halle, 1868), Shakespeare

the

salvation

Aristotelian

acute

of Faber

1548

and

repaired

Geneva.
him

to

to the

of

all

and

"

revealed

be

not

and

temporal

eternally damned.

of

quod

Cusanus.

quitted

his

merely

will

and

Leibnitz

155-",an

but

of

be

some

Scaliger, the

pupil

from

world

convince

Taurellus.

toward

immediate

doctrine

congenial

who

the

admitting

(Charles Bouille, bom

Giordano

Order,

the

Scherbius, the

contemporaries.
to

verbo

atoms,

PhilosopMcB iriumphus^

against Ramus,

him

intelligence.

uno

of the

doctrine

of uncombined

of

will

others

work:

although

Christian,

by that

the

dogmas ;
appropriation of

successor,

also

as

for

consequence

Aristotelians)as

Those

to

cal
philosophi-

philosophical knowledge

up

Aristotclianism

the

undertook

{dicam
in

in

authority

believes

that

at

of the

regards

the

human

to Aristotle

suflficed

he

philosophico-theologicalsystem,

have

he

1547

philosophically justifiable doctrines.

Bovillus

of Nicolaus

in his

and

from

in

compared

and

Carolus

died

as

among

also

The

favorably disposed

was

while

faith,but

creation

freedom.

of

Marburg,

at

the

all

conflict between

no

says,

first made

(with

as

Christian.

pupil

against Taurellus,

be

completes

as

fundamental

to

Taurellus

by
and

Schegk

the

Trinity, not

Platonists)

he

for

Taurellus

theory of

philosophy emancipated

celebrated

again

Aristotelian-

authoritas^')^ and

should

not,

which

(conceived

to the

the

Calvinist,but

will

of grace.

world

(with

his

of

of

dogma

Christianity

be

(bom

Averroistic

and

general,

inumt

there

the

but
e^set,sola mguisset 2:)hilosopMa)^

state

the

in

to Christ

necessary,

opposition

but

here

vegetable physiology

Taurellua

only

not

fall philosophy would

man's

non

to the

combated

which

Taurellus

became

relates

and

Nicolaus

Church,

Aristotclianism

indebted

be

or

sipeccatum

IGOO)

in

doctrine, in

for

but

Protestant

2)Ml()sophim7naculam

theological truth,

He

also

the

also
ti

of

body

new

and
think

of

at Altdorf

died

Mompelgard,

should

pantheism,
animal

important enlargements.

representative

into
whom

to
investigator,

independent

an

INVESTIGATION.

Aristotclianism

developed Averroistic

1G03),who
mentioned

INDEPENDENT

OF

BEGINNINGS

evil

"

with

others

the

subject

which

journeyed

Frankfort-on-the-Main"

Can-

by

he
way

where

BEGINNINGS

till 1591

he remained
denounced
delivered
in the

of

with

Delivered

mildly

possible and

as

that

suspect
burned

in

the

honored

Papal Encyclica of
of

system

of

dogmas
the

1616)

the

the

he

doctrine

immanent

Bruno

things, and

unextended,
monad.

It is

Minimum,
since

by

an

hence

present

aU

freely.

of the

the

attempts

at

and

Mcolaus

Cusanus.

cdricidenticB

pium

was

pleased

worlds

to

most

but

he

merit

the

aid

of

to mention
the

but

not
he

himself
laid

powerful

the

he

found

on

neutral

Nicolaus

that

we

rise in

Cusanus,
in

up

Bruno
our

remains

his

works
was

fancy

upon

the

combined

from

whom

in

terms

demands

of

first results
in

but

to this
modem

Maximum,

in

held

he

All

high

his

did not

LuUius

complete system

often

the

fended
de-

pnncinot

priest'sgown.

by personal and
with

It

the

to the

ascent

method.
natural

he

honor

great respect,

by

regular

vidual
indi-

perfection

in

took

is

beautiful

Raymundus

of

not

God

evil.

that, beginning

speculations by

them

beauty

of

compulsion, and

philosophy

hampered

by Telesius,

always proceed according

hold

in

is

is the

himself,

in its absolute

works

ground

the

absolute

no

soul

; he

working.

or

are,
is

in the

Nicolaus, too,

it himself.

is nature

Scholasticism,Bruno

he

speaks

without

of

all that

absolutely

monads

of

with

forms

The

out

in

also

the

time

The

form, moving

other, but

forth

that

; there

universe

towards

path opened

new

conditioned,

did

Of

things

in its kind

treading

oppodtorum,

with

that
a

perfect

change,

When

special investigations follow

and

being

as

is

original

immanent

; the

same

necessity, hence

in the

souls

material.

come

realized, God

nature

are

manner

iimer

an

to

universe

his attributes.

of

as

(for which

points, not

monad

at the

worlds

the

the

herself

as

and

is the
and

him,

the

him

elementary parts of

psychical

to

caused

by

conceived

the

on

Bruno's

God

the

in

the

(March 5,

worlds

each

contains

God

Copemican

Congregation

For

form

with

was

tific
scien-

considered

adversansy

by

and

to be

body.

but
^

The

once

external

Raymundus.

forgetting,however,
He

at

are

the

Index-

are

as

''I

He
to

afterwards

love

herself.
are

speculation, which

new

of

art

him,

the

and

only

it."

unfavorably received

of matter
not

judges

Emancipated

he

Lucretius),and

; matter

which

Inimically disposed

"

With

soon

him

January, 1865, the

of innumerable

one

and

identical

within

God

is

dualism

organisms

will,but

subject

itself.

of

doctrine.

Copemican

{primus motor)

from

are

worlds

the

are

monads,

him.

in like

things

the

the

things

in

The

like

of

entirely without

are

objects are
ever

mover

or

also

Each

7th

by

Power, wisdom,

prime

forth

them

of

objects.

the

not

described

system

doctrine

of

arbitrary act
in

epoch.

indeed

at first been

Epicurus

organic beings

never

things

And

of

universe.

spherical ; they

because

all

by

minima
but

our

the

matter

brings

new

certainty for

solar

authority

the

of

the

are

of

not

end

constituent

exists

space

opposes

and

cause,
the

expansion of

the

cause

moved,

are

them.

on

formula

martyr

the

by students.

become

authorities, was

an

and
cites

also

burned

had

I receive
a

tions,
convic-

punish

to his

replied
than

was

hypocritical

mocking

February, 1600,

which,

was

had

doctrine,which

are

time

of

of

would

they

Bruno

in his

guilty

customary
that

been

in 1593

years' confinement

unmoved

PytJuigorica^Divinceque"-Scripturmomniiio

views
in

the

greater fear

incompatible.

be

ecclesiastical

astronomical
is infinite

stars

to

ilia doctrina

"falsa

and

Church

truth

several

to be

request

17th

May, 1592,having

remained

investigations of

8, 1864,

whose

universe,

with

statue, before

December

Copemican

of

part

the

with

he

blood").

the

on

free

the

on

suffered

(with
the

of

sentence

Campofiore

him

stake
with

effusion

my

founded

convictions

Italy has

without

pronounce

you

at Rome

the

to

of

Inquisition,and

scornfully refused

authorities

secular

he

Rome

the

by

last,since

truth

fidelityto
condemned

the

At

Inquisition.

the

was

to

In

23d

the

on

arrested

was

authorities.

noble

he

submission,

he

27

INVESTIGATION.

Venice; here,

Mocenigo,

Roman

dungeons

and

Zurich,

"

traitor

the

to

and

"

the

by

INDEPENDENT

OF

was

his peculiar

science, and
of

the

est
low-

est,
highwith

universe,a

28

BEGINNINGS

corresponding with

system

in which

Bruno,

he

important

most

OF

of

abstract

the

JDdla

is the

this work

is

Mondi.

Of

architectura

(i. e.

his

Latin

INVESTIGATION.

spirit of modem

chieflydevelops

his

system,

lu

1).

works

the

H.

F.

by
the

mathematical,

physical,and
quinque^ Frank.,
Demonade, numero
"urabiliet de innumerabiUbus, sen de universo
Galileo

Galilei

of

Worthy
of

universal

Catholic

and

the

monarchy,

Stilo

at

of

the

(1684-1 G39)

recognizes

Accused

of

Paris,where

at

twofold

he

by Herder)
down

eternal

mind

reflection

of

full of

error

works

of

wrote

God's
and

{De gentUismo
JJtriim

Descartes

in
it

of

the

former,

and

several

to deduce

sets

me

the

from

through

being,

or

the

from

these

of

an

he

agency

of that

the

in

being,

objects are

it dreads

the

result

of

itself around

sun

statua).

the

or

earth.

the philosophers
works) this Platonic

the

explore
pMloso-

magistri^
of the

philosophy,

are

of

souls

rain.

world
state

called
doctrine

the

All
The

(in the
are

becomes

myself have

cannot
I

must

really exist.

only

can

space

men,

and

the

being.

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grieve, when

revolve

the

around

Solis)is founded
him

groundwork

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of natural

livingimage {mundus

the

world

pure

movements

regarded by

This

love, produced

sensation.

free

have

and

his

with

Plants

Civitas

of

notion

our

wisdom,

planets

ence,
exist-

without

is God's

to rule

non-being

replenishment.

like

and

own

world

power,

nothing

antipathy.
The

the

to

our

From

ter
lat-

ontologically (like An"

therefore

who

exists

craves

Carapanella's theory of the

Re-jj.j but
later

sympathy

reasons

increasing measures

and

vacuum

are

from

ourselves

of

the

life,and

of nature

have

we

of God.

he

so

"

"

there

souls;

of

manipulation,

not, however,

being

primalities
Deity, whose
immortal
the
ideas,angels,

have

in which
shows

gentilescondei'e

post

which

being, superior

infinite

book

which

copies
should

we

existence

existence

experience pleasure after refreshing

(in.his

picion
sus-

Canzone

liceat

certainty

wilt, and

BO

for

Campanella

In

the second

dead

scientific

all,the

finite

is

"

the

existences

Platonic

1639),

escape

jurare in verba
perception and faith; out

under

for

viva

ters
mat-

zealot

reception,

as

nova?n

Utrum

animate,

the

in

Scholastics, especially Nominalists,

the

God's
As

perishable things, by mingling

and

Paris

nature.

living mirror,
but

are

liceat

knowledge

it,first

of

idea

all

out

establish

to

in succession

All

Utrum

contradicere

(like Augustine

psychologically.

produced

of

in

Spanish government,

in

world

the

(with Telesius)

that

of

attempts
but

infinite

the

falling

experiments.

innovator,

an

and

the

books

foundation

subsequently)

received

authority
and

especiallyagainst the study

argues

AristoteU

the

thoughts,

; human
He

retinendo

non

liceat

The

seeking
he

of

and

as

of

speculative philosopher.

sympathies

honorable

an

Bible

describes

own

demands

theology, out

grows

Campanella

selm),

as

laws

at

appeared

with

met

he

its

countenance

deception.

Aristotle,and

Par., 1636).

God

the

died

conspiring against

revelation, in

divine

(translated into German

nature

he

injig-

et

he passed three
from
1599 to 1626, after which
in
years
Inquisition ; finallyreleased, he passed the last years of his

Romish

the

phiam

since

not,

of

also

1568,

ecclesiastical

Ubri

mensura

imm(^uo

observations

in

compendiosa

minimo
triplici

et

de

independence

Calabria

in

strongest
did

but
physicist,

on

of

octo, Frank., 1591.

investigation

de

De

Minimum)

Ubri

of inferences

founding

the

his

of method

maxims

(born
of

persecution.

prisons

life

et mundis

as

Bruni

liber,item

an

doctrine

InjinitoUniverso

Paris, 1583.

figura

et

the DeW

the

1584

the

on

Jordani

these

in strict confinement

kept

the

his

Campanella

although

was

are

Dominican

only

not

and

note

science, dou-bt,

Thomas

are

Giordano

Of

(or London),

his work

metaphysical

(1564-1641) acquired by

lasting title to esteem

Venice

to

of

works

in Italian.

appeared

year

important

more

1591.

bodies

were

Jacobi

same

Those

written

complemento artis LvlUi, Venice, 1580

et
the

on

science.

ed Uno^
Causa^ Prirtcipio

appended

Spinoza ( Werke^ vol. iv. Abth.

e

INDEPENDENT

as

for

sun,

est

Dm

on

the

priests,and
the

theory

30

BEGINNINGS

of God.

Macchiavelli

makes

of his country.
the regard of
of Ancient

war

favored

different

Church
the

end

one

the

in such

that

and

ape,

Discord

in the

and
"

of freedom.

of all

had

nations, and

he

that

'

that

says,
the

passivity
"

impressed

religion

upon

state, the former

Livio,and

prince.

and

the

land

need

not

bleeding

under

the

despotic
that

forget
the

M.

mercenary
tion
introduc-

specialwork, the

Kriegswesen, ein

moderne

visionally
pro-

condition

is the

should

in

least

reduces

times, which

Prince

(Karl Kniess, Das

civil

is made

is at

Still Macchiavelli

unhappy

recommended,

ent
differ-

in II Prin-

latter

freedom

genuine public spiritwhich

M.'s

custom

his

politicalideal, namely,

of the

Tito

warmly-loved

in vain

'

his

power

shudder

his

seen

militia

of native

of armies

with

of

di

corrupt

exists

reads

Whoever

previously

for long years

hordes

there

when

times

and

of the

power

by distinguishing between

discrepancy

has

Principe republican

in the

absolute

sides

two

decade

prima

that

manner

sacrificed to the

remedies,

la

sopra

into

diverts

politicalactivity. Macchiavelli's

and

freedom, aiidthe independence, greatness,

prominent

"

pursued by him,

Of

character.

he

religion which,

beguiles them

and

dom
free-

unity and

to the

obstacle

the

as

Clnistian

manliness

of subordinating all else to the

works

the

on

politicalinterests

which

Rome,

INVESTIGATION.

INDEPENDENT

prefers before

He

from

men

OF

Vortrag,

Berlin, 1867, p. 19).

of Plato's

free imitation

In

1535)

expression

gave

thoughts respecting
things, equality

other

substantially the

was

canonical

only

the

men

were

swords,
all and
for

all laws
the

metlwdus

naturm

being, according
tenbom's

(such

as

emphasis

Ferd.

above.)

the part of human

grace,

for

be

but

The

In

social

who

merit

was

and
of

As

of

for

use

? The

unjust

order,

have

favorable

to pray
to

religiousfreedom
having vindicated

calls

would

for

the

Me-

{elauyMjh,site ele-

vita

law

law,

any
those

mention
in
but

outline

and

first

in

v.

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tants
politics,Protes-

more

particularly Jesuits

; also

Suarez

each

and
to

other

to

private

others),

the

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of

divine

by

sination
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sign

magistrates

government

vengeance

on

of constitutional guaranties,

authority.
was

natural
the

(Oldenspiritunlis.

in

magistrates

the resort

of

outlines

of the

destroy

secular

politicalabsolutism,
of the

of

Bellarmin

their

makes

to God

the

given

are

theory

sanctions

nor

they ought;
well."

(like language), according

in

and

neither

grievances,

law

and

earth

peoples of the

the

relatingto

Luther

origin.

If all

himself

of

as

to do

on

table

Catholics, and

is

state

their offices

second

in the

so

"

{Principiorum jtiris

decalogue

the

and

Mariana,

The

human

us

in the

and

in view

Cologne, 1539), Nic. Hemming

civilis,

et

natural

on

and

has

does

nothing

them

urge

period

princes, kings, lords,

just man
do

this

Saxony)

duo, 1538), Joh. Oldendorp

in ethics,

Luther

sin, but

simply directs

doctrine
to the

the

nature

works

Molina,

the

massacre.

part of those

ethical

freedom.

doctrine, of

without

But

particular,in

divine

Lud.

if uncontrolled

and
cannot

the

on

Vasquez,

lastico-Jesuitic

an

Winkler's

s, and

cited

work

laid

him, of

to

dorp's, Hemming'

serve

teach, force, and

libri

John

in

Luther

doctrines.

Duke

to

they

others, found

{jus natnrole), Hemming,

among

Scholasticism

by

apodictica,1562, etc.),'QenedActWinkXer
in

demands,

Protestants

former

necessity or

no

could

juris naturalis, gentium

quinque, Leips., 1615),and

law

to

(in his PhilosophifBMoralis

{Delege
liM

be

and

biblical

address

require.

law,

He

state.

the

among

(in an

end

ed
1480, behead-

sophical
OptifnoBei/p.,
etc.,to philo-

the

Catholics

among

would

good

of

especiallyby

says

there

what

need

introductio

mission

at London

(bom

work, De

religious tolerance.

state

latter

he

all that

they

reason

mentaris

the

the

when

For,

than

form,

origin and

the

and

Christians

laws.

the

Morus

in his

Aristotelian, modified

law

good
or

state,Thomas

possessions and

among

criminal

more

this

and

law,

lanchthon

on

of

of law

philosophy

The

ideal

in fantastic

The

early

nevertheless

estant
Prot-

conducive

individual.

equal

claim

of

all religiousconfessions

to

polit-

of

and
toleration,

ical

and

ethnography

159G

1530, died
la R

also

puhllqiie^as

de abditi'^

is

law

natural

topics

Distributio

and

all is based

the

on

of them.

one

1551

in the

Bodin

politics on
at

(bom
Six

in his

Angers

Livres

de

ColloquiumHeptajjlomeres

his
first

various

the

on

of

and

expressed

are

(very recently for the

for

in each

contained

truth

relative

Universi

arcanis

of tolerance

demand

in it the

these

on

unpartisan dialogue

an

of

theories

the

views

Juris

sublimiinn

rerum

Colloquium

The

His

in his

31

INVESTIGATION.

history,belongs especially to Jean

of

study

1597),

or

founded

having

the

INDEPENDENT

OF

BEGINNINGS

time

published

religions and

entire).

confessions, and

recognition, by the author, of

Bodin's

ethics

rest

on

deistic

the

basis.

of

district

Professor
a
Ancona, died, while
De
libri
tres
other
at Oxford, in 1611) wrote
works,
legationibus
(Lond., 1585,
among
etc.),Dejure belli libri tres (Leyden, 1588, etc.),and Dejustitia beUica (1590). In these

Gentilis

Albericus

works

deduced

he

his

of

predecessor
Hugo

work

liberum

Mare

in

the East

he

Indies,

principal work,

persons,

so

naturale

andju^
flows

therefore

It

in

object

tolerated.

Still he

of which

1646, etc.,

and

historical
in

Paci^.

the

of natural

the

of nations.

law

Grotius

from

with

existence

state,
is not

of the

law

in his

De

Veritate

{quia

The

V. T., Par., 1644, etc.) are

religious standpoint of the
in

revelation, combined

of such
o%vn

style

faith.
and

of

of

with

father'i

ciety
so-

ures
pleasin

right

The

right

that

simply

those

only

should

not

the

Christian

studies

N.

to

-peccetur).

{ne

men

(1619)

in

Civil

right.

est)^but

biblical

in

agrees

mands
societatis de-

immortality,

be

of Grotius

T., Amst.,

1641-

great philological,exegetical,

author

treatment

Chancellor
his

"peccatum

Annot.

the

natural

custodia

the

tolerated, and
and

extensive

especially in

the

generally

improving

be

of

subsistence
furthers

ReligionisChristiancB

confessions.

rationalistic

volumes, his

should

derstands
un-

distinguishes

contract.

on

and

jus
; the

Grotius

of natural

criterion

retribution

by deterring

the

of

law

between

society that, in questions of

hence

admits, viz., God

even

of

founded

language, and

and

sphere of

principle of

the

as

positive religions

commimicated

in

faith

and

the

by his

in the

he

this

tradition

empirical

members,

As

reason

the

principle

and

law,

jus divinum

th.Q

is endowed

an

in

trade

and

law,

positive provisions

on

By

man.

affirmations

its

(Leyden,

distinguishes

is based

laxius,within

sense

his

tributed
(Paris,1625, 1632, etc.),con-

science

Testaments

whose

of

to

various

; the

value

critico-historical

five quarto

or

of

of this

basis
with

punishment

all

are

principle of

continued

far

defends

Annot.

became

to free

of maritime

et Pads

law,

New

naturale

in this

Deism

to

(the fruits

and

of

mere

common

law,

Man

consent

so

that

what

Bdli

nature

and

jus
the

on

of violations

demands

deny

dogmas

is

free

the

prevention

Grotius
who

the

the

Old

decides,

punish belongs only

it

from

a,s

nations, furnishing
on

among

thus

commercia

Netherlanders

outlines

latter
(or civile)
: the

belongs,

right,
rests

of the

Indica

ad

in society ; whatever
is necessary
to
right (and also, whatever
sphere of natural

the

life

He

free.

to live

reason

society

the

nations,

competit

the

international

or

a^"w* humanum.

sense).

civilized

made

man
hu-

1583, died 1045, at Rostock), by

of the

of international

necessity

as

particularly from

of tolerance, and

favor

be

sea

claim

advancement

voluntarium

within

wider

natural

the

philosophically

precepts of the

of social
the

of

intended

comes

to vindicate

doctrine

of nature

law

seu

Jurisprudence, De Jure

with

the

and

nature,
in

Delft

at

dejure, quod Bata/vis

develops

in that

from

Bodin
of the

commerce

Groot, bom

permanent

the
scientifically

former

de

order

on

the

to

the

and

More

Grotius.

(Huig

1(509),in which,

the

that

Hugo

Grotius

with

stand

things demanded

other

principles of legal right

the

; took

nature

in

(bom

an

is

which

Samuel
commentaries

actual

wavering

one,

approximation

is

incompatible

Cocceji published
on

Grot,

in

de Jure

tion
retento that

with

the

1751,
BelU

in
04

SECOND

PERIOD

diyisio:n"

OF

The

112.

"
of

mutual

Division

Second

is characterized

antagonism,

attains

to

of

of

of

limited
those

who

all

of

The

immortality of

the

while

than

in

Empiricism,
and

the

human

ticism
Skep-

the

sitional
tran-

the

only

combination

is the

of

doctrines

soul

of

limits

fundamental

God's

existence

fore,
not, there-

have

who

and

"

the

transcend

to

is

philosophy

philosophicallythe

is universal

On

cited

1844, together
philos.

with

his

The

of

garded

Kant's

solely
It

that
reach
our

; it

experience
within
is

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it founds
of

of

on

faculties

of

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of

Dogmatism

customary

to

of

or

Kant's

connect

historical

historical

works

1833,

2d

Vhist.

sur

ed.,
la

de

which

preceded

next

the

of

standard
the

restrict

that

"'dogmatically"

in

own,

be

for
in

knowledge
knowledge

and

may

longer

no

measurement

of

means

objects of

that

his

standpoint

Kant's

of

correctness

are

re^

earlier

phy
philosocontained

experience.
proceeds

belief

But
as

human

larger

Essaz

Damiron,

historic

philosophical

absolute

not

declares

the
other

Spitioza, Ansbach,

bis

Bayle

The

Kant.

philosophy

as

and

Baco

and

the

siecle, Par., 1858-64.

to

the

in

by Schlosser,

von

Leibnitz

to

XVLIIme

that

knowledge,

reaches.

experience

definition

ati

Empiricism

itself

our

; Do.

does

only

sphere

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true

especially

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Critical

later

critique of

thereto

relating

JuhrhunderU^

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belong

truth

the

of

ground

sections

the

18.

des

relate

types

even

philosophic

as

to

the

^besides

"

Geach.
der

definitions

admitted,

systems.

which

works

foregoing

be

Gesch.

sLcle, Par., 1846

characterization
must

the

also

as

cf.

period,

this

Feuerbach,

XVIIme

au

of

(pp. 1, 2),

Ludw.

the

from

lies

w^hich

respecting that

differs

It

wdth

least doubt

at

or

province inaccessible,indeed, to
is rendered
other grounds.
sure
on

existence

w^hose

above

especially

of

doubt,

judgments

recognizing, on

not

philosophy

the

works

in

all

experience.

existence

but

reason,

of

range

the

reason,

validity of

the

to

beyond the
Philosophy

been

thought

demonstrate

to

principleof Skepticism

regard

as

in

able

in relations

philosophicalknowledge

theology,in particularthe

of

and

through critiqueof the facidtyof cognition,been brought to deny

of transcending in speculationthe sphere of experience.
possibility

the

"

and

experience,

of the

and

themselves

believe

doctrines

of

experiment

by experiment, and

Philosophy

Dogmatism,

doctrine

is

SYSTEMS.

Modern

objects of experience. Dogmatism

the

to

the

to

philosophicalinquiry

ascertained

facts

and

Empiricism

period. According
method

historyof

in the

RIVAL

independent development

more

AS

SKEPTICISM

coexistence,in developed form

the

by

AND

DOGMATISM,

EMTIEICISM,

philosophy.

modeek

of

above
with

the
but

that

Empiricism
given
this

"

world

objective

the

word.

it

on

the

not

for

is,

does

definition

Nor

is it

this

more

general

more

sense:

absolutely beyond

contrary,

which
a

this

is not

reason

since

cognizable
fall
Kant's

pertinent

so

within
time

it

objection

the
far
the
has
to

OTHER

AND

definitions,that

the above

to the

applicable only
the

to

''

Idealism," however,
and

Locke

opposed

similar

or

French

Sensualists

That

Hume.

in

Kant, who,
says

that

Spinoza
note

Cf.

influence
the
so

the

as

it

other, it
in

corresponds

Bacon

113.

the

with

the

and

of

several

reached

its
is

reference

mathematicians

their

doctrines,
to

Coryphaei of

heisst sieli im

with

Realism"

and

wavering signification.

dogmatists,

philosophers of these different directions

principal schools
far

Skepticism
among

dogmatically

so

vied

even

The

less

philosophical
"

Empirical.

being
no

poraries,
contem-

whether

his

doctrine, the

in

part, also, the

the

school

dogmatic

in

culminating- point
correctly remarked

Denken

by

orieritirenf

to the

cognition of

in the

rigor of

his

"
"

sensible
superstrations.
demon-

below, " 120.

each

on

he

Which

eighteenth century, and

entitled," Was

essay

Spinoza proceeded
objects, that

Since

to his

classed

applies

nearly related

less

or

of the

Leibnitz.

and

is to be

narrow,

; it

philosophers,whose

clearing-up " period.

"

Spinoza,

Descartes,

were

more

were

Materialists

and

German

of the

leaders

his,

to

too

Locke

to

Holbach, by

Hobbes

and

Scotch

and

English

the

and

indefinite

Bacon

belong

of

context, to the

and

of very

terms

are

empirical school

the

To

form

is rendered

Bacon

Materialism

the

33

PHILOSOPHERS.

Empiricism

prevailed from

and

both

limited, in

was

of

conception
which

of Condillac

Sensualism

knowledge

the

school

ENGLISH

is

scarcely possible to present

uninterrupted
with

exercised

the

; the

sequence

genetical,be

the

more

of Yerulam

the

an

important reciprocal

whole

history

chronological order
appropriate

of

each

of

will,therefore,

one.

(1561-1626)strippedoff from natural philosophy

the theosophical
character which it bore during the Transitional
induction.
to experiment and
Period, and limited it in its method
traits of this method
The
fundamental
he made
a
losophi
part of the phiof mankind, as emancipated in its investigaconsciousness
tions
the restriction
from
natural
of
to any
particulardepartment
science.
lie thus became
the founder
not, indeed, of the empirical
but
of natural investigation,
method
of the empiricalline of modern
of
Bacon'" highest aim to increase the power
philosophers.It was
the
his
of
man
by enlarging
knowledge. Just as the art of
range
and
civilized life,
powder, and the compass had transformed
printing,
their superiority
times
all preceding
over
given to modern
ages, so
and fruitful discoveries
the new
through ever new
path once
opened
still
further
to be
Avhatever
conducive
was
was
pursued
consciously
;
would, lead
to this end was
to be adopted and fostered,and that which
to be avoided.
Religiouscontroversies,,
away from it was
says Bacon,
remain
Let
let
but
it
are
not
pernicious.
untouched,
religion
(after
the maimer
the
mixed
with
of
be
science ; tlie mingling
Scholastics)
up
of science with religion
leads to unbelief,and the mingling of
w^ith scienc'e,
to extravagance.
The mind
be freed from
must
religion
and from
superstition
prejudiceoi every kind, in order that, as a
perfectmirror,it may so apprehend things as they are.
Knowledge
with
It
should
must
observation
with,
and
set
out
begin
experience.
"

"

"

34

BACON,

H0BBE8,

AND

OTHER

ENGLISH

experiment, whence
through induction
first to propositions
of inferior,
and then
in order finally
from these to redescend
at

discoveries

Bacon's

shall increase

it should

rise

to others of
to the

methodically

higher generality,

and
partioiilar,

to arrive

the

of man
over
power
historical significance
arises from the following
facts

indicated
that

which

PHILOSOPHERS.

some

of the

he

essential ends

and

of modern

means

nature.
:

that he

culture;

vigorously though one-sidedly"emphasized the value of

genuine self-accpiired
knowledge of nature; that he overthrew
the
Scholastic method
of beginning in philosophywith
conceptions and
be
tion,
principlessupposed to
given by the reason
or
by divine revelait
and with
the disputatious,
inexperimentalscience which was
founded
this method; and
that he indicated
on
the fundamental
features of the method
of experimental,and inductive inquiry.
The
in detail of the
development by Bacon
principlesof his
in many
method, though containing some
important merits, was
to apply
respects a failure;and his attempts by personalinvestigation
in practicethe method
for which
he
found
had
the most
general
philosophicalexpression, were
rude, and not to be compared with
the achievements
of earlier and
of
investigators
contemporaneous
Bacon
the importance of the manature.
terial
narrowly over-estimated
elements
of civilization.
He
of
attempted to supply the want
unconditional
religiousand moral culture on his own
part, by an
submission
himself
he was
to dogmas to wliich
and
indifferent,
by
after
with
littlereference
the
which
he
to
means
seeking
might
power
in
For
this
he
the
weakness
of
employ.
disgraceful
paid
penalty
"

cliaracter.
Ilobbes

(1588-1679),the political
philosopherand friend
a
developed,in applicationof Bacon's principles,
theory of
as

of

founded

on

the unconditional

subordination

of

of

Bacon,

the

all actions and

state
even

all

opinions to the will of an absolute monarch.

Ignoring the
of public spiritin political
dom
affairs,
whereby the union of freepower
and
unity is rendered possible,Ilobbes regarded this form of
absolutism
the only means
it was
to
as
by which
possiblefor man
emerge
older

as

fi'om

his

natural

of

state

of

universal

war.

Ilobbes'

alism,
Cherbury, founded a form of rationthe basis of which
universal religion,
ture,
was
a
or
religionof naformed
from
the positive
and regarded
by abstraction
religions,
ing
containingalone the elements of all religion. In the next-succeedthe English philosophers
a renewed
period there prevailedamong

contemporary,

Herbert

state,

35

from

Platonism, equally removed

from

and
in

and

also

part

of

naturalism

the

to

the

lastics
Scho-

friendlyto mysticism
like Joseph Glanville,
faith against
religious

Some,

order

of

but

Hobbes,

Cartesianism.

to

skepticismin science,in

favored

Aristotelianism

the

assure

all attacks.
The

Divine

under

1612

the

appeared

1839 ; translated

other

1765.

1696,

Works

The

D.

and

Spedding,
Letters

chronologUxil

order,

the

works

numerous

Bacon,

Frangois
Fr.

1850

; John
Lord

Napier,
sa

Franz

Baco

Bacon

London

the

Ztschr.

f.

der

drztlichen

his

Writings

Ph.

Ueber

Lasson
Bacon

either

which

both

und

to

answer

Heinr.

8, Dec,

B.

V.

1862
.Prot.

Bacon

even

properly

B.

unxl
Vol.

he

uber

Monatsbl.,

24, No.

der

Preuss.

in

Allg. Zeitung,
mit

1864.

George

borne

Lehre

B:s

Febr.

along by

of nature

order

1863;

3. Sept. 1864

W'urzburger Gratulationsschrift

; H.
zum

von

Th.
v.

these

for

very

himself."

den

Merz,

Idolen
B:s

Bamberger,

50Qjuhrigen

as

streams,

whenever

Alb.

Desjardins,

und

Ueber
Jubilaum

in der

B.

v.

der

his

traces
he

fur

the

die

CulturgescMchte,
V.

bes.

vom

Universitat

on

various

apud

the

1860;
1863.

opinion

that

1,

1864

Ein

1864 ;

Jan.

(1863).
IX.,

Aristotle,

of

p.

of

streams

E.

No.

113

error

critic and

B., Par..
in

Gegenwart,

Wien,

the

of the

18(53 ; cf. his

Franciscum

in

That

Sigwart,

No.

position

medicinischen
zu

don,
Lon-

259-276,

Munich,

Litt., Vol.

u.

work
the

quits

Dejure

Bedeutmig

ihre

Stellung

in

says,

Pol.

f.

to which

B.,

Autiimn

C.

Jahrb., XIII.,

Bacon

pp.

2, August,

No.

L.

designation

others.

by

D. Jahrb.

Lewes

Henry

of

positive merits,

his

Naturrciss., Erlangen,

the

Bacon,

investigation.
his

; but

XII.,

Preuss.

der

Nat^irroissenschxtft, in

Bacon,
Bacon^

Hist,

natural

general civilization,and

Vol.

Lord
Lord

others)

and

of modern

Jahrb.,

Philosophie

der

Whewell,

in

letzle Ziel

of

Berlin,

zu

John

Craik,

Naturforschung,

der

Fischer,
by

das

Litt., XXXI.,

Realschule

51 ;
son

Remiisat,

de

of

Pers.

u.

equal justiceemphasized

with

Haym's

Augsb,

of

L.

Biilau,

vie,

sa

Kuno

u?id

character

justlycensured

exception
element

by Carus, Leipsic, 1865) : "Grandly

is himself

21,

been
in

in the

2, Febr.,

No.

X.,

transl.

Vol.

have

Verbindung

die

without

Spr.

method

by

EngUsh

History

Dixx)ii's

neuere

by Brewster,
the

the

H.

Methode

die

indicated

valuable

B.,

Geschichte

die

Schlottmann,

as

inquiry,

und

the

is almost

science

Naturforsclier

investigate

Const.

Witsbl., Vol.

or

set

f.

; C.

Personal

to defend

Louisenst.

der

precedent

The

to Mr.

Archiv

IX., 1860

Vol.

and

1845, chap.

Ch.
B.

de

ouvrages

Bacon,

Franz

Of

chanceUier

German

U7id

Marx,

1862-68.

ed., Lyons

into

in

set

and

du

edition, 1868;

J.

entitled

Works)

II., London,

Whewell

H.

Dixon,

attempt

und

the

F.

K.

Ansicer

Verulam

von

after

Bacon,

natural

of inductive

V.

und

sources,
to

in

censure

Ueber

in the

Princii^ieii, Programm

into

tions
edi-

EUis,

L.

London,

Rcmusat,

new

Fischer,

Gottingen,

zu

Writings, an
Bacon,

K.

1860 ; H.

1861, an

London,
and

und

rejoinder by Liebig publ.

1863,

to their

Life

Francis

on

Wiss.

der

de

ed.. Par., 1858,

nach

edition, London,

documents,

Bacon''s

Utilismus

Ges.

k.

der
new

practised,

(London, 1864, German

attempts

Abh.

and

Ueber

him

ein

Bohmer,

Wohlwill,

in the

Philosophy^

Lord

of them

Philosoph

2d

Charles

Lond.

recent

R.

la vie et des

de

vol.

by

at Frank-

most

of the

Zeitalter,Leip.sic,1856,translated

36, 1860, pp. 242-247

Krit.,

letters

principles

general

18'53 ;

The

Par., 1836, 7th

translated

of England,

tion
men-

collected

collected,revised

Histoire

1837,

Review,

to

biography,

la philosophie

Bacon,

de

Esmya,

(not

1663, and
a

Spedding,
de

The

[reprinted at

1846, and

IX.

newly

James

Vauzelles,

Ch/incellors

ti7id ihr

Realphilosophie

die

Lasson, Mojitaigiie

by

Edlnb.

S. Vol.

founded,

laid

emphasis

the
Lord

Raleigh, Cambridge,

Walter

Liebig dispute (in part

and

in
the

de

in

with

and

Analyse

Orand

1684, Leips., 1694, Leyden,

London,

VIII.

the

Novum,

Works,

Bacon's

Amst.,

at

Paris, 1852.

Works,

philosophie

N.

ph.

Liebig,

von

la

influence ju^sqv:a nosjours^

son

wissenschaflliche

B.'s

Justus

; J. B.
de

B.'s

in

1861 ; Adolf

Sir

of

Lives

1778

and

Examen

1864

Bohn,

(Vols.

following

Meyer,

his

made

was

1756

Lond.

Bacon,

historical, by

and

the

(6th ed.,

accommpanied

G.

occasional

1857 ; cf. J. B.

Kunst,

unpublished

reply

et

u.

and

biograiJhical

Macaulay,

all his

edited

Fideles.

de

supplement

mentioned

Maistre,

The

and

Verulam,

von

Oxenford,

from

de

Campbell,

philosophie

temps,

; Jos.

QCuvres

been

Frankf., 1666, Amst.,

at

In

; recently, Leipsic, 1837

times

published

1825-34, Henry

including

be

may

Whately

1623,

ibid.

the

Briick, Leipsic, 1^30.

by

lilcewise

Mallet,

Riaux

F.

1858-59, with

vie, Leyden,

sa

of

into

over

then

in recent

were

of Learning^

elaborate, appeared,

worked

since

Sermones

Bacon,

appeared

London,

commentary

that
have

by

Bacon,

ed., ibid., 1868

8th

Paris, 1865.

M.

avec

ed.

Rich.

in English, and

Advancement

Pflngsten, Pesth, 178.3.

subsequently

is

of

and

written

was

and

Herm.

1597, have

1862), and

was

of Joh.

frequently

translation

Works

fuU

Berlin, 1793, and

biography

edition

Proficlence

more

was

first in

appeared

Sclentiantm,

the

on

very

Bartholdy,

Latin

London,

Bacon

on

1620, and

W.

his

Bacon

which

Visa,

et

Montague,

Francis

with

Paris, 1833

Bacon,

Leips.,

Heath,

Life of

and

transl.

French
of

those

D.

Grerman

with

of

1730.

are

in the

title in the

editions

Amst.,

and

of his

much

"Wright (Lond.

completer

Latin

version,

G.

accompanied

and

fort-on-the-M., 1665
1740 and

A.

TV'.]); their

"

Rawlay,

William

W.

editions) by

York.

New

Latin

publ., London,
by

Augmenlis

et

The

Political, which

atid

Francis

of

Cogitata

German

into

Economical^

Moral,

work,

Dignitate

Books

1654, etc., and

first

Sdentlartim,

ganum

Be

work,

Two

1605.

Lend.,

1652, Strasburg,

Leyden,
year

Bacon's

title.The

the

Human,

and

of

draught

first

published

Gelzer's

Gelzer's

Prot.

Mo-

Standimnkte,
Wiirzburg,

1865.

36

BACON,

Ed.

Chaigno

rmmt
De

Hdcoiiix

18()5 ;

in

Hobbi's,
oi

Molesworth

Li.ml..

Poem,

"'iiiii!.il

hJsLorians

the

among

neueren

by

Heinrich

Niischeler,

Francis

two

years

law.

at

London

in

Paris

Thus

of

of

Baron

and

condemned

marcfie

la

irur

I'r.), I'.asd, ISfJO.

Aug.

de

Dorner,

of

son

the

he

1595,

in

Keeper

of the

Viscount

of

1681;

of the

theory

Gench.

Hobbes,

and

state, written

1619

in

But

his

until

1604

in

practised
the

salaried

Chancellor

Lord

1621, having

in
of

deprived

was

England,

afterwards

and

Seal,

of

Cambridge, passed

at

became

Albans.

Highgate

at

Q-reat Seal

studied

Great

St.

bribes, he

receiving

retirement

in

lived

He

English ambassador,

in 1617

for

Richard

by

Anglicum,
of

hi"

Latin

in a

published

doctrine

his

on

of the

Keeper

in 1620

crown,

and

the

Parliament

entered

he

the

January, 1561.

of
of

companion

as

monograph

in

partly

by MmMlf

Eleutfterium
and

first

Zurich, 1865.

Bacon,

22d

the

on

found

are

written

aimd

life, works,

Llie

22;^-325,

by Kym,

Nicholas

Hobbes

; the

[Complete works,

1750.

in

compilation

the

in

('iirnlo/ioU

iiiimiLel"of
pp.

of

life

tin'

1668

Latin, Amst.,

London,

at

'riioiiKia HohheH.

\)\\x\\\

iin:l

rlin,

n.-^ix

in

jmblinhed

were

rc-iM-.tuLr

Klsd),

treats

published

Parliament

thenceforward

Dpfinartes

dp

r.t
(',".

aiipcsirod

7'/"' Lijcof

III., Gott., 1802,

Verulam,

by

\"iHci'-

Kiiiili'ih. |j md.,

been

prepared,

adviser

legal

has

Bacon,

bom

ls:i'.lINS.".

pliilosoi)hy Buhk;

oi:

himself,

by

ll.'AjnjIi Mdlnic-^imrii

Vol.
P/iiloaop/iie,

der

V.

d.

lUi'o.

wider

Works
p'olitical

juid

liis Antoliio-riiphy

iiit.ii

7'//.

B.

de

travanx

made

hkhhI

hi^

in

|i;iiiwMilnrly
ira.ishtii'il

(111,1

Bathnrsi.

was

Hi vols..

ol..

writingf.

des

Griininger, IJeblg

ruiiidion

EiiKli^li '"I'lplcte edition

oviTi

Karl

{rutina. IHKnr.rt.\Berlin, 18("7.

PhiloHophia
of

VTnfiuence

Sodail,

Brmloaux,

Works

Ihc

Ch.

et

humatn,

nriLOSOPIIEES.

ENGLISH

OTHER

AND

HOBliKS,

all his
which

death,

been

offices,
took

and

placnj

April 9, 1626.
plan for

Bacon's
a

of

doctrine

discoveries.

new

To

rum.

the

exposition

Sylva) and

death,
the

inventions

is

his

and

of

of

interpretation

expansive motion,

nature,

whose

Novum

theory
is

to

Scientia-

species

of

work

the

of

back,

faculty of

memory,

to

furnishing
ones,

new

and

motion

takes

his

after

of

department

(namely,
the

through

extends

driven

But

sujypellexsim

discovery of

is,in

as

which

the

tion
Sylva Sylvarum (collec-

The

the
their

gives

Organon.

to the

for the

is

ascend,

and

Bacon

inductionis

verce

History,
heat

place,

and

Naturalis^ first published

Natural
that

themselves

to which

also

as

contributions.

on

tendency

work

as

directions

Ilistoria

jBrst

Dignitateet Augmentis

regards

and

sive

his

sciences

general

phenomena,

parts of bodies, is checked

diminutive

Bacon

incomplete
work

the

De

the

next
globtisinteUectualis),

principal part, the

made

materials)

important

most

the

in

embraced,

(or the

treatise

the

natural

already

isolated

collections

with

second

of

explanation

made

only
of

the

history (which

natural

to the

sciences

Accordingly

begins

joined, as

of

catalogue of

Bacon

Magna

is

this

sciences

the

exposition of

finally the

and

of InstauraUo

name

field of the

the whole

method,

application to

of

review

general

reorganization of

the

place

more

with

tain
cer-

rapidity).
History, according to Bacon,
and

philosophy
CiviUs

historj'of

and

epic, dramatic,

nostrum

although

back

In

the

with

connection

literature

and

Deus
directo.^

sibimet

Cod

causes

to

of

is

for

the

incomplete

philosophy
"

may

from
is

former

he

et homo

et exhihetur

without

of

in

to

ground

atheism,

recourse

perchance

move

to
one

divine
to

philosopJdamovere

the

he

Poetry

divides

objects Cod,

percutit

reflexo). In
affirmative

but

fortasse ad

far

as

; but

knowledge,

explanation

providence.

tantum
so

faith

but

man,

natura

autcm

atheism,

toria
Ilis-

especially,as

knowledge,
any

since

its

into

incequale radio

radio

revelation,it is not

refutation

for

has

imagination,

history

mentions

propter medium

autem

incompetent

{levesgustus

natura

the

on

divides

history of philosophy.

the

ipsimonstratur

is derived

reUgion

the

poetry

Bacon

understanding.

aUegorico-didactic. Philosophy

radio

it is sufficient

Slight tastes

lead

the

philosophical theology

by physical
"

of

knowledge
or

and

homo

ipse vero
refracto.^
natural

on

on

: Deus^
{Philosopldmodjecturri triplex

nature

intellectum

our

rests

proper

Naturalis.

and

desiderata, the
into

science

or

of

Says

fuller

nature
Bacon:

draughts

atheismum^

sed

38

BACON,

IIOBBES,

representation (in particular the

man's

called

are
'"

nature,
by

of

"idols

cave,"

those

the

The

its stand

from

threads

idola

them

derive

themselves,

be established

observation

by

from

axioms,

the

and

Aristotle

and

of

every

causes,

peculiarities,

aid

of

language,

tradition, "idols
has

Organon

similar

logic ; in the doctrine

of decisive

should

which

are

axioms

importance

particular

but

to

which

of

Reason

the

of

of

the

significance
"

the

is,in

idols

of

certain

with

syllogism

The

completely

not

come

rather

than

coheres

most

of

theory

and

at

his

clearlyarranged

must

advance

from

experiments

of laws.

the

of

if

as

on,

demands

himself

This

the

of the

by Bacon,
did

esteem

is useful

appreciation

as

an

scientific
of mathematics.

although
receive

not

Bacon

experiments.

from

syllogism, in

and

estimate

deduction

eral,
gen-

regress

the

nature,
low

;
;

ity,
general-

deduction, in light

of

value

most

yet holds

of

doctrine

to the

of inferior

also

erroneous

stances
in-

defined

and

of

Bacon's

rather

negative

he

of

which

especial attention

wings,

on

to

enumerationem

per

receive

to

delicacy

the

induction

Bacon

(which

materially advanced

; but

That

inductio

as

instrument

high estimation

must

be

intimately with
was

like the

we,

First,facts

facts must

inventions,

of science.

but

their

these

Bacon

to the

nature,

draw

should

propositions, those

Although
to

spiders, which

positive instances,the
degree should be marked

hurry

once

down

induction

purely developed
In

dues.

the

of

of

experiences,

elaborate.

character

intermediate

especially
recognized the methodical
says,

and

prerogative instances

as

cannot

the

knowledge
mere

ourselves, nor

describes

methodical

fruitful of all.

disputation

of the

are

like

knowledge

Bacon

experiments,

new

syllogism, he

its

the

to

differences

first to the

most

; then

the

at

itself to

bees, collect

induction, we

the

and

should

we

advance

Aristotle

organon

like the

true

it lacks

arrive

to

confine

not,
merely from

ideas

taught.

considered,

be

must

the

that

adds

order

should

really attains). Together

than

seeks,

him

the

through

in

efficient

individual

Critique of the

We

of facts

Scholastics

in

experiment

and

knowledge

the

siniplicem; and

value

New

not

our

should,

we

finally,by legitimate

the

Bacon's

should

methodically.

ants, merely collect,but

from

the

for

from

result

are

Kant's

must,

experience, yet

on

combine

cases

of

idea

fundamental

purifiedfrom

mind

should

and

in

arising

founded

are

causes

anticipated.

measure,

take

which

idAls

final

intercourse

human

by

those
the

of

physics

of fallacies in Aristotle's

doctrine

the

tribe"

in

tribe,"those

caused

of

doctrine

of the

to that

of the

and

forum,"

The

theatre."

g.

which

anthropomorphisms),

substitution

the

Bacon

of the

idols

''idols

the

e.

not
from

followed

especially Telesius.
Bacon
moral

held

and

contributions
"

explain
younger

Bom
Thomas

adopted

that

but

not

civil

intention

on

the

Hobbes
the

In
of
and

at Paris

in the

he

5th

form

of

house

the

of

the
was

Lord

year

natural
in

Malmesbury,

In

dread

translated
of

intercourse

also

his

only

frequently from

law

the

and

was

his

An

taigne
Mon-

attempt

made

by

to

Bacon's

Thucydides
he

into

subsequently
and

English,

physics, and

tutor

instructed

and
with

panion
com-

whom

personal friend
the

with

he studied

the

and

Devonshire,

became

afterwards

v/ith (^assendi

became

of

Earl
he

clergyman,

country

logic

he

year

return

Soon

of

son

Aristotelian

twentieth

democracy.

sciences, in which

constant

his

Italy. After
he

but

Hobbes.

Cavendish, the subsequent

and

1628

at

sciences

doctrine.

of

natural

of

view

latter

imitated

"

development

coherent

point of

Oxford, especially the

at

doctrine.

France

producing

'the

April, 1588,

nominalistic

in

of

friend,Thomas

studied,

aphorisms

pregnant

only natural,

not

to these

"

from
and

of

But

established.

be

by him

basis furnished

methodical
must

form

government

contemporary

travelled

Bacon,

in the

were

in the
he

the

upon

politicalscience

at Paris

King

Franciscan

of

expressed
matics
mathe-

Charles

monk,

II. ;

Mer-

AND

Galileo, and
in

wrote
at

not

Not

the

works

England

Paris, 1G42,

he

then

doctrines
of

opening

Nature
his

wrote

of

the

Long

and

De

chief

and

enlarged

39

PHILOSOPHERS.

the

Human

Paris

Copernicus, Kepler,
Parliament

(1640),he
Covpore Politico,but did

works

Elementa

philos. de_

republished, Amst., 1647, and

1649),and Leviathan,or

of Sorbi"re,

translation

French

Matter,Form,

the

returned

Ilobbes

his Leviathan

England, having by

to

made

enemies

in

Autlior-

and

(London, 1651,in Latin,Amst., 1668,in German, Halle,1794

ityof Government
In 1652

At

worth

the

On

entitled

publish them.

once

Give (firstpublished at
the

long before

Harvey.

ENGLISH

full

their

in

appreciated

Hobbes

Benne.

OTHER

and

1795).

of both

olics
Cath-

tal
appeared the works : Human
Nature^ or the FundamenBe
the
Elements
Moral
a7id
or
(1650),
Law,
of
corpore politico,
of Policy
und
necessitate
Elementorum
Political (1650), Qucestiones
delibertate,
etcasu{lQ5ii),
philosoAt London

Protestants.

and

Elements

sectio prima
f)hiai

de

of

his

sections

both

; Sectio tertia

Works)

1655), Sectio

(in English, London,

c-orpore

1658;

English, London,

Be

the

was

Latin, Amst., 1668,

in

Give.

died

Hobbes

secunda

de Jiomine

Hobbes'

in

Hardwicke,

at

(in

collection

own

December

'

4,

1679.

of

that

we

thus

Hobbes

shares

of

method

addition

the

to

do

bodies

identical

are

of

and
artificial,

conceptions, such
yet not

are

is

and

none

definitely determined
which
whose

motion

direct

effects

to

the

be

can

by motions,
heart

motion

the

bodies

qualities do
All

memory

of

perceived

of

signs, which
purpose

words

through

connect

we
are

in

sets

from

exist

the

of

bodies

reappear

the

of

senses

with

our

especially useful.

The

its

only

same

in

these
of

The

from

motions.

That

parts,

media
and

and

are

from

there

serves

of

and

being;
the

others
these
as

objects

made

the
once

possible by

objects;
sign

like

thought.
behind

remains

gressive
re-

senses

sensations,

of

the

sensitive

sensation

no

men

by

the

memory

to

same

representation
word

abstraction

diminutive

brain,

sensation,there

of the

termined
unde-

heart, expressing itself in

consequently

After

mental

to

animals

the

to

consciousness.

communication

in

This

parts, which

only through

occasion

in

mere

qualities apprehended

their

sensations.

mental
funda-

absolutely

processes

least

at

inwards

The

is

motions,
matter, however, is not incapable

may
and

The

transmitted

sensation.

out

grows

it,which

distance.

sound, etc.)

exist ;

is aided

are

moved,

real

of

effect.

small

matter

of matter
all

distant

to

then

in

which,

knowledge

at

which

and

not

itself be

must

communicated

reaction

(colors, sensations
in

reduces

Of

or

most

begins with

and

of

two

is the

State)

quality, cause

the

definitions

composed

are

conception

Hobbes

produced

are

and

analymatical
mathe-

natural

are

Hobbes

of

complex

Bodies

civil.

or

mending
recom-

philosophy

substantial

of the

as

in

his

that

He
but

nve

value

Bodies

nothing.

absolutely indivisible.

as

thing

to

time, thing

universal

bodies.

another

moves

affected

space

anthropology.

resolutiva

is

but

view.

Bacon,

declares

bodily

natural

either

as

; the

is

body

itself for him

conceived

be

to

there

is

politicalbody (the organism

accordingly

by physics and

Hobbes

whatever

in

reasoning

from

metlwdus

our

practical end,

of whose
syntJietica,

cognizant.

reduces

philosophia
p)Tima,which
is followed

the

is

Philosophy

important.

only of

the

foresight in

defines

not

not

this

inventions

He

differs,however,

him

substance

latter

the

with

technical

He

him

made

; but

of

use

philosophy

to

world.

compositivasive

especially had
with

only

conceptions

philosophy

in

methodus

of the

studies
has

subtraction.

and

employment

also

tica,but

assigning

of the

conception

mechanical

Bacon's

or
phenomena
by their causes,
legitimate inferences ; its end is

practical

in

of

means

its' politicalapplication than

rather

has, however,

by

make

Bacon

with

agrees

of effects

knowledge
effects

effects, and

foresee

may

the

as

observed

their

from

causes

lives.

philosophy

defines

Hobbes
and

for

for

numerous

this

40

BACON,

similar
to

objects,and
and

words,

always
mental

All

at

with

each

it

receive

fear, poverty,

war,
State

is

found

the

that

of

security

virtue

of

right
with

pleasure

principle the
are

the

same

imaginary,

or

the

which

opposite
by

on

The

proposes

could

of

doctrines

the

should

both

are

the

really

of

the

sions,
pas-

while

assertion
and

in

the

for

of

of the

much

describes

by

whether

powers,

powers,
is superstition.

sanctioned

State.

this

superstition

invisible

faith

the

to

and

recognized,

bands

its
but

outweigh

to

as

of those
thus

not

tions
sanc-

from

State, and

invisible

fear

wrong,

State

past wrong,

such

by the

at

bly
assem-

an

and

right
in

be

false,

only

punish flows

to

ciability,
so-

perfect form.

of

Religion

fear

or

more

power

is

aims

monarch

the

is

should

powers

the

to dissolve

the

State

The

of

that

an

in return

savagery;

inflicted,not

the

whom

possibilityof

determined.

be

are

of

authority

dominion

forbidden

act

an

all

necessary

the

absolute

punishment

from

they

the

by

ness
Conscientious-

ruler.

ideal

not

for

norm

with

deduced

be

one

it becomes

distinctions

be

natural

in which

the

be

unity,

the

contract-theory (which, indeed,

an

the

of

means

subtracting of

from

that

may

the

faith of tradition.

to the

will

we

being by

elements,"

private religious convictions

in obedience

as

ruler

should

fear

expected

the

only

security, riches, ornament,

shows

ethical

right of

The

punishment

one's

and

What

recognizes,is religion ;

results

the

; the

respect, that

State

by

as

all to

only

peace,

stricter

bad.

revolutionary act, tending

the

of the

the

in this

oppose

consists
From

are

of

in

of

(This

connected

Punishment

be

believed

men

state, that

found

is

ideal

the

is bad.

good

objects

social

obedience, and

reason,

all

degree

State
To

is

State

and

may

is this

submission

good-will.

State

the

opposite

which

of

involving

as

to future

State

of

state

alone, insuring

well-being.)

self -conservation.

view

the

the

and

sensual

vice, the good

good,

thus

"without

life of

social

and
is

and

bee, ant, etc.)

natural

and

dominion

is

monarchy,

the

the

life

but

With

State

belong

and

adding

an

filth,isolation, barbarism, ignorance,

elegance, science,
Hobbes'

what

decision

our

unconditional

of

Outside

the

stipulated

all render

protection, thereby,

existence.

decide

separating,

unsatisfactory

so
a

us

which

generality

to

announce

and

(like the

as

describes

through

on

of

is to reckon.

man

But

whom

ruler, to

human

the

think

; to

we

PITTL0S0PIIER8.

character

depends

word

combining

regard

other.

from

emerge

absolute
all

not

It

same

is

but
{Ca)ovttoIltlkov)^

war

to

the

thinking

does

instinct

things.

to

representations

Hobbes

ENGLISH

OTHER

thereby acquires that

never

designate by

definition.

AND

TTOBBEB,

historical

the

gin
ori-

appreciation of existing conditions),

and

equal

propounded

subsequently

so

the

Locke,

Spinoza,

by

shown

consistency, as

greater

even

and

Rousseau,

others.
Other

(with

in

thinkers

Hobbes)

the

this

and

founded

religionwhich

was

Hobbes'

contemporary.

politicianstood

entitled
a

elder

to

be

the

on

Tractatus

de mritate

f also (Paris,1624, etc. ) ; he

(Part I.,London, 1645;

Laici^and
notions

historical

[communes

religiousdisputes.
Victor

1841) [cf.John

the

His

Leland, View

that

demands
also

in detail

that

that

in his

of Deistical

of

should

idea

of

these

apud

Amst.,

agree
serve

free-thinkers

2d
,

was

who

as

is

et
a poss^ibiU
verisiinili,

certain

in
as

cdusis^

em

Be

1670),

in
in

(of whom,

ed., 1755],is of

more

ligione
re-

common

criteria

desengl Beismus, Stuttg.

writers,Lond.

of

work

principal

errorumque

all men,

these

Gesch.

deny

to

as

the

(1581-1648),

His

1663, and

later

at

notable

Cherbury

remlatiom,

London,

assumes

stopped

opposition.
a

far

so

go

most

religionegentiUam

work

He

works.

doctrine, as
treats

De

completed

notitife),and

Lechler

distingidtur

prout

The
of

Parliamentary

also wrote

not

religion,but

Herbert

Edward

of the

all

alone.

reason

on

Lord

side

did

next-following period

the

justificationof

intrinsic

and

all
ticular,
par-

Tiib.,

import-

history of

for the

ance

Herbert

Lord

Rcmusat,
Until

of

time

the

of

either

Skepticism,

philosophy of

confined

was

had

of

or

Skepticism

renewed

not

Ch.

de

in

the

English

chiefly in

the

interest

supremacy

limits,but

narrower

Platonism, Neo-Platonism,

supported by Joseph

was

the

won

Cf.

VII., Uvr. 4, 1854.

deuxmondes

des

within

history of philosophy.

the

Cherbury^ Remie

Locke, Empiricism

; Scholasticism

schools

for

than

religion

de

41

DESCARTES.

OF

DOCTRINE

THE

Glanville

The

Mysticism.

or

to Charles

(Court Chaplain

1680),who in his works, ScepsisScienUfioa,or Confest Ignorance the

Wty to Science,an Essay of the Vanity of Dogmatizing and ConfidentOpinion (London,
telian
Scientiarum
(London, 1670), opposed, particularly,Aristo1665), and De Incrementis
died

Second;

the

Cartesian

and

that

causality, and

with

The

Cudworth

the

right of

organic growth

{nam

the

combated
to

causes

formative

energy,

we

of the

atheism

place

do

not

but

experience,

Iwc
sequitur necessario,

non

distinguished

-final

that

observes

certainty

most

(1617-1688),who

vindicated
of

not

propter iUud).

ergo

; he

dogmatism

Hobbes'

which

in

of this

Platonists

physics,

His

plastic nature.

in

principal

Reason

Ralph

was

had

doctrine

infer

post illud,

est

period

assumed

and

only

favored,

explanation
is, The

work

Philosophy of
System of
Latin
into
by Joh. Laur.
Confuted (London, 1678 and 1743 ; translated
(died 1688) also combated
Mosheim, Jena, 1733, and Leyden, 1773). Sam. Parker
Tentamina
his
in
the atomistic
physico-theohgica(Lond., 1669, 1673) and
physics, and
True

the

Intellectual

works
in the

London,

founded
structure

1679)

the
of

in God's

behef
natural

combined

(1625-98),Thomas
speculation

"

114.

At

marked

series in modern

son,
of

by

was

from
disciplines

marks
;

of

design

fest
mani-

Opera philosophica^

Theoplr'lus

Gnle

(1628-77;

theological poetry
of

the

and

formerj

and

others

Pordage

followed

the

developmentdogmatic (or rationalistic)

educated

in

the Cartesian
a

Jesuits'

and customs

doctrine.

school,was

of different nations
more

of all demonstrations

mathematical

John

philosophy.

Boehme.

meditations,and
generalphilosophical
of the great remoteness

the

(1614-87

gentilium,Lond., 1676) derived all knowledge

Thomas
Gale ( Optisculamythologica, etc.
bridge,
Cam-

Jacob

of the

the different notions

by

the

and

deorum

philosophystands

(1596-1650)

chieflyon
More

Cabalism.

pupil
(died 1(591),
out

the head

Henry

with

Platonism

Bromley

of

existence

objects.

and
Aula
Philosophiauniversalis^
his
from
and
of God
revelation,
edited
documents
1682),

line

all the

is

Atheism

other

Universe,wherein

Rene
led
and

by

cartes
Desparing
com-

parties,

his observation

especially
by
in philosophyand

other

the truth of all

to doubt
certainty,
positions
proreceived at second hand.
He accordinglyconceived
the resolution
and to seek, with
to set aside all presuppositions,
aid but
no
that of his o^vn
independent thought,for assured convictions. The only
not
thing,reasoned Descartes,which, though all else be questioned,canbe doubted, is doubt
itself,
and, in general,
thought viewed in its
widest sense
the complex of all conscious
But
as
psychicalprocesses.
I find in
thinking presupposes my existence : cogito,ergo sum.
my
the notion of God, which
I cannot
have formed
me
by my own
power,
since it involves a higher degree of reality
it
than belongsto me
must
;
have for its author God
himself,who stamped it upon my mind, just

42

THB

architect

the

as

follows

existence

me

be

must

God's

work.

his

on

idea of God, since the

the very
existence.
eternal and necessary

"

existence
of G(jd involves

essence

Among

the

butes
attri-

wish
to
{veracitas).God cannot
which
I know
clearlyand distinctly

belongs truthfulness

God

deceive

DESCABTES.

OF

impresses his stamp

also from

of

DOCTRmE

therefore,all that

All

true.

of the freedom
of my
my misuse
of that which I have not yet clearly
and

arises from

error

will,in that I prematurelyjudge

clearlyand distinctlyapprehend
apprehended. I can
distinctly
soul as a thinkingsubstance, without
representingit to myself as
with
predicatesthat are connected
; thought involves no
I must,

substances,and

the other

on

such

as

believe

obtain

aid of mathematics

hand, conceive
them

tended
extension.
ex-

extended

as

real,because

distinct

clear and

be

to

all bodies

the

by the

can

of extension

knowledge

sations
clearlyconscious of the dependence of my senon
external,corporealcauses.
Figure,magnitude, and motion
belong,as modes of extension,to external things; but the sensations of
color,sound, heat,etc.,like pleasureand pain,exist only in the soul and
in liiaterialobjects. The soul and the body are connected
and they
not
the other, only at a singlepoint,a point within
interact,the one
upon
the brain, the pineal gland. Descartes
considered
body and spirit
of perfectlyheterogeneousentities,
as
a dualism
constituting
separated

and

the

at

am

in nature

by

between

soul

time

same

absolute

an

unfilled interval:

and

Hence

the

interaction

and

body, as asserted by him, was inconceivable,although

supported,in his theory,by the postulateof divine assistance. Hence
Geulinx, the Cartesian,developed the theory of occasionalism,or the
doctrine that on the occasion
of each psychicalprocess God
effects the
correspondingmotion in the body, and vice versa, while Malebranche
all things in God, who
see
propounded the mysticaldoctrine,that we
is the place of spirits.
Of
sa

the

the

Geom'-trie

the

Abbe

1644.

In

his

by

which

adnmctce

resjJonsioniMis

stratur

of the
Duke

of

i661, and

Luynes,
another

reviewed

not

contained

4. byArnauld;

philosophia^
are

added

to the

Boiu-din, together
and

of the

ti-anslation

; the

quibus

by Een6

who

virorum
died

1657]

in

edition

second
Dei

existentia
et

answers

replies,by

Fed6,

in 1673

; 2.

by

1734.

de

various

first,as

revised

The

Schooten,

van

et

et

by

corpore

objectiones
of the

im-

demonstraat

Paris

lected
col-

"

philosophers),

and

1642

Leyden,

aninice

aninui

scholars

in

translation

French

and

executed

existentla

theologians

conduire

Meteores

P/iilosophica, Amst.,

Deo

at Amsterdatn

of the

Clerselier,

and

isias

humance

afiimce

responnones

by
Dei

de

in

6. by various

appeared
et

ubi

the

translation

Si^ecimina

translated

was

Men

pour

Dloptrique,

Latin

pfiilosophia,

prima

Descartes'

objections and

edition,

and

the

title :

the

5. byG-assendi;

objectiones
with

with

doctorum

[a Jesuit,

Antwerp

in

latter
de

objectiones

varice,
of

in the

1637,

la mkhode

de

with

together

Leyden,

Descartes,

Meditationes

published,
sunt

by

Discours

the

was

appeared

Philosophiques^

and

byHobbes;

edition
Jesuit

sciencen, which

auctoris^ Paris, 1641

de prima

; in this

was

by Caterus
; 3.

Mcrsenne

3feditationes

Courcelles

earliest

the

published
les

dans

title of Essais

Descartes

: 1.

(namely

tiones

and

de

Latin,

mortalitate

the

the

under

Btienne

Descartes

la verite

(The Geom.,

1649).

cicm

which

.Works
et chercher

raison

with

title :

the

distinctio

demon-

septimcp,

the

jections
ob-

Meditationes, by

by Descartes, appeared

systematic presentation

of

the

in

1647

whole

1644,

which

were,

nation

of

rhomme

is of

course

of

edited

Victor

by

times.

these

Among

1800

franc, Paris,

The

works

in

by A.

relating

Eloge
par

de
of

history

modern

intellectual

and

Francisque
notice

sur

career

is

vie et

given

ses

and

; cf.

also

J.
in

the

in

Revue

in

CEuvres

his

des

of

the

morales

Gesch.

vie,

sa

deux

der

works

et

of

Descortes

Hist,

the

1, 2d

I.

himself,

of

one

of

Academy
In

the

Paris).

works

sketches

the

on

his

of

life

Cartesienne

par
cPrme
of

picture

his

1865,

ed., Mannheim,

1637, Paris, 1867

avant

345-369

pp.

by

death,

attractive

decouvertes

ses

73, 1868,

Vol.

An

Philosophie,

D.'s

1803.

Descartes, pricedies

de

etc.

the

Philos.

la

de

Letion
edi-

translated

his

found

are

Em.

by

Cartes, (Paris, 1091,

des

1705.

Paris

of

recent

nouvelle

given

are

after

Mr.

some

most

ed.

recently

soon

philoso23hiq7ces

travaux,

ses

mondes,

of

Paris, 1855,

neuei'en

has

de

and

of
and

collections

the

Descartes,

{couronne by

Geneva

first vol.

Prevost.

Millet, Descartes,

the

editions

Amedee

par

Par., 1705

and
to

methode,

Descartes

Vie

the

Descartes, prece-

preface, Mannheim,

appeared

title : La

of
works

Jeaunel, Desc.

la prin-

et

palatine, Paris, 1869.

cesse

chief

The

Morales

work

Paris

BouilUer,
et

Cartesianism

Spitioza,

weise

ligionsphilosophie
et disciples

de

; H.

G.

Descartes,

minata

{diss, inatcg.),Bcrl., 1863;

(Progr.

des

veckling

af

Lijceum

philosoijhiiHet
Daseiti

Gottes
of the

accounts

Fischer,
Blaise

quoi
nach

inter

and

iniercedat

of

Descartes

1803;

f.

ex.

Gust.

1808
the

historical

Cart,

; Carl

1850;

speculative

S//stemdes

Akml.,

Ph., Leips., 1SG2,

Reoie

XIV.,

De

connexio7ie,

Theod.

qua'
dr

Schedin,

of

Jac.

1808;
Desc.

Waddington,
works

de

Buhle,

et

Die

E.

etfalso

vero

intercedit

A.

T.
le

J.

seine
X.

Cartes
Be-

Vorzuge
of

Schmidt

Thilo,

Cart,
en

et

Die

Re-

Elvenich,

Die

atque

exa-

Pascalium
ut-

Tconsequeiit

Cartesii

Spinozceq2(e

Beweisefur

spiritiuilisme,Paris,

Tennemann,

Des

explicata

inter

De

Spino-

des

Saisset, Pricurseurs

OccoMonalis^nen

Guttman,

on

Cartesian.

1854) ;

; Chr.

in

and

works

CartesianUchen

Descartes,

121-182;

pp.

Cartesiana

der

Huber,

Philosophie, Niirdlingen, 1859

DoctriJia

and

Schaarschmidt,

J. N.

CI., Vol.

phil.-hist.

Steele,

essays

mit

Sciences

Cartesienne);

a^if die Ausbildiing

Spinozismus

diss., Berl., 1828

des

XVII.

du

recent

Beider, Bonn,

{Diss, iiuiug., Breslau,

; Charles

Philosophie

des

Francisque

par

Academie

la Revolution

de

numerous

des

1804;
Af7i,a7idl.),TJi-)f^\a.,

ratio

der

Gerlcrath,

{Akademisk
eos

of the

Baumann,

Ludw.

Cartesius, Breslau,

doctrine

Pascal.

Zeitschr.

; Jul.

the

the

by

Critique

la

de

Einfluss

Cart,

Cartesienne

Philosophie
crowned
et

Among
den

Das

Lowe,

Reform

la

Zusammenhang

philos.

Transact,

Hos.), Braunsberg,

Cartesia7ilsme7i?

De

de
essay

Histoire

Ueber

den

J. H.

seine

in the

Descartes, Paris, 1862

Damiron's

Philosophie

der

the

und

prize

title : Histoire

the

Bitter,
Ueber

Hotho,

1854;

Augsb.,

1855, (from

des

Heinr.

Sigwart.

Hlstoire

the

Paris, 1862.

Desc,

Darstelhmg

Descartes

Re^ie

Schwarzenberg,

of

1843 under

subject in

same

W.

1810

Gottes

Vienna,

Mangel,

und

C.

urkundliche

Dasein

vom

the

following

; H.

Philosophie, Tubingen,
vnd

in

published
to

is the

(an enlargement

et discljiles de
the

belong

Leips., 1816

zismus,

1854

and

relative

of Cartesianism

history

Lyons

Politiques,

sections

cf. the

the

on

and

E. Saisset, Precicrseur^s

mann,

in

the

Mercier,

; par

works,

of

written

1835 ;

Paris,

works

de

Fischer
a

Rlgles

were

philos.

de

down

la

sur

with

1701.

the

evidence

the

inedites

CEuvres

Kuno

them

Thomas.

par

the

Discoiirs

of

ad

naturale

Works)

Garnier,

Single

1806 ;

biographies

bearing

and

by

frequently

development

Short

of

other

Fischer

mental

Par., 1705
many

among

1854,

and

Descartes,

in

ouvrages

Kuno

by

Descartes,

Janet,

; so,
Par.,

BouilUer,

Rene

de

the

accompanied

and

full

of

Vienna,

Regulce

Paris, 1701, ibid., 1724,

CEuvres

very

1077

Forge,

the
lumen

tier

lished
pubTraiti

the

la

in them

Latin,
at

ed.

Careil,

Paris, 1808.

Simon,

life

quite

Gaillard.

philosophy
history

sa

121-278

pp.
P.

Descartes

that

Barach,

Methode.

la

Baillet, being

Rene

Eloge

the

to

sur

abridged, ibid., 1693).

S.

de

published

mentioned

German,

French,

Paris, 1859-1860.

C,

d.
been

by

Jules

par

Foucher

by

F.

be
ed.

in

condem.
and

18!)-205),that

pp.

finds

in

the

Cartesii, Amst.,

of Descartes's

editions,

works,

de
also

veritatis

life,and

philosophical Works,

have

D.

may

into

Discoiirs

his

written

them,

facts

principal

principally

of

introductiori

his

and

le comte

par

Meditationes,

principal philosophical

complete

published

works

publications

; the

d'une

precedee

been

et piibliees

philosophical

principal

His

ibid., 1824-20,
have

Complete

development.

etc.

D.'s

Louis

posthuma

edition

of

years

of

Clerselier"

by

by

passions

death, among

Clerselier

published

53, 1868,

Vol.

de

in

Renati

Les

his

account

ed.

Notes
were

Opuscula

of Cousin's

XI.

thirty-second

and

also

with

after

Claude

by

Inquisitio

the

series.

new

in Vol.

published

are

1650,

Amst.,

Cousin,

preface

(fune

dees

at

f. PMlos.,

philosophical

inedited

previously

Zeitschr.

ed.

Latin,

in

published

were

further"

Vesprit), and,

de

Epistola

psychological monograph

101)2; subsequently

naturelles),first

twenty-third

own

published

works

the

the

direction

in

and

work

publication, on

Paris, 1077;

and

Philosophies, at Amsterdam,

controversial

Lumiire,

la

de

edition"

1008

lumieres

Fesprit (which

de

between

Descartes's

were

la

pour

the

fi'om

withheld

D.

Par., 1004.

fetus.

du

les

par

1043, and

traite

ou

better

Lat., Amst.,

opuiion (see

the

la direction

period

virite

la

de

in the

in

which

monde,
a

The

43

OTHERS.

PHncipia

letters, left by Descartes,

and

work

again"

{Regies

ingeiiii

directionem

D.

of
Le

formation

1057"67,

Letters, Par.,

pour

la

de

et

{Recherche

and

Descartes

Renati

1647, 1651, 1058, 1081.

published, Amst.,

was

entitled:

Paris, 1064,

title :
in

treatises

Several

G-alileo,and

Baumann

Picot

notably, fragments

first at
de

1050.

Amst.,

the

by

Voetiicm

Gisbertum

ad

rdme,

under

translation

French

the

and

Descartes
de

appeared

of Descartes

doctrine

AND

MALEBKANCIIE,

GEULINX,

DESCAKTES,

1868.

das

Cf.

Bitter, Feuerbach,

the
Erd-

others.
Lettres

1730, etc., ed. by Faugere,

provinciates, Cologne, 1657,

Par., 1844 ;

with

Preface

by

etc.
J,

; Pensees
F.

Astio,

sur

Paris

la

religion, 1069, Amst.,

and

Lausanne,

1857,

1697, Par.,
in

German

44

DESCARTES,

tranfilatlon

ISIU;
"ter

by

Pricdr.

ISchrtflen, btuttgard

neiner

Borl., 1^51,

SSseq,),

p.

tlieiUique uvea
Vie

sa

et

Ulbrich
Paris.

Pascalis

and
18""!)),

Pierre

Dreydorflt"{Pascal,

C.

compare

nach

On

Pierre

far

seinen

Deo,

1857

cf. Des

der

Philos.

Anist., 1077,

malo,

d'Avraticfies

etc.

vie

ait-

{Pascal,
Dijon and

pensees,

Amst.,

divina,
collatce

ratio

sua

ac

1721.

Amst.,

theolorjique,Paris, 1850

Pierre

P.

de

Menschheit

und

texte

j-j). 149-lCO), Oscar

ses

et

le scepticisme

Barach,

La

Maizeaux,

und

Jacobi,

leur

dans

etc. ; CEcon.

Fides

posthuma,

otc

Sigmund

L.

Leipsic, 1870).

1707 ; Opera

; Karl

publ.

J.

by

Par., 18(5G),
Maynard

IV., Berlin, 18G3,

Kdmpfe,

et

Vols., Par.,

(/*.'" Leben

ed.

{Pascal, reiflexions sur

falsa, Amfit., 1692,

Amst.,

Bayle

Gvtch.

die

seine

anima
et

Lockii.

Iluet, MontpcUier,

Leipsic, 18G2.

B.

und

Iluet, ev(^que

Bartholmoss,

Dan.

Le'jen

de

Jo.

Tissot

Abh.,

{Penseen
Havet,

E.

Vol.

Gedanke,
J.

186G),

sein

rationales

principia

Der

(in

Wins.

N.'s

Havet

M.

par

remarques,

solida, superjiciaria

adversus

sur

et des

notes

iimug., Bonn,

diss,

triplici

Etude

and
P.

bach,

G.

redditce

Huet,

Plottes,

Vienna

J.

eruditione
loco

On

Vita,

(in

Meander

I'., 5th ed.. Par., Ib57),

hilt

des

Poiret, Cogitationes

1687 ; De

A.

(Etudes

A.

in 6

Bonsut

lleuchlin

Henn.

othorK,

trout, among

Tiib., 1840),

and

OTHERS.

Haicrue, 177fl,ed. by

Q'hivres,The

of him

Paris, 1850), Marcker

Caractcre,

son

iuraque

Cousin

introduction,

une

{De

Halle, 1R()5

Mocrschmann,

AND

MALP:BRANCnE,

philon.^ I'aris,\H\A, (55,tJH;

Opuscules

Oelut

OEULINX,

Dan.

lluet

1730, etc.

B., Amst.,

L.

Monienten,

interessantesten

Philosophy

als

Feuer-

Ansbach,

18:^8,2d ed., Leips.,1844.

Arnoldi

1665,

Amst.,

Vesjjritde

Vhomme

ed., 1712;
Traite
et

et de

De

tillage qxCil doit f aire

pour

Conversations

metaphysiqxies

d'un

1712

[(Euvres Computes,
and

Cartesienne,

in

sichten,

Bruycre

the

Bom

from

the
at the

Jesuits'

(1617-21)

served

of

which

army

should
in the

the

Queen

as

also

scientific

product

asserting
of

in

; he
of his

of

child
their

his
of

yet not

only

the

in the

over

regards
The

of

many

when

the

the

which

way

in

of

The

condition

La

Rochelle

works,

(1628).
Descartes

he

But

to

that

the

with

gave

struction
in-

climate

11, 1650.

without

of
and

the
the

developing

religious confessions,
over

portion

of

exception by princes

comparison
of

where

Sciences.

masses

before

doctrines
in

the
the

pilgrimage

of his

Stockholm,

interests

popular
almost

giving

distiaguishing

made

with

Netherlands, until, in compliance

to

He
liam
Wil-

pupil.

before,on

siege of

lived

V. of

was

Descartes's

years

he

Prince

and

composition

Academy

an

of

son

Frederic

he

tion
educa-

studies.

Bohemia,

1624

the

removed

treated

preceding generations,

la

(changed

early

Boucquoi,

of

followed, February

epoch,

power

In

part in

he

Nassau,

became

four

made

and

system

death
an

King

had

to found

was

and

the

travelling.

Sweden,

An-

stir

occasiona-

which

leaving
the

in

took

his

of

he

places

Etude

Descartes

Rene
received

mathematical

subsequently

also

documents

causis

de

chiefly with
Tilly and

decidedly secondary importance

the

knowlege.
of the

and

him,

classes,were

which

at various

Queen

the

was

still

statesmen
were

for

severe

educated

1649

the

Descartes

though

to

Descartes

vow

solved

be

from
to

too

elaboration

1629

from

summons

was

passed by

Cartesim)

Maurice

on) under

Elisabeth

se^itentia

Anjou (1004-12), upon

in

Prague against

at

daughter
of

1019

(from

battle

in execution

Occupied

whose

doubts

lived

then

des

religlons-philos.

Damien,

Aug.

Touraine,

in

Renatus

first under

volunteer,

d'ajyres
M.'s

Par.,
Philos.

la

de

1866.

Paris, engaged

at

209-224

Malebranchii

Expendltur

Lahaye

at

Mai.
Ueber

Entre-

(Euvres,

Hist,

Bouillier,

sur

Thilo,

and

Dieu, 1697

de

Dieu, Par., 1708;

in

Elude
A.

; Ch.

181-198

pp.

; Lat.

Fleche

at La

mostly

the

were

years

Loretto,
his

as

won

Palatinate,
next

School

and

Orange,

1863,

Bonieux,

; B.

Quartis

de

of years

number

March, 1598,

form,

earlier

IV.

de

metaphysiqu^

la

sur

Vamour

de

Malebranche

on

further, Blampignon,

fac. propo^.), Clermont,

litt.

31st of

the

on

1866

sections

Philosophy,
la culture, de

grQ.ce,Amst., 1680;

la

et de

Entretiens

; Traite

la nature

sur

inedite, Paris, 1862

Philos.,

ex.

Paris,

{Diss. Lrigdimensi

libus

for

f.

Zeitschr.

chinois

the

works;

correspondance

Malebranche,

et

cf.

1837] :

historical

d^une

doctrine), 1688

his

philosophe

dun

6t

Par.,

other

in

suivie

manuscrits.

of

chretiennes, 1684

et

of
de

sciences, Par., 1675, etc.,completest

la nature

de

traite

Ethica,,

s.

creavrov,

Principles

oil Ton

verite
les

Traite

VvuiBt.

Descartes'

on

la

de

Verreurdans

eviter

inetaph.

exposition

Chretien

philosophe

iiens

Commentaries
recherche

la

chretiennes, 1677;

et

; Meditations

(a compendious

la religion

sur

also.

1695;

Amst.,

1660,

fuerat, restituta, Leyden,

collapsa

Peripateticorum,

1698

vera,

hactenus

quibus

mentem

Malebranche,

Nic.

"

tnorale, Rotterd., 1684

de

suis,

ad

; Physica

1691.

and

et

vera

1675

Leyden,
1690

Dordrecht,

fundamentis

Logica

Oeulinx

1698; Metap'iysica

Amst.,

with

influence
different
them

had

politicalends,
of

the
and
but

independent
the

parties were
rejoiced

in

new

46

DESCARTES,
and

gens

Euler, and
state

success

in the

the

that

Descartes

section

only

say

it contained

that

mathematics

one

any

plan.

That

than

that

far better
indeed

well

not

to build

it up

To

difficult.

done

reject

The

method
the

which

mathematics.
both

are

superior

the

syllogism,and
for

than

principles are
its

such, by

to be
exclude

douie) ; 3.

en

and

simple

more

order,

for

the

and

In

ethical

These

rules

work

be

may
which

Cartesian

with

considered

modified

the

between

exposition"

in the

least

view

which

by

school,

use

for

the

and

make

of

and
difficult,

Im

The

logic.
which

of

to take

Loglqiie

reasoner

of

thought.
the

on

de

distinction,
from

the conditioning

from

of

thought

method

most, only

as

yet

that

of

potiori,

of

place

VArt

proceeds

They

no

and

such,

as

therefore,

looked.
overtain
cer-

phi-

to

not

and

also

means

and

gives
the

to

this

synthetic

absolutely

to the

the

as

that

these
lian
Aristoteand

the
of

processes

distinction

correct

the

even

conditioning,

relates

the

judicious

however

fi-om

Descartes

those

which

and

logic ;

to the

conditioned,

invention,
by

by

conditioned

Descartes

been

enumerates

Aristotelian

borrowed

the

such
ations
enumer-

fParis, 1662, etc.), combined

Penser

to the

but

are,

the

in

objective world,

the

to

definite

satisfactory moral

investigator

or

thought

le

the

none

has

Descartes

de

from

gradually

nothing

which

its natural

into

problem

completeness

as

known

occasion

where

that

four

These

distinctness

aucune

of

instruction

evidently

suppose

sure

opinion,
treats

of

to

de la Methode

the

in. his

investigation, even
it

relation

and

difficult

to

furnished

model

prating.

order, advancing

of the

analysis

an

methodically

is not

Ti'eusse

is

for his life'swork.

purposes

clearness

were

order

rebuilding

part which

of

which

It

easily than

more

the

that

art

true

as

with

Discours

the

objects

the

The

it in

and

rise

upon

for

LuUian

due

in

adapted

analytical

is,at

more

the

possible,every

as

conduct

Aristotelian

the

of

that

as

shape.

himself

is formed

provisionally (so long

on

at

proceeding, inversely,

subjectiveturn, by regarding

to

mind

to

him

arrive

to the

all

arts.

section, are

to

before

subject investigated ; 4. By

analytical method,

in relation

can

things,

holds

basis

violence,

especially to

is of

complex

depend

in Descartes'"

he

overthrowing

afterwards
sets

and

progress

sujjjective

which

kind, not

originated

synthetic method,
thought

to the

thought

far

as

of the

by

all

mechanic

imperfections

disUnctement^que je

reviews

section

of

historic
"

demands

nothing

thoughts

the

adopted

relate

of

in their

rules

school,

third

logic'^attempt3to

Aristotelian

they

the

receive

more

in

first

left him

"

self

second

sary
neces-

the

Jesuits, he

principles of method, which,

"

orderly
of

nature

rules

laws

and

to

of the

of the

the

taken

with

order

logic

ct si

the

are

In

nature.

firm

than

this

dation
soul, or foun-

mathematics

so

on

bottom,

to follow

four

itself to the

one's

the

in

more,

To

divide,

completeness

forms

easy

sake

in the

supplied

To

conduct

of

from

things

one's

in the

Descartes

proposes

down

{si dairanent

parts ; 8. To

What

college

than

has

to bear

us

much

1,

presenting

all doubt

mettre

here

and,

"

methodical

from

(says Descartes)

investigation

human

talking plausibly

that

of subversion

is what

lays

which

; 6.

raised

order

or

state

the Aristotelian

to

of

been

the

except

in the

relating to

ethics,draivn

study

sciences

Descartes

opinions,

own

He

had

plan

work

this

Descartes

the

means

of

and

less learned

says

enables

the

knowledge,

the
with

opinions,as ill-shaped as cities not built according to

does, following a regular plan, is,as a rule,

the

Habit

all his

worked

person

without

could,

well-grounded

is

of

one

while

originof

also

1. Considerations

rules

is astonished

past,

to reform

again."

otherAvise

we

which

those

He

the

which

Descartes

physics

learned
the

one

structure

part only conglomerates

most

by

from

he

of

elevated

down

handed

sciences

of the

Laplace

God

in

all

youth

gives

doubtful.

to be

in

further

which

admiration

more

no

"

of

questions

in his

it

; 3. Some

existence

of

philosophy

the

extorting

and

repute.

six parts

into

advance

may

praise, that

in its

of

and

the

the

prove

how

relates

Of

dissatisfied.

man

into

of method

; 5. Order

metaphysics

order

in

is divided

which

Kant

by

come

OTIIEES.

anatomy.

de la Mdhode

; 4. Reasons
of

again

; 2. Principal rules

sciences

method

of

department

Discours

The

have

world,

AND

MALEBEANCHE,

theory proposed

the

of the

present

GEULINX,

more

of dialectical

47
losophy should
of his

in

demands,

he

enlarges

for

of

In

that

insecure

basis

my
The

often

senses

deceive
whether

they
be

which

point

of

deceived.

to be

really
whenever
"

res

When
The

exist.

but

bent

I think

or

think

cogitansis

et sentiens.

although

their

doubtful,

that

it,

vertof
*

I know

The

tlxe

ren

theses

myself
of

of

cogilaiia

"

"I

do

I must

is

of

sive animus

as

and

and

etiam

multa

thinking being
point

the

of

Vol.

always

departure
I,

""

conception

with

86 and
of

de

than

that

of

substance

"

and

great hopes, if
and

beyond

the

order

only

to

that
ence
existable

be

that

proves

necessarily true,
that

I think

certainly also

; I

of

the

am

sensations,

senses

cupio plura

sensibus

know

in his

Augtistine
Campanella,
the

ego

external

"

philosophizing,

hence

nolo

animad-

things.*

is obvious,
and

tamen

nosse,

venientia

be

may

omnibus, qui nonrdhil

ccetera,

105) and

only

wlons, nolens,imaginans

have

tamquam

better

in

and

affection

fere

affirmo, nego

esse

always

sive intellectus siverrjbtio).

The

the

to

dubito

qui jam

(see above,
hence

cogitandi

ings,
reason-

am

Admitting
thinking

certain

am

modos''^

tion
addi-

certain, namely,

exist

act

very

sum.

object,

in the

that

to

notions

easiest

fully certain

exist.

exist," is

mens

objects

imaginor,

Descartes"

Occam

as

mrum

invitus

similarity

of the

'"''

ipse sum

imum

vd

est

yet

me,

exist, this

am,"

is
doubt

that

in

as

caused

not

Meditation, demanded

which

that

such

possess

the

justly indulge

may

Dreams

extended

or

in

great

so

second

universal

my

Cogito, ergo

to external

ego

10, qui 7wG

i, multa.

(Namely,

relation

Nomie

of

has

should

square,

be

duhitmis^ inteUigens,affirm/ins^
negans^

res

so

deceiving

proposition, "I

I express

therefore

and

on

the

in

may

in

ind-eed

seems

any

existing ;

as

of

sides

proposition

one

midst

nor

nevertheless

objects

of the

world,

id
thinking thing" {res cogitans^

quoque

some

the

think,

powerful being

all these

heavens,

so

determine

not

are

extension,

as

on

foundation.

to

bodies

have

time

implicitly.
which

by

our

Charron

and

some

the

all-powerful being

nor

that

Descartes

in the

thing

imperfection

My

to find

and

earth

tence
exisfrom

rests

at

from

them

Perhaps
a

which

necessary,

rebuild

criterion

some

and

counting

move

thing

one

doubt

really

inin-or

says

to

enough

fact

In

do

Archimedes,

fortunate

am

in

as

in the

in order

whether

place,

nor

the

doubted

be

may

opinions

that

trust

case

is such

reality neither

But

to

sure

awake.

or

there
not

deceived.

be

As

doubt.

me

three,

should

fixed

one

in

magnitude,

and

deceived.

That

exist

represent to
of two

asleep

I know

; yet

should

figure,nor

am

senses.

doubt

there

nor

our

and

no

no

things

(following, in part,

opinions.

in

find

the

entity, separable

of received

it is therefore

opinions

but

in

of physics

species of thinking, except the

author

multitude

and

therefore

can

images

instant

to

beyond

that

false

at this

appear

the

doctrine

demonstrate

to

all

that

is

the

uncertain;

very

deceive.

by

me

true

as

myself of all traditional

life,to rid

shows

says

beliefs

further
be

only

can

accepted

seeks

independent

an

as

doubting

up,

In

PMlos., while

advancement

the

life

truths.
of the

his

his

art.
Descartes

Descartes

youth

my

of

basis

the

them

made

From

necessary

soul

or, since

doubt,

we

skeptics), I have

other

and

the

for

in

to dedicate

scientific

and

ims.
max-

moderateness

Pnnc.

toms
cus-

received

generally

resolves

and

and

educated,

presents the outlines

Meditationes

healing

first meditation

the

think.

we

of

laws

been

third

he

the

has

discovery of

PMloso'pMa

existence

the

and

Descartes

procedure

to the

he
most

fourth

the

the

to

the

in

de Pnma

the

fact that

except the

of

line

application

and

God,

and

By

of his Discours

Meditationes

body.

moderate

most

and

reason,

the

on

its further

the

In

which

goods.

subsequently developed

he

which

fact

of his

fifth sections

and

fourth

of external

respect

cultivation

to the

the

the

follow

is,to

religion in

requires consistency in action,

second

The

and

to the

in practical life to follow

always

sixth

fast

to hold

first of these

The

unfounded).

remain

country,

Descartes
the

and

In

with
duces
intro-

conception

of

48
the

third

am

sure,

is

Meditation
he

requisite

truth,

which

false ; hence

should

be

things

which

it

I conceive

possibilitythat
limit

could

the
this

investigation

and

some
soul, etSr?),

with
alone

from

Among

class

from

inclined

am

the

There

exists

individuality,the unity
his

into

cogitat, enjo

thinking,

our

functions
which

of

have

In

reports

the

represent

be

to

making

these

conceptions.

clear

and

more

profound

distinct

deception
verity

and

sky,

of

in the

as

end

such,

as

false

whMice

to the

in their

or

be

or

understood

the

and

is

in

of

latter
our

mindful

to

its

fuller
talk

to

long

verity
of

since

conviction

only

of

the

by

as

no

which

malicious
it may

throws

be

which

clear

scientific
in

one"

belongs

one

to

deception,
interpreted

of
as

it is affirmed

question

objectiverealityof

in the
farther
the

object of

since

the

idea

upon

of

of

cognition.

the
it

is

either

such

left

fuller

Ca'^tesian

in

criterion

arises.

self-

natural

The

any

thought

distinctness

ideas,

sense,

back,

of

in case

to the

have

may,

clear, sensuous

theory

and,

certain

rectly
cor-

would

validity

imposture.

former

not

that

validity

the

one,

referring
that

of
the

so

con-ect

base

nal
exter-

relativity of

the

reached, by

higher

of

occasioning

1868, pp. 71-76.)

truth

the

these
forms

to

those

real

knowledge

insight,

been

of

itself ; in which

like

convinced

particular,

has

have

we

would
-v^illing,

am

duction
de-

concluded

question, however,

clear

regulated by

higher

Understood
the

just as

erroneous

higher

idea,

an

subjected

overlooks

apparently

an

objects,by thought
so

judgment by
it

and

by

objectivelytrae.

sense,

that

disproved

disproved

ambiguous,

relations, are
the

or

that

of the

be

ous
sensu-

apprehend

we

ed., Bonn,

which

of

that

true

tions,
func-

previous

have

their

or

Descartes

truth,

all

which

not

from

latter

3d

Logik,

der
its

idea,

an

of

apprehended

thinking,
(This

names.

of

as

insufficient

as

which,

really wanting,

mutual

also

directed

highest,

criterion

of

without

only

is

them

nature

derive
guish
distin-

psychical

would,
sense,"''

and

first

belong

things"

is to be

doubting,

our

System

my

which

the

not

consciousness

of

come

siren,a winged horse,

should

the

in

form

those

by

accept

cases

itself

stadium

distinctness

distinctness

all

See
the

limited

be

limited

criterion, formally considered,

idea

in

evince
may

lower
the

favor.

I should

unquestioningly
for

respecting

knowledge

but

be

may

regarded

proves

Descartes's

consideration,

to claim
is

in

in

different

designated

processes

other

"internal

the

of
to

formity
con-

taken

innatm^

which

psychical functions,

our

to that

not

through

be

senses,

of

origin

seem

Descartes

apprehension

our

and

known

as

consciousness

our

must, indeed,

g. of the

thought

It is wrong

of

internal

knowledge,

stadium

self-apprehension

external

clearness
I

e.

immediately

the

decided

perception,
of

real

the

and

themselves,
of

those

psychicalcharacter

from

whether

of all

general,

whether

allcB

result

that of

the

that

judged

(with Kant)
in

sensations, and,

the
class

as

from

distinction

Lichtenberg

self-consciousness,

through

g., the

e.

"

indeed

act

phenomena

objects known
causes

are

to the

fictitious ideas

questioned

{idew

does

the

and

second

is in

to have

others

Descartes

such,

the

its

Truth

Among

perception,

To

itself and

in

be

can

our

in

just as they

belong only
the

case

it

to conclude

proposition.

willing,

our

which

judgments.

myself

by

here

as

internal

third, such

received

thing, truth, thought,

idea

innate).

of consciousness

Further,

of

things

representation

innate,

videntur).

natura

an

of

formed

milii

ideas

be

to

me

the

but

erroneous,
to

been

mea

of

is

by

way

fundamental

est.

the

act

which

to the

perceptions, and
etc.

the

be

ing
commenc-

representation

things,

tigate
to inves-

in

of

are

some-

all

ipro regula

in all

me

forms

e.

sible
pos-

percipio). Only

Descartes

says

that

judgment

may

have

deceives

"

feelings,and

appear

{ab ipsamet

for

capacity

me

were

distinctness,

videor

{jam

et distincte

own,

my

and

general rule, that

true

are

thoughts

my

and
The

to

innateness

abvstraction,in

through

will

to

reckon

to

the

between

Of

ipso factm

me

nature

own

my

to

which

have, therefore,first of all,occasion

ideas,some

still others

itice,alice

advent

superior
*

as

'valde dare

quod

veruin^

judgments.

my

and

without,

alim

of

acts

external

object

an

is not.

distinctly

it

adopt

representations (ideas, i,

are

are

in the

only

are

error

and

power

existence.

some

"

into my

with

of God's

question

esse

knowledge

if it

me

clearness

same

I may

iirst

assured

have

so

the

that

of this rule.

application

the

me

clearly

omne

not

also

the

perception of that

distinct

with

conceive

to

very

being,

this could

and

seems

and

not

what

know

I
of

do

case

God,

of

knowledge

our

; but

the

In

anything?
the clear

but

of

subject

thinking being

of

I should

generaliposse statuere,illud
the

am

certain

of its

me

anything,

that

that

me

acquired, nothing

assured

assert

this

make

to

I have

which

of

says,

to the

advances

Descartes

OTUEES.

AND

AlALEBRANCHE,

GEULINX,

DESCARTES,

of

the

selves
them-

would

undecided

DESCAETES,

different

in

modes

which

complete

is real

in the

the

measure

but

that

reality,I

own

exist

of

infinite

an

realitythan

the

the

been
which

"

To

this

myself, who

yet,

of

parents, ancestors, etc.,yet

in

infinitumis

all the

instant

to another

only

on

the

idea

which

nite

; he

first

cause.

I have

of

says

sfiset tamquam
ah

ad

idea

(The kind

continetur, a

et

potentiatantum,
in

ideam

Dei

in

7ne

former

farther
within

fourth

than

the

my

limits

whether,

gradual

when

made

the
the

to

simple abstraction.
4

process

measure

content

etiam

eandem

regressu^

from

one'

is the"

as

indefi^

indidisse,ut
ilia sit

aliqua

credibile est

me

in,
esse, illamque similltudinem,
quam

modo

converto,non

ego

ipse-a

me
intelligo

esse

me
rem

m/ijora et majora sive meliora

indefinite
a quo pendeo,majora ista omnia
non
indefinite
esse, totaque vis arguJiahere,
atque ita Deum
etiam

7iempe-

the

butes
attri-

) Among

wish

cannot
in Deum

in the

talis naturce, qualis sum,

existeret.

necproinde

subsequent
from

and

that

the

idea

by

which

by
of

the

the

representative perfection

of

the

mind

the

infinite

thus

( Vdle fallerevd'

From

this

Meditaiions.

The

the
I do

fact
not

that

confine

latter,but that,instead

positive

merely

necessary

to deceive.

cadit.)

Meditation,arises

the

others,

to

rather

nota

creavit,valde

me

If

God.

me,

illam mihi

facultatem,per

aciem

in

est,ut

opus

ejus factum

of

idea,or

ideam

adds

existence,but

my

leaves

Descartes

only

tions
possible perfec-

God;

innate

as

more

Descartes

existence
of

causes

is

includes

without

is

am

come

infinite

existence

my

which

way

creando

me

God

demanded

that

same

of innateness

understanding,

of idealization

owe

finite

the

which

all

continued

my

on

the

of

God

givetmyself

posse ut existam

of truth.

conclusions

the

se

Deu^

vera

testatur

draws

D., in

re

Descartes, while justlj'

denying
to the

really

fierinon

love

vel imbedllitatem

willingreaches

the

belongs

errors, says

of the

in
reipsa infinite

nisi

nor

of

not

ad

remque

iUum
intelligo

agnoscam

hahens

veracity, Descartes
my

sed

est,quod

eo

of God
malitiam

etiam

could

quod Bern

uno

percipiper
ipsum mentis

me

of

exist

If I

even

did

infinite

not

Since

idea.

idea

the

it exceeds

idea

perception

for

first cause,

is in

et similitudinem

imaginem

hoc est, dum

in me
perclpior,
ineompiletamet ah alio dependentem

menti

be

the

that

all that

only being existing^

that

existence

have

impressa,nee

hoc

ex

God,

since

est,Deum

operi suo
artiflcis

aspdrantem,sedsimul

God

the

possess.

myself,

of

mirum

Twn

ipso diversa,sed

opere

Dei

idea

myself.

sane

nota

quodammodo
qua

Et

The

not

must

on

the

I should

do

me,

light ;

for
of

idea

assumed,

depend

cannot

the

there

less to be

and

superior to them).

great

if this

regard

not

than

are
so

of

effect

an

eminenter

the

cause

darkness,

argument

fact,I

to

and

being,

own

matter

as

I may

is

not

in

be

that

ideas
am

is the
not

motion

have

of my

author

represent

or

formaliter
others

that

could

rest

of

negation

finite.*

the

following

I had

any

else which

substance

negation of finiteness,like'

mere

possible through

res

can

which

reality in

more

of my

one

conclude

something

no

either

or
realities,

same

really existing infinite substance.

the

the

be

can

contain

representative realityof

must

idea

cause

those

than

things, has

there

But
must

either

(i.e.,

of my
there

; the

substratum, i"iroKei/j.evou.)

any

perfect

more

infinite,eternal, unchangeable, omniscient,

ideal realitythan
the ideas
more

an

of all finite

creator

cause

effect

if the

finite^the
from

the

are

of

idea

finite substances.

represent

in the

Therefore,

; the

understands

he

subject

of substances

I think

accidents

or

the

by

externa;

res

being,

omnipotent

real

of realitas

which

through

only

from

comes

measure

object,the
Ideas

49

OTHERS.

Different
ideas have, namely,
object external to me.
i. e., they participate as rejiresentative images
objectiva,
higher or inferior degrees of being or perfection. (By the objective Descartes,precisely
is ideallyin the mind, not the exterthat which
understands
like the Scholastics,
nal
it

whether
a

AND

MALEBRANCHE,

GEULINX,

is

attainable
tends

negation,

mere

of this

content
is

towards

idea

is

transcended,
a

does

of alii

cause

my

of

power

the

exertion

of withhold-

not

attend

acquired,.nor
a

of

attribute

ciently
suffi-

consider

positive addition

negation, of

all limits

ia

through'

50

DESCARTES,

ing

which

I know

knowledge
known

triangle, that

the

of

nature

perfect being
and

clear

bodies

(i.e.,
of

lie in God

distinct

extended

in this

The

of
of

which

from

objections, but
The

the

of

help

that

aid

of

in turn,

and

; this

involves

if God

a
a

confusion

tai

thought

exist.

two

unnoticed

continues

the

pain

we

have

and

our

must

pleasure,
and

clear

willing),and

Descartes

that

infers

the

order

synthetic

the

to

himself

as

of

to his

presentation

principles)is,he

and

Descartes

to the

reply

of

discovery

says,

makes

second

of

series

of the

and

the

God's

God,

existence

is

it is
ontolo-

Descartes

seen

undeniably

moves

ophy
philos-

the

changed,

have

we

depends

natural

down

considerations

preliminary

of

veracity
God's

things, of

principles laid

especially the

existence

successive

obliged

on

knowledge

in

circle.

whose

This

to

tainty,
cer-

was

rectly
cor-

the

be

must

viz. :

imagined

Anselmic
of

not

does

as

predicate
in

merely

Besides,

that

namely,

our

it is
be

the

other

among

but

minds,

being

predicates,

at

form

of the

is

tion,"
perfec-

while

of

outside

also

point

is, existence

Cartesian
"

tained
ascer-

against

the

if God

that

premise,

the

turns

meet

not

of

condition

previously

who

by Caterus,
defence

existing.

as

is free,

being

being,

definition

Primm

Descartes's

that

forgets
of

insignificant conclusion,

the

to

he

"

subject

Objectiones
; and

argument

the

the

reality of

in

him

committed

Anselm

Anselm

them,

that

as

involved.

was

; Gassendi
:

when

a)

objects,that

; in

reply

fact

of their

to this

the

can

and
think

it does

objection

being

extended

others
of

extended

and
ai^atpeo-ts

whether

quite questionable,

confounded

further

being

he

which

propositions

actually

Gassendi

unextended

leaves

of

of

of

the

logically only

being,

it remains

been

not

of

and

as

speculations.

argument

which

Anselmic

imagined,
from

kind

the

God,

questionable conception

very
definite

X Here, however,

to

defect

in

deception

our

view

concepts

In

the

on

definitions, that

conduct
is

with

recapitulation

proofs

fault

same

of the

premises
and

cause,

it.

upon

certainty

of

our

that

Hobbes.

the
from

.superiorperfection

have
difitinctio,

that

existence

by

refutation

him,

indicated

In which

the

on

commits

ontological pi-oof has

had

invention;

After

if the

the

from

and

work, Principia PMlosopJd(P,treats in

knowledge, of the principles of material

the

God's

from

designated by Descartes

is

addendum

criterion, founded
:

from

deceived

not

are

contained,

mathematical

an

objection is rightly urged against

Descartes's
to

material

from

absolutely

body.|

the

philosophical system,
of

existence

inference

Thomistic

belongs

in

earth.

the

is

fundamental

for

human

order

censured

here

categorical

issue.

than

of the

same

God's

depends
out

t Descartes

the

of

or

important

the

this

of

proof

pointed

him

general

and

from

Descartes,synthetically developed.

his

and

sensation

(including
material

the

bodies,

we

space,
essence

it follows

so

of

fact that

the

being analyzed

method

great weight

no

and

world,

the

By
out

every

most

from

Meditations

fact

as

to the

principles of

observed

be

But

apart

in the

given

Meditations,follows

in the

to

lays

of the

visible

that

the

concludes

it

souls

metaphysical

systematic

sections

and

in

from

inseparable

Descartes

external

really exist, and

synthetic exposition

at

is

distinct

extension

understand

to

existence

an

of

and

things distinctly

right angles,

are

extension

by

Among

otherwise, the ground of

color,sound, taste, etc. as well

of

our

is

the

for

attempt

of

determined

ideas

principles),conformably

"an

we

Meditation

have

merely subjective.

development

adapted

to two

clear

it follows

as

To

understand.

not

that

facts

just

; hence

sixth

widest
sense
thought
representation of anything

analytical (that

less

ideas

sensations
as

existence

(setting out

But

God

by

do

veracity.*

equal

in the

no

independent

the
we

for

assent,

may

OTHERS.

of

idea

In

substances)

the
him

by

idea

; for

world, since,were

; but

viewed

are

of

is

perfection

which

Meditation,the

angles

which

knowledge

material

is

exists,

consciousness

that

God's

fifth

exists

he

God

of

propositions.

existence

hence

from

the

of its

sum

that

God,

distinct

distinct

idea

the

; but

and

essence,

in

reckons,

all mathematical

with

also

distinctly I

true, follows

be

must

AND

MALEBRANCHE,

judge

to
and

clearly

Descartes

together
of

I presume

judgment,

my

that

GEULINX,

have

thought

not

appear

Descartes
in three

thinking

without
in connection

substance
how

xwpio"/*os"

justlycensured,

images

of that

denies, indeed,
dimensions.

with

the

in

Objections,

of extension
which

which

and

abstractio

their

6)

it is manifested
is extended

corporeality

of

the

can

can

realis
tes's
Descarshow
ceases

exist

images,

in
but

gicalargiiment (as

Descartes

and

substance,

order

that

that

clear

it is

we

see

with

latter

is

what

but

nothing

est, sicut

proE^^ens et aperta

dare

ea

prcesentiasatis fortiteret aperte iUum

aliis ita sejuncta est
clara sit,ah omnibus

quod darmn.
*'

it is not

in

est

feels

one

always

The

the

things

the

which

from

originate

can

should

eternal

who

time

thinks

cannot

be

into two

highest
to

mind

To

thinking

volition

Jwc

ad

est

sive

substance

sive ad

or

{Unum

substantiam

and
thickness,figure,motion, position,divisibility,

the

mind

belong

to the

the

arise

body

thinking

the

to

only understand

can

its existence

ut nidla
existit,
one

substance

namely, God

"

be

that

alia

be

; for

we

conceived

as

the

distinctly
apprehended,

I* This, of

course,

is

only

ive certainty of existence

tis eternal,

necessary,

per

true
"

the

upon

se, and

that

is at
condition

case,

independent

of all beside

can

things

taining
pertaining
persive

him.

this

{ib.51)

conclude

be

order

qua'

indeed

to its

and
term

God

and

only
ance
assist-

to

them

substance
to

created

strictlydistinguished

: if

there

is

ita

existence,

God's

to God

stance
sub-

By
in

rem

of the
to

"

else

quani

applied

of

union

classification

exist without

alike

corpus.)

the

nothing

meaning

only

est ad

{ib.51-52), that

be

is,no

we

things

sensations, which

After

objective necessity

that

however,

{res)

length, breadth,

else in order

applicable

once

e.

From

and

it needs

cannot

cannot
that

; He

of perception and

substance

adds

all others

thing

same

undone

"things"

hoc

intelligere
possumus.

substance

schools

which

in which

that

Nothing

inteUectualiiim

like.

body.
of

ecnstendum)'?"ILe

term

of

exists

so

the

itself in

the

plainly needing nothing

plainly perceive
the

the

definition

nihil aliud

indigeat ad

re

can

the

which

{per substantiam

; hence, he continues,
univocally" in the language
can

places

with

thoughts.

be

modes

desires, emotions

in its union

substance

(Princ. Ph., I.,48-50) Descartes

we

sensitive

affections

and

things, or

extensam,
all the

and

with

they

cogitantem pertinentium ; aliud

extension

or

an

our

that

est rerum

substantiam

substance, magnitude

to

divides

of material

but

obscure

they clearly perceive.'"

cannot

He

of pain:

following

the

quce

him,

to

with

thought-things,i.

belong perception, volition,and

to extended

; and

thinks.

other

bodies."

pertinent ad

qum

he

the

external

is done

oculo

aliud,quara

clear

things

impossible

; Whatever

and

to

is

all

affected, which

part

either

are

I term
from

example

is most

principlesas

Jit); It
as

to

iUam,

nihil plane

is all that

existence

no

of intellectual

e.,

mentem

alone

such

long

so

one

substance, i.

materialium

rerum

The

exist

not

only

illarn,
quae

voco

perception

in the

; and

autem

cites the

the

Descartes,

reckons

thinking substance,

to extended

cogitativarum,

and

non-existent

genera
or

Descartes

sense

says

{ex nihilo nihil

exist

' '

which

truths, having

Descartes

nothing

same

at the

perceive,

we

truths

eternal

prmcisa,ut

et

of something

pain,

not

dtcimiis,
qum

distinctam

confound

men

nature
of

sense

{sidemodi) of things, or
Among

the

concerning

resemble

to

imagine

nobis videri

movent

illustration

; for commonly

and

manifest

plainness
{Claram

great pain, the perception of pain

any

distinct

judgment

mental

In

contineat.)

se

when

Thus

be

and

distinguished

is clear."

iutuenti
quum

and
and

separated

so

certain

former

the

present

The

importance.

thing clearly when, being presented

sufficient power

only clear, but

of notice.

perception

upon

tained
con-

greater number

worthy

of fundamental

are

when

says, is

of finite things

in

appear

it is necessary

perception

here

conception

Meditations^are

in the

that

Descartes

the

Ohj. secundce)

to the

answer

God,

51

OTHERS.

definitions,which

"In

say

contains

plainly

attendenti

menti

than

we

it is not

it

that

The

founded,

I term

it affects the

eye,

when

it distinct

be

may

mind, just

gazing

I. 45)

as

of

conception

distinctness
,

the

perfect existence, whereas

Philos.

and

distinct.

also

attentive

others

Frinc.

the

judgment

incontestable

; in the

AND

in

synthetic exposition

existence.

{PrinG. Ph.

says

clear, but
the

others

of clearness

definitions

to the

the

accidental

only

precision in

and

in the

eternal, and

necessary,

includes

also

before

being-placed

MALEBRANCIIE,

GEULTNX,

DESCARTES,

God,

his

from
oxist-

52

DESCARTES,
; but

things
hended

of God

aid
to

for their

this

attribute,which
; thus

relate

ascribed

extended

thing, just

as

of thought."

modes

and

will
; the

substance
which

does

the

influence,especially
in

exposed

working

causes

and

and

for

the

His

of

of

proof

the

theological
of the

of his effects.

neither

can

having

as

Where

if not

extends,
of

the
or

the
his

had

ship

by

sole

for the
the

and
for

when

See

It is true
of

on

the
this

the

avoids

ether,

impulsion alone,
and

human

of ideas

the

at

that

quantity

senses

of
one

the
of

he

by

of
but

As

an

which

He
he

upon,

of

of

order

and

that

subject,in particular, Helmholtz,

in

the

universe

sum

of

Ueb"r

die

what

the

is

Erhaltung

in

of the

which

like

the

seeks, by the
but

principle (ascribed
parts

to animals.
soul

the

to

are

ever,
Whatmaterial

accounts, for example,

changes

changes
soul

all

ship,

moving

the

openly

earth,

of their

souls

produced

influence
be

can

in

{Princ. Philos.

tmchanged.

der

the

vital

; he

termed

now

of

seq.) for

et

rest

material

brain

remains

17

motion

of

the

matter.

physical phenomena,

the

and

these

being,

regarded

hesitated

Descartes

to allow

relation

be

can

overthrow

that

is at

plants

to

invariability

chaotic

the

pp.

all

the

on

periodical rotation

current.

explain

cartes
Des-

velocity

infinitelydivisible,and

with

the

and

of motions, but

still,Descartes

permanent

unextended

the

mass

space,

That

indisposed

of

pulsion
im-

quantity of

the

direction

(cf. above,

the

nothing
and

is founded

original

the

says,

discover

matter

mass

of

is, like

denies

is also

of

bodies

in the

point is in

matter

only

an

to

to

The

cosmical

sleeping traveller
only

not

theory

acted

are

point,

quantity

as

only
to

universe

altogether mechanically

the

philosophical interest.

difficultyby saying

soul, concerns

i(ieas.

motion,

the

animals.

and

The

is obvious

is at rest

current

explained by Descartes

body only

"

true

; he

doctrine

forces ; pressure

the

only

theory

Copernicr^n doctrine

moving

the

the

; that

of controlling
of the

seeks

product

in the

indefinitum.

universe

to the

vegetation,

life of

development
the

in

least

latter

overthrown,

plants

association

brain

; the

matter

Aristotelians),
since,as
of

cause

is

in the

in

sation,
sen-

same

designated only by
were

invariabilityfollows

quantity.

motions

the

permanent

phenomena.

the

determine

can

their

of

in

{Princ. Philos.,II. " 3G).

to

product

is also

along by

the

in the

world,

soul

infinitum,at

this

attribute

vortical

condemned

carried

to account

to them

God's

The

is also

adhesion

been

of pressure

also

from

earth

planets, rests
a

la\vs

the

confess

Galileo

from

equal

as

not

attributes

all material

an

of

simply diverse

details

of

states, no

unchanged

motion

spherically limited

around

same

in

internal

no

He

I. 28),

remains

diminish

nor

is,there

space

notion

to

increase
first arisen

Ph.

constancy of

inference,that

sum

of

quantity

the

of scientific than

else

mode

imagination,

is to be

of

eminent
pre-

everything

change

definitions

Most

' '

all others

some
are

can

present,

or

These

Spinoza.

explanation of

universe

modes

Descartes
{causes,finales).,

extension,

the

in the

motion

assumes

{mv).

ends

; for

mind

the

has

of corporeal substance,

nature

is only

quality, but

or

rather

are

of

modes

suffice

must
matter

PJdlos.

The

apprft

conclude

can

to which

of extension, and

actual

only

mode

Pr.
{causcE efficientes,

extension

but

Princ.

the

all consideration

Excluding

modes

of

doctrine

the

in

find

{ib. 56).

attribute

the

on

are

is

properly

of

term

we

thought {ib.53).

substance

is not

change

not

general

more

of

quality

and

essence,

extension,and

which

motion

of

modes

are

and

we

substance

of thinking substance

nature

things

and

Figure

attribute
every

constitutes

presupposes

all

also

; but

be

things needing only tht

are

of any

belongs

its nature

the

bodies

to

it

dimensions

three

constitutes

thought
be

can

in

existence

to which

constitutes

extension

and
which

the

From

OTHERS.

thinking substance,can

created

or

that they
definition,

substance

or

mind,

common

existence.

existing thing

an

and

substance

corporeal
falling under

as

AND

MALEBRANCHE,

GEULINX,

The

"living

Kraft, Berlin,

like

force"

1847.

the
contact

IV,
,

is not
and

in

quent
subse-

with

189, 196,

necessarily

"elasticity."

54

GEULINX,

DESCARTES,
and

Gisbertus

m(c),

difficukes
proposees
The

Descartes's

as

Pyrrhonism

Cudworth

(see

he

affirmed, in

to

God

dogmatism

can

overcome,

adopt it.

At

Rome

and
Proliihitorum,

University of

opposition

souls, and

and

Paris

in

by royal

was

the

to

He

use

them

manner

upon
such

of

occasion
that

(doctrine

occasion

of

of

Louis

perceived by Clauberg,
enounced
of

Father

the

place

of

was,

indeed,
offence

to these

doctrine,
the

in his

; the

spirits,through

calls

This
de

latter

of
and

Forge,

in

his

to
the

replace

doctrine

monads,

Spinoza,
the

of the

sought

to

soul

unity of substance
avoid

the

be

his

tween
be-

by Aristotle,

extremes

In

states.
and

somatic

assumed

in the

accordance
which

things

This

sort

will

our

and

retically
theo-

(1038-1715

in

God,
of

who

body,

as

divine

agency

(monism).
of

dualism

to admit

also

that

is the

this incomprehensibleness

and

and

partially

was

expressly

the

on

soul,

with

Malebranche

all

even

that

theory
idea

was

the

possible, except

contrary, being unable

of

dualism

in

Nic.
see

; but

the

it

to

the

or

knowledge.

on

of

positive
of faith.

system

remained

Cartesianism,

we

in

contradiction

consistently

body

and

that

his

{inflwxusphysicus)of

Cordemoy,

(1025-09)
teaches,

true

all internal

corresponding

the

moves

was

weak

psychical

between

agency,

the

above.

ble
unfavora-

not

spirits{spiritusvitales)supposed

not

divine

forth

consequence
la

participation

philosophers.

world, by
of

theory of

God

Car-

wholly heterogeneous

ascribed

explanation

No

but
the

two

as

replies

dogmatism,

what

of

to matter

could

body

all

orthodox

influence

natural

absolutely incomprehensible

undertook

theory

the

on

Geulinx

Am.

by

Oratory)
itself

willing, God

Occasionalism).

vital

it denied

assistance.

the

our

body

vegetative functions

hand,

several

Diction,see

errors,

The
wrote

d Vhistoire du

sermr

in the

actually subsisting

soul

bodily change,

the

the

on

other

divine

from

and

especially to the

the

of nature.

forth

general,

things,
applying

as

(1030-1721)

against

of

More,

Descartes

other

among

called

principle

absurdities
mind

the

soul
and

of the

derivable

was

as

up

discovery

Protestant

various

with

doctrine

pour

in

thing
anywhich

(1040-1719),Ralph

1725-31), also, though

reason

in the

early

relation

of

hypothesis

the

mechanical

against it,as

human

incomprehensible.

and

soul

the

on

On

active

of

the

to the

body,

made

was

directed

prove
truth

extension

Bayle (1047-1700

Hague,

co-ordinated

body.

the

processes

of

to the

the

pervade

of immaterial

Memoires

skeptic, Pierre

powerful

was

Dualism

It denied

assigning

body

The

faith,to show

Cartesian

substances.

this

made

and

reason

The

Nouveaux

Nature

especiallyHenry

Descartes),in which,

purely

the

correspondence

(Paris, 1089, etc.),which

asserted

it

of

of

Poiret

and
Platonists,

conception

Diverses,The

He

particular, that

knowledge.

the

(anonymously)

skeptical arguments.
in

edition

philosophy, yet

Cartesian

Pierre

"

is

inability to
idea

an

philosophically skeptical bishop Huet

but

(Euvres

" 4, p. 8;

I.

XXI.),

philosophy

Our

have

we

other

Descartes's

(Paris,1092, etc.).

tesianisme

and

mystical philosophersas

Pascal's

1048 exchanged

year

Descartes,

combated

; also

Cartesians

own

in the

Cartesianm
philosophice

Censura

Vol.

" 7),and

of

in

dogmatists.

overcome,

Art.
Fensies^''

Cabalist,who

to

the

such

were

thought

reason
can

end

at the

theologically orthodox,

and

to

Librorum

the

at

Cartesianism

to

(printed in vol. xi. of Cousin's

himself

from

and

no

above

and

the Platonist

theologians

Index

the

doctrine

fundamental

Pyrrhonists,

the

is such

no

in

placed

Cartesian

; the

(1023-02

Pascal

confounds

to

lOoO, forbade

year

Partly friendly, partly opposed

the

prohibited.

Blaise

no

especiallyby the

(author of

de

in 1003

were

exposition of the

the

order

writings

combated

was

Bourdin

OTHERS.

ObjectionmSeptiDescartes,Par., 1691, Lat,, Amst., 1094; Nouvdlea

Amst., 1094, Lat., iMd., 1094), and others.
Peripateticien^

uii

par

Jesuits

the

mo/ide

da

of Dortrecht, in the

Synod

1(571

and

Voetius

{Voyage

Daniel

AND

philosophy, Cartesianism

Aristotelian

orthodoxy
Protestant

MALEBRANCHE,

gave
such

of

God

Leibnitz,again,
and

monism,

by

55

SPINOZA.

harmonious

recognizing-the
of

series

of

results

scientific

the

modern

substances.

In

the

union

of

To

this

aimed

at

investigation.

of his monistic

theological character

substance, undoubtedly

of

who

philosophers,

dogmatic

of

gradation

doctrine,derived

Leibnitz

culminates

religious

series

Spinoza,

by

in view

from

deduction

the

convictions

the

with
of

the

tion
concep-

belongs.

Baruch

sterdam
Despinoza (Benedictusde Spinoza)was born at Amin 1632, and died at the Hague in 1677.
Unsatisfied
by his
Tahnudic
education, he turned his attention to the philosophy of
into a pantheism,
dualism
the Cartesian
Descartes, but transformed
whose
fundamental
stance
concepti(jnw^as the unity of substance.
By subthat which
is in itself and
is to be conceived
Spinoza understands
This
by itself. There is only one substance,and that is God.
attributes cognizableby us,
substance
has two fundamental
or
qualities
substance
tinct
disas
namely, thought and extension ; there is no extended
the
from
unessential,changing
thinking substance.
Among

"

115.

forms
Such

of these

modes

or

does

existence

would

and
finite,

be

is the immanent

of

necessityof

all finite effects

thing

as

freedom

on

only the
vary

works

accordins:

through finite
only indirectly,

works

upon

the

contrary, there
The

order

of the

in clearness

and

of

mode

thought.
exists,not

and

causes

God

connection

causal

of

is

that

value

from

the

human

mode

one

and

but

sion,
exten-

perfect

thou"":htis identical

confused

of

mode

one

of

such

no

as

?ior

thought
nexus,

inner

produces

; there

extension,and

Between

the

to

things,each thought being in

Human
correspondingmode of extension.

connection

and
idea

of

mode

another

on

another

otherwise, he

negation. God
of the totality
itself)

his freedom.

consists

existence.

is

direct

atrreement.

the order

of

passingout

it

workiug of God in view of ends,

It can
only be said
independent of (causality.
a

of extension

thought

; all determination

God

this

; in

nature

individual

God, since,were

to

not

world.

the

or

his

absolute

(a cause

cause

finite thino-s

belong

not
not

is included

attributes

all

with
cases

ideas

representationsof the

which
ceives
conadequate knowledge of the intellect,
from the pointof view of the whole which
all that is particular
contains
of eternity
the form
it,and comprehends all things under
From
not
{sub specieCBternitatis),
as
accidental,but as necessary.
confused
the finite,
mental
rise above
which
cannot
representations,
arise passionsand
the bondage of the will,while
intellectual knowledge
gives rise to intellectual love to God, in which our happiness

imaginationto

and

our

freedom

virtue itself.

the

consist.

Beatitude

is not

reward

of

virtue,but

56

SPINOZA.

Of

the

the

of

works

Cartesian

occasion
I.

give

to

11.^

et

his

Tr(ir:if!!(N

losopharnli
ipsaqne

K'unraht

also

the

The

with

together

published

notes

the

to

in the

(The

contained

1802)

with

Ethica,

ordine

natura

et

and

V.

bua,

nidem

in

et auctoris

hi'"toriam

Ilebrcnce.) A

Cartes

Spinoza

opera

tractatus

ineditas

et

Ritter,

Hemr.

works,

Menschen

muH

untersucht, Gotha,

277-398

Richard

Deo

de

( Korte

(in

1869) from

the

earlier

an

one

name

time

Spinoza's
nius

van

with

this

der

Linde

leitung,

kritischen

translated

into

; S. adds
is

und

preface
in

published

von

by
Gott,

vorgenommenen

Dutch

III.

ersten

diss, philos.,

sdchlichen

in

published

Benedicti

Ad

Deo

J.

{ed.

Phasen

des

"'

from

Latin

recent

Philos.

appeared

Menschen

und

Vergleichung

der

dessen

in's

translation

of

the

Bruder,

ad
operii
de

tractaium
quoi

1862.

Cf.

XVIII.

Grund

Ti'octatus

The

Gott,
Spinozis-

des

Spi?ioza's Werkeji

und

The

Berlin,

this

posthumous

In

work

(Amsterdam,
into

1869.

Sigwart,
einer

tatus
Trac-

translation

Dutch

von

ilbersetzt,mit

Deutsche

1870.

these

on

Tractatvon

published

has

auf

sunt
super-

iride, epistolas

(see below).
in

but

Christoph

dicti
: Bene-

Vloten

Philos., Berlin, 1867, pp.

Gluckseligkeit,

begleitet, Tubingen,

Erlduterungen

and

Tractate, translated

Vol.

Benedicti

Ilerm.

Schaarschmidt

and

This

following

Hamlschriften

zu

zur

Vloten

MS.,

Bibliothek,
the

Beitr.

original,

Van

Sp. philos. fontibus.''

de

Kirchmann's

(by Jarrig Jellis)in 1677.

more

Eth.).

Carol.

est

Pantheismus

Sp.'schen

in the

Spinozm

Spinoza

Erganzungen
Hist.

Trendelenbm-g's

1830,

historico-philoso-

dasVerstdndniss

fur

Bedeutung

ad
are:

Gfrorer, Stuttgard,

Sigwart, Sp.'sneuentdeckter

seiner

S.

notitias

Vloten), Amst.,

van

de

Spinoza

editions

adnotationes

de

et

d.
gram-

de

Later

tractatulum

hom,ine,

et

B.

ad

notittas, qua.

non

Bcihmer

by

atque

aufgefundenen

die
of

prcefatus

et

ed.

deszelfs Welstayid).

en

Schaarschmidt.
dem

and

de

discovered

Supplementum)

translation

Tractat

kurzer

Memch,

und

Ueber

not
felicitate^a.'S,

above-mentioned

usque

adjecit A.

recognovit,

lineamenta

47; Christoph

No.

in Vol.

die beiden

de

been

2Jhilosophi Collectanea

Lehre,

Ueber

God,

van

by Schaarschmidt,

hue

Trendelenburg,

und

ejusque

Verhandeling

Dutch

Avenarius,
homine

et

1866

have

Halle, 1852,

Gluckseligkeit, erldutert

dessen

denuo

felicitate

ejusqne

tractatum

vitainqua

eas

princ,

Spinoza

Boehmer,

Gott.gel. Anz., 1862,

Sp.'s Leben

Ertragf'dr

deren

Ed.

coniin.

ad

of

homine

et

illustr.

et

in

dem

und

philosophica

in tyran-

Compendium

Jena, 1802-3.

Paulus,

de

viH-

quomodo

Bemdicli
nee

II.

uffectuum

emendatione,

"

Paulus:

by

Meyer."

virorum

facientes.

death,

Deo,

institni,ne

intellectus

are

those

his

demonstrcUur,
debet

auctoris

vitam

pjrmfationem

et

opera

editionibus

writings

Deo

de

supplementum,

nonnullas

edited

was

Gottlob

edidit

prcecipua

ex

omnia

discovered

tlveologico-politicmn ed.
omnia

Works

I. de
de

umquoraiidam

2oartim

nou

Murr

(Contents:

by Ludwig

seu

doctor

given

de

after

1677.

humatia

Pdedel, Leipsic, 1843 {Cartesii Medit., Spinozm

Newly

Spinoza

de

the

Eberh.

omnia

Spinoza

de

supersunt

qum

1843-46.

Leips.,

Henr.

philosophica

opera
Benedicti

Carolus

adjecit

phicas

ei

of

Latin

quo

and

KiJnigsberg,

first

servitute

de

been

essentially from

agitur

Tractatus

Epistolm

"

at

now

qiiibus

in

physician,

Theophil

in

iwliticus,

maneat."

the

Amst.,

into

omitted.)

Amsterdam

at

having

print

Optitni imperan',

curavit, prcefationes,

edenda

addidit

ijertinent,

Spinoza

de
des

edition

complete
iterum

omnia,

de

ubi

ea,

elucidatlonein

ejus operum

alioriiin

ad

inviolata

cognitionemMirigitur.

rerum

scriptorum

Benedicti

de

pa;x

et

in

to

appears
is

Spinoza's marginal

vary

posthuma,

translated

Tractatus

"

sicut

appeared

the

them

theologico-poHticu%

them

and

not

distincta,
IV.

printed

by Christoph

do

notes

and

of

part

of

some

Bible

Meyer,

Clefmann,

Opera

partes

humana.

habet,

civium

S.

d.

affectuwm,

nxUura

locum

libertasque

veram

supersunt

qum

Eeyiati

ut

et

These

Mennonite,

qwinque

libertate

de

seu

mo^mrchicum

resiMuniones,
Ungucn

maticce

origine

de

in

et

B.

title:

by Jarrig Jellis,the

III.

by

philosophicg.1 work,

the

twice

of

page

Paulus
the

Interpres.

rest

to

Spinoza

(Berlin, 1835).

chief

the

(167Sj,and

last
"

which

Tractatus

Scripturoe

frequently published,

presented

copy

1673

name

nominally

year,

the

from

by Spinoza's friend, Ludwig

been

edited

demonstrata,

intellectus

impei'ium

ojjtime

has

treatises, with

Dutch

mentis.

et

Ethics, Spinoza's

geometrico

labatur,

via, qua

opera

in

In

the

PMlosophia

St. Glam

by

cited

in

was

with

same

in

qttod
Ilenricum

apud

mistakes

edition,

passages

interdicted,
loco, 1674,

1666:

(Amst.),

TracUUus

Dorow

shorter

potentia

de

this

others.

The

some

origine

societas, ubi

of

which

written

Prcefatio,

been
sine

third

of

the

peared
ap-

phl-

reipuhlicce

pace

cognoscimus

upon

new

Next

libertatem

Ilamburgi

specidli

quam

iiini cum

some

ejun-

acceimerunt

generali

hoc

joer

indicated

contains

text

7wbi.s:

errata

from

Hebrew

written

following work,

which

p/dlono2Jhiaijxira

oHtenditur

cuiulem

John

of
iiad

Spinoza

llieatwertHZ, 1603.

impression, of

the

edition

the

again,

second

.sal

1.
dedit

suo

which

but

in Paulus'

edition

theologico-pollticus have

already published.
together

this

from

exists

(There

coiuxdl.

ponae
motto

spiritu

de

corrected,

titles,and

of the

translation

notes,

pace

Kilnrath,''^in

printed

EleutheropoliH^''

Tractatus

Hague,

is

'"'"

at

French

false

reprint

work

riiihdjiinni,

(iinid

(H.^^^-riiHiioinis ii.i'."iii'"t
(piibus

following

theologico-poUticuH, having
with

Leyden

at

relpuhiicoe

part

first; in

the

be

to

TrcwXatus

same
once

first

This

sense.

supposed

moat

Princiijiorum

Metupkynices

parte

m.

method,

which

Armitelodameiisem,

.sinnozu

i^nn

geometrical

instruction

Cartea

dan

the

to

oral

(Joiirad),1(570.

the

for

are

,i,-

AitiHich^Vn.n

nobis, quod

iji

the

llouit.l

Beiiedid.inn

("(iiuiiicii^

the

with

'"'"apud Ilenr.

Hamburg

at

impression

obscuring

and

imoiat

(Aract.,Chrintopjh

entitled

was

in

partly

dttflcillores qifac

et

pieiate

po.s.st^

Deia

et

published

have

quibics

exposition, according

origm

per

e.rpH.-aniin-,

Nid'rd

hnitmti

ixm

its

ilh'oin^iiri.-pnUUr^-s.

pit-tfUc. ("elii jiou.

maiienius

first

in

his

waa

had

demomitratce.,

qn"txii"iii"H hn-viiir

occunnint,

Deo

work

private i)upil, and

7ncUtphi/nica,

Cogttata

dem

to

earliest

Tlic

geometrico

more

the

Rpinoza
lines.

do.t

man
Ger-

At

the

Benedict

de

Dr.
einer
works

theologico-politicus,made

AntoEinwere

in

67

SPINOZA.

Spinoza's lifetime,but,
title : X""

the

of the

translation
in 1678

1842)

Par.
which

Computes,

the

Cultivation

of the

S.

by

H.

1787;

W.

V.

into

Schmidt,

9,

ed., 1868.

principal

The

Biography

the

The

at
and

de

icn

contained

Spinosa

1698

by

Spiriosa

de

Bj-ussels,1731.
Philipson,
Of

works

on

et

mentioned.

The

revised

1850.

author

work

only

not

of

Cf

Ed.

V.

bild

U7id

Linde,

d.

is

Immediately
the

profanum
Enervatio

Rotterdam,
per
the

1675.

Franciscum

complete

in historical

quce

Arcaiva

poetic

Vie

de

Erreura

des

is found

M.

idealization

in

der

of

Bariich

1864.

d'Espinoza,

1st

specially

which

parts

of

life

Spinoza,

leven

zyn

Antonius

ib. Vol.

Sp.,

ein

I. p.

but

judges
account

schriften, Amst.,

en

Lehmans,

ed., 1854, Vol.

der

van

on

42, 1863,

Charakter,

und

the

1862 ; the

Gottingen,

of

second

writings,
ed., Aarau,

is valuable

work

sought

portray
2d

Lehre,

Holland,

J. B.

collected

"character-picture,"

Leben

Philosophie,

neueren

the

urid

121-166,

pp.

historical

An

Spinoza''s

the

retired

o01-305.

45, 1864, pp.

Baruch

in

following

36, 1860.

in

and

Leben

iti

the

The

be

1837;

Introduction

the

Spinosa, fon-

de

^o??ia?i,'*Stuttgard,

Nachtcirkungen

Vloten,

van

in

B.

should

has

truth

poetic

philosopher.

ib. Vol.

doctrine

the

divlna

at the

of

Hague,

religionis

theol.-polit. B.

Spinoza

between
also

the

acquired

Bible

76-121

pp.

Leberia-

sein
drawn

\vith

Vortrag,

heim,
Mann-

235

an

reason.

early positive

But
influence

et

; 2d

seq.

over

is

Johannes

ed.,

revcriutionary
the

on

ideas

fuit,

naturam

of

esse

Tract.

an

Deum,

theol.-pol,

tract,
ideas

work

adversus
wrote

noti

examine

Socinian

Vateler,
the

Bredenborg

refuta

based

Jacob

Theol.-Polit.

confirmata

disposita,

parodoxe

1676),
the

ollm

Veritas

ordine

works.

Travtatiis

(Amst., 1674).

(Rotterdam,
and

the

against

et fldei Christians

Spinosam

in various

combated

was

composed

revelata, philosophice

atheismi
Amstelodamensem

Cuperum

criticism

from

Auerbach

Orelli, Spinoza's

f. Philos., Vol.

Fischer

Oeschichte

tractatus

agreement

had
essays

Bouillainvllliers,

de

ouvrages

1855,

Mannheim,

theol.-pol.,uiiacumdemonstrationegeometrico
The

Dictionary

Leipsic, 1783.

and

life,Berthold

Spinoza's

profound
von

erste

Diss.), Wiirzburg,

publication,

per

auctorem
tractatus

de

Spinosa,

de

additional

Comte

(Paris, 1842),

historischer

ein

Spinoza

of the

in it : J.

[Arminian] preacher

miraculorum,

Vie

notices

Dessau

1738,

98-138.

pp.
its

after

Remonstrant

Vi7idin'ce

Fischer's

in

2d, 1865,

of

deren

to all

Spinozismus,

Kuno

by

of

and

in Zeitschr.

(Inaug.

ftirnished

186.5, and
I. Part

des

Philosophic

seine

loving hand,

Vol.

Litt.

znr

Sinnosa,

Conr.

doctrine

employed

Spinozana,

Bohmer,

Ant.

material

discovered

newly

1862.

La

in

BenoU

Mr.

Refutation

le

par

et des

Saintes

respecting

full

la vie

de

Armand

Denkerleben,

ein

accounts

Lehi'e

life and

the

et

Lehren,

und

French

Leipsic
de

with

with

entitled

volume

letters,

in

Im,2iostoribus Magnis

translation

Benedictin

Leben

par

us

^'-

(a work

disinclined

himself

shows

concerning

disparagingly

11

seine

Spinozct,

to

development).

eulogistic

to the

counterpart

to his

Linde

Tribus

and

1705,

and

Esprit

B.

Tr.]

(1696) Bayle's

Dutch

in the

Histotre

the

works,

modernes,

Spinoza,

10 and

Vols.

intellectual

Spinoza's

life and

artistically, in
:

nach

De

(?),
Vol.

Thought, by
"

works

the

Leips., 1790.

transmitted

edition

in

1862

in

first part

earlier

Still

Lami

le P.

par

the

by Colerus, together

included

SiiUiosa

von

philosophie

la

accounts

stereotyped

and

of

Spinoza's
de

complete

Sttittgard, 1863, 1864,

order

de
Ben.

Spinosa,

scanty
and

supplement

to

Fenelon,

Mr.

von

Fexeg^se

later

de

v.

of

ed.

the

London,

ibid.

own

and

Magazine,

Dutch

et

also

by P.

of

"

Frankf.

Vie

Kortholt's

1700.

biography

The

La

Ethics

translation

Religious

in

at

in

new

appeared

(Lucas), were

Spinoza

Dietz,

par

P.

B.'s

Leben

the

dateur

H.

of

Christian

in

those

title-page, 1711).

new

friend

Hague

Spinoza), Hamburg,

German

the

MacMillan^s

Spinoza's

to

statements

1826,

Convert,

to a

( Tract.

theol.-polit. has

anonymously
in

[into

S. iiberh.

v.

IV., Berlin, 1868,

Modern

on

I. : B.

anonymus

appeared

in

Paulus),
the

The

at

also

is, next
which

are

respecting Spinoza's life,which

(with

written

BenoU

de

1735),as

Spinoza

Ed.

Opera,

physician

and

Hobbes,

notices

some

the

trustworthy

Less

(by Lucas,

Cherbury,

Utrecht,

(alsoin

1734.

Johannes

Influoice

Expostulatory

Coleras,

life of

of the

pastor,

also

"

Spinoza,

about

ami

Vol.

Bibl,

into

treatises

philosophiren

zu

Tract,

[An English

His

translated

Vol.

Kalb, Munich,

published

Letter

(?). Spinoza's

The

tJieol,CEuvres

translated

in 1744.
were

"'

Critique,
Tract.

1860.

Paris,

Spinoza,

Freiheit

und

the

titles

Spinoza,

Introductioii

Democracy,
Writings

Philos.

more

of

French

disguising

from

Leipsic

and

J. A.

1841.

was

Word

Ethics, Life,

His

knowledge

1733

and

one

new

the

under

{(Euvrende

Spinoza^

1791-93.

and

Kirchmann,

v.

vols., Stuttgard,

of

Ethics

and

geistlichen Dingen

Stuttg., 1806,

The

seq.

"Philosophical

his

in

Arnold,

de B."le

Aristocracy

on

(and

at Frankfort

"5p.'sEthik, Gera,

1689.

year

Lutheran

disciples, Hamb.,

ses

of

(Herbert

at

1706

Spinoza;

our
a

by Kahler,

(Amst. ) 1719

Spinosa
par

by

and
were

recently by

in the

de

of

source

in

Hague

translated

and

(Triibner),1870

written

refutation,

also

1861

French

(to be distinguished

politique

Paris, 1863

Cona,

Ph.

cf. Matthew

BenedictuH
London

Willis,M.D.,

C.

Traite

Prat,

III.

Auerbach,

latter

Prat

Gewalt

II. and

by

appeared
the

On

136-148.

pp.

Vols.

in

at

politicus

various

under

into

Spinoza

Paris

appeared

Wolf's

G-.

Chr.

hbchsten

der

Berthold

Trai-t. Theol.-PoUt.
2d

J.

with

G.

of

published
1693.

(Amsterdam),

published

was

works

Tractatus

Understanding,

German

by

J.

by

par

Berlin, 1812,

works

The

(Leipsic, 1785), as

Recht

complete

French

Human

Ewald

TheoL-Polit.\ Gcra,
translated

translation

the

afterwards

was

Koenraad

Glain)

St.

by

public,

made

Henricus

by

translated

has

1860).

in

annoteen-

Schrift, Judenthum,

been

this

published, together

was

German]

of

into

et

traduites

Saisset

Paris

it, at

translated

been

German,
on

edition

accompanied

polit.) has

Emile

then

not

wish,

Hamburg

theol.-pol. (probably

times

new

Th^ologunt,

Tractatus

; in modem

his

with

accordance

rechtzinnige

and

asserts

Theolog. -Polit.

Scriptural investigations

of

Christian

58

SPINOZA.

theologians, as
Vieux
damenta

Paris, 1G78.

atheiumi

Christoph

honored

'"'"

is what

Joh.

soiviten

1699

; the

Leibnitz

Peter

Speeth,

argument
in

wrote

reply

pMlOHophia

these

Ammadveraioiiea

Library

at Hannover

Spinoza

par

into

of

system

VAcademle

72).

Mugazin

In

attention

Germany

Mendelssohn
Moses

An

die

iXber

en

Cotta's

of

form

Ueber

pantheism

Ueber

die

on

the

d. Philos.

of

Spi7wzismus
Tilb.,

diss.
des

18:38 : Der

Staatstheorie

Berol., 1828.
Spinosa

are

indeed

contained

Theol.

schaft

in

Bezug

das

Leibnitz

hebrdische

in

and

ilber

Spinozismu.^,
wkundliche

auf

Wesen

des
die
in

1840

of

that

Verm.

Darstellung
Giammatik,

J.

Franz

A.

C.

Vol.

II.,

Realismus,

pp.

and

Ueber
E.
on

XVII.

Hamburg

118-192.
einer

Spi7ioza's

in

si^cle.

Ad.

J. E.

Abhandlung
Lehre

vom

Hebler, Leasing- Studien, Bern, 1862, p. 116

Jac.

vofi

Verhaltniss
seq.

Die
Des

R.

Die

Lehre

de

nant
predomiTheist,

the

Bernays
der

Revue

des

la iJhilosophie
Leibnitz

imd

und
liber

Substa^tz

Zimmermann,

in

Wissen-

der

und

Grundbegriffe

Cartes

als

which

Keller, Spinoza

Franz

Schaarschmidt,

Rechts^

Spinoza

Revision
in

the
des

der

to the

Hist,

hat

Spinozismi,

sondern

Helfferich, Spinoza

Erdmann,

and

elements

Sp.,

et

1846.

Gotha,

1847.
C.

Pantheist,

Bouillier,

cartes
Des-

mus,
Spinozis-

des

Schluter,

subordination

Maimonide

die

of

Einfluss
1817),

Thomas,

in relative

Saisset,

und

Zusammenhang

individuaUstic

Spinozism

and

dberhaupt

B.

der

by

Francke,

philosophy

and

nicht

S.

ExpUc.

C.

Heyder,

foimded

G.

Vergleichung

Karl

Wahr-

und

Karl

( Welchen

den

; and

Nothwendlgkeit

eine

Jacobi

Kirche,

Boumann,

Leips., 1828.

Spinoza

as

Erlauterung

zur

Miinster, 1836.

and

in

with

Altenburg,

(Ueber

Lud.

nominalistic

1841.

nebst

H(eble)r,

and

Gott,

edit., 1800;

1843,

the

Ritter

Leips.

Sigwart

Halle

Willens, Erlangen,

Beider,

Heinr.

of

die

Vorlesung-

Herder,

not

Philosophie

die

influence

by

1842.

Voigtlander,

du

auf

etc.

Tiib.,

betreffend

seq.

u.

and

Briefen

in

Oder

1787, 2d

Tlieol.

3-

pp.

Mendelssohn,

Leben, Dichtung

luth.

de

man,
Ger-

Jacobi

Moses

340

p.

Gotha,

1744.

into

Spinoza,

des

1.

ment,
argu-

in

1782,

Lemgo,

de

Ilistoire

between

Goethe, Paris, 1866).

The

W.

the

Beschuldigutigen,

erlliutert,Tiib., 1839

chapters

and

Lehre

; this

(translated

Morgenstunden

Sigwart's Beitrdge

the

Baader,

the

Leips., 1848,

1850.

C.

dargestellt,

mid

Erlangen,

also

H.

; cf.

Hobbes,

la philosophie

des

Philosophie

Bonn,
;

de

menschlichen

Aufs.,
der

""standtheilen, Bern, 1860

Cf.

und

des

3.

Systeme,

Hist,

gehabt,

by

II.

Abth.

metnem

de

discussed

been

only incidentally

but

Aus

Einfluss

Spinoza

Sp. Philosophia,

doctrine).

296-334.

Idealismus

Th.

geprnft

1841, No.

Damiron,

Freiheit
his

De

I. and

IV.,

in

R,

Christian

Leipsic,

Jariges

De

Spinozisnitis, Hamburg,

1808, 1812.

(brings into prominence

Spinozistische
pp.

has

des

and

the

inedite

"" 673-716)

interpret Spinozism,

to

Goethe,

seinen

philosophisch

des

Leipsic, 1843,

of

Refutation

at Frankf.

die

Vol.

Meiulelssohns

Philosophle

philosophy,

uiul

ujid

Veber

Werke,

Monadology)

Archives

controversy

Mendelssohn,

La

und

der

Spinoza's doctrine,

Kritiken,

37, 1862,

Cartesienne,

historisch

the

Zeitschrift f. d. gesammte

Caro,

E.

Philos., Tiibing., 1816)

Rosenkranz.

in

u.

Jacobi,

Gothe's

in the

V., Giittingen

Moses

Ueber

Leibnitzian

III., "" 372, 373.)

Vols.

1706.
Ilebrce-

recomUta

title :

by

Wider

theism).

in the

Cartesian

the

Haupt-Momenten

Monism

Stud.

deuxmondes,

Oder

Car.

of

Danzel,

and

Vol.

(an attempt

Essay, Schleswig,

Prize

Spinoza

Konigsberg,

pantheistic
the

B.

ihren

in

Metaphysiker,

Spin,

des

73-218

pp.

de

{Pars poster.,

1745,

Amsterdam,

and

discussed

annee

OermanG,

the

Spinoza's Ethics,

Fr.- H.

also

the

since,

years
under

are

libnim

of

Juden-

im

Mone

von

pnn
of the

those

C'abbalisticus,Rome,

Wachteri

few

with

Wachter,

O.

wai.

mously
anony-

ad
artiflcialin,

et

SpinoztsrmiH

J.

von

contrary

Princi2norum

agree

Der

Shciftesbury's Naturhymnus,

Spinoza's philosophy

with

work

Elucidariua

especially by

Werke,

etc.

form

d. Ausbildung

Cartesian.

der

as

Cf.

Spinozismus

des

of

G.

Geschichte,

Jacobi.

H.

1853,

281-283,

pp.

auf

Spinozism
mit

ihre

nebst

Spinoza,

zu

ScMcksale

Cartesius

System,

but

insbesondere.

development

des

connection

und

Gothe's

neueren

Vermmfttheologie

Berlin,

doctrine.

F.

(cf.Wilh.

IV.

and

Leips., 1866,

Rudelbach,

to that

XXXI.,

atheism,

or

III.

Pts.

Verhaltniss

das

Vol.

J.

them

same,

Spinozism,

Leips., 1786.

Spinoza's

edition.

natiiralix

Spinoza

de

Descartes

published

"

vergotterteWelt,

Naturalis

with

the

de

to

Berlin, 1785,

Gotten,
iiber

complete

heit. Works,

relation

Spinoza,

des

Dasein

das

Gesprache

einige

Lehre

Tlieologla

und

directed

Less'i7igs,Berlin, 17b6.

Freunde

of

stand-point

Leipsic, 1785, 2d edit., Breslau, 1789;

Mendelssohn,

i'cber die

his

Lettres

Philos.

die

was

Lessing's

to

as

the

published

objections to

et Belles

fur

in Hissman's

work

discovery,

published, together

Bayle's

Sciences

des

of

part

one

was

and

Spinoza,

Royals

an

Brief

German,

who

Careil,

de

Etiucs

(Cf. Leibnitz, Theodicee, II., "" 173, 188,

in

against Spinozism

translated
The

Foucher

A.

by

Leibniz, Paris, 1854.

argued

from

work

Ben.

the

on

in which

the

widerlegt

und

others,

Skeptic.

1("81,lfj85)Carte-

{Amst.), 1()84,and

Cabbala

ad

their

until

unprinted

remained

latter

the

Ou

{Fun-

Ethtcen

Amst.,

ratiocinandi

first in the

geheimer

Animadversiones

work

latter

(a critique of Spinozistic doctrines

orum

Wolf

this

to

in the

subsequent

the

founded

Ku7irath

geb'drtig, befunden
Wachter'

in

up

is

artia

Henr.

dessen

AugsMirg

von

Specunen

of

Mystic

Bayle,

examen

Convaincu,

source

doctrine

and

aire

1717),published works

contained

Judenthumund

followed

was

the

as

to demonstrate

sought

Wachter

Georg

VImpie

Spinoza's

doctrines

the

in

in

apiul

1(577, etc.),

critique

the

Poiret,

also

were

Anti-Spinoza,

Franeker

Hamburgt

That

demheiUigen

von

On

in

Vers6,

(or Cuffeler)

Cuffelaer

Ethics

de

at

Siiinozism

nuilo, Amst.,

et

the

in his HUtoire

Catholic, especially

of

Spinozism,

with

evertor.''''

mamiduce7is.

Johann

die

anima

Aubert

published

II., III., ib., 1084.

Oder

time

same

work

Johann

principia

tOHophimp.
Cabala,

in

Deo,

against
as

Simon,

early opponents

de

wrote

(such

some

of Richard

the

Cogit,

Spinozimni

verus

of Abraham

"

paniosophice

his

at the

Andala,

as

thuni

By

combated,

was

Ruardus

writings

Among

Cartesian,

the

Arnst., 1690.

Bianism

(like

in

everna,

Wittich,

Spinoza,

In the

is evidenced

Testament,

des

Spinoza,
Spinoza''8
zu

Ueber

ihren

ei7iige

69

SPINOZA.

logische Fehler

der

apinozistischen Ethik,

Akad.

for

October, 1850, and

Wiss.,

d.

Ueber

Trendelenburg,

cf. T.'s

Spinoza's

Ueber

essay

p. 249

(see above,

etc.

zungen.,
de

substantia

propos.,

F.

E.

B.

Bader,

Spinoza's

und

this

on

Kabbale,

la

et

Forsberg, Jemforande
1864.

Upsala,

P.

lismus,

in the

Dm

Paris, 1866.

contemporain,

ist,named

in

period
of

Sigwart's judgment,
in the

Revue

des

Breslau, 1868.

Richard

Schriften

Deo

de

Avenarius

homine

termed

niss

"

Either

is its

and

et extensio

lower

and

animata
their

that

works

in

world

the

infinite

works,

general

the

III.,

be

and
in

of

an

theistic

Z.f. Ph.,

absolute

of

person
the

that

has

"

difference

Dei,'''as

self-consciousness,
of

God.

42, 1863, p. 92

On
seq.,

in

this

sense

in view

of

the

same

and

question

Lehmans,"

see

so

to

"

the

respectively

diver

sis

it is not

gradibus,

to

and

cannot

"on

belonging

sion
exten-

thought

determines

and

in

the

who

as

forces

not, indeed, Grod,

pp.

attribute

justifythe

to reduce

cf., among

above"

"blind"

only

not

the

whether

correct, and

ends.

substance,

personal unity,

lenburg
Trende-

so

whether

thought

an
'"'"cogitatio,''''
as
impersonal

of

extension, cogitatio

unconscious

but

man"

to force

elementary

on

distinction

the

"where

motion

and

articles

is anterior

inflnitus precedes

conscious

Verhdlt-

in their

impossible

the

or

itself

that

true

is

and

works

quamvis

motion,

and

mann''
Kirch-

Von
das

constituting

as

omnia,

Intellectus

lower

to work

the
and

the

and

effect
a

thought,

the

between

immediate

an

force ;

power

cogitcUio

is not

It

effect,design

to

determines

particular,

form

extension,
brain).

"

from

other,""

is

"

force

Schleier-

und

questionable

very

of

sphere

and
the

et

Erlduterungen

Spinoza

before

'"bUnd

II., Prop. 13

in the

with

thought

is, however,
and

The

in

1657Dto

de

Ueber

thought

or

"

precedence

the

preconceived

to

same;

form, spiritual force,

subordinate

and

in

Ifc

within

of

sphere

Hartwig,

thol^ght,

between

the

of extension

(cf. Eth.

especially

world

conceptions
Vol.

highest

in the

precedes

seeks, by emphasizing

intellect

its

corresponds

moral

cannot

substance

distinguish

force

them

Spinoza.

in

view

the

latter

in the

and

it, in

distinction

of

to

latter

on

which

motion

intellectus
'"'"inflnitus

Spinozistic
"ana

thought

but

the

t Liiwe
and

direct

intellect,and

infinite

(the

and

of

endowment

correspond,

forms

extension

upon
finite

psychical

of the

identification

an

by Spinoza

which

complicated

upon
"

the

"), with

sunt

as

conscious, and,
of

foim

of
the

bottom

Sp.

Ethics

of the

Jos.

the

Sp.'.sdoctrine,

Kirchmann,

von

criticism

"

superior

at

are

to neither

conception

doctrine

required

higher,

higher degrees

more

work

the

also

but

force

the

giving

Ethics

of

Schmidt,

P.

J. H.

V., Berlin, 1869.

is the

and

cause

and

assumes

in one,

fundamental

Spinoza's

rather

not

are

force,

force

the

in
written

was

Tractatus

history

{Inaug. -Dissert.).
Breslau, 1869.

Doctrin

to efficient

both

the

of

interpretation

blind

and

of

Vol.
isibl..

contained

itself

to the

in the

pantheistic")

dlteren

der

tlieologico-politicus in

distinguishes

Halle, 1868.

Verhdlt-

das

dialogues

7"'ac"a"z^

des

{Inaug. Diss.),
und

the

this

to

recens,

naturante

Abfassung-tzeit

Synthetic Appendix
he

the

and

doctrina,

translation

Philos.

finally,thought

or,

includes

he

expresses

we

is anterior

force

theistic,

Cartesia^iisclien

zur

superior,

the

which

Hobbes

who

Ausleger

und

mid

Tractatus

the

and

the

that

phases,"

de volunlate
the

to

stand-point),in

thought

between

Urtel, Sp.

1655-50,

in

that

and

les travaux

Sp. natura

und

Talmudand

according

are,

Pantheismus

that

probable

1651,

about

Sigwart,
"

The

naturalistic, the

F.

Spinosismus

des

1661.

(as supplement

realistic

with

agreement
year

"the

1868.

Sp.''s Ethik
s

in the

him

by

maclier, Berhn,
zu

in

assumes,

it

considers

Einfiusse

this

1400,

they

De

Materia-

gesch.
and

Kritiker

als

Thilo,

et le naturalisme

A.d.

oTapr^s

Spinoza
Spin.

dea

Reihenfolge

uber

about

A.

moderue

Sp.

Spinoza

Hayduck,

Dessauer,

Anhang

emendatio7ie

intellectus

de

Siegfried, Sjx

Chr.

in ihrem

Spluozisme

le

et

Phasen

ersten

written

Lehren
between

A.

N.

Afhandl.,

Leipsic, 1865, pp.

der

light, although

to

Waldemar

Moritz

beiden

einem

already

Carl

1867.

1867.

(Avenarius

hominewexe

et

470-498.

pp.

die

nebst

Leipsic, 1868.

written

was

Phase,

dritten

Tractatus

1654-.55,the
61.

Avenarius,

zur

Spinoza's,

Tractatus

Ueber

brought

Akad.

2,

und

israelite);

359-367.

1865.

Nourrisson,

of contact

Janet, Sp.

Naumbm-g,

(Diss, inatig.),Breslau,

zweiten

der

niss

70, 1867,

Vol.

Programm),

Ethik

3.

No.

VII.,

Sp.
1858.

Fichte), Stuttgard,
rUnivers

de

No.

VI.,

Ergdn-

Gottesbegriff

den

of

princip.,

Eiiist.'HQ23r. fin., lived,

are

"

Vol.

Wiss.

d.

Bonn.,

comm.

VIII., 1869, pp.

metafysiska

points

Paul

deep significance).

very

{Tortenser

naturata

et 7iatura

no

by Sp.

{Extrait

Vol.

religionsphilos.

Creska's

Nominahsts,

of the

school

mondes,

deux

Testaments

alten

and

mentioned

is

\^M

of

31-111;

k. Akad.

Ueber

Liiwe,

philosophy

Oettingen, Sp:^

v.

Vol.

Acad,

doctritice,qtiam

philos.,

{Diss. Inaug.), HaUe,

certain

things,

other

among

A.

Kirche,

u.

Chasdai

Bon

Joel.

M.

work,

title," who

the

to the

belonged

Joel's

(In

dargestellt.

Theol.

far

the

der

notitiam

Heinr.

Philosoiohie,

exacte

VII., I., 1866, 60-99.

of

kain.
Adolf

aufgefxindenen

die

the

on

Paris,

humana

fur

Ueber

Leibnitii

Philos.,

exacte

R.

Transac.

Abhandlungen

Joh

work

Lowe's

the

penitiorem

Malebranoh"s

mente

de

ad

01. der

1851.

also

Sp. atque

Benamozegh,

och

Zeitschr.

in the

Zeitschr.

pater

Sp.

doctr.

VI., 4, 1866, 389-409

113-145

are

De

Kramer,

Elie

Spitioza's

of

Betraktelse

the

1858.

Berl.,

to

ZeUschrift fur

the

in

pMlos.-hist.

der

UtaaUlehre., Dessau,

Philosophie, Berlin, 1855, pp.

zur

Systerne,

Weber,

doctrina,

le rabbin

in

Sp.'s Religionsphilosophie,

Ueber

Hub.

supplement

jmr

Mises,

Isaac

T.

essay

(as

from

Erfolg,

Beitrdge

Beitrcige, II., 1-30 ;*

Theod.

singularibus

rebus

de

SiMioza's

Raesfeld, Symbola

v.

1858.

Bonn.,

Schicksale

dessen

1862).t Spinoza
cf.

Sp.

de

56). Alphons

p.

SitzungHberichte

Horn,

dessen

philos.

der

the

E.

Hist.

T.'s

Hist.

in the

and

seq.,

diss.

of

II.

Unterschied

letzten

den

philos.-Mst. CI., 1847,

in Vol.

J.
und

Grundgedanken

1850, reprinted

Sciences, BerUn,

from

reprinted

April, 1851.

the

distance

others,
120-125.

of

substance,

attribution

Ed.

between

Bohmer,

to

this
the

Spino-

60

SPINOZA.

discoTpred

newly
works.

Cf

adflitions

Baader,

Hegel, Herbart,

histories

of

and

(modem)
and

others,

theisml

nach

mus

and

in

verscMedenen

seinen

Schelling),Cologne, 1837,

Baruch

his

became

bom

of the

one

them

against
received

acquainted,

in Latin

On

family of

the

development
of the
in

burg,

of

importance
the

near

and

Velden,
He

declined,

Palatiae,

offered

which
future

in the

58),
In

the

and

Principlesof the

The

plan

executed

thought
hus

he

of

and

writing

in his

the

speech

has

to

of

of

he

had

and

ways
al-

the

ish
Jew-

had

been
in

latter,who,

naturalistic

of

the

thies.
sympa-

the

to

first

with

the

on

the

1669,

himself

and

ters
headquar-

rehgion

1664

ferior
in-

as

at Voorwidow

21st

of

by grinding
the

Ludwig,

tor
Elec-

liberty of philosophizing,
him

promised

was

be

not

in

Cartesian

in

the

which, indeed,

prejudiced by

predilection of the

the

for
voidable
una-

work,

1662-63, Spiaoza
preface

(through
had

he

of the

1809.
with

does

the

not

the

already

teacher

Cf. especiallythe article

Bonn, 1850 (cited above,

remarked.

been

Schaarschmidt's

work

the

1665-70.
of

The

the

of th^

them

work

is

religion (" quando

simpUcitateac

of

of the

where

-"

that

Heidelberg, might

he

from

time

occurred

"

He
and

Morteira,

his

expose

trine,
doc-

own

friend

editor, his
arrived

Cogitata

annexed

Ludwig

substantially at

the

works.

contains

Neither

rected
di-

speaks rarely

supported

philosophy

was
Theologico-Politicus

in matters

in it is that

philosophy.

later

years

in animi

py^licm esf^), and

which

Heidelberg

and

man,

to

the

in

Tractatus

the

between

idea

and

of

persecutions

Rhynsburg,

from

Gramm.

winter

af"rms

of

time

externis, quam

tatis

painter.

scended
de-

of whom

this

by

religious philosophy.

vicinity of Amsterdam,

boarded

He

der

Netherlands.

element

Sp. S.,Breslau,
PJdlosophy of Descartes^together

in the

expressly

he

und

1633, was

Levi

study

at

pan-

Pantheis-

opponents.

Supplement
hebr.

next

death,

call to

Substantive

the

for

in the

developed

doctrines

him

and

critics

Chajes, Die

Ad.

; at the

Meyer)

private

calling

with

Metaphysica, written
as

1673,

the

dogmatic

Conqwridium grammatices linguoiIlebrcem

by Jac. Bemays,
p.

Spyck,

the

Saul

he

the

in
with

where

the

daughter

moral), then,

till his

professorship
as

the

the

the

to

physician,

lived

Hague,

1671

year

letter

He

and

the

from

in the

him

of substance

doctrine

resided

at

der

enjoyed

he

collisions
the

Van

with

1601, Spinoza

edifying

; then

afterwards,

February, 1677,
lenses.

the

Hague

learned

Der

on

November,

Before

the

(not by

old), a

(who regarded

CoUegiants
to

Ende

works

fully expelled

was

progressu

Hegel (Zeno, Spmoza,

Maimonides,

frightful heresies."

den

et

Fischer,

Halbkantianer
Ms

avoid

which, however,

August, 1656, he

"

philosophy.

own

of

Die

in the

Kuno

philosophical stand-points

Talmudist,

friend, being occupied

of his

sect

of

years

or

Arminian

an

0th

of
to

emigrated

those

ortu

other

many

order

had

of

works,

van

1660

to

in

celebrated

works, with

of his

twelve

only

1656

From
the

the

Franz

by

1656, was

year

other

in

24th

the

on

of

critique

and

De

Sp/i

of his doctrine

1791, Jsische,

Thales

von

the

to

others,

Portugal,
the

cabalistic

account

on

and

under

among

with

communion,
instructed

In

devoted

and

families,who,

Spain

Ritter,

Amsterdam

at

training

disparagingly.

the

articles

and

Jewish

in

first

opinion,and

Van

works

Heinr.

(cf

PantfieiHinus

dreieinige

X.,

list of

Pichte, Schelling,

Erdmann,

Buhlo,

Oott., Vol.

sc.

1826-1^2

g. in

e.

"

soc.

the

J. G.

critique

and

Ritter, Feuerbach,

Pantheism

Berlin,

Der

Volkrauth,

in the

Despinoza,
from

the

J.

Fichte, Ulrici,Sengler, Weisse, Hanne,

I. Herm.

high

Hmiptformen,

Berlin, 1827),

Pantheinmris,

of

Comm.

in

with

(p. 56) along

Schleiermacher,

of

presentation

Tennemann,

history

the

on.

works

the

further,

Buhle,

Spinozam,

ad

unique

in the

Spinoza

philosophers

mentioned

been

already

by Brucker,

works

special

have

concerning

other

philosophy

also

works

expressed

Xenop/iane

iiule a

Sp/s

to

judgments

the

fruits

essential
should

veritate
of

conceived
an

at

eloquent

an

early date,

defence

quidern rdigio

non

eonsUtit^nullius juris

liberty of

tarn

in actioni-

neque

Spinoza's personal experience.

difference
serve

of the

missions

of

the

other;

{ancUlari)

and

of

auctoriThe

damental
fun-

positivereligion
each

has

its

62

SPINOZA

be

infinitelyperfect,because

be

determined

such

really in

is also
is

nature

one

Spinoza

in this

in order

thence

sets

he

that

there

exists

particular, in

addition
of the

particular

zeal

and

soul

between

with

resulted

developed

body

Geulinx

by

in his

from

through

of

Cabala

or

both.

Spinoza, undertaking
into

Neo-Platonism

from

Deo^
the

of which

and

etc.

the

inteUectus
de Deo

time

the

between

The

the

Ethics

Cartesian

which

the

blended
etc.
,

them

more

been

be

antecedent

to

which

first rests

the

on

doctrine

are,

but

in the

latter

as

affirmed
relation
between

an

to have

thought
of the

The

the

and

as

early

noblest

the

as

1655

frood.

The

nature

or

we

are

substance,

of

as

things, and

1656) is
are

here

as

(a

no

most

fect
per-

is in

and

relation

alleged
and

that

such

the

are

causal

relation
are

is

absolute

extension

Tractatus

in the

exists
opment
devel-

infinite.

probably before

fragment, written
in

are

their

therefore

that

the

which
causal

thought

de

Tractatus

the
as

that

and

falls

Bacon

Tractatus

the

it is asserted

Ethics

development

contained

told,

of

contained

dialogues

regarded

God

of

objective

an

conceptions
in the

while

Eraendatione

features

world,

the

that
"

extension.

of

Tractatim

the

dissimilar

de InteUectus

fundamental

goods of

great

differences

conception

the

and

de

Bruno,
of

between

included

Tractatus

Giordano

de Deo

tory
his-

Sigwart, p.

period

doctrine

extension, notwithstanding

and

common

between

conception of

Tractatus

perhaps

in

nothing
exist

cannot

so

in

that

connecting thought
unlikeness

conception

the

Tractatus

of the

former

in the

the

assumed
unlikeness"

important

most

itself, precedes, and

study of

his

and
itself,

of his

in the

the

in

of

the

issuing

results

(see

the

included

are

notions

stadium

falls within

philosophy

the

on

through

the

Ethics

the

specially

added,

probable, through

with

represents

relation

which

poetico-philosophical

Deo^

de

or, what

the
to the

doctrine

had

should

causes

In

school, and

the

Bruno,

composition of the

that

through

is the

the

mutual

is most

dialogues

two

degree

the

"

is

us

ascribe

may

doctrines,whether

Cartesian

Tractatus

the

emoiidaiimie.

and

being,

The

we

considerable

the

the

in

substance.

Neo-Platonic

conceptions,

of the

at least

these

without

within

which

To

Tractatus

of the

composition

composition of

and

with

in

that, in
extension

religious conviction

Occasionalism

substances

and

union

same

nature,

very

and

is,

doctrine

and

actual

of the

principles,and

law.

translate

to

The

Spinoza's study

the

between

their

his
a

on

of

Spinoza's philosophical development

of

seq.)

thought

of which

in

not

are

since

that

in

carried

Giordano

scientific

critique of Cartesianism.
181

rooted

prove

the

nature,

Thus

"

substance,

God

in

attributes

substance

of

clearly conceived

in consequence

Cartesian

natural

works

the

it follows

both

time

hand, Spinoza'sacquaintance

other

be

to

substances

that

unity

; but

can

conflict

the

with

"

idea

extension

see

united

firmly
of

unity

we

and

stance
sub-

defined.

conception

the

psychological speculations respecting

were

necessity

that

each

are

unmistakable

the

to

particularly

which

with

they

became

of the

doctrine

his

and

; but

thought

are

education,

unity of God

strict

genesis of

fact

Descartes),

that

Spinoza's Jewish

to

to the

God

the

other, since
another

different

is above

already employed

that

extension

to

condition

only possible on

and

common,

allows

(which Spinoza

other

in

nothing

here

reality,is

of

itself

infinite understanding,

not

latter

definition

God's

are

the

as

conception of

substance,

thought and

us

nature

by

all

Spinoza points

attributes.

have

in himself
one

is in

than

each

to

produce

cannot

which

God,

with

not

out,
to the

but

with

equal

substance

nature, however, there

identical

advance

to

combines

that

but

treatise

by anything other

nor

substances

two

One

other.

In

and

not

are

Every substance,

nature.

essence

in

each

by it.

produced

be

by itself

neither

can

There

limit

would

substances
or

it

to finiteness.

of

ideas

Spinoza's principal work,

unsatisfying;

16G1,

concerning method,
the

the

knowledge

of

Etkics.
of truth

63

SPINOZA.

"

Ethics

The

written

was

until

revision

constant

point of departure
Descartes
needs

had

while

of

concourse

itself and

is conceived

of

quo

substance

correlate

(whose

is identified

God

only

Let

such

to confound

another

the

with

to

definitions

illusory. Euclid's
of what
end

to be

contrary, has

the

on

Euclid's
which

definitions
almost

are

are

c.

may

so

must

his

of

Spinoza (likethat of

of

outset

the

reality of

esse,

the

as

merely
But

the

or

employment

art the

rwrum^

that
' '

expressions

expressions

same
so

of

the

are

their

repeated

conclusion

synthetic "

in

definition

first

which,

is obtained

in

the

which

given

senses

through

' '

an

qualities

"

where

rative
figuof

some

the
em-

Spinoza

plausible by
in

the

second

nitions,
by his (arbitrary)defi-

paralogism, the

being interchanged with

in

Spinoza,

Euclid

is rendered

them

nations
expla-

definitions.

definitions

ordinary acceptation, while

in the

his

contradictions.

upon

part of

of

was

sho^vn

are

only simulated;

involve

he

nominal

imagination

(efinitions
le

with

means

objects.

Spinoza,

etc.),are

fixed

sense

the

as

manner

undertaking

they

subjects

by

of

the

accordance

But

real, mathematical

sui,etc.)

caiosa

bys his terms throughout only in the

Itnetimespresents an argumentation,

is

framed

By this

system.

employed.

definitions
se

than

once

something

after

axioms

and

easily followed

be

no

dependence

and

inherence

certainty.

terms

the

in the

at

be

substance

relations

(likein

employed

are

the

by

and

which
oh

of

by

other

something

the

it may

though

even

is

in

it will

yet

by

which

included

conditioned, depends

theorems

actually proved
clear

as

cannot

anything

that

also

as

is avoided

latter,and
in

less
by fault-

which

be

denote

of definitions

definitions

entirely wanting

expressions
of

not

that

conditioned,

indeed, given at the

are,

definitions,i.

real

denies

to

Aristotle

both

by

substances

inherent

as

mathematical

understood

is to be

of

as

is recognized

God

since

viewed

be

nitions
defi-

causality

of

demonstrated

not

must

required

their

in

subreption.

the

for his doctrine

secure

But

strictlysyllogisticprocedures, "in

Euclid,intending therefrom, by
the method
of geometry," to deduce

in

without

distinguishes

(substance)

of the
is

yet,

number

of

expected

is

is

exis-

exists

formed

inconsequence which

definition

demonstration

which

Kant

non-dependence

exist

only

it

needs
ad

eget

predicates) and

existence
an

which

which

term

his Ethics

he

marks

essentiallydifferent

two

supposed

opens

and

inhering,

(though

and

term

which

neglected

ouo-io

is

that

is

that

that

indigent ad

re

be

can

of

existence.

the

essential

that

definition

another

the

the

the

exists

so

alia

"that

alike

only substance, and

can
substantial,

of the

Without

admits

non-inherence

among

follows,that

substratum

Spinoza

this

called

be

properly

as

the

by Descartes.

concursu

as

are

intelligoid^ quod in se
indiget conceptu alterius rei^

of

that

of substance

as

Dei

his

as

of which

him, "that

of which

inherence

cause

all

adopts

been

nidla

categories,which

at once,

Descartes

That

his definition

from

follow

of

cause

which

3)

effects). The

efficient

it follows

such),

of substance

otherwise

the

proclaims God

itself ; it only

the

p.

the

of

had

that

to

I., del

work

{per substantiam

two
is

they

soh

{res^qum

"

else

the

dependence

is substantial.

means

not

tlie

under

definition

else.

' '

undergoing

been

consequences

ut
existtt,

conception

correlate

with

to be

Spinoza, who

the

e.

separate

the

substance.

only

included

not

the

anything

the

them

as

arguments

not

is

by

both

by

to

which

(of

subsistence

the

of

than

se

of

be

{Eth.,

by itself,i.

conception

"

its existence

the

according

was,

substance

in this

concimtur^hoc est id, cujus concejytusnon

and
Spinoza have
formari debeAXt). Descartes

e.'^tct per
a

the

ita

[res qum

substance"
for

defines

Spinoza

aid

God

Spinoza

absolutely, as

taken

existence"

to

substance,

logical consistency

substance,
its

of

definition

have

appears

death.

Spinoza's

of

"created

tendum).

the

time

greater

for

else

nothing
the

with

1662-65, but

years

Cartesian

defined

e.nHtendmn)^
only

the

the

him

developed by

in the

quaternio tenni-

analytical" (cf
.

my

Sys-

64

SPINOZA.

of

tern
with

61 and

Logic, ""

the

doctrines

126). (Proofs

of substance

and

means

(as, notably,F. H. Jacobi

among

rather

(as Leibnitz, Herbart, and

others

The

of

cause

nature

itself I

understand

only

conceived

can

invohit

limited

by another

ejmdem

is

when

thoughts, nor
The

to obscure

the

is

one

is

worthy

of the

real

in

of his

Spinoza

nimbus

macher)

before

after

the

the

former,

as,

say,

through

the

and

is

former

is

the

not
or

for

alia

that

manner,

limited

not

by

in

of that

exist

to such

and

res,

essence

only right angles

real

with

but

of the

each

in

which

in

only

^^

or

"holy"

in

but
a

to

in
the
as

like

naively
in

is

implies
as

limitation

infinite in

e.

of

when

from

could

the

and

that

presupposing

idea

be

of

The

the

by

existence

finite,and

the

"sewer"

expressions

non

cipi
con-

posse

(see above, ""

following

existence
more

in

thus

raised

the

^''

justified

being

of

infinite

mvich

which

with

already

distinction

the

only

or

the

established

essentia,

limitation

question

plane figure by

its kind,

in

exist
tion,
inten-

his

deceptive

on

tions.
demonstra-

of
so

the

thing

than

arbitrary
semblance

cartes.
Desnitions
defiof

view.

g., if the
a

it

expression

existentiam''''

Anselm,

only applicable
mutual

unless

together.)

flow

object

Spinoza's

latter

predicated
of

its dues.
an

it must

to

the

surreptitiously objectifies,

sui

make

faulty sense

is covered

that

former,

ontological argument

as

that

Schleier-

receive

and

irrational

justifythe

previously

to nature,

concealed

will

abstraction,

cmisa

permanent

already existing, being

would

the

of existence

its kind

being

involvens

in

in

ever
What-

(with

order

Spinoza

only adequate

absurdity

an

the

cause

to

him

in

away.

them.

to

nothing,

cause

expression

of

case

as

advanced

swept

it desires

each

for,

only possible

The

essentia

sins

it can

has

attained
when

one;

all contradictions

presupposes

attributes,

finite

and

due

its end

caused.

negative

widest

perceived

to be

objectivelydistinct, the

competent

which

Spinoza

i. e., the

other, is

is
as

latter.

by Spinoza

instances

or

which

involved

is

co-exist^ence

to natures

into

repugnant

is finite

which

is

S7"i"

implication

manner

the

is

else

assault,

cannot

speculative assertion, which

definitions

which

square,

analogy

no

is

and

but

respected,

irrational

latter

our

rigid demonstration

tendency

nothing

To

being

(The

which

towards

this

misses

of those

in the

taken

psychical,

expression implies, according

before

latter

one.

employed

is in many

for

the

the

sui," namely,

pretended

part,

latter

order

offer

shall

we

sition
expo-

in

Spinoza's philosophical

extended,

be

every

existing

The

these

causing

fault, which
are

and

blunders.

without

the

treats

Berkeley,

causa

; this

an

But

Spiritualism, Materialism, Criticism)

to

not

of

part

system.

text.

the

the

realized

veneration

caused.

'"^causi
a

of

from

to the

be

cmiseless"

that

has

literally,an

itself:

He

furnishes

they

taken

; but

or

that

the

that

with

against

but

his

cover

inadequate

same

and

itself

distinction

but

"

faults

Realists, a

criticism

the

their

already

the

to say

defining

actually

can

the

like

necessary

So, too, the tendency

deserves

exists

existence.

argument

definition

others

be

can

adds

in

are

paralogisms, dissecting criticism;thus

to

essence

caused

logical postulate, against

reality, and

applied

en

yet

infinite,were

in his

conceived,

This

it is

conditioning

of the

By appealing

to his

before

positive

in

should

it exist

higher plane,

every
a

"

under

(likeDualism,

philosophy ;

is, if

to be

and

Descartes),

That

defined,

essentia

finita,qum

Spinoza's teachings,

by him,

Spinoza

maintained

of

mV

causa

that

existens,''"'
imply

Anselm

nature

''

that

of

identical

Monism

idea

the

has

ringlets," but
a

former

: this

by exposing

development

designation

to

maintained

opinion

is

into

insight

following notes

prejudice,which

mere

of mediaeval

by Spinoza

nisi

corrected

was

by Hegel

employed

be

essence

affirmed

mentioned

which

is

of existence

the

in the

philosophical hypotheses.

and
self-causation,

when

not

bodies

positions

positive exposition

in them

of mechanics

respect

of

manner

action

own

is the

that, whose

which

genere

larger ;

but

thorough

; but

what

e.

and

into

changed

in the

fundamental

acquire

force), is substantially

by hypothesis

inexact

an

which

its kind

suo

still

thought;

noteworthy

is necessary

between

namely,

By that

illustration,Spinoza

another

and

of

dependence

itself,i.

in the

would

fundamental

genuinely great,

conception

the

who

holy, rejected Spinoza

itself,since

exists

of

by another

contained

the

historical
"

itself,it

dicitur in

way

conceive

to

involved

one

any

laws

should

"offering

an

t The

possible

of doctrines

doctrine

was

in the
of the

cause

and

great

reasonings

influence

By

finite in

to be

res

paralogisms. *

intclligo
id,cvjus
existens. )f

potest concipinisi

(Ea

connection

existence, or

sui

cauaam

is said

"

following:
involves

(per

non

thing

potest).

animate,

the

of attention

proofs

False

for

from

the

follows

and

"

nature"

paralogisms

sequence

(the mental,

material

That

limited

paralogisms

arises

importance

its

of the

the

upon

"

same

when

rightly judged) replete with

is the

essence

existent

as

is

the

Spinoza's system,

remarks

have

whose

g., in

below, e.

love. )

thoughts by bodies. t

exposure

of

that

of

Spinoza's Ethics is by no
supposed) theoretically
but
irrefutable,

others

id,ciijusnatura

it is

finite

sui and

I. of the Ethics

terminari

is finite

sense

of

natarm

thought

not

sive

Definition

second

body

be

existenMa-m

The

of Part

first Definition

of this will appear

causa

or

whether

to

objects (res),side

; it loses

all

its

whether

were

asked,

four

equal straight

human

by

side

with

significance when
the
iines

quadratic
forming

nature, aquiline nature,

65

8PIN0ZA

by substance, attribute, and

the

of

aid

which

Per

It thus

between
the

would

attempt

has

been

the

difference

to

on

part,

our

blue

eye

or

leonine

that

to

him"

or

really in

has

but

limited

of

another

exist

of this

by

and

not

aside

has

unlimited
modes.

the

the

different

from

The

only

related to that

the

same

itself

of

that

is

deceptive

be

an

by

to

proved

nature

; the

of

also

of demonstration

nature,"
idea,

after

and

the

definitions

principle,by
is without
or

which

limit
a

the

which

natura,

and

show

in

in

of

derived

which

relegating

at

all

else

the

from
secured
any
to

side

the

can

class

of

expression:
existence
is

But

again
the

Spinoza's
be
of

one

by side, res,

concrete

for

rate

be

cannot

limitation

them.

it is

infinite, but

or

paralogism,

by
surdity
ab-

procedure.

misleading
a

ceived
con-

because
of

nature,

the

of

the

is
justification
that

of

idea

in

being employed

(extension),or

such

be

The

nature.

substance,

idea

the

up

propositions

substance

mode

the-

totality

of

absurd
any

the

the
is to

this

be

must
with

with

second

or

says,

nature

it is unhmited

is foimded

summons

which

substances

objects existing

to

He

substance

definition) it

one

with

because

appearance
one

as

nature

because

it

of

besides,

possibilityof

substance
or

Spinoza's

identical

examples

makes

commits,

that

two

no

itself

the

butes
attriin the.'

is absurd.

second

the

because

by

from

is not

and

which

"

limitation, therefore,

nature

same

The

of the

the

inflnita) of

attribute

one

guage
lan-

specificallydifferent) nature,

by identifying

of

in

general

other

view

the

to

express

afterwards

not

consist,

(according to

substance

"

founded

the

his

each

granted,

necessario

non-limitation

to 2

mental

were

is* forgotten, and

given

impossible,

this, however,

itself,which

result,also, leads

been

second

est

nature

to

with

with

definition,in

the

once

fully applicable only

of

attribute

as

limitation, but

equal

when

clearly and

to his

which

has

this

separated from

finiteness

substance

of the
the

prove

1 is not

"

thing

recourse

of finiteness"

limitation

substance

or

attribute

or

to
(cogitatio),

or

cannot

"substance

natures,
nature

the

attribute

aquiline nature, etc., or

provided, meanwhile,

admitting

(To

this

the

it

harmony

objective, nor

above

as

is

he

that

hypothesis

nature

by Spinoza through

in

affirmation

be

the

homogeneous

U7iiiis

distinct from

latter

in

not

has

otherwise

which

only

etc.)
infinitis
attributis,

itself

by

way

interpretation,

substantia

finite,since
nature,

with

from

not

"natures."

to

this

limited

same

is due

(genericallysimilar, but

: omnis

inevitablyfollows

identical

another

as

another

substajitia

it

nature,

itself

it is not

thing by

it is not

of the

; but

VII.

Prop.

But

indeed

of

in

Kantianism, namely, by

glass.

green

yet Spinoza,

criterion

the

agrees

attribute

appears

rather

truth

ceived
con-

with

surface

appropriate"
and

of

it is

though

or

another

by

being

nature

to

conclusion, however,

quadratic

because

the

limited

natiire,would

same

absiurdity arising

The

making

being

substance

can

of the

limited

fault, of

possibilityof

absolutely

as

an

meaning

demonstration

attributes, whence

another

of its

how

really white

blue

And
is

and

concipi-

difference

together constitute
is and

definition

attributes

cojistantem

least, it

at

de-

distinction,
a

formari

the

conception

as

reality,not

limit

single attribute, that

by

its

worse

the

attribute

same

the

in

unlimited.

or

which,

"attribute"

an

(in the

namely

first of

in which

still

second,

but

to the

of

added,

is much

substantiam

Spinoza,

limited

nature, etc., are

"natiire"

that
mode

By

quo

mark

esse

defined

the

case

Subjectivist, is

which

philosophy,
VI.

is

through

Spinoza

are, according

illicit use,

the

of

make

{e. g. in Def.

by

"

rei^a

attributes

thing

Spinozism

distinction

; so, it

viewed

when

of his

character

we

between

objectifythe

then

substance

green

would

which

cited

of

nature

the

interpret his

to

the

that

mean

that

and

the

conceived,in which
made

i/ialio

and

esse

tells how

Spinoza

case

adequately

supposing Spinoza
the

understand

substance."

is

out
with-

percipit tamquam ejus

qualifiesquod, cf. Def
VI.].

and

neuter,

while

modes,

or

obliterate

The

reality.)

affections

each

(^.6., when

in

is

expressions i7i se

the

that

and
In

substance.

act

here

which

is in something else,through the

iiitelligo
id^quod in se est et per se

which

{Per substantiam

constituens^^
['"'"

appears

substance

which

of

essence

that

or

attribute

By

that
formed

be

can

intelUgosubstantice affecUonessive id,quod in alio est,per quod etiam

Per modtim
)

the

which

est

constituens

essentiam

tur.

"

thing."

stands
Spinoza under-

I understand

substance

By

id^cujus conceptus non indiget conceptu altenus

attributum
intelUgoid.,
quod intdlectus de substantia

hoc
concipitur^
beat.

substance,

it is conceived."

also

of which

other

of what

statements

conception of

the

constituting

as

of

accidents

the

understand
aid

perceives

mind

the

of any

conception

the

"

mode,

i. e.
by itself,
,

is conceived

in itself and

the

follow
definitions,

fifth

third,fourth,and

As

set

logism
paradure
proce-

regarded

as

affections

or
'

subsequent

the expression :

"'

in alio

definition
esse

of

"

see

affection

below.

"

or

mode--a

definition

closely

OQ

SPINOZA.

to which

Bubstance
them

does

but

they belong, but they

recognize

of itself the
latter

from

it for

the

the

that
titr^^),

to

least

of

doctrine

of

circle,etc.,

is

themselves

; the

and

substance

though they

as

do

of

of the

prior

accidents,

or

to its accidents

definitions),and

"

affections"

and

Spinoza

existence.

In

elements

of

itself,so

are

connected.

general
being

the

marking

he

in
the

and

differcncG

their

extension

Every
attribute
has

no

cases

thought

and

are,

our

all

the

there

such

as

arably
insep-

the

with
delenburg.
Tren-

attributes
; for

which

nothing

existence, or

no

their

because

existence,

modes

of

contrary,

mere

substance
tions
limita"

determination''''
Spinoza,
says
of

in virtue

that

limitation, is

its

of

portion

of

in substance

exists

had

The

on

stance
sub-

tion
concep-

are

other, secondary
that

his

the

attributes

totalityof

other, but

omnis

est

tion
determina-

which

space

between
him

thought

this

are

is

"

in

ternal
ex-

(which

Spinoza's language,
of

be

medigeval

the

con-

latter
among

accidents,"or

it

as

truly

understand

only

can

we

se

reckons

Spinoza

its

apart
iti

for

by

the

considered

thing,

concrete

is

directly from

nature,

apart from

manner

; substance

affectionibuset
depositis

substance

considered

to

an

realists) attributes

are

and

can,

act

at the
in

and
of will

most,

connection

between

him

by

is viewed
be

said

with

(which

attributes

the

must
is

by
only

or

as

or

attributes

him
in

as
a

pendent
inde-

of
and

attribute
be

which

mode

and

; but
sense,

since

idea

these

since

and

are

the

this

of

can

in

be
the

we

tend
ex-

phraseology,

affirmation

only

series

the
is in

expression

Spinoza's
on

thing
some-

of

substance

clear

no

that

any

If, moreover,

extension.

founded

in

of

character

if,therefore,

modes,

allowable,

figurativecharacter
"existence

and

modal

figurative

attribute

arbitrary,

self"

with

statement

thought"-a

substance

by Spinoza

only knowable

viewed

attributive

the

of

in

(*'existence

esse

the

ignores

accidents, Spinoza

alio

in

criteria

as

in extension

distinction

the

ser\'e

thought

except

mentioned

and

enae

se

its

and

substance
in

and

meaning

those

extension

its true

in

Prop. V.

by

substance
is deduced

I.,which

determinations

yet (after the

thought

of

of

of

parts

Prop.

to

mean

be

nor

particular thought

proper

than

by

and

application

to other

butes
attri-

Israel,who wrestled
Epist.27, and cf.

indicated.

They

viewed

be

individual

Extension

termed

to

cannot

incompetence

object.

an

is at

expressions employed
else"),

of

of

definitions

they

of the

see

is the

each

been

to

of it

glass

green

different

because

to

attributes

constituent

not

are

By substance,

to which

Abstractum,

of "he

the

bined,
com-

mind

distinction

like

substance,

something

are

are

conddera-

the

repeats itself in

phases,

or

(negation of

(Demonstr.

accidents),

or

exists,

really

which

substance

body,

(according

se

without

exist

never

can

in

and

Hence

sid"7'ata).

the

comparison

inseparable phases

various

negations ("

in order

must,

its accidents

from

plies
imof

body).

modes,

nature

The

to it.

extension

mind

subjectivisticinterpretation of

surface,or

already

mathematical

every

interpretation.

from

different
has

hence

of infinite

realm

to the
The

as

of his brother

though

addition

positive

it,determinations,

just
negatio'''')^

now

one

The

of

and

blue,

corollary to Prop. VI.)

as

rmliter

substance,

the

contrary,

(in the

say

not
of

of

heel

368.)

p.

the

on

can

were

constitute

not

upon

affections,not

mentioning

now

of

in

the

the

quatenus

the

(Cf. Spinoza's comparison

whiteness

distingniBhing

attributes
"

but

attributes

expression

Beitr.^III.

also, Spinoza

reason,

in the

and

modes,

these

other.

seized

who

Jacob,

Jlist.

but

each

with

smoothness

to

and

of

complete

connected

God,

each

But

substance.

in
of

distinction

comparison

allowed,

constitute, a distinction

attributes

the

be

justify

distinction

real

the

only

The

may

false
to

the

all the

it is

mind.

by using
a

and

in which

unity

light

seem

may

mind

the

existence

very

thought,

apart {i.e.,

it

of

suggests

which

the

isolating the single attribute, of separating

of the

ray

attributes,is but

which

of
of

act

action

color

the

and

mislead,

to

the

white

varies

Spinoza,

by

the

considering

analyzes the

liable

attribute

only

and
different,

are

diversity ;

really miseparated

of

solely to

spectator who

the

the

purpose

is due

which

prism

It is

from

time

intrinsic

of the

existence

extension.

for

their

of

that

paralo-

I
The

definition

next

is

By God

consisting of infinite

substance

{Per

essence.

Deum

"

the

"

in its kind

infinite
The

the

sole

But

another, and

if

gisms), and
defined
of the

side

the

once

in

essence,

of any

but

Realism

also

as, in

are
(TTpiratovtri'ai)

to be.

individual

Of

the

attribnte

from

being

the

all individual

objectsit

of substance
order
and

and

to establish

but

made,

not

expressions

{i. e., extension),

cogitatio),while
being

of

*'God,"

of

cases,

admits
;

has
on

that

which

all

words

substance
with

is

square

and

modes,

clearness

and

that

is

have

which

the

of

having

essential

its

to

''Ethics''

thinking
tion
significa-

essential.

of

the

In

essential,

propriety only
the

is

has

or

his

an

sense

it

{i.e.,
his

to

man.

rigorous

is based, in
of

by

in that

real

into

in

nection
con-

These

followed

supposed

Spinoza,

in

term.

corrupted,

in"

square,

part

rfe-

mind

investigation Spinoza

The

good

the

sense

be

said
"

in

one

other

interpreted

sense

being

of
A

and

second

unessential.

bemg

the

retaining

employ

"to

express'on

be

may

necessarily

the

such

them

that

This

not

legitimate

longs
pre-eminently be-

and

the

is then

and

up,

{ewnapxeiv)

they really are,

relative

does

blundering
given

his practice.

of

as

essentia

supposed,
pre-

confuted

distinguishes

requisite.

which

paralogisms.

on

for

at

simply

Tnense

presupposes

substantial, in

or

landed

nowhere

substance

which
so

is

intelligibleand

predicated

nature,

are

contrary by

naive,

Umitation,

Spinoza

is

as

in

be

we

are

the

an

of

stand

the

has

quadratic

Thus

i. e.,
'"'"vere^"'

; to say

in which

one

unjustly praised
of

the

between

emergency,

in the

accidents
been

of

this uncritical

of

case

indicates

figure and

logical investigation

significationof

defects

In

there

to what

as

exist numberless
these

the

"

definition

is

doing this,however,

actuated

who,

as

by

soon

of

attributes

be,

can

irrational conception
the

other

attributes

difficult for Spinoza

of

means

as

that

among

";., of

by retaining expressions

esse,""and

Nominalism

can

thought)

to which

substantial,in connection

(". g.,

logical paralogism, that

exists.

in alio
first

is susceptible, in

all else

it is not

considered

its lack

e.

the

be

may

specificlength

chainment
en-

far

the

are

far

he

slips

by

theorems

argumentations.

point

by

"

The

to be
or

of

his

Spinoza
this

attribute

difference

the

of

name

libera

res

that

the

legitimacy

he

considered

are

abstraction

making

the

in

operandum

et

nature

or

scientific

altogether

says,

{ea

example,

nature.

by Aristotle, it

whatever

they

abstraction,

the

while

manner

he

as

which

that

thorough

and

for

se'' and

ideas, which

number

better than
*

criteria

up

etc.) is classed

man,

greater

which,

substantial, according

of ideas.

is allowed

that

after

and

universal

makes

'Hn

are

confusion

only

making

retaining only

the

in

employed

as

objects,in
said

whose

counter-arguments

the first significationof substance, the

with

utter

by

but,

for

in

leonine

or

term),

essence

any

by

its existence

owes

existendum

that,

exists

activityis

causes

immanent

are

justicein theory,

to

be

cannot

unessential a profound

the

has

and

substances

of extension,

another,

The

their

expression

poHitis affertionibun''''
(hence, after

only

the

of

sense

square

aquiline,

logical respects, everywhere,

Aristotelian

an

mediasval

human,

solutely
ab-

agendtim determinatur.

ad
ad

assertion

to the

of the

position
in

sda

se

{affecUones)of

accidents

free which

determinate

and

existit et

necessarily

by Spinoza.

since for Aiistotle

meaning,

the

(in

contrary, admits

the

on

the

the

and

square

demonstrated

not

proceeds here,

is,indeed,

that

conducted

are

cause

ab alio deteiwiinatur

quae

eagle, lion, exists

man,

crude

we

particular

individual

by Spinoza, who,

He

potiuscoacta
ratione).\

the

; but

of whose

constrained, which

rather
of fixed

result

necessitate

naturm

The

determining

or

necessary,

affirm, accordingly,

we

in that

are

that

vel

autem

nature

exprimit.)

Explication
by contrasting it with
infinitum); that which is unlimited

Tha't thing is called

the

finite
in-

the

genere

to freedom

the
,

and

substantiamconstantem

ent

respect of all possible attributes

in

and

eternal

an

infinitam essentiam

et

in

of all attributes.

activityis the

sum

detemiinata

ac

{in suo

respect

is called

whose
sola

ex

Necessaria
certa

that

caterruim

such

not

relates

of its

necessity

dicitur,
qum

in

Definition

itself alone.
to

only, is

is infinite

seventh

"

in its kind

expresses

hoc
infinitum^

explained

is

absolutelyinfinite being,i. e.

of which

absolute

unumquodque

infinite

the

attributes,each

absolutely infinite"

expression
infinite

or

I understand

mtelligoens

attributis,quorum
infinitis

expression

over

67

8PIN0ZA.

we

the

as

"essence

and

dark.

But

involving existence,"
to include

in the

in all his paralogisms, it need

sophistical intention,but

thought

in the

exten'^ion. but
with

this

ex-'goncies of th*^ demonstration

objectivelycorrect"

as

beside

loft

are

simply

under

as

not
the

to

be

demand

of

substance

said that

influence

of

it,is
the

through

prove,

unity

definition

onto-

all that

he

is not

an

unconscious

of
pared,
pre-

tually
ac-

at all to be
self-

deception.
t The

first part of the

causa

cauaation,

snL, namely,
i.

"., with

an

definition
the

of

res

confounding

existence

caused

libera
of

involves

the

uncansedness

by its

own

nature

same

in

error

the

(as

as

eternal

if the

the

positive

and

primitive being

latter"

even

use

making

of

the

sion
expres-

with

absti-action

selfof

68

SPINOZA.

The

Definition

eighth

gism

By eternity I

to follow

from

the

sole

existentiam,quatenus
To

the

vel in alio

se

The

third
and

should

{Ex

{id quod

if

no

is

contra

per

fourth

which

The

the

in any

since

in

what

is alone

fact

depends

the

other,

and

of

something

not

This

the

as

the

in

se

axiom

things

the

well, as

a"

its

relation

"

to

knowledge,

of

X This

"
our

It

axiom

knowledge

the
which

and

advances

unmentioned,
v"TTepov
is the

of

the

but

only

xxnepov

concipi

the

objective
the

namely,

yet

the

nexus,

regressive

is the

Trpb? 17/xas.

the

(in

the

for

of

internal
from
posite
op-

proper

constraint,
in

but

constraint,

endeavors

the

in
the

the

the

to

exists

realitynothing
figurative

made

use

plausibility

such

contrary,

of

account

Demonstratio

the

of

the

laid

of

obscurity

the

words

be

first

at
the

of

other

all

things

question,

time

given

any

is

of

whether

is the

these

actual

by

exist

there

are

no

for

the

limit

ments,
ele-

colligatives
of

means

conelates

not

may

there

whether

raised,

the

in and

of

(of controlling importance

sphere

cause

rather

implies

related

more

or

is conceived
the

or

conceivableness

two

se, but

per

is conceived
one

(or comprehending)

between

concipi

the

on

question

of

conceiving

or

(Kantian)

to what

of

be

cording
ac-

posed
presup-

limits

to

our

absolute

or

tion
determinaness,
conceivable-

conceivable.

things

when

and

rightly understood,

inference

nporepov

relation

double
he

Trpdrepov(^ucreito

the

seeks

the

the

is not

cause

composite.
of

that,

causal

been

overruling

that

on

subsists

aliud

should

enlarge

conception
than

separated

and

account

on

since

whatever

the

into
as

every

have

subject

doctrine

on

relation

per

being

into

to

made

That

that

itself

science)

the

from
event

of

necessity, namely,

world),

the

illusory

been

1.

inquiiy

and

the

rather

Spinoza

from

(^veret,which

resolves

when

true

of

the

the

steps necessary

simple,

is

2. That

case.

that

of

problems

is characteristic

which
other

is

either

that

rise.

Definitions; while,

causal

every

be affirmed

knowledge,

next

something

as

or."

of

nature

fact

literally.

correlate, greater weight

human

the

are

since

of

attention

prevalence

should

kmd

external

establish

have

taken

distinct

point,

to the

nearly

the

the

definitions, is employed

to

the

consideration

of

i. e., it should

question again
to

in

from

or

volve
in-

not

habent, etiam per

it diverts

rest, Spinoza rightly

the

demonstration

deductions

and

either,

question,

the

other

does

one

more

yet

compulsion

gives

fourth

comes

only

means

the

or

part

existence

each

with

of the

invicem

se

experience,

in the

not

itself

esse

of

and

in

but

source

and

second
into

For

nature

The

out

circumstances

immediate

what

conceived

causal

which

the

"'

the

is the

knowledge,

common

conception

freedom

necessity

internal

i7i alio

nexus,

place,

farther

limits

and

its

the

without

universal

in

that

Proposition)

necessary

left

disjunctives

are

to

and

the

causal

its

expressions being

here

are

and

of

third

sixth

accidents.

the

si

of

This

involvit.)

in

cum

The

sphere

in the

that

the

the

esse

after

on

of

perception
not

to which
with

se

retains,
depends

esse,

t Two

"

in

definitions

necessity having

their

and

effect

contra

knowledge

to human

nothing
the

entrance

whole

generally,

combined

expressions

the

to

taken

wishes)

the

et
effectus,

the

et eandem

commune

existence).
not

factors,

(whether

have

other,or

amalgamated.

corollai-y to

substances

of

the

of

and
in

several

nature

that

impossible

involves

dependet

which

'"'"velpotius'"'

as

and

upon

{quce nihil

prius

case

necessity

to that

the

the

in

defined

axiom,

and

by
not

foreign

(and frustrating

fourth

But

other

the

of

co-operation

lows,
necessarily fol-

effect

sequitur

be

another, must

concipi debet)4

se

the

is

(subjective)relation

things

action,

to

of

state

through

given,it

necessario

depends

of each

the

be

sense

external.

that

the

belongs

real

freedom,

is to be

which

the

be

cause

in its

means

of

conceived

expressed objectively."

was

by

real

the

over

thing
Every-

est, ut effectussequatur.)X
impossibile

effect

affirms

freedom

the

on

factors
each

Axiom

conception

could

"

third

understood

be

is

( Omnia^ quae sunt, vel in

thing.

being given,

cause

determinata

expresses,

in the

fifth

cannot

but

the

which

Axiom,

same

necessarily

intelligo
ipsam

first Axiom

potest concipi,per

non

{Eff^ectuscognitioa cognitionecausce

cause.

time

per

causa

causa

of

knowledge

be

cannot

aliud

determinate

The

other

some

determinate

data

determinata

detur

or

ontologicalParalo^

seqid concipitur).
The

axioms.

seven

in

the

it is conceived

as

necemirio
definitioite

adds

which

That

itself

Axiom

follow.

nulla

is

Axiom

through

The

far

as

thing [per (Eternitatem

eternal

an

ivternm

Spinoza
in itself

itself,in

sunt)*

second

conceived

of

sola rd

ex

either

is,is

conception of eternity with

existence

definition

definitions

eight

which

links the

understand

here

the

vartpov
from

mentioned

attends

the

Trpb? i7ju,as or

only

to

by

"t"vcxei
(a priori
effect
the

to the

Aristotle

aspect,

one

subsisting
to

posterius),

ad

cause,

as

namely,

rjulv"yvwptju.wTepoi',

but

that

between
edge
knowl-

leaves

the

jyosteriori ad ptHics, from

to

the

irporepov

"f"v"r"i,

70

SPINOZA.

proof of Prop. VIII.

The

"All

substance

(inProp. V.) that there cannot

the definition

reality or
aut

esse

of

with

in

the

is

exiitentiam

coincidence

of

sive

in

the

of

having the

substance

one

the

ninth

does

the

Substance,

sertion
as-

same

Proposition : The

it possess

tenth

more

{quo plus reaUtatia

from

the

nition,
defi-

same

attri-

Proposition : Every

by itself {unumquodque

conceived

universal

by

existence

ejus

ad

accordance

natw

with

in

its nature"

to

the
id

"

existere) the

pertinet

am

while

usage,

belongs

est

uniu^s substantias

cessarily
neconjoined premise ("its essence
[per Uef. /.]ipxius essentia involvit,

in the

terra

same

Spinoza's arbitrary definition, without

in

significations;

two

is committed

terminorum

deduces

attributes

more

be

must

existence, or

explained

Spinoza

the

definition

sanctioned

sense

involves

"

than

more

the

on

concipidebet).\

se

per

taken

the

substance

one

necessui-io

rests
necessarilyinfinite,"

habet,eo plura attrlbuta ipsicompetuiit)^and

res

unaqtujeque

attributum
been

of Attribute

being-a thing has,

together
'bute

is

attribute.
From

be

other

the

words,
of

by the confounding

"

fallacy

definition

(p. 64)

synthetically"

of

of

tha

qiuiternio

"

with

self
it-

show

to

attempt

an

indicated

above

formed

"cause

expression

even

formed

one

analytically."
*

this

That

has

duplicate

of

itself

of

the

extension

than
zistic

(since

in

here

the

determinatio

est negatio

presupposed,

in

should

the

adopt

would

be

not

t The

Spinoza's

Proposition

is conceived

to

be

as

the

identical.)
also

must

and

he

conclusion

does

not

the

not

an

the

vi-ith

attribiite

(substance
of

in

kind

in

order, evidently

and

objective
monistic

fact

course,

and

the

ontological Paralogism.

S^o:

of

distinction

God
the

as

be

he

the

'^

ens

conception

be

affirmed

from

be
and

are

mutual
brushed

predicate

consistent

But

to

to

of

Spinoza
it

confessing

"

relation
away

as

involved

greater

by

of
the
of
in

and

makes
that

less

means

vindicating

essence.

Thus

and
of
the

each

one
one

or

with

the

with

his

all attributes

XI.

at

infinity

distinctions

conflict

validity

Proposition

of

plurality of

these

including

which

having

between

not

it is

it is, therefore,

"extension,"

real

in

existence

ninth

is itself

ca*e

and

the

of

bute
attri-

in the

another

maintains
may

sition,
Propo-

between

which

reality,nor

theory

Spinoza

substance,

existence

"thought"
easy

of

assume

and

his

in

by itself,

ninth

the

substances,

the

assume

"

svibstance.

the

thovight only through

logicallymore

inflnitum,'' and

existence

as

of

than

being

: is in

essentially

Scholion

concipi, and

se

existence

independent

words
are

difference

The

of per

the

is

by Spinoza

conceived

In

substance

reality and

more

substances

admissible.

ahsomte
of

must

the

attribute

every

in

marks

be

must

perhaps infinitelynumerous

between

may

scruples

to

with

p.

*'

which

that

as

intended

two

attribute.

necessity.

and

truth

being identical),than

thus

it too

one

conflict

possesses

or

be

numerous,

connection
all

definition
means

of

even

far

actual

the

by

It would

infinity,would

the

conceived

be

can

mode.

no

however

"

convictions,
of

than

more

the

his

Works,

intelUglbles.'"')

expressed

that

Philos.

substance

congruent,

attribute, since

have

can

attribute

from

as

his

non

of

(Leibnitz, in

it.

by itselfis not

conceived

distinct

its formal

attributes, it

be

it would

substance

one

Definition

the

to

ou

be
who

one

primitive /acfM?7i,

the

by

from

Extracts

pitoyables

omnis

must

primitive reality;
as

gation
ne-

exis-

'"'"

primitive

is

refuted

be

is subjoined

pertinet

Spinoza's theorem,

finite world

not

that,

or

proof

{ahsoluta qtfirmatio

this

of

quitous
ubi-

Spino-

reality a partial

is in

all that

'"'"

to be

conceived

ascription

with

Erdmann's

must

the

because

the

so-called

attribute

and

absolute

of

and

but

attribute, or

one

Then,

that

the

so-called

substance

attribute,

with

in

have

can

overthrowing

consist

other

is that

agrees

could

and

substance

are

existence

it in

substantlce,

naturam

other

and

ubiquitous,

and

every

shorter

finite

of

of

perchance

or

Spinoza,

substance

substance

no

in

Either

with

inferred

be

inadmissible,

as

cannot

substance

tributes.

being

presupposition

or,

it is in

case

of

and

that

succeed

undemonstratod.

substance"

mark

{ad
the

infinityof

the

with

express

and

infinite.

partial negation

substance

second

which

"

relation

doubtful

(That

thought

lawfully

can

substance

Proposition
left

that

in

VII.

since

universel^

concerning

itself."

since

substantial, or

this

repudiates
but

All

be

Esprit

stands

constituting

contrary,

is

of

argument

dun

by

finiteness

Propos.

on

argument

of finite monads,

or

this

demonstrations

itself and
viewed

atoms,

la doctrine

snr

latter

of

that

be

affirmation

petitio principii,

unbounded

therefore

infinite, because

be

(or, to

by

magnitude

is unbounded

thought

nature

is

nature

the

false

limited

be

cannot

homogeneous

that

aquiUne

one

it must

absolute

an

this

of

the

simply

must

is

in

and

respecting

is

thought
follows

more

it rests, involves

also

its kind

nothing

each

no

aquiline

founded

terms

affirm

to admit

in

itself; on

"

theory

compelled

179. declares

the

the

existence,

infinite

involve

justlyto

order

Considerations

But

"

in

in

determines

it

and

which

on

is alone

that

example,

is one,

all substance

the

and

exist)

nature),

one

Definition,

substance

can

for

Scholium,

that

naturce).

tentice. alicujus

only

first

argues

negatio)

{ex parte

aquihne

the

be

to

second
a

eagle participates

every
the

is in

by Spinoza

existere). He

Grant,
generally"

because

sun

the
That

duplicate

such

no

"thought

that,

our

above

''substance."

phraseology,

supposing

remarked

been

i. e., that

thought,

fallacious, because

is

proof

supposition,

of

this
is

in

tion
defini-

based

on

71

SPINOZA.

Prop. XI.

G-od,or

eternal

an

essefitia.

Spinoza's

unumquodque
which

words

the

designates

founded

on

established

they would,

posteriori.

as

ejtist

{p)oss6existere)is

abilitynot

\ Substance

but

determined

Not

exist.

God,

God,

There

is

only

Deo

Scholium

the
of

God.

in

an

fall within

either

of

number

the

God
with

absolute

freedom,

is their

immanent

is other

than

ut

ajunt,

maneiitem,
momri

alio

inodo, et
*

in

That

this

this

unnoticed

the

the

of

"Dogmatism,"

That

subjective
the

the

of

above

established

is not

{Deus

difficult

in
from

this

his

for

Mm

evident

once

in

the

definition

involves

not

(Vol. I., " 93).

After

includes

that

reaUty
all

that

nothing

at

limits

within

which

in

exists

"

non

that

by

esse

the

alone

of

to

by

entirely

Criticism)
and

elements).

"Realism"

Realism

of

jective
ob-

is

"Realism"''

nominalistic

(in

alone,

has

ontological Paralogism,
of

appearance

God

except

Kantian

is natural

of

leaves

wont,

the

stand-point

means

quibus-

ex

non-reality

one-sided

also

which

an

et in

(whose reality

is his

of

contains

G-od,"

im-

causam

in Deo

reality or

as

manner

to the

which

transieiis,

vero

rerum

existence

emphasized

Spinoza, by

all

the

such

paralogism,

hence

things,

antiquis pMlosophis, licet

to

as

the

confined

into

Hebraeis, quantum

doctrine

necessarily

modes.)

of all

cause

can

cause.

and

one,

inquam,

Spinoza,

more

(in

respects, Spinoza's

word), though

conclude

stiU

and

the

no

omnium

of

again

knowledge

our

by

immanens,

omnibus

things

all which

without

never

as

Omnia,

: here

est,

essence

of

absolutely first

was

Deum

"impotence"

the

of

(passing over

cnusa

cum

of the

cause

the

God,

antiquisomnibus

with

definition, which
to

etiam

by Nominalism,

other

is

(subjective) uncertainty

our

confounded

out

an

he

cause.

is, is in

number

infinite

efficient

since

rerum

can

of its attributes),

Whatever

definition

the

he

statuo.

dicere,cum

is at

in

follow

Oldenlmrgium

ad

transeuntem

vero

mentioned

for

est omnium

substance

God'^uidquid

transcendent

not

the

Spinoza justifiesat length (in

nature, constrained

free

only

cause,

objective elements

sense

already

has

is the

argumentation

drawn

argument

mediagval

been

he

be

can

having

consists
:

be

Besides

est,in Deo

without

nature

infinite

in God

also

are

could

else

substance

one

substance

extension

his

affirmo et forte

although,

being,

substance

absolutely

intellect,and
of

and

non

of

which

by
than

(since

figurative sense,

very

beforehand),

and

is

then

abilityto

in terms.

contradiction

is,therefore, the

infinite

laws

diversity (pointed

of

the

nothing

of substance

one

substance,

divine

the

uncritically

presumed

act

very

absolutely

impotentia,whUe

more

only

conceived,

the

etiam

latter

is

existence

the

Epist.XXI.,

auderem

infinite

be

God

to

inclusion

to

Paulo

cum

of

; God

himself).
; cf.

the

attribute

never

; for

be

or

("indwelling")

Propos. XVIII.
Deo

in

only according

acts

is

ways

of

sphere

(" Cause," surely, only

than

concipipotest, Prop. XV.).

neque

necessity of

the

every

belong

be,

would

there
God

one

Prop. XV. ) the

to

exist,for

an

other,
an-

existence

Grod's necessary

beings should

portion

; for

affections

as

can

esse

From
infinite

and

all attributes

modes,

nothing

et nihil sine

substance
in

all

but
and

(like Descartes)

finite

existere) is

Avhich

substance,

other

do

only

powerful

more

(posse non

is included

only

be

for by
such, indivisible,

no

attribute.

same

that

impossible

the

and
definition,

potentia.*

limited

exists

there

exist

to

is,as

understood

It is

the

combines

existence,whereby

ovra

beings,

necessary

the

our

priori,he

existit). With

from

drawn

substance,
a

presses
ex-

to his

attrihutis, quorum
infinitis

constans

exprimit^necessario

esseritimn

infinite

an

Demoiutvatk)

as

fact of

since

God

of

Spinoza

sice substantia

infinitam

et

existence

the

Deus

which

being belongs

by necessity (because

exists

essence,

are

cRternam

for

argument

infinite

of

consisting of infinite attributes,each

substance

and

and

it

objective truth,

the

which

modes

are

in him.
It would
if

we

lead
to

were

mostly

in

the

minuteness
eslimate
of
the

the

first

with
of

far

us

continue

development

steps,

which

the

details

we

foundations
of

his

the

beyond

everywhere
but

point out,

have
of

done
the

ideas in

this

as

in

also

occasionally

demonstrations.

of the

to

thus

our

the

far

later

may

Spinozistic doctrine,
From

this

Spiaoza's system

done

thus
of

ones

its

and

in the

suffice.

the

this compendium

far,

the

comparative
a

mere

logical

"Ethics,"

justificationin

find

point forward

may

in

exposition

have

we

review

the

must

be

fallacies

Spinoza

is

importance

rareness

of the

of

exact

further

confined,
of

which,

guilty;
of

an

the

exact

criticisms
progress

la

72

SPINOZA.

dam

multvi modis

tametn
traditionihus^

tlie different kinds

between
such

licet.
adulteratU^
conjicere

of causes,

division

of

'''"

de

in the

nature
in the

causes

the head

nente'" and

caiLsa

as
effect,

bread.) God's

is likewise

eternal

involve existence

the iron in the

existence

Whatever

and

infinite.

; God

sword,and

the

with

the

his

absolute

The

more

is identical

follows from

losing it,as

as

the

All his attributes

of any

nature

of the

essence

latter

essence.

of the divine

thingsproduced by

of their essence, of their

cause
in existence.
Individual objectsare

is the

of their continuance

and

tlie distinction

by Dutch logicians,
see
immediately follows,
lian
however, had the Aristoteseq. ; still earlier,
into four kinds been
modified,and we find Petrus Hispanus and
of " Logim Modernorum,''''
materiali 'permcb'
treating" de causa
the former
is described as retainingits
materiali transeunte ;''''
made
by
Spinoza here

as

Burgersdikand Heerebord, whom

Trendelenburg,Hist. Beitr. III.,p. 316
as

others,under

On

Spinoza, and

grain
variable.
in-

are

attributes

God

does

not

into existence,
entrance
nothing but affections of

the

attributes of God, or modes, by which

God's attributes are in a determinate
manner
nihil sunt, nisi Dei attrihutorum
expressed (Corollaryto Prop. XXV. : res particulares
sive modi, quibus Dei attributa certo et determinato
rnodo exprimimtur). All
affectiones,
of
all
acts
determined
All particularthings
volition,are
events, including
by God.
which

have

finite and

God's

direct

the
order

existence

miracles

in

the

is

be

can

determined

to

existence

and

to

tion
ac-

immediately by God, since all the effects of

eternal (so that,according to Spinozisticteaching,

not

infinite and

are

agency

of
possibility

of

limited

finite causes, and

only through

sense

of

direct interference,of God

with

the

excluded). God,
as
free cause,
a
or
attributes,
termed
God natura
by Spinoza (afterthe example partlyof Scholastics who
of
naturans, and created existence natura naturata, and partly,and more
especially,
Giordano
Bruno) natura naturaiis.
By natura 'natarata, on the contrary,Spinoza understands
nature

considered

in

his

is called

all that which

follows from

the

necessityof

the divine

nature, or of either
God, regarded as thingswhich are
in God, and
The
which, without God, can neither be nor be conceived.
intellect,
which, in distinction from absolute
is a definite mode
of
thought {absolutacogitatio),
distinct from other modes, such as will,desire,
thought {modus cogitandi),
love,belongs,
of

his

i. e. , all modes
attributes,

whether

infinite

of the

to the
finite,

or

natura

infinite intellect is to be conceived

(The

the sum,

Will

of

naturata, and not

only as the immanent

to

the

natura

unity, and

naturans.

hence

not

as

but in distinction from

soluta,
pfius of finite intellects,
cogitatioabit an explicit
intellectvsis something actual,an intellecor actual unity ; every
and
related
to thought, just as are
motion
intellect are
and rest to extension.
'"'"Mens
Scholion
Gf. also Eth. v., Proposition
:
40,
nostra, quatenus intellibut

is

tio.

only

attributes

git,a^ternus

the

as

determinatur
et liic
est, qui alio mterno
cogitandimodo
simul Dei ceternum
ita ut omnes
et infinitum
infinitum.,
intellectum canstituant.''^ In the Tractatus
the
infinite
de Deo, etc., Spinoza terms
intellect of God, God's only-begotten Son, in whom
of all things is
the essence

cogitandimodus

iterum

ah

known

by God
"

which

alio et sic in

which
were

coupled

with

in

eternal

and

unchangeable

itself suggested by

was

the

an

ideas.
Christian

From

the

Jewish

manner

Philonic

this is the

Logos -doctrine

modification

of

this

"

of

Plotinic
the

Plotinic

trine
doc-

vovg,

in

teaching,

whom
the doctrine
Cadmon,
of the Adam
element, arose
of
S
on
the
and
the
of
and
substance
sum
only-beg-otten
God,
took
these
ideas.
from
Cabalistic
Spinoza,perhaps,
conceptions
writings,although his
in other respects,is not to be explained as derived from
The immediate
the Cabala.
doctrine,
have been the " Oate of Heaven'''' of
of his Cabalistic knowledge may
source
Abraham
in 1031 ; cf.
Cohen Irira,who emigrated from Portugal and died in Holland
the

Cabalists termed

the

73

SPINOZA.

Sigwart,

96

p.

in

and

manner

since

does

God's

everything

whoso

determinate

created,
rily
arbitra-

not

his

with
nature

essence.

fect
ef-

some

the

of

mode

other

no

were

were

is identical

exists,from

exists is

they
and

nature,

in

by God

in which

power

Nothing

that

created

been
order

unchangeable

is.

necessarily

power,

manner

God's

{de natura

mind

defines

he

Body

in

God,
the

far

so

as

of

(to

Spinoza

term

term

thing.

active

shape, form

of

perception,

or

form

of

the

mind

(mens)

the

mind.
it

sense

the

Spinoza, since

he

first

was

its

the

; he

thing
to

fers
prean

express

signifies originally

into

the

of

image

consciousness.

But

original signification,
a
procedure

restrained

not

By

understands

denote

to

applied

received

as

which

without

seems

idea

term

belonging

conceived.

be

says,

of

essence

as

that

nor

thinking

he

(The

this

term
was

as

conceptus, as

perceived object

from

disconnects

for

easy

in this

object,and

an

the

Spinoza wholly
more

passivity of

be

man
hu-

axioms.

necessarily given,

subjective sense) Spinoza

by the

perceptio^ because

pejveptio a

activity, but

defines

exist,or

neither

the

manner

is

the

and

definitions

Spinoza

to

ceases

thing, can

gives only

is formed

to

conceptus

the

with

determinate

origin of

and

nature

being given, the thing

which

itself without

(conceptus) which

the

in

extended

an

that

the

begins again

expresses

as

all

thing

which

and

which

concept

which

mode,

is considered

He

being wanting, the thing necessarily

thing,

idea

the

he

of

treats

Spinoza

origine mentis).

et

as

essence

which

and

part of his Ethics

second

the

In

the

the

from

have
and

of God.

power

the

thing'scould

particular ends.

to

follow, since

not

of

than

order

view

is in his

Whatever

world

necessarily

with

produced

to

other

no

followed

they

The

seq.)

by regard for Greek

linguistic

usage.)
By

of

idecB

true

cum

understands

all finite

Then

thinks.
in

mind

of

other

the

other

individual

parts, which

each

other

things

most

noticeable

thing
idea

an

as

All

things

of which

the

as

extended

an

perceived
we

have

attribute
ideas

idearum

do
same

idem

follow

our

as

est, ac

but

and

of

their

things
the

are
same

not
way

the

presence

is affected

God.

In

God

bodies

of

; ideas

are

caused
and

consist

bodies

not

an

is

from

the

attribute

and

connection

of

renim)

; for the

the

thought

his

sence.
es-

by their
But

the

necessity

same

order

and

things {Prop. VII.

attributes

tended
ex-

particular

caused

; the

the

rily
necessa-

from
all

as

to

Part,

by thoughts.
with

order

of

there

follows

being, just

added

are

of this

Propositions

merous
nu-

perceive

on

that

be

can

in

and

relations

the

et connexio

Man

the

on

Farther

fact

istence.
ex-

necessary

feel

We

necessarily

cause

lates.
postu-

representation
body

the

and

"axioms."

depend

ideas

ordo

existence.

thing {res cogita.m) and

thinking

as

axioms

of

the

to

the

all,which

God,

in

title

thought.

thinking

for

the

especially to

Among

of

as

things, and

ideas

as

is the

Pion
mnexio

essence,

being,

or

of

his

involve

certain

attributes

are

God,

ideata

their

of

extension

not

thought

of

modes

is

have

have

from

and

of

composite,

God

by

does

affici
sentimus).

Postulates."

following :

thought
well

"

intrinsic

convenientia
of

continuation

followed

object ;

bodies, and

particular thoughts

bodies

by

the

and

likewise

are

called

are

are

modes

modis

bodies
to

are
man

under

an

the

the

mark, namely,

perceive that

mtdtis

beside

themselves

; these

We

modes.

empirical propositions relating

of

dicta

general, all

in

all

has

By particular objects {res singidares)

of

essence

which

indefinite

definitions

the

empirical

quoddam

(/loscorpus

ways
no

several

the

as

representation {idea) of

without

present

that

idea

an

external

perfection.

These

things.

Love, desire,and,

the

with

affirms

follow

the

is defined

by Spinoza

first axiom

from

distinction

(in

one

is identified

The

Spinoza understands

idea"

ideato). Duration

suo

Reality
he

"adequate

an

marks

from

con:

ordo

which

74

SPINOZA.

follows

wliich

That

from

follows
(formalitc)')
idea

of God

one

and

where

in

adds

Spinoza

Dei

intelkctum

III.
,

De

895,

p.

ipso

ah

resque

with

human

from

time

human

mind

the

can

the

human

one

of these

is

by

is united

an

is united

with

the

of

then

and

"

from

the

the
is

first

of

the

could

he

determined

be

theorems

that

first,provided

the

the

harmony,
admitted
wiimata

of

in which

(which

must

the

right
siabsumcd

which

lower

under

alone

we

same

and

the

claim

the
our

attribute
minds

wMch

he

relation
form

to

and

attribute
direct

the

which

knowledge
under

same

When

acceptance.
be

of

explained

extension,
other

consequently

the

by

another

minds.

since

should

the

theory

existence

that

and

very

liable

if such

The

of
fact

the modes

such

it remains

marks

to

the

nexus

of
is

Spinoza

of extension

of

that

conscious

and

thought

indemonstrable,
here

may

falls
act

the

sistency
logical con-

in

pertains

synchronously
the

modes

the

to

uniting

alleged

into
of

assert

without,

from

which

and

of

(by

at least

yet

involuntarily

upon

thought,

Now,

nexus,

by
can

subsumpt.on

affected

laws.

and

sense

understood,

be

the

the

at

attribute
animation

universal

can

that

are

mechanical

this

attribute

is that

forces

mechanical

and

quence
conse-

gradibus,

the

in what

objection,can

same

bodies

our

tablished
pre-es-

the

diversis

of

since, besides,

and

of

with

brain,

obscure,

essential

the

through

participate directly

theory

quently,
subse-

but

doctrine

the

human

physical

it is

the

the

and

mathematical

to

in

phizing,
philosothought

Logically developed,

quamvis

must

gases,

yet
The

his

of

period

accordance

omnia,

images

exist, parallel with

pertaining

purely hypothetical.

formally repudiates,the

to

vidividua

wanting,

"affected,"

are

in

in

trary,
con-

extension.

of

alternative.

second

the

especially that

attributes, he

Moreover,

vegetative

On

Tractatus)

But

are

and

twofold

tinct
exist, dis-

itself,which

approached

admitted,

in them

ourselves,

reference

nexus

But

the

only

earlier

then

different

as

not

the

'"'"

immanent.
be

the

by
is

and

us

does

those

sity
neces-

substance"

to

substance

other,

the

simply

are

there

from

attributes, results

their

of

newly-discovered

the

even,
of

means

"will," although
we

there

the

degrees)

thought,
in

among

seq.

to be

alleged

doubtless

of

towards

minerals

to

various

involving

13, i^hol. :

propos.

merely by

is

thoujjht
as

the

uniting

as

in

each

upon

subjective Idealism.

of

dowm

not

nexu3

subsists

//.,
("'"/i.

are,

(p. 66

act
from

appears

different

of

apprehension.
of

nature

decidedly

most

for

the

nothing

extension,

they

or

the

really clear

appearing

of

agent

in the

realiter

are

is

ground

of

sions
impres-

which

in
idea

"unity

those

although

one,

factor, the

could

causal

above

in

thought

from

If

With

made

the

unintelligible ;

founded

be

by Spinoza

(as
in

itself

second

must

only

the

the

up.

means

substance

same

is

no

from

different

in the

itself

by

follows

duality

remains

extension

causes

examined

Spinoza's doctrine,

with
is

the

can

process
with

and

forms, by

have
of

Schopenhauer)
the

affirmed

to believe

every

conceived

be

of

modes

was

causal

in

substance,

thought

external

in

realiter

are

which

postulates,

longer

if afterwards

of

way

is

extension

it
pressions
im-

present.

of the

of

that

no

were

same

the

of the

called

idea

the

Hence

bodies, and

the

or

the

at

time

concatenation
be

of

result

same

they

of the

nature

though

fmidamental

and

merely inhering

apprehension

it the

second

realiter

thought

apprehending

sunt'''),all things,
they

thought,

what
be

where

of

miad

Spinoza's

conformity

mode,

of

Spinoza

by

tamen

places

no

other

thought

how

their

real

in

from
of

of

modes

same

ceased

comparisons

and

the

of the

idea

developed

the

duality

by

lie had

when

is

; for

that

and

in the

manner

held

order

(selfconsciousness)

The

body.

alternatives

above

when

by

the

mind

conceptions

unless

scarcely possible,

other

two

upon

of the

modes

this

of

as

also

all-comprehending

one

cause

manner

if

the

idea

continuance

bodies, even

must

the

twofold

this

other

of the

at the

of the

Arist.

in which

is affected

bodies,

consequence

same

G8, and

ch.

affecting bodies.

that

the

the

other

without,

acted

the

such

explained by

apprehending

of

are

Hist, Beltr.

manner

idea

is

theory

is not

conformity

ways

and

in the

imagination,

body

Either

undetermined.

their

in

up

between

fundamental

Spinoza's
left

this

as

agreement

I.

body

same

ridentur,Deum

vidisse

chiefly,indeed, an
a

the

(Eth. II. 7, Schol.,

of any

addition,an

many
In

body from

the

idea

mind

Con-ectly

body.

own

involve

reality
from

the

Trendelenburg,

in which

affected

of

also, in
ways

external

idea

ways

idea

The

must

of very

nature

simultaneously

the

mind

of

the

mentally represented

is called

received

the

by

body

the

Moi^e Necochim

9.)

and

all the

of

of its

received

present,

esse

of

connection

quasi 2')er nebulam

et idem

bodies

because

nature

nature

be

and

different

two

Maimon.

(brain ?),but

body

perceives

the

perceives

Moses

external

by

external,affecting body,
same

this

world
and

is affected

body
of the

extension

in

unum

Metaph., XII., 7

A/lima, III.,4, and

nature

intellectas

the

order

same

of

expressed

in

God

the

guoclquidam Jlebrmorum

compares

human

but

thing,

same

of

in

exception

A mode
(objective).

thought

the

infinite nature

the

without

allelism
par-

theory

thought.

75

BPINOZA.

form

the

than

other
without

also, by

it

perceives

that

knows
as

body

in

body only

certain

of

order
which

constitute

itself,which

in

are

niunf).

God,

is in

Falsehood

its

body,

and

the

God,

is in
far

so

human

has

and

body

idem

the

from

the

ideas

understands

them,

the

of

out

tiaga)^ or

of

impressions

highest

has

second

and

true

idea

festat,sic
truly, is
clear

and

Reason

Veritas

and

the

since

the

"

certain

there

is

no

must

of

is

adequately

and

determinate

and

be

of

and

ideas

are

numerous

; ideas

mind
ade-

which

follow

notions

derived

from

the

call forth

memory,

The

communes.

the

of

source

true

lux
{sicitt

mind,

{pars

in

of the
who

et tenebras

far

it knows

so

as

the

essence

; that
He

tellect
in-

of

ipsam

Dei
infiniti

est

and

the

of the

false.

the
se

quate
ade-

third

adequate idea

deception

from

aginations.
im-

in

has
mani-

things

and
intdlectus).,

its

as

as

of
the

different

causes

things

of

of

the

thought"
will.

identical,so

The

which

God,

to arise

mind.

is

Since

will

to

are

will

afiirm

present

of

and

the

or

of

is the

alike

in

all, and

ideas

ideas, and

intellect,which

is

cogitandi)^

modus

deny

nity
eter-

involves

mind

human

mind

necessity

object

concrete

the

in the

form

certain

{certus et determinatus

consequence
also

under

particular

human

ideas

necessity of things

the

idea

essence

causeless, arbitrary act ; it is the necessary

volitions

forming

the

guishes
precisely,Spinoza distinopinio or imaginationhe

from

human

apprehends

Every
by

mode

freedom

The

instances

infinite

kno^vn

the

its truth

because
specie''^)

God.

each,

necessarily true as are the ideas of God.

they really are, considers them not as conas
contingent,
only imagination that presents them

Reason

wavers.

to the

common

adequate knowledge

only

intellect

things

diverse

oiternitatis

eternal

absolute

of

divine

is

the

is

therefore

; it

of

nature

necessarily the
therefore

infinite

is

clear

or

{scientiaintuitiva) which

advances

distinguish

to

adequate

vation
priinvol-

wnfusm

calls

notione^

or

to the

God,

certain

it considers

recollection

eternal

us

mind.

absolute,

by Spinoza ratiOnconsists

knowledge

cognition
of

ideas,
eonve-

through unregulated experience {experientia

first kind

time

necessary

{'"'"sub
quadam
of

More

human

human

et

of

; for every

true

parts of

bodies

he

the

; for all

the

which

of universal

and

things,

sui et falsiest).

the

expectation

our

the

teaches

ideas

distinct

attributes

same

norma

of

part

as

other

cognition,called

of

of

are

of

capable

adequate.

senses

intuitive

kind

of

kinds

is at the

tiagent,but
when

the

Cognition

{ratio),

is the

This

of

third

of

kind

cognition

some

things.

that

of external

ideatis oninino

mutilce

in all

equally

first,which

perceptions

peculiarities of

God.

of

of

essence

second

the

of

kind

of
of the

human

knowledge

certain, not

signs, particularly w^ords, which, through

The
ideas

also

suis

which

Of

with

common

the

far

so

human

the

of

to God

essence

in

those

as

more

By

affection

{cum

the

causation.

is the

cognition.

development

of the

out

of

kinds

well

is its

nor

each

inadctquatcesive

mind

themselves

are

of

adequate idea, is

consists

is

in

in

only

parts of the

essence

referable

are

or

it,and

has

body

objects

affect

; the

body

its

more

adequate
three

that

bodies

of

law

thought

anything,

controlled
are
versal
by the uniadequate knowledge of the

an

of

constitutes

ideas, as

the

to

adequate conception

an

qviate ideas

of

confused

subject

distinct,are

and

and

Inadequate

mint).

its

idea

they

ideas,but

{in cognitiords
piivaiione^quam,

knows

adequate knowledge

an

on

absolute

latter

our

it

their

an

as

of

itself

the

the

to

in itself

the

as

with

us

as

far

so

the

nothing positive in

is

of

idea

who

knows

Since

mode

respects they

not

effects

their

perfectly

which

in

has

mind

belong

still less has

true

are

agree

Every idea,

idea

such

mind

human

ideas

The

body.

other

as

He

represents.

it.

of the

in

only through

All

body, adequate.

it

knows

while

acquires thiough

it

is considered

latter

individuals, which

the

it knows

he

affections

respect,

nature,

things, which

which

fact, that
of the

ideas

the

object which

corporeal

very

the

idea, when

extremely complex

are

parts

of the

to the

relation

is not

just as
are

tinct
dismere

76

SPINOZA.

abstractions, having

real

no

Cartesian

(The

acts.

signification apart
of

explanation

error

of

will, transcending the limitations

the

its power

by which
with

the

the

transition

body

of

joyful emotion

conscious

is
(cupiditas)

is moved

latter

from

the

by

{ipsa 7iominis essentia,

guatenus
inserviunt).

had

(Descartes

hate, desire, joy, and

its external
with

the

the

of

mind

ketitia, orta

gtans

fear

and

is

the

fixes

contempt

the

presence

of

thing, than

desire

relate

of sadness
as

the
one's

divided
to

the

leading

as

regard

some

of

of

with

has

has

der

given

linguistic

principal

invented

these

given

in

Yet,

of

into
the

his

third

GemiWisbeiveguyigen,''''

Statics

is

ofcpable

of modifications

so

far

produced
by

by

man's

'"'"

in

with

of
the

necessary
reason.

of

the

the

"

des

to

one

the

as

of

man

under

includes

that

in

ing
prompt-

join
the

and

them

to

emotions
than

which

is true

the

merits

of
of

the

title:
with
as

moved

love, etc., only

of

1840,

Lehr^idtze

pp.

the

as

by

pasfdons,
Johannes

543-548)

Spinoza
doctrine),

by passions

wants

to them

work.

von
own

of

of

nature

'"'"

Spinoza's

the

meet

Spinoza's

{Vol. II., Coblenz,

lin-

universal

to

assigned

meaning

personal

by analysis

i. e.,

with

framed

the

to

analytically,"
accordance

investigation
greatest

is conceived

fortitudo,

as

reference

no
"

conception

consonance

to the

ordinary experience

formed

the

ol

of. reason,

of

names

joy and
emotions

is defined

men,

properly

of

to

the

to

belong

and

by

love, etc., in

the

not

; but

dictates

the

images

belong

conception

the

to

which

anything

is moved

emotions

former

and
a

case,

Menschen''''

Ethics,"
(in

the

with

are

of

as

actions

other

man

delicate

and

remark

law,

latter

ascribed

attentive

Php-sinloQie

Part

they

consciousness

whether,

the

under

which

love,

duUtamus)^

emotions, which

general,that

of

not

viewed

in

{incon-

other

does

therefore

assist

with
mind

are

image

something
image

other

are

are

by arbitrarily connecting

paralogistically
in

there

whether

relations, consists, undeniably,

incoriwrated

definitions

e.,

; and

what

things named.

g., that

questioned

universal

the

been

usage.

mutual

only

be

of

rather

the

the

of

idea

is sadness

eventu

connection

no

the

by

in doubt

are

mental

derived.

are

Hate

of

little that

in accordance

of the

we

image

that

generositas
;

in

rather

as

its

admiration, love,

cujus

both, however,

rationally to

definitions, e.

it may

name

sometimes

not

their

Miiller

as

Spinoza

which

being according

remarks

cause

longing

subserve

all others

externm).

the

by Spinoza
and

which

joy accompanied

resulting from

own

endeavor

which

of

so

act, and

we

subsumed

one's

"synthetically,"i.

or

as

mind.

or

joy, arising from

it has

desire

actions

knowledge

object of love,

conception

ordinary

Statik

to

the

gruistic usage,

defined,

and

animositas

to the

exact

system,

of

joy

of the

itself,so 'far

man

things

causrn

as

mind

think

to

of

proiteritm,de

because

to it ;

All

conserve

an

*In

so

into

basis of

feelingsof

and

us

is

result

vel

belong
far

actions.

friendship,
been
passions have

the

the

in

self in

and

of

passions

to

never

endeavor

latter

does

intelligentbeing, are

an

the

on

are

is
fortitiido

and

the

the

affects the

thing imagined,

diminishes

or

Desire

following six

idea

by Spinoza

mind,

which

which

Besides

which

mind

the

of that

passions.

of the

image

an

the

imcertain

futurm

is defined

attention
as

from

ones

sadness, arising from

Admiration

and

rei

uncertain

body

perfection is the

essence

example,

an

of

past,

or

imagine

ex

like

is doubtful.
which

future

something

is

Hope-

the

est ad ea
agendum, quce ipsius
passions of desire,joy, and sadness

or

est loetitia concx)mitante

accompaniment.

and

determinata

emotions

for

Love,

of

cogitative power

those

possible.)
im-

emotions

increases

of

of

made

hindered, together

or

sadness.

of

doing

only primitive

sadness.)

the

the

affections

which

causes

is

emotions

primitive

as

{amor

cause

like

the

as

enumerated

those

the

sense

the

to

three

of

nature

greater degree

consenationi

regarded by Spinoza

and

anything

to

appetite

nature

The

of

diminishes

conservation

are

origin

or

opposite

and

appetite,
its very

an

freedom

representative faculty,is thus

idea

less

intellectual

or

unlimited

diminished, furthered

or

The

in

change

arising from

of the

act, increases

mind

single volitional

passions Spinoza understands

affections.
to

the

treats

is increased

act

of the

The

the

to

of the

power

and

of these

ideas

EtJdcs

the

emotions

By

passions.

of

Part

third

The

from

as

alone

ilber
that

the
die
this

; it being

78

8PTN0ZA.

hate

God,

because

sadness.
would

He

the idea of

who

desire

loves

that

God

depends
the

the

of

is

before

in the

adequate

second

idea

The

God.
for

we

greater

the

far

So

mind.

and

as

Such

God,

other

the

love, on

inseparable
accompanied

the

divine

by

by the
himself
God

as

love
consists

loves
of

mind

in constant

which

with

which

of

we

are

though

we

did

not

of all

but

enables

to govern

we

us

able

he loves

the

filled.

we

are

know

our

; the

things piety

wtue

to govern

itself is the
our
our

; the

able
the

God,

or

of

the

the

of

God

to

love

to

perishable part

to be

part

eternal,we

conscientiousness
of

reward
on

the

is the

is therefore

virtue, nor
contrary,

do

because

of

as

love

he

in God

doctrine

which

the

and

happiness,
This

portion

more

or

rejoice

we
we

God
In

freedom

is indestructible

tality
immor-

intellect,in

the

whichj
EverB

excellent.

esteemil

qualities.
in

so

tual
intellec-

love
of

yet be compelled to
noble

plained
ex-

eternity,i. e.^

with

is tbe

love

be

can

intellect).

man.

is

Spinoza

union

of

men

all other

lectual
intel-

which

imagination, through
the

should
and

of

their

far

is the

tion,
imagina-

is itself that

form

salvation, or

in God's

idea

for

; all

infinite

and

divine

part of the mind

eternal

eternal,and

utterance

infinite

infinite

eternity,

thought by

the

with

so

the

eternal

The

is

of

it is eternal

to God
in

under

love

of

it is

as

find

to

mind

infinite,but

Our

and

distinction

it,the greater

lusts, but,
lusts.

also

form

from,

(In this
the

of

essence

sire
greater is its de-

perfection,the

cause.

part

part of

far

himself

is filled with

minds
and

is

identical.

active ; the

passions

is

God,

so

loves

considered

is

love to

mind

he

as

the

the

comprehend

we

the

it is in
in

from

hig-hest satisfaction

springs

are

of

love

apprehend

of the

passions,are, like

love, were

God

men

are

body

denoting

as

mind

intellect

it is also

to

far

so

to

under

infinite
its

to

involves

proceeds
do

way,

its

God

as

intellectual
in

which

the

mind, except

nature

within

latter

able

more

in this

that

eternal.

eternal, the

are

the

as

mind

spMngs

which

Trinity

human

eternal

and

happiness,

are

The

to God

more

only

subject

highly

most

the

existed

Duration

the

way,

knows

rejoices in

divine

mind

the

himself,

the

The

use

of

love

(as the human

we

the

mined
deter-

be

tue,
mind, and its highest virknowledge (designated by Spinoza

that
intdlectualis)

not

nature

of the

essence

intellectual

loves

and

himself,not

loves

God

whereby

Dei

of

to know

and

God,

mind,

under
of

have

to

adequate knowledge

itself and

body

essence

of the

kind

knowledge

all emotions

body

speculative point d'appui.)

far

of

Christian

the

mind

the
such

being, self-consciousness,and

of causative

the

of

and

of the

idea

the

construed

who

those

the

to the

that

far is the

so

presses
ex-

; there

body

of the

remember
less

to the

this

in

things

apprehends

contrary,

the

with

eternity cannot

cognitionisgenus)

to the

attributes

{amor

from

; for

love

to God

love

tertivm

imj)0ssiblefor

is

knowledge

intellectual

none

the

endeavor

perfect

most

from

mind

the

cannot

idea which

an

essence

this

we

in

only

highest

Ethics

necessarily the knowledge

it has

the

that

capacity

knowledge,

such

But

member
re-

is the

eternity ("w^ speciemteriiita-

the

expresses

ascribed

be

; and

comprehend

more

body,

and

he

since

God,

thought, belonging

; hence

far

The

divine

of certain

The

things.

of

wholly destroyed

experience

so

time.

of the

Part

in

body

things with

to know

are

is in

with

he
desirin^i,

so

imagine

to

experience being logicaldemonstration.

of the
of

mind

of the

form

accompanied

return, for,

the

there

essence

be

of

time

and

only

can

form

the

under

things

the

of time

existence

actual

the

this

But

the

which

mode

in

feel

we

feeling and

limits

certain

But

bodies.

our

of this

organ

power

the

cannot
idea

of

necessarily eternal.

to duration

reference

by

mind
The

essentiam) and

{ad mentis

mind

of

under

in

love

body.

also

distinct

The

the

body

it.

eternity, is

of

form

survives

that

something

the

human

human

the

tis). Consequently

of

duration

the

God's

God.

be

not

be

adequate idea,cannot

an

desire

but
existence-,

the

essence

as

cannot

should

on

only of

not

cause,

God,

God

Not

it because

rejoice in it,therefore

it

AND

BEEKELEY,

LOCKE,

ENGLISH

OTHER

79

PHILOSOPHEES.

(1632-1704)sought in his principalwork, the X

Understanding^''to ascertain the origin
Essay conGerning Human
in
the limits
order
to determine
of human
knowledge,
by this means
Locke
denies the existence
of
of its objectivetruth.
and
measure
mind
resembles
blank
ideas and principles.The
innate
a
originally
which
not
was
tablet. Nothing is in the intellect,
previouslyin the
of all our
The
or
sources
senses.
knowledge are partly sensation
"

John

116.

Locke

"

perception,and partlyreflection or internal perception; the

is the apprehension of external
former
objectsthrough the external
while
the latter is the apprehension of psychical
phenomena
senses,
The
different
internal
elements
of
the
sense.
sensuous
through
ception
perare
variouslyrelated to objectivereality. Extension,figure,
motion, and, in general,all spatialpropertiesbelong to the external
sensuous

Color and sound, on

the contrary, and all other
objectsthemselves.
sensible qualities,
are
only in the perceivingsubject and not properly
in the things perceived; they are
simply signs,and not copies of
perience
changes which take place in external things. Through internal exknow
the actions of our
reflection we
or
thinking and willing
the internal sense
and
faculties, fThrough the external
gether
tosenses
obtain

we

simple

ideas

ideas.

These

the

When
we

suppose

supports

the ideas of power

are

ideas

we

find

substance

them

forms

mind

of

unite
same

many

w4th

is existence

Aristotelians,or
result of

the

individuals

in

Knowledge

name.

agreement,
viewed

similar

or

of the

act
one

which

of little use.

The

inhere

so-called

The

itself.

diversity,
relation,coexistence,and
truth

we

can

of

the

''

second

are
purely ideal
genera,
of combination
by which

class,and

give

four

discover

of

relations

real existence.

them

to

connection

is the

either

to

other,

and

they
and

each

with

united

perception of the
disagreement and repugnancy

reference

judgments,whose

always

of relations.

substances,or

conception is obscure

substances"

the

or

(complex)

compound

of

substratum, in which

or

individuation

being
subjective,

modes,

modes

several

principleof

the

of

From

unity,and other ideas.

combination

by

either

this

; but

and

Those

several
of

or
we

the
and

ideas,

identityor
are

rational

investigationand
sensation and reflection,

by

the

development of conceptionswhich arise from

are
exists;judgments transcendingreason
as, for example, that a God
those whose
truth or probability
discover in this way, as,
cannot
we
for example, that the dead
will be raised.
Judgments of the latter
kind are the objectof faith. Those judgments are contrary to reason,

80

LOCKE,

which

involve

OTHER

contradiction

clear

and

distinct

Gods

tlian

one

For

AND

BERKELEY,

in

ENGLISH

themselves,or
for

conceptions,as,
such judgments can

of God

PHILOSOPHERS.

Locke

there

that

example,

neither

with
incompatible

are

revealed

be

are

more

believed.

nor

the

adduces

cosmologicalargument.
He regardsthe immateriality
of the soul as probable,but the contrary
is happiness.
His ethical principle
inconceivable.
not
as
of Locke's
Under
the influence
principlesBerkeley (1685-1783),
and volitions)
assertingthat only minds and their ideas (representations
"
of Idealism
Phenomenalism
or
exist,developed a form
;
the contrary, founded
materialistic Psyon
a
chology,
Hartley and Priestley,
in
logical
theonevertheless
succeeded
with which
they
combining
the existence

"

Samuel

convictions.
in

Lockian)doctrines
Hutcheson,
less under
Moral
Locke's

principal work,

1690, then

in
from

author,

; in

Tittel

in

edition

[New

transl.

Rudolphi,

to

works

al.

the

Le

(reproduced

),his

biography

work
of

being

Locke

his

to

to

Noiweaux

the

Locke

burg,
Lockiiet

f.

1866

and

in

America,

in

in

first

e. g.

in

London
in

Diverses

German,
Locke,

de

1714, 1722, etc., anda

in

1720.

London,

his

philosophical

der

II.

: S.

Turbiglio,

von

Atialisi

cognitione
John

Locke

F.

of

recently

More

edited

works,

by

1859, 3d

2d ed.

Schdrer,
Kritik

Ges.

der

Leipsic, 1870;
pp.

storica

1-32
delle

; E.

M.

W.

the

"i

i'ther

Lehren

Locke

di

von

and

L.,

G.

Lehre

1869.

Philos.
Staat

den

Ansichten

Brown,
Locke,

de

Ersie^

und

me.ischl.

(fi-om

published

also

in

the

Leibniz, Turin, 1867

Erziehnng,

; Richard

Strotzell, Zur

4th

'K-axtea-

Vorlilnfer KaJifs,
iiber

in

having

der

von

Hartenstein

now

(Diss, hiaug.), Halle, 1868; Emil

(Diis.Berl.),Berlin,

La

the

Webb,

E.

J.

1855;

Religion,

Locke's

Locke,

; Th.

Essay

an

Lond.

Cousin,

1866 ; Victor

most

on

1855

London,

Lariguctge,

and

Ueber

works

recent

more

philosophy,

Locke's

John

tant
impor-

The

dargestellt

Drobisch,

Fritsche,

Britain,

Great

critique, entitled

Leipsic, 1860;

derselben

in

written

were

in

p.

extended

Philosophy,

seine

works

increased

VI.,

Masham.

Lady

century.

Wiss.),Leipsic, 1861,

filos. di

seiitentice

ed.

and

tesburj^

Biblio-

Philos.

Acta

eighteenth

Thought

und

of his

volume

Leibnitz's
Of

Locke'

sixth

Numerous

influence

the

and

Smart,

establishment

1829.

was

% 117).

of Shaf

Earl

its

but
of

end

Writings

Verstajidestheorie

Siichs.

humance

the

1858; Benj.

Leibnitz's

1, Leips. 1861,

Ph.,

de

K.

publication,

near

the
in

London

at

in the

in Houmann's

Locke,

de

by Locke,

(see below,

Emanuel

von

mit

him

Locke''

Tagart,

Seine

dargestellt

e.r.

Erkenntnisslehre

Locke,

and

A.

G.

by

Empiricism

1705, etc.;

CEuvres

London

the

again,

Thiele, Leips.,

on

appeared

Eloge Historique

Diverses

Understanding

Edinburgh,

Locke,

CI.

till

Human

exclusive

and

Vergleichung

Liebnitii

J.

of

1853,

H.

published

1706;
at

G.

Essay

an

of

1856,

London,

by

by Coste, Amst.,
Lond.,

first at

1757, translated

with

Education''-

on

Pieces

(Euvres

its

after

humain
:

Hist.-philos. Abhandlungen,

Zeitschr.

of

co-operation

the

EngUsh,

been

also

published

Several

published

was

London,

London

of t\\e Philol.-hist.

Btein's

or

appeared

books,

with

translation

have

Works,

furnished

elsewhere,

and

mentioned

Joh7i

hu7ig, psychologisch

vol.

King

concerning

of Locke,

Sydenham,

in

in

ed.

Latin

transl.

were

four

Foley, Altenburg,

Thoughts

life in his

of the

facts

on

Ventendement
be

4th ed., Paris, 1861;

Erkenntniss

B.

vols.,London,

of Locke's

wrote

first vol.

7'evival,correction,

and

; 30th

essay

French,

of

in 9

published

Clerc,

by Lord

sur

l7itellectualism
the

"

Works

title : Collection

founded

Essay

here

may

Locke's

Posthumous

Complete

doctrine, immediately

essais

following

of

in

in

translated,

(complete, together

Locke's

1788.

French,

H.

by

Tennemann

Tn],

"

in the

France, Holland, Germany,

reply

G.

Tr.]

"

The

been

have

friend,Jean

cholsie

opposition

view

more

1854.

London,

Locke's

W.

1869

1732.

under

them,

complete

St. John,

etc.

Brunswick,

supplement
Locke's

77ie

and

senses,

Understanding,
in

1701, etc.;

Lond.,

[Several editions

Schermerhorn,

1710; Amst.,

975, et

various

1700, 1729, etc.

translated

German,

1791, by

Philadelphia,

York:

by

by Burridge,

1795-97.

Rotterdam,

thkque

Shaftesbury,

the younger

"

(and

doctrine,to the advancement

Human

concerning

by Coste, Amst.,

1756 ; in

Amst.,

York, 1825;

1693

Essay

Latin, translated

Dutch,

Philosophy), Leipsic,

An

(extracts),Mannheim,

New

Locke's

1694, 1697, 1700, 1705, etc., and

in

fourth

the

1860;

Lond.,

of

in

Newtonian

defended

Philosophy.

London

1731

contributed

influence

the

who

"

Leibnitz

oppositionto

others

and

Clarke

in

the

Naum-

Quiibicker,
Kritik.dir

Human

XII., Berlin. 18"J9.

thek. Vol.

1750

Amst.,

German

; in

London,

17o3

combats

the

Bees,

Dion,

to

fibers.

of

Lecttires

see

or

fully explained

Universal

Immaterialism

Arthur

Collier, Clavis

Existence

or

1756

Impossibility of

[seeabove]. Engl.

Philosophers
Arthur

David

Hartley,

Robert

1779;

Philos.

Lond., 1687;

Mathematical

David

onhimcf.

Life, Writings,

Sorau, 1869.

Discoveries

into

translated

Times.

Anthony
German

from

and

Attributes

ttire

Delineated, London.

Hutcheson,

the

Inquiry

continens,

1751,

in

tfie

in'o

Smith,

1745.

Glasgow,
German,

Theory

Nations,
1795.

French

German

1724, etc.

Frankf., 1762; Philosophic^

Moral

London,

1776

Adam

of

Original of
moraUs

Ideas

our

institutio

Home,

Essays

Elements

the

on

of

; cf.

his

on

Ferguson,

life

Instit.

and

of

Moral

Philosophy,

Virtue

et

Stewart

in

the

Merit, 1699,

and

Opinions,
of

the

naturalis

edition

transl.,
principia

Leipsic, i765.
of

Causes

and

transl.

Adam

Wealth

the

Smith'^s

of

No-

Francis

ReUgio?i, Edinb.,.

Natural

and

Being
of

1725, etc., German,

1769, German

London,

of,
die

und

T/ie Religion

junsprudent'ioe

Nature

his.

Memoirs

Newton

Erlangen, 1801.

1762, German,

the

into

; Tlbe

Princlpvot

Manners,

Wollaston.

Virtue, Lond.,

ethices

Joseph

Horsley, Lond.,.

ed.

Demonstration

Clarke,

Principles of Morality

writings Dugald

Rev.

naturphilos. Ansichten,

of Men,

William

and

Inquiry

the

(1723-1791),in

Snell,

Karl

Concerning

Samuel

Criticism, Lond.,

Sentiment, Lond., 1759, etc.

tock,
Ros-

lish
by Eng-

1749.

Leips., 1"33);

W.'s Moralphilosophie,

of Beauty

Tracts

Philosophioe

Struve, Newton's

Characteristics

compendiaria,

Non-

the

of

Spirit,Lond., 1777

Platonist

the

cf. also

Inquiry

1738-42.

Ueber

Dreohsler,

and

Woi'M,

Writings of

and

and

by Goldberg,

A.

1780

in

Opera, London,

; cf. J. M.

Henry

Diderot

Berkeley's

by Eschenbach,

Natiiralis

Newton,

translation, Leipsic, 1776.

Brunswick, 1768;

of

Price,

Edinb., 1855;
and

ofhia

External

the

many

University of
of

Metaph.

Life

the

to Matter

Richard
Isaac

Leipsic, 1843.

Biography

by Grant

ed.

Expectations, London,

his

and

translation

Newton,

und

Discussions.']

(Earl of Shaftesbury), An

1705-1706

of God, London,

(German

Isaac

and

Cooper

1711,1714,etc.,

London,

Sir

of

Dresden

Ashley

Parr,

the

in

1713, 1726, etc.; Treatise of Optic, Lond., 1704, etc.; Opera,

also

Naturwissenschaft,

mechan.

entitled

{iilemoirsof

by

leugnen,

Demonstration

Sam.

Duty,

Necessity, Lond., 1778.

Brewster, Edinb., 1831

and

his

of

translation

Disquisitions relating

".4.

French)

elucidations

1713, German

l"il; Hamilton,

Necessity, Lond., 1777; opposed

and

1862.

by

in

account

an

Ferrier,

F.

Elements

and

being

1837.

his Frame,

Lond., 1775

For

of J.

London,

edited

the

Sammlung

(with

Metaphysics

after Truth,

London,

London,

London,

Man,

on

inquiry

the

Letters, and

and

1871.

Nature

from

B.

of

himself

1752.

Korperwelt

ganzen

was

work

Berkeley, D.D., i7icludi?ig

and

Remains

the

this

(In

entitled. Fable

O. Berkeley

of

Life

Macmillan,

On

Wo7'ks

of George
his

French,
this

Philosopher,

defended

der

; in

of ter truth, by Collier,Lond., 1713),

of Logic

Philos.

collection

Century.

Mind,

The

M'^orks

demoTistrated,

World,
the

Benson,

Human

Materialism

on

also in

Eighteenth

of Philosophical

Letters

ed.

1756.

York

Simon,

JVew

1737.

translation

onthe
liiblio-

only

Minute

Mandeville,

und

inquiry

new

The

other

and

or

External

an

Observations

Priestley,Theory (f

the

the

of

Collier, etc., by

Doctrine

Universalis,

Professor

New

and

Collyns

Thorn.

and

1806,

London,

Lushington,

and

Philosophy

Greek

on

ike

MandeviUe

(German

Pr^'aces, Annotations,

Cambridge,

vols., London,

Edinb^crgh.
doctrines

1843.

Fraser, M.A.,

Campbell

Alexander

By

Philosophy.

or

Rostock,

and

With

unpublished.

hitherto

his writings

1820

of

Korpers

eigenen

Philonous

uml

Eschenbach,

1784, reprinted

London,

ihres

Hylas

however,

Ivahler, Lemgo.

work

1729;

and

which,

Lond., 1732). Miscellanies, London,

(Clavis universalis,

Christ.

vo7i. Jon.

widerlegt

M.

Wirklichkeit

zwischen

Schliissel

"

1714

the

Treatise

in PIdlos.

1713, etc.

London,

Alcip/iroii,or

W.

by

Worlcs.

Ueberweg,

E.

of

works,

below).

see

in B.'s

and

by

Philonous,
his

of

oth(;rs

among

1733,

and

aiid

transl.

Alciphron,

called

die

Gespriiche

German

and

Benefits, Lond.,

by his Book

allgemeinen

by Arbuthnot),

Haye,

Public

made

Schriftsteller,die

Berkeley's

Collier

des

the

occasioned

vornehmsten

der

enthalterui

"l la

free-thinkers,

Vices

Private

or

Letter

1734,

transl.
of

; French
doctrines

Hylas

81

PHILOSOPHEES.

translation

translation

intended

an

German

betiveen

Dialogues

I. of

1711

London,

(also,previously, llostock, 1750,

1781

published), Leipsic,

Three
Part

(as

also

Dublin, 1710, etc. ;

Knowledge,

ENGLISH

OTHER

of Vision^ Dublin, 1709,

Theory

G-. Berkeley,

Principles of

AND

BEEKELEY,

LOCKE,

Essays,
Garve,

by

of
don,
Lon-

Leips.,

1772.
John

of

the

over;
on

Nuzarenus

or

John

and

Christianity
which

Toland

from

Toland,

Scriptures,

by

John

Locke,

Bristol)

in the

of

son

the

on

Gentile,

29th

with

him

precision,and

In the year

1664
6

and

of

he

their

Letters

Mohametan

in the

the

same

study

accompanied

at

works

Christ
science

modem

Locke''s
Princess

Rea-'ionablenesa,

Sophia

at

at the

of

Hanr
article

(16 miles

Westminster,

College, Oxford.
The

medicine.

pleased

English ambassador,

Wrington

College

Church
and

and

of

; of

178-198.

bom

was

of Descartes
with

to the

Pan^/iew^icon, London,. 1710

studied

of natural

connection

the

name,

rivals

Toland

addressed

June, 1868, pp.

H"

1651)

year

; the

close

for

Review

the

work

Serena,

to

Christianity;

August, 1682.

unsatisfied

by

1695) ;

lawyer of

special interest

philosophy left

in

Contemporary

subsequently (beginning

pursued
and

Jewish,
Hunt

Mysterious, Lond., 1696 (in this

not

published

was

him

by

their

He

scholastic
clearness

independent investigations.
Sir William.

Swan,

aa

Secre.-

82

tary of Legation
to
in

he

England,

P]arl of
and

At

of

of

harmg

work

the

but

and

Tower,

his

by

England.

holder,

1083,

year

William
lived

and

demanded

his

1088, when,

year

the

received

the

In

the

finished

was

translated

was

Bibl.

1085

the

doctrine

of

Uniters.^viii.
Robert

pp.

power,

and

in

money

and

coinage appeared
The

work

was
Scriptures'*''
published

Oates, in

the

county

daughter

of

Cudworth.

of

and

afterwards

49-142;

in

1090

the

in the

'"'

in 1095.

died

year

of

there

in the

the

Orange

received

the

of

his first Letter

Concern-

of

Trade,

derstanding
Un-

itself

Adam

it,prepared
in the

published
in

Three

last

Francis

works

whose

year

of

peared
ap-

Delivered

of his life

years

on

Education

on

Masham,

seventy-third

unlimited

small

work

1089
to the

opposition

patriarchal and
The

lator's
trans-

In

printed.

was

of Christianityas

Sir

ing
hav-

until

Commissioner

Goxernment^

passed the

house

of the

of

he

abridgment

an

1089.

lleasonableness

Locke

Essex, in the
He

just accomplished.

revolution

Stadt-

end

William

where

the

the

the

Amsterdam,

which

of

work

from

inherits

king

likewise

the

hy

to.

ted
Acquit-

Essay concerning Human

The

OitU

into

Court.

English government

(Clericus),and

On

treatises

the

the

that

follo^vingyear
Clerc

opposition

toward

England,

to

third.

and

the

by

him

published (anonymously)

Le

the

on

him

through

to return

his

of

men

office,thrown

Cleves, and

revolution

by

two

justificationof

afterwards,
Utrecht,

at

; in the

that

Filmer,

in 1098.

he

into French

published anonymously

of

followed

able

second

in 1087

Locke

was

Appeals,

year

in 1089

ing Toleration,and

by Locke,

of

his

in

broke,
Pem-

Council,

the

favorably received

was

Locke

and

turns

of the

consequence
he

he

where

Thither

of

account

on

again deprived

was

Amsterdam,

English throne,

Plantations.

however,

the

of

with
of

Seci

lived

Earl

intercourse

in

patron

Locke

President

becom

The

when

year,

subsequent

Paris, in

at

Holland,

to

first at

also

charges preferred against

Orange.

position of Commissioner
and

king,
on

extradition, by

in

and

following

the

His

office of

the

1075-1079

years

of the

old).
by Locke

up

revised.

him

in the

the

Shaftesbury, haTing

tried

of

In

from

berland
Northum-

house

years

drawn

repeatedly

received

of

in the

cian
physi-

as

years

Earl

sixteen

were

especially

wards
Ashley, after-

of

the

directed

society of Herbert,

Essay

Shaftesbury,

jury, he repaired

Prince

Locke

been

Lord

number

(then

Returning

science, and
with

then

son

it had

lost.

in the

his

1079

subsequently

for

He

latter's

until

in Berlin.

year

accompanied

Benefices,which, however,

dedicated

despotic tendencies

the

he

Understanding

disfavor, he

of

resided

Italy.

the

Chancellor,

of

In

to

and

of

published

into

eminence.
Locke

recalled

France

Montpellier,

he

to whom

he

1608

year

natural

acquainted

became

house

the

In

Lord

1072,

at

he

16G7,

in whose

not

fell

France, chiefly
scientific

in

concerning llmnan

Presentation

Chancellor

with

education

was

in

become,

tary of the
Lord

the

Emay

his

resided

and

investigations in

journey through

PHILOSOPHERS.

court,

Earl.

the

ENGLISH

Brandenburg

Oxford,

Shaftesbury

outlines

1070,

of

OTHER

himself

Shaftesbury,

friend
on

Earl

the

to

occupied

meteorology.

AND

BERKELEY,

LOCKE,

in the

mostly

wife

his

at

was

life,October

28, 1704.
Locke

defines

it

(I. 1, 2,

and

knowledge,
have,"
out

the

things

explain

bounds
whereof

with

how

moderate

our

definite

the

have

inquire

came

the

our

understandings

"measures

certain

no

He
in

and

of

opinion

having engaged

aim

into

grounds

persuasions."
result, it

and

the
"

between
we

subject

3) "to

to determine

'ais friends
Any

together

to

proposes

the

as

and

original,certainty, and

degrees

the

of

certainty

knowledge,
(in the

of

and

thoughts

that

assent.

notions

of

to

by

what

regulate

")

unable

being
inqxiiryinto the

that

scope

He

things

we

search

measures,

and

an

"

"to

our

^Epistleto the Reader

philosophical discussion,

ijoto hia

and

knowledge,"

our

examine

ought

we
'

those

standing
Underof human

extent

belief,opinion,

to attain

come

knowledge,

relates

Essay concerning Human

of his

assent

in
and

several

of

to arrive

at

of

the

un-

LOCKE,

AND

BERKELEY,

derstanding, what

objects

ENGLISH

OTHER

lie within

its

sphere, and

83

PHILOSOPHERS.

what

beyond it,must

all

precede

philosophical inquiries.

other
In

of

first Book

the

Locke

Essay

the

seeks

there

that

to demonstrate

innate

tw

are

ideas.
There

notion). Every

mind

the
It is

established

an

the

exhibit

to

The

the

some

of

kinds

of

that

How,
that

men

employ

; and
do

now,

as

men's

mous
synonyand

words
ideas

these

there

in the

are

{koivoX^uvoiai),characters
the

come

our

stamped

by merely showing

ideas

really arise
the

to examine

understanding
the

on

opinion could, indeed, be

This

world.

reader

also

defenders

the

certain

innateness,if

of the

theoretical
both

disputes
such

respecting

alleged agreement
their

others.

it into

is necessary

Locke

true.

as

in himself

them

the

how, by
since

; but

in its

grounds alleged

of

use

opinion is

the

defence,

counter-arguments.

assumption

accepted

prove

the

weightiest argument

the

on

in

are

unprejudiced

the

widely extended, it

and

of

notions

brings with

for

faculties,all

natural

very

they

opinion amongst

soul

sufficientlyrefuted
our

that

he will

explains that

Locke

term

is conscious

principles, prynary

which

mind,

(which

man

innate

certain

him

satisfy

will

actions
into

idms

mind

in the

are

with

and

truth

principles is not

another

be

can

way

force

the

pointed

The

argument.

if it were,

by which

out

universally

are

of this

fact, and

is founded

ideas

practical principles

and

the

of innate

doctrine

the

it would

not

could

agreement

arise.
the

Among

speculative principles which

principles of
t/iat the
tfnpossible
these

which
the

seems

almost

it has

no

mind,

yet took

power

to know

which

many

some,

but

actual

of

it,is

it ; but

is

nor

conclusive,whether

that

of the
reason

rod

understands

thing
its

to be

so

cherry
assents
not

then

the

none

they

in the

that

sense

other

many

the

not

to the
If

of them

universally received, as

are

the

thing,

that

assent

them.
known

and

one

two

is true

No

above-named

that

to

of

is

innate

he

so

that

these

know

a
are

this

as

them

soon

That

by
it is

the
the

to

ones.

to

believe
in

be

the

known

is neither

arrive

bitter

child

true

at

is not

long

for

sweet,

the

so

Moral

he
same

of

mark

sure

true

the

before

three, together

is also

practicalprinciples are
speculative

to

impossible

equal

according

deductively by

proposition were

speculative

ideas

innate

also

we

as

the

but

principlesare

reason,

the
those

only of

not

must
; for

soul

has

innate,

hypothesis
not

we

them

proposition

What

innate.

are

is true

on

never

the

soul

of

; and

of

use

think

we

It

knowledge

that

sense

immediate

innate.

the

the

to know

are

conscious

things before
same

proposition
be

is innate

to

the

universal

our

which

is in

known, including

lives.

the

If it be said

come

be

faculty

adopts

that

sense,

can

it,and

anything
that

soul, of

imprinted

of

ignorant

education,
the

on

is

notion

If

whole

the

ideas

begiiming,

in

are

their

who

other

understood

to be.

others, must

principles:
are

and
and

know

we

and

he

capacity

when

men

or

reason,

innateness,

numberless

by all

is

that

that

to be understood."

means,

to

say

mind

this

scientific

impressed

are

To

in

all truths

Now,

the

the

during

from

mere

"

there

be

knowledge,

is,from
"

assented

use

the

is not

of

really know

acquired.

knowledge

understanding

of

is triie

of

that

are

truths

But

Contradiction).

without

impression nothing."
only

can

that

brated
cele-

Identity), and, It is

of

of

(Principle

to all who

aflirm

to say

this

distinguish these

and

use

this

of all kinds

also

him, therefore,it

the

same

to make

never

persons

course

innate

time

be

knowledge.

no

innate, belong the

are

is,is (Piinciple

not

and

to

and

yet known, it

not

knowledge
of

must

that

at the

yet

notice

it has

to children

contradiction

Whatever

s/ioidd be and

consciousness

and

which

thing

unknown

principlesare
it

and

demonstration

same

it is affirmed

of

clear, and

with

cal
practinone

principles are

84

as

true, but

not

to

do

would

one

as

therefore

Christian

and

the

of

in moral

that

heeding
which
any

accustomed
and

and

they

are

the

sensations

are

the

nations
but

of

child's

those

also

marks

of

no

rational
of

the

evidence

conception
In

the

standing
and

as

the

is the

mind, employed
it is

states, and
arise

cannot

is

in

our

Man

it could

ideas

abstract,

considerable

which

and

in the

reality
Not

are

very
of

works

perceive

all

ferent.
difcrea-

in thenx

of things

causes

to all that

evident

so

from

Monotheiats,

country,

be

in

innate.

the

birth,

at

in nature

God

on

but

not

the

unintelligibl"i

and

fail to

can

ar^

sacred,

as

most

by Polytheists

them,

receiv*i

instilled

most

pain,

of

reflection

un

principle*?

will

consciousness

clearly revealed

so

the

difference,possibility^'

religion and

reflects

the

that

from

convey

others

on

them,

the

things

of

ideas

ideas

to

and

in

springs

or

the

into

yellowness, whiteness, heat,

general,
When

passive.

of

the

understanding

without

But

it.

objects, or the

objects

external

all

; such
and

mind

considers

receives
are
one

of

internal
mind

operations

that

which

qualities.

set

activities
of

these

two

his

senses

The

of

some

and

ideas, which

perception, thinking,
of

in

ness,
cold, softness, hard-

these

another

All

is twofold,

according
reJlecHon,

of operations, in

seat

From

under-^
of white

experience

sensible

so-called

is the

activities

willing.

piece

acquires through expenence.

from

of sensation

form

the

already acquired,

the

is originallylike

it

the

positively whence

show

soul

the

external, sensible

of

bitterness, and,
about

seeks

experience,

world

of the

source

Locke

These, however,

believing, reasoning, knowing,

all

and

and

idea

assumes

ideas.

no

senses

active, in
from

held

through

farmed,

internal,or taking

the

The

sweetness,

which

and

Essay
He

its basis

external

object

its

latter

having
has

minds.

our

are

when

been

once

its ideas.

paper,

being

is the

same

all

unless

attained

child's

ia

general happiness,

held

the

development

attentively considers
; and

of his

book

receives

knowledge

our

had

the

power

the

is

lost.

second

blank

who

existence

God

be

never

being,

and

one

and

rules

since

be

contain

has

cold, pleasure
Nor

of

innate

be

of children

in

moral

principles thus

cannot

after

of God

of

persons

wisdom

God's
of

only

different

The

and

ideas

these

only

produce similarity

custom

forgotten,to

of their

experiences.
the

been

not

time

thirst,heat

and

; not

by

the

it could

idea

only

not

dread

agreement

indiscriminately
piece of blank paper

it,and

thoughts
only

in the

conscious

held

tion, that

like, are

upon

certain

conceptions of identity and

; the

removed

hunger

this

have

the

earliest

the

society,

and

is

of

society and

general principles

rightly formed

attention

as

Principles

most

It

easily produced

more

has

origin

from

remote

farthest

the

; the

be

can

impossibility,.and

but

their

examination.

most

which

of reflection

and

when

of

receive

to write

of

fellows, and

truths, just

as

are

only directions

whatever

following

permanence
one's

children

choose

may

innate

the

are

and

them,

of

one

are

of

them

upon

the

is all the

result

will of

are

understanding.

opposite

even

that

with

and

corax"act8,

happiness

actions

our

their

practicalprinciples of single individuals

of the

minds

without

in them

ideas, which

power

latter

subsequently,

contained

to

This

which

accepted

are

the

the

on

of

principle,

proved,

to the

desire

of all

be

keep

of Hobbes

The

moral

to

should

men

man.

motives

facts

intercourse

unprejudiced

characters

the

condition

necessary

impressed

are

from

education,

principles.
and

these

; but

of

fundamental

The

rules, require

follower

the

God,

dignity

only different,but

arises

the

as

and

to the

desire,not impressions

not

are

in them

recognized

of

of

will

moral

question, why

universally operative ;

are

nations

observable

to the

all other

to the

reply

innate

faculty

that

of whole

to, and

philosopher

indeed

are

by the

motives

In

appeal

heathen

misery

taken

will

speculative principles.

as

done

be

innate.

not

the

evident

so

sources

ing,
doubt-

spring

ideas.

begins

to have

ideas when

the first

impression is

made

on

even

before

86

of the

his discussion

In
makes

many

this

animal

and

man

are

time

same

in the

same

exerts

is not

to

influence

effected
ideas

raised

are

rank

and

by

the

The

"

which

three

to

which

do

modes

or

mixed

modes

ideas

when

idea

here

the

same

If

of

mode

both

the

that

and
God's
the

in

and

omnipotence.

large

antl

the

it has

of

Kant,

but

was

as

also

being

as

of

activities

blends

Locke

regards

perception

to

Descartes,

soul
the

is of

modilied

Kant's

by

our

Critical

with

objective

with

world

of

that

who
he

in

took

confounded

between

the

which

affect

the

essential

view

the

and

the

at

senses,

accidental

Locke's

extension,

appeal

an

ti

itself respectiii;in

which

by

Lockian

between

which,

of

with

inquiry

by

rest.

tions
this, sanc-

substance

of the

distmction

power
that

terminology

appreciated

was

passive

is called

demonstrate

the

The

in

thus

of
us

action, it

is dismissed

importance
distorted

idea

objective reality of

brain,

and

is

previously

to

perception.

; its

change,

teaches

to

to
tinue
con-

and

causes

creates
As

also

change

any

an

and

the

liabilityto change

were

the

will

clearest

seelting

proof

things

interest

because

while

destroy,

as

impressions of

same

of that

by

the

also

understanding

experience

in the

passive

on

the

the

prejudice.

motions

as

by Hegel,

of it with

to

without

assumes

much

too

Philosophy,

couceptloa

it

fundamental

completely misapprehended
of

that

The

observation

the

observed

which

are

nations
combi-

observation

object

power

Locke,
aims

he

they

the

receiving

body

etc. ;

human

or

derive

that

insight

connected

are

the

which

correct

special defects,
sensations

the

when

reader

error

simple

are

such

are

place,

been

agent

Internal

minds.

the

the

the

We

manifests

confuse

implies

the

being

one

possibilityof

parts of

power

only

can

that

leads

objects, through
in

ideas

things,the
its

partly

already

power.

our

set in motion

two

follows

general,

it is active

this

have

same

The

substances

into

mind, depending

which

power.

complex

complex

similar,and

are

in external

comes

possibilityof being

the

how

sensuous

measure

alterations

the

is included

are

time, thought,

space,

another

in the

place

of

choice, all

own

chosen, unnaturally

question,

the

relation

in

it

expression

in

changes

possessing

terms

investigation,

of

can

qualities, and

Becondary

in

we

of

while

genera

reduces

Modes

of

ideas,

to which

things subsisting by themselves.

idea
with
another. N Among
one

of

conceives, accordingly,

to the

substance

our

of producing

volition

"

on

same

idea

the

attending

mere

ideas

to take
; it

upon

of

in another

and

; that

from

the

future

manner

comes

power

change
that

marks,

comparison

be

^11accidental

"

elements
Ideas

pounding
com-

is the

man

to whatever

complex.

their

each

of

power

subsisting by themselves; they

modifications

to

the

Locke

relations.

represent

daily exiierience
ceases

and

dissimilar.

to

the
the

belong

objects, partly

in the
the

from

Our

conclusion

in its

arise

conceptions.

with

to

from

body

images

accompanying

of

conceptions

these

when

are

used

are

The

all

partly

of the

of ideas

the

at

them

effaces

Peculiar

from

and

their

in view

state

of

power

after

to

often

man.

applicable

of

ideas

by

animals.

space,

substances,

simple

as

to

the

comparison

manner

parts of the

supposition

of

as

thing

constant

external
the

the

that

fever

become
with

constituent

modes,

ideas

ideas

of power.

that

the

ticularly,
par-

which

by

is the

keep

belongs

single objects,separated

and

names

of

The

to

and

probable

heat

of universal

their elements

simple

modal

ideas

things agreeing

contain

of relation

purely

their

are

of

time

as

which

classes

not

the

character

modifications

of

of

ideas

it

the

memory.

perfect

limited

mark

them

by reviving

or

animals,

to

slight degree

recognizes the
faculty of retention

is too

since

so

and

of

number

simple

ideas

in

existence, such

to the

which

considers

in the
in

animals

by

investigates

Locke

contemplation

memory,

belongs only

real

they belong,
within

the

He

perception, retention, discerning,comjjound-

mind,

Locke

men.

on

faculty of abstraction,by
qualitiesof

Locke
acquired through reflection,

are

faculty belongs

apparently firmly fixed

were

other

the

This

as

measure

great

that

ideas.

many

of

continued

by

PHILOSOPHERS.

psychological observations.

faculties

disapi)earance from

temporary

ENGLISH

In the faculty of perception

distinguished from plant. The

either

preserving ideas,

fruitful
the

head,

ing, abstracting, etc.

OTIIEB

simple ideas which

and

suggestive

under

it

AND

LOCICE, BEKKELEY,

Locke
Leibnitv

philosophy
being
in

per

Hi

objecta.

LOCKE,
which

; that

;nse

it

brings

something

else

begins

something

other

than
to it

ideas conveyed

always
from

and

since

nothing
We

qualities.

have

definite

more

that

God

should

endow

army,

of combination.
ther

the

are

names

of the

others

Propositions
internal

by

(and
and

that

that
least

at

of

as

rational

of Locke

utterances

of

and

the

freedom

humane

of conscience
for

arguments
Locke's

eighteenth century

to
the
in

be

with

Locke

the

importance

treated

all

other

with

gimilar,in

knowledge.
ourselves

fact of

world

yet

finite

thinking beings

exists

primitive

existence

external

revelations

with

plete
com-

is less

nothing

weU-ascertained

clear.
be

can

edge.
knowl-

rational

politicalquestions give evidence

and

essentiallyto
Yet

himself

the

the

of

mitigation

inconsistently denied

Locke

broke

France,

which

order

in the

was

and

be

of

force

of his

philosophical

until

many

and

which

first

other

post-Kantian period,was

he

the

in

but

of the

in

the

Locke's

the

over

order

of

should

have

inquiry concerning

examination

judgment

of

wrote

none

of the

the

which

one

been

thoughts

Leibnitz,who

philosophy, on
rather

ticism
Scholas-

chieflyby the

Germany

Humain, recognized

held
of

problem

subjects

was

affirmed

VEntendement

sur

victorious

complement.

necessary

human

empirical philosophy

in its inroads

inquiry,although
the

his investigation of the

the

things, received,

Essais

not

of

Germany,

limited

Subject, its

Nouveaux

to

chieflyfrom

arises

starting-point

philosophical inquiries depend,

success

the

of the

sanctioned.
thus

God's

and

own

with

of

us) that there

to

divine

the

existence

strictly

contradiction,
know

from

of

common

are,

of

one

place,

treats

signs ;

are

falsehood

and

as

with

and

Locke

We

our

Spinoza's Objectivism,

of Locke's

facultyof knowledge
which

the

but

the

limits of knowledge

less the

Atheists, and

in England,

philosophy.

to

in

Words

uninstructive.

certain

of

its power

things

of time

for

they contributed
had

of several

principle

the

ideas

through

not

from

ethical,pedagogical,

became

Cartesianism,

directly one

reply

is in contradiction

on

soul

infer,namely,

we

supposing

inconceivable

disputation, but

existence

is faith

philosophical importance

Leibnitzian

art Of

substance

for

toleration.

understanding, which
and

The

know

of the

tradition

to

for the

thus

spirit,and

rigors which

ideas.

existence, and

We

which

Truth

for

of substances, such

the

opinion.

ideas.

single

indubitably

knowledge

revelation

noble

many

is

knowledge

our

our

part identical,are
of

cause

thinking

and

substance

complex

etc.
relations,
Human
Understanding

by inference

thinking being.

Transcending
regarded

first

own

our

in

or

God

and

in

useful

are

whoUy
is

clearness, but

The

kind,

are

there

eternal

an

like

perception

existence

of moral

not

by

effect,of relations

and

of knowledge

and

Besides

as

support

material

ground

ideas

formed

them

it subsists

of

as

it is not

hand,

the comparison

cause

of

no

thought.

are

from

objects of

the

judgments,

in

speaking, only
and

of

ideas

book

signs for

common

ideas

serving

have

collective

complex

idea

of

simple

of them

in which

idea

our

other

of

Eiisay miiGermng

the

fourth

in the

and

language,

of

book

is

nor

of

number

The

which

agency

represented by

something

the

on

certain

is

substratum

We

power

arise

diversity,of degrees,

third

yet,

collective

the

are

an

substance,

also

that
which

through

to the

great number

substance.

unknown

the

of relation

them

identity and
In

has

; these

Ideas

; among

exist
with

mind

fleet,city, world

call

is due

with

spiritual substance.

matter

the

single substances,

of

idea

of

furnished

we

of

is that

cause

existence

to suppose

substratum

cannot

spiritualsubstances

that

ourselves

clear
idea

our

whose

imagine that

cannot

we

supposition

no

than

its effect.

is that

87

PHILOSOPHERS.

reflection,remarks

and

; this

the

but

ENGLISH

mind, being

accustom

it arises

which

iThe

sensation

by

subsisting by itself,we
contains

effect

an

itself,

OTHER

is called

to pass

to be ;

; and

together

go

AND

BERKELEY,

the

human

of

resolution
could

not

be

previously disposed of;

Herbart.

Kant,

on

the

con-

88

for

influenced

by Locke's

human

to

an-ive

reason

sought

reality,and

to

at their

be

essentially identical

and

in the
of

work

is in essential

said

he

that

philosophy.

Against

immanence

(or ""

in the

Ego

priorV).

But

satisfactory
elaborates

content

Kant)

that

March,

stands

front

(Idealism,

or

not

strictlydemonstrable,

particular notion
kind

straight
existence

But

this

refuted

for

by the

is

fact

all

us

our

ideas

order

of

the

We

deceptive

Near

the

doctrine
the

one

in

the

end

of the

resjjecting the
expresses

of

correct

body,

straight

that

also

The

esse

supported

between

sensible

of the

which
*

world

ordinary

Of

of

Hylas
in the
human

and

mind,

our

the

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is

and

only the

especially on
the

it is

calls forth

God

of which

the

exist.

substances

is in fact

based

of

ideas

evidence,

of nature

single
of the

certain

from

following propositions,
while

as

given particular

co-working

but

etc.
notions

particular

Philonous, Berkeley

two

Imma-

Augustine

is,for example,

magnitude,

the

law

14, 1753)

really exists

; there

by conclusive

import,

of

12th

the

universal

world

difiierent

call the

we

similar

and

England,

on

Jan.

immediately

are

in

Ireland,

of non-thinking things is percijn.

That

ideas.

our

of Locke

demonstration

bodies

more

Berkeley, only spiritsand

all other

We

be

to

and

arranges

example

ideas

definite

lines.

the

experience

truer

at Oxford

material

abstract
a

and

taught

of all

mind

doctrine

impossibility of explaining

of the

belief

of

geometrical

; it is not

dialogue

third

nature

infer

regular order.

succession

in

in

died

and

that

no

are

especially

universal

Kant

of

problem

been

perception.

exist, says

There

in

philosophy

only (after the

not

supposition

extended

other

completely heterogeneous.
in

He

false.

an

1734,

portance,
im-

justly

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the

Thomastovtm,

founder

the

it

the

the

to

which

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to

internal

and

in

of

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explained

theoretical

Cloyne
was

the

example,

of

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as

"

unphilosophical

; but

ideas, and

that

conceptions.
also

philosophical

thought independent

general by representing

thoughts.

our

inference

of innate

tions
concep-

intrinsic

(subjective)consciousness.

an

lead

not

tion
defini-

gradual approach,

part

knowledge

whether

near

of

as

without

represents

of

but

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thus,

line

and

the

and

by

all

doctrine

and

not

essential

only

does

theory

volitions). There

(ideas and

of extension

theory

was

of

and

in

mere

true

substituted

but

of

Killcrin,

at

himself) regarded

functions

same

farther

the

truly philosophical

whole,

may

is of

limit,

any

genesis of

the

reached

having

experience

Phenomenalism).

of

Locke

his

external

by

Berkeley

and

notion

it

bom

rank.

them,
for

dinate
subor-

dialectically

the

development

be

to

logical laws, according

1684, appointed Bishop

in the

terialism

the

with

between

substitute

one

the

"forms"

developed

George Berkeley (who

with

for

largely

immanent

ideas, but

stop

only agreement

questioned

be

and

was

not

has

reason

of

(objective) existence

of intuition

may

given

who

origin

should

dialectical

were

to the

returned

of forms

material

those

the

the

something

not

and

it

with

faculty of knowledge

of

by

manner

the

Among

or

is

the

"ideas"

explained by these

no

the

between

case

to solve

Leibnitz

whence

necessary,

their

in

unjustly reproached

undertook

Leibnitz

objected (by

of

extrinsic

sequence
con-

essentially

origin of knowledge only

connection

an

slightlyphilosophical speculation

but

be

in this
human

is

Locke

and
or

the

one

if there

correct

discrepancy

agreement

critique of

the

be

respects"
If

but

consisted

which

would

Hegel's judgment

then

to be

thinking subject

philosophy,

for

seek

results

at

the psychological investigation of

held

he

by him, but

; that

system

arrived

philosophical knowledge

discover

to

psychologically

not

meaning

the

principle, that

fundamental

investigation,although

and

course

in

of single conceptions, but

approved

pursued

is of

knowledge
this

persuasion of Locke,

to the

back

our

of

investigation of

to the

denied,

importance,
the

he

of

limits
conduct

the

in

example,

Hegel assigned

different.

held

but

PHILOSOPHERS.

Philosophy, went

Critical

philosophy,

ENGLISH

OTHER

investigation of the origin and

the

that

of the

founder

trary, as the

AND

BERKELEY,

LOCKE,

substance
he

aflfirms

the

of his
that

scientific proposition. The

Malebranche,

of

doctrine

1703

in

that

affirms

Universalis

of

is that

reference

frequent

makes

Locke's

warning
of

was

in
pJdlosophimdifficultas

and

The

this

videtur, ut

to the

causes

the

from

in his

he

inversely proportional
of the

the

toward

parts of the

the

Disciples of

what

we

feel

and

see

^hape, magnitude,
sensation.
kind

the

and

feel."
is

the

does

and

whence
rious

true,

but

the

proposition
the

external
multitude

existences.

so

subjects.

is true,

of

objects.

is

the
As

thinking

the

upon

act

two

If,

but

the

faixltyon
organs
there

beings

on

our

upon

It

the

second

account

of
exist
must

contrary,
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other
be

we

of

"

it is

qiiaternio

and

thinking
rendered

understand

by

in consequence

false, and

sensation,

perceptions

sensuous

this

of

only by

it tbe

this

beside

possible by

the

of

myself,
existence

truth

then

sensations

the

existence
active

of

of

the

the
esse

first

two

"what

we

see

second

sition
propo-

of
:

but

nothing

objects,whose

expression

the

objects (or things-

meaning

the

is

phenomena

perceptions

Our
on

feel

transcendental

action

change

depends

these
the

to the

is, that
weight,

hardness,

as

and

see

themselves,

terminorum.''''

affection

beings

such

objects are

whether

meanings

real, unthinking

(or scientific)one

beside

nothing

world

different

we

real

questionable

very

of two

what

that

Newton's

of

all

table, and

second

qualities,

that

it follows

in the

real

the
The

certain

consequently

is, however,

senses

is that
feel.

i. e., of

and

our

and

see

exists

attribution

understand

we

we

; so, for

bodies

edition

second

the

to

exerted

attraction

primary qualities of

preface

propositions

there

consequently

first not.

syllogism

of

that

the

attraction

the

that

and

masses

investigated by Newton.

not

was

phenomena

the

to

taught
degrees of

of

altogether

able

observed

on

on

will flow

which

not

was

He

sum

correctly affirms)

sensations,

our

of the

from

particular

synthetic method,

but

founded

tions,
observa-

simple,
the

phenomena

hypotheses,
He

and

from

causes,

have

theses.
hypo-

mere

the

to

; the

the

causes

Omnia

Cartesians

experiments

compound

distances.

phenomena,

of these

expression

this

affection

in

depend

in-themselves),which
first

inhere

percipient

by

mind

demands

with

being proportional

among

objects which

the

His

ment
banish-

' '

says

the

themselves

general

gravitation

in the

entirelyof

not

If

of

says,

ordinary
and

combination

just mentioned,

propositions

the
table

of

up

gravity

the

investigemus vires

motuum

from

the

most

of the

cause

ton
New-

Isaac

mends
Scholastics, recom-

and

belief that

effects to

action

made

was

who

consists

which

Fi'om

is percipi,

which
the

from
from

to the

on

squares

The

Cotes,

are

materialism

applauds

phenomena,

deluded

investigations.

reckoned

example, Rogerus
proposition (that

his

physicist

Newton

the

thus

formation

the

sun

of

expresses

investigation of

actual

sun.

Newton

objects generally,

Collier

especiallyby

sense,
with

and

phcenomenis

have

general,
so

an

the

to

planets

and

gravitation, its

of universal

doctrine

Norris,

Scepticism,
etc.,Lond., 1702.]

combined

explains, proceeds

in

and

censured

them

without

do

John

pJicenomena rdiqua.'"' Newton

; it concludes

general,

Newton

them.

the

he

forces,and,

more

contrary,pronounces

from

order,

analytical method,

moving

to

trine
doc-

of Hu-

Malebranche.

qualities" of the

"occult

demonstremus

general conclusions

to

motions

the

Limits

was

materialistic

influence

specificallyphilosophical inquiries.

explanation

versari

eo

sufficientlyobserved

not

in

metaphysics!"

analysis always precede synthesis ;

that

and

forms"

his mribus

ah

naturae, deinde

first

of

mathematico-mechanical

the

by

with

''Beware

''substantial

the

Anti-

Lee,

great mathematician

associated

less

was

Physics

to

(1701), follows

Priestley, who

the

contemporary,

younger

(1642-1727),

of Locke

an

tion
presenta-

from

removed

in

(1733-1804).

faith

Christian

the

detailed

considerable

Less

opponents

developed

Joseph

and

Hartley (1704-1757)

David

farther

the

Procedure, Extent, and

the

Among

[Also Henry

him.

to

But

CoUiei

is found

theory

of

doctrine.

World
Intelligible

or

investigations were

Locke's

the

Id'eal

Theory of the

in his

who,

to

1728).

1708.

year

( The

Brown

Peter

Bishop

Understanding, London,

his

and

author

the

The

give evidence

to

appears

(1680-1732).

Collier

theory.

in the

89

PHILOSOPHERS.

Arthur

his

at

him

by

of Locke
"n

arrived

written

Berkeley's Principleson

of

ENGLISH

teaching of

already

and

OTHER

the

was

had

Clavis

of it in the

he

in MS.

existing

essay

AND

BERKELEY,

LOCKE,

both

depend
of

in

arise

that

then

us,

true,

are

upon

pre-

intrinsically real

relations

between

the

objectively real, unthinking

90

LOCKE,

Prinmpia (1713),that gravity

extension, mobility, and
in Erdmann's
to the

as

of the

one

bearing

the

on

yet examined

not

is

much

as

density

in

investigation of

Book

the

in the

subject

III. of

of

could

see

be

well

as

Helmholtz

in his

the

material

with

.take

vibrations

forms

soul

world,

because

body

of

to the

human

the

interest

in qua

of

the

elementa

friend

of the

the

and

is love

moral

punishment.

universe,

and

when

doctrine

defined

on

Newton

by

things

duced
intro-

in

and

Him,

ton
Newthe

through

Platonists, God

as

the

soul

does

the

of

is

and

and

art

exquisite

world,

the

human

sensorium

human

the

directly,

doctrine

other

the

of the

construction

the

is in

latter

to him

speciesin

of

termed

be

N.,

to

the

themselves

world-soul
and

relation

is found

the

work

in

Ilobbesianm

Locke,

particularly

Cumberland

founded

theory of

disguisitio
phUosophica,

legibusnaturcB

cimlis considerantur

turn
tnoralis,

quum

to

Before

Scotland.

Hichard

and

Hobbes,

chieflyowing

and
and

England

contemporary,
of

De

of

time

his

doctrine

the
the

the

is

of

essence

good

goodness

for

its

belongs,

is the

love

of

by

existence

its possessor

Thiodiohe

of the

et

refu-

of

begins

good

to court

of Leibnitz

and

or

virtuous

so

on

and

belief

just

divine
on

hope

Elant's

of

have

directed

is

one

; there

reward

goodness
of the

doctrine

of

the

its

and

world

(The influence

or

in

independent

the

director

favor.

which

inclination

is
in

to

good of the system,

his

the

virtue

and

of

balancing

proper

means

system
the

that

object of

founded

religious
a

consisting in the

or

Sh., 1671-1713),

elder

as

species

sake,

own

goodness
a

good

be

immediate

motives

strengthened

pure

morality

To

propensities.
the

in the

the

Shaftesbury (grandson of the

of

toward

The

It

More

Henry

what

in the

the

them
where

of

things

this

(In

of

extensively cultivated

combated

regulated only by

nature.

Deity.

same

period succeeding

good-will, in

selfish

of

agent

in conduct

him

existence

was

pMlosopJim

inclinations

Morality

with

in the

to

us

the

extension

are

particular, such

in

images

of

A.

connected

sensorium,

the

world

one

1672.

Locke,

social

all one's

of

stand

to

the

to

follow

consequently

means

the

perceives

according

cannot,

Ashley Cooper, Earl

of

of

By

into

perceives things

senses;

the

and

it
God

philosophical author,

already

basis

tantur, Lond.,

of

is rather

the

by him,
as

brain

where

and

inadequate

it would

objectionis given by

themselves.

the

to

to increase

rejects in optics
it is

shining bodies;

sensation

has
to is

cal
hypotheti-

an

supposes

vibrations

that

tion
ques-

living being.

every

excited

Anthony

of

from

as

true,

were

to this

assumes

emitted

he

sound,

as

answer

Newton

sensorium

exhibited

are

(1632-1719),had
on

Yet

not

soul, but

appearance

morals

does

Philosophy, in

Locke's

(The

omnipresent

proof of God's

organism

Moral

world

particular,if it

one

question" alluded

proposes,

ground

manner

corner.

God

on

same

located,and

world.

the

intelligence which
in the

the

teaching concerning

the

The

man.)

in

world, substituting,however,

for the

that

are

the

"

The

preface
considen-

question, for he

Newton

intervention

it were,

is,as
space
adopts Plato's
of the

only

Newton

bodies

he

simply introduced

the

in

The

the

without, needing

whole

is

has

gravity, but

which

that

suppose

a"

Bouryuet^

(in the

says

increases.

conducted

presence.

must

all bodies

Lettre d

view,

contrary,

cosmical

organs

are

perceives

its

infinite

to

in the

the

ether, which

because,

which

rays

this

elasticityof the

Physiol.Optik.)

which
into

and

around

of things
{species)

substance

and

hear

place

cause

qualities of

primary

; he

of

Optics^in

the

propagated

as

of bodies

supported by Huygens,

phenomena,

could

light

PHILOSOPHERS.

light of experiments.

the

from

vibration

certain

explain
that

its distance

as

theory

of the

one

properties

explanation of gravitation, the

the

ENGLISH

impenetrability (Leibnitz censures

essential

the

QuaastioXXL
in

OTHER

edition,p. 732). Newton

himself, on
edition of his Optics,1717) that no one

second

gravity

AND

BERKELEY,

to

is

no

the

part.
which
virtue

origin

; but

of

fear

beauty

of

it

and

of the

erates
degen-

Shaftesbury's

relation

between

Religion

and

Morals

taught

defender

and
of

essence

peculiarqualities (according

each

shall

conformity

by the

determined

not

was

We

action.

of any

that

is

action

every

defined

moral

goodness

to each

other,

and

Of

man."

the

Adam

and

of

member

to which

whole

he

society ; his

account

relation
friend

1723-1790),a
of

is also
as

of

ethics

the

to that

of

and

unprejudiced

observer

in which

cases

we

grounds
the

among

conduct

history of

or

approve

sympathy

noteworthy

be

the

moral

with

moralists

disapprove

Moralists.

[London, 1785, etc.] have

been

of

is
of

part

just

of

as

is

Act

(Smith

his

approve

otherwise

morally

as

that

manner

the

analyzed

(His Prindples of

Moral

the

the

also

losophy
Phi-

PoUtiml

by Garve, Frankf.

German

into

and

the

mate
ulti-

Paley (1743-1805) belongs

William

translated

"

tion
disposi-

ascertained

action, than

an

to

rather

has

Whenever

is able

such

in

on

mentioned

natural

others.

another,

stage

regards sympathy

has

of

and

mist,
politicalecono-

He

Man

this

by

the

seeks

Ferguson

at

morally good,

as

thee.

"

English

Man

worthy

Thus

other

actions

motives

antipathy.)

or

being

men.

Hume).

to

(1696-1782),

progressive development

philosophy.

of Morals

sympathize

can

can

of

is to

feeling peculiar

especial mention.

mentioned

states, feelings,and

requirement

propensities

various

especially celebrated

regarded

that

Glasgow, ob. 1747)

or

be

may

conduct, then

fundamental

ciple
prin-

Francis

thought.

the

the

love

the

laid down

sociability(benevolence),
(self-love),

(in this agreeing with

with

of

in his

of

state

present

aesthetic writer

of

is to

the

The

as

worthy

unprejudiced spectator, reflectingon

faulty.

virtue

(who

Hume,

in the

morals

sympathize

to

Smith

David

importance

principle of

the

of his

Home,

consequences

his

at

sense

the

virtue

esteem

Adam

perfection (self-esteem).
of the

perfection

To

belongs.

in

true

Professor

moral

consists

principles of self -conservation

the

to combine

defined

spiritualperfection,are

into

nature

in

moralists, Henry

(1724-1816),who

Ferguson

of human
nature

Scottish

its basis

in

so

Butler, independently

of

relation

right

the

in

it had

that

so

disapproval

or

in the

(1659-1724)

to

that

Shaftesbury, J.

approval
misery

or

expression
1729

and

happiness

Wollaston

from

nitz,
Leib-

and

universe,

Clarke

moral

; man's

is the

consisting

as

that

the

injustice,
says

William

"

which

good

argued

later

at.

Ireland, 1694, and

in

(bom

Hutcheson

aimed

to be

and

falsehood

of

to

happiness

of consequences

balancing

or

final end

the

of

(1675-1729), a

especiallyagainst

things,"aptitudo rerum),

harmony

(1726)

preponderance

disapprove

consideration

any

is not

Sermons

in his

(1692-1752) asserted

Butler

of

in the

divine

treating things conformably

contradistinction

In

the

doctrines
in

"fitness

place

of God.

will

the

with

their

91

PHILOSOPHERS.

Clarke,

consisted

to the

in its proper

employed

of

virtue

their

be

ENGLISH

Samuel

"

Locke

the

that

OTHER

considerable).

was

and

Newton

discipleof

AND

BERKELEY,

LOCKE,

and

Leips.,1788.)

command
a
issuing from
Duty, according to Paley, implies in all cases
disobedience
superior,who has attached to obedience
or
pleasure or pain, and the
commands
But
is duty
the basis of duty, is God.
what
are
law-giver,whose
supreme
a

is determined

lightof
inquire
whole

the

Toland
more

action

an

it increases
is

advantageous,

writings

or

In

and

happiness.

agreeable

diminishes

the

the

law, and
who
Ebionites,
were
with

were

to the

he

believer

which

he

the

from

order

of

to

God

recognize by

not,

or

we

need
is

Whatever

the

only
on

the

introduction

similar
Church

of

their

as

later

Jewish

accompanied
soul

Christians, who

Nazarenes

heretics.

heathenish

are

diversity of

substantial

Christians
to the

to Seneca

The

his

in

revelation,approximated

Letters

the

asserts

earliest

the

in

His

Pantheism.

consequently

partial

In

terms

excluded

will

general happiness.

right.
toward

more

his Nazarenus

charged

universal
is

(1670-1722),originally a

Confutationof Spinoza,in

body.

.are

principle of

whether

whether

John

by

by

reason

and
served
ob-

[Nazaraeans]
Gentile

or

Christians

superstitions into

Chrig-

02

GERMAN

LEffiNITZ.

tianity. Toland, Anthony

and
(1050-1 7J]^j,

Collins,the

other

enrjl.Deiismus^Stuttg*.and
Writers) rejected the
on

IN

PHILOSOPHY

deists

(of

EIGHTEENTH

free-thinker
whom

Tiib.,1841, and

biblical

THE

(1676-1729),Tindal, the

Lechler
Leland

CENTUEY.

treats

View

in his

Christianity of Locke,

and

fully in

of

the

maintained

alist
Ration-

Qench.

the

cles

PrincipalUeistical
the

faith founded

reason.

" 117. The

founder

of

the

German

philosophyof the eighteenth

Wilhelm
Leibnitz (1646-1716). With
cartes
Desvon
century
and
Spinoza,but in oppositionto Locke, Leibnitz adopts the
form
of philosophizing,
i. e., he has an
immediate
faith in
dogmatic
the power
of human
ness
thought to transcend,by the aid of perfectclearis Gottfried

and

truth.
of
of
tended
active

distinctness in its
But

he oversteps

as

well the

dualism

of Descartes

attain

the

as

to

ism
mon-

Spinoza through the recognitionin his Monadology of a gradation

is the name
Leibnitz
to
beings. Monad
given by
simple unexsubstance,that is,a substance wdiich has the power
force (liketo the force of the strained bow) is the

substance.

The

monads

from
distinguished
their

ideas,the limits of experienceand

being only mere

consist in ideas.

are

the

The

atoms

what
of

points,and
atoms

may

their ideas.

of the ancients

the different monads

All

they are

fact of
Democritus, partlyby
"which
partlyby their active forces,

but
and position,
magnitude, iigure,
character ; the monads
of Leibnitz,on

by

essence

called atoms

of

the

in

differentiated

trulybe

of action

not

monads

one

another

in internal
or
qualitatively
contrary, are qualitatively

have

ideas, but

the

ideas

of

degrees of clearness. Ideas are

clear when
wise
they render it possibleto distinguishtheir objects;otherthey are obscure.
They are plain or distinct when
they enable
tinct
the parts of their objects;otherwise
lis to distinguish
they are indiswhen
confused.
ly
or
they are absoluteThey are adequate,finally,
i. "?.,when
distinct,
through them we can
cognize the ultimate or
absolutelysimple parts of their objects. God is the primitive monad,
the primitivesubstance
its fulgurations.God
are
; all other monads
has
but
which
The
monads
none
are
adequate ideas.
thinking
like human
souls,are
beings or spirits,
capable of clear and distinct
also have
sin^ile adequate ideas ; as rational beings,
ideas,and can
souls of
The
and of God.
they have the consciousness of themselves
animals
have
sensation
and memory.
Every soul is a monad, for the
possessedby every soul to act on itself proves its substantiality,
power
and all substances
monads.
That which
to us
are
as
a body is
appears
in realityan
of
monads
aggregate of many
; it is only in consequence
in our
the confusion
sensuous
perceptionsthat this plurality
presents
are

of different

the

differed from

94
de

AND

LEIBNITZ,

la nature

the

of

aeiner

ExOitenz,
1740)

; the

1738, and

in

Library

The

French

original
in

Hanover,

at

again, with

his

Kortholt, Leips., 1734-42.

1745, as

introduction

an

tirees

de

Ranpe.,
J.

by
the

mcmu."icrits

ses

avec

H.

and

Locke,

written
que

inter

et verba

res

ter ; Historia
ef

collection

pieces published

followed

by Raspe

IV.

mathematica,

made

1805.

Hanov.,
with

"

and

Gei-m.

notices

edition,
been

M.

par

begun
Vol.
from

ed.

C.

by

also

the

before
cited

publiees

et

above

(in

the

inedits

Vol.

;
Wolf

has

into

German
and

remains
series:

been

bearing

Hist.

With

ed.

Erdm.

his
p.

III.

C.

by

IV.

and

als

title : L.
the

Libr.

R.

: Historical

Vols.

history

utterances,

91), and

in

of

et

the

des

to

Eemond

as

been

1846

the

ed..

Vol.

writings;

selection

the

started

Janet,

in

the
and

by
A

shorter
the

of

works

Onno

recent

V.

Klopp,

of

Leibnitz,

introduction
others.

and
the
to

Of

his

Leibnitz

series, Math.,

by
par

Careil

1867

papers,
of

Leibnitz,

I.

dition
expe-

Christian
translated

Gustav

ling,
Schil-

based

1864,
iEuv7'es

his

on

seq.

(first

phiques
philoso-

Cloud, 1866.

most
his

Lettrea

Leibniz

protestanta

and

philos.

not
niz,
Leib-

(Vols.

seq.

direction

is the

L.

Egj'ptian

an

Leibnitz

St.

in
de

des

Hanover,

Initia

written

reunion
of

works

VII.

Spinoza
de

by

has

los.,
series, Phi-

I. seq.,

publication

2 vols., Paris

notivelle

of

Vol.

de

: Plan

rnann,
Erd-

Leibnitii

CEuvres

between

under

edition

new

development

Montfort

of

published

been

P.

Vol.

correspondence

Ed.

Guil.

the

la

Lat.

Guhrauer,

Leibniz,

third

work,

publishing
2d

Joh.

in

Foucher

seq.,

by

and

A.

by

now

E.

mathematical

inedite

is

G.

The

short

1686)^
in

Hessen-Rheinfels,

von

Refiitation

Feder,

year

second

1846;

Trpwra,

published

editor

The

contained
de

Emst

EucUdis

in

The

1864-66).

7iotes, par

philosophical

especially

letters

I. -IV.,

Tn

de

writings

Hanover,

since

H.

included, together

1843-47;

Landgrave

have
G.

1820,

Godofr.

the

p" Itical

been

has

of

all

is

(Euvres

Ulrich, etc., pour

has

of

foot

on

works

Spinola,

Leips., 1863.

Hanover,

at

introduction

to the

and

Halle, 1860.

Denker,

V.

Paris, 1859

et

introductions,

polit. writings,

une

has

set

Oi^era

: Philolo-

the

by

the

Opera

I. :

VI.

J.

about

Hanover

on) Halle, 1840-63.

published

polit. writings).

Gerhardt,

the

III.

same

Mola7nis

: Minor

J.

The

originaux,

the

own

Spinoza),

been
at

and

Grotefcnd,

L.

Vol.

also

les mscr.

with

avec

to

has

cation
publi-

classes

III.

above

ed.

edited

I. -IV., Hanover,

differentialis.

Pelisson,

accompanied

in

respect
from

d'apr^s

1865

-polit.and

L.,

de

derived

MS.

relating

Bossuet.

Vols.
Par.

edited
and

in

literature

L.,

VI.,

Gerhardt
calculi

origo

et

edition

and

g., in Vol.

e.

to the

been

the

include

not

ed., Mayence,

Berlin, 1840.

Vols.

C.

by

(from

and

Leibniz, Paris, 1854-57.

de

de

Hanover

at

Berlin

I.-VIL,

Historia

lapr.fois

pour

Libr.

have

treatises

complete

Leibnitz, Arnauld,

between
R.

2d

d'inven-

after

philologlcn,

specimina,

Germ.,

Library

Royal

omnia,

series, Hist.,

first

metaphysica.
:

cathoUques

des

Pertz:

the

Germanica

philosophical matter,

death

in

letters, shorter

paiticular
Gallica.

and

writings

German

MSS.

vols., Paris, 1842.

the

Vols.

his

II. : Le'tres

ph..

of

considerable

et opuscules

and

MSS.

mathematicarum

rerum,

of

Heinrich

Gerhardt.

contain

long

date

Lat.

et Vart

Artes,

conciliatory spirit,perhaps

philosophical writings

of L.'s
from

selecta

evulgati

1819, in

Leibnitz'

Opera

publications complementary

nondum

in

V.

qui

connexlone

1768, vol.

natur.,

are

against

work

collecta, in

primum

Histor,

notes

Raspe's

de

did

IT., Geneva.

torn.

li. E.

Malebranche

^oon

however,

mine

Botan.,

attingentla,

(written in
Paris

at

edition

Latina,
2

Several

typis

1860.

matter

Correspondence

J.

the

Jacques,

by Georg

I.

edited

A.

published

complete

exstant

qucB

Sinen.'ies

optiscula

which,

Dutens,

P.

la certitude

de

cerning
con-

Leibniz,

and
of

Dialogus

inveniendi.

omnia,

opera

additions

du

fait

sit ars

works"

Medic,

Chym.,

en

la metliode

simul

Ludovici

studio

gener.,

Leibnitiani

imedited

concerning

philos.

opera

Leibnitii

theologicum

first

touchaivt
quce

of Leibnitz'

edition

etymologica.

Tubingen,

new

much

Discours

Locke

Leibniti-

Mr.

polemical

le sentiment

sur

Mr.

Gott,

statements

collection

extended

Chr.

and

ptibliees par

et

with

of this

Royal

ed.

epistoUci
many

Hannovre.,

Leips.,
Eugenii

the

Han.

Gruber,

German,

an

in

fraiigaisen defeu

et

contents

humain,

que

tmiversalis,

GuiUelmi

et

the

Remarques

(1
in

same

among

Vexaineii

ornata

geiiere

systema

by Carl Haas,

further

logicce

Dutens

; the

Centendement

sur

contains

the

epistoUci

translation,

in which

especial importance

concernant

indicibus

in

Leips., 1765

and

diversos,

commercii

Gott,
J. C.

by

Erttd., iSiippl.,

])regerved

contains

latines

edition

principiH

epint. ad

Dan.

which

philosophiques

MS.

KHhler,
vnn

at Frankf.

in gr attain

Prodromus

Conring,

and

Heinr.

Act.

tioned
men-

Prince

for

wrote

(new

in the

the

Joh.

biblioth^que royale

la

and

essais

collectanea

et

Berlin, 1838-40.
with

et

Leibnitii

French

Of

Meiaph., Phi/s.

Commercii

CEuvres

da7is

Amst.

Gothofredi

: Philos.

continuat.

gicorum
been

Log.,

II. :

Boinebvirg

1720

Leibnitii

ed.

1737

in

published

characteristics

distributa, pre^ationibus
theologica,

had

Difflcultates qucedam

from
"

be

imgleichen

Hansche,

thesen

sen

Philosophical, 1840.

Opera

writings.

Dieu.,

en

et commentatio

this

by Erdrnann,

collection

tout

voyons

published

Nouveaux

1704 ; this

in

7ious

first

L.'s

conservent

se

previously unpublished

povte

was

between

Ulrich, Halle, 1778-80.

F.

p/dlo-sophife

Gruber

Kastner,

de

Gottl.

will

Joh,

by

prmted

was

Mich.

epistolicuniLeibnitianum

youthful

qui

preface

une

Latin,
by

Principia

of

correspondence

education

L.'s

remarks

title :

Commercium
to which

of the

ani, consisting

into

German
and

he

Monadoloyie,

die

Menschen, Frankfoit,

the

text

edition

from

comments

collection, under

Dutens'

conHcriptce..

ti-anslated

sketeh,

same

which

wiiich

1719, in

in

Maizcaux,

D"j

translation

uber

CENTURY.

collection

system,

German

Seeledes

der

von

in

LehrsUtze

Leifmitz

von

Eige7is":kaften, und

seinen

publishefl,

first

was

of his

sketch

L.'s

by

in the

1708,

in

by Dutons,

18TII

THE

included

afterwards

was

and

confounded

be

Wilhelm

Gottfried

vii,,Leips., 1721, and

vol.

which

and

Herrii

which

named,
to

OF

PIin.OBOPTIT

raison,

above

is not

essay

1714,

in

Savoy,

Rectieil

this

title : Des

the

ib.

the

With

under

Huth,

of

volume

below.

Eugene

gr"ce, foTidSa en

la

et de

dccond

GERMAN

THE

instruction

Specimena

is to

Pacidii

and
life,writinifs,

be

{Op.

doctrine

particular

in

treat

Journal

the

MS.,

Jo.

employed

in

published

based

Wolf,

Chr.
"

the
dss

Karl

1734.

1737.

Herrn

L.,

von

Vacad.

de
Ges.

Berlin,

de

theon

has

furnished

u.

d. deutschen

Akademien.,

iiber

ib.,1866j, Trendelenburg
1S55,

II., Berlin.
suclien

in

Leibn.

L.\"i Plaii

1864;

Aegypten,

L.

1864), and
Works

Fischer

1867)
Kritik
and

Bernhard
2d

Trkf., 1723,
Hist,

docirinm

Justi,

BerL.

Diss,

1T55.
later

work
Essai

1816.

optima

qui

the

on

Philosophle,

mention

le prix

Maine

de

Biran, Expo.sition

Paris, 1819.

H.

C.

hange

mit

unione

frilheren

animce

1839.
the

et

Leibnitz),Leipsic,
Vienna

DoA

1846.

R.

Rechtsprincip

bel

F. B.

Academy).

L., Vienna,

L.^a

allgemeln.

Entwurf

wid

48-62.

einer

of

the

Emile

Berlin

L.'s

Kvet,

of

Papers

L.

L.

Theodicy,

in

Acad,

the

f.

Zeitschr.

Saisset, Discours

Sc,

and

sur

L.''s

G.

Moritz

Kahle,

ex.

E.

notlone

Philos., Vol. V., 1864,

and

Ueber

das

III. of Tr.'s

philos.

de

1857.

Prague,

Element
Hist.

pp.

der
Beitr.

L., Paris, 1857.

A.

of

the

(from

C. A.

(on

the

Thilo

Vienna,

Reportf of
treats

L.^s

Ueb"r

Philosophie,

Philos., Berlin, 1867, pp.

Foucher

de

Careil, L.,

la

the

the

of

Trendelenburg,
in

of

birth

Monadologlen,

Definition

de
lin,
Ber-

relatione

monadas

167-204.

zur

doctrina

substantlale,

anniversary

lb.. 1854

Conceptuallxmus,

Zusammen-

Leibnitii

ihrer

Vergleichung

AncU-

Berlin,

Unive7selle,

ihrem

in

ad

Berl,,
Kant's

Sciences,

Biographie

vinculum

et

monades,

compared

of

Guhrauer,
L.'s

des

stand-point).

Harmonie

centennial

second

Comenim,

tind

in Vol.
la

1822.

eine

la

as

Baumeister,

Voptimisme,

be

Acad,

pour

composee

Ch.

syst^me
sur

critical
the

such

capita, BerL, 1748.

should

the

cl. of

prfistabilirten

Lelbnlti7im

Herbart,

Ueber

Charakteristik,
of

L.,

de

Karl

apu"l

from

und

Leibnitii^

mente

ex

Fr.

le

sur

and

L., Paris, 1860,

de

philosophy,

de Prusse

sc.

however,

ph.

the

Entioicklung

philosophle

Prusse

des

neu-

berg,
edition, Heidel-

revised

Frkf., 1724.

is discussed,
der

Leipsic, 1842)

Kant,

mo7iadologla",

de

sc.

this

Gesch.

der

proeMabillta,

moralis,

written

of

der

von

und

; L.

in

over,
Han-

Klopp,

in which

Leibnitzian

Primaria

which,

June, 1846, the

1852;

Logik

Genach

Careil,

de
and

Giitt.,

osterreich.

Darstellung,
La

of the

Vacad.

(with

philos.

Lehre

of

Vol.

1860

Hannover,

Foucher

Schule, 9d

humani

des

Transactions

materice

de

Zimmermann,

religious philosophy

the

1759

doctrine

21st

the

of

III.,

Reunionsver-

Kunde

works,

vor

Feuerbach,

par

betrachtet, Tiibingen,

commentatio

zur

Vol.

fra7iz. Exjjedition
by

in

Leibnis

Philos.,

zur

Z7i

Darstellung

wiss.

Noun-isson,

corporis

Vacad.

(Inaug. Diss.),Berlin, 1837.

celebration

Ploucquet,

par

the

L.''scTie

Philosophemen

corporis

of the

la

de

Die

Sigwart,

Harte7isteinii

O.

occasion

1849;

W.

in

Verhaltniss

s.

Paris, 1864,

historical

seiiie

m.

single phases
et

leprlxp^'op.

to found

in

kirchl.

fur

Idealismus

des

malt, prcecipue

Konigsberg,

Attempts

of all

einer

1844

of

G.

propose

Leibnitianisine,

du

larger

Ludwig

animi

rempoi'te

the

II. : Leibniz

Ed.,

1741.

Gorlitz,

Optimismus,

Failure

Vesprit

2d

et permissione

origine

Diss, qui

Vol.

treat

harmonla

de

rmindo,

de?i

which

works,

Comm.

remporte

1837,

(Ueber

Beitr.

einer

XIV.,

Edward

fiir Niedersachsen,

edited

been
Loxiis

( Versuch

to

following

the

"

Ansbach,

Entwickelung

die

Hist.

Vereins

Vorschlag

have

times

daa
Pait-

the

additions, 1846;

L. zu^den

Archiv

the

fiber
in

Flan, Leipsic, 1869).

of Erdmann
u.

Z.'s

L.

par

aidition

in

"

Leibniz

neuern

ed., 1735, De

Ueber

sur

2d:

recent

more

Bilfinger,

(Reinhard),

Kant,

lon,

der

are

presentations

Philosophie,

de

1748.

(Z.'.sdgyptlscher

doctrine

Tr.'s

des

deutschen

II., Leipsic, 1859, and

von

hist.

in

Wien,

in

subject

prtseiU^

in

des

1868;

this

to

Blumstengel

II., Part

and

relating

and

and

le prix

Boeckh

Philologen-Versammlung

der

Wiss.

der

d^Egypte,

the

Zeitschr.

bet

separately, Vienna,

works

especial

deserve

earlier

many

; the

( Gesch.

L:scMn

der

( rcorg

Do

Vol.

the

d'exp^dition

which

among

in

Jahrh.,

Societat

einer

Leibnitzian

Philosophle,

of Kuno

G.

K.
the

on

and
eren

1864

Projet

17.

des

Wiss.

Verhaltniss

Philo-

Versuch

recent

itber L.

Kritik,

K.

der

et

Theoclicee,

Italian

Ebeihard,

by

in

vie

remporte

in

more

papers

Vol.

Ascherson,

der

In

la

Geschichte

L.

v.

1787, and

and

philologlschen

{Das

Klopp

into

vols., Breslau, 1842, with

addresses

Ferd.

Akad.

der

the

BarsottL

(by

appeared

Leibnizischen

Hissman,

life of Leibnitz.

L.,

of

i., qui

de

Mich.
for

Magazi7i

several

v.

Gesellschaften, Vortrag

published

also

Hanover,
de

Monatsber.

Grundung

zur

and

schichtsQuellen,

(Eiivres

Hdlfte

zioelten

der

v.

Eloge

with

nelle'
Fonte-

die

ffistoire de

translated

of

Leibnitii

1718, there

der

in

Acad,

Fontenelle

und

edition

1689, by Joseph

in

1720, and,

Elogium

historic

Murr

Paris

year

by Feller,

1740,

Von

Eloges by

the

in

Amsterdam

1769.

the

Allgemeinen

Gottfr. Wilh. Freih.

auf

der

von

Schr., hrsg.

III., ib., 1867), Onno

Stifter gelehrter

als

the

(in

Vol.

and

Kl.

in

Rome

of the

Freih.

others,

A?isichte7i

L.\s

in

the

X., Berlin.

von

accounts

Cf., among

Boeckh's

in

Hannoverscfie

W.

G.

im

vollstandigen

etner

Herrn

Lobschrift

the

of

of

the

preparing

by

to Fontenelle

in

(read

66seq.).

p.

eriid.'"'

actis

Kiistner, Altenburg,

in

Lobreden

in

communicated

Theodicee

Jaiicourt, Leips.,1757.

presented

have

1845.

Theol., etc., in

positiven

sojourn

biography

full

Boston,

English by Mackie,

to L.'s

Rehberg,

Also

II., 1795,

Deutschen,

der

Guhrauer

Entwtirf

von

published

collection

III., 3,

in

(Jancourt),

des

Gotthelf

Abr.

von

1783.

L.''s,Munster,

Leben

vitce Lelbn.

Bailly, BerL, 1769.

par

vorgel.

Ueber

colleasrne

Ertcd., July, 1717, to which,

Leben

Bitters

des

in the

of the

Werke,

Acta

the

AusfUkrlicher

Franz,

ed.

his

Leibniz

95

CENTUET.

first

which,

de

and

Schleiennacher,

Neufville

de

Lamprecht,

deni

aiis

Gottingen

zu

L.

relating especially

notes

G^erman

were

but

Mr.

de

Parts

de

Schleiermacher's
in

notices

1779,

Eloge

sc.

Supplementum

M.

par

Ludovici,

Gunther

with

enlarged

Leibniz

Mr.

Sophie., Leipsic,

; cf.

in

""

den
in the

reports by Eckhart),

on

de

ouvrages

1735

of

Hannoveramcm''''

Otium

Vacad.

Eckhart

insbesoridere.

Leibniz

auf

sche

his

preparing

de

by

edition

in the

by Baring,

notes

Hist,

translation

German

in

latter

18TH

THE

afterwards

and

biographical

alUj. Litt.,VII., Nuremberg,

the

in

Sciences, 1717, printed

whose

Brunswick),

u,

the

by

OF

(Leibnitz'ssecretary

Eckhart

von

of

Kunatgesch.

zur

were

Greo.

House

of the

historiography

PHILOSOPHY

GERMAN

THE

AND

LEIBNITZ,

In

1-47

philo*.

96

juive

Luml,

1863.

1866.

Dan.

1867.

A.

Otto

Hugo

Deutfichen

von

earlier

2d

PMlosophie,

prize

essays

Leibnitzianism
and

Wolff's

Zeiten

relating

Schlosser's

On

Zeller
Vortr.

18

des

1867) ;

that

his

on

Monatsbl.

iiber

on

in

Preuss.

times

of
of

Der

Vol.

(born

at

jurist and

und

specially

Germany
and

be

may

especially

also

Leips., 1865),

in

Ueber

the

33,

Vol.

Lessing

Lessing

and

Preuss.

Aufklarungsphilos.

Laokoon

E.

P.

the

Leibnitz

of

University
in

Moral
of

pp.

the

18.

of

the

(Lubeniecz)

Philosophy

His
at

Leipsic,which

he

it
his

by

his

on

article

Jahrh.,

by

in

life,
Q.

R.

Gelzer's

1622, ob., 1684,

was

Theolog.

der

in

reply

Dilthey,
Rossler,

to

Dilthey,

; Wilh.

bom

was

etude

at

sur

versed

Halle, 1854;
1855

Christenthuvi

Ephraini

Ztir

die

und

Lessi?ig, in

the

Erziehutig

des

Seelemcanderungslehre

Lessing, Paris, 1867;

Leipsic

in 1652.

at Easter

Christian

H.

J.

F.

1867.

father, Friedrich

entered

Jahrh.,

J.

Gotthold

Schwarz,

Sciences),Vienna,

Lessing-Studien

moderne,

of

18

(Berlin,
cf.

(Inang.-Diss.),Munich,

Gotthold

Neue

Stahr

vols., 1866;

Lessing- s

Jacoby,

Ueber

Adolf

also

im
of

Acad,

the

117, especially

and

Cf.

Tr.]

Vienna

Leipsic, died

father

"" 115

Lessing' s Spinosismus

Viber

Christianisme

acZ

(Spencer),

(Promotionsschrift), Rostock,

legal philosopher), who

die

an

which

(Erlangen,

M., 1868)

1860-54), and

541-585."

Geschtchte

zur

3. Sept., 1867

style),1646.

July 1st,new

(Leips.,
Boston

Evans,

Reports
Streit

cited,

already

Guhrauer

; Constantin

Le

Avenfeld

cf. also

des

Mend,

religious principles

and

the

on

(a

Juden-

und

published

were

Christianity, C.

(Paris,1868) ;

Schwab

to works

Beitrag

Jahrb., XX.,

Fontanes,

E.

works

Frankfort

Macht

meta-

Seele

der

in
Spinoza,''''

des

philosophical
to

in den

; Mos.

etc.

Lehre

die

Eridenz

die

religiose

complete

his

Kanngies8er(

and

by

sche

3, 1867

Ueber

His
On

Berlin, 1863, and,

Philosoph,

"

reference

104, April, 1867,

ein

Ed.

Zeller's

1, 1869.

No.

(from

in

reprinted

Unsterblichkeit

Gottes, Berlin, 1785,

deutsche

Danzel

by

seq

in 1841.

Leipsic

at

iiber
die

iiber

Oder

work,

with

in addition

Mendelssohn'

Lessing's

Wilhelm

Leipsic

; Jerusalem

Moses

; Abh.
iiber

Oder

works.

Gustav

die

Wuttke

by

Freiherrn

Christian

Lobschrift anf

X., 1862, p. 47

Berlin, 1755

other

attitude

U7id

Histor.

Phddon

publication), Berlin, 1863 ; Wilh.

19, Nos.

Professor

on

at the

Abicht,

works

Theologie (2d Part,

protest.

Jahrb.

Jacobi's

Judaism,

Lessing

der

Zessing's, ib., October, 1867;

of

contest

Hcinr.

subject in

literature

18th

the

tiie

to

Leibnilzens

seit

general culture,

published

was

Daseiii

das
H.

Esthetics,

dargestellt,

Jacobi-

Lessing

(anonymous

(old |tyle;

of

Stahr's

und

F.

his

on

Reviev/, Vol.

Leibniz

Jacoby,

Gottfried

national
to

Joh.

and

Metaphysik
of the

Wolff'sch^n
of

end

108-139.

1786;

Aufl.

iiber
to

compare,

Theolog

als

Menschengeschlechts,

1640

the

W.

Empflndunge?i,

modem

on

Am.

Zirngiebl,

Gravemann,

der

vols., Leipsic, 184^3-45.

in

history

works

and

Zimmermann,

Jahrb.

the

the

especially

Reinhold,

die

century

Gottsched,

in

Mendelssohn

North

the

Philosophie

Chr.

Spinozist),and

M.,

translation

Lessimj

Preuss.

the

his

and

Lowell,

; Joh.

den

Streitschriften

near

relate

discussions

of

Gesch.

of

Oder

Zeitgeschichte,

innere

[EngUsh

Eberhard

hat

the

18th

in the

autobiography

die

(Leips.,1856) ;

Moses

on

1859).
Ephraim

C. L.

Schwab,

histories

Plato), Berlin, 1767, etc.

was

influence

life

the

von

bei

above-cited

Leibnitz-

der

till

which

and

below,

Besides

the

Joh.

Halle

Morgenstunden

in

his

and

Lessing

works

and

an

from

of

Benjamin

place

fur

On

Frhr.

LeVmUzUtchen

der

sdmmthchen

der

extending

Fortschritte

Frank's

Berlin, 1764, 2.

Phcedo

written

(Quiibicker?)

T.

Briefe

Lessing

George

works,

1861

and

to

Welche

of

compare

others

expulsion

of the

has

G.

the

compare

Historie

Merkwilrdigkeiten

period

Christoph

Joh.

philosophy

Lessings, Berlin, 1786 (in reply

Kayserling

Rob.

and

Wissenschaften,

grandson,

L.

Metaphysik

und

philosophy

AuszUge

und

the

on

ge^chichtlichen Inhalts, Leips., 1865, pp.

asserted

his

W.'s

Berlin, 1783;

Freunde
was

Wolff

Christiiin

of

of

modernization

thum,

of

Critique, W.

vollstandigen

Neueste

and

Berlin, 1790.

Jahrhunderts,

Mendelssohn,

Moses

Halle, 1869.

works.

life

physischen

Sammlung

and

title :

many

relation

to the

Dissert.),Berl.,

Newton,

u.

Logik

der

Leibnitzian
einer

q,gain referred
by

"

philosophy,

Abh.

u.

Kantianism

of

Qef"ch.

writes

be

Wolff, Halle, 1755,

von

will

Kant's

to

Gesdiichte

of the

Entwurf

the

author;

same

einer

fortunes

also

gemacht

history

Gottingen,

propos.,

Leibn.

Durdik,

special reference

Vernuch

(Leips., 1737),

in Deutschland

similar

the

and

which

and

in reference

other

the

published

LeibnUius

Zeit, Halle, 1794-99.

of the

the

the

to

consulted

1737,

"

his

Ausfilhrlicher

under

question,

the

in

history

Philosophie

(Leips.,1738), by

Monadenlehre,

die

Leibiiitianuni, Inaug.

Jos,

Paris, 1863.

Cousin,

iiber

Abfi.

pntrntubilita

1869.

CENTURY.

Victor

par

Akccd.

Svahn,

[inent irieditum

with

school,

die gegenwartiye

in the

Leips.,

ed.,

cf. the

between

auf

Ludovici

G.

Wolff"schen

der

Philosophie

and

bis

rapport

un

18TH

THE

Leipsic, 1870.

Leibnitz, treats

period
C.

by

Aristoteleicn

Leibnitzian

the

of

Leibnitz

work

century

and

avec

harrnonia

de

quain

OF

Oscar

Leibnitz, Munich,

des

Philomphie,

disciple

the

wegen

L.

doctrina,
studiis

Theologle

Leibniz''

Concerning

De

Spinoza^

et

L., Paris, 1863.

de

Leibnitii

Die

Pichlor,

Eberstein,

On

De

nilLOSOPIIY

Z., Descartes

theodicee

Sommer,

Jaooby,

Caspari,

(p. 95)

la

sur

GERMAN

THE

cabbale, Paris, 1861

la

et

J. Bonifas, Etude

on

AND

LEIBNITZ,

in

the

on

L.,
At

the

Nicolai

1661, Jacob

Thomasius,

especiallyin

21st of

jurist,and

the

the

June
from

School

Thomasius
celebrated

history of

ancient

AND

LEIBNITZ,

the

philosophy,was

defended,

Leibnitz

written

him

by

Jena, devoting
of the

end

the

of

degree
him

time

older

before
as

that

at

he

assessors,

Altdorf,where,

the

on

indefinite,decisions
no

for

inclination

Altdorf,

at

upon

with

contact
Baron

he

influence.

Of

Christian

Johann

Leipsic

to Altdorf

In

the

mentis

Scientiarum.

peared

under

the

Beiserum

A
title

treatise

de eradicando

Corpus

Juris.

Nizolius'

De

At

the

Veris

his

in which
that

he

develop

his

for

of

he

commenced

journey

in March

part of the

time

from

appointment
Amsterdam

as

Duke
as

to

of

the

to

the

Johann

librarian

Hanover,

year
of

Frankfort

the

and

Friednch

in

the

of

tribunal

He

He

went

1670
had

it

of

In

to

and
been

efforts

the

tarried

Boineburg,

journeyed

December, 1676, he

Paris

entered

Diss, de
in

1674.

active

at

reunion,
till laterLeibnitz,

epistoUimAnani,
Socinian,
a

In

by
upon

than

councillor

in'
to
in

March, 1672,
in

Londonuntil

1673,

and

October, 1676, a

the year

from

for
not

was

1676, while
Braunschweig-Liineburg and
son.

of

pseudo-phUmophos-

Electorate.

he

the

Catholics, Leibnitz,

the

wish

of the

of

edition

new

of 1670, L. became

Paris, where

von

Wissowatius, the

summer

Lasser,

improvement

in

with

the

1668, ap^

(in particular, a

to favor

At

in

Andreas

Herm.

reperta,logicacontra

London.

to

discendce docen-

Spizelius'Epistola ad

Catholicism,

Protestants

nova

Boineburg's

at Hanover.

where

at

arguments

In

Paris

same

tutor

printed

them.

in

during the

him

Leibnitz

by

especiallyzealous, but

per

privy

first

possessed great

nova

prepared

essays

induced

in

with

jurisprudentialFrank.,.
in the Be Aug*-of Bacon

With

and

been

by

came

in

Leibnitz

to

are

himself
he

been

still

(written by

notes

the

revision,the highest
the

had

and

'69,for

convert

was

part

to refute

superior court

received

of

already

Defensio Trinitatis

the

returned

had

positive counter-proof.

was

at

De

entered

association

pKilosophandicontra

Batione

reunion

important

an

rather

sought

Vera

have

to educate

was

the lead

and

him

positive laws

Nuremberg

Metliodm

positions

given

might

1664

precedence
to

justice. Having

year

1669.

Boineburg,

Spinola {ob. 1695)

took

in 1669

which

de

Royas

in 1668

Protestant

stay at Mayence,

Leibnitz

wrote

1660

early as

as

during

of

which
Nizolii).^

By Boineburg, who, himself

Rome

labored

Principiiset

stilo philosophicoMarii

he

with
atheistas^

contra

atheismo^Augsburg,

instance

the

his

desideratarum

followed

he

above, " 3, p. 11),with

(Parma, 1553, see

entitled

The
denied

thesis, entitled

him

work

the

was

natural

against Atheism, composed

Leibnitz

Mayence,

at

of

Mayence,

the

1666, and)

Confessionatures,

his

In

for

of

Elector

Elector

CatalogusDesideratorum

1667.

councillor

the

in

degree

qiices-

1666, was

connected

where

that,

to the

up

subjunctocutahgo

cum
dceque jurisprudenticB^

Ant.

Philipp,
to

him

defended

he

seu

to

give

at

Toward

in

the

; but

statesmen.

who

studied

Leipsic

right therewith

greatest importance
Boineburg,

von

he

Weigel.

combinatoria.

not

principles

and

former.

his Ars

succeeding period farther

next

scholars

dedicated

Leibnitz

from

journey

in the

sought

Erhard

instructor, which

academical

an

distinguished

(minister) of

councillor

of

work

at

order

demands
the

to

of 1663

summer

in 1666

1666,

he

paper

according

alchemists.

Johann

this

made

be
the

with

intercourse

in

the
a

under

graduation

later

of November,

5th

perplexis in jure

casibus

off for

piit

was

the

to obtain

for the

and

the

complete

more

from

more

in jure
Specimen cUfficaltatis

his

; in

youth

doctorate

for the

suitors

his

of

account

on

In

mathematics

sought

he

of law, which

doctor

yet

and

tion
Thomasius, disquisiin which
{Deprmcipio individid),

and
jure coUectcB^

ex

found

of Jacob

presidency

Leipsic

at

appeared

97

CENTUET.

holding Aristotle
he

borrowed

individuation

especially to

pliihmpMcai mnoiniores

tiones

Without

he

doctrine.

nominalistic

1664

the

under

18TH

THE

estimation,

period

later

principle of

the

the

year

at

May, 1663,

attention

his

in low

Plotinus,

; but

on

for

declared

had

he

and

Plato

in Descartes
in

OF

distinguished professor.

most

also

Scholastics,as
satisfaction

PHILOSOPHY

GERMAN

THE

way

the

in

Paris, L.

Hanover

of London

duties

an

andi

of. hie-

98

AND

LEIBNITZ,

office.

the

Among
the

Dutch

of

scholars

mathematician

and

Spino/a,

of Dec,

and
whom

10,

of

theorems

Through

Oldenburg's intervention
in

whom

laid
France

was

with

Boineburg)
under

Leibnitz,
intersit

by

already corresponded,

sent

to

the

title

of the

of

works

principal work

Consilium

in 1799

1803

in

be

to

copy

copied

had,

Newton

fundamental

he

of

paper

'

; he

the

function

published
Nova

of the

Newton

infinitesimal

was,

1676

year

from

Newton)

discovery

of two

variable

the

so-called
to the

"

rial
memo-

he

gave

the

name

was

tangents,

developed
of

et minimis.

the

dependence

but

'Acta

the

one

these
this

of the

is

of momenta

pendently
inde-

lus,"
calcu-

more

was

well

as

fect
per-

increments

quantity

in
with

as

to which

dependent

on

the
or

become,

limiting value
one

lished
pub1086,

in

Erudit^rum:'

limiting value

the

first

altogether

Newton

With

smaller

'

he

partly

Differential

Fluxions,

1684, in the

determine

not
"

viduals.
indi-

few

finished

was

his

to

1071, and

But

(perhaps

Leibnitz
had

in

10, 1072.

Dec.

it,in its

communicated

on

is

is

and

given,

the

constantly changing quantities flowing {jiuentes)quantities ;

differences

a
was

ions,"
of Flux-

"Arithmetic

the

him

quantities,of which

of the

it

whole

the

edition,but

phlet
pam-

caused

which

of

InttegralCalculus"),when

nature

English

an

Mortier

by

maxiynis

pro

in

written

first in Nov.

substantially,to

in

views

same

problem

Calculus

Newton's

other, constantly approaches,

backwards
termed

his

the

Avith

Methodtis

problem

conversely (in the

conclude

derived.

in substance

of the increments
"

In

followed

parts of the larger

which
philoso]-)M(F^

Frincipiamatliematka

in 1687.

"

afterwards

soon

opuscule

an

in

Klopp

was

Paris,from

possession of

had

con-

of Leibnitz, in 1864).

J. Collins,dated

letter to

suggestions

entitled

Leibnitz
ratio

print

agreed

in form

'

in

appeared
which

in his

theory

and

by

up

Francke

English ministry procured

it to

of his

V.

application to the

partly through
a

in

no

originated

Onno

of the

General

1072

Epoclievon

been

to

by

quod

eo,

seq.) ; this

published

was

sent

ed. of works

by him,

in its

and

did

especiallythrough
the

named

so

features
This

and

and

1060,

100

French

the

Careil in Vol.

in his

was

still

Regi dari potest;

presentation

oi' it

1803, and

in

de

(published by

Dissertatio''''the

jMgyptiacum,

de

and

Justa
abstract

an

was

1671, drawn

year

of
be

expeditione ^gi/ptiaca regi Francice

concise

more

in der

Klopp,

1005

in

discovered

and

the

and

Foucher

published by
published by Onno

were

first

"

De

who

Leibnitz

power

plan (which

:
jjoliticm

^gyptum

seu

matter

the

by

^'Kurmainz

Guhrauer's

into

the

the

France

which

of this

of

demonstrationis

this

Hanover

at

end

1076).

1072, Leibnitz

year

of

Turks,

sketch

the

the

attention

Vol. II,,p.
Leibnitz,1st series.

Consilium

the
him

given

towards

Orientis

Hanover,

; of

short

the

October, 1071, concerning

optimo consilio,quod potenUssimo

^gyptiaciim,. (Of

copy

through Holland,
in

of the

power

in

Newton,

Egypt, whereby

the

London,

at

however, only

Paris,in
of

time

the

Specimen

at

matical
mathe-

Spinoza, Boyle

letters with

passage

conquest

same

also

respecting

from

the

broken.

and
pro^wnenda- junta dissertatio^

the

for

Paris

de

his

first residence

at the

but

in HoUandiam
eocpeditio

edition
L. 's

was

improesentiarum sen

cluditur
his

had

exchanged

letter

with

"

and,

of

saw,

of

to be

inconsiderable, was

means

(whom

first

occasion

affairs,and

German

from

diverted

he

the
and

Newton's

tangents

Auctions

friend

the

plan

increased,

to be

Sciences,also

him

to

of

also

his

his

XIV.

Louis

before

calculus

nication
commu-

philosophical doctrines

with

Leibnitz

he

During

optical question.

an

On

Cambridge,

Spinoza, with

visited

of

Academy

chemist,

then

the

to

into

mathematician

of the

method

him

Cartesian; Huyg-ens,

German

the

some

CENTURY.

broug-ht

the

really communicate

Barrow's

relative

and

was

did

mathematician

the

Collins

Tsch.

concerning

Newton

with

acquainted

that

secretary of the

Oldenburg,

were,

18TH

THE

sojourn abroad

Paris, Amauld,

at

became

Collins

1072, to

his

OF

physicist ; Tschimhausen,

he

provided

"

PHILOSOPHY

whom

with

important

most

logician,through

GERMAN

THE

to

other.
to the

(or ^'-principiajamjamnascentia

AND

LEIBNITZ,

GERMAN

THE

and

magnitudinum),

iitarum,

PHILOSOPHY

limiting values

to the

"'prima nasce/itmmjJroportio''^)the
of two

once

infinitelysmall

as

which

limiting value,
of the

quotient.

the

that

learned
and

problems,

of

the

21st,1677

(and
by intimation, but
his

Leibnitz

did

last letter
II.

letter

ahludere

non

of

seq.

in the

third

by Leibnitz
that
method

in
for

method

and

that

himself

authorized
of his
In

)
Newton

April,1713,
made

It

his
of

in

giving

methods
than

was

method.

far

the

made

method
not

as

; in

but

and

by

method

germs

for

of

the

fallen

of the

decision

later

this

ancients,

in

idea

idea

partly by

transcendent
were

Cavallieri's

determining the maxima

the

upon

him,

and

how

thought

of

the

the

read

pendence
inde-

period,

by

discovery,
the

on

lowed.
disal-

committee

24th

partly just,and
Newton

being

and

of

partly
actually

only preceded

unjust,

was

for

adapted

fundamental

to

lion,
scho-

it to

(When

was

terpreted
in-

when

Leibnitz

identical,since

are

in this

recognition

was

pressed
supto hia

of Newton

report
decision

Leibnitz

better

partly by Leibnitz,and

the

whose

he

possession of

first made

in favor

to the

otherwise

he had

[Newton's]

to which

as

ducen-

relative

says
in

undetermined.

at

with

agree

Erud.^ 1684,

in

perfect

more

of the

the

method

brothers

"Method
minima

in

the

of

and

"method

of

"

the

as

finished
more

tinent
per-

while

Johann

adopted

Indivisibilia

him

the

discovered,not

was

Jacob

of ordinates

and
is

Newton's,

functions), who

contained

and

than

use

far

so

particular, the terminology adopted by Leibnitz

in hand

merely

Leibnitz,not, perhaps, altogether independently

of

method

not

communicated

June

replied

been
He

was

had

an

ma
II., Sect. II.,Lem-

that

containing

methods

But

public.

identical,the

Act.
not

had

be

by

involvente

dated

tangents, etc., even

his

This

year.
two

made

tangentibus

the
had

discovery again after Newton,

s tme

the

from
leaves

Sciences,

done
ber
Octo-

method,

Book

to

answered

decided

was

Leibnitz,while

the
to

subjects

(The

of

just,in

so

who

that

drawing

controversy

same

(with especial reference

employed
mat's

Academy

fruitful development

douilli

arose

in

understood).
fact

as

had

through

to Newton

de

ferential
dif-

dated

might perhaps

interpretation Newton,

in the

of Newton

by Newton,

which

controversy

discovery before
the

Scholium

published

Newton,

to the
most

there

The

Royal

and

are

that

sequel

the

appointed by

method,

here

calculus

NewtoniM

results],and

same

Newton

discovery,

own

the

the

method

first Scholion

expressions,Leibnitz

regarding the

Leibnitz.

or

unjust.

in

Minima,

he, too,

his

those

13th, 1676,

Newton,

replaced by another,

the

slightly different

but

his

of

letter

the

the

Priiiclpia''''
(which, however,

and

it to be

communication
and

in

ceived
con-

mathematical

fluentes quantitates

Scholium

the

wished

that

fluxional

Newton,

"

1726,

year

10, 1672, because

Maxima

was

discovered

differ-

and

analytical discoveries

of his method

June

solving certain

to him

this

publication

Newton

accomplishing

in fact it

Leibnitz

variatione
the

quantity

one

from

the

celare wluit

qu(B

his

irrational

[one

that

ed., p. 226 seq.), of

determining

several

thereupon,

in

Dec.

the

called

dated

year,

communicated

it in 1687

his

same

correspondence, but

mentioned

than

to

contained

equations
like

reply

the

edition, of the

Oollias,of

to J.

of

communication

respecting

remarked

On

this

; 2d

(p. 253

in the
a

respecting

Oldenburg),

").

Leibnitz,

method

August

(" arbitror

mention

not

of

Leibnitz

detail,and

in

of

infinitelysmall,

are

Oldenburg,

to

'"''data mquatione quotcunque

by Newton

intimated

dis,ah

an

through

sent

Newton's

intimation

et vice versa.''^

fiuxiones inmnire

that

27th

of the

differences

these

discovered

information

sentence

ratios

Leibnitz

differences

the

received, through

latter,together with

anagram

of

had

the

on

then

he

definite

24th, more
the

Newton

wrote,

thing;

same

between

letter

the

variable

relation

By

of

99

CENTTJEY.

these
differences were
quantity,when
vanishing (decreasing' in infinitum)^differentials,
and

or

the

name

18TH

THE

"fluxions."

of

constantly approaches, when

other

Leibnitz

of

values

successive

OF

"

exhaustion"

[1635],in

which

Bar-

Leibnitz*

Fer-

sufficed

in

100

the

LEIBNITZ,

AND

of rational

case

THE

Newton's

Such,

substance, has

in

investigations began,

own

mathematicians

in the

appendix

333-330)

pp.

if

been

the

to

18TH

THE

OF

The

of

Differential

CENTUEr.

method

the

with

stady

tangents).

Euler, Lagrange, Laplace, Biot, and

the

brief

of Brewster's

fluxional

the

in Barrow's

sources,

translation

"

says

and

judgment
other

German

merely possessed

we

the

(cf.,among

Biot

PHILOSOrUY

with
expressions" in Wallis' ^'"Arithmetica Injinitorum^''''

of which

other

GEKMAN

collection

Calculus

would

calculus, in

of

their

opinions

Life of Newton^ Leipsic,1833,

the

still be

form

wonderful

in which

tion,
crea-

it is

exposed

in Newton's

works."
(Cf. Montucla, GescJi. der Math. III. p. 109; C. J. Gerhardt, Die
Entdeckwrig der Differentialrechnung,
Halle,1848, Die Eiitdeckung der huheren Analysis^
Halle, 1855 ; H.Weissenborn, Die Principien der holier en Analym, aUhist.-krit. Beitrag
Oesch. der Math., Halle, 1850 ; H. Sloman, L.'s Anspruch auf die Erfindung
eur
derDifin English,London, 1800.)
To Leibnitz
ferentinlrechnung,Leipsic, 1857 ; the same
longs
bethe

tesimal

Calculus

Newton

the

leading him,
of

controversy,
Leibnitz

commissioned

was

vidth

biittel
in his

the

member

of the

office

cellor

Ludolph

Hugo

succeeded

his

undertaken

House

of

the

1700, Accessiones

to

the

Annales

friend

and

Ernst

Georg

of

daughter
who

more

sympathy

stimulating

(in 1084) with

III., and

in

induced

at Berlin

1701
the

work

also

was

of

rank

son

with

his

mother

and

Palatinate

Princ.

Ph.)

his

latter

the

led

of

Brandenburg
I. of

Frederick

the

to found

(which afterwards, on

(on
the

the

11th

occasion

of
of

As

1093-

became

and

Friedrich
Ernst

August,
Sophie

the

by
the

most

after

1088

in

to

{oh. 1705),

himself

June, 1700)

(a

Elizabeth,

Charlotte
for

and

by

relative
counsellor

their

Supported

its

the

published

first

Princess

Sophie

(who

of

following

Princess

the

the

Prussia).

in 1088

him

Mantissa,

Johann

fullest

was,

Vice-Chan-

history

(in 1098) of

daughter

with

en-

justice,a

philosophico-theological speculations, even

Frederick

King

(1092).

sister

he

transactions

in the

of

sequently
; sub-

illustrationi inserm-

fully completed,

Dukes

later

Wolf

on,

the

things,

appended

engaged

in

library,

of

the

to

other
an

the

her

her

Elector

ence,
influ-

Society of

being remodelled

under

of Sciences).
II: in 1744, was
(Cf. Christian
designated as the Academy
de Prusse depuis Leihn.,Paris, 1850de Vacademie
Bartholmess, Ilistoire philosophique
Friedrich

51 ; Adolf

Trendelenburg,

Leibn.

und

die

philos.TMtigkdt

"

on

August, who in 1079

Leibnitz,in a journey

Italy (which

(ob. 1714),

; her

teacher, entered

Infini

ducal

1078

which

Ernst

successor

and

casting

councillor

relative

with

intimate

the

the

and

the

From

privy

Electorate

an

the

in

Braunschweig-

Brunsdicensium

(never

differences

of

reigniag prince

government,

researches

with

so

his

into

Frederick

of

the

of

published, among

Leibnitz

so

her

marriage

Leibnitz

the

personally

of

V.

in Leibnitz

of

of

with
dij)lomaticus,

the

on

less

dedicated

Descartes
revered

Sciences

He

to the

was

Friedrich

But

to that

excuse.

Library.

Germany

instituted

Rome),

labored

was

but

Ludwig,

whom

to

of Hanover

; he

of

by Diike

in

form

in
unobjectionable),

Ulrich

in that

Historicm,1098, Scriptoresrerum

Leibnitz

August

Wolfenbiittel

through

juris gentium

he

and

family

Commissioned

series

superiatendence

of the

of

priority controversy (which

scarcely admit

by Anrton

Friedrich

Brunsvicenses.

elevation

the

the

to

by Newton.

necessary

afterwards

1087-90

years

and

entes,1701-11,

him

justice {Kaazlei fur Jmtizsachen),over

Johann

Codex

was

with

of the

presided.

in 1089

and

conducted

charged

Hofrath, and
of

discovered

history

Braunschweig-Liineburg.

compilations

Pertz)

also

was

brother

in

Vienna,

to

the

conducted

which

charged

was

superintendence

of ducal

quality

to that

means

to write

(1091 seq.) he

which

truth,

with

discovery,subsequent

investigations respecting

and

plagiarism,he

of historical

interest

Hanover

At

"

and

relativelyindependent
earlier

own

materially superior

of that

period

his

in

suspicion

in the
itself,

and

ingenious

an

to which

but

influential

also

were

of

glory

of Newton,

der

Akademie

im

torigen

102

AND

LEIBNITZ,

request

of Prince

opment

that

those

in ideas

and

In

Works,
and

should

adhere

the
the

doctrine
with

for

metaphysics

and

and

of

about
15

1000

to

que

je

ans

ce

n'est

"''

1680),

in

only gradually,
totelian
the Aris-

The

with

the

from

times

many

blen jeune

commence

entiercs

joumles

I
I

came

turned

the

to

mal,
for-

real

substances,

Jiaving their good

letter

20

"

plupart
from

(hence

ri'avais pas

je

et

ia

ana

Thomas

to
"

p. 29

de

m'.diter

won

when

developed

(Cf. the

clMh'ration

farther

only

(see above) I.,Supplement,

une

Mechanism

material

phenomena

other."

Rosenthal,

motion,

and

the

were

but

each

of

revised

substances

phers,
philoso-

myself, whether
But

the

the

philosophical

the

of

laws

of

modem

called

doctrine

of

and

apres

his

to mathematics.

me

with

edition

the

woods

deliberate

to

forms.

simple

Guhrauer

des

of

entelechies, and

connected

j^ai

car

encore

hois pour

prendre parti enCependant fai cJiangcet recliange sur de nouvelles bnnieres,et

12 ans'''' {i.e., since
about
1685) ^''queje me trouve satls-

depuis environ

que

order

merely phenomena,

promenais

me

in

enfiiiarrit.es

ite

ont

et Democrite.

tre Aristote

de\

advisable,

dominant,

(in Erdman's

piece

Mechanism
of

or

were

(18),1697, in

sentiments

mes

it

himself

fell in with

school,I

conducted

of

the monads

things
8

May

gradual

deemed

following concerning

little

substantial
and

theory

foundation, and

proper

Burnet

the

in

years,

of
me

Montmort

de

conceived, after having

that

material

that

CENTURY.

only by

was

likewise

of philosophy then

the

lower

alone

grounds

and

conceptions,

and

de

ultimate

last

at

schools

relates

left the

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104

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105

CENTURY.

complete analysis discloses

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18X11

THE

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OF

PHILOSOPHY

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of

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Vol. 34, 1859, p. 63

since

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a
London, IfiGl,and also John Wilkins' Essay toward
pkilosopliica,
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a
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early

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which

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letters

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Zeitscfir.f. Ph.,

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106

in the

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To

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hand,

seeks

that

from

grow

the

three

piety

ipso negot'io
nascuiitur)^

Distributive
to the

of

of

of the

in his Method

of

principles of
honeste

or

Roman

The

nature
be

Injure

each

other,
and

can

unmindful

by

be

must

of

{cequi-

intercourse

equal

as

injurious

neminem

due,

also

in

also

at

which

(as

and

live

Strict

the

nance
mainte-

the

positive
eternal

(according

he

had

to

also

done

the

three

cuique tnbuere.,
In this interpretation

honestly.
of

ing
accord-

to the

Imdere.,suuin

conception

own

other.

due.

and

acts

{qum

each

to

Submission

sense,

attempts

his

by his

more

of

this

than

justice

order
will

which

by

that

belief,that

the

the

cases

but

we

physics

thus

must

from

the

effects,

followed

by

true

piety
divine
and

by

combined

that

with
that

order

o.^

in

in whatever

the

time,

we

take

way

depends

from
tion,
illustra-

will

causes

variations

of

on

into

deduced

be

use

very

depend

when

By

reason.

continuous

variations

not

same

the

themselves

be

wisdom,

hence

continuous

not, at

can
explained
ovly
principles of physics must

be

should

accomplish

mechanics

and

intelligence,and
the

to

world

the

should

is able

the

particular phenomena

The

united.

Providence

principles of

supreme

in
be

all

mechanically explained,

intelligence;

concludes

in

be

fundamental

the

on

conceptions of

physico-mechanical

designs,

perfections ;

is founded

of Leibnitz

should

; the

means

Leibnitz

conditions

but

of their

direction

divine

phrases
to each

give

word

strictum^ cequitas^a.nd pietas to

:

guishes
distin-

commutative

of the

justice,aims

Leibnitz
?w

so

men,

jurists.

consideration
the

the

all

Leibnitz

(or punishment)

universal

the

loves

love.

wise, i.

consideration, in order,

reward

prevention

to reduce

of the

charity

commercial

respects

into

distributive

in

(Juibi-

spects
above. Vol. I., " 50),re-

(see

only of earthly happiness.

controlled

was

in

in itself.

one,

no

the

justice

all virtues

philosophical system

of mechanical
the

love,

or

is

and
theologico-teleological
exclude

for

serves

justiceexpressed by

mvere,

of individuals
the

in

justice {justitia universalis).

from

in other

men

habit

above. Vol. I., "

see

sense

the

by

reason,

and
justice (Justitiadistributiva),

arise

determine

to

Jurisprudence)

Leibnitz

of the

considers
deserts

monarchy

includes

Aristotle)it

it

which

latter

frequent exercise

who

this

narrower

distributive

men

happiness, though

divine

or

by

on

other

(which

justice {jas strictum)^in

in the

Leibnitz, following

equity

; but

peace

love

ness
happi-

the

on

the

as

the

is he

man

universal

same,

enforced;

be

furtherance
laws

of the

measure

justicemay

in the

guided

is the

controls

utilitatis

joy accompanied
be

benevolence

Aristotle

the

justice takes

is

of

whether

definition,

others

terminology,

good

strict

justice:

and

of

must

Justice

which

virtue

the

among

Love

is

differences

those

' '

defines

The

probitas)which

justice,says

only

omni

sight of,and,

happiness

Aristotelian

the

caritas)^in

sensu

probity {pietas vd

or

Commutative

ex

vocis

angustiare

lost

which

benevolence.

commutativa), equity,
justice(jicstitia
tas vel

ah

delight

as

ability,e|/9,arising from

of wisdom.

of natural

the

Spinoza

Leibnitz

or

to

justice is

degrees

is not

passion

it.

habit

dictates

permits

in

of

is

{caritas)is universal

follows

reason

as

of love

in

number

question,

merc(marius^

non

Hanover,

at

prefixed

controverted

definition

is found

Love

esteeming (a

or

Charity

"., which
far

{amor

the

by

definition

in the

faculty, Swa/xis, according

50).

The

personal satisfaction

cause.")

justice may

tus) of loving
of the

love

answer

of this satisfaction

source

of its external

order

to

of

element

qualificationis wanting
idea

Leibnitz
dijulomaticus^''''

juris gentium
disinterested

as

Leibnitz

treaties,published by

in the fundamental

chemistry,etc. )

alterius delectari)^
in which
{arnare sive dUigere est felicitate

of others
one

and

acts

juridical conceptions.

and

respectIt,separatiis), he

the

public

mathematics,

of

signs

is contained

of truth

Whatever

in the

is realized

plan
of

collection

the

1693.

of this

cited.

above

paper

be

lowed
fol-

in

fihe

given

on

those

cpn-

LEIBNITZ,

AND

(He

says,

ditions.
de

dessous

"

de la

this

could

nature

certain
divisions
series

the

be

The

doctrine

of monads

)mmunicated

It

in and

Acta

and

secundum

the

not

product of

of the

Descartes

time

of

nullam

posse

with

that

in

dimna

e., in

merely thinking

pos^ble
that

the

there
extended
of

been

for him

1669,

as

be
and

which

(that

they

wills

their

himself,

letter

substantial

in

also

matter

would

bodies

proved

indivisible

therefore
consist,

that

Leibn.
.

are

be

creation

or

that
bodies

Epist.

de rebus

of

in

in

"

The

But

as

other

endowed

extended

and

fundamental

plausible. Leibnitz

rendered

Spinoza's doctrine, if it had

extended
an

substances

substances.

aggregate

atoms,

be

the

on

but

merely

passivo

agendl, non

of

; that

generated,

But

he

held

that

these

because

the
and

certain

respect

been

substances
must

real
are

similar

still be

substances,

indestructible

perish only by annihilation, according

and

as
an

philosophicis
mere

vi

rebus

ndemta

between

was

to

was
or

at

of action.

merely extended,

as

exist
it

had

still affirmed

power

Spinosisrnum.)

soul

indivisible,cannot

annihilation)

in

to assent

aggregates

only by creation, and

extension,

others,

PulcJire notas, in

dualism

there

the

and

this Leibnitz

Spinoza's (psychologicaland)

respect,

belief

not

and

Descartes

determined,
mass

mere

1669

the

is

From

and

(published

as

of the

in

con-

legibus

(theological or anti-theological)opinion
(Cf

Cartesian

unity of body
this

the

smallest

no

the

removed,

was

obliged, in

regarded

was

as

that

Gassendi

edition, p. 161

Erdm.'s

not,

universe.

Thomasius

to the

only substance.

by

motus

naturae

which

"

in

circa

et aliorum

revocandis

consist

it involves

that

easily lead

with

Jac.

to

v), but

in the
cannot

distinguiincidique

matter

to retain

exist

in

proportion

divisibilityof

can

the

is the

substance

of the

have

in

substantia

proportion

conception

corporeal objects

as

of force

the

and

appeared

quantitatem
admirandis

in

33,

March

Savans

Cartesii

first

was

Arnauld,

which

assertion, that

1697, and

Venice,
des

causas

is

change

392).
before

dated

paper,

pi'o

quantity

unchanged

of

law

p.

JournM

siias

his

the

principal
continuous'

particular to

semper

ad

velocity (m

Leibnitz

in

recipiendi retinendique Jiabilitatem,et

motus

force,i.

would

God

Hoffmann,

eas

of
"

the

remains

"

passivity could

mere

esse

hand,

v')

nature
nor

and

mass

rather

this

Leibnitz

one

the

eandem

detegendis et

impenetrability alone, but

Spinoza,

Fred.

ad

but

believed, and

and

doctrine
of

the

supposed,

extension

motion,

by

memorahilis

demonstrate

sought
the

Deo

in

one,

the

pre-established harmony

in

erroris

matics
mathe-

variable

exist

Erdm.

mathematical

in

; but

otherwise

field of

all

must

ed.

individuals,

articles
in

actiones
to

velocity (m

that

concludes,
earlier

of

quantity

the

by

square

had

of

Specimen dynamicum

the

in

vires et mutuas

1695),Leibnitz

taught,

volunt

quam

afterwards

^Arca corporum
in

different

{Brevis demonstratio

1686
,

nari),

in the

public

Between

by leaps ;

distinctlyin

most

effect

since

the

continuously

employed

and

the

that

gradueUe^'' of species is secured.

nothing

of

number

admits

great

very

in

animals), there

not

was

Lipsiensium. Already

Erud.

naturm,

lem

to

even

on

^'"connexion

Bruno)

1686, and

after

made

was

\ctaErudhtorwn

term

Giordano

by Leibnitz

written

(Yet

{Nouv. Ess., IV., 16,

(which

from

and

and

nature,

continuity."

borrowed

probably

)90.

of

law

produces

wisdom.

the

in

Bayle,

Leibnitz

particular times.)

plants

in

1687.

to

principles or simple things,

depends

at

beings, whereby
by steps

goes

of

which

usiy

of beings ("?.
^., between

part of my

sometimes

infinite

quantity,

Bayle, Amst.

resulte.) This

en

letter

an

qu^ellese puisse

qui

ce

in

diminuee

etre

il faut

dans

down

107

CENTUKT.

pent

cos

est pose,

donnee

first laid

case

of

work

qui

ce

grandeur

variation

ISTH

THE

differencede deux

ou

toute

in the

so

OF

dans

Leibnitz

discontinue

to vary

^'Everything

le

be

cannot

of intermediate

stters

de

la

Lettres,par

des

slight

possible for

cases

dessous

au

"

not

it is

Lorsque

donnee, in datis

BepubUque

things composed

afl"ruis that

ras

example

PHILOSOPHY

continuity," which

of

law

Nouvelles
"

for

grandeur

toute

aussi diminuee

trouver
is the

GERMAN

THE

to

as

God

souls, which

108

AND

LEIBNITZ,

Leibnitz

likewise

stances

De

soieM

were

sais comm.ent

ne

vous

m/ynades

ces

par

d'une

autrenient

car

the

meditations

of

vivans

exist

128),
^''

latter, mere

selon

monades

et alors

or

which

Joh.

Friedr.
at

of

greater place

1685, that

of

The

and

the

1672,
English
Be

"

More

as

un

materia

only

"

It

Leibnitz

Leibnitz

of the

manifests
mass

conception

the

etc.)

the

to find

grounds

there

material,

be

la

de

there

but

not, like

existence

soul.

In

letter

the

{points de

simple substance, being

of the

only

Op. Ph.,

nature,

points, but

thing,
every-

exists

composite

cannot

seat

writes

extra

partes,

at

was

later

that

impressed

are

led

to

to Duke

the

we

and

it

by

us

upon

; if

mind

assign

must

the

to

into

cated
lo-

mind

"not

therefore

can

be

objects of

the

a
flect
re-

first in

epoch, however, probably

matter

materia

simple substances, having

alone

itself

depends

of force

substantim

that

as

substance

as

which
in

(in distinctioD

is pure

must

being

every
from

capable
finite
the

Erdm.,

conceive

{antitypia),on
pp.

all

157, 678).

substances,

In

1714),

it

free

in

mediate
interto

all hindrances

monad

from

which
If it is

the

mass,

all

called

potentiality.

ity
impenetrabil-

by the

follows,says

substance

passive side,

a
or

the

Prin-

Erdmann's

{La

of action

aggregate

actuality {actus purus),

of resistance
ed.

is

paper,

the tightened stringof

about

(written

tence
exis-

needs

have

its force.

manifest

it may

raison

capacity

only

as

the

Er^id.,1694)
to

and

"

in the

says

mere

needs

produced, just

is also

there

prima
force

be
that

en

force

active

may

itself;the

don,
Lon-

naturm,

substances

assumed

Act.

substantim,in

action

and

in order

to all

{visactiva) is (as Leibnitz

while

action

de tita

of whom

latter

conception

English jjhysician,

an

"

attributed

the

of the

aid

energetica seu

'are

notion.e

of action

{Op. Ph.,
we

ideas

force

et de

by the

defined

partially Glisson

Cudworth,

and

Yet

be

must

followed

grace, fondes

d' action).

; God

an

loosed

la

defines

calls

secunda)

Passivity

Since

was

analysis of

without,

that

to be

et de

capable

etre

from

in order

la nature

ed., p. 714,
which

partes

Active

capacity

mere

needs

cipes de

11 aurait

Savans, 1695, in

only passive, since

single point

motion, instinct,and

positively stimulated
bow

concentres

professes after long

real, independent

soul

which

de natura

primus philosophimemendatione

the

is

21, 1671, he

simple substances

plastic force ").

removed

est

to it

Tractatus

in which

between
be

or

Platonists, such

of

veritables

des

impossible

unities

of the

at

to the

advanced

of

author

it is

parts.

true

the

motions,

(In teaching this Leibnitz

of force.

substances

points.)

mere

unities

true

of

as

May

actions.

parts and

Leibnitz

nature

which

that

hence

and

ascribe

must

all its

upon

dated

all the

together,
we

in

that

{Journal

Je

justement

place, where

that

doctrine

chases.

oud''univers

p. 124) Leibnitz

points possessing

Cartesian

touted

c' est

seule substance.

qu!une

points, like mathematical

exact

are

Brunswick,

sensation, meet

the

the

by

de

en

simple,et

dans

des

reste

au

"metaphysical points" {Syst. nouv.

were

substance). (Leibnitz early taught

assumption

XXXVI.,

which

clwses sont

autant

la nature

himself

conglomeration

il y

le

tout, Jiors de Dieu, serait passager,

de

nouvea"u

alone,

but

Car

edition,p.

dans

contraire

au

be

les monades

toutes

deux

ces

sub-

Spinoza would

Erdmann's

tou jours subsistans

Spinosa, il rCy

Works,

but
Tnodalites,''''

that

in

rapport

aucun

detruit.

convinced

have

matter

it

as

p.

said

la multitude

de

Spinosisme;

de Vunivers

simple substances,

atoms,

ed. Erdm.,

que,

Philos.

infinitum,is

also

formal

in

unity

in
must

the

finallyto

true

of

tirer quelque

en

Systeme

entitled

ed.

He

or

OENTUBT.

unextended
indivisible,

Bourguet^

autre

une

n'aurait

Spinosisme est

le

que

paper

Erdmann's

The

representation

monade

une

pouvez

quHl y a de monades, au lieu

raison, s'il n'y avait point de
In

la

perceptiona

ainsi dire de miroirs

etpour

18TH

THE

on) monads.

{Lettre II. d Mr.

perception m'est

la tendance

les monades,

OF

queje definis
perceptionet appetiteilfaut que

Car

donees.

(from 1G97

monads.

no

PIIILOSOPnY

indivisible substances.

as

Leibnitz

by

la mardere

Vappetitest

GERMAN

considers

termed

were

right,if there
720

TIIE

aid

of

Leibnitz

the

in

110

Further, the soul

body.

the universe,

of

quantity

same

in

progress

therefore

not,

left the

any

especiallythrough Malebranche
rather

is the

It

other

substances,

above-mentioned

each
{spontaneite)^

the

association

of

the

ideas, has

which

came

of the

with

the

created

its internal

at

that

at the

common

of nature.

course

development

with

wounded,

or

of the

correspondence

Edaircissement

Second

instant

same

des

constant

agreement

between

with

second

with

the

one

so

beginning

perfect
of

exertion

in favor

of

way

The

constantly
The

or

the

soul

be

in

complete

in which

law

the

been

lose

its

body,

and

the

acts

untenableness

which
monads

propre

which

that

\'Monnd.^ 71], while

on

it

the

to
"

of the

masse

de cette monade

only

been

last

two

God

Leibnitz
be
he

considered

that

perfect works,

create

the

theories, and

he

than

in

reckoned

be

vice versd, to

or

because
preetaUi,''''
of

to set the

Since

"

body,

the

other,

determining

can

workman,

the

on

worthy

each

constructed

agreement

of

system

with
exert

A
the

body and

the

charged constantly

of the

soul

commu-

ways,

between
with

shall

have

may

(in the

la

of three

one

third

one

be

between

and

could

by Leibnitz

connected

permanent

comentement

governing

of the

to

it,and

its state

to

p.

in

body,

furnishes

128). Every

far

so
a

of

which

this

occasional

do

which

monad

of the
is

attempt

body

are

subject

absolutely simple,

need

not

to

identify the

Leibnitz, as

an

distinction

aggregate

d'autres
infinite
Prindpes de la nature

par

une

of

for the

changes

is
the

soul

can

in

imrtially

material

evidence

change

of the

plete
com-

soul

and

is

complex

qui constituent

la grace,

the

soul is enveloped

substances,

et de

body,

that

between

monades

the

it is true

to constant

is suflicient

of

centre
as

reason

loses in all its parts. (But that

elements

centrale ;

substantial

the

or

monads

never

composee

monad

the

monad

every

latter,according
[or une

choose

the

the

soul, etc.).

possible explanations

following comparison:

in either

may

by the

natural

accommodated

organic body,

an

of

is

body

mechanics,

Syst'emede

the

so

of
the

other

two

nouveau

be

both
their

in

illustrated

and

may

one

or

law

arises

physical interaction

motion

that

body {Syst.Nouv.^ 17, Erdmann,

the

to the

of

rectification.
called

which

substance

latter have

in

may

of

rectifyinghand

artist

effected

some

other,

the

more

absolute

renewed

the
or

exactness

for him

securing agreement

interference.

the

du

be

clocks

that

of the theory of

body is

Occasionalism,

physical influence

impossible,it only remained

decided

can

both

other,

of

interference

the

the

with

agree

such

with

of the

to the

seq.) through

doctrine
of

mechanism,

motion

it may

without

on

held

the

on

that

of

sort

some

the

Either

pre-established harmony.
through

clocks

doctrine

and

Edairdssement

p. 133

two

corresponds

first of which

influence

conforming

arm,

particular desire

soul

between

Troisieme

and

substances^ Erdmann,

nicotion

soul, the

the

which

in

of this theory of pre-established harmony

relation

The

and,

at the

is extended

conversely, that

(the

perfect independence

instant

instant

all

and

body,

soul, following the

same

tvas

acceptance

most

and

soul

every

the

into

struck

the

{lex de

influence

that

so

time,

same

sensation

also

influence

natural

miracles

(yperatiomim)

(hence

rest

painful

law

suarum

the

at

all the

in

cing
experien-

unchanged

exerts

of

beginning

serid

and

(living)force, but

soul

the

makes

the

that

reason

other

is preserved

Occasionalism,

follows

remains,

with
{coivforuiite)

agreement

from

continuationis

Lex

that

this doctrine

each

while

that

each

on

constantly interferinganew

as

God

that

true

for the

disciplesperceived that

of

; but

represents God

it

since

his

doctrine

the

framed

impossible, and

and

opinion,

body,

CENTURY.

ed., pp. 108, 133, 702) ; the soul can

modify the direction of the bodily

Erdmann's

part of

18TJI

of

amount

same

particular direction

common

body, undisturbed;

events,

only the

the

on

acting only

supposed, influence

Descartes

as

Descartes

motions.
the

substances

THE

OF

influence

an

see
quantitatedirectionis^

conservanda

on

system of

other's actions, not

only each

PHILOSOPHY

exert

cannot

in every

as

GERMAN

THE

AND

LEIBNITZ,

3, Erdm.,

body

"

of

le corps
p.

714]

Ill
distinction

the

with

"

exists

There

All

monads.

txtension,
merely

the

of

order

is real

which

which

phenomena,
by the intellect. Leibnitz
backs

Newton's

The

sense

mtial

in

the

deceive
order

of

only

ground

the

the

the

substance,

him

ru

be

simple

)patures.)
ly by the
it God

impossibilityof

hypothesis

exists

common

qui

n!ont

the

author
be

of the

things
in the

in the

Princ.

raison

des choses est

substance."

"

p. 128

each

in

cession
suc-

conceived

only

ton)
New-

others,by
absolu "),and

also

and
realis,
if

forms

by

in

"

sub-

Duke

to

but

the

as

de la grace

et

later

God,

the

harmony

absolu

actual

p.

('*car

Heinrich

of

i. e., God,"

716), where

he

says:

being

as

"

an

"

the

God

mate
ulti-

stand-pomt

the

regulated

so

universe, and

{Nouv. Ess.,iv.," 11).

God,

says

that

Leibnitz

the

as

perhaps

may

by Leibnitz

Cette

derniere

absolute,

philosophizinghe taught, without

had

la

Leibnitz,

of

employed
"

de

de

que

conceive

not

and

supposing

Perhaps

expression
is

of

mnir

Brunswick,

expression

soul

parfait accord

ce

saurait

did

dea

meme

between

necessity

ensemble,ne

primitive substance,
its

monde

un

Vunivers

que

the

yet recognizes God

of his

comine

agreement

deduces

similar

(Erd.,

period

from

espritetant

itself ; still this

its indestructibil-

edition, p. 128).

harmony,

in which

sense

in the

that

the

Johann

harmony

infers

creature, enveloppantVinJini,
expri-

et aussi

Erdmann's

universal

constantly reflected

the universal

al.). That

et

being joined,as

Tout

explaining

and
appelee Dieii,'"

But

wavering,

or

that

wrote

same

de la nat.

1695,

the

or

harmony,

interpreted

the

regulated

but

et

unio

Leibnitz

soul

de communication

point

1671, he

year
of

reason

is

of all finite substances

cause

commune,''' Syst.nouv.,

"when, in

to observe

and

among

reel

etre

un

substances

physical influence,he

of

the

as

is

matter

regulated

edition,p. 782).

of the

spiritualnature

and

the

It de substances

"

752

seq.,
order

(maintained,

est aussi durable,aussi subsistant

/livers,

From

is careful

the

organism

an

This

senses.

visiblyperceived,
("

its continuous

whole.

one

monadic

"

pret
inter-

to

perceptions iu

are

with

fundatum),

who

of

irt,suffisantd lui-meme, independant de toute autre

mt

and

possible co-existing phenomena;

(in Erdmann's

to form

the

bene

ground

existence

of attraction

which

matter,

of

of

doctrine

immortality {Syst.nouv., Erdmann,

and

monad

same

ed., pp. 189, 745

cannot

absolute

and

substances

simple

compound

bond,"

From

real

not
is the

(Erdmann's

disputes

theory
of

union

le

is

space

phenomenal;

{phcenomenon

Space

consists

in extension

the

phenomena,

apprehension

does

successions

of

that

and
the

to

confused

reason."

of the

monads

phenomenon"

phenomenon,

rules

is the

which

besides

in

passivityin

accordingly.)

belongs only

only

exists

exact

an

nothing

extension

"well-founded

abstract
time

activity and

pre-established harmony

the

ind

between

every

God

ple
simtation
hesi-

monad

thus

duced
pro-

{Monad., 47,

Erdmann, p. 708), is the primitive unity or the original simple substance, the Monas
primitim {Epist.ad Bierlingium,1711, Erdm., p. 678; "/" monade
primitive:' Lettred
Remond
de Montmort, 1715,
Erdm., p. 725), whose productions are all created or derivative
monads, all of which
(as Leibnitz,not indeed
without
infringingsomewhat
upon
his postulate of the
of the monads, teaches) arise from the primitive monad
indivisibility
as

if

by

constant

radiations

(which yet

t^iiueUes de la Bivinite de moment

yiquelleil
est
smce

essentiel d'etre limit' e).

he is the

partout, mais

source
sa

of all.

measure,

in God's

He

creative

him.
to the

power.

God

is,as

circonferenceest

liim;nothing is far from

knowledge which belongs

dynamic

are

d momeiit,

nuUe
Those

has

part)

an

; aU

monads

par

par

thmgs
which

nature

des

fulgurationscmi-

receptivitede la

knowledge

omnipresent

knowledge

governs

la

adequate

an

it were,

others, the
God

divisions

bornees

creature
ail

(comme

things,
centre

immediately present

are
are

centre

of

spirits have, beyond

of

God,

as

its

and

to

the

participate,in

architect,the

world

of

112

AND

LEIBNITZ,

GEKMAN

spiritsas their monarch

pre -determined
On

The

world.
for

were

evil in

world.

If

beings ;

this

which

there

or

removing

morality

itself ;

self

one's

power

in

(written

of the

1704, but

estinies (juvrages

has

de

foUo wing
; but

in

difference
those

in the

ideas

of

Nihil

e^t in

Yet

"

that

accord

work

mind

at,

up

them

remove

the

possibilityof

of

deciding

human

for

spirit. The

the

highest
of

kingdoms

ests
internature

only

has

on

this

all

that

soul

and

internal

to

factors

conscious

notions,

that

kg

the

external

factor

itself,a thing
; hence

also

into which

is

tne

is

ram

as

The

shaped

experience,
must

as

process

world

the

of

its own

the

ideas,

it

is

in the
are

former,

Leibnitz

actual

only
an

in

affects

laws,
action

resources,

and

of the

not

external

introduce

order

our

being,

and

is able

development,

mind

them

gi-aduahy
the

is. not

conglomeration
world

upon

parison
com-

of

to

the

scious
uncon-

as

clear

sciousness,
con-

co-operation
less

than

things

us, is not

by following

the

interpret

To

in

in which

by

co-operation of

the

the

but

without

them

that

latter.

stance,
sub-

innate,

that. therefore

senses,

not

they

is

ideas

one.

ideas

words

that

obtain

through

raising

imaginary

reality, which

and

the

on

of these

presence

consist

soul,

has

mind

innate

the

goodness,
not

does

ideas.

consequently

are

from

idea,

the

details

the

the

it is itself

and

formed

All

these

which

the

for

Cf. for

possibilityof

the

that

the

development

by

then

capacity

immanent

to immanent

determined

truth

notions

shall

same

for

have

that

mind,

all

appear

because

unconscious

an

as

theory

of external

according

first,from

on

with

of the

actual

ignored.

mind

emphasis

the

imiees,'"' which

substance,

or

these

activity

an

inappropriate.

synonymous

the

the

to form

Leibnitzian

upon

laid

development
for

of order,
our

the

being

; if it has

observed

in

represents

wouk'

and

would

teach, indeed, what

not

Leibnitz

"trices

or

conceived

when

goodness

in

; Locke

ideas

is to substitute

and

true

of

he

planted
principles im-

consciousness

the

is less than

doctrines

ideas

even

formed

is conditioned

tabula

not

be

may
truth

is

ideas,

of the

such,

as

idea

the

rightlyweighed

the

senses

innate

hand,

other

notions"

their

between

the

on

he
the

itself embraces

sensation, reflection,or
since,

"sliunbering

as

apprehend

to

acquired

own

and

for

only

idea

this

to these

"capacity"

but

to
and

set

and

by demonstration,

also

are

badly

not

*
nisiipse intedectus.''^

fueritin sensu,

ideas,

had

plus

Bierling)

to

are

from

the

He

place.

by induction,

measure,

et des

right doctrine,

known

are

bea.ux

letter

truths

the

demonstrated

be

plus

(in

If he

ideas, because

takes

des

special

which

Ventendement

8U7'

Bssay concerning Human

un

of truth.

certain

can

addition

of

essais

himself

far from

errs

those

innate

no7i

in

source

is able

which
its

leads

external

not

power

the

^'

as

certain

he
and

or

to

truths

the contrast
"'"'),

it is not

reflection;'

which

the

finite

salutary as punishment,

with

Nouveaux

by Leibnitz

mind

necessarily

assumed,
as

(""connues

from

reflection

the

between

in the

question

so-called

the
what

notions,

If the
then

mass,

harmony

of

is

could

of the

to

cases

yet recognizes

truths,

necessary

Locke

conscious

as

consist

pain

as

essence

of

liabilityto suffering,

17G5j against Locke's

Locke's

of the

arrive

we

not

in

he

main

inteUectu,
quod

since

employ.

mind

"In

necessary

operations,

own

"known

of the

the

but

being, substance, identity, the true, the good

that the mind
in itself,
and
in
itself is innate

reason

'''

work

nature

mind,

place,but

latter

to the

the

which

takes

only

that

published

regard

perceived that the

not

in all

as

temps ") is mdicated

ce

between

truths

of its

God

by

law,

the

to

objectionsadvanced

first

manner

perceived

not

or

have

must

and

God

wrong,

from

law, belongs

it is in this

Understanding (which

forth

evil

wisdom

existence

very

it should

limitation

or

evil in the

possible worlds;

omnipotence
the

is

grace

of the

all

self-determination,
and, therewith,
exemption

as

ordered

so

; and

substance

in the

not

His

that

Physical

evil

p,

and

717),

consists.

grace
The

is

soul

to moral
of

to known

according

of the
and

the

As

subsists

actually exists, God's

and

necessary

was

evil.

metaphysical

freedom,

of nature

course

the

of tuition.

without

it

willed,

in view

among

necessarily from

justificationof finiteness,or

called

means

have

best

which

one

there

grace

of nature

of God

the

be

and

CENTURY.

grdce^13-15, Erdm.,

kingdoms

vindication

must

results

world,

the

that

must

world

be

to

was

is the

be

may

the

God,

than

goodness

His

The

it.

of

work

possible

known,

created

of nature

between

{Theodicee)^or

the

as

world

better

have

must

world,

harmony

Theodlcoia

Leibnitz's

based

the

18T1I

THE

et de la

la nature

{Principesde

of

IN

the kingdoms

; between

harmony

principle

the

PHILOSOPHY

"innate

the

dental
acci-

chaotic

ideas,"

designates, as principlesof reasoning,

Leibnitz
and

raisonnemens

Nos

y ait

quHl

sans

quoique
truths

truths

by

arrived

are

ideas

priori

of
the

influence

an

early
and

extension

science

and

which

his

his

the

truth,

and

of the

by

the

alone
"

of the

God

)m

not

and

of

lonad

as

the

able

to determine

the

monads

the

which, according

to

If

Leibnitz,

by following(I priori forms)

its reason,
it is

"which

latter

contains
do

true,
are

to"122[cf.

very
T.

E.

lead

Bayle's
in

in

eighteenth

of

ment
develop-

extreme

the

in view

antagonism

the

Catholics;
other

the

on

fast

held

in

measure

between

himself

hand,,
their

to

trines
doc-

objections against the

with

comparison
in

actors

the

of Leibnitz.

truths

so-called

the
The

which

of

of natural

fields
In

with

reason

which,

times.

Socinian

the

of Leibnitz

natural

cognizaperiod of

Leibnitzo-Wolfian"
afterwards

was

directed

were

of

laws, yet

more

accords

with
the

the

same

not,

then

the

the

nature

soul

order

signs by

kind

result, but

Intellectualism

from

like the

of the

which

of

The

real

its
the

own

with

nature

combination

real

causal

of

block

in which
and
of

reality can

purely subjective elements

of Locke.]

of

each

of the

formity
con-

God

How

is

stand-points of

the

altogether

as
(or,,

necessity

experiences

appearance

positions-of points

marble

the

elements

represents

nexus.

the

of

in

world

the

two

admission

diversityis left

of

the

it

diversity of

in

world,

when

that

of this

veins

of

permits only
law,

universe

admission

derivation

harmony

natural

obscure.

the

regular

real

pre-eminently towards-

the

pre-established harmony

involve

to this

the

cosmological conceptions,

essentially different
Webb,

the

intention

remains

in itself the
not

principle

Kant.

through

run

; that

of

highly

the

of

be

of

(although Leibnitz

stand-point

monads

not.

or

truths

the

agreement

was

theologicalRationalism,

which

would

either

must

space,

of

its

to law

ples
princi-

and

of the

culture

diminished, while, however,

less

the

theory

from
reflecting

of nature

finds

for

world

former,
reached

be

ideas

deduce

to

knowledge

need

violence

was

beyond

school

The

of which

latter direction

explanation by

attained.

of the

particular to combat

theological and

its

conception

the

philosophicalefforts

the

all contingent

all mathematical

attempted

demonstration

pressing

estimated

way

in the

ly developed

con-

veritable^

can

primitive

called

general

doctrines

far

the

dlosophy opened
Although

as

; in this

went

the

Kant

rational
scientific,

hand,
in

Trinity) was

reason

fenlightenment

ie union

of

accepted,
one

himself

exerted

ce

; the

reason

principle of their contradiction, and

deepening

the

until

occasion

immediate

of all revealed

importance

la

qui est

nou-s

enonciation

mathematics,

of

religion and

the

on

history, appeared
principle was

truths

Leibnitzians

attempted

Protestant

Protestants, on

and

tion,
edide

principle of contradiction.)

the

the
TJieodicee)^

the

diction
contra-

duquel

vertu

principleof contradiction,and

doctrine

to this

Many

from

exerted

(in the

en

principleof sufficient

the

on

principles,continued

and

century, chieflythrough
faith

qui

aucune
existant,

particular,the

in

(In opposition

at.

reason

Leibnitz

resting

as

reckons,

synthetic judgments
of sufficient

envehppe^ et vrai

en
suffisante,

the

Leipsic, 1861.

principle of identity and

ce

ou

the

resting on

as

of fact

Leibnitz

analysis of

an

le

truths

or

which

among

l^rm.

il en
soit ainsi et non
autrement^
pas
suffisante
pourqum
ne
puissentpaint nous etre connues.) All necessary
plus souvent

by Leibnitz

treated

wai

trouver

se

II,,of

raison

une

raisans

ces

are

sur

et celui de la raison

saurait

ne

meiiscfM-

der

von

{Monadd.^ 81, 32, in Erdmann's

deux
celui
grands prificipes,

jugeons faux

nous

aufaux,

contradictoire

qxCaucunfait

biderons

Lehre

Lockers

113

CENTUEY.

derselben, in Vol. IV.,No.

the

reason.

fondes

sont

duquel

mrtu

en
contradiction^
ou

sufficient

of

principle

the

p. 707

ojypose

Leibnitz's Kritik

18TI1

THE

der
Classe der K. Siichs. OeseUschaft
-philologisch-lmtonscJieii

del'

Abh.

IN

(" 116,p. 80)

above

VergUichang mil

in

Erkenntniss

PHILOSOPHY

cited

by G. Hartenstein,

the paper
chen

GEEMAN

AND

LEIBNITZ,

be

Kant

pretends,

of

particular

known.

Isolated

according

knowledge

"

to

sensible
in-

unde-

logical

does.

facte
periences,
ex-

normi

Cf. below.

114

LEIBNITZ,

termined

; the
the

of

analogy

predicable of

are

of the

development

of

doctrine

the

spatialrelations,is by

the

monads,

thought.

The

imagination,

space

remains, therefore,scarcely essentiallydistinguished from

L.'s

is

space

where

of

thought

of

stand-points

laws
the

which

Leibnitz'

la

Principes

de

accepted,

then

phenomenal

non-confinement
would

monads,

influences.

since

to

is the

perceptions
attention

exists

point

whereby

only

only

not

the

to

of

Spinozism

monads

kind

lay conjoined

Herbartism
of

and

external

trine
doc-

itself,
in

only

in

quality,
of

development
renewed

the
in

nozism
Spidoctrine

the

efl:ected

not

was

first

the
in

simple
the

also

elements

the

rescue

undeveloped

opposing

these

incompatible

character

Kantism,

impossible.

is made

all finite

doubtful

were

but

pre-establishedharmony,

reconciliation

real

the

that

to

logical
theo-

God, of

of

simplicity,and
order

that

the

to

is

the

doctrine

exclude

to

independent

an

from

denies

least

monads

rest, is also

the

with

is vested

and

in

Herbart,

and
at

order

this

up

also

distance,

the

not

relation

near

the

in

give

possibility,for

consequence,
of

any

(Sch^llingism),and

Leibnitz;

limit

as

doctrine

the

speculative theology

of

of

But

the

omnipresence

equally

assumed

them,

this.

to

punctual simplicity (whose

the

in

is

then

the

on

organized

distinguished

monads,
of

his

assume^

objects

on

phenomena,

punctual simplicity of

The

restoration

abstraction),advanced

particular point,

of

to

us

or

the

alternative,then, be

This, however,

doctrine

the

this

be

to

such,

within

depends

if

in

places

be

must

the

to

Herbart,

interpretation point

effect

must

the

to

led
if the

points

714),

p.

it.

to

belong

doctrine,

any

called

Bayle

consequence
of

did

they

endangered.

be

multiplicity of

the

with

; if

Leibnitzian

Erdm.,

the

that

it is open

transcendental

mathematical
of

spatial

doctrine

and

But

this

; to

the

world").

especiallyforces
the

to

llaupUt'dck,

with

the

they

of

j)retation of

II.

hand

that

(and

spatial relations

all

of

the

as

other

doctrine

Kant, according

unknown

us

"Realism."

Subject

as

similar

to

supposes
pretions
rela-

rex)resentation

inter

own

untenable,

mechanics

magnitude

restricts

monads

of

intelligiblespace

an

conceived

expressly

vue

grace,

of

consequence

Kant

Subject depend

the

la

de

to the

they belong

the

that

et

but

the

'points de

(with Herbart)

space,

side

of

the

nature

Leibnitz, who

his

of

of

laws

point beyond

that

Natwrwm.^

the

on

of

spatial nature

of the

affirmation

his

logical

system

anew

of

are

intuitions

sensible

as

"

Subjectivism

of

monads

undeniably

and

masses,

the

construction

definition

shown

of

simple beings corresponding

''merely intelligibleand

has

determinateness

mathematical
which

to

proved

the

of

order

purely subjective, while

are

objections which

particular,to the

the

Kant

as

"

Anfaiigsgrurideder

MeUt/ph.

belonging

as

it involves

forms

same

of

2,

explained

Fuither,
the

space,

in

"

such

no

Leibnitzian

(cf. Kant's

of intuition

subjective form

mere

Amn.

/F.,

is

order

of

doctrine

Lehrsatz

but

constantly

completely incapable

for

all its clearness

almost

that
general principle,

to the

to which

loses

made

only

not

which

monads,

by

Leibnitz.
The

problem, however,

next

Leibnitzian

Leibnitz

in

commonly

Aristotelian

Locke

some

professor

of

German

as

the

thinkers

in

other

of

Leibnitz

of

of

was

nearly
school

side

with

others,

disciplesof

all

is still

and

was

Leibnitzian

the

in the

tenable

Cartesian

of

thought, especially that

Leibnitz, such

with

logician,and
in the

all that

tendencies

contemporaneous
the

the

StiU, side by

part, adopted

went

that

so

the

talent, indefatigable

decided

influence, and

his

particular departments

predecessor

Wolff,

by Christian

under

most

law, Tschimhausen,

with

undertaken

systematizationof

the

refutation, but

the

Leibnitzo-Wolffian.

philosophies,
other

was

result

also

the

for

had,

authority
A

stood

Germany

which

work

considerable

very

designated

doctrine,
and

This

conceptions.

industry,and

not

was

asserted

as

the

Puffendorf

more

or

less

siderable
con-

philosophy.

effort

to

reform

philosophy

was

Joachim

AND

LEIBNITZ,

(1587-1657),an

Junius

Incertitudme

De

of

interest

the

in

Gesch.

Mysticism
others, in
his

1866

poetic

Walther

book

and

also

himself

invention

age

Samuel

Puffendorf

name,

Ilominis
from

et

Jure

The

the

both

Gentium

et

of

the

natural

proposition, that

of natural

Thomasius

original in the

wisdom,
wouldst

not

the decorum

law

tu et
may

Fundamenta

"

As

thou

do

ipse facias).

To

employed.

yet exercised
iinch seinen

Heinr.
natural

an

"

law

Leips.,

ont.

of

logician,

and

Descartes

Spinoza,
entered

who

logic

the

as

as

the

should

of

art

do

Reip.
the

name,

title-page),and

the

Pulfendorf

ethics.
of

the

of

interest

by

Officio
borrows

interest, and

individual

in his

et

each

individual.

systematic arrangement

the

secure

on

und

international

justum :
{quod tibi non

others

do

should

do

and

for

the

also

thou
of

performance
Medicina

philosophy

ex

to

"

'

Do

us

latter.

to
thou

what

do

thou

even

"As

:
ms

ut

for

to them

so

thou

alii sibi

"

wouldst

faciant,

required by justice,force

Mentis, although
of the

scribes
de-

conformed

others

to

Iwnestum

duties

he

conduct

not

thyself" {quod
the

deducta, in

in which

etc.

is

He

alteri nefeceris)
fieri.,
;

thee,

the

hypotheses

7. ed., 1730.
communi

sensu

1705,

degrees of

the

"

in his Institutionum
secundum

nat.

Leips., 1688;

gentium

three

ipsisfacias);

to themselves,

and

juris

Hall.
dec/)ri,

as

to thee

that

combated

Cf. Luden,

by Thomasius,
Ghr.

Thomasius

Schriften,Berlin,1805.

Cocceji (1644-1719)
to

Statu

author's

the

on

consists

et

naturce

principle for

wouldst

influence

De

his work.

by

that

fundamenta

honestum

Tschirnhausen's

Schicksalen
v.

juris

and

faciant,tu

should

be

development

Wandersmann,

(1655-1728) follows substantiallyPuffendorf

lays down

."

others

the

physicist,and

(for

and

socialityis for

presentation

lihri tres^in quihus

that others

{quod vis ut alii tibi

that

for

law.

justum, decorum,

and

zur

prcecepta generaUa^ Amst., 1687,

Hobbes

principia honesti,justi ac

secernuntur

the

of

enemy

Beitrag

the latter,and

substituted

ill.Pufendorfiiperspricuedenwnstrantur, Frankf.
more

no

dn

in

1864.

pointed

of

Germany

was

1673, etc.), on

of PufEendorf's

jurisprudentimdivinm

quihus

was

H.,

work, De
written

(Lond., 1672; Frankf., 1684, etc.),De

principle of sociality,from

in

doctrines

Christian

is

treated

Leibnitz,

law

public

Monzambano,

JSfaturm

principal merit

of the

with

sive artis inveniendi

the
a

Givis (Lond.,

Grotius

combines

he

God,

(1632-94) distinguished himself

Severinus

works, De

the

correspondence

with

personal relations

(1667, etc.),on

assumed

works

his

in

teenth
seven-

France,

Scheffler,1624-77), among

needs

the

in

tumore,

Yet

in his

in the

others

1679)

in. H.

him

to Eckhart

of

study

sein

etc.

von

Gerfmmic(B

the

and

J/ec^ic/^-a mentis

in his

Leips.,1695,

in

cheruhiaisGJier
s
Scheffler'
Scheffler

Logica

J. mid

Nettesheim

and

vmtoso

(Johann
man

the

J.

represented

(1651-1708),a mathematician,

intercourse

into

man,

of

relation

of

Jahvliundert,Vienna,

as

of

author

Vayer

ac

of

Silesius

of

Kern, Joh.

near

especiallyby

by personal

early

an

the

Tschirnhausen

von

educated

(God

and

asceticism.

of

science,

mathematical

Guhrauer,

Prague

at

natural
of

Tiib., 1850.

Le

by

written

17.

im

need

has

Cf. Franz

essence).

; in this

who

form

and

inani

and
has

by Angelus

renewed

was

and

(died

revelation

phUos.-theohgischenCuUur

der

E.

cf. G.

humanaricm

Sigm. Barach

Karl

the

was

(Cologne, 1527),

England,

in

importance

expressed by Agrippa

Himhaym

in

belief

the

scientific studies.

at

t^cientiarum

sive scientiarum

typliogeneris humani

He

Jungim^ Stuttg.

knowledge

'reassertedby Hieronymus

was

of

iiber

of human

Yanitate

et

1681.

by Joseph GlanvHl

century

the

115

CENTURY.

investigator

on

him

On

18TH

THE

and

philosophiziag.

and

Fragm.

Oothe's

skeptical view

The

mathematician

sound

to

1638

Hamb.,
Ilambiu'gensis,
ZeitaUer, mbst

IN

Plato) laid special stress

preparatory

disciplineas

PHILOSOPHY

excellent

with

agreement

' in

who

GERMAN

and

and

his

son,

civil law.

Samuel
Cf.

v.

Cocceji (1679-1755) applied

Trendelenburg,

Fr.

d.

Gr"

u.

sein

116

Qromlmmler

Bam.

Berlin, 18(54, pp.

; Heinr.

the
ou
H'lddtslc.viroii,^
in the

article

In

the

Cocceji^in

von

1-74

field of the

of Wolif's
law

common

of

third

doctrine

the

Acad,

edition

of natural

for

the

of Rotteck

right

on

our

18G3

year

and

Welcker'a

law,

common

of Prussia.
of

philosophy

(10G8-1744), among-

Transactions

in the
De",^enkolb,

intiuence

the

ou

the

the

law

and

history,Giovanni

Battista

Vice,

the

politan
Nea-

of

contemporaries

Leibnitz, distinguished
He
himself.
wrote
: De
antiquissimaItalorum sapientia,Nap., 1710; De una unii-ersi
Juris princlpioet fine uno, Nap., 1720; Liber alter,gui est de constantia jurisprudentis,
1731
scienza nuoza
ilj.,
d'intorno
alia CGmmune
; Principj di una
natura
ddle nazimd,
Naples, 1725, 1780, 1744;
1822.

the

edition

complete

Christian

Wolff

(the

in

same

of

Scritti Inediti have

his

younger

German,

his works
been

published by G.

is also

name

translated

published

was

seldom

not

del

by W.

at

Naples,

1835.

Halle,
1740

form)

and

he

when

driven

recalled

was

of

systematization
scientific

form

ished

his

by

L.'s

would

the

written

fast to the
of

with

Aristotle

one

with

world

as

(Economics,

exception
Johann

of

conimerdi

was

inter

fraught

is the

works

Causa

Dei

et

animnm

et

atheistic
for

carpus

character

religion; he

took

the

developed by
the

was

of

the

Wolffian

especial

doctrine

offence

at

the

and

with

of
"

of God.

To

the

tical
Prac-

Ethics,
labor

for

German

Wolff's

philosophy (with

pupil, Baumgarten).
expulsion from

Wolff's

atheismum

admrsus

ethomine

held

general,

cosmology

of

and

ontology,
in

existent

(Hal.,

et prcesertimharmonia

prmstahilita (Hal., 1723), etc., to

of

souls,

principle

into

nature.

Wolff's

religionisnaturalis

Deo^mundo

some

tions
concep-

absolutely

an

as

perfection.

branches

cause

the

Aristotelians) into

rational

our

new

He

body.

attributes

of

all the

out

(in agreement

of the

"

by

trine,
doc-

not

were

and

admitted

the

idea

and

part by

ordinary

metaphysics

and

with

of
of

in

to reduce

substance,

existence

law

them

alone

treats

ontology

treat

first

was

he

divides

principle is

disquisitionovipliilos.
syst.de

Spinozistic and
it

of the

(1670-1744),who
:

of

Leibnitz, and,

which

sought

his

dimin

Aristotelian

the

at
In

matter
was

method,
of

the

of soul

He

(in agreement

that of others

service

the

permissible hypothesis,

non-extended

simple,

moral

fuller)Latin

works

as

himself)

Wolff

theology
a

that

monads

interaction

Leibnitz.

Leibnitz

theology

His

Lange

in the

1723), Modesta

as

aesthetics,which

Joachim

Halle, sought

and

and

and

by Wolff

Politics.

later

(mostly

the

of

view

rational

is divided

and

perfection

own

and

and

"

philosophy

our

earlier

in

with

principle of contradiction, which

the

1754.

with

professor

service

supported

to aU

only

natural

in

the

Marburg,
Wolff, by

at

brought them, by leaving

perception

of

Determinism

was

conceptions

agreement

nearer

principle of demonstration.

whole,

the

; he

and

cently
re-

especiallyin

mathematical

them

schools

them,

possibilityof the

the

the

combine

to

pre-established harmony

and
to

of

appropriated

hypotheses, into

the

died

considerable

very

in the

prevailed

psychology,cosmology,
psychology of the soul

rational

He

he

he

position

exposition,although

partiallymodified

of

reason

and

didactic

to 1723

similar

Halle, where

it

particular,he denied

In

Optimism

fundamental
rational

also

1707
a

pedantic employment

had

doctrine

sufficient

II. to

example, sought

then

From

there, assumed

exposition.

own

exclude

not

and

venturesome

things.

accepted

thorough,

of

he

but

more

of

of

until

arguments,
of

and

excessive

which

from

away

philosophy,rendered

Leibnitz'

following

at Breslau.

by Frederick

breadth

insipid

an

in 1679

born

was

More

Giudice, Naples, 18G2.

,

Latinized

Leips.'

E. Weber,
in

the

the

demonstrate
vnth

danger

which

Determinism

of

doctrine

taught by Wolff.
Andreas

Riidiger (1673-1731),a

philosophy, combated
the

body and

the

the

scholar

Leibnitzian

soul,maintaining

of Christian

doctrine
the

of the

Thomasiua,

and

an

pre-established harmony

theory of physical influence,and

eclectic

in

between

asserting the

118
and
Kant

in

of his lectures

basis

the

as

and

(Halle, 1753-61),

lehre

the

particular
in the

garten

substantially the

To

ubet' die Kunsttriebe

Lessing (directed against

on

this

die

vernimftigen Verehrer
in

lung

(Frankf.

and

iXb"r die

Gedanken
Irrthum

mm

occupied

by

et

u.

Reimarus

ed., 1790),

pTmnomenis,
cf.

PI.

Prof.

An

original.

is

that

Frank!
betreffen,

Organon oder
Unterscheidung

dessert,

(Riga, 1771),

also

as

position was
afterwards

(1698-1767), originallya pietist,but

who

and

Kosm/)-

his

isolated

free-thinker,

Of
than

the

from

Sept. 6th, 1729,

men's

regulate

practice.

his

required by

other

the

on

of God

respect

of the

and

immortality

of Mendelssohn

1757-58), of the
Allgem. deutsche
effect, so

and

long

the

when

and

which

Plato,

die

work

editor

the

he

made

our

Aug.

mind

solution
upon

historic

Greek

of
them

estimate

Sophists

Eberhard

in

of

should

(1788-1809

auf
Nicolai,Gedachtnisssclirift

Litt.

J. A.

(bom
gious
of reli-

public
to
had

d. Bibl.

mind

from

the

Nicolai
have
; from

been

gained

which
than
in

of

"

enment,"
enlight-

should
the

and

on

greater

judgment

our

at

E., Berlin,1810) attempted

Halle

The

men

against

criticism,by

professor

success

positive replenishment

problem.

no

the

superstition

themselves
have

of

salutary

imperfect

the

main

hostile

determining

1778

with

filth of

with

problem defended

manner

(1733-1811),

period

(1793-1805)

done, but

the

dertook
un-

ence
exist-

Wissenschaften(Leips.,

be

became

content

and

of the

Nicolai

in the

were

as

reformatory

freedom,

doctrines

Friedrich

schonen

of

to

him,

to

betreffend (Berl., 1759-65),

Neueallg.

the

complete

actor

Bibl. der

the

latter
a

thought
soul.

remained

nobler

this

others

cause

designed, according

prominent

absurdities
a

eclectics

and

Mendelssohn

Moses

especially for the

logicalrigor the

human

of the

purifying

with

for

deutsche

prejudices

traditional

over

school.

mit

; cf. K

specificallyreligious observances

with

and

of

rather

were

perhaps excessively afraid

was

of the

Lessing,

neueste

of

it from

of the

Joh.

such

who

"

Eberhard, Platner,

religion were

claimed

(1765-92), and

public

for

determining

latter.
F.

the

victory

laboured

attacks
in

Bibl.

as

of the
who

Briefe

emancipating

he

hand,

labored, especiallyas

and

of
of

and
philosophically

to demonstrate

friend

-Wolffian

4, 1786) labored

religion (the Jewish), he

attempts, but,

ones

Mendelssohn,

Leibnitz
Jan.

precepts
In

respectable

very
Moses

the
died

The

enlightenment.

them

system,

one

any

relativelylittle

Dessau,

the

of

some

"

of

adherents

differed
at

thinkers

towards

Moses

wrote

Spinozistic pantheism,
(ed. Klose, Berlin, 1849)
aufgedecktem A7igeMcht (174^0,etc.), Selbstbiographie
1867.
und
M )nckeberg, Reimarus
Edelmann.^ Hamburg,
inclined

who

Samm-

Bock,

Mues

uud

des Wakren

caZ-

characteHstica

arte

Friedr.

(1728-1777), whose

much

especially,

accedit metJiodus

de

Aug.

Herm

des

cf

SchutzscJtrift
far

s.

Ploucquet (1716-1790),who

commentatio

prmmitUtur

contain

Edelmann

Chr.

Joh.

religion;

Reimarus

(Leips., 1764), ArcMtektonik

hgische Briefe (Augsburg, 1761)

Sam.

subsequently published by

; Gottfried

Bezeiclinung

und

Herm.

Christian

Samuel

Lambert

Heinr.

Erforschung
Schein

und

(and

by Baum-

Kiel, 1750, 5th

Fragments,
of the

content

Calcul
logisclien

den
Joh.

also

and

Leips., 1758, ed. II.,1764;

; and

terms

employed

1762, 4th ed.,1798), and Ueber

Bellgion(Hamburg, 1754, 6th ed., 1791), and

Oottes, Leipzig, 1802)

welche
Scfiriften,

mn

philosophical
first

(Hamburg,

Strauss, Herm.

ipso inventa, cui

Leipsic, 1766)

and

of
were

belonged

Wolfenbiittel

logids ab

universaU

among

number

works, Principia de substantus

other

among

eulandi

Thi"re

positive

the

Friedr.

subject, Dav.

wrote,

thinkers

der

the

of

author

the

also

was

of

natmiichen

d"r

dievornehmstenWahrheiten
who

mentioned)

published a Vernunftlehre (Hamburg

(1094-1705) who
Betrachtungen

text-books,

works,

above

school

same

OENTUEY.

to them.

given

now

; these

other

Esthetics, as

term

sense

on

many

18TH

THE

IN

used by
others,were
Philos.
jSittenlogic),Metaj)hydk (Halle, 1755-59),

{ih. 1 752

latter

epitome of tha

an

PHILOSOPHY

GERMAN

AND

LEIBNITZ,

Socrates
upon

; cf.

to defend

the

influence

on

the
him

Leibnitz-

; the

18TH

THE

of

important

most

(Berlin, 1772, etc.),AUgemeine Theorie

Socrates

119

CENTURY.

PJiilosoph.
Magazin (Halle,1788-92)

of the

the editor

was

(1792-95)

Archiv

Philos.

of the

and

; he

Kantism

against

ianism

IN

PHILOSOPHY

GERMAN

AND

LEIBNITZ,

his

works

Neu6

the

were

Deiikens

des

und

Empfinund
K'dnste
der
schonen
and
Theorie
1776
Wissenschaften (HaUe,
1786),
dem
(Berlin,
der Aesthe1783- '3d ed., 1790), Sittenlelire der Vernu7\ft(Berlin,1781, 1786),Handbuch
Apologiedes

far gebildeteLeser (HaUe, 1803-5; 2d ed., 1807 seq.), Versuch

by
deutscJwi
Synonymik (Halle, 1795-1802; 2d ed,, 1820, continued
Thomas
1802
deutsch.
der
Wufterb.
1.
Sprache (Halle,
ber), Synonym.

einer

tik

Verdienst

allg.WeUhistorie (HaUe, 1766" an expose of the gradual

published at Berlin, 1768, etc.
Vermischte Schriftenwere

der

aus

his

are

his works

besides

1810) wrote,

is

philosophers,

modem

and

ancient

iiber die Denk-

" 7),in particular, Untersuchungen

His

mentioned.

lectures, Leips.
F.

G.

which

of the

edited

by Ad.

led

the

was

(of whom

Great

and

in

and

king

lecture

part

Ethics

the

history of Morals,

with

of

also

also

the

Sulzer,

and

FoUtics

and

to

Hecker,

Paul

by Garve,

followed

annotated

others.

Christian

and

and

other

works

and

of human

which

papers,
Of

life.

his Physische Ursaehen

des

the psychical processes

to the

Nic. Tetens

give

importance

(1736-1805),

Wahren

Entwickelung (Leipsic,1776-77).
Aristotle regarded
with

the
not

which

denies

the

pain,

mind

uber

he

also

between

Locke
Heinrich

his doctrine, which

and

Feder

Leibnitz.

itself.

An

based

eclectic

(1740-1821),whose

burg, 1767, Institutiones

his

Autobiography

who
(1748-1803),

combined

was

published by
Lockian

on

text-books

used;

Friedr.

Carl

his

elements

with

{Grundriss

faculty

ty,
receptive facul-

von

or

(1724-

Creuz

punctual m.Ya-p\ic\\;y

the
dsr

in their

Leibnitzian

"

''affections

and

divisible,

intermediate

(Leips.,1825).
the

feeling (which

the

characterizes

1777, etc.) were

son

an

of

Joh.

opponent,

composite

to be

experience,

the

in

Naturundihre

the

Casimir

vation
obser-

relation

the

fundamental

Lps., 1753)

tendency

log. et metaph. Frkf.

his

feeling," as

afiirming it

reason

is

"

Officiis

Lossius, who

die menscM.

perceptions and

sensuous

die Seele (Frkf. and

soul, without, however, for that

in

in

De

appreciative

investigate

as

the

Gegenstdnde aus
; 2d ed., 1821),

Christ.

brain, and

desire)

of

Aristoteles

des

first to co-ordinate

to

included

the
on

the
uber

the

was

perception

will, but
but

of

fibres

of

doctrine

Cicero's

and

Joh.
to

inquiries

Kantian

Zeitalter

extensive

Versuche

latter

produces

Versuch

in his

occupies

Georg

the

The
from

passage

and

only pleasure and

of the
and

as

understanding

impressions
1770)

the

of the

Philos.

the

(Berl., 1792-1802

of

by

direction

critical review

of

verschiedene

(Gotha, 1775), sought

of

assthetical

explained

psychologists are

as

motions

author

evidence

(on

(1742-1798)translated

dem

uber

unsere

moral

Dlerelig. Entwicke-

in

Garve

xon

to

favored

was

essentiallythe

examination

As

here

of Locke

doctrine

Aristotle,subjoining

; he

Zeiten, Breslau, 1798)

The

translated

auf

(1747-

deserves

Halle), which

Versuche
(Breslau,1783 ; 6th ed., ib.,1819),and wrote
Leben
und
der Moral, Litteratur
dem
gesellscJiaftlichen

an

philosophy,

teachings of

1769-70, his

and
moral, political,

Sittenlehre

of

the

poet,
in

others, treats

French,

Principien der

of

Leipsic

at

determined

of

doctrines

WiUenskrdfte,Gott., 1806.

at

among

the

(1714-

Christoph Meiners

Heyer.

especiallythorough

an

der varnehmsten
{JJebersicht
bis

by

Schlegel

Platner's

philosophy (see above. Vol. I.,

und

published

were

Or., Augsburg, 1864),as

English

thought
and

d.

works

1770,

Meier

the

Frederick

lung F.'s

complete

(1738-1766)

edition,1793-1800), in

(1715-1769),the

Gellert

Furchtegott

popular moralist, Christian

ancient

history of

the

on

Ernst

criticisms

still valuable.

work

Gru-

of civilization)
;

progress

of the

historical

and

at

retrospective glances

combined

and

Abbt

(Berlin,1765),Anszug

revised

demonstration

concise

presentationand

the

with

which,

2d

(Leips., 1776-82;

1818) PhilosophischeAplwrismen

be

Vom

(Berlin,1761),

Vaterland

Todfafs

Vom

wrote

allgemdneii

Maass

position

works

of

Joh.

philos.Wus.,
time

Dietrich

very

Co-

widely

Tiedemann

doctrine, deserves

120

be

to

AND

LEIRNITZ,

mentionei,

GERMAN

only

not

as

investigationsin psychology
'ilhcr (I'll

PHILOSOPHY

historian

an

and

IN

of

philosophy,

the

respecting
; TheiUet

18TII

THE

also

but

of

subject

CENTURY.

of hia

account

on

( Uutersuchungen

cognition

em
Wlsseii^
Beitrag
the
Frankf.
on
riiiinftJcritik^
M., 1794; Idealistische Briefe^ Marburg, 1798;
Ilandbuch
der Faycliologle^
ed. by Wachler, Leips., 1804). Johann
Georg Sulzer
(1720his
Tlieorie
der
8ch'Jnen
Kdiiste
1779) distinguished himself
Allgemeine
chieflyby
(Leips.,
1771-74, also 1792-94; with additions
by Blankenburg, 1790-98, and with supplements

Menschen, Leips.

ocler uber

menschl.

das

V(

zar

by Dyk
4th

Gotthilf
Sam.
Steinbart
a
(17o8-1809) wrote
Schiitz,Leips., 1792-1808).
of happiness {OrdckseligkeitsleJire
des Christenthums^Zullichau, 1778;

and

Christian

Doctrine

ed., 1794)

and

other

philosophical views
for

Philosopher
1801-2).

Karl

{Magasin

zur

the

work

of the

in

the

termed

Liter atur

director

der schba"n

and

infamous
inert

nothing

of

on

of

the

in the

that
of
from

which

basis

study of

identical

thought

far

from

as

all actual

conception."
doctrine

of the

views

the

active

Lessing

their
and

conceptions,
The

in

but

in

truth

or

soul

matter

the
in

that

the

sense

thinking,

account,
a

he

of

kind

"

been
in
as

the
the

founded
works

on

of

St.

elementary

the

his work
among

The

tion,
ques-

assured
to

opposite
it,and

in favor

principally

out

Spinozism,'' which
he

found

willing, and

in it the

creating

were

"extension, motion,

which

these

enjoyment
of

passages

attributes
which

were

not

only

being represented in

Lessing
in the

Augustine
books

and

was

and

sense

that

considered

superior force,
of

actual

grew

of

confession

The

aesthetics

on

seq.) answered

completely incapable

was

Bible

of

development

by Lessing

perhaps

capable

have

the

following period.

the

p. 338

I., " 86,

Jacobi's

was

against

"

JDraimiturgie and

whose

for

decided

was

affirmed

passages

of the

Vermischte

know

speculative, rationalizinginterpretation which

Trinity might
books

Hamburger

philosophical conceptions

foundation

which

der
than

literature

world

could

we

speculations

germs

search

doctrine.

year

to

his

1780, had

Lessing

Spinoza's Ethics, or, also, on

Lessing

the

the

and

are

und

Handbuch

physicist (1742-1799 ;

soul, God

philosophy

gift of God,

According
having

what

on

Theorie

history of

to the

of

enlighteners,"

and

1836)

ed.
,

fruitful

contained

(see above. Vol.

in the

"

one.

15, 1781)

Leibnitzian

the

exhausting,

surpassed
the

the

to Jacobi

in God.

and

any

by

Leibnitzianism.

of

5th

influence

the

the

conducted

school

Wertlis
Basedow

Bernh.

under
of

Karl

moralischen

Joh.

stood

abstractions, and

was

Race)

prefer

alternative.

made

of

sort

and

body

of German

merits

Augustine

former

Lessing

it

to Feb.

Human

should

of truth

his

viz.

affirmed, mere

with

of the

we

in which
the

ed.,

Univeraum

1844-1853), following Spinoza, pronounced

history (contained especially in

whether

possession

and

world,

he

were,
forces

important

most

others,

rather

Education

the

The

; 2d

works.
das

(1743-1820) JSntwiirf einer

Eschenburg's

1800-1805

uber

des

(1741-92), one

PMlanthropin [a

Christoph Lichtenberg,

Lessing's (Jan. 22, 1729,

philosophy

Bahrdt

the

Two

the

Friedr.

sesthetical

pedagogues,

Georg

matter

but

The

Wissense/iaften
(Berlin,1783;

Schriften,G^ttingen,
the

entitled

plastic imitation

the

on

and

Bestimmung

(8th ed. , Berlin, 1837) appertain

philosophy.

to

Karl

treatise

Betrachtungen

der

von

(174G-1818),and

Campe

and

principles].

Litteratur

dass.

Heinr.

the

wrote

psychological

philosophical works.

Rousseau,

natural

other

(1741-1817) wrote

Dalberg

other

time

(Berlin,1785-90),and

ed.,1321), Gedanken

7th

(1723-90), Joachim
for

of essays,

collection

Moritz

von

{lb.,1787), and

was

the

his

Engel (1741-1802) exposed

{Der PJdlosapJi
fiir die Welt, Leips.,1775, '77, 1800

Reiser

Maria

and

popular form, especiallyin

World

(Brunswick, 1788),and

(Erfurt, 1776;

Locke

Jacob

(1757-93)edited a Magazine for Empirical Psychology

of himself
in
Erfahrungsseelenlehre^
1785-93),furnished a characterization

Anton

Ant.

Johann

popular works.

Philipp

beautiful

Theod.

"

1777-93

which

and

5th

Leibnitz.

served

to

gave

of

Book

for

"

the

AND

LEIBNITZ,

out

cany

of

one

differingessentiallyfrom

humanity,
The

them.

of

prosperity is
the

absence
this

to

on

the

on

intended

race,

for

second

and

look

of

development
the

finite

in which
and

is

third

in

or

ground
"

in the

that

sense,

of

perfections, in
than

last

yet

without
in

his

later

Christ).
must

sense,

be

to

The

latter

certain

works,

the

only

extent,

makes

the

each,
same

e.,

stage

'

'

that

of

in

even

uber

Beden

his

religious life
path by

which

individual

man,

is not

every

in

advancing

stadia which

to
the

whateverace

passes

with

to

the

race

advanced

stage

he

through

which

his

the

attains

to

person

Schleiermore

the

to the

person

in

of

perfection,

its

the

actually reach,

advancing

of

Kant

respect

in

two

is very

much

by Lessing

may
in

all

the
"

him, whereas

Beligion^and

die

of

Vernunft

depend directly upon

to

same

by

(ih

importance
period, agree

gressions
trans-

of

blessedness,

all moral

relative

question

original

pears
imperfection disap-

hlossen

der

tion
satisfac-

all

extent

individual
from

lute
abso-

an

him

(Kant's interpretation

historical

earlier

absolute

the

him

exclude

subordinate

in his

entire

the

all

Grenzen

der

original sin

such

is not

forgive

as

tions
interpreta-

of

the

to

and

already given

two

God, notwithstanding
and

an

implies, then,

doctrine

the

idea

reality,

of

To

in

sense

himself,

all such

humanity,

of

doctrine

doctrine

in which
to

of

laws

account

and

the

very

of the

The
if the

the

God

idea

beneath

laws."

moral

and

him

To

this

the

lished
estab-

necessary

reality as

from

other

latter.

in

to

are

we

himself,i. ".,

God's

; but

truths

necessary,

one,

of

idea

same

Self

moral
:

on

innerhdb

at least

idea, that

traversed

that

through

BeMgion

be

therefore

the

divine

is inconceivable."

Lessing.)

ascribes

Schelling, the

macher,

"

his

^.

to

laws

should

complete

lowest

him

which

them

moral

of

Christ, Lessing
and

give

to

God

that

is promised

books

to the

the

reward,

which

the

absolutely

tament
Tes-

of

which

with

reference

With

"

withdraws

viz.

give

"

with

reason

them.

follow

can

to

is

Old

future

from

them

them

Lessing understands

sense,

account

comparison

that

to

Sons

not

dogmas,

similar

following

deduce

nature, the combination

first and
he

preferred

man,
his

on

which

the

attributes

impotence

"

that

of

of the

contrary,

in the

man,

to

each

by

as

The

elementary
images),

traversed

be

to

Lac-

g.

education

Gospel,

the

combine

to

have

they rest.)

of his actions

master
he

on

In

learned

from

divine

the

on

which

eternal

new,

in reflected

us

image, having

in the

(Kant,

reward,

of Kant
e.

must

the

(Akin

of

many,

reference

most

himself,including

an

sake

generations,

for

in

principle,that

for the

its

the

even

duty,

Platonic

Lessing,

plan

Covenant.

truths

reduplication

process

single unity.
the

is

for

and

must

divine

makes

impossible

is in

that

consequently

element

'

God

one."

idea, which

an

'

it

who,

his

to do

church

of

to

honor, and

categorical imperative

succession

before

advantage

affirms

^e

things

into

of

full man,

the

Christian

the

in the

has

truths

the

pecuhar

enjoyment;

disputed by Mendelssohn).

was

New

reason

domain

real

all is contained

hence

which
a

revealed

Trinity, Lessing

which

of the

her

to

the

come

(as if set

us

is to receive

to

sure

books

belonging

race

is

of

stages, says

which

Testament,
time

the

hand,

first stadium

revelations,until

truths

human

New

before"

as

upon

the

the

action

goods,

sought after,not

These

Lessing

future

hand,

one

of

in

race

of

the

elementary

"reflected

are

for

; but

in the

us

human

(which thesis

man

human
the

the

by

the

teachers

earliest

opposite principle.)

manner

was

on

of

prospeiity, is able

other

the

of

for immediate

seeks

stage is that

to be

worthy

are

and,

the

among

the

tantius, assert
individual

121

CENTURY.

motives

in the

thought

and

honor

Lessing are,^ on

virtue

account,

own

same

of

other

contrary,

in the

prospects

utterance

every

their

of

the

third

; the

idea

guiding

these

latter

justiceand
but

the

of

youth, when

and

boyhood

other

each

childhood, which

of

stage is that

first

is that

second

18TH

THE

which
God
the
Jmman
chose to
race, or, at least, of a part of it, with
Leasing distinguishes three stages in the life
particular plan of tuition.

of

education

IN

PHILOSOPHY

GERMAN

limited

must

same

pass

stage j

122

on

BENCH

the contrary, he

that

every

does

not

in

reach,

of the

identity

existence

of

when

the

Individualism

place

to universalistic

leaned

decidedly.)

"

118.

the

mind

The

the

it

thus

by

in

Christ

the

conditions

eentatives

were

and

of

means

in

18th

the

that of

repeated

of

the

and

temporary

the

idea of the

hypothesis of the

began

and

more

all

in

re-appearances

at least

buck-ground

events

continued

which

later,
to

more

for

French

oppositionto the

in Church

during this life he

Christians,etc., toward

century

accordingly,

argues,

stages, which

pantheistic views, Schleiermacher, at

was

the actual

truth,

implies the possibilityof

prevailingcharacter

eighteenthcentury

CENTUBY.

puts at least in the

of

race,

prevalent
and

those

api."roximatestoward

person,
in

unlimited

an

existence

hypothesis,as

18TH

THE

through

pass

previous states,and

conscious

idea

ever-renewed

latter

IN

to that
shall

man

an

(This

of all

oblivion

ascribes

individual

this world.

PHILOSOPHY

philosophyof
received
dogmas

give
time,

the
and

State,and

the efforts of its repreof a new

to the establishment
cal
theoreti-

chieflydirected
and practical philosophyrestingon
naturalistic principles.The
for such a development having been previously
prepared by Bayle
way
and his skepticalphilosophy,Voltaire
came
forward, resting in the
the physicsof Kewton
and
on
positivepart of his doctrine essentially
and
Locke's
for
on
finding favor,especially
philosophyof cognition,
his hostile criticism of the dominant
theologicalconfession,not only
the educated

among
of

France.

defended

the

of his

great extent,

side
out-

Maupertuis had already victoriously

tesquieu,
cosmology againstthe Cartesian,and Mon-

Before

him,

Newtonian

had
particularly,
ideas.

nation,but also,to

own

the

over

won

educated

classes

to

liberal

pointed back
degenerate civilization,
and preached a religion
the positive
to nature, rejected
and historical,
of nature
founded
the ideas of God, virtue,and
on
immortality; he
demanded
education
for men
an
accordingto nature, and a democratic
of the
form of government, which
should
impose upon the freedom
concede
and agree to
individual only such limits as the individual can
without
The
science of
his inalienable rights as
man.
a
forfeiting
defined art as
aesthetics was
cultivated by Batteux, who
successfully
sualism
Senof the beautiful in nature.
in the imitation
consisting
essentially
was
developed on the basis of Locke's doctrine,but to an
extent

Rousseau, offended

to

which

Locke

psychicalfunctions
that internal

as

had

not

transformed

perception had

Ilelvetius

by

gone,

by Condillac,w^ho viewed

accordinglytaught

and
sensations,

its basis

in

external

all

or

sensuous

found

moral

science

on

the

tion.
percep-

principleof
sought
of this principle
could not
self-interest,
by affirmingthat the demands
be fullysatisfied except as they harmonized
with the good of society.
with D'Alembert, superintendedthe pubDiderotjwho, in connection
to

FRENCH

PHILOSOPHY

IN

18TH

THE

123

CENTURY,

of all the sciences,advanced

EncyclojpCBdia
gradually
to pantheism. Robinet, through his doctrine of a natural
from deism
from
its
gradationof existences,or of the gradual progress of nature
lication of the

creations

lower

to

up

believingin

while
material

God

of

conditions

became

man,

and

the

forerunner

of

net,
Schelling.Bon-

immortality,sought

activities of

the

soul.

the

discover

to

Pure

materialism

taught by the physician La Mettrie,chieflyas a psychological

doctrine,but by Baron Ilolbach,in the Systeme de la Mature,as an
all-inclusive,
anti-theological
philosophy.
was

servir

pour

r/iistoirede

M.

de

C.

49), Chr.

Bartholniess'

doctrines

religieuses

hist, de

IlLSt.

/ran

raise

in

Part

Schlossers

Second
Voltaire's

works

of

biography
work

; Erail

1870 ; J. Moriey,

IV.

Monatshefte,
The

22 vols., Paris,

1818-20,

contrat

Charles

et

in

Strauss),

1872.

Parallelen

F.

D.

Moralist,

Strauss,

18.

dem

L.

J.

Le

roi

France,

en

celebration

the

19, Jahrhun-

und

Leouzon-le-

Frusefs

in

Metaphysician,

ami

phical
biogra-

Janin,

; J.

humanites

des

aus

(with

(whose

Vierteljahrsschrift, 1868;

BetUsclie

Theologian,

18G6.

F., Paris, 1848;

de

rS-

la

(Paris,1868)

Kehl, 1785-89

at

de"

Jahrhunderts^

(discourseat

Natvrwiss.

zur

18.

des

Berlin, 1856
fhist.

de

episode

Reuschle,
in the

philosophie

Crit.

Petranger,

XlV.jusqud

Condorcet

besides

him,

La

1773,

Rousseau,

und

Beziehung

; G.

in

Basle

on

Bersot,
V.

maUres,

ses

seiner

641-568;

pp.

Cf.

etc.

(Par.,1848-

Hist.

and

18. siecle

an

and

philosophy,

Matei'ialismus, Iserlohn,

des

and

of

d
{siecle)

Louis

de
France

en

Litteraiurgssch.

Gesch.

Kehl

at

Meyer,

[Voltaire as

(Six Lectures), 2d ed., Leipsic,

Voltaire

Tr.]

(Paris, 1852),

published

and

ed.

E.

and

Buss

{Montesq.

in

Cartesius,

und

Par., 1851.

Paris, 1821, Morin,

et

le vrai

material

Paris, 1868;

in

Feuerlein,

the

Philos.

E.

I)er

coquetting

the

Guion,

Gedanke,

; A.

seq.

published

was

have

Confessions,

Strasb., 1860,
1861

by Musset-Fathay,

inedited

previously

Brockerhoff,

F.
de

been

Lamartine,

by
nished
fur-

Leips.,

Rousseau,

social, Poissy, 1866.

contrat

CEuvres, Neufch^tel, 1779.

Bonnet's

1764, etc., also, in particular, edited

in

'65 ; biographies, to complete

and

Stxidien, by Emil

sche
social

at Paris

by A. deLatour,

Par., 1861

Cf, Rousseau'

faux

V.

F.

D.

Bersot

were

by Musset-Pathay,

son

B.

la mort

siScle,2"i

la Litt. Fr.

de

dix-huitiime

Le

mystique

Hettner's

history

Hist,

la

sur

1, Oct., 1869).

Streckeisen-Mouiton,

1863.

and

1867,

compare

of Rousseau

works

1768,

the

on

ni^cle

XVIIIe

au

duction,
intro-

une

XVIIIe

du

(Paris, 1850-51),

deputs

Lange's

Great), Beriin, 1868

Voltaire, London,

Montesquieu,

On

the

76, November,

Yo\.

Magazine,

in

Voltaire

police, Paris, 1868.

la

et

in Herra.

Albert

; J.

Pierson,

Voltaire, Lessing

and

Voltaire

Duc,

; A.

Bois-Reyraond,

of Frederick

birthday
(Kant

dert

temps., Paris, 1851

du

F.

Paris, 1829-34,

at

works

Leibn.

philos.

Ill.avec

tome

les philosophes

in Nisard's

Memoires

Damiron's

is Ph.

la philos.

de

et

larger

Europe

La

separately, Paris, 1820), E.

published

son

ed., Paris, 1861

Voltaire, 3d
Paris, 1866

et

Condorcet),

by

in
Geneva

at

the

depuis

de

paps

Franck's

JahrJmiiderts,

published

were

also

was

18.

des

VEglise

Pruase

de

les divers

and
literature),

Voltaire

V.

Bungener,

of the

Gcschichte
French

(on

rvijluence

(Strasb.. 1855), A. Sayous'

volutionfran(;ait"e (2 vols., Paris, 1861), A.

and

in

topic

work

principal

[.-I/.,Paris, 1858,

literature, especially

moderne

dans

De

Lanfrey,

this
of

Tacad.

2}hilos. de

the

century

Steele,torn.

Lerminier,

on

history

la phllosopkie

de

la litterature

the

and

Of.

sections

the

further,

see,

eighteenth

Par., 1833

XIXe,

du

general history

on

the

philosophieauXV/ne
Paris, 1864.

sociubilitt

ed., Par., 1857;

French

la

Gouraiid,

et la

legUilation

in works

of the

philoRophy

the

On

work

him

on

by

the

of

Duke

Caramen

published

was

at

Paris, 1859.
Diderot's

published

philosophical

at

Paris, 1798

philos. et critique
in 1830.

The

Leips.. 1866.
Gedanke,
see

Revue
On

Vol.

most
Cf.

V., 1864,

de"t deux
J. B.

1891,

in

end

by

1829,

comprehensive
also

the
pp.

mondes.

Robinet,

published

were

and

Grimm,

de

works

(by Naigeon)

cf.

and

article

by

1-25.

On

59,

pp.

at

edition

Memoires.

on

D'Alembert

as

vols,

latter

work

Rosenkranz

1865. Vol.

Damiron,

the

thorough

in 6

the

1772.

Amsterdam,

et

correspondance
hira

on

Diderot's

compare

is Roseukranz's

dialogue
J.

His

being supplemented

Bertrand,

complete
by

the

onvrages

in edits

Diderofs

Leben

entitled

de
und

Nephew,

Rameau's

D'Alembert,

works

vie

sa

were

Correspondance

et

ses

Diderot,

WerAe^
in

Der

travaux,

984-1006,

already cited, and

Rosenkranz

in

Der

Gedanke,

Vol.

I., 1861, p. 126

seq.

Among

the

French

problems, by
of

general culture

and

authors
far

the

of the

of the

eighteenth

larger number
transformation

century

who

distinguished themselves
of

touched
more

and
ecclesiastical,
political,

upon
as

sophical
philo-

promoters
social rela-

124

FRENCH

tions, than

PHILOSOPHY

contributors

as

and

politicalhistory
is of

that

period

After

(108G), had

popularized
rendered

to

life's work

his

and

Sciences)
Ms

subsequently
But

it

Clairaut

Id the
to

bearings of

the

men

Essai

Voltaire, an

and

in

written

in

with

ethereal

so

that

le tjwnde

the

not

de

it) ; this

natural

of his

as

equality,
of

culture

of

nations.

of Descartes

modest

written
Ignorant^^''

man,

He

In

followed
and

^'-

says

followed

by La

to

La

apres

of

mainly Locke,
as

solid
de

invisible

history to

the
the

moon,
in

moon,

1728,

gen
were

1738, Voltaire

d ki portee de

the

who

tout
pathized
sym-

unpatriotic and
But

Neicton

Voltaire

political institutions

possible.
reference

constant

doctrine
fiction.

(he says,

of

the

Voltaire
in the

des

Voltaire
to

the

psychology,

in

and

of

distinct

more

de/pendreque

ne

was

political

and

the

is

in
ebb

the

M'ta^ihysiquede

d
law

and

egg,

the censor,

knowledge,

whose

attainments

courses

of the

ecclesiastical

mmHe
the

world

filled up

the year

especiallyto

Uherte

very

seen

an

the

print

by the

enemy

doctrine

the

but

of

letter

finds

causes

(Amst., 1740).

also

practice of paying

tant

play
like

moon

D'Aguesseau,
to

an

Malebranche.

of moderate

in 1767;

In

permission

but

physics
a

left the

Anglais^ written

in 1734.

only equality before

but

history, the

theology Voltaire

les

the

the

water

world.

Arouet,

In

is

educated

of the

gravitates towards

sea

contributed

country

of

wrote

{11^1)

his name,

universe

with

purpose

of

he

lea
the

; he

he

of

8m-

for the

men.

longish

us

high

Leibniz

philosophy,

politicalviews.

writer

was

et de

seeing England,

in

the

1741, because

Newton

the

all to

Academy

earth

Paris

tesian,
Car-

above

Mathematical

In

it

the

de la Nature

philosophiede Newton., mis

that

and

as

deemed

the

sojourn

said, to that

Locke

he

as

sentiments

the

educated

pressure

in France

refused

first

of

for

sur

of

knowledge

jeune).

occupied

demand

de la

till

the

Lettres

The

they appeared

Cartesians, at

absolute

ethics, and
he

"

is

hand,

Parisians

ebb.

an

other

of

the

to the

conducted

Lapland,

changed

Paris

painted

Paris

his

introduced,
customs

the

when

the

is

like

made

his memoirs

1736-37

in

things.

At

mondm

who

Berlin

arrives in London

other

space

At

on

Is

des

due

was

the

to

he

vacua*

same

and

general conception

our

Arouet

e.

already, before

development

this

Descartes,a

refutation

in 1733

to

(where

Frenchman

earth

his Elcmens

only by

not

despotism,

at London

work,

attracted

Ms

the

melon.

England,

require

jiar allele des

in

astronomy

Systeme

bring

to

upon

in most

as

the

(not published in France

unreasonable

England

here

of

(1749) and

liveliest interest
a

and

untrue,

form

the

to

in London

absolute

Paris

at Amsterdam

with

of Paris

as

pluraliU

in France

Academy

sought

the

well

as

finds

In

time

same

published

published

on

he

like

; in

of London

tlemen
first

of tides

at the

history of

especially (Nov. 21, 1G94,

were

doctrine

Morale

When

"

says

vortices,while

it is oblate

flow

and

; here

of gravitation.

London

the

to

facts of modem

the

Church

President

I.j. i.

engaging

Copernicus

Voltaire

figure des astrcs^r.nd

who

resided

philosophy

all full of matter

forces

province of

materialism

la

sur

1746

1728, Voltaire

of

strictlyscientific

controversy

of Arouet

then

were

great change,

of the

account
the

to

and

principal coadjutor)

PhUosophle

Voltaire

anagram

astronomy

The

theory of astronomy

the

1720-29

years

la
his

the

de

the

; from

sur

was

measurement

an

of

to the

Discours

pre-eminently Voltaire

was

sensualism

by

Newtonian

of the

presented

and

expedition (in which

deciding by

rather

Entretiem

his

teachings.

(1G98-1759

Maupertuis

de V attraction

of

of

chiefly by

led

teachings

those

Maupertuis

detailed

more

civilization,than

and

doctrine

perhaps

establishment

the

belongs

doctrines

Newtonian

was

to oppose

of

the labors

State

literature

astronomical

dogmatic

the

that

science.

(1G57-1757),in
the

to the

30, 1778),who

May

conviction

as

and

CENTURY.

philosophical interest.

service

vv^as

history of

the

Fontenelle

that

Church

in

18TH

THE

particularly the development

It is

philosophy.

philosophy

to

against despotism

contest

IN

"

soul

was,

speaks of

PJiilosophe

mdUieureuses^fatigue^harasse,Twtl'

126

FiysNcn

mieiix

which
provisions,

complete
of the

which

aristocratic
check

should
considered

to be

the

from

by

the

of

and

the

"

is

That

tendencies

the

of

other),
to

ous
mischiev-

to the
leg-islation,
of

the

ence
exist-

very

of the

pantheism
time

for

model

not

yet

and

other

constitutional

as

poetry
rising above

doctrine

Ermenonville),deeply

perceiving how
to

by

fancied

of

the

virtue, and

works,

Montesquieu's

ideal

"Whether

the

purificationof

morals?

hommes, 1753,

etc. ; Du

; Discours

")

Vorigine

sur

social

contrat

sciences

of the

restoration

and
of

in

the

doctrine

Bhcours

has

arts

by

sur

Holbach's

opposition
State

nished
fur-

controlled
les sciences

of

contributed

Dijon
to

the

et les

principesdu

ou

and

tality
immor-

first manifestation

Ehcyclopcedists, whereas

Rousseau's

is the

controlled

was

after the

are

positive

politicalideal

Rousseau's

so

original state

eighteenth century,

less his will

principal works

taught

beautiful.

at

faith in (xod,

monarchists,

Rousseau's

of

principe,Paris, 1746),

of the

zeal

life!

is what
in

is the

Rousseau's

rational

the

should

consequences

This

meme

return

first after

in 1778

greatest

Revolution,

Robespierre.

un

heart, the

with

appeared

of the

the

Diderot

by

of Nature

the

of

this faith

attested

and

that

in actual

consists

art

conception

of the

need

evil

in nature,

redaits

up

the

them

of

development.

democracy.

Reflexions

passions,which

excitation

"illumination"

of the

for historical

sense

all the

; he

in

beautiful

the

the

separating

mission

Arts

his

(occasioned by the followingprize-question proposed by the Academy

1749:

ration
sepa-

House,

applied

to
conflicts,

such

agreeable

the

; Les Beaux

Coryphaei

more

In

the

the

least

System

them.

parmi les
fondemens de Vinegalite
droit politique,
1762
Amst.,
; Emile,

Veducation,1762.

Julien
then

to be

Paris,1742),in
of

with

for

which

at

(born at Geneva, 1712, died

pure

materialism

sur

and

endangering

excitation

an

means

imitation

him

ideas

to

instituted

became

inclined

of the

by
Mettrie

imbecile.

were

forth

set

thinking

and

in

the

by

on

him

"

soul"

man

of

power

his
La

Through

Spinoza.
he

Ilistoire naturelle

should

who

Amobius

increases

and

"

grow
see

decreases

observations

which

fever, respecting the influence

violent

thought,

Mettrie, have

by

Boerhaave

arrived

explained by the organization

with

(in agreement
The

in

walling, says

education.

of

midst

the

to be

of

doctrine

under

the Jansenists,
and
(1668-1738),who as a

at Paris

educated

was

medicine

of

the

towards

blood

psychical functions

(1709-1751)

student

himself

on

movements

was

la Mettrie

Offroy de

(in 1733)

philosopher

La

of

connected

some

that

equality of

for

et les arts

the

Lower

(Par., 1719, etc.), argued

vanquish them, preached

all of

Of

moral

State,

obstruction

the

musique

need

degenerate civilization, and

and

has the

atheistical

All

from

Rousseau

meet

nature.

was

ou

"find

(1713-1780

evils

to

freedom

the

to

Beauvais, died

at

et la

in the

accomplished.

Jacques

Rousseau

in

facts, to

failed, however, satisfactorilyto define

feeling the

of

1670

inconveniences

asks,

passions

have

Batteux

progress

free

to incurable

rights, and

peinture

found

realitythrough

Charles

Jean

of

of

painting

who

with

and

might also easilycripple each

lead

only

judicial powers,
Upper

an

and

orderly

an

could

personal

(born

the

art," he

not

common

of

Dubos

to be

was

majority

and

norms

they

poesie,la

la

separated
Could

of

and

into

by their vetoes, but

juridicalfictions

security

Baptiste

origin of art
"

other

elements

State.

critiques sur

be

legislative,executive,

democratic

which

of

of the

of the
Jean

each

under

confounding

and

century.

of fact he indi
lequd il est etabli^^),
yet as a matter
under
definite
conditions
judicious only
(such aa

are

the

universal

as

circumstances

prejudice

of

separation

18th

the

est

du peoplepour
disposition

d la

rectly caused
the

philosophy

their

de

at the
of

the

Vdme,

d la

conviction

ho

of

the

that

the

trine
body, and this docIlaye (Paris),1745.

origin in sensations, and

are

veloped
de-

human

intercourse,says
up apart
be mentally
above, Vol. I., " 84),would
from

with

the

body

*'

hence

it must

be

de*

I
FRENCH

the body."

stroyedwith
La

this

In

other works.

127

CENTURY.

established in the Hist. nat.

stand-point,
(Leyd., 1748,etc.),(which work was

psychology of

Descartes

than

human

afforded

Great, who

the

him

Lange, Gesch. d.

Mat,

of life

bitter denomination
his

protection at
Machine^Par. , 1805).

ed. of V Homme
A.

under

that

of

(Potsdam, 1748),L'Art de jouir (1750),and

ethics of abstinence.
La Mettrie,
advancing-to the

the

oppositionto

him

Vdme^

written

Plante

opposite extreme, seeks to justifysensual enjoyment in a manner

than frivolous.
The
of convention
artificially
exa.g-gerated
power
life elicits from

de

Machine

Empiricism),V Homme

Locke's

ISTH

THE

IN

influence of the mechanical

the

under

From

D Homme

in

out

Mettrie sets

more

PHILOSOPHY

The

as

which

is still

and

charlatanry in

farce.

more

Frederick

the

court, wrote

his eulogy (given in Assezat's

best

of his doctrine is

account

F.

given by

165-186.

pp.

in his earliest works, Essai sur

(1715-1780),
Vorigine
des connaissances humaines
(Amst.,1746),and Traite des systemes(1749 the latter a
remains
tially
substanpolemical work directed agaiastMalebranche,Leibnitz,and Spinoza),
in
his
but
Traite
of
Locke
the philosophical
des
on
beyond
ground
Locke,
goes
works
des
and
his
sensations (London, 1754)
{Traite
subsequent
animaux,Amst.,1755,
for the Prince
and a series of text-books
of Parma, whose
education was
intrusted to
Bonnot

Etienne

Condillac

de

"

In

Condillac,etc.).
experience
seeks

second, independent

to derive

from

all ideas

he

latter works

these

only no

not

the latter

their

as

longer recognizes in internal

in addition

of ideas

source

psychical functions

all

psychical processes
statue, to which

marble
the

of smell.

sense

is joined.
science)

If the

memory.

the

different

perceptionsarise

If at

them.

them

among

the

involves

again

part

our

time

same

or

comparison

and

dwells

those

on

given

be

richer.
us

to

ideas

which

associated
The

sense

perceivethe

are

Let

with
of

words

touch

existence

is

as

which

behind,i. e., the statue has

recollect them, they become

we

The

their

distinguishedfrom

of external

when

objects;

but

of sensation

be
the

the

the

mental
other

attribute

From
ia the

of

Condillac

also assumes,

thingsthemselves,while

the recollection

totalityof

by

the

soul of

with

and

let

and

colors,sounds, etc.
a

past sensation

of

are

the

formation

by

senses

its sensations

Descartes

cession
suc-

The

soul

separation of single

added,

are

Locke, that

ideas

becomes

its

not

ideas from the beginning,i. e., they are

i^eas by memory;
they are
of something which
representations to the mind
differs in some
manner
itself.

and

reproduced.

arises

senses

signs, and

representationsof

division

originalconnection

it ; hence
other

{con-

noticed,i. e.,

more

ideas,i. "., mental

association

the

consciousness

therefore

are

left

are

judgment.

agreeable to

abstraction.

others,or

explain

sensation

the

-perceptions enter, the

their

of

hypothesis of innate ideas,

sensation,Condillac imagines a
given in succession,
and, first of all,

memory,
have

we

sense

new

of perceptions determine

ideas from

are

in

to

transforniations

perceptions,with
of them

Traces

to them.

perception,but

endeavors

mere

and
stronger than others,

are

objectsof apprehension on

senses

furnishes

sense

Some

is directed

attention

be

This

from

deduced

can

He

only source.

as
genetically,conceiving them
{sensationstransformees). To demonstrate
that,without

all

to sensible

enabling

first made

immediate
from

extension

ception
peris

an

only subjectivesensations.

pleasure

arises desire.

The

sensations

n'eM
{le moi de chaque homme
que la collection des
sensations qxCil eprmme
et de cdles que la memoire
lui rappelle,
"est tout d la fais
la conscience de ce quHl est et le souvenir de
ce quHl a ete). Condillac is a sensationalist,
but not a materialist. He holds it not
that matter
should feel and
think,
since,

as

extended

and

divisible, it is

possible
aggregation of parts,whereas

an

thoughtimply the unity of the subject (substratum).

Charles Bonnet, a Swiss (1720-93)in his Essai de psychohgiemi

feelingand

Considerations

sur

128

FRENCH

PHILOSOPHY

IN

18tH

THE

CENTURY.

les operationsde Vdme

1700

Bssai

his

by

(projectedin 1748, published Lond., 1755),which was followed in

half-materialistic
de rdme, built
a
sationalism,
senanalyiiquesur lesfacultes
up

which

religious faith
Albrecht

whose

to

work

from

however,

in 5

The

skeptic.

and

distinct

in

this

and

he

matter,
place

at

sensations

The

is almost

la

phiques (a

Haye,

fixed

becomes
"

inedits de Diderot) ; after

et owcrages

Entretien

in

Pensees

the

apparatus

in the

published

the

basis
The

effects

of the

of the

economy

of Horace

and

state, laid

down

of

private property,

of all misfortune.
in his

work, De

legal regulation
of the

In

la
and

the

spontaneous
(who

(1697-1774),and

la

gave

sensations

up.
grows

la

et

vertu

Memmres,

the

corres^wn-

The

(Paris,1754).
and

which

one

it of

in

of

problems of
likewise

1709),were
He

to nature.

gives
external

the

the

first

inedits.

derot
Di-

against the

wars

of

affirmation

probably influenced
(Amst., 1755)

nature

of

source

is
all

the

on

Principes
one-sided

of

des

the

pernicious

also

by

wipes
lois,

claim

the

older brother

an

out

the

prominence

to

Turgot (1727-1781"

political

interests
who

of

boundary

investigations in
the

to

ism,
all barbar-

controversies, of

The

Plato's

communistic

of

source

Mably (1709-1783),

benevolence.

others, and

d'un

philosophical stand-point

absence

in

Ph'doso-

Promenade

the

ancients.

soi,which

manner,

Legislationou

"physiocrats"

agriculture) Quesnay

is

similar

bound

the Pensees

connection

Locke's

de

the

forth, in particular by Boileau,

set

of the

Code

all

In

were

of

and
in

materialism.

correspondanceet owcrages

possessions, and

in his

law

immanent

Nature

la

the
the

according

extreme

in

of
his

(written

were

as

others

to the
of

is

art

natural

as

le merite

profound work,

his most

which
of

4th

long wavering

Selfishness, le desir d' avoir pour

Condillac,
between

that

mles

great inequality

possession
and

"

dicta

in

such

by

in

faith,in

still Jess

Vol.

of the Memoires,

Morelly, carrying

of too

doctrine.
the

in

d'Alembert

reve

volume

beautiful

imposed
Abbe

doctrine

fourth

the

finds
constraint

Le

with

philosophy, together

have

passed from

God

sur

ligence
intel-

We

Shaftesbury's Inquiry concerningVirtue

its

all

metaphysics

Diderot

Out

Essai

with

conscious

sensations

organism.

lightness of form and

of demonstration, of a deep insight into
spite of

in

evidence,

"

of

which

Interpretationde

et Diderot''

d)Almihert

entre

sur

method

to do

is in

to

sensation

revelation,which

published

first

mind.

of

ou

and

more

no

is inconceivable.

of

longer defends, and

no

but

in

point

consequence
in

animal

{Dweours Frelim-

1757, had

recognizes

morale
pJiilosophie

faith

Analytique^ 2 vols.,

classification

matter

which

of

originators

Encyclopaidists),
Grimm,

to

nor

atoms,

the

the

mathematician,

to

final

reproduction
his

the

seems

conception
the

put

in
la

1746), he

sceptique(written in 1747,
dance

he

mere

Table

of the

the

matter

the

outran

Leibnitz

of

By

and

confesses

Merit, Diderot

and

the

and

introduction

of view

related

pantheism,

to

de
Friricipes

the

(1745), which

of

of

arts,entitled,
metiers^ in 28 volumes

et des

of

(who, after

be

neither

conscious

become

In

thought.

point

D'Alembert,

goodness.
of

monads

of the

views

Encyclopaedia by Voltaire,Rousseau

parts in organized beings

reached

once

friend

liberal

sciences

arts

admirable

by D'Alembert

in revelation

truth, beauty,

The

Baconian

idea

the

opponent

an

intelligencecan

complete

faith

and

theism

of

this

to

others.

Encyclopasdia).

union

how

; but

the

field of

des
sciences^

des

made

and

written

the editing of the

a

from

sciences, was

was

(1717-1783), were

d'Alembert
whole

became

on,

Holbach, Turgot, Jaucourt,

of the

his

vols.,Amst., 177G-77, and

were

1757

treats

Jean
the

raisomd

Contributions

inaire)^which

and

embracing

Dictionnaire
ou
Eiiclycl()j)edie
(Paris, 1751-72; supplement

(who,

body.

faith, however,

liberal

with

agreement

He

offence.

(1713-1784)

of the

Paris, 1780).

less

into

bring

to

of the

resurrection

of the

hypothesis

gave

Diderot

editors

tried

(likePriestley) nevertheless

Haller,
dogmas

Denis

and

by

von

Athanasian

he
the

of

avoided

FBENCH

their
sur

la

the

opponent of

et la distribution

formation

RaynaJ

phiios.du
the

Revolution, adopted
the

De

llwmme,

prompts

de

is necessary

passions
He

to

the

but

or

ts obvious

that

; his

self,as

of

of

extension

while

higher

of

egoisticcalculation.

good

The

the

by

mind,

works:

as

Not

man.

the

gradual

stages, where
of

then

of what

substance

he

lated.
regu-

of

erty,
propof

the

founded

are

It
on

est
self-inter-

from

man

to

legislation.

to follow

his limitation

successively with,

is animated

larger

be

of daily labor

State,
of

progress

he

suppression
to

prejudice, but

for

bound

to be

duct,
con-

all that

restriction

hours

of the

makes

pro-

human

abolition

problems

true

of

to

the

of the

Les

which
self-love,

needs

not

the

(1715-1771),

Complete
but

Abbe

of

legislationis

acquire property,

to

the

in

and

manner

individuals

and

time

motive

good.
the

Helvetius

believes

having appreciated

not

such

culture, are

which

he

the

posthumous

finds

education

common

one

every

the spiritof comparatively restricted

motives

in

the

proper

by others, reduction

soiaae

individual, to

an

only

fructifies

of oth'^rs,is the

requirements

is in

error

the

interests

own

labor

the

the

with

in

Galiani,

(1770),were

Helvetius

in

(Lond., 1775),

off pain, the

ward

possible for

it

of benevolence,

the idea

to

the

eight, and

vrai

du

Abbe

hies

combated

Adrien
and

the

des

{Londres [Amst.], 1772),and

education

son

harmony

interests

rendering

exploitation " of

seven

his

the

Morelly.

of

also

commerce

Baboeuf,

Claude

esprit(Paris,1758),

stupidity ; passion

secures

to further

rather

' '

it into

leads

le

Indes.

right guidance of self-love by

the

bring

M'ho

de

pleasure and

that

to

recherche

la

dans

to seek

us

holding
of the

faculteset

ses

raison

la

de

gres

of

doctrine

papier monnaie., Refleaioiw

slavery were

and

deux

des

le

sur

sur

129

CENTURY.

(1774), etc.,as

Monopolies

commerce

contrary, in his book, De

on

Lettre

des nchesses

of fact.

to matters

more

wrote

18TH

THE

physiocrats, in his Dialogues

the

in his Hist,

IN

who

of view, and

narrowness

directed

PHILOSOPHY

is led

societies,and

is better

proposes

beyond
than

the-.

(1716-1803;
Frangois de St. Lambert
de
Catechisrne universel.,
and
Chassebceuf,
1797)
1757-1820;,
Volney (Constantin Frangois
du
CatecMsme
citoyen fran"^ais^1793, second
edition, entitled, La loi naturelle ou
et de Vunivers ;
principesj)hysiquesde la r^wrale^ deduits de Vorganisationde Vhomme
followed
those
who
QiJavres completes.,
Paris,1821, 2d ed., 1836),are prominent among
grounds

which

on

of

happiness

proposals

modified

Helvetius, but
the

his

his

idea

of

the

all;

in

the

principlesso

indissoluble

"Ruins"

ethics.

French

The

rule

the

losophy of history {Esquissed'un

Jean

Baptiste

Robinet

his principal work, De

1763),as
tetre,ou

also

rneditations

who

sur

phasized
em-

with

individual

the

les rewlutions

des-

-philosophicalapplication of this

by Volney

as

de V

progres

(1743-1794) phir

esprithumain.,1794).

; vol.

in

Amst.,.
I.,nouvelleedit.y

gradation naturelle

la

the

died, Jan. 24, 1820) sought

he

(4 vols.,Amst., 1761-66

realize

to

attempt

an

Condorcet's

is based

des
historique

de
philosophiques

and

extreme,

of the

happiness

historico

ideal

less

them

Rennes, 1735, where

at

la Nature

same

tableau

Considerations

in his

des essais

(bom

makes
viewed

was

On

reason.

of the

{Les Huines, ou

Revolution

of

make

to

as

union

4th ed.,Paris, 1808),Volney

'empires.,

ideal of the

Charles

rest.

des

formes

de

and
Par allele
qui apprend a faire Vhomme
(Amst., 176"7),
celles des autres
animaux^ trad, de
avec
facultes de VJwmme
Vanglnis(Bouillon, 1769),to carry out the idea of a gradual development of the forms
de la condition

of existence.
to

de la nature
des

et

Robinet
ascribe

Influenced

to

recognizes
it

personality without

perhaps by

(1716-1774),maintained

(the

been

main

Antecedents

contents

have

Robinet's

modified
but

Vhegelitmismedans
Savants,1866, pp. 609-624), and
de

single creative

of nature, but

falling into

writings, Dom.

Spinozism
recently
la

cause

in

edited

9,

it impossible

misleading anthropomorphism.

Deschamps,

manuscript
Emile

believes

written

Beaussire

the

Benedictine

soon

undor

after
the

by
philosophicfran(^aise.,
Paris^ 1865; cf. Journal

indirectlyalso

in

some

works

of

somewhat

1770
title
des

earlier

hume's

130

date.

tic dualism
which

the

of the

he

Nature

delsheim,

near

Didei^t.

The

work

the
in

in

had

who

Freret, who
1749

and

"

the

love

of

or

points,
is said

in

(La

relles

ethics

died,

me

works

attributed

to

combines

cultivated

rather

perhaps

Secretary of
as

confusion

Eugenie

the

the

written

separately

avows,

Inscriptions,in

the

substantially,in

Systeme

de ki

Nature^

les

hon

prejuges (1768),

sejis

ou

such

idees natu-

discours

ou

sur

universeUe

(1776).
often

have

and

Damilaville

as

les

u?ii-

de la morale

theology, which

persons,

most

Holbach

against supernatural-

la morale

sur

the
laid

emphasis

agreed

(1770),Le

other

by

same

all those

the principle of self-

on

directed

fonde

the

subjective with

preservatifcontre

ou

Mira-

antiquarian Nic,

through

which

St. Paul

le gouvernemmt

were

et

openly

of

Acad,

founded

of works

most

the

by

of

Holbach
was

but

number

the

expressly against Christian

directed

Holbach,

of

(Condillac's),determin'

(1772),La politique naturdle

(1773),Systeme social (1773), Elements

ou

friend

physique

Paris;

at

system

the
Hei-

at

ten
Thrasybule d Leucippe^writ-

de

century,

de

m"nde

sm'naturelles

(1776),Eethocratie
other

(Some

truth

was

1723

Paris), a

at

(which this system

Besides

benevolence.

du gouvernement
pri/icipes

been

(bom

Academy

been

Lettre

of the

et les oworages

idees

aux

atheism

rightly understood,
of

the

had

of all) which

anonymously
la

till then

while

in

des his du

ou

Holbach's

(Helvetius', qualifiedby

doetrine

critiquesur

verselle

in

That,

Leyden, 1770; nominally by feu

or

is defined

joint interest

written

opposees

^rais

Spinozis-

assertion,that

21, 1789,

Feb.

de la nature

eighteenth

istic doctrines, in particular, Lettres

Examen

the

eighteenth century

Holbach

sensationalism
Mettrie's),

author

the

1688, and

the

on

have

to

is his

in the

Secretary of

admitted),

of the

religious faith

the

the

modifications

are

hylozoisticmonism.

von

notes, Leipsic, 1841).

of

self-interest

with

the

been

part,

quarter

in which

latter

being {un Stre

real

to overthrow

Hegel,

Materialism

Systeme

materialism

bom

and

of

Dietrich

empirical doctrine, which

was

objective),

French

reality Amst.

Grerraan, with

first

seeks

by

Palatinate, died

entitled

(Lond.,

example,

the

universd) is

perceivable things

predecessor

the

(which Diderot, too, had

after

all

extension

Heinrich

Paul

was

together, viz.

ism

by

of Baron

of the

elements
than

(letout

which

and

thought

Bruchsal, in

into

opponents.

probably following Robinet,

particularly as

[died 1760],

translated

its

contradictory elements.

moj'al

moiide

baud

the universe

systematic chef-ifmivreof

The

System of

and

(lefond)of

attributes

appears
in itself

includes

that

basis

Deschamps,

{nuanceti).

du

teaches

Deschamps

qui existe), and

skepticism

Naigeon).
Buffon

(1707-1788), the

unreservedly avowing

this

naturalist, believed
At

belief.

in

Naturalism,

following and

once

without

going

openly

beyond

and

Condillac,

in the
(1757-1808; Rapports
physique
and
cultivated
then
in
psychology
physiology
1802, etc.)
VInstitut.,
separately
in a materialistic
de
Destxxtt
d'ideohgie. Par.,
Tracy (1754-1836; Elements
sense.
1801-15
V esprit des lois de Montesquieu.,
Par., 1819), Laromiguiere
sur
; Commentaire
les
de
essai
sur
{Le(^onsdephilos.ou
facultes Fame.,Par., 1815-18), and others,sought in

Cabanis
Mem.

the

du

du mmml

1798-1799,

Vhomme^

de

de

first decennia

system

of

German

opponents,
Xhistoire de

of the

nineteenth

Sensationalism,but

Royer-Collard
and

et

and

Cousin

Victor

philosophers
who

very

laphilos.en

"

and

century

found
"

who

in the

considerably
France

in

au

either

further

to

develop

philosophers devoted
followed

eclectic

limited

Descartes

partly

school
spiritualistic

or

their

dix-neuvieme

to

influence.

or

the
and

to

qualify the

Church,

and

in

partly Scotch

founded

by them,

(Cf. Damiron, E.^sai

sur

siede,Paris, 1828.)

with the French

" 119. Contemporaneously

"

under
ilhimination,"

its

131
the Skepticism of Hume.
influencingit,arose
ing
standstatesman, and historian,
(1711-1776),philosopher,
Davi(l Hume
the latter,
the ground of the Lockian
Empiricism, transformed
on
respectingthe originand applicationof- the
through his in\'estigations
finds the
into a philosophyof Skepticism. Hume
idea of causality,
in

and
infliience,

originof

turn

conceptionof

the

similar

expect that under

another,which

circumstances

often

have

we

says, leads us
will be followed

he

habit,which,

in

cause

event

one

it,and

joinedwith

seen

he

to

by

limits the

in which
from
given facts
conceptionto those cases
we
conclude, according to analogiesof experience,to others. Hume
of our
and
knowing the nature
denies, accordingly,the possibility
and
between
and effects,
the
mode
of the objectiveconnection
causes
of
by means
philosophical
legitimacyof our attempting to transcend,-

of
application

the

field of

idea,the whole

the causal

of God

existence

and

experience and

immortalityof

the

conclude

to

It

the soul.

the

to

particularly

was

of this doctrine which

awakened
a
anti-theological
consequences
number
of Scottish philosophers,
headed
Reid, to a vigorous
by Thomas
polemic againstit,a polemic weak in its philosophicalprinciple(the
of men), but which
led to numerous,
sense
and,
appeal to the common
in many
in
valuable
investigations empirical,psychology and
cases,
ethics;the doctrine of these Scotch philosopherswas
subsequently
many
incorporatedinto the Eclecticism of Cousin and his school. In Gerit was
which
incited Immanuel
chieflythe Skepticismof Hume
Kant
of his Critical philosophy.
to the construction
the

in

Hume's

Treatise

German,

translated

Human

on

concerning

Hxinmn

Hamb.

Leips., 1775,

and

cism, by

13

Vol.

Subjects^

of

Hume

The

death

of which

he
with

oftJie Soul,
works

1776)

charged
Dialogue

have

to

and

Bom
France.

been

Abbo

in

v., Berlin, 1863

At

Paris, in

friend

D.
and

the

the

by

David

late

at

on

Essays

concerning

the

Morale

; F.

the 26th

of

this

Leben

precurseur

miracles, wrought
for

the

tutes
constiSeveral
first

been

repeatedly
with

Hume,

on

in

German

Suicide

him

reprinted.

(by Schroiter),

and

the

Immortality
editions

Complete

J.

treat

A
and

publication

Autobiography

Hume's
of

the

peared
ap-

entitled

Essays

(firstpubl. Lond., 1751),

has

Latin, 1787;

in

o7i

had

"which

the

and

Morals

Essays

Lond., 1856.

Hume,

Kirchmann,
Treatises

a7id

edition, Lond., 1789.

anew

same

Medard,

von

Literary"

by David

day of April, 1711, Hume

St.

J. H.

Essays

coUection

same

philosophical slcepti-

on

edition, Lond., 1779;

Feuerlein, Hume''s

Papillon, David

supposed

Cemetery

the

and

by

of

; the

(translated by Sulzer),

essay

Understanding

Leipsic, 1781.

Lond., 1783;

Lond., 1777;

title

Religion

second

Edinb., 1827, 1836,

German
an

same,

Principles of

Natural

Platner.

the

Lond., 1817

philosophical \Tork, Enquiry

Political, and

Human
the

Smith;
Ernst

Edinb., 1846;

1864

Under

concerning

Hume,

Smith,
H,

the

of

; in
with

published

translation

concerning

Adam

Atheism

Edinburgh
Paris

new

best-kno\vn

Lend., 1748

at

Tennemann),

His

(firstpubl. Lond., 1755) ;

Dialogues

Adam

of

1770,

Enquiry

published

published by

at

An

his
on

the

1739-40, also

vols., at London,

published

G.

E7iquiry

of Religion

W,

1793

Jena,

the

appeared

had

ascribed

with

Passions,

Corresponde7ice

and
IV.

was

the

in 3

Bibliothek\ Berlin, 18G9.

Philos.

History

Hume's

together

his

the

together

"

on

Natural

After

Reinhold,

first

was

(transl, by

published together,

in 1742
mssertation

and

appeared

Jakob, Halle, 1790-91.

Heinr.

Understanding^

Leonh.

Karl

Nature

Ludw.

by

H.

of

(written in
Burton,

Life

Der

')eda7ike.
Vols.

d'A^cguste Cowte,

Versailles, 1868.

und

Wirken,

lived

particularly

in

from
at

1734
the

to

grave

persecuted Jansenists, were

1737
of

in
the

then

132

and
occasion
excitinggeneral interest,
gave
investigations
respecting the genesis of the

Hume's

is affirmed

case

miracles

of animal

by

in his essay
David

incited

magnetism

philosophical

work

Experimental

MetJcod

his

return

reception

Hume

accompanied

Courts

of Vienna

divided

Morals.

applause.

1752,

and

in

which

drew

1763, the

in

At

peace.

Paris

with

the

In

of

Hertford

the

the

Office

his

whose

himself

the

of

diplomatic correspondence
until his

death,

after

of the

examination
not

merely popular,

he

as

far

inquire

into

proposes,

first to
ideas
have

as

of

powers

but

the

of

He

former

he

of

The

creative

the

L^-enses

external

or

standing

or

limits

and

internal
the

All

by experience.
experience

will.

no

exception

attributes

of wisdom

with

each

other

space

and

All

to this

depends

time, and

rule

and

cause

only

ideas

our

are

; the

goodness
on

and

the

the

with

mind

effect.

secre

of

soon

warded
re-

intctl-

was

certain

public

of

State

Id

conducted

Hume

lived

in

in.
ment
retire-

or

of

our

of

obtains

that

principles

idea
The

proceeds

impressions

when

conscious

further

no

given
of

work

idea

The

by magnifying
joining

of association

of

we

less

reflect

we

than

the

to

furnished

material

are

and

which

latter,the

the

under

perceptions.

all limits.

Hume

"

lively sensations

the

hence,

"

which, nevertheless,

between

thought
is

going
thorough-

knowledge

diminishing the
of

Understanding,

virtue, but

extends

combination

copies

beyond

three

in

clearness

the

thought

materials

their

was

Hume

investigation, in

understands

of

power

he

to

distinguishes

faculty of combining, transposing, augmenting,

by

the

hear, see, feel,or love, hate, desire, will,and

become
or
we
imagination, of which
memory

we

as

conclusion

dependence

1769

ap

of

exactness

ideas.

which

England (1766) he

to

; but

stood)

From

ir"

to him.

History of

Under-Secretary

Conway

philosophic

combine

of

origin

of

the

especially

As

exhortation

and

man

for

of

sense

Hume,

Edinburgh

accompanied

become

Hume.

mere

scientific

possible, to

the

impression.

any

not

purpose,

; under

thoughts

or

when

lively ideas
on

his

as

joumeyec?

Natural

his

August, 1776.
Enquiry concerningHuman

the

principal philosophical work,

announcing

Hume

first volume

Returning

had
the

25th

the

on

the

to Versailles

England.

and

Enquiry

easilyaccessible

Hume

General

the

Nature
is the

fill at

to

made

many.

he

(1747)
to

Enquiry concerningthe Principle!*

ed. ib.,1753) were
received
with

reception.

to

1749

year

appeared

injured by

'

his

the

Human

on

1755

to whom

which

tJie

in vain

afterwards

important

commenced

embassy

friend

ascribed

of

head

of

brilliant

erroneously

(at

an

work

most

In

he

year

enmity
on

with

met

thought
he

Edinburgh

at
In

the

(Ediub.,1752, 2d

1762.

by Rousseau,

who

the

his

long

applied

military emlmssy

of

mass

him

Hume

which

Foreign

1767-68

revised

published

ingratitude by Rousseau,

arable, and
utterances

secretary,

; of these

he

first

introduce

Literary,published

have

to

Not

on

literary sources
were
writing the History of England,
a

upon

Earl

accompanied

was

year

fifth in

1754, the

Religion,which
tary,

1751

Attempt

is said

Edinburgh.

at

position as librarian,which

of his

occasion

peared

the

Political Discourses

through

the

was

In

His

much

Hume

Understanding (London, 1748).

Scotland,

to

his

wrote
to

and
Essays Moral, Political,

as

treatises

separate

Hume

an

pifetended

yet quite young,

work
he published after
A
received, however, little notice.

It

Hume

; at Turin

Fr^ice

in

true

was

the

(Similarly
vi^hile

in

psychological

this

which
/Subjects,

1746

year

Clair,

St.

Turin

and

the

for

That

Strauss,

Nature^ being

philosophy

General

concerning Human
back

moral

several

it into

In

sojourn

Moral

to the

given

was

in 1743.

thinkers

miracles.

miracles.

on

1739-40.

London,

at

professorship of

JIutnan

on

lieasoninginto

of

Edinburgh,

at

for

Treatise

England

to

favorable

more

in

Friederich

his

psychological speculations.) During

to

of

himself

disinterested

to

belief

us

through

the

imdernishes
fur-

of God

the human

different

ideas

union
similarity,

in

134
When
those

on

this expectation is founded.

of nature

it.

The

into being

principle
expect,

for

"

experience
of

this

habitual

mind,

sensation

really take
"^ill

feelthe

we

subjects

of the

external

objects

Hume's

from
range

this is to be

judgment
who

in the

has

signally

within

use

only

that

which

force

or

we

be

to

nected,
con-

the

to

ascribe

to

his

to

cerning
speculations con-

assertion,that
the

is

is

sary
neces-

transfer

wont

are

principally with
the

in

by them.*

us

field of

the

causal

experience

transcendent

idea,
to

son
rea-

(or lies beyond

the

and

of substance

idea

; the

I, he

to posit a single substratum

feeling of the happiness and

the

the

to

of

sympathy
welfare

common

of

for

forth

substance.

his

The

man.

moral

excites

action

an

of

complex

underlying

or

misery

man

calls

is

argues,

which

disapprobation

or

natural

of the

interest

furnish

in

mentarily

(in

attempted

the

animal,

of

the

in him
action

fellows,an

approbation, and

but

in

the

conception
and

"the

the

of

one

In

order

can

with

"), i^ given

which

arises
of

which

separation

of them

as

full
up.

sphere

of the

to vindicate
he

for

conceived

propriety
See

space
be

so

and

called

below, " 122.

for

effort

and

valid

without

in the

involved

an

of
time

causality
as

of the

objectivebasis
nexus,
an

(1 priori

(distinguished by

that

hence

and

of

Kant

as

the

implies

whereby,

the

may
the

with

"transcendental"

the

it

habit

the
an

when

edges,
acknowl-

Furthermore,

pronoimced

however,

rules,

external

and

objectivityof

in

power
the

penetration,"

idea.

reality,

himself,

Hume

rectness
cor-

disproved

or

willing

extraneous

and

causal

objective validity, Kant

intuitions,

Hume
out-wit

inductions

our

exception.
midst

requires great attention, exactness,

of

methods,

to

agreement
on

tine,
rou-

only supple-

enabled

certain,

made

universal

more

is

conclusions, whereby

and

of

sense

is

comprehensive

More

deductive

and

it is

inconsistency,
man

of

which

follows

ordinary

; but

of

which

only

his

to

degree
by

who

men,

habit

the

knowledge

to

Hume

and

of

force, acquire objective validity, and

laws

is often

by

confirmed

more

the
of

that
into

existence

idea

in

found

are

(psychical)causal

the

either

are

on

depends,

often

certain

major premises

transformed

are

mind

adherence

practitioner.

mere

reflecting on

our

reposmg

his

accomplished

are

inductions

from

effect

without

not

of the.

corrected

causahty,

the

then

the

of the

animals

in

cessation

practitioner

mere

through

the

psychologically explained

inferences

comprehensive

exceptions,

the

and

errors

only by implication,the

conception, just
"which

force,

is

the

same,

the

rise

gradual

snare,

misfortune,

furnish

thus

the

of

progress

the

and

into

of

the

which

expectations

conception

within

stands

the

factor, on

although

relation.

to avoid

of less

without

not

were

as

of

the

circumstances;

itself

thinker

results

proportion

added),
series

those

ideas

which

phenomenon,

how

of

into

the

explain

reasoning

experimental

of

commencement

and

walks

falls

cases

general principles,

of the

says,

which

subsequently

to show

or

more

general,

that

note

the

appreciate

animal

extraordinary

has

to

describes
to

subjectivecurrent

The

instances

"which

failed

objectifying the

and

lead

here

he

objectively true.

cal

Owing

Hume

Correctly as

less

naively

he

we

feel

opposite nature, disapprobation.

*

no

it.

in

of

satisfaction

the

on

of

f eeHng

general,

and

event,
we

accompaniment,

customary

right

no

principle is

witnesses

performed
an

have

is based

as, in

connected

instances, to

which

events,

is

this

; but

us

continually perceived

on

to

the

concerning

we

ethical

the

drawn

be

To
to Hume
unlawful.
immortality, appears
an
Hume, particularly in his earliest treatise,
equally
expresses

that

ideas,for which

could

similar

conception

ideas,which

is founded

skepticism

of

to its

occasioned

are

experience), like God

added

negative judgment
Hume's

which

sensations

given empirically

of

that

for

rule

within

or

repetition of

al*e

of

just

without

the

phenomena

connection

origin in habit, admits

data

supposable
no

inferences

connection

form

we

is
philosophical sig-nificance

to its

whole

successive

His

means,

ordinary accompanying

object

one

which

perceived phenomena,
the

This

from

from

the

on

event, the

one

place.

accustomed

causality.
owing

by habit,

transition

When

connection.

be

may

furnish

more

no

observe, whether

we

of the

impression

or

any

further

it

all our
effects
expectations of similar
the one
force, through which
thing brings another

is led

appearance

it

But

determines

can

mind

it,by

effects similar td

them

them.

past would

the

useless,and

be

hidden

force

; the

that

the

the

such

no

the

with

the

would

principle which

is habit

believe

to

all

Were

that

from

expect

from

arising

as

and

might change,

knowledge

any

qualities,we

what

future, then
not

sensible

already experienced

course

from

similar

have

we

asked,
the

perceive

we

causal

(1 priori

only objectivity

from

the

"empirir

DIVISION

THIRD

Scottisli philosophers, Thomas

The

Principlesof

the

on

Common

Man,

Edinb., 1785

On

often

printed together

of

Common

Sense,
Grant

the

on

written

paper

the

in 1847

latter

two

Mind

Powers

Mind

Intellectual Powers

"

of the Human
by Hamilton, ib.,1827, etc.

Essays

the Human

into

Inquiry

1763, etc. ; On the

of Man, Edinb., 1788

Powers

Stewart, Edinb., 1804, ed.

Dugald

(1710-96

Reid

135

PHILOSOPHY.

Sense, London,

the Active
as

MODERN

OF

Wo'Vks, ed. by

; cf. Eeid

by J. F. Ferrier

and

oj

works

the Philosophy

and

included

in

hia

ed. by
Lushington, London, 1866, Vol. II., pp. 407-^59), James
and
Immutability of Ti'uth in Opposition to
(1735-1803; Essay on the Nature
Oswald
and
and
James
E
dinb.,
Scepticism,
{Appeal to Common
etc.),
1770,
Sophistry
their
not
to the
Sense in behalfof Religion,
able, by
recourse
Edinb., 1766-72),were
Lectures

and

Beattie

principleof

"common

taken

were

by

up

later

in

Scotch

of

Moral

philosophers,

Works,

1820

distinguished

was

on

; to
a

be

sensationalist

the Philos.

1856),James
during
chiefly

of

the nth

in French

same

TiiiED

Peter

Mind, 1820,
ISth

and

3dcd.,

MOST

120.

The

begins with
critiqueis

Third

Kant's
to

limits of human

Brown, Bishop

of

19th

in

Cork,

theology

the

on

the

who

Progressof

OF

ments
; Ele-

THE

TIME

Division

of the

critiqueof
by

an

on

Ethical

also

(1778-

1735, and
Lectures

Ethics, ib.,

Philosophy^

separately, Lond.,
[newed., 1872j

others.

philosophy.

modee:^

OR

PERIOD,

in

Brown,

Lectures

Encyclop.Brit.,

Brown

died

; Thom.

ed., Lond., 1856;

; Dissertation

.RECENT

establish

(1753-1828

preface by W. Whewell, London, 1863

FROM

"

Stewart

by J. McCosh, London, 1863],

notes

by H. Poret, Paris,1834), and

ITS

Dugald

1854-58), Thom.

Centuries,in

with

as

skeptical doctrine.

psychological investigations,

10 vols.,Edinb.,

orthodox

but

(1764-1832

DiYisio:^^

IN

PHILOSOPHY

from

philosophy,

Mackintosh

1830, Edinb., 1836

the

in

such

[with critical

ed. by Hamilton,

Human

Hume's

vanquish

Mind, Edinb., 1792-1827, etc., Lond., 1862, 1867;

Philosophy,1793

etc.; Phihs.

and

by independent

measure

of the Philosophy of Human

Outlines

to refute

sense,"truly

doctrines, modified

Their

OF

examination

SPECULATION

KANT.

historyof

hnman

AND

CRITICISM

reason.

of the

Modern

Philosophy
The
object of this
origin,extent, and
whose
phenomena

knowledge the distinction between

substance
is given us through impressionson
the senses, but whose
form is a purely subjective
productof the mind itself and real things
which exist out of relation to time, space, or
or
things-in-themselves,"
vestigati
causality.Its result, on the one hand, is to vindicate for empiricalincomplete independence in the sphere of phenomena, while,
the other hand, it recognizesas existing,
on
in addition to the realm of
objectsof experience,a realm of freedom, open, according to Kant,
"

"

"

136

TIIIRD

only to

the moral

DIVISION

MODERN

OF

PHILOSOPHY.

consciousness,
but, accordingto
Kant's

who

of his

some

sors,
succes-

of the

the

principleof

expanded
mind,
autonomy
In
Kant's
of
also.
the world
doctrine
of
to the speculative
reason
phenomena, the subjectiveorigin,which he assignsto the forms of
idealistic element, while the assumption
knowledge, constitutes a (subjective-)
that the material of thought is given from
without, is a
In his doctrine of things in themselves, the function
realistic one.
of affecting
ascribed to these things,
our
selises,is a realistic element,
the freedom

while

of these
without

realistic

idealistic and

mediation, side

by

is

idealistic

an

elements,which
which

side,and

by

are

occasion

but

not

consequent and

the attempt to build

in all

dualism

placedby Kant,

no

in

up, in

The

one.

are

Critiqueof the Judging Faculty)combined

in the

could

for them

claimed

(not even

means

perfectharmony,
twofold

manner,

system of the whole

parts harmonious

of

losophy
phi-

of Kant
the realistic postulates
either,namely, by sacrifickig
favor

of his

least,very
The

in

idealistic

teacliings,
by giving up, or, at
or, conversely,
considerablymodifying,the latter in favor of the former.

former

alternative

chosen

was

by Fichte,and

by Iler-

latter

the

Fichte's

the point of departure for

idealism formed
subjective
Schelling's
prevailinglyobjectiveidealism, and the latter served a
Others
for Hegel's absolute
similar purpose
idealism.
(among whom
Schleiermacher
be numbered) sought to effect the harmonious
may

bart.

union

of the

idealistic and

in

realistic elements

of Ideal-

doctrine

in this division,the relation of philosophy

periodembraced
both
natural
and
to poetry,
to positiveinvestigation,
historical,
in
to political
life,and,
short,to the genconditions,and to religious
eral
culture,changes with the varying force of
development of human
the motives
to philosophical
development inherent in the changing
terminin
state of philosophyitself ; in the first decades
philosophyexerts a de-

Realism.

In the

influence

these

on

sides of intellectual

other

life,while

towards

subsequentperiod,when the generalinterest is less turned

their influence.
philosophy,
philosophyexperiencesmore
the

The

illustration

accomplished

in the

demonstration

judgments.
to the

would

Only

fact that

philosophy
struggle

is not

between

the
a

of the
has

involve

to

one

thing

too

the

made,
great

may

immanent

these

introductory

statements

soul

attempt

to

abstractness, and

it here

be

of the
dialectic

handed
religiousconvictions,

allowed
whole
of

again
process

speculative
down

from

such

furnish

might

be

of the
and

to wrong

attention,namely,

development

principles,but
the

only

illustration

easily lead

to direct
of

can

presentation

the

following expositions ; before

been

innermost
mere

of

demonstration

course

reference

to which

systems

and

in

past and

in

modem

is rather

the

deeply rooted

I
Kant's
mind

in the modem
of

fields

the

and heart, and

and

nature

had

Dogmatism

life

of modem

scientific results

together with

mind,

the

investigationsin
both.

to reconcile

attempt

While

of combining, in one
possibility
complete system of
theologicalprincipleswith the doctrines of natural science,
in

believed

fundamental
philosophy,
had

the

137

weitings.

and

the

religionfrom the field of science

gether
province or to denying them altothe possibility
and while Skepticism had doubted
of solving the problems in
question,Kant (who correctlygrasped the vital point in the philosophicaliaquiriesof
the period immediately preceding his own) opened up, by his Criticism,a new
path,
denying, as a result of his speculationsconcerning the limits of the knowledge attainable
the dogmatic postulateof attainable
cists'
harmony, adopting the Empirireason,
by human
Empiricism

while

wdth

whether

excluded

view

to

the

affirmations

assertingfor them

of

"

another

"

limitation of scientific

such knowledge
restricting
the results of Skepticism
which

within

in

compared

of

the

Karl

Ludw.

Geschichte

Michelet,

the

subjectin

same

ing
appropriat-

absolute

The

reality,

later developments

of earlier systems,

renewals

ground of Kantism.

Heinr.

Mor.

Chalybaus,

der

Entwicklung

HUtor.

with

the

Kant,

following (withwhich

the

are

cited

works

general

more

Die

Biedermann,

Karl

above,

are

I.," 4,

Vol.

Histoire

Willm,

S.

Wocquier,

Essai
and

Brussels,Ghent,
C.

Fortlage,

H.

Eitter, Versuch
Weigelt,

Carl Herm.

de la

23hilosophieallemande

auf

Hegel,

Ms

unsere

Kant

von

bii

Tulk, London, 1854." Tr.]

Tage, Leipsic, 1842-43.

critique des principaux

systimes

de

la

depuis

Hegel, Paris, 1846-49.

Kantjusqu^l

de

depuis

TAllemagne

Kant

jusquW

nos

jours,

Leips., 1852.
GescMchte

ziir

Wiss.

Litt.,and

u.

Kirchner,

Philosophie

der

Verstcindigung

Geschichte

Zur

bis

et examen

philosophique

le mouvemeni

sur

Genetische

Uonatsschriftfilr

Kant

von

expose

DeutschUvid

in

Alfred

by

Kant

depuis Kant, Paris, 1843.

philosophie allemande
L.

ou

ed.

vmi

PhiloHophie^ Berlin, 1843.

PhiioHophie

4th

from

in Deutschlaiid

deutHchen

neuesten

speculativen

Philosophie

deutsche

A. Ott. Hegel et la philosophie allema7ide,

A.

der

Philosophie

der

der

[Englishtranslation

Heyel, Dresden, 1837, 5th ed., 1860.

Friedr.

Systeme

letzten

Entwickelungsgeschichte

Vols.,Berlin, 1887-38,and

G.

of

certain sense, modified

philosophy, beginning

modem

parts treating

doctrine

II.,"1):

andVol.

the

sphere of
certainty)overstepping them.

moral

in

philosophy were,

especiallyrelatingto

Works
to be

and

(namely,by

an

sphere
(through his

influence and, in part, on

the

under

altered sense
essentially
phenomena alone),and at once

of

attain to

could

man

in

knowledge, but

to the

Die

der

also

iiher

seit

Kant, Leipsic,1852.

deutsche
Philosophie
published separately,Brunswick, 1853.
die neueste

Philosophie, Hamburg,

neueren

siMculativen

Systeme

seit Kant

und

seit

Kant,

in the

Allgem.

1854-55.
die

philosophisclieAufgahe

der

Gegen-

wart, Leipsic,1860.
A.
nos

Foucher

de

Careil,Hegel

et

Schopenhauer, etudes

sur

la

philosophie

allemande

depuis

Kant

jmsqu''(t

jours, Paris, 1862,

Ad. Drechsler, CharaTcteristik
O.

Liebmami,

"

121.

Kant

und

Immannel

die

der

philosophischen Systeme

Epigonen,

Kant

Konigsberg,in Eastern
lie received his education

sett

Kaitt, Dresden, 1863.

1865.
Stuttgart,

was

born

on

where
Prussia,

the 22d
he

day of April,1724,at

died,February 12, 1804.

in his
taughtas a University-Professor
native city. On Ivant's earliest philosophical
opinionsthe philosophy
influence ;
of Wolff and the physics
of l^ewton exerted a controlling
it was
only in a later period,
beginningwith 1769,that he developed
Of
works.
the critical philosophy
which is set forth in his principal
the criticalphithe works of Kant belonging
to the periodpreceding
losophy
aiid
is
Nature
the most
the
General
important
Historyof
and

138

His principal
works of the critical period are
Theory of the Heavens.
first published in 1781,
the Critiqueof the Piore Reason, which
was
and
again,in revised form, in 1787, the Critique of the Practical
Reason, publishedin 1788, and the Critiqueof the Faculty of Jud/jThe MetaphysicalPrindjplesof Natural
Sr,
inent, written in 1790.
ence
(1786),the Religion within the Limits of the Mere Reason (179o i,
contain
the application
of the principles
and other smaller works
oi
the critical philosophy to particulardepartments of philosophical
and teaching,
well as in his external life,
as
inquiry. In investigation
of strict conscientiousness
Kant
and
uni*econstantlygave evidence
mittingloyaltyto duty.

Works

Kant's

on

the

by

Freimcl, Konigsberg,

1804

intercourse

In

Kant

Kant,

ed.

Werke,

Friedr.
from

Reusch's
the

Preuss.

Kanfs

1860 ; the
in the

work

these

Hartenstein.

10

contains

the

"History

remarks.

general
followed

are

works

Philosophy,
preferable

minor

in

Philosophy

and
is the

works),

adopted

philosophy,

natural

on

the

while

gives

Hartenstein's

the

The

of

whom

also

as

also

published

18;il8-39,and

Fischer

more

is

systematic.

practical

in 12

latter
of

view

the

Schu.

works

Kant's

philosophical

Kant's
:

the

edited

the

is in
in

logical

by G.

edited

last of

and

sical
metaphythese

and

letters,and, possibly,
This

Werke,

; but
few

is

arrangement
chronol.

in

by

ral
Natu-

over-sight

easy

the

part

Metaphysics),

for

by

which

suggestive

and

judgment,

development.

sdmmtliche

/. Kanfs

drawn.

edition

adapted

und

heim
III., Mann-

Werke,

the

able
valu-

writings.
Leben

Vol.

have

material

of

Consistory,

KanVs

Werke,

(inchiding

Logic

(excepting only

whole

of

volumes,

edition

is better

arrangement

the

of

is :

order

in

faculty

the

Chr.

many

Kant's

Ph.,

Hartenstein's
richer
H.'s

in

Beitriige

of the

to

neueren

sdmmtliche

In

written

been

particular,

author

"

der

/. Kanfs

and

reason

/.

Kant's

made

Kantiana,

addenda

Kant's

and

elegant

had

Councillor

Imma7iuel

Rosenkranz.

K.

in

also, in

few

Gesch.

in

(printed separately,

distmgixished mention)

deserves

"

Wald,

Kuno

18C0,

by

and

arrangement
reader

Kant,

tal
men-

Provi)izial-Blatter), Konigsberg,

and

based,

Wasianski

Bouterwek,

been

derselhen

1848), and

.N. Pr.

Professor

was

is

the

in Ros;

edition

new

both
on

of Mind.

chronological

which

works

the

F.

what

have

personal

of Kant's

Biogr-aphie,

up

subject

same

Leipsic (Leop. Voss), 1838-42,

Sch.

in

arrangement

of

been

Philosophy,"
and

Kanfs

desjilngsten

by

same

Baumann),

Schubert,

of Ros.

by

have

Imm,

5, Konigsberg,

(among

ib., 1869

ed.

and

Kantian

first

the

friend
life

to the

(from

Mannheim,

works

Kant's

edition

delivered

which

of Kant's

Wilh.

of the

; the

one

The

works
the

Friedr.

and

accurate

more

of

and

Kant

intimate

1860, pp. 42-110, 2d

Reicke

on

Schubert,

1805,

einen

an

in

Christoph

gradual decay

Leben, Konigsberg,

pleted
com-

especially

Briefen

in

acquired

Andreas

of the

account

Nachlass

dem

Nos.

Kant,

2, Leipsic, 1842 (summing

Rud.

Vortrdge,

drei

vols., Leipsic (Modes

Rosenkranz

on

the

Wilh.

additions

aus

VI.,
by

notices

writers

editions

complete

the

Kraus,

later

ed.

discourse

with

Lehre,

seiner

Heidelberg,

and
Two

Karl

the

sources

Grundlagen

die

contains

Professor

by

Vol.

Schriften,

u?id

1804, together

remarks

Tischgenossen

seine

Pfovlnzialbl.,

Leben

latter

year

From

und

Friedr.

information,

knowledge

on

Lebens

des

himself,

Kant

by

valuable

sketch), Ehregott

faithful

Darstellting

revised

Immanuel

founded

I. KanVs

aus

Further

matter).

new

(a

Vol. XI., Part

Schubert,

and

to it much
KarU

Neue

Imm.

others, especially

and

much

Jachmann,

1804

Borowski,

1792, then

containing

character,

Ansichten

Ernst
in

up

biographical

Konigsberg,

Rink,

Theodor

and

Bernhard
Kant's

by

Ludwig

drawn

death,

of

1784-94, preceded

Rosenkranz

by

adding

and

Kant's

(a portraiture

Lehennjahren,

1805,

Hamburg,

before

far

Kant
letzten

bodily powers),

and

eu

with

in seinen

after

author

following

(a biography

early life), Reinhold

and

family

the

are

1804

Jtcmtn, Kimigsberg,

published

and

character

life and

Kant's

on

CharaJcters

unci

Beihen-

folgk,8 vols., Leips. (Leop. Voss), 1867-68.

[Kant's Esmys
What
the
hold

four

in the Praxis.''''

good

Natural

of

the

Theology

an

Universal

the

Beautiful

History

Syllogistic Figures

Beginning

and

History
and

History
aiid

Treatises,

and

Enlightening

is

of
in

Sublime.

Physiography

(2)

vols., London,

The

(4)

TSvinced.

(5)

The

(8)
(9)

Wliat

(2) Something
of

the

the

most

An
means

Popular

on

Remarkable

Inquiry
"

To

the

Books.

orient
of

of

the

the

I. :

may

(6)

Eternal

the

Moon

An

Ajiswer

(3)

Tlie False

be true

(1)
on

Earthquake,

(7)
?

Temperature

which,

towards

The

on

tion,
Ques-

Snbtilty
but

does

the

A7i

Idea

of
of

Feeling of

of the Air.
the

oj
not

Conjectural

Princix)les

(10)

''''

Observations

the

the

the

to

Theory,

of

thinking

in

in

Peace.

Perspicuity

self

II. :

(1)

Morals.

That

ojie's
Vol.

Vol.

of

coiicerning

Influence of
Cases

"

Sayinq,

Contents

View.

Cosmopolitical

of

Contents

Injustice of Counterfeiting

of Mankind.
Morals.

On

1798.

of the Metaphysics

Groundicork

end

(3

of 1755^

ANT"

shook

Part

Great

End
"

his

and

2. Prolegomena
the

into

writings
His

translator.
Kant's

Theory

By

the
M.

author

same

Other

The

of

the

saddler's

brothers,

Kant

whose

Ruhnken

in

Franz

was

Church

Theology
From

Latin

left

(who
when

they

in

Latin.
Kant

which
classics,

At

the

the lectures

of

and

lectures

on

Martin

Franz
own

Schulz,

who

pietisticconvictions.

fflled,in the

himself

physics by Professor

Albert

the

from

but

translated''''

and

Pure

translated

Reason,

Kant,

on

with

in

Fr.

for

the

Alb.

Easter,

letter to

After

University,

young.

Schulz

became,

in 1732

and

of

ilia
that

adds,

zeal, and

was

and

able

to

Extraordinarius,

to

over

him),

completion

of

all cherished

on

himself

express

Michaelmas
with

mathematics

philosophy
at the

in

in

1740,

and

; he heard
other

by

lectures

to

well

special interest

of Newton

lectures

h!s studies

the

especially devoted

at

and

the

combine

of

10, 1771, speaking

utili nee
pceni-

heard

ideas

philosophical

David

w^as

Professor

of

then

even

time

the

ers
teach-

quiclem. sed

this

at

was

the

Heydenreich,

noteworthy

March

dated

also

studied

his

Among

Friedr.

Joh.

most

of

sisters,the

widely-extended

1741), subsequently

tetrica

particularly with

the

One

while

died
then

Councillor,

Schulz)

in

Kant,

Kant

Professor

means

prevent

it Kant.

(died 1763).

Schulz

to

University, and in 1733 Director

in 1740, Kant
till Michaefmas

little influence

found

in order

children

spirit of the

Renter

Regina

of three

theologian;

other

the

author

Konig-s-

at

in 1732

to

Teske,

Anna

wrote

Six

the

by

followed

Cant

Georg

the
school-follows,

with

mentioned

are

TV.]

[Anglice : l^sanf],

Gymnasium

read

Knutzen,

(who, however, acquired

by

extracts

of God) belonging

Reason,

Critique of

of

familiarized

with

the

at

the

he

of Pure

he
entered
University
Konigsberg, which
philosophy, mathematics, and theology. He

studied

extracts

Pickering, 1st ed., 1838, 2d ed., 1848.

marriare

became

fanaticoi'um disciplinacontinehamin\ and

Roman

of

indicated

Existe?ice

the

who,

preparation
his

in

says
at

were

is not

of God,

conglomerate

combines

he

as

Existence

the

of

Sketch

Consistorial

greatest expectations concerning Kant.

the

Th"

Containing

and
at

Gymnasium

who

is

April, 1724, and

Albert

Easter

; among

the

Philology at Leyden,
tenda

Zant

prized especially (in addition

instructor

of

Immanuel.

Altstadt
of

Critick

English

his

by

religious education,

the

"

Johann

(1735-1800),

Fridericianum-

Collegium

the time

(9)

with

Philosophy.

conglomerate

unfair,

London

in

works

22d

as

brother

Ordinary Professor
Collegium Fridericianum.

the

in

Argument

Reason.

Gernum,

Proofs for

Proof for

Kant's

child

the

name

Heinrich

an

Kant

and

fourth
on

his

1838.

descent.

The

principal hght
of

and

the

volume,

following paragraph."

of the

born

her

this

such

Possible

Only

the

into

of

being

Heywood,'"

works,

of Kant's

a.strict

1731, pastor

at the

lately assumed

possible

Naked

of

Kantian

the

Critick,''''
etc., ib.,1844.

Kanfs

hterature

of

Johann

received

Pietism,

only

1855.

Bohn,

was

survived

youngest

Semple,

by

terms

trade.

who

the

of

contents

uncritical

far

Francis

is of Scotch

mispronunciation

his

of

in the

so

{On

W.

J.

Analysis of

A7i

family

Immanuel,

was

"

this, and

Cant

berg-the

The

Sphere

from

translated

3. Inquiry

of its

fact

is in

work

by

translations

English

end

ftt the

transl.

Meiklejohn, London,

D.

the

Tone

Gentle

(7)

philos. development.

in Kant's

exi)la7iation

and

the

matter

from

extracts

of Religion,

7iotes

by

in

other

pre-criticalperiod

"w"/"

within

student

in the

3,

No.

although

in this

years

many

Metaphysics.

1836.

London,

KaiU,

Immanuel

celebrated

Future

of Kant's,

proceeding

Critique

to the

(5) Of

'Iheodicie.

the

in

(8) Religion

God.

of

RicJuirdson,
to

Theodicy.''''

various

the

of
John

Writings, by

and

1. Logic.

from

Works

Metaphysical

Life

Existence

the

of

Moon.

the

in

Essays

Things.

All

of

Philos.

all the

of

Volcanoes

0?i the

(4)

Earth.
Failure

the

Demonstration

the

for

the

of
On

(6)

Philosophy.

139

WEITINGS.

on

also

professors

dogmatics

of Wolff

losophy,
phi-

with

by
his

University, Kant

174G-55, positions as private tutor, first in the family of Andersch, a

reformed
pastor, near
Gumbinnen, then in the family of Von Hiilsen,the proprietor of
a manor
at Arensdorf
near
Mohrungen, and finallyin the family of Count
Kayserling
at Rautenberg.
He
then
at the
qualified himself
by the usual disputation to lecture
University of Konigsberg, and opened with the winter semester
of 1755 his lectures
on
mathematics

years

and

physics, logic,metaphysics, morals, and

philosophical encyclopaedia ;

140

commenced

he

also,in 1757, to

theolog-y and

anthropology.
of Knutzen

death
resolved

had

in

conceived

of

view

trillingsavings by

and
in 1770

"

of

of

that

Kant

library of
in

lecturing.

up

for

think

expression of

the

practised

himself

"

of

to Kant

Kant

took

of

those

of

253

Nothing

to the

subject

For
that
for

similar

which
the

he likes."

"Even

he

575

in

Kant,

in

in

spite of

dated
resolution

me,

after

despise
loss
would

and

of

most

the

think, indeed,

spiritis
"

learned
of those

my

through
things

greatest evil

that

things,with

time

; his

Americans

the

which

his
he
dressed
ad-

poem

could

in

tried

according

of servitude.

when

he

is called

enlist

his

he
a

mere

thies
sympado

may

as

dinate
subor-

very

is

means,

human

independence

spiritof

the

law.

moral

Taschenhuch^ 1838,

Hint.

Raumer's

conservative, monarchical

of the

be

that

occupies

to the

1, p.

should

man

that

desired

Kant

principles

than

to

as

of
the

Part

XI,,

one

man,

who

himself, not

But

power

of

contemptible
end

Vol.

were

War

realize

the

exasperated

be

their

approved

natural

more

opinions

in

promised

actions

soon

may

spirit

demonstrated.

following
faults

confession
there

fully to avoid,

part

greatest

of

the

possibly
"

clearest

that

life

to

surely

of
never

possible conviction

to

Moses

the

most

I shall
in the

; and
an

never

world

without

do

character

consciousness
but

which

change

my

the

letter

be,

sure

each

usually corrupt
from

in

may
am

with

appearances

springs
the

to

he

having

in
Politik^

zur

the

at all tnues

can

ethics.

Whatever

be

without

he

an

the

becomes

do,

only that

liberalism, is

17G6

impotent

many

shall

Kantian

iihat self -approval, which

be

and

guilty of changing

having

the

cries

Stdlung

seine

all his

April 8,
is

no

child

particular the great

of Kant's

Characteristic

inconstant

und

where

seq.,

the

that

than

of self-determination

interest

with

terrible

as

the

an

for

because

in

Lenz,

auditors
were

him

prized

Fragments, Werke^

man

essentiallyin

lectures

to

professorial duties,Aug. 21st,

theory of education,

dread

the

the

him

his

excite

his

Posthumous

he

in

led

age

life,"and

Revolution, which

man

requirement of

Cf. Schubert, Kant

in their

every

fundamental

in

of his

events

sympathized

tr"^at every

us,

naturalness

poHtical

Hence

desires

to
;

(see Reinhold

is held

with
To

"

the

in his

that

rather

of

hearers

his

talented,

iv. 7, 1867).
Altpr. Monatssclir.,

He

the

the
will

and

position."

p.

in

more

reason

others

work,

"

(in
be

and

the

relinquished
He
rejected by Kant.

results

Kant's

"

position he

were

sought
them

to

of his entering upon

just as,

can

he

later

years

Sub-Librarian

as

year

matics
mathe-

received

to the

given

The

the

of

Buck

increasing infirmities

thinking.

own

in the

of another.

will

the
instructor

French

the

Kant

Says
"

seq. )

to do

with

positions

in

till twelve

position was

of

recommendations

own

liberalist.

politicalfreedom,

of Rousseau.

offers

his

Reicke

by

and

Independence,
idea

of

lively interest

; it was*iot

62

extremely

Docent

position, while
a

which,

teachers.

vacant

Buck,

to

Kant,"
thalers,which

communicate

to

occasion

consistent

than

his

the

on

1770, communicated

Kant

17GG

simplicity in thought

upon

became

office

government

comparison

unprovided

which

same

of

salary

1797, when

processes

recommendation

than

In

academical

an

themselves,

in

the

to

other

and
of

As

toward

metaphysics,
then

in

were

the

resolution

fessor
pro-

by the

vacant

because

distinguished Magister

Halle

autumn

what

severity

Governor

Castle, with

to

the

and

advanced

works,

Royal
call

until

taught

to

the
A

1772.

give

learned

his

and, by

effected

of mathematics.

ordinary professorship

natural

on

position of

position made

unsuccessful,

was

the

"

longer standing

was

obtain

to

extraordinary professorships
war,

logic

Russian

philosophy,

"

application

the

sought

philosophy,

of unrespecting

the

given by

and

impending

means

ordinary professorship

1758, was

his

; but

discontinue

to

he

in 17G0

and

physical geo^aphy,

on

April, 1756,

of mathematics

extraordinarius

early

lecture

In

of their

"

become

around
and

therefore

tmfeigned

will

delssohn,
Menfast
stead-

befall

to

the

spirit,
me.

truth, which

I
I

142
to his

vent

gave

disgfustat

respect for that which

unable

was

to

He

succumbed

celebrating

was

to

violation

and

development

on

religiousphilosophy
weakness

his

to check

Kant's
critical

writings

the

this

and

his

ScMltzung der lebendigenKrdfte

date

given

whether

the

on

product of

the

of

the

Kant

the

he

and

He

they

communicated

are

the

other

the

external

indeed,
afiirms

the
an

that

latter.

If

the

the

resistance,is
products

the

end

at

"

of the

quantity

seconds

\ mv'^
the

n^g.

|m. 4 n^g^
distance

therefore,as

the

of

final

One-half
2

(n%).
squares

motion.

of the

The
of

'

the

and

of

of

seconds

heights

to which

of the
the

mass

is

equal
the

and
velocities,

Kant

by

the

of the

the

the

the
jective
ob-

venience.
con-

of

motion
in

body

tion
mo-

uniform

and

the

In

mv

the

of

the

ment
commence-

is used
case

to
of

distance

traversed

of the

velocity =:

moving force

rise when

thrown

like

manner,

xn

the

difference

square
"

only

methodical

known,

and

to

merely

as

directly of

of

velocity at
is

as

applicable, according
the

to

as

2 ng,

product

bodies

soon

Cartesian

continuous

"living force,"

the

n'g, or

power

present time,

rav-

as

then

is

question

'a

is

squares

the

product

initial

the

laws

formula

"

obstacle,

some

customary,

now

their

overcome

force

into

to which

(This "division,"

class,and

and

Leibnitzian

motions

body

by nothing,

operate,

is

becomes

g., to

2 gm,

their

the

of

velocity after

in

longer exist,since

no

can

tion.
composi-

completely erroneous.)

as

of

several

if the

(At

motion,"

n^g'^

is

by

former

applies ; but

'

its

to

in

quantity

the

multiplied by

mass

to

termed

geometricians

to the

by the

others) by

is here

proportionate

course

by force,

performed

fallingfreely, the

body

by

"

the

of

cause

special effects,e.

is meant

work
the

designate

principle

of half

and

in

' '

question,

and

opposed by

former

motion

of force

definition

the

certain

what

the

phenomena

und

1746, the

nevertheless,the

opposed

ceases

the

to

itself
of

wahrea

Germany,

persist

to

regarded,

be

controversy

is meant

Cartesian

produce

which,

are

by force

produced,

force

cism,
Skepti-

der

The

("" 15, 23, 118, 119), all

production,
earliest^

of

the

while

importance,

to

the

admits,

but

though

cease,

were

and

(not

contribute

prevalent

infinitum^unless

principle applies

conception

of what

If

this

Leibnitzian

conception,

accessory

determination

in

things

many

they

in

conceptions,

nidi Leibnitz

the

among

to

then

supposed

in

which

motions

force, by which

the

to

of

able

be

view,

Cartesian,

to continue

detail

von

(with Leibnitz

existing

may

motions

he,

Gedanken

simple velocity (mv),

divides, namely

including

and

consisting

like

body,

Kant

class

one

of the

in favor

limitation,

he

Leibnitzian

in

velocity (mv'^)or (with Descartes,Euler,

the

schisms

that

hope

the

Euler's

derea
Be/weise^

measured

of the

greatest

the

in

April 22d, 1747),

is dated

and

mass

preceding
occupied,

Empiricism

Wissen-

nevertheless

time
he

and

The

"

of idealism.

haben^ Konigsbersr, 1747

is to be

square

the

against
tend

classes,the

two

the
the

expresses

which

certain

of

one

advances

objections
with

of

source

Europe,

the

and

mass

dedication

others) by the product of the

and

philosophy

hedient

in motion

body

critical

his doctrine

his

was

although

toward

Beurtheilung der

und

the

title-page;

force

the

later

the

which

of Newton's
more

force

Universities.

direction

to

in

Dogmatism,

approached

indieser.Streitsache

Mechaniker

amUre

in the

belonging

influence

the

Kant

mental

thought, while

German

declaration

genetic period,

or

and

stand-point

indirectly toward

so

of

the

counter-

I. Works

first

especiallythrough

and

cases,

passed beyond

whose

Leibnitzo-Wolffian

the

and

bodily

procure

Yet

which, gradually increasing,

philosophical speculation

following

Kant's

of

ground

of

the

are

i. e., to

period,

main,
many

the progress

to

freely.

philosophical principle by Fichte, in

were
disapproved by Kant,
ftchaftslehre^''''

unable

; his

power
of

most

at

respected

age,

the

and

triumphs

of

old

of

of memory

brilliant

when

truly respected

in his last months

him

deprived

ouly

soug-ht by compulsory laws

be

his lectures

resume

broken.

was

despotism which

could

"

upwards

(2 gm)
vary,

generally, the

143
''work"

performed
of the

the square

leave

can

the

From

by

the

'

present stand-point

verbum

merum

ab

quod
vis,''
multis locis,
ex.
laborans,tamen

erroribus

greater facilitywith

weighing

of the

which

the

like many

Kant

flow

of the

cited,pp. 74-82.
Die Frage.,oh
various

the

of

the

work

is the

seeks
limitations,

teleology which
of truth

in the

subject

to

of
it

were

certain

an

If their

they

with

mind,

not,

as

of

in matter

which

was

natuial

forces.

at

an

first

collision of the
of fixed stars
of the

are

masses

to

agrees,

its most

of nature

combination

all

combine

of

of

the

themselves

motions.

mass,
The
to the

began

to

of

God

to

shape

be

the

of

how

should

origin

other,

to each

other,

works

sought

explained by the
and

sun

planets,

into balls, the

genesis

Herschel's

through

which, together

itself

stabilityof the

result

For

of each

stabilityof
the

is

tions
combina-

is to be

result

motion

of

genesis and
analogy

theory of the

features, the

also

matter

gently,
intelli-

Matter

wisely planned ?

were

Since

elements

common

the
trary
arbi-

with

other

each

o^vned

of every

planets,is
the

of

work

nature.

with

them.
cause

and

mously.
anony-

causes,

themselves

original centrifugal

according

(With Kant's
essential

all other

Kant, therefore,sees

tendencies, adjust

immediate

course

side

criticising

appeared

necessity, independently

originated when

conceive

place of

things

The

causing
be

nature, which, without

they

would

cide,
de-

not

philosophical idea

beauties, unless

extended, vaporous

planetary system.
in

choice

the

in

intrinsic

an

the
itself,

It

work

qualities of

natural

themselves.

nature

gravitation, determines
of

by

reflecting,
prudent

implanted

forces

agency

stars

wearing out]

she

and

essential

of their

does

65-(;6.

intelligentauthor

natures

accords

determined
result

Kant

must
necessarily bring forth
compels the assumption that God exists.

fact

the

forces

an

alone

of various

exquisite

the
of

is

This

of

God.

on

above

Reuschle, as

1754.

of

finds in

[G-eneralHistory of Nature

in

cause

time

he

earth

explanation

That

ib

Cf.

fundamental

The

natural

existence

very

in which

the

Leipsic,1755.

depending

as

knowledge.

only physically ;

retardation.

IlimmeU

des

and

left to which

this

were
as

the

things

such

natures

laws

in the

laws,

posvsiblethat

would

exactly
the

to

But

beauty.

infinite

cases

well-grounded

Reuschle, ib..,
pp.

II.

opposed doctrines.

strive to effect
in

Theorie

all nature

witness

bears

of

historically,but

Cf.

mechanical

in all

views

threshold

question [whether

of

effect

and

cause

for April-June, 1868,

Vie/teljahrsschnft
Kant
in
" 19, that metaphysics,
by

of constant

Frederick

compatibility of

of

per-

contest

Umdreliung um die Aclise einigeVerdnUrsprungs erlitten habe, in the Ronigsberger

affirmative.

to

the

by

made

the

not

Heavens], Konigsberg

It is dedicated

the

previous

rei ostendit

concealed

equality

the

of

treats

after

profundiorem
lay

of

Kant

discovered

investigate this question [whether the

to

cause

the

expresses

in Hirer

ihres

und
Allgemeiiie
NaturgescJiichte

Theory

is

(in which

veraUe,physikalischerwogen,
this

for

principle

die Erde

changed]

tides

die Erde

arguments

the

discussions

Deutsche

proposes

examines

only

but

arguments)

the

"

are

the

only reached

has

daily rotation

and

of

in the

88 et 89

demonstration

of

Zeiten

ersten

""

others)

words.

'verticirca
disceptationem
Kantius, gravibus quidrni

totam

adidbebatur.

sensu

gr.

affirmation

Frage.,ob

der

Nachrichten, 1754.

the ebb

combine

Reuschle,

seit den

the earth's

to

sciences, had

other

derungen

bottom

characteristic

Untersuchung

in

force

the

how

Cf. G.

53-55.

pp.

at

problem,

facts.

with

faults

demonstrative

Yet
spicientiam.''^

words

aliis alio

about

dispute

(among

xidcrint

non

only

into

mass

chanics
analytical me-

legibus {diss,inmiff.),
Bonn, 1859:

motiis

docti

that

1743,

as

it is

Lexis

H.

W.

generalihus
tot U7i

quod

early

as

side, since

one

science, B.

De

his

in

mirainur

WostJ'o tempore

showed,

disputed question

following-judgment
'

D'Alembert

of

by half the product of the

is measured

moving- body

velocity.)

the
and

system

system
stability
of fixed

investigationa,

144:
with

and
but
of

his

planetary
matical

paths of
collide

ascribed

be

from

the

the

planets
most

to

give

elastic

in the

confirmed

newly

igne succincta

identity, he

first

the

Euler's

not

may

Allg.

is

authority

laodifications.

the

the

as

expression

with

the

ratio

of effects derived

unnoticed,

or

attacks

is confounded
such

which

objection

that

causes).
Crusius

''

'

'

of the

it

Kant

is

Of

the

motion

particular
chemistry,
441-447

pp.

former

the

knowledge

defends

especiallyhad
human

to the

the

principles,

inexact,
the

of

with
in

indicated

so

the ratio
far

the

as

objectivecauses
case

of

the

determining

against it,and

in

freedom, defining (in accordance

'":

reason

ratio

by

quod

est,

non

determining

ratio

and

one,

of their

{quidqidd est, est),

{quidquid

of

being

principle of

The

substitution

identifies
is

"

not, is not

the principle of
directed

is,is"

difference

he

habilitation

principle of contradiction, but

principle

objects

[in the ratio fiendi]with

destroys

as

the

to

vibratory

Leibnitzian

the

whatever

whatever

cognoscendi(which

from

Kant

the

determinans, for

anteoedenter

knowledge
effects from

of

absolutel}^first principle.

distinguished by Kant, their

or

well

according

"

not

interjacent

an

dUucidatio,Kant's

nova

Not

propositions:

two

truths, and

which

do

55-56, )

quenter determinans, for the other ; the

latter

but

propagation

develops substantiallyonly

noticeable

for

are
cur

of

present stand-point of physics and

est),as the principle of negative truths.

forms

elements

ignitus.''''
(A judgment

vapor

original

light ; light,as

bodies,

"

and

philos.

Kant's

medium

of heat

panied
accom-

the

to

from

material
the

luminous

"

the

The

which

submitted

Schubert

through

matter

cognitionismetaphysics
Kant

includes

says,

but

Dissertation

philosophy,

1839.

Leipz.,

parts from

from

of

published by

contact,

Flame

principle of aifirmative

ratio

the

from

Uebe?' KanVs

(Cf. Ueberweg,

the
delineatio^

doctorate

with

cited,pp.

certain

{ratiodeterminans,

the

that

of the planets farthest

Werther, Altpreuss.Monatsschrift^Konigsberg, 1866,

above

as

with

the

this dissertation

by Gustav

fiendi,the

simply

holds

by

all-pervading ether.

ciens)two

inhabitants

and

Kant

Kant, that Jujuter's satellites

that of identity is recognized by him

non

Faust] ).

do

Newton

time

233-254,

pp.

KCnigsberg, 1755.

the

which

outside

future

de

Princvpiorum primorum

as

the

in

of

stars

some

material

eliiux of

an

then

although

that

as

Goethe,

motion

it were,

the

Laplace, who

asks

is identical

matter, which

Reuschle,

essay,

standing,
of

fixed

and

of

mathe*

nature

knows,

by immediate

other

propositionsof
cf

and

1755, and

in

Werke, V.,

the

is given

[a

Kant

law, the tangential

God

the

Who

light at

us

Konigsberg

heat, is not
theory

perfect.

application for

each

attract

natural

language

inhabited,

are

quarundam

Kant's

in

the

in

"

God

different

why

of

theory

rigid

more

the

how
and

explained,
in the

answers

its

by

cited,pp. 82-102.)

above

as

Meditationum

at

of

and

sun,

was

theory

gradual separation

by Newton,

be

to

was

the

Kant
the

AUpreiiss.Monatsschrift^Vol. II.,No. 4, KGnigsberg, 1805, pp.

Kosmogonie, ib.,Vol. III.,No. 4, 186(),pp.312-322, and
Hay, Ueher Kmd's

339-353, E.

faculty

raised

their

experimental
of

with

basis, and

the

Naturg.^ etc., in
Reuschle,

questions
comets

agency

push

the

intended

of

what

; but

Laplace

an

assumption

mass

find

other,

direct

world

are

sun

MS.,

The

on

the

by

of

theory

Herschel

explain genetically,by

to

of the

with

revolving

and

planets

the

to

origin, the
of Kant

the

each

with

attempt

giving
the

that

demonstrations.

not

most

from

masses

the

also

their

conjecture,rests

differs

Laplace

of

theory

general

suffl-

the

pressions
ex-

conse-

or

vd

essendi
of

case

left

either

development

of

against

reason

particularagainst
with

the

spirit

no
profecta;
doctrine) as follows : Spontaneitas est actio a
reprcBsentationi
optimi conrformit"rdeterminatur, dicitur libertas (which
himself
definition Kant
the principleof determining
subsequently rejected). From
Kant
deduces
the most
of corollaries,
reason
a number
important of which is : quantitaa

of

Leibnitz's

quando

hoic

principio inter

I
KANT'S

145

WRITINGS.

AND

LIFE

naturaliter non

a
mntatur
nee
augescendo nee decrescendo^
God
directly
spiritualforces,except when
interferes. Kant rejectsthe principiumidentitatis indiseernibilimn^
according to which
from
the principle
there exist no two thingsperfeatlyalike in the universe,but deduces
of succession,
two other generalprinciples
of determining reason
: (1) the principle
other (a principle
with
each
of substances
that all change depends on the combination
and
the authorityof
H.
both
Kant
on
conclude,
subsequentlycarried out by Herbart ;
external
of
from
the variation in our ideas to the real presence
objects);
this principle,

reaUtatis absolutcc in mundo

which
proposition

Kant

treats

as

true

of

of finite substances
with
each
(2) the principleof co-existence : the real combination
of
the
the
their
union
in
which
the
common
on
ground
existence,
only
depends
which
Kant
in
them
thinks and maintains
approaches
divine intellect,
proposition
(a
of pre-established
doctrine
the Leibnitzian
assenting
towards
harmony, without, nevertheless,
it
is
rather
of
Occasionalism
the
to it ; still less does he approve
theory
true,
;
bodies
he here teaches,that f"od has established a real " universal action of spiritson

other

"
the other
real dependentia
a
not a mere
; on
spirits,
C6"/z^e".5W5,bat
commercii,^^
hand, Kant distinguishes
carefullythis " systema unkersalis substantiarum
from
the mere
qf efficient causes).
thus established,
iiifluxus
pliysicus
in
eum
'philosophia
naturally
eujiisspecimenL
geometna junctce usus
Metapliysiece
amtinet moncidologiamphysicam^Konigsberg, 175(5,a dissertation defended
by Kant, as
an
applicantfor an extraordinaryprofessorship(which,however, he failed to secure
for the reason
of Leibnitz,Kant
given above). In the place of the punctual monads
the existence
of material
which
extended
and yet simple,,
assumes
are
elements,
because
of a pluralityof substances, and thus (goingback to the theory
not consisting

und

of bodies

on

'

of Giordano

Bruno, which,however, he

have

known
brings
historically)
distinteaching is essentially
gaished from atomism by the doctrine,which he maintains,of a dynamic occupatian
oi space by the force of repulsion(which may
decrease,in passing from its centre,in
the
of
the
cube
to
and
the
force of attraction (which decreases, in
proportion
distance)
of
the
the
to
proportion
distance); there,where the effects of both are equal,
square
is the limit of the body in which
they inhere.
Quodlibetcorpm^iselementum
simplexs.

the

monadic

to the

nearer

atomistic

seems

not

doctrine.

But

to

his

solum est in spatio^

sed et implet
salva niliilominus ipsius
spatiian,
simplieitate.
sum
non
suarum
spatiolum
prceseiUioi
pluralitate
definit
substantialium,
partium
sed sphmfa activitatis,
areet ab ulteriori ad se invicmi/
utrinque sibiprcesentes
qua externas
Adest
alia
insita
attractionis
vis
cum
eonpariter
app'ojnnquatione.
impenetrabilitate
extensionis. Kant
concludes
these
from
junctinilimitem definiens
premises, among
other things,that the elements
since
of material
bodies,as such, are perfectlyelastic,
powerful force,which may be opposed to the force of repulsion,although it
any more
viiomia

non

Monas

may

and

must

limit

Kant's

that

the
the

effects of the

latter,can

force of attraction

never

neutralize

or

destroy them.

diminish

in proporon
argument
tion
every point
the sphericalsurface,
from
the
which
it
is
removed
is
centre
over
extended,
and consequentlyenlarged,belongs originally
to Newton's
contemporaiy, Halley,who^
lived from 1030 to 1724.
it directlyor indirectly
Whether
from him^ or
Kant received
discovered it anew
himself,is uncertain.
must

as

Von den

Ursachen

des Unglilcks^
welches die
Oelegenheit
in the
Jahres
(1755)betroffen
xorigen
Jiaty
Europa gegen
im
Jahr
des
und
Erdbebens
GescJiichte
1756.
Konigsb.NachricJiten^
Naturbeschreibung
Cases
1755,Konigsberg,1756. [Historyand Physiographyof the most Bemarkable
of
the Earthquake which towards
the end of 1755 shook a Great Part of the Earthy
translated in K.'s Essaysand Treatises,
Tr,\
II. (3),London, 1798 ; see above^ p. 138.

westl. Lander

ton

der

bd
Erdersehutterungen
das Ende

des

"

10

146

kant's

BetracJitungder

seit einigerZdt
Nachrichten^1756, Nrs. 15 und

16.

science, and

the

reports, on
Otto

Kant

Gotha, 1857-58,

for

programme

(Of the fact

known

that

includes

in his

to the

uber

thus

in the

had

Hadley

from

Science," to
with

of its

works

of

furnish

instruction

in his

of

presentation

the

"

whose

Review-

he

to

"

'

terms
he

obscurity"
of

'

the

hopes

Kant

attributes

Cf. Dove's

in his

sition
expo-

Natural

Principles oc
of

philosophy
followmetaphysics ing

system

and

useful
"

remove

seq. ".

meteorological

intends,

expound

most
to

he

the

commence

to

he

Poles.

numerous

First

and

to have

while

Kant, Reuschle, p. 68
of

the

[on

appears

Tropics,

the

that

says

to

the

Kant

periodicalwinds.

theory,Kant

toward

hand-book

of reason,

by full explanations

and

Kant

mathematics,

Meyer'^s doctrine

and

"

of

Tropics,which

explanation

Eberhard's

hand-book, which

kind,"

in

by

Schiceiz;

composition

theory
of

the

equator

the

this

winds

outside

programme

in

In

the correct

him

the

for

' '

this

science, to follow

Baumgarten's
his

end

elucidation

an

in der

(TUe

held

are

Winde, Konigsb., 1756,

der

special reference

foundation

true

the

of natural

1755,

Erdbebcn

der

1756.

of

winds

westerly

current

upper

the

At

in

however, Reuschle,

Theorie

der

summer

partiallypreceded

the

explanation

phenomena.

Himinds.''''

des

at Lisbon

die PMnomeiie

Hadley explains, however, only the

laid

Theorie

earthquake

Compare,

Meteorolog.Untersuchtmgen^ and, with

Kant

the

independently propounded

of the

descent

writing-of

Erlduterung

zur

his lectures

nothing.

Konlg.ib.
in natural

seq.)

Winds] Kant

of

Theory

the

Erderachutterungen, in

compositions, relating to questions

'"''AUg.
Natarge^di. u.

inexact.

very

Anmerkungeri
"

in

Short

Untersuchimgen

66

writings.

wahrgenammenen

to

relied

be

to

already cited, pp.

"

''

in his

Volger,

Neue

related

nearly
which

and

life

by

of

thorough

all

carefulness

the

of

text."

the

tung
G eograplden^at BetracJiAnkundigung eines CoUegiiiiberdie pJiysische
in unseren
Frage^ ob die Westwinde
Gegenden darum
feucht sind,weil sie

EntiDurf und
uber
uber

die

Meer

ein grosses

streichen

Pref.,p. .vii., in 1757,

and

"

the

years

1755

are

moist

in the

in the

the

because

temperature

the

over

the

capacity of

investigations of

winds

westerly

of

solution

the

on

of the

continuation

having pissed

complete, positive

of

influence

from

Kmigsberg,

the

question respecting

[whether

large sea]

phenomenon

is not

air for vapor

the

they

is answered

given,

is not

talsen

consideration.

into

Neuer
Kant

Lehrbegriffder Bewegung

shows
in

the

the

Versuch
here

what

is best

parts
of

of

case

of

colliding bodies,and
to

the

; he

this

the individual

of

than

the

bei dem

Konigsberg, 1760.

of

that

gives

the

Rest], K"nigsberg, 1758.

and

of

uber

Optimismus^ K^nigsberg,

den

convinced

existing universe

is the

the

His

whole.

argumentation, and

VersucJi,den
1763.

Of

tion
reac-

pamphlet

des

to which

Stud,

von

he

Funk.,

philosophy

rather

the

natural.

Begriff

in niy

refutation

(Cf my
negativen Grossen

opposites, the

and

one,
denied

proves
ap'

choose
that

all

macy
legiti-

the

personal freedom

of

belongs.
TrostscJireiben

an

seine

Mutter.
,

in memoriam.

der

Kant
but

cannot

possible

best

critical

emphasized

unity of the whole

Ableben

later

God

that

1759.

der vier syllogistiscJien

Figuren.^Konigsberg,
BiefalscJie
Spitzfindigkeit
in Essays and
138.
I. (3),see
TV*.] Kant admits
Treatises.,
above, p.

syllogisticfigure as

and

action

interpretation of phenomena

true

optimism, being

of the

in view

kind

[on Motion

'"'"vis
inerticey

doctrine

holds

good

Rulie

und

motion, explains by it the equality

en
einiger BetracJitung

are

Oedanken

all

relativityof

ascribed

commonly

its

region
; but

negative

of

1765).

first in

The

Hartenstein, 1st ed., Vol. IX.,

to

"

not

1756.

and

(published, according

one

denies

what

in

die

the

Syst.

of

Logic

WeltweisJieit
other

ad

1763.

only

lated
[Transthe

first

" 103.)

berg,
KonigseinzufilJiren,

posits. Opposition

is either

147
The

real.

ogicalor

something(ienjdng-

opposite

it in

nihil

"ult is the
;il

world

Bllucidatio^Kant

had

"

oisely.) With
it

as

real

the

this

Ber

of

of it

expresses

those

convictions

subtle

which

but

existence,
less does

most

are

venturing
demonstrate
this work

so

here
the

on

is

"it

not

Kant

anything

necessary
hold

dark

it

of

ocean

lays
;

the

through

to those
the

down

The

relativelyto
between

of

the
data

former.
for

God

and

It is

impossible

all that

; but

that
is

argument

of the

exists something
contains

the

thing must

is

If

which

with

the

all

assertion

of
impossibility

in

ultimate

depend

of

God

the

of the

real
upon

ground
it.

or

It is

reason

understand,
for by

of

the

manner.

of all other

of

but

are

latter

is

to
in

Already
predicate

in

things simply possible.

of

of

possibilityare

the

thing,

posited
of

the
of

one

the

and

tion
logicalrelamarks

of

material

and

the

possibilityof

be

tived
nega-

possible being

not

numerous

is one,

; hence

(This

existence

is,

with

of all possibility.) Hence

Necessary being

is

otherwise

the

possibilitywould

of

by

undertook

absolutely impossible.

of all

simple, not compounded

the
"

specificattribute

or

only

being

all

God,

another

never

; for then

is

of

he

predicates
positing

of God's
None

existence.

existence, as

hence

absence

that

mercy

it."

existence

receive

almighty, it

absence

at the

convinced

predicate

no

not

exist

willed

not

be

be

God's

such

as

and

has

demonstrate

to

absolute

is

he

Critical

Gottes.,
KonigsTV.]
p. 139.

above,

impossibilityof existence, but

supposed

absolutely necessary

an

do

without

is the

the

How

later, or

subsequently

is

things

removed,

assertion

of

case

new.

not

his

see

should

proof

existence

possibilityis destroyed

; the

contained

accounted

Daseins

des

proof of

nothing should
be

be

of

directlyto the natural, vulgar

we

that I think, the

that

possible would

by

I say,

does

Providence

able

predicates,which

omnipotence

paralogism

indeed, identical
assertion

all

be

theoretical

thing

he
not

more

that

in the

so

itself and

in

but

them

that

at

they have

thing.

some

arrive

"

logical subject,none

any

existence

that

metaphysics," whereas

predicates which

former, being

happiness should

our

should

we

difference

not

arbitrary and

the

than

logical

formula

understanding. )

delivered

doctrine, that

conception of

found.

for

fact of existence

the

other

that

necessary

possible to

thereby distinguished from

than

that

of the

belief

has

nega-

Princ.

for the

was

identity;

experience,

necessary

altogether

of

II. (7),
Treatises^

the

the impossibilityof any

he

In

this work

finely-spun reasonings, but

and

addition

in

the

einer Demonstration,
and

and

At this stage in his philosophical career

from

zu

Essays

rule

Daries

marks

its

the

mathematical
minus

causality could

contradiction.

in

he

positive

opposition corresponds

confesses

that

primitive conception

already

understanding;"

ever

possible,Kant

relations

of

the

sign

from

something

conviction

causal

[Translated

Kant

follows

exactly

an

(Already, in

zero.

of

real

by the

is

einzigmoglidie Beicdsgrund

berg, 1763.

of

the

identity and

made

period, he

is

sense

in

firm

notion

the

derived

; whatever

consequence

latter

principle of

the

whose

continued

(Kant

to

use

logical and

con-

; it is to this

zero

All

argumentation

latter made

of its conception, foUows

ground,

causality in

real ground

the

part

of

distinction

the

logicaland

iu

the

as

affirmative,

in

term

refer.

"

not

are

motion

would

O, affirming that this interpretation of the

principii; but in the present opuscule
petitio

olved

Kant

and

the

censured

other,

equal passive obligation ;

an

together equal

are

inciple of contradiction, in which

A

and

which
rep-rcBsentahile,

signs

each

to

irreprcesentabile.
but

opposed,

are

equally rapid

an

ooligation

mathematical

principles of the

"r/n. Met.

and

active

an

primtivum
the

really repugnant

motion

one

like

or

opposition that
real

\ e

like

senses,

posite direction,

affirming and

once

niJiil negatimim

thing

in at

consists

is the

of

predicates

two

predicates, though

; both

idictories

; its result

thing

same

where

exists

opposition

Real

is contradiction, and

former

of the

the
there

because
every

substances

it

other
; it

148

is

and

unchangeable

the

attributes

is

God.

of

of existence

is derived

and

priori ijroof;

in this

posed

in which
which

the

das

Jahr

which

This

mathematical

in

Kant

"

complicated.

as

into

by

possible, of the

nature

by
and

as

in

to

the

of

History
naturlichen

Nature

and

Theologieund

Wiss.

der

Berlin

zu

I. (8),see
Treatises^

and

of

comparison

general
In

is without

synthetically,phv

mathematics

the

there

; it consists

The

with

of

difficult

all human

for

the

ences;
sci-

attaining

which

analysis of experience,

learn

ilber

work

Abenteurer
so-called

Jan

Komarnkki

Newton

the

tion
explana-

employment,

so

Kant

old.

pleased him,

Konigsb. Zeitung^ 1764).

(in the

"goat-prophet," who

years

from

wandered
in

saw

"little

the

interestingexample

an

von

place

to

place

savage,"
of

whose

child

the

of

II. (1),see
Treatises^

not

of

and

Tr.}

psychology.

morals

"

the

on

EinricJitungseiner Vorlesungen ilber

Wintersemester

thoughts,

philosophy,
method

founding

p. 188.

above,

sBsthetics,
morals,

sesthetic

Erhnbenen^ Konigsberg,

und

A
A

feeling

series

1764.

of

the

characteristic
of

the

beauty

nature."

der

im

Schonen

Gefilhldes

das

upon

is the

of human

teach,

of

but

but

1765-66.
how

to

how

to

philosophical

think

Konigsberg,
; the

object

philosophize.

instruction

die

must

A
be

PhilosopMe

1765.
of

an

Lectures,

the

finished

zur

student

Ankun^

says

Kant,

should

philosophy

does

not
not

investigating ("zetetic")

method,
Ueber

numerable.
in-

are

philosophy

that

analysis discovers,and

only

are

these

only method

is identical

in the

such

of

difficult

most

written."

wer'i

represented by signs in

as

simple, that

doubt

yet been

Both

philosophical and

in philosophy
principles;
and

auf

above,

Mendelssohn's

and

prize,

all its definitions

at
the

is easy

which

ingenuousness

derselben

the

made
the premise from
particular,develops farther the

of mathematics.

^'wYcy.sand

in the

dignity

exist;

science

aid

observations

acute

Nachricht

be

tion^
Medita-

depicted by Rousseau.

[Translated

digung

from

they

(Anselmic
pre-sup-

der

signs in ahstracto.

ever

the rules

boy eight

Beobachtungen

feature

which

rejects the

(excellentlyreaBoned)

second

with

out

arrives

of mathematics

v.ber den
was

robustness

should

sets

indemonstrable

Metaphysics

physical

phenomena

accompanied

and

the

greatest possible certainty in metaphysics

Komamicki

most

and

metaphysics has

no

Uaisonnement
Jan

tion
deduc-

the

Academie

Essays

in

considers

of

means

object

K.

die

received

Mathematics

ideas

indecomposable
The

far

truly genetic

things is

in

Grundsdtze

der

[Translated

Mathematics

cancreto,philosophy by

of

Kant

"General

his

which

concludes

an

of

that

the
first.
metapJiysischenWissenscJiaften'''')

den

knowledge.

introduced

by

from

form

wholly

binding character

which

natures

welche

of Kant's

essay

losophy analytically.

to the

is known

hence
the

subjoins

underlies

Frage,

dm'

aufgegehen liat.

7".]

but

God

necessity.

posteriori^
and,

printed together (Berlin, 1764).

and

Kant

DeuUichkeit

die

ilber

die Bvidenz
{'"'"Jjeber

few

of that

ontological argument,

is inferred

Beantwortimy
1763

p. 188.

and

there

postulates empirically no
necessity alone, is

of

they possessed

nature

it

absolute

existence

hecause
spiritual,

is

highest reality; therefore

Heavens."

of the

Untersuchung

Morale zur

the

existence.

physico-theological principle
Theory

of

nature

unity perceptible -in the

the

existence

God's

argumentation,

since

though

to God's

of God

to the

necessity of God,

clear

of the

form

'and) Cartesian

highest reality; it

belong

says,

absolute

mfike

never

id^a

he

proofs, even

; all other

will

the

from

manner,

the

really constitutes
lack, could

and

this

that

affirms

Kant

the

contains

eternal,and

understanding

Swedenborg, a letter to
1758, as given by Borowski, nor,

Fralilein
as

others

von

Knobloch,

pretend,

dated

August 10, 1763"

not

150

eternity of the

the

causas

intellectum

per

ah
afficitur

externis

nisi per

jyrcesentiamejusdem

sustentatricis

causm

universi

phcenomenon. Causa enini

prcesentia
sed
est in ipsoimm locis,
quia
jyrcesens,
intime

omnibus
the

along

enter, than

to

treated

objective

an

universal

since

"

In

the

of

the

hh

our

here

Critique
and

space

of

time

and

of all

same

the

of

he

of

stance
subnitz)
Leib-

(with
"

in the

nor

work

idea

in them

find

trine,
doc-

Reason

absolutely

as

the

subjective intuition

as, least

Male-

phenomenal

as

them

in

space,

Pure

the

considers

longer

no

allows

the

expounded,
of

cast

to

intellects

mystical inquiries,as

substances

could

td

possibiles,

prudent

more

step, because
of

the

him

by

seems

that

of

this

to

substantiarum

infirmity of

subjective intuition

viewed

was

it

eternity,but

commercium''''

objective basis

the

absolute

the

now

for

basis

cause

"

of these

intuitions
and

quaten

atque singulis
propterea

relationes

the

waters

forced
''

relation,the

that

merely subjective, and consequently

as

the

of

ideas

the

the

was

adds

in God.'*

things

; he

only subjective forms

and

e.

slightlyfrom

omnipresence

divine

of the

correlates

all

idd

sentit exteriui,

non

cognita, dici potest omui-

est omnibus

non

which

deep
but

to conceive

longer attempts

no

differs

see

we

the

humana

mens

inpiitum
Illnc

sensitive

Ibca,h.

Kant

knowledge

upon

doctrine

that

namely,
Kant

of

world

to venture

did, whose

branche

sunt

est). But

proisens

of that

shore

in

leges, sed

communis, ideoque spatium, quod

amiprcesentimomnium

et necessaria

fas esset,operm
solum

Nempe

ah

aliis susientatur

conditio universale

ipsiusaspectuinon potet
eadem
vi infiniteUnius.

mundusque

omnibus

us

{Sipedem allquantvlum ultra

form.

same

cognoscendas indagare.

tantum

ipsa cum

quia

the

Metajphysicam decet, promovere

apodicticcB,
qiuB
ad
intuitus
sensitivi nan
pertinent
quoidam,
videtur,
qum

"pretium

n"n

under

cause

certiUidlnis

termiuos

ctiam

universal

eternity of

time, especially

knowthings,scientifically

able.
Becension

Kantiana,

the

from

pp.

66-68.

the

animal

that

Moscati

Schriftvon

der

Menschen^ reprinted

Kant

uher

Moscati's

approves

of

nature

UnterscJiied

den

Konigsb. gelehrteu.
man

Structur

der

anatomical

demonstration

originallyconstituted

was

Tliiere

d^

polit. Zeitung, 1771,

with

Reicke's

of

the

view

und

in

to

trine,
doc-

pedal
quadru-

motion.

Von

the

diffuse

present

scholastic

by

this

nature

In the

Critique

this idea

1778.

Of

these

probably

method

drawn

three

also the
is

belong

Kant,

same

into

to

to

natural

one

great

and

genus,

obtain

we
expect to advance
by degrees
may
Kant
teleological faculty of judgment

from

of

number

the

addressed

knowledge

opinion

Kant's,

transform

historical

genus

of

physical system

of

announcement

utterance

reduce

probably

the

history

strive,says

must

of

Vol,

Kritik

second,

in

p.

nature

reinen

72).
which

is sufficient

they

and

to

of

insight.

subsequently developed

Kant
is

written

been

by Kant.
in

in

regard
The

thought

by Crichton,

pol. Ztg., 1776-

u.

the

expresses
in

the

Philanthropin,

and

the

to

authorship

first,
of the

expression, is

and
court

by Kant, July 29, 1778 (in R,

articles
in these
a
lively

to him

employed

only

evidence

common

more

Konigsb. gd.

the

written

were

also

to have

request addressed

XI.,

der

there

that

; it appears

of education

from

articles

moderate,

more

doubtful

consequence

edition.

We

natural

of the

noticeable

will

and

one

at Dessau,
'^PMlanihropin'''

the

on

third, which
at least

means

of the

of

system

history

of

occasion
men

varieties.

natural
races

All

anew.

Articles

and

real

the

on

of 1775.

established

species to

understanding.

Menschen,

der

Semester

firmly

most

different

apparently
the

the

Summer

opuscule, is,that

in this

to

the

for
are

races

Racen

verscJiiedenen

den

his lectures

and

preacher, in
Schubert's

interest

which

is

in

the

"wisely

herself."

Vernunft, Riga,

1781.

[Critiqueof

Pure

Rms"n,

translations

by

151
and

Haywood

by Meiklejohn, s. above,
his

(according-to
'

'

less

but

it

without

alteration.

between

the

text, and
of

in

gives
of his

of

In

of the

the

rationis
Kant's
also

side

which

also

made

had

changing

of the

(in his
affect

the
of

unity

will

account

this

of

pretends)

journal, Ber

in the

be

given

preliminary

reader,
those

who

either

that

Kant

of

Kantian

the

call forth

in

us

as
lieason.,

also

of

the

the

the

himself

Critices

of the

Kantian

of the

he

mistaken
essential

an

perceive it,

in

Of

its

themselves,

the

by this
contents

of

works

Kant,

rather

system,

joinder
re-

from

meaning

133).

"

ad

as

the

to

Michelet's

things

principal

other

been

not

as

which

defective

interprets Kant

(cf.below
the

and

it.

is

of

Reason,

this

did

side

by

correctness

had
in

perceive

of

work.

side

Purs

second

renewal

of

the

beginning,

337-343)

pp.

ideas ; he

following exposition

in the

of

of ideas

Kantianoi

which

but

conception

variety of phenomena

prefers
contains

to the

differ

hypocritically denied

he

that

which

detail

the

by

Gedanke., III., 1863,

thereby

essence

afiirm

who

but

quence
conse-

gives greater prominence

from

it

attentive

to Kant

preface

prevent

Critique

1783, Kant
to

in

ings
read-

the

second

comprehension

show

of the

Hartenstein,
is

the

posterioreforma

to

attempt

the

done

to

for the

different

logical sequence

place the portions

belonging

for

enough

the

who

second,

Rosenkranz

(in the

form, serving

edition

second

side

Critique of the Pure

the

of

to

of
Prolegomena''''

system,

and

editions,

to the

stance,
sub-

differences

wiile
the

others, that

is done

the

first edition

arrangement

statement

own

de 'priore et

'"''

thought,

us

and

to the

readers

the

works,
the

second,

of

two

to facilitate

be

which

Hegelianizing misinterpretation
which

of the

prejudice

Diss,

my

(as Schopenhauer

even

value

Kant's

would

Cf

injusticeis

difference

of

copies of

text, embodying

as

composition

published ibid.,1787;

the

the

this work

Aug. 18, 1788)

its

interests
was

of

in

This

arisen, and

; in the

distinct

readers

to the

dated

In

being paid

adopts

made

edition

only changes

(Berl., 1863), in

by hasty

second

with

arrangement

of his

alterations

which

alterations

previous

editions

Rosenkranz

; but

foot-notes.

agreement

judgment

own

in the

had

best

puree

realistic

the

the

edition

Michelet, Schopenhauer,

parallel columns.

in two

given

attention

(Leips., 1838), are

complete

TV.]

"

reflection,but

for

and

revised

seventh

all

of

greatest

form

the

the

as

the

" 133,

ad

Mendelssohn,

years

second

the

the

thought, by

misunderstandings

or

in

twelve

of

appendix

an

in these

Perhaps

The

to

editions,gives

Hartenstein,in

ed.), sees

for

differingjudgments

alterations
but

had

are

first,believing, with

the

months,

both

first edition

the

five

below

Moses

to

or

easily."

editions

two

at least

editions, up

subsequent

in both

four

139, and

p.

letter

of

regard being

understand

would

the

result

within

effected

was

statement

the

embodied

Kant

in

an

in

than

review.

Prolegomeriazu einerjeden kunftigen Metaphysik.,die alsWissenschaftwird auftreten

ardson,
Richby John
konnen., Riga, 1783.
[Prolegomena to Future
Metaphysics,translated
in Kant's
this work

subsequently incorporated by

were

of the Pure
written

had
Kant

been

in its

brings

remark,
his

but

into
"

the
as

realistic

Ueber

Schuk^s

slumber"
out

(preacher

too

which

nearly

in the

the

by

preface
Hume's

realistic

element
with

at Gielsdorf

than

doubts

with

kindled

in

Kant's

"

he

doctrine

Berkeley's idealism
the
had

reference
the

19, 1783

of Jan.

Critique had

made

relates how

tique
Cri-

the

(subsequently published

first ed. of the

Kant

by the skeptic, had

gel.Am.

Feder

identified

the

universally recognized
In

the

of

edition

second

Gott.

publication by

in which

and

in the

of

principal contents

The

Tr.]

"

into

Kant

review

before

element,

relief.

thrown

to

his doctrine

something

strong

spark,

reply

mutilated

and

dogmatic

; the

In

originalform),

overlooked

presupposed
from

Reason.

by Garve,

elsewhere

1836.

Metaphysical Works, London,

rather

subject
first been

to the

critical

) Versuch einer Anleitung zur

idea

of

"

been

special

awakened
of

tion
causa-

light.
Sittenlehre

fiiralle

152
Menschen

Untersclded

ohne

Konigsberg, 1783,

No.

psychology

ethics

and

of the

identical
claims

with

Kant

at

freedom

the

(On

ot

gionsprocessdes Predigers Schulz

him

places

his

of

the

of

of

point,

Leibnitzian

natural

outside
was

Wollner-Ministry,

now

now

of natural

of

character,
lieli-

Volkmar,

compare

18.

des

ples
princiis

chain

full

man

to

being, he

of tne

Gidsdm'f, eines LicMfreundes

zu

stand

the

Kant, determinism

scale

who

Schulz,

the

Baclierverzeidiniss,^

critical

; for

completely

of

arbitrary act

an

in

place

removal

subsequent

charge, by

of determinism

and

'*

Ilaisonnirendes

consistent development

instead

which

^'-

the

exception, from

takes

aiming

fatalism, and

man

causes."
his

7.

gradations of existences

for

from

an

in
Ileligiony

der

JahrhunderU^

Leips., 1845.)
Ideeth

Oeschichte

aUgcmdTien

einer

zu

Was

1784:.
natssc?irift,1^0'vember,
in
to this

Essays

heisst

is,that

wdtbilrgerlicherAbsicht,in

(1),see

138.

p.

issuingfrom

means

1784.

Tr.\

"

the

Berliner

the

i'Md, December,

above,

"

"enlightenment

Aufkldrung

Treatises,I. (10) and

and

question

in

Kant's

period

Mo-

lated
[Transanswer

of self-inflicted

minority.
Recension

Herder''

von

(Jena) Allg.
separates

sharply

resting on

the

Herder

Idee?i

Littztg.,1785.
from

certain

from

Writing
other

each

of the

hypothesis

is,in

PJdlosopMe

zur

at

sense,

the

essential

unity

the

time

same

freedom,
of

those

here

of

in

speculations

; Kant's

his later

the

who

Criticism, Kant,
condemns

elements

reaction

MenscTJmt,

der

of

stand-point

and

nature

QescliicMe

der

of

criticism

his earlier

against

stand-point.
die Vulcane

Ueher
II.
Von

(4), see

im

above,

I. (5),see
Treatises,
JJeher die

Monatssclir.
,

138."

ih.
,

einer

Begriffsvon

des

Sitten,Riga, 1785, etc.

der

Anfang

Treatises,I.

1786.

der

p. 138."

(7), see

To

principles of
confound
Jacob's

after

the

Ueber

both,
'"

and

"

of

in view

take

Mendelssohn'

for

spiritualneed
schen

J^r.]

"

the

reason

Berl.

we

only

err

to

answer

insufficiencyof

insight.)

Morgenstunden''

Kritik

der

tehohgischerPrincipien in

Gebrauch

den

der

the

jective
ob-

when

we

Einige Bemerkungen,

(inserted in Jacob's

work,

Berlin
Urtheilskraft,

eine

Entdeckung

altere entbehrlich

das

die

von

aller

[Essays
der

K.

gesetzttPreisaufgabe :

and

in
Philosophie,

Deutsch.

Wieland's

icerden

book

on

ed., Leips., 1827.

; 6th

Libau, 1790,

(Eberhard's), nach

gemacht

Misslingen

Septemb.,1791.

der

1788.

praktischen Vernunft, Riga, 1788

Mittel dagegen, in Borowski's

Ueber

beliefs

subjective principle of

(Kant's

preface).

Kritik

Ueber

consequently

Pr'tifungder

Mercur, January,

TJeber

by

"

p. 138.

1786.

Grundsatz

orientiren?

Denken

heisst sicli im

Was

in one's

guided

be
reason

Monatsschr., Jan.,

{Gottl) Ilufeland's

Ueber

TV.]

Treatises, I. (9),see

and

[In Essays

is

I.
Treatises,

and

Riga, 1786, etc.

Naturwissenscliaft,

Naturrechts, Allg. Littztg.,1786.

question

[Essays

1785.

IV.]

Menschengeschichte,Berl.

this

tises,
Trea-

and

[In Essays and

MenscJienrace,ih.,Nov.,

Muth?nasslicher

M., Oct.,

1785.

May,

der

and

[In Essays

J'r.]

Metaphysik

zur

1785.

March,

JV*.]

"

MetaphysiscJieAnfangsgrunde
[Essays
des

dne

p. 138."

Bestimmung

Grundlegung

zu

p. 139.

Unrechtmdssigkeitdes Buchernachdrucks,

der

(3),seep.

Berl.

Monde,

der

etc.

alle

soil,Konigsberg, 1790.

and

II. (6),see
Treatises,

welches

dnd

Ueber

Schwdrmerd

p.

139."

Theodicee,Berl.

und

Monatsschr

2^r.]

Wissemch/iftenzu Berlin fur

die wirkUchen
Fortschritte^die

der

Vernunft durch

der

Cagliostro, Konigsberg, 1790.

Versucheinder
philosophischen

Akademie

Kritik

nem

1791

das

Jahr

die

Metaphysik

aus-

seit

kant's
unci

Ldhnitz's
seeks

Ksint

here,

treating

the

progress

from

not

was

in to

sent

Religion innerJialb

Die

Md.^

1794.

work,

''On

Radical

Ueber

Gemeimpruch

den

published

das

TV.]
far

maxim

This
it is

as

morality

["

That

be

may

to moral

applied

in individual

Criticism.

to

Vernunft^ Konisgberg, 1793

p.

139.

in

the

[Essays

in

true

Tr.\

"

April

The

The

; 2d

first section

of

number

theory,

richtigsein^passt

ed.,

of

this

^'"Berlin.

the

will

but

or

for the

also

intercourse, as

nicht

far

p. 138

practice"], in

Kant

by

KanVs

aus

in

do

not

of civil and

ends

Auszug

aher

I. (4),see
Treatises^

and

legal obligations,is condemned

in Beck's
PhilosophieiXherhaupt^

Ueher

dogmatism

TJieorie

in der

mag

Praxis, Berl. Monatsschr., Sept., 1793.

die

of

1792.

for

MonatsschrifV

blossen

der

first

Rink, Konigsberg, 1804.

the
portance
imothers,to show

Th.

works

prize.

the

Treatises^II, (8),see

Evil,"was

F.

by
the

Leibnitzo-WolflB.an

for

Grenzen

der

[Essays and

ed.

especiallyof

the

compete

163

writings.

Tiat?

gemacht

without

of
work

Zeiten
s
Wolff''

and

life

international

kritischen

so

pernicious for

as

law.

Schriften^Riga,

1793-94.

auf die Witternng, Berl. Monatsschr., May, 1794.

II. (2) and
[Essays and Treatises,
(9),see pp. 138,9.

Dinge.,ib.,1794.

aller

Ende

Mondes

Einflussdes

iiberden

Etwas
Das

"

Tr.]
[Essays
Sdmrnering, ilber

conjecture, that
from

affections

Von

May,

in the

brain-fibre

p.

Seele,Konigsberg,
of the

cavities

brain

2d

ed., ib.^

1796.
the

be

may

Kant

the

expresses

agent for transmitting

to another.

r"omelimen
Tone in der Philosopliie,
Berl. Monatsschr.y
Tr.] (Against Platonizing
Treatises,II. (5), see p. 139.
beruhenden
mathematiphilosophers.) Ausgleichung eines auf Missverstand
and

"

Streits, ib.,Oct., 1796.

right

Tractates

(6),see
Organ der

Konigsberg, 1795;

138.-7^/'.]

neuerdings erhobenen

zu

(A few

was
literally,

taken

Kant, which,
its

I.

das

water

[Essays

RsniL/imental

Joh.

the
one

einem

1796.

sch^a

pldhsopJiisdier
Entwurf,

Treatises.

and

Zu

in

ein

ewigen Frieden,

Zum
1796.

from

sense

its

words

in

explanation of

inappropriate

; he

desires

an

the

expression employed
same

Verkilndigung des nalien

Berl. Monatsschr., Dec,
Phihs"phie.^

connection.)

eicigenFrieden

in der

by

understood

to be

eines

AbscJdusses
1796.

(Against

Georg Schlosser.)

MetaphysischeA?fangsgriinde der Bechtslehre,

Konigsberg, 1797; 2d ed., 1798. Metaphysische Anfangsgriinde der TugendleJire,Konigsberg, 1797; 2d ed., 1803.
These
works
two
bear in common
the title : Metaphysik der Sitten (Parts I. and
II.).
Ueber ein wrmeintes
Recht, aus Memcherdiebe zu lugen, Berl. Blatter, 1797.
Der Streit der Facaltdten.,
containing also the essay : Von der Macht des Gemiithis^
durch

blossen

den

Vorsatz

Anthropologiein
Vorrede
die ihr

s"iner

pragmatischer Hinsicht. Konigsberg

JacUmann's

zu

Priifung

beigdegte AehnlicJikeit mit

schrifteines

Freundes

der

dem

KantiscJien

1798.

zu

Hinsicht

RdigionspMhsopliiein

Mystidsmus,

reinen

Heilsberg'sVorrede

zu

1798.

krankhaften Gefi'MeMeisterzu werden, Konigsberg,

Mielke's

Konigsberg,

litthauisclwm

1800.

auf

Nadi-

nigsberg,
Worterbuch, Ko-

1800.
KaaVs
see

Logik, edited

above,
Kant's

The
other

by J. B. Jiische,Konigsberg, 1800.

in the

liber

article

above

Padagogik,

complete
minor

[Transl. by J. Richardson,

TV.]

"

physischeGeograpUe,

Beuschle,
Kant

p. 139.

editions

written

ed.

by Rink, Konigsberg, 1802-1803.

cited, pp.

ed. by Rink,
of Kant's

deliverances

(Cf. on

this work

62-65.)
Konigsberg, 1803.

works

of Kant.

contain, further, letters, explanations,

With

Kant's

co-operation, his

' '

and

Vermisc/tta

kant's

154

on

critique

pure

etc.

reason,

were
Scliriften''^
published by Tief trunk, in 3 vols., Halle, 1799, and several minor
A
works, by Rink, Konigsberg, 1800.
manuscript on the MetiqjJiyfdcs
of Nature^ on

which

Kant

scher?)
N.

1796-98

and

by

critical

; other

writings

translations

Schubert,
J. B.

we

seq.,
Fichte's

has

Semple's
from

recently

p. 486

by

Latin

into

of

the

Rudolf

in

the

Reicke,

742-749.

F.

G.

4 vols.

Bom,

Leipsic,

der Oesch. der Philos.

of

those

to

French

translations

p.

cited

zur

of Rosenkranz

of the edition

XI,

Halle, 1856,

129
in

Metaph.

is

Of

seq.

the

title

(but without

"

The

given

EngUsh

the

following

der

Sitten^together

(Edinburgh, 1836), of which

works

published, bearing

pp.

(Gin-

see

Orundlegung

ethical

Calderwood

particularly

by

account

addition

published

80-84, Schubert,

in his Grundriss

in Vol.

and
An

others.

of Kant's

been

58-61, aud

pp.

Kjnigsberg, 1864,

seq.,

in

been

never

I., 1858, pp.

ZeMschr., XXIX.,

Metaphydcs of
and

Semple's introduction

graph,
para-

new

Etliics,^^

ment),
supple-

1869.

of the
By the critique
the origin,extent, and

122.

of

life,has

by Tennemann,

mention,

by H.

Edinburgh,

"

cited

translation

others

Introduction

an

were

and

here

may

translated

% 388,

in

I.

Vol.
,

are

p. 217

Meyer,

extracts

edition

of his

years

Jahrhache')\ed. by Haym,

ed., Leips., 1829, ad

J. W.

with

last

Prooincialblatt,Konigsb., 1858,

translations

with

Preuss.

Altpreuss.Monatsschr.

Kant's

5th

the

preuss.

in the

in the

labored

in

reason

Kant
of

the examination

nnderstands

knowledge. Pure
is his name
for reason
reason
independent of all experience. The
the pure
Critiqueof the Pure Reason
subjecjts
speculativereason
holds that this scrutinynmst
to a critical scrutiny. Kant
precede all
other philosophical
procedures. Kant terms
philosophy,which
every
transcends
the sphere of experience without having previously
justified
of the facultyof knowledge, a form
this act by an
examination
of
Dogmatism ; the philosophicallimitation of knowledge to experience
he calls
all
doubt
to
as
Empiricism ;"philosophical
knowledge
in
far
this
is
doubt
as
transcendingexperience, so
grounded on the
of all existing
insufficiency
attempts at demonstration, and not on an
human
examination
of the
facultyof knowdedge in general,is termed
ther
Skepticism,"and his own
philosophy,which makes all furby him
philosophizingdependent on the result of such an examination,
Criticism."
Criticism is
transcendental
dental
transcenphilosophy or
idealism,"in so far as it inquiresinto and then denies the possibility
of a transcendent
knowledge, i. e., of knowledge respecting
what
lies beyond the range
of experience.
divisi(^n
with a twofold
in his critique
of the reason
Kant
sets out
ence
of judgments (in particular,
of categorical
judgments). With referhe divides them
of the predicate to the subject,
to the relation
into analytical
or
elucidatingjudgments where the predicatecan be
found in the conception of the subjectby simple analysisof the latter
latter case
the analytical
is identical with it (inwhich
or
judgment is
limits

human

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

kant's

identical

critique

and

on

puee

reason,

155

etc.

ampliiicative
judgments where
contained
in the concept of the subject,
the predicateis not
but is
The principleof analytical
added
to it.
judgments is the principleof
not
identityand contradiction ; a syntheticjudgment, on the contrary, canthe conceptionof its subjecton
from
the basis of this
be formed
further discriminates,
with reference
Kant
alone.
to their
l^rinciple
knowledge, between judgments a priori and
originas parts of human
judgments of
judgments d 2^oste7'iori
/ by the latter he understands
d
in
priori, the absolute sense, those
experience,b:it by judgments
which
tive
are
completelyindependent of all experience,and in the relabased indirectly
are
on
experience,or in which
sense, those which
the conceptionsemployed, though not derived immediately from experience,
an

are

one)
"

deduced

syntheticor

from

others

that

"

were

so

derived.

As

absolute

priori Kant regards all those which have the marks of

assuming (what he does not prove, but
necessityand strict universality,
although his whole system depends upon
simply positsas self-evident,
nation
combifrom
derivable
are
no
it)that necessityand strict universality
but only independentlyof all experience. All
of experiences,
ject-concept
analytical
judgments are judgments d priori j for although the subobtained
been
have
through experience,yet
may
from
further expewhich
the judgment results,no
to its analysis,
rience
is necessary.
Syntheticjudgments, on the contrary, fall into
of the predicatewith
classes.
the subject is effected
If the synthesis
two
by the aid of experience,the judgment is synthetica posteriori
all
is
it
is
effected
from
if
it
f
a
synthetic
experience,
apart
j
priori. Kant holds the existence of judgments of the latter class to be
the judgments which
undeniable
are
recognizedas strictly
; for among
which
and
nniversal
and
are
consequently,according to
apodictical,
Kant's
assumption,judgments a priori, he finds judgments which
these
be synthetic.Among
to
time be admitted
must
at the same
of the fundamental
judgments. Some
belong,first of all,most mathematical
judgments of arithmetic {e.g., a=a) are, indeed, according
to Kant, of an
nature
analytical
; but the rest of them, togetherwith
all geometricaljudgments, are, in his view, synthetic,
and, since they
have the marks
of strict universality
and necessity,
are
syntheticjudgments
d priori. The same
character
pertains,accordingto Kant, to the
such as, for example, that in all the
of physics,
most
generalpropositions
changesof the material world the quantityof matter remains unchanged.
be true
These propositions
known
to
are
apart from all experience,
judgments

156
since

kant's

universal

on

critique

pure

reason,

irro.

and

apodictical
judgments ; and yet they are
not obtained
jects,
through a mere
analysisof the conceptionsof their subfor the predicateadds something to those conceptions. In like
all metaphysicalprinciples,
least in their tenat
are
dency,
finally,
manner,
that every
syntheticjudgments d priori^ e. g., the principle,
if the principlesof metaphysics are
have a cause.
And
event
must
not altogether
incontrovertible,
at least are
yet those of mathematics
established
beyond all dispute. There
exist,therefore,concludes
Kant, syntheticjudgments a priori or judgments of the pure reason.
The
fundamental
question of his Critique becomes, then : How
are
d
?
syntheticjudgments priori possible
The answer
given is : Syntheticjudgments a priori are possible,
because
of knowledge, which
to the material
he acquires
man
briiigs
certain
forms
of knowledge,
empiricallyin virt\ie of his receptivity,
pure
tliejare

he himself

which

of all

creates

experienceand

in virtue
into

which

the

form

of

his

he

and
spoiitaneity

pendently
inde-

fits all

given material.
These forms, which
the conditions
of the possibility
of all expeare
rience,
time
of
the
the
conditions
the
of
at
the
are
same
possibility
objects
whatever
is to be an
of experience,because
for
take
object
me, must
the forms through which
the Ego^ my
on
originalconsciousness,or the
"
transcendental
unity of apperception,"
shapes all that is presented to
in a syntheticjudgment a
it; they have, therefore,objectivevalidity
reference
with
to which
priori. But the objects,
they possess this
transcendental
i. e.,
not the things-in-themselves
or
are
validity,
objects,
of conceiving
objectsas they are in themselves,apart from our mode
them
only the empirical objectsor the phenomena which
; they are
exist

The

in

our

consciousness

in

of

mental

representations.

for man.
unknowable
are
Only a creative,
things-in-themselves
time
that it thinks
divine mind, that gives them
realityat the same
do
them, can have power
Things-in-themselves
trulyto know them.
of human
themselves
not conform
to the forms
knowledge, because the
human
because
consciousness
is not creative,
human
perceptionis not
Kor do
free from subjective
elements, is not "intellectual intuition."
the forms of human
selves
knowledge conform themselves to things-in-themout
knowledge would be empirical and with; otherwise, all our
since
necessityand strict universality. But all empiricalobjects,
themselves
to
they are oidy representationsin our minds, do conform
jects
know
the forms of human,
empiricalobknowledge. Hence we can
All valid d priori knowledge has
or
phenomena, but only these.

kant's

168

critique

on

pure

reason,

etc.

to exist. Eational
cease
which, with the refutation of this supposition,
and physico-thetheology,in seeking by the ontological,
cosmological,
the
existence
of God, becomes
involved in
ologicalarguments to prove
these ideas of the reason
in two
a series of sophistications.
Still,
are
when
viewed
not
constituti vo
as
respects of value : (1) theoretically,
real knowledge of things-in-themselves
a
through which
principles,
be obtained,but as regulative
which
affirm that,however
can
principles,
far empiricalinvestigation
have
at any time
advanced, the
may
be regarded as fully
sphere of objectsof possibleexperience can never
for further investigaexhausted, but that there will always be room
tion
far
in
render
conceivable
as
they
suppositions,
; (2) practically, so
the practical
with moral necessity.
conducts
to which
reason
In the
Metaphysical Principles of Physics Kant seeks,by
to
forces, to justifya dynamical explanation of
reducing matter
"

"

nature.

On

in

edition

complete
to the

to them

regard

A.

Kuno

(ais, Paris,

1864),

Barni

has

(who

the

I. Hei-m.

and

Kantism,

histories

Vie

several
4th

the

following

{Critique

Reason

la Philosophie

de

et

of Kant's

{Elements
the

scepticisme

du

Kant,
iiber

Forschungen

{Kant

die

Raumtheorie
und

f. Ph., Vol. 37, 1860,

Orabe,
of

Deutsch.

Oppenheim's

Krltik

der

Kantischen

turwis-ienschaft

Huber

Oder

und

{Kant

und

P'iHosophie,

in the
die

'Meyer {Ueber
226-263,

Natur

Kant

Protest.

Epigonen,

und

Pol.

1850), Julius

39, 1861,

u.

(by

{Die

the

Philos.

und

mit

Kanfs

of

Noack

the

Oder

anonymous

Das

unhewusste
ihr

und

mit

in the

VerhdUniss

pp.

241-2%),

zur

by

Stuttg., 1865),

Ed.

filr

die

relig. Bewegicng

Theod.
ed.

Monatsbl.,

Zeitschr.

ohne

Merz
H.

{Ueber

G"?lzer,Vol.

Riider

1866), Trendelenburg

{Das

Theol.
acMzehnten

die

24,
Wort

(C7e6er

No.

6, Dec,

(I priori,
eine

Lilcke

Sinne
Ravm

den

seiner
Les-

K,

diss,

in the

auf Kant,

Auferstehung

"^in

pp.

neue

Kant's

Beweis

QffenNa-

neueren

(4ns"o"e/es

M?i(J

92-125), Joh.

pp.

Deutsche

in the
Philos.

375-388),O.
Kritik

II.
der

aus

gottliche

der

dem

in Vol.

Ergebniss
die

und

Zeitschr.
aus

Kopf,

Kantischen

1864,

in

Jena, 1841), J.
welchem

philos.

Kirche, 1863,

eine

pAt-

principiis

P. E. Trahndorf

der

from
der

und

Jahrhunderts,

Bedeutung

criticxt

WiUich

M.

Charakter

dtn

Entwicklung

u.

P.

{Kant

entitled

die

ses

Jacoby

Geisteslebeii

des

dans

{Ueber

romantischen

work

luth.

philosophie

translated

{In

Ule

fiber

Joh.

{De

Offenbarung.^'' Vol. VIII., Miinster, 1862), K.

im

1844),

1805),Ed.Beneke,

Weisse

{[. Kant's

Einfluss auf

fran-

en

(KeswZtoZe

Nachfolger,

H.

Rilcksicht

besoiiderer

; Kant

Litt.,1862),

1796), A.

Marburg,

Kant,

Strater

46-66). L.

pp.

1861

author

Theod.

la

f^ur

Reason,

seine
Chr.

{Imm.

Rupp

ed.

Hamburg,

Saisset(/^e Scepticisme,

hat, Leipsic, 1847), O.

orientiren

Kriticismus

den

{Kant

de

Kant,

de

combattu

Suabedissen

bis Kant,

Halle, 1844),

1859),

{Philosophie

(Lemons

Pure

Gegenicart, Kiinigsberg, 1857),

zur

Vol.

and

Vernunft?

Frankf.-onthe-M.,

Mirbt

(Hegel,

Barchou

Weigelt,

and

;
his

addition

{Saggio fllosofico sulla

A.

Th.

Plato

von

inaug.,

zu

dargestellt,Leipsic,

Michelis

ViertelinhrKSchrift, 1864,
Gegenwart,

derselbeii

Jahrb.fiir

ist die

was

{Lessing

^^

in

sich
Halle.

Kant,

und

Freiheitslehre

harxing, Leipsic, 1861),

Kant,

B.

pp.

uritundlich

Lehre

seine

Kant

an

diss,

Gebxcrtstagsfeier, Konigsberg,

Cs

1859), J.

inaug., Bonn,

Arist,

des

Kan

zu

wieder

Galuppi

in

Pure, 3

1857), Emile

others,

Erkenntniss

G.

Principles, London,

among

Zeit, Berlin, 1832),

unserer

VerhdUniss

das

further,

menschlichen

der

Kaitfs

of

to

XII.

name,

{Le Scepticisme

Kant,

de

below

Vol.

philosophy

Paris

Cousin

Maurial

1798), Meiklejohn {Critique of

and

pkilosophice Kantiancv.,

Philosophie jetzt

Philosophie
8ing, Rede

ICatur

( View

London,

1855),

London,

Aufgabe

{De principlis

deutsche

und

die

die philos.

und

C. Glaser
die

Imm.

of

Nitsch

A.

Critical Philosophy,

the

of

German

los.

Naples, 1819), P.

connoscenza,

may

la Raison

Kant,

mentioned

as

modern

Villers

de

de

Victor

works),

ed., Par., 1864), E.

principes

Charles

JEnesid!ime, Pascal, Kant, Paris, 1865, 2d ed., ibid.,1867), Pasquale

delta

of

exist nuraberlees

be

subjoined

subject,we

the

on

will

of which

by Rosenkranz,

writers

of Pure

la

de

137)

pp.

Critique

{Histoire

annotated

philosophy there

important

Fichte, Chalybiius, Ulrici, Biedermann,

above,

see

of the

des

theoretical

most

philosophy, and, especially, of

1820, Par., 1842,

et discussion

the

relatively recent

Fischer,

others,

of

History

of

Saintes

in

analyse

pri7icipes,

Of

translator

translated

delivered

Kant,

the

Amand

the

his

particular,on

anti-Kantians,

histories

and

Ott, Willm,

Metz, 18(U), Tissot,

de

works.

general

Michelet, Erdmann,
Penhoen,

and

especially

of Kant's
of

authors

in

general and,

semi-Kantians,

by Kantians,

compare

in

philosophy

Kant's

works

der
von

filr

die

Liebmann
Kantischen
der

aus-

kant's
SubjecUnitlit

liessenclen

Ulos., III.,

nebst

Contradictorisch,

(Der

)),F. Ueberweg
Kantischen

der

of

in

"n8

of
^dependently
its

in

success

the

of the

of

the

the

822

and

The

higher and

tribunal
with
all

for

them

everything

dogmatic

{ib.p. 767)

all controversies

of

the

pertains

essential

conditions

is the

{vs. Eberhard, I. p. 452).

examination

which

that

only

not

of the

it may

strive

which
the

decides

whether

and

the

faculty

which

contains

facultyof principles,
by
of the
the

pure

of

which

reason,

pre-condition

of

also the

which

R.).

knowledge absolutely
judgment
of

system

the

on

the
reason

pure

made

reason

as

all

the

of

of

true

of

bility
possipatent

meaning

in
directions,

all

but

it is therefore
determines
the

on

is,according
pure

of

basis
to

Kant,
the

reason

The

evolved.

and

or

their

been

and
priori.,

sources

piricism.
em-

mistrust

of

possible, and

prioriis

of

is the

experience,

same,

Schu.

critical eye

universal

of

Reason

in

sees

and

criticallyin dealing

pure

is

of the

and

reason

not

of

whatever

sources

principles of knowledge

passes

the

of

from
caimot

ground

has

independently

Grit, of Pure

the

of

general,in respect

metaphysics

any

the

critique

knowledge

limits,but

principles(Pref. to 1st ed.

the

faculty in
to

maxim

universal

that
soul

result

the

'pure

proceed

cognitive faculties

our

defines

rational

to attain

extent

of

as

general

before

appear

vious
pre-

account

on

Ros.

necessary

critique of the

(p. 779) ; to

reason

the

as

dogmatic

experience,
R.

eine

li.^p. xxxv).

merely

same,

account

Ueber

understands

of

range

must

use,

the

the

men-

without

holds
452). Kant
immortality of the

appears

metaphysics,

to

Kant

Kant

the

principles,
on

the

Pure

of

( Cr. of the Pure

synthetic propositions of metaphysics, so long

in the

an

in its

p.

the

the

skepticism

to him

reason

which

and

of God

inconsequence

an

that

reason,

judicial

I.
{ib.,

assertions

its

existence

Cr.

of

he

in its

I.,p. 453), or

the

Hume,

David

completely beyond

lie

seq.), so
pure

of

the

to prove

orig. ed. of

(",05-

course

Eberhard,

vs.

Works,

previous critique of

without

nature

both

attempt

127

pp.

since

especially by

reason,

empirical stand-point

Locke's

power

the

philosophical conceptions)

(Pref. to 2d

maintained

contradictory

proved,

be

own

pure

ed. of Kant's

Bolton

exponent

metaphysics

principles (Kant

seinem
Grund-

Tr.]

faculty itself,
merely

rational

(arguing rigidly from

reason

as

of the

mistrust

Schubert's

and

of

in

below

important

most

confidence

those

of

employment

critique of its
By skepticism,

universal

the

previous critique of the

any

itdeckang.,etc.,Ros.
procedure

whose

metaphysics," as

of

und

Psychologie, BerUn,

Ph., 1869."

of Spec.

d.

berichtigt.

{Die

Miiller

{KanVs

Meyer

Krit.

Inang. Dissert., Halle,

W.
ibid.,pp. .358-421),

B.

z.

(Contrdf

Entstehungszeit

seiner

mentioned

be

in J.

{Kant's

Kategorientafel

mojlichf

Beltr.

Pttiiger {Ueber

Knauer

215-224), Aug.

gesehen,

will

special problems,

more

understands

Wolff, Kant

ncuJi

Hamilton^ London, 1869), J.

and

Kanfs

VI., 18(i9,pp.

Syst. of Transcendentalism,

K.'s

By the "dogmatism

Kriticismus

Levy

1868), Gustav

priori

Standpunkte

naturiciss.

voni

Kant

1867), Siegmund

und
fcf"tgesiellt,

Mathamatik

KantisJien

des

works, concerning

[A. E. Krocger,

ition.

der

Altpreuss. MovatsschriJ^

Philosophies

other

Some

)).

the

Principles of

the

Leiirstacken.

^jntJiet. Urtheile

sind

Rist.

Leipsic, 1869), W.

Dissertation, Bonn,

Sprache,

Blatt,in

antikrititcJies

und

Entgegnung^

eine

Dissertation, Marburg,

der

Grundgedanke

isensc/iaftlichen Werth,

lination

Kritik

convergirenden

{Wie

TYviele

He, 1868), G.

Inaugural

zur

Kant,

aein

und

159

reason.

kritisches

Zeit, ein

der

nnd

Fischer

in ihreni.Verhdltniss

Vern.

in

Raumes

^sthe'ik.

transcendental^

mfa

dea
Ktmo

215-276,

pp.

pure

of

critique

critique

of the

limits

all pure

latter,is
edge.
priori knowl-

Against the

objected that
the

nature

thought

can

of

the

only

pure
be

of

The

Aristotelian

by Kant,

wifortunate

this

and
was

and

Wolffian

in certain
for

his

theory

reason,

scrutinized

thought antecedently to
thinking, or like attempting

before

features

critique

all real
to

of the

learn

of the

by thought, and that

thinking, is therefore
to

without

swim

conditions

but

of

not

made

was

the

it has

by Kant,

undertaken

faculties of the sonl

particulars modified,

critique

as

to seek
to

simply adopted
subject

knowledge, Herbart,

in

of

to examine

attempt

going

into

in

radical

particular,

been

to think

the

water

its fundamental

critique.
has

pointed

How
out.

160

kant's
But

(Hegel).
criticothe

but

and

the

for

after that
and

measure

Kant

Kuno
the

traces

received

from

kind

Locke's

and

the

He

he

exception

taken

years

first

David

interrupted

Hume's

objections might
of

and

cause

conceives
filled

was

succeeded

having
I

that

originated

in the

knowledge

that

are

or
j)riori

critique of

the

the

Introduction

bearing

the

the

depends

certain
of the

ideas

of the

the

the

of

formal

Esthetic

time,

and

The
and

the

Transcendental

understanding
the

of

he

latter

and

Transcendental

the

the

of the

which

Logic

Kant

they
to the

calls that

possible experience.

The

illegitimacy of

Peason'''' is

the

actual

possible.

are

He

whole

complex

and

the

materials,
of

and

his

the

complete

former

treating

of

at the

same

Transcendental

is divided

the

intuitions

pure

the

pure

object whatever
a

Logic

can

be
The

the

e.

of

the

of

pure

dental
Transcenspace

sense,

part of the
of

knowledge

of Truth.

".
Dialectic,

mentary
EleMethod

of

into

The

understanding.
of

up
the

(folr

Transcendental

cognitions

the

on

grow

of Method

Doctrine

Doctrine

and

investigations into

The

time).

latter

the

no

time

the

Doctrine

elements

which

of

out

possibility

time,

Transcendental

Elementary

the

knowledge

their

and

space

of his

system of

cognitions of
forth

Transcendental
in

that

finds

intuition,viz.

of

follows

as

of

existence

and
"synthetic judgments d priori,^''

terms

the

is the

assured,
that

applied solely

are

the Piire

divides

and

number,

now

was

the

categories ;

pure

derstanding
un-

single principle,

demonstrates

terms

principleswithout

Analytic,

all

he

sets

the

priori^but only

of the

metaphysics

their

knowledge,

which

Transcendental

Logic,

Logic,

Transcendental

the

to what

conditions

of

the

whether

which

of
I

in

conception

myself

the
many

first

that

conceptions)

Critiqueof

logic customary

of the

treats

speculative reason.
and

formal

the

basis

been

was

which

tried

which

it

inquiries

through

knowledge

beyond

demonstrate

to

Doctrine

Elementary

or

"

in the

judgments

Kant

have

empirical derivation, but

transcendental,

purely subjectiveforms

division

plan

these

understanding,

Doctrine
of

peculiar
how

reason.

Transcendental

lowing

seeks

on

well

my

rather

the

transcendental
goes

edge,
knowl-

species

reason.

investigation
Kant

question,

like forms
the

the

character

on

of the

employment
of

from

is itself

which

reason,

order

of

to all

not

of

assure

(intuitions or

distinction

In

to

conceptions, of

conceptions, which

of

use

The

raises

these

notions

certain

possible.

transcendent

sought

had

inquiry

this

to

one

the

of

that

only

after

since

more,

causality),

gave

found

the

he

in this field

"

things,but

apprehended,
understanding."

how

sible
pos-

Syst.of
which

freely that

of

and

wish, namely,

my
of

deduction

pure

and

all transcendent

In

Hume

as

confess

soon

being

like

into

nay,

direction.

and

among

to

"I

new

prioriconnections
conceptions.

is then

stimulus

light might

conception

far from

applies the epithet transcendental

Kant

not,

were

light

which

altogether

was

edge,
knowl-

Prolegomena), that

appeared

no

slumber,

generalized,

according

to the

proceeded

they

the

with

only

be

not
effect

(to the

an

optics

of

(Cf. my

the

to
the

to

had

brought

dogmatic

my

advances.

understanding,

spark from

"

Hume

speculative philosophy

and

"

critique of

extent

ascertained,it

reason

susceptible tinder."

on

field of

connection

the

important

Hume

the

is to it what

above.)

human

more

pre-criticaland

precede

origin and

been

Introduction

the

on

the

further

to make

critique of

(in

says

of Hume.

by

undoubtedly

validity have

the

between

examination, which

an

cited

work,
his

essays

fallen

reason.

distinction

must

basis

struck, nevertheless, a

kindled, if it had

ago

on

metaphysics, nothing

skepticism

but

of its

Fischer's

Leibnitz's

first rise of

by the

former

this

genesis of

Hume.

puee

through critical reflection

philosophic thought

Logic-,
" ^1, and

than

The

finallybe subjected to

must

But

seeing.

of

objection is refuted

philosophic thinking.

reason,

is to

this

critique

the

thought,
second

critique

of

is

part
the

KANt's

understanding and the

CEITIQrE

OF

respect of

their

in

PUKE

161

EEASON.

hyper-physicaluse,

a critiqueof the
cognitionsof the understand'aig
and reason
are
applied,not solelyto the objects of experience,but there,where no
is
object given,beyond the limits of experience,and when, therefore,a material use is
of the pure understanding. The
made
of the merely formal principles
Transcendental
Method
four
contains
Doctrine of
chapters,bearing the titles: The Disciplineof the
and its History. (The Tr. Esthetic
Pure Reason, its Canon, its Architectonic,
relates
of mathematics, the Analytic to that of Physics,
to the possibility
the Dialectic
especially
reason

false dialectical semblance

of all

to that

which

arises when

the

and
metaphysics,

the

pure

of Method

Doctrine

of metaphysics

to that

as

science.)

begins with experience,but not all

knowledge, says Kant in the Introduction,
combination
knowledge springs from experience. Experience is a continuous
thesis)
(synthe understanding brings
of perceptions. Experience is the first product which
All

our

Kant
forth,after it has gone to work upon the raw material of sensations. But now
in regard to all logicalcombinations
of experienceswhat
is true only
asserts (affirming
'
of isolated experiencesand of the most elementary form of induction,
per enumera"
what
that
it must
tionem simpUcem ") :
Experience tells us, indeed,
is,but not
sarily
neces"
slie givesus no true universality
be so and not otherwise
necessityand
; hence
;
for Kant
the sure
strict (not merely "comparative") universality
are
signs of non'

*
Knowledge not originatingin experience is defined by Kant
empiricalcognition.
''" prioriknowledge," f
Kant
be customary
distinguishesas follows: "It may

of

say of much

knowledge,

our

derived

from

that

experimental sources,

we

as

to

capable

are

of

because
derive it not immediatelyfrom
we
acquiringit or that we possess it a pri"i'i,
have
borrowed
we
experience,but from a universal rule,which itself,
nevertheless,
from experience; but in what follows we shall understand
d
cognitions
by
priorithose
which
take place independently,not of this or that, but of all experience whatever
;.
i' e.^
opposed to them are empiricalcognitions,or such as are possibleonly d posteriori,

whatever

elements

In these

the

whole

system

tnith, and

yet,

subject of
so

form

of

and

Geometry

which

much

so

is

space

toelche
Jlyjjothesen,

die
of

in the NacArichten

der

Kgl.

;
"

"

truth

of

other

Ges.

Wiss.

der

the

following of

apodicticallycertain"
prioriknowledge
adopts
all

"

is

means,

this kind

the

of

misuse
in the

expression for

experience, and

sense

his

to

pirical
em-

the

on

The

and

and

form),
not,

in

1854):

lie at the

3, 1868, pp. 193-221.

June

is

Whatever

from

The

Says
"

empiricalthe former

of the

The

Royal

qualitiesby

only be
Basis

Cf. the

its

tity,
(quanaffirms,an

Kant

of

learned

from

Geometry,"'

Supplement
is

demonstrated
strictly

demonstration

fehe^

mechanics

as

Helmholtz.

dimensions, can
which

Facts

in its

simpler

inductively-acquiredprinciples,,

written

of three
"

critical

universal
strictly
him.

Uegen, in the Transactions

Grunde

zu

magnitudes

premises

toi

apodicticadly

; but

to

term,

words.
usual

possesses,

this

is

certainty and

Riemann

as

since

of

the time

undoubtedly,

extravagant conception

claims for

no

absolute) consistency

not

merely "comparative"), subsists.

proposition in

of the

its

motion

of

measure

1868, p. 427.)

knowledge

which

subjectedthem

to refute

enough

validityof

weight

Gottingen,

zu

such, therefore,is

of

he never

printed separately;"

his essay

see

Logit,
Bonn,

causes," and

in the

Geometrie

conceivable

Helmholtz,

d.

; Kant

alone

universal

of such

2 ; also

Syntem

A.

their real

is the

der

Gottingen, 1867, p.

distinguishedfrom

of my

experience, is

mathematicians

by

views

axioms

from

there
universality(here strict,

the

the 3d edition

although
questioned,

never

certain

more

with

pure

with
ypiv^o^,from vi^hich,
great (although
up. 'The principle of gravitation,which

gravity),etc.,a gradation

exjierience." (For

certain

grew

called

are

(quantity) to geometry (quantity,

together with
and

between

Association

Kant

is derived

the

is admitted

Ueber

(B. Riemann,
Scientific

mixed."

npoirov

admits,

motion,

absoliiCe difference
basis of

the

"Criticism"

Kant

arithmetic

from

that

as

science,

prim^icognitionsthose

are

pre-snppositions,which
is contained

examination,

of

through experience;

knowledge

of

Aristotle,"knowledge

the attributes
a

likewise,or

knowledge,
rather

of

of effects from

necessityor apodictical

whose

certaintyis

exclusively,the

pendent
inde-

attribute

of

apodicticity.
t

But

herewith

knowledge

of

the

effects

11

point

from

of view of the

their

causes

was

Aristotelian division"

understood,

and

according
the

reverse

to

which, by d priori knowledge,

d posteriori~\"-

by knowledge

Kant's

162
With
the

the division

second

division

understands
which

in

into

which

in the

example,
But

judgment

but

the

all

judgments

the

the

of

notion

bodies

of the

identity, but

based

are

belongs

understands

in

the

subject A,
in

this

with

the

contradiction,but

example,

the

for

In

is conceived

synthetic judgments, without

aid

the

lies
the

analytical
the

by

of that

latter

ed.
extend-

are

in

heavy.

are

; as, for

predicate

it ; as, for

subject

concept

the

he

something

as

substances)

in which

substances)

with

joins

By analyticaljudgments

to

those

connected

predicate

the priuciple of

on

(extended, impenetrable

connection

empirical cognitions,Kant

synthetic.

(extended, impenetrable

he

subject-concept A, although

judgment:

iieason.

previously observed,

not

by synthetic judgments

without

puee

d priori and

predicate

all bodies

of

analyticaland

the

already contained,

was

former

of cognitions into
of them

those

critique

aid

notion

an'other

of

; the

principle

is necessary.*

By

analytical judgments

which

I must

judgments

which

on

X,

the

contained

not

in

judgments,

for

exchanged

still later

ex

''par

{ex

causa), Wolflf,

followed

another

based,

rather,

the

on

gravitation,

which

much

results

of

mere

the

hands,

so

the

aiTive

at

forms

of

deductive

This

use

cognition

and
the

to the

progressive.
identical

element
had

of the

of

terms

and

The

the

and

of the

which,

prejudice. Apart

all

from

without

made

not

are

which

reasoning, by
is not

the

but

only by

basis

of the

and

the

latter

the

is

predicate.

: Kant

of the

Still

partiallyidentical

in

the

"f

the

phraseologj'

in

rather

identical

the

itself,but

from

of

the
of

independent
but

we

surpass

the

of

use

experience

through

according

no

knowledge

no

isolated

an

of the

and

subjective

to

the

tive
induc-

amplification

the

either
idea

judgments.

from
data

by

the

given

mon
com-

to the
from

deduction

respectively, regressive

methods,

former
than

himself

Kant

analysis

proceeding

these
is

analytical judgment

of

pendent
inde-

principle

which

experience

by
the

method

to call

only

in advance

certainty,

with

to

; it is

themselves.

things

through

synthetic
prefers

absolutely

all

is

only through

experiences

discriminated

rightly

proceeding

subject-concept,

and

results

of

independently

immanent

method

whole

the

impure

have

can

but

expression.

drawn

of

he
the

to

judgment

we

of

experience,

and

was

degree

machines,

as

by magic,

beyond

go

the

phenomenon

admits,

this

of

Newtonian

the

highest

corjnita
In

calculation

this

experience

logical combination

order

conditioned

haiids

we

cfEected
the

synthetic
the

of
on

planets.

Just

pretends, apodictical knowledge.

pure

g., the

e.

Kant

the

not

as

experiences,

So,

as

and

moon

possible, possess,

were

conception

; in the

between

revolutions

mere

related

experience

our

of

use

real

cation
qualifi-

distinction

independent

logically elaborated

of

calculation,

ultimately of principles, and

of

of

instead
the

sensu.

further

and

causa,

nondtnn

solo

original

be

logical conclusion.

ex

from

elicere

with
the

the

could

ei

J.

constrnc-

ex

last-mentioned

the

out

empirically established, partly

the

analytical

Kantian

it constitutes

distinguished

data
of

analytical

knowledge

judgment

of the

But

Ejjlst.ad

an

jam

priori

jJriori with

to

in

demonstrations

to

proximately

experience,

variety

complete

necessary,

denominates

of conditions

principles

origin,
on

all

sity
neces-

object, which

says

adds, however,

knowledge

is

empirical

only occasionally employs

d posteriori

heterogeneous

is not

contents

of the

demonstrative
the

who

is, indeed, independent

labor,

methods

which

usage,

most

Kant

of

completely

of

veritatem

the

S7int motus

Leaving

veritatem

Kant,

independent

judgment

be

by

sense,

of the

and

manual

knowledge

is

bottom

would

incomprehensible

and
*

the

at

less,what

the

and

seq.

case

who

consequent

causes,

176

p.

eruere

latter

other

if such

all, and

at

and

respect

fall of bodies

would,

the

Aristotelian

numerous

lies

of the

experience

on

per

of

part of this experience.

flgy/rar^cm

et

les

p^r

ervere

consequently

and

phenomenon

partly

identifies

exactly,

knowledge,

in

motu

ex

connaitre

of

by Leibnitz,

Constructiones

Log., 3d ed., " IS,

my

and

greatest

experience

astronomical

certainty

less

the

of

species

yet depends,

whatever,

in

preserved

was

ergo

with

d-2}riori,which

relative

priori,

which

experience

in

ratiocinartdo,

the

and

any

cited

by Baumgarten,

Knowledge

of

d priori

only

synthetic

predicate, which

the

experience

covers

of

case

such, synthetic, this

referring, doubtless, especially

detnonstratiojis,'''

des

passages

cognim

usage

In

as

are,

full

my

Erdn-..,p. 51) :

ed.

flguris demonntrantur,

the

is

it.

conception,

subject, something else,

recognize

to

only

in the

of the

to

of which

concept

Aristotelian

con7iattre

identifies

absolute

all

This

this

But

parts.

belonging

yet

as

which

augmented;

rest, in order

may

for

its

conception

experience,all

A,

(Ojjera Philos.,

cf.

aliis

was

of

an'other.

phraseology

cause;

of

is not
into

the

to

conception,

concept

affectioiiesde

Uonibus

the

the

1669

Thomasium,

decomposed

addition

difl"culty;

no

through

is

understanding

that

judgments

or

occasions
think

in

have,

knowledge

our

already possessed,

we

of

the

is

new

the

whole

conception
or

; earlier

some

of
one

logicians

kant's
syntheticjudgments

for

the

which

the

of

outside

primn,this

understanding

conception A,

of

independent

reason

and

able

point

to

is

few

would,

as

the

of

sum

7 and

addition

which

image
and

after

one

No

more,

the
my

conception

the

aid

But

sum

and

pnori

apodicticalknowledge

; the

whether

links

as

two

not

and

of

one's

say

call

must

five
this

the

image

ception
con-

to what

as

to

thing
Someaid

our

of

fingers or

be

to

resumed.

are

we

in

given

unities

ples).
princi-

as

intimation

no

mentioned

is necessary,

five

method,

-7 + 5=12,
proposition,

contains

numbers

them,

of

principle of contradiction, from

the

to

chain
the

think

that

really analytical affirmations,

are

in the

first

admits

Kant

five

to the

some

points,

conception

the

one

material

world

didactic

and

for

fundamental

and

one

of

of

three

of

the

but

only

from

; from

arithmetic,

the

and

priori;

which

fundamental

and

com-

that

to the

(as the

sum

whole

objects,which

can

of arithmetic
these

from

we

nition
defi-

parts of

constituent

conceptions

analytical judgments,

as

of

similar

experience

the

hand,

etc., an.l

the

all

"/., in

e.

; in all

in

case

one,

conception
in

order,

in actual

given

numbered

the

quality ;

synthesis is possible.:}:

unchanged

of two

sum

is derived
viz. : that

find

hence

principles

remains

matter

one,

order),
We

sum.

and

the

synthetic judgments

principle, which

the

alone

scientific necessity ; it is sufficient for the

no

of

question

conception

same

is

sura

to the

of the

contains

th^ quantity

is the

synthetic proposition ; for

nothing respecting length,

which

analytical. That

geometry

pure

points, is

two

in, through

also

expedient

two

system,

the

between

called

be

is indifferent

taken,

principles of

of the

any

must

abstraction

under

then

are

the

rest

syllogistically.

[A niichauung"extemal
singularis.

e. jjr.,that

torical,not
is unable

gi-"e any

assertorical

truth

experiences

of

on

the others

an

proves

from

the

geometi'y

space

an

product, incomplex

its

or

which
the
its

the

order

representation, reprcefientatio

(\ priori

induction,

may

be

reduced

of

these

the

and

science.

not

the

line

and

Aristotelian,but

two

attains

to

the

the
not

of space
four

or

principle

by

fundamental

merely

no

of

in

means

only

founded

as

on

and
this

numerous

non-dependence

of

objective nature

of

affirmations

sense,

according

asser-

facts

fundamental

empiricallj% certain,
; in this

try,
geome-

; but

in the

the
the

of

have

dimensions

expression

to

gi-ounded

experience

points,

two

logical operations,

From

direct

principles

between

dimensions
not

is itself

but

character.

on

and

which

philosophically

founded

three

other

apodictically.

are

to

and

in space,

principles,

subjective

latter

former

of the

aware

fundamental

the

straight

one

exactly thi-ee

of figures

truth

merely

is only

is

But

synthetic.

are

there

have

must

apodictical and, according

"f this expression,

that

geometrician

The

syllogistically;

demonstrated

Is geometry

and

of

by abstraction,

relations.

confirms

nothing

follow

why

is obtained

of geometry,

preception,

dimensions,

reason

spatial

magnitude,

itself ;

are

affirmations

three

apodictical certainty;
to

principles

the

has

space

internal

or

TV.]

"

X Unquestionably

they

Mathematics

metaphysical.
it is

a,

the

the

shortest

further,

decadal

are

notio

space

definiticns:

making

be included

form

other

conception

of

one

Kant

this

in fact

of the

number,

nut

the

to the

follow

the

(of

reason

pure

synthetic (although

this

straightness contains

of

says

of

changes

follow

the

is the

of intuition

Physics,

the

the

synthetic judgments

far

in

all

at

conceptions
with

Kant,

says

straight line

(and

seven.

back

these

to

corresponds

add

so

But

5.

of

kinds

a, a+b

indeed

is,in which

particular number
in

of

yet connected

syntheticjudgments d priori

are

of universal

are

only

serve

Kant,

says

Kant,

merely analytical,following, according

of

on

x,

found,

priori.

says

asserting,however, that they

One

How

is the
have

to

as
a
so
question
any
tendency all properly metaphysical propositions

their

axioms, such

mathematical

What

itself

and

same

physical, and

disputed,

in

judgments,

Mathematical

believes

to the

three

out

examples

are

but

possible ;

synthetic judgments

also

are

metaphysics

of

affirmations

it

question for the critique of

undisputed

contain

physics

metaphysics

go

words

actually existing,namely, mathematical,

as

when

experience).

himself

believes

Kant

other

In

it ?

163

reason.

altogether wanting.

authority,

predicate foreign

fundamental

is the

This

?
possible

pure

is

resort

for its

rests

that, too, necessarily) with

of

critique

but

to the

of

geometry

in

so

only

far
in

Kantian,

as

this.
us*

164

kant's

muTiication
the

law
In

of motion

of

action

and

adds

rendered

cognitions

claimed

ning,

designed

to

question

reason

be,

Exposition

the

conception

of

this

of

localization

2.

is

parts. "
tion

for

be

the

regarded

other

as

; further

world

e., with

reference

hitherl.

syntheti

reason,
have

must

had

Metaphysics is,or

permanent.

i.

science

of human

nature

g.^ the

e.

designed

given

that

has

been

on

'

!)"

at 1(

priori. Hence

to the

of

nature

tL

huma.

imagine

an
containing in itself

infinite

and

time.

present the

from

of the
of

only
of

four

external

one,

the

of

all

so-called

(representations)
d

an

is

priori intuition

; foi

pur^

spaces

; but

is

"*

3. Spac'

things generally, but

which

ah

space.

perceptions

for

"

of

of space.

ideas

space

sho^.

1. Space

notion

infinite,
given magnitude

an

of

of

of

which

experience

non-existence

of

Metaphysi

theses,

of all external

relations

as

number

notion

basis

"

In

considerations

advances

at the

notion

is that

primitive

to

previous possession

our

space

of space

prioriprinciplesof sensibilit}-

of space

abstracted

general conception

or
can

of the

Kant
priori.,

to form

means

the

"

priori notion,lying

notion

; hence

science

priori character

depends

we

4. Our

thought

to each

equal

purely synthetic propositions

(naturally"

to be

necessary

discursive

be

is

things

of

up

Conception

it is impossible by any

intuition

in

the

space

concrete

is not

always

may

contained

Esthetic, the

empirical conception

Space

to be

metaphysics

to demonstrate

cal

an

this

although

made

Transcendental

seeks

not

rea8o:n-.

scientifically)
possible ?

the

Kant

science

is

must

rijRE

indispensable by

is substantial

How

and

"

In

priori are

whatever

and

reaction

Kant"

merely attempted, yet

a

of

inertia,etc.

Metaphysics"

critique

ar^

concep

impossible

and

not

to

con

ception.|
In

'

the

'

Transcendental

understands

explanation of

the

possibiHty of

of

notion

the

for geometry

that

the

Conception

conception

as

must

space

the

to determine

be

made

an

"

Space

by which

"

of

means

intelligible Kant
"

d priori

of space

attributes

of

principle,by

synthetic cognitions d priori is

other

assertion,that

Exposition of

if
intuition,

Kar'

which

tbc

develops

tby

it is to

be

possible

'^^
yet d priori.

and
synthetically
"

But

the

Bervation

of

and

by

were

them
of

force,
no

in

only

of

is

i This,

"

however,
of

''conception."
IIThe

actually
which

have

it is

it by

means

of the
cannot

Kant

that

The

as

fundamental
follow

the

one

on

the

other

wKich

w"

does

hand,
hand,

farm

as

mere

also

extend

not

the

law

of

order,

general

which

such,

"

e.

of

all

con

render

relativity

the

as

ence
experi-

to

seems

g.,

the

experiences,

independent

or

certain

in the

sense) dijriori character-.

Kantian

of

of space
which

use
or

them

synthetic judgments

ways
as

only

that,

the

supposed

follows,

resting
he
of

on

makes

(1 priori.

heading

contained

parts,

reflection,that
limit

no

and

farthest,

the

at

of

chapter,

the

is

to

however

in

the

is

actually, too,

the

the

limits

concave

far

trary
arbi-

an

But

conception.

of

have

we, may

; but

absolutely impassable

of

space,

the
in

gone
from

thi"

intuition.
(\ priori

he

an

objectiveand

has

of space,
the

material,

of the

nature

as

connecting

something

only,

in the

in the

partitive representations

potentially

differentiated

therefore,

subjective

merely
from

but

of

number
be

may

of space.

space,

sufficiently exact.

not

infinite

infinity of

exists
and

geometry

forms
treats

how

an

that

character

yet style

is often

Kant

inflnitum,

w?

further,
is

space

double

an

ex-tension

to go

intuition

the
Bufficientlyjustified

experience
a

which

to

scientificallyelaborated

more

ri,priori

should

contain

can

contain

not

little shown

an

still

not, again,

but

Kant

representations

to

does

that

terms,

conception

no

principles

from

that

of scientific

infinity of

follows

all

in them

principles

subjectivityand

the

prove
remarkable

always possible

has

on

not

it relates

idea,

an

from

principles,
from

circle.

is

of space

heavens.

no

use

as

idea

thought

the

In

far

so

our

we

risible

it

abstractions

manifest

(in the Aristotelian,

an
a

does

this

assertion

one,

in

reasoning

view

In

derivation

philosophical

general

83

d priori.,-prior to

subsequently

becomes

the

late

were

truths

scientific

as

there

as

they acquire

do

"

+ This

fixed

far

added,

be

may

that

shows

science

physical

others,

and

means

so

susceptible
space

of

history

shown,

time,
material
viz. ;

other

and

the

the

in that

experience,

matter

or

space
that

and

content

the

certainty

this

certainty

Kant

Further,

categories,
in

of

hand,

basis.

empirical

given
as

intuition

the

on

he

has

treats

not

them,

yet undeniably,
of

thought

from

ka^nt's

166

Kant

in

false the doctrine

pronounces
is but

the

He

without

from

forms

The

result

as

be,

nor

their

we

make

they

Esthetic

Transcendental

Esthetic,"

"

of

our

In

us."

we

the

nature

manner,

external

The

under

arranged

one

forms
the

various

A.

Gymn.,
1854.)

Kant

these

perception of
functions

of the
the

as

f:
states

the

internal

through
such,

out

of

judgment.

the

on

merely

threefold

t The

standing,
under-

categories

judgment

of

body

functions

on

the

objects of perception.

the

with

latter,as
of

the

forth

set

regard
by

to

the

of the
stantiality
of sub-

category

presents the

Kant

corresponding

the

of

and

which
one

some

the

Real-

Inaug..,Bonn,

such, by

as

in

(Cf

Coin.

the

Diss.

divisible),

are

are

standing
under-

Categories, depend

or

is determined

logical judgment,*

the

think

can

representations

categ. doctriim.

all bodies

tions
concep-

senses

by regressive inference.

ascertained

determined

g.

without

without

functions

the

from

is^

it

in the

contrary,

conceptions

Progr.
categ. rejecerit,

Kantii

as

e.

the

of these

means

whenever

Thoughts

different

which

by

conceptions of objects

as

(as,

and

all

cognitions of

be

Arist.

the

gories
cate-

with

the

in the

soul

Phenomenal,

also

internal

be

regarded

in the

I,

Besides,

this

or

and

as

timeless,

states, in themselves
as

having

acquired

belonging

doctrine

of the

the

to

the

of

of

things

sense''

ideas

our

affect

which

but

nature

sphere

"internal

of

snccession

phenomenal

The

they belong.
of

image

conti-ary, it must

produced
to the

to which

Object

unfaithful

an

real

result,

existent,

is incorrect;

see

as

my

Logic, " 40,

System

my

"object"

"

known
un-

tions
representa-

of the

perceptions

understanding,

the

Gerkrath, De

in the

such

and, conversely

Kantms

forms

merely

as

affection

not

The
see

identical

sense

the

and

System
*

is

regarded

be

the

wholly

"

appear,

cannot

of

table

following

of

objectsis regarded

subject

of things in

forms

understanding.

but

By

indirect

are

logicaljudgment

the

action

the

categories may

the

'

phenomena

as

representations

organic affections, and

on

which

Lud.

defines

that

character

the

to

perceive nothing,

representation.

Quo jure

Berl, 1853;

of

can

logical judgments,

F. C. Kersten,

it has

meaningless,

are

unity of

the

general (formal) logic,the

if

subjective

the

only mental

sees

in reference

of which

mark

understanding

common

of

objects, Kant

arrives

the

primal conceptions

forms

the

be

may

Sensibility; spontaneity of cognition, on

judgments,

various

of

to

that

the relations of. objects in space

receptive sensibility,remains

our

in virtue

mind,

ideas, is

expresses

; what

us

them

to be ; and

us

'

59, aj). Ros.

take

we

only

even

General

Logic,

perceptions depend

'"function"

On

of

to

"

apart
selves.
them-

sensibility.

our

Kant

perceptions

blind.

nothing

the
is

origination

All

to which

what

sibility
sen-

things

intuition,*'

(in the

2d ed., p.

not

to

within, and
they are in

by Kant

themselves,disappear,and

external

of

as

they, appear

as

qualities,all

in

only

call

Transcendental

in any

are

time

se, but

what

receptivity of

or

and

space

known

are

SuhjecU^ or

knowing

as

from

up

perceive

nature

or

ed., p. 42:

1st

we

generally, all the

result

in the

internal

intrinsic

wholly separated from

and

is the

absolute

which

things

ourselves

really 'per

resulting from

The

such

even

exist

themselves,

affected

of

senses

and

yes,

Similar

the

of

abstraction

to

That

is summed

our

belongs

"intellectual

without

time),objectsare

Transcendental

relations

cannot

and

the

follows

constitution

from

of affections

which

of

faculty

possesses

man

philosophy,that

of that

of things, and

of the
on

II., 49)

time,

that

intervention

merely subjective (space

Observations

and

denies

the

reason.

pure

of the Leibnitzo-Wolffian

corifmed representation

themselves.

whereby,

of

critique

Categories
or

of

The

division

of

of

forms

judgments,

aimed

at

by

in each

Kant

class, is

not

justifiedthrough,

of Logic, "" 68-70.

of

Relation,

as

objective reality, and

differences

of

they
as

Quality and

are

termed

such,

at the

Modality

by
same
are

Kant,

are

the

only
rise

time, give
founded,

not

on

ones

to

which
certain

differing

forms

respect
functions

of

thi
of

form
the

of the

logical

objectiveexistence.

KANT

Table

Logical

Judgments

(or plural).

Categorical.

Problematical.

Negative.

Hypothetical.

Assertory.

Disjunctive.

Apodictical.

Universal.

of

under

the

Axioms

Anticipations of

Intuition.

Perception.

conceptions

list of them

lit the

it follows

(whence
elements

of

Kant
of

must

be

are

tho

that

in

theai

reflected

in

again, is
included
whole

founded
in

sphere

peculiar

only

the

to the

same

the

of

that

on

to

combination

they

the

have

himself

such.

or

that

judgment,

to

Of. my

the

part

priori

ideas

in

but

it;

adds

of

one

Critiqueof

no

"" 68-70.

Reason).

things, that

there

with

that

category

the

kinds
to

that

third

in

the

several

relation

portion

of

with

relation

to

form

of

the

Logical

judgments,

(or denied)

whose

reference

of

are

conceptions
in

each

subjective

reality which

them.

task

essential

most

the Pure

as,

make

superfluous

the

priori division

judgment

it involves

Si/st.of Logic,

given

categories underlying

is affirmed

primal

pure

conceptions,

causality; to

here

other

various

on

different
in

pirical
em-

necessarily conthe

pure

or

to have

judgment

the

predicate
of

would
from

conception

in the

all

and

non-A),

not, therefore,

so

categories, among
generally

of

are

derived

already

philosophy

of

of all

thought.

Kant,

says

the

above

Physics.

op

Postulates

disagreeable, though

possibility of combining

conception
as

from

not

these

subjective act
the

conception,

judgment

believed

(6. ^., A and

i. e., of

object of representation

and

class,whereas

dichotomous

objective,

Kant

regard

in each

which
likewise

follow

useful

philosophy,

transcendental

complete

observes

three

to

were

Principles

Experience.

themselves

which

"/., force, action, passion,

the

on

as

Analogies of

understanding

therefore

are

founded
priori.,

Universal

of

of (sensible)

the

Understanding.

the

designates it

Kant

Table

of

of

of

head

complete system of transcendental

the

which

Conceptions

synthetic judgments

of

understanding.

the

"onceptions, and

"

table

PnYsioLOGiCAL

Pure

are,

belongs

conceptions of

ain

ing).
(or limit-

Table

Transcendental

conceptions

Modality.

"

Affirmative

Infinite

Herewith

Rdation.

Quality.

Singular.

These

Judgments.

of

in regard to

are

Quantity.
Particular

167

EEASON.

PUEE

OF

CRITIQUE

is the

Quantity,

subjects are
either

to

the

objective reality,

kant's

168
class

from

comes

the

combination

that

tion

which

with

corresponds

thmgs

from

the

union

of

the

as

unity

possibility itself.
requires
contained

as

conditioned

the

of

in what

are,

the

first

be

objects affect

in

not

Kant,

empirical

and

such

on

and

is

arises
is

further,

says

in

category

each

class

likewise
conception must
of Kant
is
(In this remark

it is

only by

tal
Transcenden-

relate

They

of

means

that

them

only through

is possible.

it is

"

in the

treats

fact,that

possible

the

object

which

in

relation

necessary

alone

empirical,and

necessarily

them

that

any

synthetic representation
each

to

renders

are

other

the

and,

it were,

as

representation possible

copied
in

ed.,

of color,or

34

pp.

The

74) is copied from

and

ed., p. 235

sensations

to the

pertain exclusively

forms

be

subject, which

by

its ideas.

phenomena,

which

are

in

sense,

that

through
yet not

which

cites
ex-

depend, according

would

all these

Otherwise

are

things-in-themselves

in the

objects,

transcendental

or

% 33)
Proleg..,

of smell, etc. \ which

element

not

otherwise

which
phenomena
belongs to
R.
cognition, Or. of the Pure
,

things-in-themselves
2d

therefore

can

objects, since

causality, etc.
time, substantiality,

space,

the

from

of sensible

them.

unknown

representation

Only that

50 ; 2d

and
with

the

not

the matter

terms

to that

generates

so

d priori.

not

affection.

They

third

Kant

thought,

cases

priori ideas

sensation

But

the

which

is
negation ; community
which
is given through

second

understanding.

(^i.,1st ed.,p. 190;

senses

us.

necessity.

them

They

its

shapes

do

not

to

out
with-

and

empirical

sations
sen-

from

come

things-in-themselves.

the

The
their
do

other

objects.

will

ideas.

But

it is

our

should

But

the

An

must

the

from

our

of

causally
the

ideas

our

the

real

motion

an

Kant

Copernicus, which
a

of

object, or

the

that

not

the

this latter

compares
the

of

existence

of objects, but

explains
of

the

cause

existence

cognition

prioriideas.

theory
hypothesis of

whole

or

sum

priori conception,

logicalform

thought.

affect

apparent

earth, giving

so

nomenon
phe-

sition
suppotion
revolu-

rise

to

the

question.

field
a

by

this

indeed

quite possible that

its law

take

heavens
in

appearance

occur

does

astronomical

the

of the

the

cannot

case

The

to

is

Kant

similar

supposed
them

relation

our

Totality, he

contain

must

thought.

bear

either

Our

arises the

affection

to be

but

intui-

object.

perfectly agreeing

not

whence

the

on

conception

with

first and

the

of

be

two

original],pp. 20

[in the

though
this

(that which

sensation
1st ed.

the

on

form

can

when

the

case

priori.

would

they

the

tioned
men-

Hegelian dialectic. )

rests

can

only

the

condition.)

experience,because

coincide,

other, viz.

evolved

be

of

Kant,

can

representation

In

here

contradiction^

priori conceptions,
; 3, the

categories (of which

the

concerns

says

objects

each

the

of

and

Categories")

experience whatever

There

or

division

mathematics,

is the existence
; neclssity

Fichtean

validity of the

of the

on

in

as

reality combined

combining

of the

germ

priori to objects

its

is

the understanding,
original conception of the

objective

experience,

meet

the

its

with

; limitation
substances

But

an

Deduction

and

Critiqueof

(In the

the principle of

on

but

conception,

special act of

regarded

object

first.

dichotomous

; 2. something' conditioned

reciprocal causality among

the

the

priori^not based,

the

1, a condition

plurality viewed

and

with

terms

priori^founded

division

synthetic

every

three

The

Kant

reason.

'

says

be

division

analytical

pure

of the second

Faculty of Judgment^ Intr., last note,

an

of

ceitiqtje

Pure

of

nevertheless,

unrelated

conception,

of objects of possible experiences is found

but

not

prioriconceptions

if

they

of possible experience.

are

to

to possess

can

the

perceptions,

would

be

contain

nothing

our

nothing
which

tions.
percepthan

more
a

thing

empirical, but

they

conception itself, through

indeed

in

objectivevalidity,be purely tljpnm

conditions

kant's

is the

render cognition possible. Spontaneity

apprehension

the

of

M., Isted.,

P.

p.

this

Without

Synthesisof

ed., p. 100

1st

seq.

experience,
is of

not

to the

the

2d

subjects

ed. he

treats

in

even

without

the

The

the

in

the

in

which

knowledge

perceptions,

and

which

of space

conditions

of the

The

the

2ded., Kant

of

to those

Kant

for

ideas

think,

is

in the

series

of

says
and

the

belongs,

in the

them

to

have

of space

and

me

just the.

were

while

ceeding
pro-

complete

But

time.
that

as

same

of ideas

in

Conception").
number,

would

which

fruitless.

be

then

and

He

becomes

of

All

synthesis.

consciousness,

which

alone

which

it from

time

of the

The

use

which

amid

the

is

of

only possible through

the

of

relation

internal
is

an

analysis,

an

it
Even

is
the

depends

tive
objec-

the

perceptions

our

the

are

conditions

and

of the

sensibilityand

apperception.

All

unvarying unity
hence

must

synthesis

of

of

thought

necessity of

be

the

of

the

with

on

which

it all

manifold

to

apprehension,

Ions.

is

the

relation

possible phenomena
in

conform

to universal

which

possible experience
on

have

perception

the
self-consciousness,

subject

all

categories depend

which
the

manifold

in

perception depend,

in

all

mal
prithe

to

primal synthetic unity of

functions

empirical,

must

to

must

of

synthesis by

concep-

necessarily conform'

is intellectual,and
is given and
synthesis of apperception, which
expressed
tanner wholly d priori in the category. Every object, which
in
be given us
can
is
the
to
conditions
which
the
combination
on
jption,subject
sjTithetic
necessary

of the

the

or

apperception

On

ideas.

my

of

name

of

on

of

ble.
possi-

is

apperception

depends

depends.

all

accompany

the

succession

synthetic unity

understanding

must

objects

gives

unity

data

empirical apperception,

empirical self-consciousness
all

all

and
all the

of

Kant

Transcendental

sense.

identity of the

precedes

representation

any

subsists

internal

of the

combination

which

self -consciousness

distinguishes

the

conscious

^e

Mty

the

that

psychology, whence

reproduce

not

conditions

on

priori condition

152,

p.

inates
discrim-

elements, successivelyperceived

necessary

with

possibilityand
of

apperception,

Reproductive

apperception.

sphere

function

we

mind

the

unity

think,"

and

categories

whole

The

depends
a.

an

possible

be

never

original synthesis.

which

"I

this transcendental

the

sion.
Apprehen-

of the

ed.,

and

thought

manifold

self- consciousness

on

that

The

Synthesis

of ideas

reproduction

the

that

this

highest point

depends.

all

performs

apperception.

presupposes

The

2d

primary fundamental

manifold

of the

by

unity

of

original,unchangeable

pure,

consciousness

perception

of

which

"

that, which

unites

while

which

in

space.

constitutes

; in the

of

most

that

apprehended

that

the

p. 152

on

philosophy, but

it would

ones,

original synthetic act,

phenomena

given

possibilityof d priori cognition

the

parts out

in connection

empirical

mutable

the

conception ( Or. of the

Recognition
it,nor
of time, of
parts of a line, of a division

presuppose

transcendejital

which

of

before,

it

and

this

To

reproduction

idea.

one

cognition

function, by

that

of

priori principles (6". of the P. i?.,

on

and

123,

cognition

explaining

earlier

purest

is that

concept

the

the

and

reproductive imagination,

in

the

instant

an

reproduced,
In

the

consciousness

thought

seq.

farther

following

the

idea, or

we

117

pp.

no

the

to lose

to

spontaneity,to

synthesis,viz.

elements

of time

ideas

based

and

of transcendental

If, in the synthesis of

constantly

is likewise

manifold

service

no

in

is

whole

one

the

productive imagination,

of the

combination
former

on

have

not

manifold

the

into

them

definitelyfrom

more

of

of
could

we

-Imagination

the

of

apprehension

combination

the

and

of

that

perception,

with

threefold

recognition of them

of the

that

combined

as

of

ground

97seq.).

successive

The

in

representations

and

imagination,

in

same

of

169

reason.

puee

insufficient, except

is

receptirity of the mind

The

of

critique

possible experience.

The

to

in

perand
cate-

170

kant's

gories,as

conditions

of

the

therefore

is

mind
which

things

however,

them

know

to

subject

are

to

in

us

of the

work

their

law

no

of

for

by perception,

; it is

is

highest

the

synthesis

of

and
of

phenomena

example,

such

the

two

the

are

in

to

exactly

experience

the

categories
with

use

the Pure

not

are

but

the

hypothesis (which

well

as

Kant

laws

teaches

relate

that

for

the

world

this

of

completely

to

every

so

the

"

which

that

the

absolute
and

and

affect

by

reality, the
be

of

should

merely

this

on

the

on

possible

of

it is

not

as

ceptions,
perall

ply
sim-

to

law

and

may

the
be

phenomena

siasceptibleof
which

imply

the

of

(A further

indirect

as

must

furnish

that

so

is

be

subjectiveorigin.

which

the

demonstration,

further

universal.
under

and

in

whereby

" 44).
If

The

same

particular

they

may

determined,

be

laws

of

that

Kant's
result
must

subsumed,

the

kind

of

follows

also

ascribed

cannot

be

the

to the

foreign

one
sality,
cau-

be3'ond

law

of

bination,
com-

of relation

out

origin,

and

phenomena,
.\n.
reason

of

of

ixffections

causality, -etc.,are

(I priori

from

thef"e

material

ve

"thing;s-in-them-

or

space,

je

and

if the'

But

succession

and

doctrine

be

subjecti

etc.

time,

fl^
priori
he

i.n

than

,ind not

particular

the

objects

the

that

of

be

sin'

aand,

not

may

time.,

treats

tvne

us,

one

the

with

that

but

nature

supposition

the

on

the

material

tivity
subjecand

more;

within

only
on

would

material

disappear"

known

found

possible only

particular

in the
would

empirically

valid

incompatible

law

any
every

belongs

is necessary,

affecting

as

mind,

the

to

its truth

he

contains

theory

of

kind

mere

of which

experience

Kantian

priori forms,

Kant

of the

proof

represented

are

as

as

He

of pre-

theory

necessity which

Antinomies,

This

being

experience.

intuition, space

of nature

laws

thought,

our

Crusiu^)

to

that

sensible

in the

(1 priori

must

Syst. of Log.,

laws,

categories
of

of

Leibnitzian
"

of

against it. because

pronounces

forms

"things-in-themselves,"

of

(cf. my

but

subject to

be

the

of

when

namely, by

way,

underlie

to

conceptions

bases

author

ProL, % 87, note

"

particular

by

the

addition

conceptions,or

intermediata

nature, which

determined.

affection

with

these

the

all determinations

case

third

167), in

by

Kant

orderly material,

empirical

order,

universal

so

an

which

laws

functions

real

particular

cannot

us,
an

overthrown

are

in
the

reckoned

are

that

particular

every

characterized

objectiveand

form"

forms

In

makes

essentiallywith

lor

of the

2d ed., p.

experience

things-in-themselves

while

that,

other,

between

indeed

Kant, is

considered

"

arranged

the

empirically

are

chaotic,

the

on

knowledge

implies,
2.

and

yet,

particular

particular

selves
are

affection

unformed

difference

and
the

1. In

phenomena.

and

the

which

intrinsic contradiction.
which

all

nature

subjective

Kant

conception of them.
pHori, including the

very
is d

phenomena,

to

of

empirical,
of

agrees

categories, is contained

the

as

sentations
repre-

empirical consciousness,i. 6. ,

R.,

of

so

laws

i^ossession by

the

with

of all that

that

but

established
harmony, but
by
system of the p^'efoimationof the pure reason,

essentiallyto the

principle, adds

follows

conformity

experience

is ascribed

is inconsistent

than

more

given

respects their combination, to the categories,

possible), a

existence,

our

in their

this

of

rived
de-

standing
under-

possible perception depends

in the

necessary

when

(namely,

make

with

agree

denominates

be

to the

nothing

variety

This

categories,it

agreement

necessary

that

us

is

the

of

combining

cannot

empirical synthesis again depends

exist

supplementarily {Cr. of

conceptions

hypothesis,

the
can

of the

all

things,and

itself

apperception.
now

hand,

in which

ways

implanted

on

which

first transferred

which

this

the

thence

faculty by

subject, in what

its objects is conceivable

these

hence

original ground

mentions

Kant

since

which

in

which

Since

other

representations,

mere

that

is not

alone,

of

and

everything

to law.

"

the

knowledge.

nature,

the

are

as

hence

As

combination, excej)t
Kant,

have

only representations

are

nature.

and

the

on

ditions
con-

and

necessarily subsist, if there

phenomena

intrinsic

says

unity

apprehension,
synthesis, and

transcendental

which

the

under

brought

in all human

time

same

possible experience.

would

law

to

understanding

faculty of d priori combination,

the

at the

priori. So,

of

objects

But

it.

Combination,

prescribe.

from

and

unlcnown

are

they

faculty may

the

of

possible, except

perceive

to

synthetic judgment

conformity of things-in-themselves

no

therefore

objects of experience {i.e., of phenomena),

the

objectivevalidity in

The
.were

reason.

puee

are
prioriof possible experience,

possibility of

d priori knowledge

no

of

ceitique

the

and

ideal

sphtre
to the

of
same

liis

jectivism
Sub-

ne.oessit}',

objective,
s;phert

KANt's

II.. 31"9.

This

if

proof,

it

proofs for the

the

admitted

yet

former

the

in all

application of

the

and

as

form

categories

object

under

the

with

the

latter.

is

as

is

of

Kant

by

possible

produced

Therefore

phenomena.
the

possible through

the

by

Schema

with

the

gories,
cate-

application of

an

functions

transcendental

the

geneous
factor,homo-

third

transcendental

of

representation

idea

an

be

tions,
empirical intui-

to

d priori^ homogeneous

form

sensibility,with

of the

form

the

thought

158, 159 [and

render

which,

this,because

pp.

the

to

exist

must

is termed

imagination,

order

In

there

phenomena

time

above,

conception

"gap"
do

not

entirelyheterogeneous

are

an

mediating factor, in

phenomena

to

of

to

Now

understanding.

the

the

Such

synthesis of

transcendental
of

categories

both.

with

understanding

homogeneous

be

must

the

subsumptions

Schu.,Vol.

fundamental

others, cited

and

and

the

it does

Kant's

force, unless

without

are

fill up

; but

argument

by Trendelenburg,

works

below, a^" 132].

Pure
conceptions of
and

in Kant's

exists

Antinomies

the

;cf.

indeed

stringent, would

were

ed., 534, Has.

; 2d

subsequent section, Cr. of the P. i?.,1st ed., p. 506

"according to Trendelenburg,

171

REASON".

pure

of

critique

fications
quali-

or

of time.
The

Schemata,

founded

are
on

time

in

time,

the

on

nature

The

schema

of

that

and

real

of the

of the

or

in time

of the
of

contents

of quantity

is number.

of

The

rule.

of

is existence

respect of their

associable

as

that

sistence
per-

of

munity,
com-

the

accidents, is
of the

of the

of necessity

other,

synthesis
the

hence

particular

some

and

being

is the

; that

those

and

time,

with

definite time, and

with

agreement

of

conditions

time,

realityis

in time

substance

one

of

of substance

succession

of possibilityis the

thing

in

the

of

order

schema

schema

in

substances

universal

the

representation

actuality

of

schema

with

The

causality is regular

qualificationsof

of the

of time, the

The

in time.

not-being

; that

representations

of diverse

categories (quantity, quality, relation,modality),

of time, the

reciprocal causality

universal

foUowing-a

is

negation

existence

simultaneous

schema

order

serial

whole.

as

of the

in the

mination
deter; the

time

is existence

at

all times.
of the

relation

The

for

rules

the

real

the

phenomena

principle of the
notion

of

in time

by
the

law^f

reciprocity or
each

space,

other.

whose

its

community
The

coheres

be

in

"

or

with

and

cause

that

all

that

of

all

the

effect

substances,

formal

with

the

actual

the

of

All

is determined

intuitions
is

Perception
i.

e.

are

In

principle

are

the

changes

nor

diminished

place

of

the

perceived

reciprocal

Whatever

agrees

the

derived

phenomena
; of

sion
succes-

with

in accordance
under

all
The

degree.

only possible through

to be

conditions

of

categories

certainty.

simultaneity

exert

are

the

sensible

of

take

in order

must

with

conditions

all

changes

; and

Thought

material

is

increased

Empirical

conception)

this

in

that

or

"

is neither

quantity

or

; from

perceptions

substance

and

magnitude,

Experience

complete reciprocity,or

Postulates

connection

is necessary.

of

"

of

is

categories of quantity

Anticipations

intensive

has

Experience

of causality

law

connection

must

sensation

the

are

discursive

is

our

understanding

pure

certainty, while

Intuition

(sensible)
of

the

intuitive

principles of

dynamic

principle
of

From

categories.

of

persistence of

i)erception and

to

Whatever
That

the

to

connection

persists,and

the substance

in

The

object of

necessary

rise

Axioms

Analogies

principles of the

the

the

magnitudes.

extensive

the

the

of

the whole

constitute

must

principles of

principles possessing

modality give

and

principle of

The

of

objective use

the

The

understanding.

mathematical

ijualityflow
if relation

categories to possibleexperience

by the

knowledge
pi'iori

the
as

law

co-

action

of

ing
existupon

(with

ence
refer-

of experience is possible ;

experience (sensation) is

by the universal

conditions

actual

of experience

rant's

172

the proof of the second

To
in the

edition

second

Idealism,"based
be

doubted

is

"

determined
which

the
that

Idealism,

are

impossible, and

external

that

objects in

only

also

yet their

false

intuitions

conceptions

our

objects

intuition

(perception) they
is not

into

object

in-themselves

or

are

categories

of the

Through

the

inference

The
exist

must

"in

of

the

that

which

or

particular thought,

of

thought,

obliged
it.

to

It is

origin)
sense,

is in the

of

selves, which

"

introduced
nomenalistic
the

are

confusion

is

at

especially
into

the

to

of

least

ethical

concept

is immanent

existence.

in

as

an

that

domain.

into

the

or

the

: homo

in

that
of

use

individual

and

the

conception

supposition,

doctrine

the

of

Kant
stance,
sub-

Aristotelian

objects,which

of

If

categories

the

conception

the

proviso

occasion

far

In

this

of

view,

tual
intellec-

it is meant

thought"

as

it should

be

us,

phenomenon

concept

and
that

included

"

an

That

in the

from

apparent

perception
the

the

in

not

is

essence

extension

they

space,

i. e.,

If

object

transcendental
it is true
can

that

we

are

applied

be

only

by

conception

to

of Platonic

in

negative

foreigrfelements,
things-in-them-

the
and

higher
the

support,

and

is known

of the

in worth

Platonic

distinguished by
which

ceptions
con-

outer, the

inadmissible.

of

hetter

are

receives

however,

the

with

and

taken

introduction

things-in-themselves.
j^et affect

an

things-

sense

(a conception

noumena

the

the

through

thought

human

of

in

it is not

as

thought,

of
of

tions
concepwithout

by

that

of

doctrine,
are

so

inner

in human

world

which,

objects

the

reflection.''^These

point

the

homo

and

understanding

repugnance,

kind.

"the

of

conceptions,

conceived

be

the

immanent

which

and

noumenon,

Kanfs

from

one.

to

Kantian

the

the

of

in

thiijgs-in-themselvesare

because

far

so

causality,

arbitrary

"

the

extended

; for

term

Something.

use

and

from

notwithstanding
himself,

not

of
of the conccjjtions

sense

Kanfs

thing,

unknown

an

something

in

only

that

was,

antithesis

perception"

phenomena,

this

correct

are

empirical

therefore,

in the

.space,

[subjective]character

separate

is

Kant

worth

time,

in the

only

the

is

not

true, however,

things-

sense,

or
faculty of non-sensible
conception of a noumenon,

is

us,

of

sense

the

however,

is understood

but

external

intellectual
ox

senses,

denoting

as

thing-in-itself is nothing

existence,

without

is,

philosophers,

thought,"

"thing-in-itself"

qiialiflcatuma

phenomena,

employed

no

of

that

of

thought

the

But

^'amphiboly

things-in-themSelves

source

especially

than

the

unmistakably
his

of

world

its

assume

for
a

then

of

But

as

objectsof sensible intuition

to the

diversity,agreement

subsequent

world

positive

man.

but

confounding
the

data

space.

considered

in

there
would

to the

in

objects

and

sensible

of the

objects
the

which,

and

cal
empiri-

dreaming

impenetrable,

or

of

it relates

to the

Vol,

"

directly that

as

permanent

space,

into

perception for

understanding,

identity

are

"

as

objective reality

and

to be

not

are

the

By

objectless,and

are

term,

noumena,

arises

transcendental

in

possessed by
internal

far

so

doctrine

proves

invention

have,

serve

only possible on

the

admitting

they belong

in

applicableonly

significationof the

the

corresponding

because

divided

be

may

are

to refute

even

repeatmg,

ever

it may
is

1st ed., p. 376

(In the

us.

in perception,

Metaphysics," 49. )

intuition

of external

real

is space.

divided

be

cannot

of the understanding

negative

their

that

only

Kant's

empirically

permanent

order

perception

senses

phenomenal

Proleg. to

the

external

in the

therefore

about

perception

external

of the understanding, "or noumena,

such

that

external

is

permanently

to

cannot
it is

to ourselves.

involved

which

already sought

without

Kant

and

scrupulousness

our

called

are

Although

"

external

time

added

(material)

consequently that

ideas, in

our

external

had

experience,

of whose
the

mean

Cf

Kant

as

from

of

reality of which

implies something

change,

something

therefore

space,

they

form

universal

their

; that

for

necessary

in-themselves

can

Schu.

resting on
in space

be

are

different
of

and

Kant
reality,

Refutation

the

"

space

qualificationof

"

experience,
objects in

of

evidence

Reason

experience

existence

own

be

exists

and

the

perceptions," arguing

real existences

which

our

must

internal

exist

is,that

of

there

as

external

our

this

to the

Pure

the

external

there

measurement

in Ros.

II.,p. 301,
of

that

something
for

condition

"

without

consciousness

standard
the

condition

proof of

in

argument

principle that

impossible

the

possible on

the

Critique of

reason.

pure

postulate,relative

of the

on

of

critique

concept,

term
is thus

its

phe-

through
and

has

174

kant's

natural

which
illusion,

deceptions from
but

cannot

be

of the

is

vision,

ceitiqtje

like

which,

psychological paralogism

is the

reason,

subject of

Rational

of

Psychology,

soul

experience

such

"

But
to

the

and

and

regarded

appurtenance

it does

but

denotes
not

The

time,

the

Pure

R,

fact
latter
,

external
matter

its

p. 427

time

as

of human

to

reality,or

as

and

those

the
"

science
of

and

can

that

answer

the

realities

of the

internal

question
The

all the
this

perception
ap-

but

identity
from

the

body,

own

this

sjti-

ing
chang-

change of

all

my

is

an

consciousness

and

external

and

body

to

and

me,

the

which

that

underlies
not

he

is how

neither

the
so
a

Cr.

in

sense,

is

fully developed

of

this

the

thesis
hypoof

phenomenon

unlike the soul

community

itself,

stances
of sub-

other

any

nor

of the

phenomena

in the

in

nally
phenome-

is

one

psychology

underlie, respectively,the

by

existing only

only brieflyintimated,

which

more

is increased

(says Kant,

fact

perhaps

idea, here

as

assumed

only question remaining

a

latter

consider

which

thing-in itself may

possible

sense

any

the

stance.
sub-

of

be

from

existences

the

only by

that

hence

soul

we

of

classes

two

sition;
propo-

"I"

the

mere

or

thinking being,

being regarded

if

But

space.
the

beside

between

former

the

interiorly,but

other, and

the

homogeneity

external

and

seq.) that

be

body

interaction

the

essence

amid

whether

know

things

the

among
to

me

no

without

heterogeneity,

difficultydisappears,
is

siMe

of their

were

is not

of

but

always

would

midst

existing

that of

as

including
enable

not

if there

exist

distinguished, not

are

form

I could

in both

2d ed

existence,

to me,

tiut it does

difficultyof explaining

the assumed

this

external

the

analytical affirmation

an

as

tuition,
in-

identical

an

which

substance"

Religion,
Ego,

analytical proposition;

an

identity in

own

ever

chiefly

the

which

that

thought

is

thinking substance,

distinguish my

possible

therefore.

whether,

which

simple

of my

identity of

things
be

I is

is, again,

of

conception

it is

immnteriel,'

must

independent

an

as

sensuous

think,

even

to

that

immortal.

der

to

to

seeks

seems

presupposes

and

of possible
claim

natdrlichen

something,

as

objectively

am

Kant
Von

der

I, who

apodictical

an

very

affirmation

and

subject
is

the

That

and

body

of which

which

substance,

objects.

as

thinking

the

The

analytical proposition ;
of myself would

in

implied

the

of other

of

reach

substance

the

cal
empiri-

an

up

psychology

in Kuutzen's

the

quently
subse-

possible

no

the

the

on

substance),

with

Wahrhciteti

which

the

illegitimateapplication

an

"

Finally, that

states.
existence

signify that

signify that

inferred

be

cannot

'caniehmsten

phenomenal

to

having

statement

cos-

simplicity of

spring

intellectual

an

ject
sub-

the

Herbart

g.

beyond

Ego, rational

presented

are

conception

(as,e.

punctual

jjossiblecommerce

they

Die

of consciousness

contents

in

as

subject of

observations

(an immaterial

that

logicallysimple subject

thetic proposition.

of the

as

would

and

"

substance

thought only

not

it is

So, too,

this does

of

act

as

predicate of thought,

or

simplicity

psychology (in the

the

applies only

in every

of

is the

the ideal of the pure

our

reality of attributes

Phcedon) involve

object, of

transcendental

the

in which

Mendelssohn's

the

there
representations),

person,

Seele^Reimarus'

der

Moses

one

is

of

harmless,

substance

consciousness

of

derivable

proof

aid

optical

of God.

the

the

thence

found

iacorruptible,and

form

the

adopted

lea Ndtar

or

in

consciousness

exists

of rational

arguments

have

the

soul

laws

attribute

From

it is

itself

with

identical

natural

being,

solely on

rendered

is the

existence

of the

call

to

to

certain

are

simple

as

real

most

based

is

were

of

the

as

the

that

substance

simple

the

on

of

proofs

to demonstrate

apodictical certainty.
demonstrate

we

attempted

unable

psychology,

if

combination

mutual

the

on

he

when

did,

Kant,

says

and

thoughts,

our

attempted

itself ; for

of

I has

thinking
play

the

Idea

soul

of the universe

Idea

; the

as

reason

explained and

be

of the

Idea

mological antinomies, and, lastly,the

human

these, can

The

entirelyremoved.

reason.

pure

inseparable from

as

and

of

pos-

of

first edition

the

of

OF

CRITIQUE

Ika:
Or.

R.

P.

of

is

only,

Empirical psychology,

"

significantof

to be
"

themselves.

only

but

"I

well

very

can

to itself

its own

by

the

that

suppose

ideas

have
and

senses

our

to the

In

is

above

passage

The

brief

dogmatic

obviously

with

also

monads

of the

of the

theory

objects,or
is

to

in

Kant,

does

to

of

is

natural

consequence

the

Reason^

transcendental

Kant,

to
and

not

391, line 9 from

in

true,
which

that

Kant

above
in

the

are,

Kant's
in

object

is

and

works),

on

following, and

first edition

emphasizes

our

of

and

the

others
in both

the

one

the

as

in the

have

hand,

Proleg.," 57
Critique those

ignorance

concerning

example,

with

tbe

"

jectivism
sub-

uncertainty
trine,
doc-

and

phenomena,

first edition

'On

It

Kantian

235

page

Or.

the

of

asserted) in the second

editions

only

transcendental

the

of

cause

refuted.

be

this

but

inseparable from

is observable

exist

geneous,
homo-

dental
transcen-

for

as,

Kant

by

all

system

of the

respecting

uncertain

represented

cause)

which

ventured

measure,

contradiction

(as Schopenhauer
"

here

possibly

1756

hypotheses,

utterances

of the

be

cannot

conjecture

that

question

most

is identical

year

whatever

as

in

are

theories, such

object, cannot,

the

monads

the

of

to

Leibnitzian

of

idea.

transcendental

the

physical

in

anew

principle

it is

that

but

did

development

himself

with
the

those

as

still other

that

and

the

true

in

example,

critical

the

hypothesis

Ego,

nature

precise knowledge

no

subject

the

like

it

of the

phenomena

Monadologia Physica

follow

identify

It

Cf., for example, the passages

Rosenkranz's edition of Kant's

be

have

we

as, for

of the

of external

of

Reason^ Kant

to the

space

merely

not

development

to confine

meaning

rather, ]ust

or

no

but

thought of

therefore

his

it further

identity

Fichte.

yet, according

oj

only

just

"

things-in-themselves^

in that

P.

sense

the

and

suggested

edition, but

hypotheses,

that

substratum

and

assumes

unjust

very

of

(which

it is

essence,

Kant

substratum,
be

add

may

transcendental

internal

because, according

would

We

detailed

more

prefersto give
as

rather

edition,but

second

the

now

mutually homogeneous,

are

which

the

Kant

that

theories,even

the

thinking

substratum

in

changed

thinking Ego,'or that

the

itself

that

not

first

Mona-

Spinozism, which

real

as

monads

"

in his

Critiqueof Pure

of the

refraining from

not

of them.

suggestion

in the

extension,

but

seq).
of the

representation

Kant

with

contact

signs

beings which

contain

of conscious

developed by

points of

edition

suggested

strictlyapplied, in

indemonstrable

second

ma-

the

single

not

"

time

same

view

and

repre-

is called

doctrine

the

upon

beings capable
the

thought

the

cited,though

thought, therefore, is

more

is

In

at the

it contains

sense

possibilitythus

the

deny

from

butes
attri-

sense

consciously

aspect

of monads

complexes

contain

may

substance

attributes.

phenomenal
the

another

only

one

that

rical
empi-

our

but

borders

possible one,

things, and

It is still less removed

dologiaPhysica."

not

extended

as

as

also

as

whose
thoughts,
{ih.,p. 359, Ros., II., 288

phenomena"

Id

teaches

(representations),and

thought.

ascribes

which

monadology,
to

appear

"

p.

be

one

resented
rep-

things

379, Ros., II., p,

aspect be also thinking being, not

in another

[whosethoughts we can perceive

named
ibis
latter supposition, here
eibnitzian

derive

external

can

in

these

thinking being,

we

our

which

which

that

thus

sense

(jnted
ifialwould

to which

subject of thoughts

internal

of

nor

which

Reason, 1st ed,,

substance

diversity of

phenomena,

matter

nomena
pheism
dual-

mentally

are

"

to

neither

the

nature

external

from

phenomena,

[Or. of the Pure

kind"

itself the

is in

extension,

of the

hold

the

underlies

in itself neither

intuition,is

favors

unknown

diversity in

which

reference

has

all of which

remains

nature

object

ground

of either

conceptions
303).

mtemal

(to us) unknown

intrinsic

it

psychology

materialism,

corresponding

transcendental

The

underlies

which

that

whose

objects

in which

manner

Kant, since

says

transcendental

; but

(spiritualism)nor

pneumatism

nor

dualistic

properly

175

REASON.

PrEE

only.

(Vol. II.,of

and, on the other, those on

{ih.,III., p. 124). Though
passages

the

nature

are

of

more

p.
it

frequent

transcendental

lib

KANTS

objects, while

later, in
that

and

the

Idealism
the

of

of

objects
these
that

viz.

they

said to be

are

sense,

editions

of

the

do

and

for

originate,and

'

or

'

necessarily connnected

the

But

be

Kant's

unity of

the

of

of

the

essen-

only

the

that

says
as

x,

in

external
as

Kant

external

and

which,

from

empirical

essence

tulating
pos-

world

remained

considered

the

the

the

decidedly false interpretation

with

"

affections

distinction

when

object of

"

of

transcendental
Jioic,

not

only

it would

manifold

doctrine

of

apprehensio
mis-

doctrine

necessity

ed., p, 105, Kant

it is

of

his

basis

know

we

first

109

p.

the

on

yet Kant's

things-in-themselves

"

with

"

on

us.

the

which

with

as

view

between

transcendental

identify the transcendental

to

noumena

is laid

stress
the

striving,in

difference

i/tat^
though
In

is

the

numerous,

exist.

Critiqueteaches,

the

in which

assume

nothing

dogmatically

internal

clear

more

more

must

we

he

edition,when

passages,

somewhat

REASON.

PUHE

things-in-themselves

that

OF

render

nothing for us^

are

of Kant

is

of

things-in-themselves

or

objects

senses

seeond

Berkeley,

became

same,

the

arisen, to

existence

phenomena,

tjallythe

had

CRITIQUE

the

or

in

both

internal

the

priori

multiplicity of phenomena."

the

Idea

Cosmological

The

is the

which
contradictory propositions,
of the

reality of

"reality."
in addition

the

four

The
to the

antinomies

Antinomien, Mannheim,

and

The

Third

The

of the

with

as

absolutely
The

limit assumed

or

In

the

In

is

a
:

term,

false.
which

We
are

to the

by
De

is

All

there

the

(Cf,

categories.

Richter, Die

Jos,

Thesis

Antinomy.
The

Thesis

world.

The

world

is without

world

Every composite

exists

There

T'hesis

nothing simple.
in

Freedom,

absolute, uncaused

be

may

the

scendental
tran-

beginnings
in the

exception,take place

without

things,

of

Thesis:

modality.

absolutely

an

is

necessary

by
the

to

in the

and

time,"
"

to

and

and,

in

der

to Michelet's
reply in his Keview,
Log., 3d ed., Bonn, 1868, p. 43.

posteriore

distinction

world

There

belongs

"being.

Antithesis

as

an

forma

in the

infinite
while

world

the

to

world
is

Nothing

and

''

"

and

first

part,

for

Der

complexity
the

sake

Critices

of

in

the

antithesis

the

unreal.

or

object,

"

may

hence

giving greater

Rationis

antinomies

conceptions of

in space

and
be

time,"

the

precision

to

the

Purcv., Berl., 1862, and

pp.

are

and

space
"

and

employed

neither

Gedanke,'' Vol. III., Berlin, 1862,

or

noumenon,

or

mathematical
the

things-in-

and

phenomena

between

limitation

Antinomies

affirmed

proving the

transcendental
two

these

progression

in

analogous argument

Kantianoe
^'-

with

connection

intelligibleworld

the

simplicity"

complement,
et

arbitrary

as

his

predicates

work

priore

thesis, the

antithesis

and

in

Kant

impossible,

as

rejected

apply

involved

of

is

antinomies

cannot

each

disputed

thesis

predicates
way

proof of

the

my

term

others, in particular,

and

Antithesis

relation.

causal

reality,or

one

cause)

thesis

in space

This

of

law.

reference

intelligibleworld,

First

space.

counterproofs given by

and

solves

extension

the

simple parts. Antithesis

the

AntitJiesis

as

in the

themselves.

time

in

qualityof

to the

concerns

corresponding antithesis

alike

classes

tion
supposithe

necessary.

proofs

Kant

limits

of

up

Antinomy

all indirect.

are

relates

natural

part

has

is made

effects.

Fourth

(whether

and

Antinomy

in accordance

four

the
of

sense

Gott., 1838;
theoreticis^

18G3.)
subject of

is the

from

consequence,

transcendental

the

pairs of mutually

limits in space.

world

sense

of

series

time

Antinomy

in the

with

dicuntur

quce

world

without

Second

The

the

in

beginning

substance

of

antinomiis

quantify of

beginning

equal
the

critiquesby Herbart, Hegel, Schopenhauer,

Rantischen

in

world,

correspond

Kantii

had

Antinomies, i. d,

four

all with

follow,

phenomenal

Reiche, De

The

of

source

infinite

ence
refer-

with
one

the

nor

arguments
by

way

2.37-843; cf.

my

of

in
joinder
re-

Syst.

kant's

of the
applicability
in form

Thesis

between

the

But

unconditioned

exists

there

exists,as

The

no

sum

exemplar

an

of

proofs

physi

or

The

God's

existence

his

is therefore

other

the

former,
This

God,

if

the

is to

being
would

an

of

the

but, he

in

reasoning

like the

be
world

of

that

demonstrate
the

of

that

to

this

an

viously
pre-

the

assertion

therefore

of the

that

not

be

to

the.

ontological

{en" realissimum

regulate the user

sphere of experience

the

extramundane

and

is the

absolutely perfect

cause

lutely
abso-

inadmissible

is shown

ontological argument

from

already

aid

beyond

causes

is

or, what
drawn

anything exists

the

all

clusion
tautological con-

the principles which

reallyconduct

in

more

been

perfect being

or

did

not

these

of

can

that

being, by
real

most

argument

of

of

of

12

and

the

order

speaks

but

finalitycan,

to

according

justificationof

transferred

it too

by

is of

the world, it would

himself
the

only

to the

no

this

by

lead

than
us

in nature

its scientific
the

tion
concep-

beyond

all the

subjective origin,and
to

things, but it

the

existence

of

is,

is invalid
lead

teleologicalargument

prove

tO'
with

argument

denies

more

which

egoistic or

from

man

wisdom, according

Kant,

conclusions

objects. Did, however,

of

adaptation

conviction,

; for

Kant

and

efficacy in producing

phenomena

author

from

of its author.

of

in

of cause,

great power

concludes

power
its

to transcendental

extramundane

builder

and

employed

conception

applied

fact

chain

refuge

conception

cause,

the

being, which

the

it could

between

invalidityof the latter.

account

on

from

the

other

to

existence

This

and

of

Kant

to the

have

must

"

be

can

pitifultautology.

real

class

being.

affirmed

analytical proposition, while

as

the

or

conclusion

predicate, being

at

in

most

perfect,

more

is not

being
no

prolonging

if the

to take

wisdom

limits of the

an

an

God

Teleological Argument

absolute

validity. The

as

as

only

the

as

real

most

greater,

When
"

contra, denies

per

in

cause,

; and

demonstrated

of

teleological

affirmed, the object is posited with

posited

concludes

identified with

adds,

necessary

being

respect,

as

theoretical

being combining with

much

so

is

being.
thus

the

propositions,a synthetic one,

regard to a nownenon.

justify us

reason

The

The

comparison, says Kant,

and

predicates. Hence,

identical,hence

perfecUssimum). Kant,

the

of

absolutely necessary

an

is then

argument,

the

by

being

not

arrive

Cosmological Argument

existence

of

The

being,

not

When

to its

we

d priori in

demonstrated

or

in individito

even

belongs

"

is,is,like all existential

The

an^

real predicate, by adding which

hence

demonstrated

be

whence

be

and

meaning

existence

increased.

be

object is

object

assumed,

is

being

may

being,

is the

the conception of the

God

that

is absurd.

thing, when

same

phenomenal

of phenomena

conception of G-od

the

conception of

the

predicates, but
of

that

predicates

predicates.

the

of

complex

Theological Ideal.

necessary

"

in

contained

of realities

sum

being possessing
than

the two

phenomenon

ontological,cosmological,and

from

existence

disputes the assumption

real

so-called

concludes

existence, since

predicatesthe

its

the

are

In

-theologicalarguments.

CO

to

other

in ctmcreto

is the

prototype,

lectical
dia-

Unconditioned.

perfections,conceived

or

whole

'

Antithesis

other

some

tigation,
speculative inves-

the sphere of the

of the

the

ground,

transcendental

or

and
realities,

transcendental

Ontological Argument

being
here

their

of all realities

outside

but

cause,

'

of the intelJigible
world, the

free. Within

non-

tion
contradic-

one,

absolutely ultimate.

as

the

; the

apparent

an

depends necessarily upon

thiugs-in-themselves are

but

there

as

inferred

be

realityonly

regarded

be

from

that world, and

to

cannot

principle of
regulative

is true

Every phenomeifon

phenomenal.
phenomena,

or

limit

no

the Thesis

Antinomies

dynamic

or

admit,

must

we

that

requirement

is in

Antithesis

and

177

reason.

be applied
can
applicabilityof the other

the

one

opposition."

the

pure

of the contradictory predicates

ler

last

of

critique

to

world-

degree of adaptation manifest

in-

178
the

world,

but

that

not

of

to

supplement

would

be

unjustifiable.

The

the

of the

Ideal

the

to lead

ideas

We

experience.

serve

as

In

form

the

'

"

of

to the

nothing

of

material

doctrines

the

of

in

Reason

in its Polemical
"

577)

the

It is

part

the

Kant's

"

of the

which

on

Reason, and

Bendavid,
Prufung

If it is the

'"

(^ priori

system

which

affects

so

brought
Nat.

by

case

Kant

Science

becomes

the

(when

sensitive

this

But

timeless

and

doctrine

of affection

more

and

into

more

of

consciousness

beings.,and
reading

the

another
with

which

on

the

Metaphysical

which

conditioned,
and

human

ideas.

take
and

of

which

of

and

within

constitute

to

theory

the

real

between

and)

which

consequence

consciousness,
of

underlie

it is necessary

the

all

in

one

existence

which
of

exist

itself

to

built

up

independently

beings capable

forget,

of

and

In

yet

to do

ply
sim-

that

fact

by
of

of

organized

of

have

it

upon

theory

priori

are

as

us

Reason.

the

we

or

etc.),then

of

to

the

feeling

phenomena.

natural

regard

therefore

tency
consis-

in

appear

existence

System

of Kanfs
and

the

to

of

ears,

fl

an

objects (which

possibly antecedently

logical

conditions

of

our

philosophy

natural

In

sense

are

Principles

affection

the

CrUique

the

which

us

affection

really depends,
of

medium

uncertain

Science''''

human

the

affects

which

in

Ifet.

the

the

and

thhig-in-itself

affected."

awakens

principles
in

passes

an

depends,

Natural

according

in

subsisted

sensations

place only
cannot

received,

hovers

consciousness)

beings,

that

this

which

and
in his

appearance

the

of

process

of sensations

the

to

be

holds

Kant

occupy

arise

: when

the
The

phenomenal,

timeless

In

can

mean

the

what

the

between

senses

chord

that

ideas.

our

phenomena,

thought.

only

blow

the

production

the

be

can

and

Principles

to remember,

processes

motion

existence

'"'"

ever

psychically
eensations

in

perceiring

of

alone, according

which

the

of
the

sensations

that

perceive

but

see

we

vibration

the
which

relation, on

affection,

e. g., vA'hen

touch

or

back-ground,

only
(exi-sting

an

being

and

to
fi-om

impossible

beyimd

spaceless

and

can

(Cf

and, per

reference

by
is

collection

noumenal,

senses

this

natnre

goes

external

the

Reason

Naturw.,

lie behind

of intuition

that

motion

suffer

ourselves,

under

through

the

simply

sight

limitation,

the

phenomena

of

forms

Pure

the

Critique

in the

Analytic.*

phenomena

Kant

it is the

timeless)

and

of

systematic

which

and

Reaaon

(1 priori

the

forces,

Pure

spaceless

only through

not

or

of

sense

the

contiiin

yet to

necessarily fall."

philosophy

these

nevertheless,

phenomenal
the

such

II. p.
,

and

Undurchdringllchkeit,der

der

phenomena,

only

can

the

Critique of

we

of

775, Ros.

and

der

of

of the

"Discipline

^Esthetic

then

consequences

contained

doctrine

phenomena

the

them,

foi-oes,these

to

likewise

It is

beings

the

spaceless

the

motion.

"

of the

teachings

perceive through

to the

to

affirmation

an

must

authority

to

thought

enlightenment,

reason

of its

explain

When,

Critique of

with

harmony

says

phenomenal

of other

must

into

"I"

him

between

to the

(in themselves

our

the

with

in

position

thing-in-itself. According

the

the

by

middle

untenable

an

is reduced

the

Begriffe von

to

cite

the

to

metnpJi. Anfangsgr.

knowledge

philosophy.

relating

of human

to

may

contributes

but

reason,

relation

from

Reason

observations

suffice

Transcendental

die

Science'''

Natural

of

here

weight

the

of natural

principles

especially, matter

when,

to the

us

religious faith.

1st ed. p. 747 ; 2d ed. p.

closelyrelated

physical philosophy

restricts

Princi23les

MHaphysical

of

of

of the

of

of nature

and

relating

R.

object or thing-in-itselfunderlies
which

stand-point

'Critical

to be

business

transcendental

as

It may

Kantischen

der

to abstain

simply deducing methodological

the

especiallyto

contra^ Schwab,
*

side
is

of the

field

the

Ideal

the

imder-

the

of

the

of

critique

doctrine

expect from

to

ol)jectslying
of

arrangement

valuable

of Method"

Vo7'lesungenilber

Lazarus

which

with

extremely preposterous

the

of moral

many

the

( Cr, of the Pure

Physical Philosophy

Pure

of the

makes

certain

philosophy

of

The

systematic unity.

comprehension

practical reason

on

"Doctrine

Use

to it beforehand

dictate

the

previously established.

Kant's

for

of natural

maxim

Kant

development

its

explanations

dependent

objective reality,contenting himself

from

in

highest object

"

Method

science

as

of

the

conceptions of

regukitim principle,serves

they simply require

known;

correct

transcendental

seek

to

here,

ontological argument

principles thr'ough which

all transcendent

thought

all

it, as

as

completeness

employment

Doctrine

metaphysics

and

for

far

the

to

like

God,
so

be

may

required by
from

in the

But

generally.

in

constitutive

unity

are

theological and

of

Idea

And

of the world.

creator

recourse

empirical cognition

experience

systematic

standing
all

in all

not

are

of

reach

the

the

or

validityonly

understanding

transcendental

beyond

Reason,

all-wise

by having

argument

theoretical

has

reason,

and

almighty

an

the

again,

possessing

kant's

der

Zurilckstossung

Ursache

die mecJmnische

uber

Sage

le

des

der

und

Amiehung

peinciples

metaphysical

Dresden, 1828

metaph. Anfangsgr.
also G. Reuschle,^-mi

see

nattjeal

179

science.

Korper, nebst dner Barstellung der Jlypothese

der aUgemeinen Oravitatian^1807, and
Fr.
die

und
and

Vierteljahrsschrift^
April-June, 1868, p. 50,

in

Natitrw.

der

Busse, Kants

Gottlieb

of

iJiren

Orunden

Naturidssemchaft,
Kant's

especially on

widerlegt^

in the

Deutsche

dynamic

theory of

.natter,ibid.^pp. 57-02.)
The

})arts.

; the

second

treats

relation

in which

mode

is called

this

wth

quality

motion

and

the

fourth

we

mentally represent them,

; while

defines

to the

belonging

in

principal

of

by Kant

matter,

under

third,Mechanics,
motion

own

in

simply

modality, and

to

or

; the

their

matter

four

is called

quality

Dynamics

placed by

as

rest

into

and

quantity,

pure

as

force,and

originallymoving

an

as

motion

considers

of the parts of matter

treats

of motion

"

Science

Principles of Natural

Metaph.

them

of

name

'

'

first of

Phoronomics
the

the

dirides

Kant

in mutual

relation

is termed

the

to

Kant

by

Phenomenology.
In

Kant

Phoronomics

the

defines

particular the proposition that

of the

mobile

same

the mobile

as

in

fills a certain
force

moving
it

approach of
of matter

force

can

through
of

other

from

forces

is of

force

matter

he

of

definite

degree,

' '

be

the

ter
Mat-

special

defining

"

of

cause

the

portion

one

precisely the

more

"

repulsion,saying :
its

matter

of

whereby

defines

all

to

defines

of attraction

can

in

motion

proposition

in virtue

force

the

force

belonging

which
itself,

to

the

it, and

the

being

as

the

deduces

another

he

Dynamics

existence,but

portion of

to recede

repulsive

peculiar

the

repulsion, or

of

and

space,

except by

lays down

to matter

one

force

fills space

of

in virtue

extension

which

portions

matter

In

and

space,

in

movable

neutralized

fact of its

attributes

the

and

"

be

direction.

given
mere

He

through

to it

which

by

the

as

can

opposite

the

to it."

force

cause

fills its spaces

force

not

space,

others

in the

it fills any

as

belonging

moving

that

as

object
far

so

matter

motion

no

parts,

i. e.,

below

or

Matter

through

above

which

in the sense
be conceived
in infinitum.''''
of
or
greater degrees can
Elasticity,
is infinitely
Matter
divisible
expansive force, belongs therefore originallyto all matter.
smaller

into

parts, each

^^^ac

IHfepu

ulsion

motive

the

Kant
deduces

the

communication

opposite motion

unmoved),

is

motion,
distinction
real
a

it

it is

moves

with

and

so

conceivable

of the
;

same

as

to the

the

space,

to

that
in

in the

another

case

motion, i.
motion

of

the

latter

of

out

matter
nal
exter-

the

Kant

experience,
matter

conceivable

remaining

case

of all relation

conceived

as

to

lute
abso-

portion of matter,
of

body,

equal opposite

part

of

cases

of

from

in which

motion

an

portion of

e., when

of any

motion

an

the

of

Phenomenology

of

space

of

has
all

object

conceived

opposite

body,

an

in

matter

apparent
every

the

be

distinguished

when

circular

opposite motion
the

as

in matter

In

force
the

quantity of

whole

motion

rectilinear

In

of mechanics

laws

inertia); In

can

of

such, possesses

it,as

as

change
of

equal.

are

portion of

the

the

law

or

far

so

nature

this, as such,

portion

(2) that

(but that

(3) that

reference

in

; the

distances.

the

force

The

distances

fundamental

; All

motion,

reaction

far

itself (the

external

of

of matter.

the

of

mobile

undiminished
and

rest

possible predicate (but

impossible)

the

semblance)

in

space

matter

from

the

empirical portion of

the

simply

predicate

mere

mobile

an

of

portion of

some

and

of

of

divisibilityof

infinite

the

portion

cubes

squares

realm

propositions, (1) that

to

the

the

as

as

material

action

motion,
the

develops the
reference

matter

the

persistence

as

of

ratio

to every

thence, in particular, the

unaugmented

of
of

matter

defines

from

; this follows

belonging

inverse

changes of

same,

(law

cause

force

contrary, inversely

Mechanics

remains

with

the

force,and
all the

and

in

the

Amidst

defines

is itself matter

repulsive

decreases

^^ttrg
ttraction,on
entitled

which

of

from

e, and

it moves,
relative

in virtue

motion

of

the

is

space

in
a

is

of which
latter

is

180
The

necessary.

first of these

phenomenological
Phoronomics, the second with

with

reference

to

with

reference

to Mechanics.

The

transition

which

of.EtMcs^
the
"

motive

Nature''^

doctrines

of

(a work

to

the

modality of motion
Dynamics, and the third

The

manuscript
Reicke.

by

in his

Kant

by

Science

co-ordinated

legal right

is divided

and

edited

Kant,

the distinction and

cal and

the

matter,
be

determines

reference

MetapJiysical
Principlesof Natural

World."

soon

As

123.

"

of

of the

perhaps

the

Metaphysics of

includes

forces

System

it will

from
'''

for in the

laws

of

and

into

an

"

to

physicsis provided
MetaphyHicH

the

treats of
morality),which
Elementary System" and

left unfinished,

was

with

(Some

fragments

of

Critiqueof the

oppositionwhich

Pure

Reason^ sets out from

he finds existing
between
empiric
between
suous
senanalogousopposition

jprioriknowledge, so the
forms
the foundation
of his
propensityand the law of reason
All the ends to which
desire may
Critiqueof the Practical Reason.
be directed are viewed
and accordinglya'y
by Kant as being empirical,
and egoisticmotives
for the will,which
all
are
furnishingsensuous
reducible
to the principleof personalhappiness; but this principle^,
sciousness,
testimonyof our moral consays Kant, is,accordingto the immediate
of
As
the
motive
principle morality.
directlyopposed to
material
for the moral
will Kant
motives^
retains,after excluding all
in the law which
the
determines
only the form of possibleuniversality
will.
The
ment
principleof moralityis contained,for him, in the requiretime
be
of thy will can
at the same
:" Act so that the maxim
mental
fundaaccepted as the principleof a universal legislation."This
of a command,
bears
the form
law of the practicalreason
is not
because
a
man
purely rationaF being, but is also a sensuous
It is
in constant
active opposition
to reason.
are
being,and the senses
of prudence,
not, however, a conditional command, like the maxims
which are only of hypothetical
being valid only when certain
authority,
tional
unconditional
and the only uncondiends are
to be attained,but it is an
of this
command, the CategoricalImperative. Consciousness
fundamental
law is a fact of the reason, but not an empiricalone
; it
"

"

is the

only fact

character

of

an

of the pure

reason,

which

original
law-giver.This

thus

command

manifests

itself in

flows from

the

the autonomy

flow from
principles
the heteronomy of arbitrary,
conformity
unregulatedchoi(;e. Outward
but rightaction,prompted by regard for the moral
to law is legality,
moral
mination.
self-deterlaw, is morality. Our moral dignitydepends on our
Man, in his character as a rational being or a "thing-inbeing or a phenomenon. In
itself,"
giveslaw to himself as a sensuous
of

the

will,while

all

material,eudsemonistic

IS2

kant's
Kant

defines

the word

principle,on
him

and

maxim

the

practicallaw

the

ethics

practical

Jieason, " 1).

He

both

as

the

practical principles which

the

Fract.

of

' '

consciousness

without
interruption his
agreeableness the highest motive

of this

which

character

that, if

it follows
he

laws,

of their

view
direct

law,

the

wiUs

the

term
the

Moral

wish

they

that
will

thy

in thine

own

is

an

perfect duty

into

then

the

an

the practical law

the

It is easy

standard

determined

"

on

to

what

of

to

imperfect duty."
"

of the

(one's

own

will

Kant

terms

as

source

of

himself

under

law,

it would

of all men's)

"

but

on

any

ifi

universal

in

ends

to be
is

happiness,

formity
con-

of

founding

all

law,

converted

be

self-determination
Will

lutely
abso-

action

such

be

valid

be

maxim

the

by
well

as

confines

universal

an

canst

merely

the

likewise

from

whatever, i. e.,

even

or

he

Whenever

of the

never

as

can

it should

or

were

humanity,

Reason

through

thou

action

thy

beings

reap

Autonomy
"

that

we

reason,

of the Metaphys.

use

abstinence

Pure

which

law,

end, and

dignity of

wish

hoped

we

matter

any

end

see

that

by limiting
of the

an

the

free.

are

of which

to

our

sought,
the

simply

of Arbitrary Choice."*

Heteronomy
*

legislation.

{ib.

maxim,

that

practical

of

of thy will

to

cannot

hence

pure

as

Fractical

the

maxim

to

must, therefore, be

universal

as

if raised

at least

our

of

conscious

are

maxims

ever

free

form

wills

of all rational

will

the

we

so

fitted

(universal)

therefore

mere

maxim

universal

which
"

is

others,

contradiction, then

we

advantage

; 2. Act

of

form

in

only

but

matter,

Groundwork

to

universal

the

man

the

sary
neces-

of desire, i. ^.,

practical

and

of the

if the

as

or,

of the

Categorical Imperative,

to the

Eudsemonisni

in

according

all

that

so

inner

whenever

injury, abstinence

especially on

of

fall would,

destroy itself by
because

Kant

Critique of

the
Act

gives

ciple
prin-

ter,
empirical charac-

mere

law, and

law

of nature

Idea

principle of

would

"

of

fundamental

laws,

law

Now

validity;

form

1. Act

the

by

{ih.," 6).

law

mere

person

In

(" 7)

the

as

action

determined

be

the
that

legislation,are

moral

by

"

an

their

phenomena,

of absolute

This

to the

legislation.

at all times
which

only

universal

as

according

formula

one

sensible

him

by

as

by

not

happiness

agreeableness

empirical

bears

long
be-

principle which

matter

maxims

of universal

expressed by

in the

as

person

universal
the

can

is

universal

the

; 3. Act

means

of

formula:

serve

may

his

is determined

law

is

"'

all the

motive,

independently practical,and

threefold

to become

as

purposes
which

by the

Categorical Imperative,
a

serves

The

is termed

all that

to

since

is to conceive

universal

which

(ih.,% 7).

Law

va.

an

as

law

itself and

by

of Morals

to

serve

to

being determined

of

is

reason

to

fealty

owe

capable

will

free will

denies

By

All

and

kind,

of the

being

existence."

of choice

principles,which,

to the

of the natural

rational

entire

law, and

as

form, as adapted
(*J.," 4). The

its fitness

by

or

now

being

them

" 5),as also, conversely, a

Kant

will,which

will

independent

is

the

rational

conceive

only

can

Since

requisite for

is

object of

concrete

every

" 3).
(2'5.,

self-love

of

*'

part of

life,accompanying

makes

''

the

on

tion,
excep-

Reason.," 2),

and
the
practical principles are, as such, wholly of one
same
under
the
self-love
of
or
general principle
personal happiness.

understands

ing
will,involv-

without

are,

material

Kant

by

pi-actical

object (matter)

ajci

will

the

{Or. of

the

of the

presuppose

of

ground

practical laws

no

jective
ob-

Crit. of the Fract.

1, Note;

Sect.

of

conception

determination

universal

of,etc.,

the determining

furnish

can

subjectiveprincipleof willing; the

in the
is termed
reason
itself,

together under

contains

All

argues

philosophy

founded

is

{Groundwork

rules

of the faculty of desire

empirical, and

which

he includes

i. "., a principle which

jyrinciple,
several

denoting

as

contrary,

religious

purer

in

Kant,
it to the

moral

this

consciousness,

duty requires,

then

this

finds

should

first

against "Eudaemonisra,"

argument

gratification of

it,naturally,
be

done

egoistic aims,

and

sensuous

for

insufficient

the

very

and

reasons

and

degrades

untenable.
which

the

Supposing

constitute

of

conception

then, measuring

it

it

by
it

matter

the

once

of

kant's

CategoricalImperative

The

principlefor

of the

knowledge
and

duty,

and

purify

he

the

duty

and

"Gentle

of

Human

"the

above

in

Tone

Ros.

History,"

in them

to find

the

gratification,to
quiet

external

Eud^monism,
and

founds

that

the

ethics

noblest

the

moral

as

freedom

self-seeking, are

of worth
of the

knowledge
th
^^jyith

his

her

into

brought

s.sible ; 2.
in
of

he, incidentally,

of

morality

of

moral

the

on

the

order

of the

our

willing

be

proposed

and

and

Logic, ad

in

that

that

the

on

natural

and

with

to the
is

Fichte's

"" 57

and

of the

relation

of

intellectual

will.

just

it is not

like

order

The

relation

that

of

known.

viewed

it is true

that

true

by

that

which

order,

perception

worth,

in

of the

Cf.

[Cf. Lotze

my

moral
in

article

Philos.

Ueber

knowledge
"

to

in

dan

the

and
in the
to the
to

to

us

norms

various

to
of

ethics
and

flow

from

of worth

Aristotelifiche,Kantische

Ki'iiik,Vol.

24, 1854, p.

laid

of

depends,
The

praxis.

in

causal

which
and
the

HerbarVfsche
and

and

relation

the

in natural

71 seq.,

alone,

reason

; it

spiritual ends

objective necessity present

\
pends
de-

of knowledge

the

spatial, temporal,

natural

and

itself

by

and

the

recognition

the

order

knowledge

our

the

prehended
misap-

immoral

or

in

of

original

an

complex

itself without

objectiveorder
the

in

by

that

is

as

viewed
of

the

form

regarded

n^oral law,

praxis originates
in

matter,"

action

moral

either

experience

and

into
objectivelj',

philos.

Mjkeokosmus.I

application

thought

order,

of

is founded

will, which

the

exists

exists

is

order

from

to themselves

depends,

duty,

the

logical

wrongly

Kant

single simple experience,

to

knowledge

und

of

1. The

furnished

the

ends

as

order

alone,

sense

latter

and

which

no

the

on

order
the

itself

by

fidelity,from

judgment concerning

apodicticity

Zeitschrift fur
137.

end.

but

military

denial

is made

apart

material

individualization

the

of

point

apodictical

of

light

with

beings

well

as

gradation

the

formless

rational

of

and

in

misfortune:

manner,

of worth,

the

to

Kant's
of

the

says,
not

love

origin

of

in

possible universality.

of

objects of knowledge,
of

itself

possibility of juridicaland

single simple

no

in

he

from

intimately connected

idea

the

understood

in respect

work

ethical

form

apodicticity depends

all

But

to the

praxis

character

the

it is first introduced

the

to the

and

of

even

things

empirical.
of the

fact

is noblest

that

between

of

eudsemo-

them

and

ignoble,

the

incomprehensible
the

ends,

; all

twofold

the

of

they lack,

is most

lleuaon

of

activity,

to

the

nature,

non-

welfare

sensuous

classification

ends

as

from

exclusion

mere

denial

Hence

not

some

to

his

the

his

lower,

aspect,
in

of

empty

the

will

reception

from

spiritual processes

princip,

but

flow

and

functions

of the

formal

and

Pure

to the

order

sporadic well-doing,

principles.

on

logic

the

universally binding, just as

contrary,
of

that

true

the

But

norm.
to

its

generated

reference

which

on

in

form

ethics

only by

moral

not

conformity

Subject alone,

norms

is

It

apodicticity,

resting

on

it is

antagonism

also

distinction

with

knowledge.

it is communicated

his

sacrificed

demands

order

involves

the

in

real

and

morality.

that

only
a

as

which

Ego, by

logical abstraction,

of

is conceived

; and

finds

by him,

irreconcilable

and

the

Critique of

r) pnori

of

argument

well

as

The

exactly

most

his

happiness

empirical

the

between

in

follows

to

essay

conception

pleasure

also

an

maintenance

of

empirical

noble

the

the

his
justifies

sensuous

public

and

relation

overlooks

hence

as

Peace,"

intellect to

profound

more

sacred,

phenomena,

personal

reality

in the

denial

conception

to

: as

sensible

of

corresjwnds

ends

latter

of the

confounds

Kant

distinction

the

represented

the

possible universality

form

which

higher

the

time, by

experience.

form

from

in

But

and

Kant

internal) experience.

and

free

and

character

of

world

the

Kant

through

man,

caprice,he occupies

of

of which

means

egoistic desire,

lawless

interests

held

being

ends
of

enjoyment (cf. the

personal

essential

the

particular,

of their

principle

the

on

in real

abrupt

itself,but

recognizes

to

"Conjectural Beginning

of

and

done

dence
indepen-

"Lasting

of

true

supposed

has

moral

rights

ideas

the

upon

guishable
quite distin-

he

of

on

idle

stand-point,

one-sided

empirical

to the

(external

law

interpretation

immanent

category

moral

experience,

in

is

only

of

matters

of the

new

of their

the

is

collateral
the

the

on

reality of

these

only
what

Kant

above

essay

denunciation

highest

bear

by

of

objects

they belong

specificallydifferent

is

origin

conception

conception
;

in his

and

In
and

laws,

altogether non-empiracal.

be

must

functions.

the

they depend

not

or

among

is the

from

do

of

term

ends

necessity

of

interpreted
polemics

of universal

middle

principle,

of

highest

The

noblest

very

labor

interpreted

so

of

essay

the

of

of

theoretical

the

pursuit

for

respect

(cf. the

and

for

pursuit

of

intellectual

I., 622,

notably by Aristotle, who

society

intellectual

characteristic
realm

for

as

his

gradation

the

on

principle.

nistic

But

e.stablished

as

necessity

the

welfare

order.

who

those

sacrificing the

for

and

Schub,

and

to

opposed

as

public

and

Ros.

"

; it is

the

to

the

ceases

good"

Schub., VII., 376 seq.), and

and

ground

material

290), of

p.

incite

the

proposition

true
ends

on

as

law

supra-sensible

of

assurance

Reason

finds

to

considerable

exaltation

his

doing

of

feeling

is very

first

one

In

he

added

; this

based

not

and, especially, to

morality.

is

its

side-ends

are

law

possibilityof

in

merit

at which

stage

sweet

Philosophy"

perfectly justifiable
ground,
as

the

duty

Kanfs

consciousness,

of essential

that

of

the Practical

moral

nothing

"

eud8emonii3tic

"

heteronomy.

identifying

Kant,

is confirmed

requirements

the

moral

ed., VII., 1,

Schub.'s

Ros.
on

real

with

law,

unconditional

to

direct

in

errs

for the

that

to

reason

supposable

any

one,

lead

can

quicken

; but

respect

of

false

the

which

aideewAs

reason,

account

noton
from

the

but

in the

implying the

law

a
causality through freedom, and hence
nature.
Herewith, however, according

Critiqueof

since

freedom,

183

philosophy.

in the

Kant

serves

of human

deduction

the

religious

and

ethics

of
can

ual
spiritnatural
Moral-

System

of

Kant's

184

the

and

ethics

religious

philosophy.

assumed
by it as possible (in the
conception of freedom, which was
whose
objective,although only practical reality,is here

cosmolc

Antinomies), and
The

conception of
which

conception

the

; while

him

so

in

he

as

moral

Kant

up.
e.

law

to the

ascribes

priority of

a
,

its

speculative

Schub.'s
As

Personality, and

has

man

But

noumena.

resulting from

as

Duty.

favoritism

of

calculated

his

this

excite

to

which
law

"a

"

Two

of the
and

er

longer

indeed, unholy
holy.

With

before

our

idea

the

the

eyes

to

destination, and
moral

The
Postulates

the

to

give

the

so

our

not

of

will

things
faculty of

the

; in

use

The

of

tically
prac-

justifiedin

not
seek

which

combine

to

the

lie above
them

ever

as

and

are

them

of his

as

law, but

the

but

speculative reason

mingling

of moral

fact

the

to

which

savors

which

of

mind

in

like

against

spirit he
and

admiration
and

above

of

feeling

to

respect,

since

destination, and
as

viewed

law

Man

is,

him

be

it sets

enables

in the

the

moral

the

must

person,

says:

awe,

holy (inviolable),
his

man,

his obedience

always

In

is

by fear, but

move

the

into

if not

is

in its

conduct

our

person,

personality,

own

though they secretly work

law

seen

peculiar,

every

at

us

light of that

(^5. VIII., 215).

,

freedom

dogmas,

conceptions,

designed

represented

as

to

nothing

entrance

increasing

moral

self-conceit

our

follows

covers

starry heavens

the

nature

our

there

ed., VIII., 214).

The

since

nature,

themselves,

to

threatening nothing

or

even

and

ends

words,

his reverence,

new

of

mechanism

being subject

that

mind,

dumb,

grow

deficiency of

down

theoretical

uncertain

pure

recovers

is

reason,

other

universal

Schub.'s

and

the

strikes

of

cability,
appli-

the

speculative reason,

it must

which

personality is connected

observe

the

the

universal

submission,

wins

humanity,

but

to the

great name,

in

man

with

dignity

of

of

it),regarding
{Crit. of the Pract. Reason^ Ros.

of

itself finds

of

reflect upon

of

tive
objecsphere of

contradict

not

is

postulate

necessary

speculative knowledge, but, through

ideas

in the

do

world,
intelligible
and

demands

but

Ros.

principle is

are

nothing

reason

we

The
the

theoreticallygiven

reason

that

but

had

over

practical

reason

aversion

mind

enough,

time

same

to

the

realm

own

sublime

which

R,

the

it.

he

primacy

alone,

is the

his

all inclinations

Pract.

nature, belongs to

Reason

world, is subject to the conditions

natural

fill the

of

determining ground

speculative

subject

not

{ib..Conclusion, VIII., 312).

within"

the

as

law

which

things

often

against

even

before

it {Crit.

sensible

duty

the
the

of

freedom

insinuation,

or

merely presenting
and

that

to the

citizenshipin

extols

Kant

retical
theo-

no

Causality, in

(nouthing-in-itself

the Practical

the

; but

is of

causality in

(Speculative) Reason

to

one

belongs

since

to the

belonging

things

(phenomena).
of

tainty.
cer-

seq.*)

purely practical laws, given by

while

to the

(although they

being, and

independent

is

mechanism

conception

Critiqueof

theorems

reason

p. 258

ed., VIII.,

an

in the

affirms

the

he

as

categories the like practical reality and

possession transferred

extraneous

an

the

separate interest

own

conceptions

own

of the

sphere

; and

the

of appearances

practical reason

pure

interest

following obstinately its

with

Kant

far

so

in

necessarily related

that

so

in

man

to all other

are

Critique of the Pure

in the

what

or

also

they

as

to

realm

the

of

noumedon

made

practical intent, the

intelligibleorder

causality as

own

implied

sense

with

only

of its sujjra-sensibleexistence.

practicallyto

belongs

far

so

the

subject of

supra-sensible,gives

will, the

i.

reason

is

reality,which
in

in the

of its

forms

causality, in

far

employed

being found

wiU

implied by freedom, belongs

sense

menon)

the

here

increasing the knowledge

in

service
the

of the

motive

determining

is

cause

the

in

with

practical reason.

pure

practical assumptions
their

relation

to the

which,

even,

practical certainty

it otherwise

is here

which

add

practical realm,

gSneral objectivereality,and

possibilityof

of theoretical

of the

obvious.

justify the
could

not

185

words, postulates are

; in other

affirm

to

presume

which
propositions,

for

complete

the

to which
the

man

{Tuyeiid),i.

morally required of
of the

human

progressive approximation
progress

that

postulate

of the

the law,
The

The
must

be

with

the

for

connection

exists

his existence

things

through

end
the

man,

will

the

the required harmony

that

from

nature,

agreement

of

is the

in the

and

hence

his

also

happiness with

Stoics

mortality
ima

of

the

his

On

the

of

agreement

of

the

words,

seek

to

to

bonum),

of perfect good

perfectissimum).Hence
of nature

realm
with

able

we

being,
it into

practical work

bound

realization

whole

be

ground

bring

agency

are

bonum

or

the

of

other

dependent

in the

we

ence
exist-

whole

in

to

synthetic

highest good (suprermim

will, shall

and

determining

own

of the

ground

for happiness ;

the

on

essential

necessary

condition

cause

only

morality.

Nevertheless,

is the

least

pleasurable

most

world, is, as

by

which,
of nature

happiness proportioned

teach) sufficient

the

in the

piness.
hap-

to

motives

it the

in

will, depends

cannot

as

morality

world, witli whom

with

; in other

morality

of

causality in harmony

intelligence

the

requirements

analytical,but

an

consummatum,
of

of

what

through

agreement

is not

assuring

nature.

virtue, which

which, by exerting
through

and

postulated

of bonum

not

and

and

moral

existence

toward

of

end

by presenting

supposable

there

in the

being

indispensable

sense

the

the

motives

an

of

relation

the

degree

for

wish

being,

own

is

between

which

postulate

morality,

cause

and

being

of nature,

connection

bonum,

must

of man's

to

spiritto the

the

any

(as the

his

least

postulate

brought

be

Epicureans suppose)

acting, rational

with

harmony

happiness,

{isummum
we

such

reason

rational

of

means

(as the

accordini, to

go

whole

his

of

state

of

from

happiness

right

not

only

can

is at

for

respect
at

follows

and

of morality is not

the

as

the

with

but

prudence,

of his will ; but

of the

selection

perfection

capacity

the

cient
suffi-

attam,

can

conflict between

consequently

and

world,

From

follows

morality

morality

consciousness

for happiness,

and

between

between

The

hand, the

human

moral

estate.

freedom, commands,

desire

possible is

of the

of

impulses

further

as

nature

connection.

not

law,

of

duration

all the

this

pure

of God.

requires holiness,

transgression,or

of

the

infinitiun.

of God

law
of

There

nature

existence

perfectly independent

necessary

it.

moral

in

continue

law

sensible

of

existence

spiritarising from

conformity

complete

to

must

the

non-moral

conflict

; for the

soul

to the

strable
demon-

imperfect,

moral

man's

and

man

But

toward

bent

spiritin its best

this

obedience, -accompanies
is

also

intermixture

the

postulates

and

moral

law.

legally correct

continual

motive, i. "., toward

of

impurity

of

consciousness

the

But

e.,

The

such

as

practicalnecessity of
law.

moral

being, bdonging

other
soul

not

priori,unconditional,

an

two

are

the

the

to

with

human

moral

the

will

the

of

rational

only virtue

best

law.

as

of

fulfilment

perfect conformity

i. e.

from

immortality flows

of

postulate

The

there
of the

immortality

the

namely,

practicalreason,

freedom

to

addition

In

practical law.

theoretical,but

connected

inseparably

are

spirit of perfect

the

effectuate

to

postulate

must

distinct

the

the

exact

existence

of God.

The

assumption
alone

reason

it is

belief,and

The

work

of

gives

is

various

moral

between

of

to

intellectual

and

t^e

to

the

relations in all their

nature

only

moral

needs

it is

of Mere
of

the

side

of

the

to

man

purity, although

freedom, inclination

and

the

belief

Reason

faith

peculiar

for

But

source,

the Limits

in its relations

intelligenceis,in

supreme

hypothesis.

mere

Beligionwithin

and

is its

reason

recognition

the aBsthetic
the

pure

belief

exclusive

existence

concerned,

since

entitled

rational

too

of the

not

so

pure
of the

contains

church.

(In

far

; but

he

duty. )

This

the

retical
theo-

practical reason
pure

reason.

Kant's
this

subject, placing
without

as

tion
exposi-

work

Kant

in the

ground
back-

emphasizes forcibly
exaggerating
work

is in four

the

position
op-

parts,

186
treating(1) of

the

human

or

nature,

evil one,

over

the

and

false

Kant

of

condition

and

this

his

this conception

of the

moral

the

to

last

the

in

resort

radical, because

and

of Man

of immorality

source

culture, as

(1786),in

where,

p. 374

realize

its moral

nature

with

of

he

cites,as

which

in the

generally

In

good,

are

but

up

consists. )

and

good

of the

thus

; in this

in the

teachings

practical faith
attain

to

divine
with

and

example

taken

to

far

pleasing

from

and

idea

of every

weakness

the

this

of

church

men

be

may

moral

just under

of all churches
in

nature

whole
on

internal

our

set

some

that

no

the

humanly

which

own

accords
historical

society can

before
a

the

plete
com-

is,
"

Son

the

as

cited.

he

the

believe,

can

and

temptations

of the

touch-stone

In
and

of

object

and

God

to

with

us

for
The

moral

this

belief (in

ferings
sufideal

be founded

not

being

an

our

example

experience
suflicient

man

An

church

government
visible
The

of

is

well-

ethical

merely

the world,
is the

church

constitution

revelation} ; it is owing
on

to

experience
a

imitation.

invisible

The

of

as

No

reason.

it,since

archetype.
a

in the

Still if external

us

established.
with

its

Scriptures

above

as

to

experience

church.
divine

the

represent

hearts.

furnishes

legislation,is

of all the

is founded

of human

"

example

to divine

archetype

union

of it

demanded

in

sought only

to

adequate

even

of

fully the depths

be

can

union

character,

in

ideal, faithfullyfollowing it

that

ideal is to be
is

experience

inward

God, this

of the

is the

actual

external

of culture

conceived

thus

unworthy

an

made

are

unalterably loyal to
This

latter

ideal

disposition that

moral

Gospel of Christ)

remain

penetrate

society,subject
the

(in

would

such

state

the

to

well-pleasing

is not

himself, that, if subjected

in

the

retaining its likeness.

as

to

confidence

of

he

words,

become

to

hope

may
other

is conscious

which

disclose

us

so

man

in

propensities

general)

Man

(Of. L. Paul,

Christ.

is

are,
human

natural

figurativelyrepresented

be

time

of happiness, happiness

predicates, which

the
to

in

now

of

and
his

the

period
of

forms

injury

consummation

human

space

things

as

do

consequence.

may

"

strivingto
in

in

world

lliHtory

the

man

themselves

(the rational

him

the

between

varied

of

wants

which

immediate

given

God

the

principal condition

God

to

are

of

Son

who

the

conflict between

faculties

the natural

work,

culture, and

the

the

(With

implanted

which,

in

its

Kant's

compared

intervening

exist, but

meet

humanity
as

applies to

blessedness, or,

he

his model

in

on

those

of humanity,

enable

is

church

this

to

perfect art, in

Being,

Kant

well-grounded

not

in

the

since

morally bad,

humanity

laws

discrepancy

consequences,

this

of

advance

p^nciple

of the

to

like

does

in

well-pleasing

complacency
a

Kant

the

independence,

their

is

VII., 1, pp. 3()3-38B,

conflict between
follow

to

not

says

the

Works,

of his

state, the

does

nature

intended

the

sense

animal
civil

and

were

Supreme

is he

of God

so

of

perfection, of which,

will

only

from

and

of

says

reproduced

The

moral

yet continuing

vices

since they

is

nature

in the

with

edition
of the

example

an

that

state

themselves,

alone, they suffer

until

and

on

essay

its inclinations

Kant,

ConjecturalBeginning of

the

of the

together with

and

be

resulting from

as

order

of all maxims.
may

true

religion and

law

freedom,
source

individual

the

(4) of

of

moral

moral

propensity,

corrupts the

Schubert's

to its rude

in

filled

his

and

destiny, and

reference

one

misery.

"

given

physical maturity

being

in

Rosenkranz

seq.

the

unrestraLued

an

it

the

reverse

in

one

good principle

earth

of self-love

This

historico-philosophicalexplanation of immorality
nature

to

good

between

the

the

on

principle,or

motive

law.

the

contest

victory of

good

propensity

to make

maxims,

the

evil is

or

nature

the

of

with

the

of God

kingdom

rule

(Ji)of the

side

by

(2) of

being inclined,although accepting

man

sought

badness

nature

man

of

the

under

his obedience

be

origin must

of

control

foundation

in human

finds

action,

to

of self-love among

that
a

and

evil principle side

an

evil in human

the

of the

religious service

priestcraft.
motives

radical

principlesfor

evil

and

good

of

indwelling
of the

the basis of pure

to

the

religious

ka^nt's
Mock

faith alone.

of

doctrine

The

Principlesof Laic
should

every

man

with

the

Such

all.

for

law

arise

former

of
"

of

and

is

obedience

duties

to

others,

of
is

is

for

duty

others

be

; from

others,

to

slothfulness
falsehood

only,

A
;
the

deceit
ance
further-

The

therance
fur-

the

; but

duty

since

in

and

duty."

of

the

self-murder

prohibiting

not

velopment.
de-

universal

duties

"imperfect

an

inclination, hence

State

rightful

happiness

forbids
from

of

consist

can

may

our

law

abstinence

for others

the freedom

of historical

end

others'

which

Metaphysical

the

The

which

latter
the

to

command

perfection of others

of the

prevails ;

purely religious

freedom

the

of

and

the

the

matter

his

constitute

from

to

positive care

happiness

own

our

our

which

perfection

of

is that

in

Kant

by

ends, the pursuit

own

is obedience

element

of

general law.

other

each
to

ourselves, and

to

Among

perfect duty,"

with

one's

statutory

supremacy

Legal Right is,that

under

under

man

relate

ourselves

to

talents.

our

are

of

conditions

the

States

duties

duty"

"imperfect

an

ends

our

"perfect duty"

use

of

the

sole

developed

is

principle

other

Duties

Moral

The

by

every

relations

jural

the

and

The

limited

of

freedom

Duties

Moral

Morals.

be

where

to the

187

judgment.

of God.

kingdom

and

Legal

and

faith

ecclesiastical

of the

approach

faith is the

is

from

of

faculty

priestcraftsubsist

and

service

gradual transition

the

the

of

critique

they only

fulfil

can

it.*

Critiques of

of the
and
speculativereason
reason
are
system, by the Critiqueof the
practical
of connecting the
serves
as
a
means
Faculty of Judgment^ which
Kant defines
theoretical and practical
parts of philosophyin one whole.
is
the particular
the judging facultyin generalas the facultyby which

"

The

124.

conceived

pure
in
Kant's
followed,

contained

as

the

imder

the universal.

When

the universal

(the

ing
rule,the principle,the law) is given, the judging faculty,subsumunder
the universal,becomes
the particular
but
determinative
;
"

"

is given,for which
it must
find the universal, it is
particular
The reflective judgment needs
"reflective."
a
principlefor its guidance,
in order to rise from
in
the
the particular
universal.
nature
to
The universal
laws of nature
have, according to the Critique of the
Pure
which
Beason, their origin in our
understanding,
prescribes
them to nature
laws of nature
are
empirical,and
; but the particular
accidental
hence, to the view of our understandings,
; and yet, in order
be viewed
to be laws, they must
as
followingwith necessityfrom some
of unity in multiplicity,
principle
although that principlemay be un-

the

when

This
of the

through

the

doctrine

of

latter

the

external

right

from

of

one

order
from
its

the
of

its

but it does

not

that

it

of the

life,as
to

end

is, like

ethical

disclose

us

the

the

order

been

of

an

of

separation

confusion

of

order
work

of

critics,represents

unsociality.

of

truly satisfying comprehension

not

substance

from

elements;,
of the

The

Kant's

which

of

the

moral

perfection
without

of freedom,

conception

humanity.

these

conception
personal

objected, and

to the
his

say

the

toward

progress

It has

Kant,

of

exaggeration

that

prominence

ethical

similar
naive

an

truth

individual.

source

whole
his

the

exclusive

legal

to the

opposed
to

too

of

elements

social

only

gives

relation

relatively justified,as

unmistakably

contains

and

personal co-operation
legal right

Btitutes only

nnderstood

involves

statement

individual,

legal

order

form

in

is not

general subject.

other

ence
independ-

only pos.sible,

of
of

freedom

which

form

fields

con-

regulates

society
the

Kant's

to

reason,
since

legal right,

separation

is

of

is to
of

be

legal

inquiry,

unfrequently observed,

kant's

188

of

critique

the

of

faculty

judgment.

principleof the reflective judgment is this: that!

versal
empiricallaws, in so far as they are undetermined
particular,
by unilaws,must be viewed as containingthat unitywhich they woiiM
if they had been
contain
intelligenceother,it may Ix;,
given by some
reference
with express
to our
than our
own
cognitivefaculties, in
order to render
possiblea system of experienceaccordingto particular
in her empirical
In the nnity in multiplicity,
manifest
natural laws.
to ends, which, however, is not
to
laws, lies the adaptationof nature
of
be ascribed to the products
nature
themselves,but is an d j"ri(jri
conception,having its origin solelyin the reflective judgment. In
the uniformityof nature, or natural
virtue of this adaptation,
law, is
of ends
to be
compatible with the possibility
accomplished in it \"y
The
beingsworking accordingto the laws of freedom.
conceptionof
w^hich
of that supra-sensible
the oneness
element
underlies
nature,
is practically
with that which
implied in the conception of freedom,
renders
possiblethe transition from purely theoretical to purely practical
philosophy.
be either aesthetic or teleological
The reflective judgment may
; tlie
former has to do with subjective
formal, the latter with objectiveor
or
material
adaptation. In both aspects the conceptionof ends (final
not a constitutive
principle.
causes)is only a regulative,
The Beautiful is that which, through the harmony of its form with
the human
a
universal,
disinterested,
facultyof knowledge, awakens
is the absolutely
The Sublime
and necessary satisfaction.
great, which
and by its antagonismwith the
calls forth in us the idea of the infinite,
satisfaction.
interest of the senses
produces an innnediate
The teleological
judgment considers organicnature in the lightof the
the law
of moralityis for intelliimmanent
in it. What
gible
adaptations
natural
for
i
s
the
existences,
merely
organic end.
beings,that,
of
of
well
The possibility
of mechanical, as
as
teleological
explanations
in the
circumstance, that natural
objectsmay be
nature, is founded
An
regardedpartlyas objectsfor the senses, and partlyfor the reason.

known

to

The

us.

"

"

intuitive

understanding

possiblyperceive that
doctrines

Kant's

writings,

and

lar, Vischer's
Ludw.

Friedliinder's

Jahbr.,
the
works

Aesthetik,

xx.

of

and

Zimmermann's

article

Schelling

Michelet, Erdmann,

pp.

in

113-128.

and
Kuuo

Hegel

;
der

The

Fischer,

STiblime

they

were

opposed by

Aesihetik,

Kantian

Rosenkranz,
and

others.

Lotze's
zur

in

his

developed

der

possess

der

by

Schiller

Ae-sihetik

schonen
a

may

"

identical.

in

in his Kalligone

und

exercised
Oesch.

not

are

Herder

Oesch.

Kanat

Teleology

does

causes

further

were

Verhdltniss

seinem

; cf.

final

and

and

others
Gesch.

Kaiii

on

2, August, 1867,

philosophies
of

by Schelling

however,

man,

mechanical

^he beautiful

concerning
to him

next

which

"

material

Kanlischen

in

; cf

his

nesthetic

in
.,

particn-

Deut-schlaml,

Nalur.
influence

in

the

and

Preuns.

especially on

Phllosoiilde^

and

the

KANt's

190

Interest

the

pleases

in

senses

indifferent

however

is attributed

worth

beauty only for

the

while

the

men

The

the

by

disinterested

all others.

of

claim, not
With

regard
of

tulip, is

held

of

sensfe

any

and

also

The

satisfaction
based

no

such

which

the

beautiful

other

by

longer

no

judgment
As

that

being

is not

and

as

of the

tions
Condi-

on

the

case

with

it

The

which

with

the

act

with

it is

its

perfection

taste

; only in

beauty
or

assign
Free

conception

the

conception.
end

is intellectual,

pre-supposes

representation, in
object

Is the

conceived).
a

definite conception
of

inner

object ought

such

mental

with

agreeing

respecting the

concerning
of

its

the

by beauty

of

to

beauty.

intrinsic

some

awakened

(not by which
of

both

"/.,

accompanied

is unable

adherent

that

to

in

flower, e.
be

to

by comparison

pleasure

joined

judgment
and

of

directed

means

consideration

free

determined

pure.

of

it is

existing in

joined

adapted.

it is found

JBsthetic

our

conception

taste

judgment

pure

by
that

object, as perceived without

an

it is

between

no

condition

reason

the

object

adaptation

then

"

in

"

limited

judging of

free

relation

satisfaction.

is it
is the

beauty

"

beautiful

the

theoretical

kind

it is the

e.

the

regards modality,

necessity
i.

free

yet

apprehended

judgment

of taste

in

which

to

to which

variety of

is

rest

(as in

into

brought

are

perception of

our

object

the

through

Since

as

cannot

"

faction
satis-

produced

suppose

is hence

; there

adaptation

end

an

immediately

on

of

judgment

is

but

object

is the

words,

the

the

the

favor, and

on

agreeable,
can

judgment

which

ends

of

pre-supposes

in

beautiful

pronounced

the

logicalconception.

conception,

assthetic

the
each

nature

derived

satisfaction

adhcerens) implies
beauty {piilcliritudo

taken

on

an

distinguishes

perfection of

the

that which

but

animals,
well

that

but

of

prized (an objective

As

beautiful

the

in

on

conceptions

form

because

Kant

adherent

; merely

The

object

in their

order.

faction,
satis-

subjective universality.

to

of

adaptation,

beauty {pulchritudovaga)
to be

from

is the

beautiful

particular end.

yet rational

ure
pleas-

with

quantity, universal.

is,in

satisfaction

our

only

of

relation

conception

to be

certain

only

taste, beauty

beautiful

like

derived

be

the

to

accompanying

any

the

validity of

universal

objective,but

to

judgments

from

is

of

the

irrational

approval,

our

rational

as

us

of

good

for

pleasure.

that produced by
inclination,
respect.*

on

judgments)

compels

reason

individual, but

the

The

even

and

in

existence

pleases.

animal

once

simply
sentiment

accompanied

the

to

exists

agreeable

unconstrained

an

derived

to the

But

ethical

The

free,it cannot,

and

peculiar

reference

in

be

is

satisfaction

is agreeable which

us

produces

of which

idea

That

pleases

which

; the beautiful

of the

is
on

good

satisfaction

which

good

its determining-

as

The

ground.

interest.

all intelligentbeings, of whatever

that

as

senses

is

for beings at

e.

JUDGMENT.

such

with

is beautiful

may

it).

for

agreeable depends

produced

by

i.

"

the beautiful

from

taste

That

we

to

is such

good

of the

That

agreeable contents

The

the idea.

good

interest,or the

all

with

is combined

sensation.

from

disconnected

OF

relation to the appetitive faculty, either

conception.

mere

FAOtJLTY

necessarily connected

as

agreeable and

its

beings, by

also

at least

or

in the

take

we

involves

always

ground,

the

of

CEITIQUE

and

the

necessary
is

objective,nor
is conceived

which

necessity

necessity of

has

of all to

assent

it

practical; it

in

aesthetic

an

judgment

to

only

can

judgment

as

"

exemplary^

"

is viewed

which

be

This

called

as

exam-

an

#
*

as

the

In

representing

in that

of

sensible
of

of

beautiful,

the

beautiful

as

opposed

painting,

color

which

as

to the

practical philosophy

and

intellectual,but, rather,

to the

theory

(p. 188).

the

speculative

source

separation

of

mere

agreeable,

(see above, pp.

dualistic
insesthetic

is nevertheless

161 seq., 182

separation
charm,

indefensible

recognizes

Kant

and

of

them,

and

only drawing

province

in the

seq.), not
hence
as

reckons,

belonging

; cf. Friedliinder, in

of

nesthetics,

rising trrndation

the

e.

to the

Art.

from

g., in

the

province

above

cited

eant's
pie of

resulting from

as

sense,

being pre-supposed,
in

all would

ia which

for every

Idea

pleases and

morally Good, and

is

Ideas

and

excited
ocean

is

the mind,
with

which

of

us,

like

soul

it must

for the

ia

the

mind, accompanying
gratificationof

only

the

taste

resultiag
attributed

to

or

the

the

But

the

to that

of

earth's

orbit,and

"

we

arrive

object

which

then

that

of

to the

of

the

sublime

of the

yet at the

same

of measurement
sublime

power

over

vanish

involves

as

The

an

diate
imme-

feeling

aesthetic
power

in

of

and

in

perly
pro; for

embodiment,
representation,
storm-lashed

the

it

nature

ia

naturally excites
and

we

the

itself

to

occupy

must

seek
of

nature

for

thought,

The

pleasure produced

in

quantity universal,

be

in

the

by
and

adaptation,and

in

in

dality
mo-

for

both

that

the

with

the

when

with

the
to

jective
sub-

cognitive

in

imagination

aesthetic

of the

viewed

as

fearful

to

power,
us

turn

and
illimitation,
The

reason.

in

of

account

vOn

reason.
a

in

all its

vain

The

of measurement.

of

finding

upon

Ideas

of the
of nebulsB

appears

of the

estimation

as

is
our
man

diameter

expends

standard

of

of

systems

nature

Idea

dynamic,

character

height

in its entire
the

it is

progress

the

of the

and

great

sensible

although

the

same

in the

from

earth,

way
is

comparison

mind

having

as

to

second

the

cases

of the

pleasure consequent

of nature,

either

in the

example,

milky

in the

of

the

in

judged

be

dispositions. As,

every

the

disposition of the imagination is

imagination

our

and

motion

object, while

sublime

maintains

it is to

feeling of dissatisfaction

judgment

the

to

and

magnitudes,
in

certain

instances, a

regard

the

but

which

on

cannot

beautiful

much
of

of sense,

it,in all

case

of the

employed
of

us

but

adequate

so

by the imagination

these

great beyond

incommensurate

for the
us.

is

imagination
time

the

ethical

sublime, the mathematically,

diameter

diameters

to

appear

comprehension,

sentiment

of

of

gives

sensible

in

nature.

greater unities,everything

ever

it nature,

within

advance,

we

that

to the

bounds

the

presupposes

forces ;

calls forth

when

"

from

mountain,
at

of

mathematically sublime, therefore,

power

necessary

form, being confined

of

sight

uae

this motion, since

small, whQe, properly speaking, it is only

with

judges

termed

sensible

no

example,

judgment

is referred

comparison

for

brings with
beautiful

purpose,

of magnitudes

comparison

feel,

must

symbol

senses

be

insusceptible

of the

appetitive faculty ; in the first

with
the estimation
mathematical, connected
from

judgment

is

sublimity,

may

represent subjective

the

to

as

necessary.

classes

of the

act

by

in

beautiful, must

as

of the

represent

to

of

it must

two

interest

beautiful

the

idea

sublime

quiet contemplation.
adaptation

all, as

is susceptible of

thought

the

relation

The

sublime.

the

or

which

satisfaction

aesthetic

which

faculty

objects

not,

For

by the

distinguishes between

of

SBSthetic

norm,

circumstances,

of

assent
a

feeling which

present this adaptation

dynamically

state

is

sublime

into

produced
; in

fitted

which

the

quit

to

sublimity

that

the

contained

It

mind.
rather

as

but

quality disinterested
Kant

the

all,in like

to the

natural
be

higher adaptation.

introduces

sublime,

the

into

sublime,

without

ground

may

to

which, although

reason,

inciting the

Ideas

be

may
many

inadequateness,

very

called

that

object

called, can

so

the

of

this

yet by

claim

its resistance

sublime, although

the sublime, properly

are

an

justly be regarded

therefore, at bottom,

by

natural

called

solelyto

also

ideal

manifestation.

which

sublime,

presents

is

taste

sensible

pleasure.
be

powers,

it,as

which

satisfaction

with

agrees

judgment,

general

The
is

man.

ideas in their
That

in the

formulated.

cognitive

our

191

judgment.

is subjectively universal,
and
although only subjective,

beautiful

The

that

judgment
and

of

of

be

not

yet

can

play

expressed

agree,

this norm,

because

free

the

any

is

object which

an

rule

rule,wrhich

universal

faculty

the

of

critique

quateness
inade-

the

and

magnitudes,

every

sensible

Nature
which
sensuous

is

yet

dard
stan-

ically
dynamhas

no

beings, yet

192

kant's

calls into
look

upon

in

us

to

trivial,and

troubled, as
which

before

force

pertains

activitya
all that

destiny

of its

exists

great,

only

Although
freedom
the

of

it

This

is

imagination

the

as

with

by

our

has

art

of

the

is that

figures for

art

must

is

of

of

the

to

of

end

an

certain

play
the

than

In

aesthetic

by

the

which

tendency
moral

of

existence

exercised

being

as

to the

the

is

disposition.

Their

basis

conception of

of

actions,which
the

to

ever,
is,how-

supra-sen-

which

nature)

as

gives

rules

the

object.

sensation

mere

While

(fineart).
also

product of

were

of

it must

freedom,

if it

prescribed

are

realization

implying judgment

of human

ascribe

we

conception

of

appear
nature.

mere

Fine

to art.

is the

art

various

an

objective

nature
in

part

nature,

causality analogous
producing

with

and

material

occasion

to

with

derivation

of the

of nature

merely

her

particular laws

products
would

of nature

as

conception

causality,borrowed

existences,to which

yet

only
we

no

from

decline

their

not

to

of

which

of

to

comprehend,

an

by

intended

object, as

though

the

possibility

in

her

ourselves,

own

reflective

the

sense

would

then
but

of

the

for

the

principle
the

to

into

and

ourselves

nature

like

our

should

ple
princi-

subject,to guide

conception of

the

own.

determinative

belong peculiarly to

introduce

power.

results,we

constitutive
But

causes.

analogy

attribute

as

itself,

cause

teleo-

observe

we

of

nature

conceive

we

conceived

be

in any

reason,
the

to

or

the

relation

to

of

judge

artistic results

also with

longer

would

of the

can

but

from

belong

judge

We

conception

ducts
con-

adaptation, i. e. ,

causality of

the

in view

recognizes

Experience

regulative principle,fitted, as being

not

rather, in reality,it

faculty, but,

work

Reason

unable

ourselves

to that

technical

that

causes

or,

geometrical

forms.

rather, when

judging of phenomena,

final

or

in

the

of

fitness

possibilityof the effect.

of the

of

the

intended

have

we

intellectual

objectiveand

an

in

single principle.

of

when

is

illustrated

problems by

nature,

as

to fill nature

simply

judgment,

on

nature

providing Teleology

cause

is

objective causality to

itself

were

consequently
were

There

formal.

It

find

objects as depending

new

absolutely

sense.

mental

conceptions.

conformity, to law we
regard the idea of the effect as underlying

we

to which

as

and

effect,whose

when
logically

mind

the

those

arbitrary rules, as

conception

constituting a condition

be

against

feelingof pleasure, either

work

generation

and

we

of

tion
exalta-

gratificationof
of

morality,for

is similar

necessary

the

formal.

as

If

of

hence

executes

beautiful

numerous

to the

judgment

and

and

the

cultivates
mere

appearance

mark

namely,

one,

subjective and

is

except

of

the

definite

art

in view

appear

merely

solution

conception

that

of
of the

sense

and

represented

and

on

indefinite

(endowment

adaptation
which

the

our

so

and
power

renunciation

or

the

on

violence
is

in nature

foimded

in the

of

constraint

figure as adequate

cause

in the

genius.

adaptation

the

rather

use

reason,

Mechanical

pleasure

as

being

conscious

presupposes

genuine

possible object, as

talent

j^sthetic

the

or

are

to

us

careful

phenomena.

immediately

of fme

product

Genius

of

assertion

for satisfaction
has

sublime

an

production.

knowledge

free from

art

the

not

are

of

substratum

(agreeable art)

as

feelingfor

we

enables

not

as

is made

sublime,

this violence

of

which

which

nature

the

mind

beauty

should

reason

of

for

destiny.

is the

sublime

of

the

freedom

instrument

of taste

is free

-Esthetic

the

that
the

power

The

own

of

action

conception, although

sensible
Art

individual's

necessary

Judgments
a

thus

and

nature,

senses,

question

and

latter character

judgments concerning
connected

were

of nature.

independent

in it the

legal business.
of which

it

to

and

the

immediate
pleasure in natural
thought, i. e. , a non-dependence

yet

senses,

the

regard

to

belong

not

in

judgment.

of

faculty

does
life

our

hence

in the

the

which

principles;

or

as

of

yield, if

must

we

highest beliefs

our

critique

natural

ascribed

the

ing
judg-

philosophy
to

other

kant's
adaptation of

Th"

regard

the

being-s for

the

we

g- as
:her

effect either

only

juiture

(for man)

is

adaptation

other

iicing each
!

only moving
being communicated

of

is therefore

power.

portions

to

that,
all

parts

whole,

the

not

of matter

That

in which

can

be

but

also

of nature

conceived

of

force,incapable
fore,a self-transmittingformative
alone
{i. e.^ mechanically).

or

are

not

only

mutually

as

and

pro-

also,reciprocally,
the

is also

which

power,

of

immediately

ends

previously possessing it,and

not

rela-

(external) end

an

The

end,

by

adaptation

machine, possessing, like

mere

is

of

it is

of nature.

employed

kind

which

in itself formative

It possesses

to be

latter

for

everything

in which

products

hence

organized being

An

leans.

own

"

the

accordrelative,

or

means

creatures).

end

of

sake

constituting

as

in which

nature,

as

other

of

193

judgment.

partly external
or

ends;

(for all

for the

and

sake

their

independent

an

of

products

e.

existing for their

itself

and

existence

the

of

end

an

viewed

be

can

that

be

remotely advantageous,
"rg-anized
beings, i.

of

fitness

or

discoverable

condition

on

itself

as

accomplishment

usefulness

termed
ve

faculty

partly internal

is

nature

the

of

critique

being explained by

chine,
ma-

capable

is,there^
faculty of

the

motion

In

the

to

same

principle;

Such

is the

whole

when

but

our

view

it

of their

and

nature

union,

cognition, to which
whole

the

The

parts.

of

cause

of

the

material

AH

of nature

realm
causes.

may

be

it

right to reflect
under

nature,
In

am

able, and
with

agreement

upon

the

they

The

germ.

certain

of

are

natural

forms

of the

this

the

different

the

to each

other

hope, weak

"

he

though

terms

it

nature

In

in

All

duction
pro-

some

cases

On

laws.

so

the

my

them,

as
nected
con-

and.

power

even

of

that

far
also

being

as

of

all

upon

causes.

of

and

organisms

fancy

be, that here something

have

sprung

and

from

of the
may

from

be

finds (in

Kant

for th6

Darwin) ground

through generation

hazardous

matter, viz.

exclude

not

classes

inhabiting marshes,
"a

stitution
con-

judged as being possible

rial
products of the mate-

occasion

different
hypothesis that beings specifically
animals

is

the

light of another

everywhere,

to

does

of

causality,namely,

nature

belongs

principle of final
of

forms

of

of which

be

must

law

forming

connection

assert

nor

the

regulative principles,

as

of certain

of

on

of

neither

by side

judgment

forms, and,

in the

ceive
con-

of

as

idea

by merely mechanical

of their

; but

whole

of

mode
to

result

laws,

An

parts, in respect

the

laws

can

mechanical

mechanism

laws

of nature

real

connection

mere

natural

side

as

of the necessary

We

altogether different

reallyrelated

water-animals,

13

the

causes.

of

product,

products

everything which

idea

and

subsequent speculations of Lamarck

generations, land-animals
the ray

The

the

nature

discursive

the

the

principle.

contradiction

phys-

and

of its parts.

the

the

be

it is but

'possible

and

after the

to mechanical

the

with

that

g.^ from

of

to think

of

as

subsist

must

things

an

inquire

according

is not

laws, and

guidance
analogy of the

the

and

requires
to

final

in

But

it would

Hence

causality of

things
can

mechanical

whole

upon

forces

the

one

such

to

only regard

moving

whole

possibleby merely

of material

production

final

is

material

principles

by merely

t.

things

production of

contrary, both
thus

look

we

teleologicalcausality of

the

of

if

the

end.

an

under

possibilityof

only think

view

mechanical

the

causality than

light of

the

therefore,only

united

possibilityof

the

of that

possible that

them

can

whole.

of

can

form

the

understanding,

the

confined,

is

understanding

we

concurrent

ground

possibility"*."., as

its

of bur

the

possibilityof

of the

that

to itself the

in

understanding

our

of its parts ; it can,

kind

the

founded

as

furnishing

as

discursive

ground

the

of

effect

be

may

to reduce

power

understanding,

our

the

as

the

not

it is

nature

things

same

understanding might represent

intuitive

the

of

constitution
we

has

reason

reality of

or

of the

final relations

and

ico-mechanical

ground

inner

unknown

us

from

each

other

these, after

reason."

He

position
sup-

nal
origi-

common

"

many

rejoicesin

aocomplLshed with

the

194

DISCIPLES

principleof
But

he

the

the

mechanism

calls attention

that
possibility,
have

been

of

the

of the

faculty
subservient

of
we

of

ends

wi'th
whatever

not

; the

know

of which

only

the

we

generation

and

; how

an

found

affirm

being,
her

her

lies concealed

nothing except

to

not

of

speak,
two

moved
re-

proved
our

nitive
cog-

instrument

an

entirely different

conformity to law,
particular form, for which
herself

by

in the

that

to

been

been

nature

to

The

universal

nature, considered

in

so

How

cause.

with

limits

has

its

organisms

Kant, only

world

in

of

development.

obliged by the

as

nature,

supra-

it is the

alone,
sensible

essence

our

reason

substratum

per

"e, of

which

manifestations.

phenomenal

that

are

efficient

which

idea

explanation

can

We
of nature

designing

be

can

comprehend

nature,

combined

be

of

adaptation

explanation

to their

has, therefore, adds

causes.

mechanism

reality of

the

the

of final

the

world

organic
but

back,

condition

causality can

reason

does

the

to conceive

to the

consist

can
no

of

of

origin

is possible.

of

of all these

source

organization expressly adapted

an

degree further

independent

kinds

with

theory

original and

common

of nature
form

the

requires, for the

vegetable kingdoms

the

science

no

this

on

even

KANT.

OF

which

without

fact,that
and

suppose

endowed

question
a

animal

we

OrPONENTS

of nature,

to the

products of the

AND

doctrine was
combated
from
" 125. The Kantian
pliilosophicallj
the Lockian, Leibnitzo- Wolffian,and skeptical
stand-points.Of special
influence

the

the
progressingdevelopment of speculationwere
arguments for skepticismurged by Gottlob Ernst Schulze (^nesidelowing
mus). Of the numerous
partisansof the Kantian philosophythe folthe most
Schultz, the earliest exposiwere
tor
important: Johannes
of the Critiqueof the Pure
Reason
Keinhold,
; Karl Leonhard
successful
the enthusiastic and
doctrine ; and
apostle of the new
Friedrich
Schiller, the poet and
philosopher. Through Schiller's
ardent and
loftyexposition of Kant's ethical and aesthetic principles
the latter were
made
the common
possessionof the educated classes,
in moralityand
of the possibility
while throngh his recognition
art of
and mind, realityand ideality,
the antithesis of nature
they
reconciling
Endowed
with
received a material
additional
a
development.
manysided
with
but
neither
the
and
critical
insight, having
susceptibility
the
inclination to frame
nor
a
ability
system of his own, Friedrich
Ileinrich Jacobi found in Spinozism the last consequence
of all philo
sophicalthought, affirming,however, that this consequence, through
its oppositionto the interest of man
as
a
feelingbeing, compelled
and
of faith as a direct conviction of God's
existence
the recognition
of the
realityof divine things. Jacobi pointed out how Kant's
*

of the

Out
of

the
the

in time
"

certain

sense,

idea

Kantian

phenomenal

comprehends
Jeveloped

on

of

whole

as

the

the

the

nature

ground

ground

Schellingian philosophy
and

space

to be

Schopenhauer's

merely
doctrine

of

of
the

the

possibility of

of nature,

which,

subjective,
agrees

of

connection

was

with

recognizes

which

understanding,

intuitive

the

however,

the

of Kant.

of

combination
since

it did

obliged essentially
this

in
of

mechanism

to

the
not

modify

supra-sensible

the
nature

parts,
hold
the

with
was

design,

stratum
suband

subsequently

co-existence

and

idea in question.

tinction
dis-

In

AND

DISCIPLES

OPPONENTS

destroyed itself by
philosopliy
one's

find

impossibleto

wds

realistic

intrinsic

an

postulateof

in
contradiction,
Critique of the

the

into

way

causal

195

KANT.

OF

that

it

Reason

unitingthe thinking
but that then it
subjectwith the realm of (transcendental)objectivity,
was
impossibleto remain in this Critique. Akin to his philosophical
the more
positivelyChristian tendency of his friend
tendency was
Ilamann.
By a blending of Jacobian conceptions with the philosophy
Fries developed the doctrine that the sensible is the
of Kant, Jacob
the object of faith (rational
object of knowledge, the supra-sensible
revelation of the supra-sensible
in the
and the manifestation
or
faith),
sensible the objectof presentiment. Fjies attempted to establish the
The interpretation
basis.
of
a psychological
on
Critiqueof the Reason
Kant's doctrine proposed by Jacob
Sigismund Beck, and intended to
akin to Fichte's doctrine
was
things-in-themselves,"
dispense with Kant's
of the Ego, while ChristophGottfried Bardili's attempteddevelopment
of a rational Realism
bore a certain analogy to the speculation
of
and Ilegel.
-Schelling
the

without

nexus

"

the

Concerning
Freiherr

Deutschen

bei den

Vol. XII.

of

Leibyiitz

von

his

the

Theaetet

in his

contain

also

Leibnitzian

Criticism

Aristotle's

is still very

Kant,

himself

Christoph

(in his
Schwab,
the

Sciences,on
since the

times

Kantians

Leonard

1796

; the

eine

Metakritik

Of

eine

of

What
and

etc.)
Entdeckung^''''

prize-essay, crowned

advance
Wolff

"

been

Heinrich

Johann.

stand-point.
der

of its tone, received

Ernst

(1761-1833),the skeptic,in

less

attention
his

Herder's

reinen

work

the
with

of

his translation

the

against whom

himself,
Berlin

the

Metakritik

in

of

Germany

prize-essays

Abicht, by
argues

Joh.

and

Academy

Metaphysics
with

of

opponents

Eberhard,

historian,Eberstein,also

Kritik

doctrine

the

defended

in

last

of

opponents

with

by

made

those

searching examination,

published, together

"

and

Reinhold
above-named

zur

has

of

of

of the

doctrine

Kant's

the

historian

the

the

among

of mention

Jena,

partly occupying-

independent

Leibnitzians

the

in

mentioned

be

may

arguments

(in connection

worthy

most

Schulen

Tiedemann,

philosophy to

Geschichle

separately, Stuttg., 1802.

as

the

in

Eosenkranz,

above-cited

KaiUi^chen

first confounded

at

moral

ibhebitterness
Schulze

and

most

afterwards

Kantian

Ueber

"

and,

; but

the

Among

attention.

author
:

heide^i

G.

L.

Metdphysik.

unci

treat

his

stand-point

Tittel.

knowledge

ideas.

Leibnitzo-Wolffian

the

Erfahrung,

the

of Leibnitz
Karl

human

those

"

essay

question

Sciences,Berlin,
from

of

worthy

in

published

same

Weishaupt,
A.

Kantism

W.

century

Logik

der

(Frankf.-on-the-M., 1794) defended

of

the

following are

two

Feder,

G.

eighteenth

Erdmann,

Lockian

the
Adam

history of

and

the

the

of

Geschichte

Fischer, Die

348-366;

and

end

einer

subsequent

Cf. Kuno

of Berkeley ; he

Ethics) subjected

the

the

Garve, who, however,

was

Idealism

which

the

eclectics

validity

exclusive

Kant

the

the

near

Versuch

(Leips., 1840),

from

Kant

Selle

real

Kantian
the

of

Gottlieb

and

objective

Of

Works

25, 1862, pp.

Vol.

opponents

stand-point,

named

Kant's

(III., 1, Leipsic, 1848).

especiallyChristian
philosophy, who

of his

1T99.

Halle.

till

Kant

volume

second

of

Vierteljahr^chr.,

Among

of

opponents

an^

edition

complete

DetUsche

same

and
in the

treats

Philosophie

tier neneren
in the

followers

Eberstein

von

the

against

ism
Kant-

( Verstand

und

Vernunft^ Leipsic, 1799), owing

than

its contents

merited.

entitled,Aenesidemus

oder

of

of

Acad,

to

Gottlob
uher

die

196

DISCIPLES

Pundamente

der

Reinhold

and

of Kant
with

affection

that
of

"

die

AnmaHsungen

the

object of

previously
Kantian

the

criticism

acute

H.

Fr.

by
is

; his

acting

yet according

approached

Verthddigung

constantly

on

our

that

the

senses

this

to

the

doctrines
is identical

strongest argument

Jacobi, namely,

affecting or

as

system,

Schulze

E.

G.

Subsequently

KANT.

Vernunftkntik (1792), made

der

an

advanced

things -in -themselves

for

OF

OPPONENTS

nebst einer
Beinliold gelieferten
Elementarphilosoplde

von

Skepticismusgegen

des

AND

in

which

"

his

pensable
is indis-

impossililc.

system

same

nearer

conception of

doctrine

of

that

to

Jacobi.
Of

Court-Preacher
of

of

followers

the

Professor

and

of

The

Prilfung

Criticism.

Karl

of didactic

Critique of the Pure

{Orundriss
Gebrauch

Kantian

the

themselves,
this

place;"

also

which

of

affection

the

should

affecting

as

senses,

objection remained
1823

died

Lehren

him

on

thus

lioldus gravissirmim

the

see

litterarisches

und

in

unrefuted.
work

his

son,

critica

rationis

Leipsic, 1790-92)
hold's

for

call to

the

1785,

edited

ism.

his

In

einer

Kant's

Schiitz

by

as

the Fortunes

preface,

The

thanks

of this

name

for

'"our
God

in

God,
is

good

in October,
sec.''''

letter

menschlichen
article

(in

Kantian

the

in whom

both

nothing."

1792, as

He

possession

of

respecting
of

of

variously

is

us

In

the

matriculated

written

Reicke)
the

"Album"'
"

rectore

the

himself

strife

determined

are

entrance

made

the

to

new

influential
Human

about

of

the

academke

in the

of

dated

Fichte's
alone

University
Johanne

May

atheism,

and

to trust, may
at

Konigsberg

Ernesto

On

in 1789

(and

to

On

"

Mercur^

in

pleased

tlieol.

title-page of

the
He

in which

students

Schulz,

( Versuch

representation,

wishes,
be

in

of Kant-

prefixed). Rein-

orthographies.
10th, 1799,

point

(founded

organ

Deutscher

Schulze.

and

central

Thought

was
Time^^''

various

Rein-

circles.

wider

to

most

Schultz, Schulz,

Borowski,

henceforth

tion,
enlarged edi-

and

conception of mental

use

K.'s
Bein-

(Briefe

Philosophy"

Jena
a
(1787) made
Allg. Litter aturzeitung

the Present

to

cobi's
Ja-

(bom

illustraverit

epistolissuis

Vorstellungsvermogens)^
published

Philosophy wp

Schulze.

Reinhold's

Kant's

Faculty of

the

spacie,

R.

locum

published shortly before

examination

an

read

soon

causality

issue, with

at

or

became

Theory of

New

des

communications

for

Hufeland)

and

Jena

Jena,

the

says

"space

to

wholly impossible.

Mercur.^1786-87,

in

Philosophy

the

by

"E'rZaM"er?"?ifire;i'"
we
Schultz

at

of the Kantian

attempted,
*

and

Attempt

of

philosophy ;

things-in-

entitled,Karl Leonh.
Reicke, De explic,qua

Ernst

Philosophy found

Critical

Professorship
of

Theorie

neuen

which,
hold

study

the

Schmid

Schmid

time

Leonhard

concerning

Deutsch.

in the
Philosophie^

leichteren

of

relation
but

of

terminology
zum

idea

question

Karl

puree

[Dissert.],Konigsberg, 1856) popular "Letters

iiber die Kantische

the

Wirken, Jena, 1825; cf. Rud.

Kantii

the

no

is rendered

Through
by

that

quently
subse-

Dictionary

the

it goes;

as

regards

as

of

has

hand,

far

correct, as

category,

same

Kantian

theory, impossible.

in

case

point
stand-

compendium

Wdrterbuch

objection

conception of "affection"

the

being done,

the

is indeed

in the

placed

in

1786

of the

editions

Kant's

on

(Leipsic,

the

(1761-1812),who

einem

later

"

from

disputed

year

dictionary

nebst

(Paris,1865).

Morgenstunden

are

in the

Tissot

by

Schmid

Erhard

with

was,

schen

nation
Exami-

an

berg,
Vernunft, Konigs-

reinen

French

Vcr-

reinen

subsequently

der

into

works, published

senses,

our

Kritik

against Jacobi's

our

explanation

be

Christian

Vernunft
Schriften); in the

doctrine

and

existence

reinen

Kantischen

der

defends

der

Schultz,*
Exposition

approval,

God's

Reason^ together

Kritik

der

dodrine, Johannes

Mendelssohn''

der

of the

his

Konigsberg, published an
Kritik
der
Prof. Kant

translated

been

proofs of

series

full

Kantischen

der

theoretical

Kantian

Herrn

des

Mendelssohn's

wrote

1758,

"

Jakob's

at

Kant's

has

Exposition

Heinrich

In Ludwig

that

uher

had

Critique {Prilfung

the

1789-92).

the

Mathematics

of

which

nunft., Konigsberg, 1784)

of

representatives

Critique {ErUiuterungen

Kant's

1786)

and

Kant

signs
he

himself

expresses

Fichte's

behalf,

to assist

him,

were

doctore

entered
et

for

by
prof.

as

the
J.
his
that
his
him
ord.

198

DISCIPLES

philosophy of history,from
an
tcleologically,

It

at the

the

Critique of the Faculty of Judgmeiit

time

same

Schiller

between

mind

moral

und

Note

to the

"Letters

Sentimental

Poetry

general
also

but

1819, at Munich),

forth

certain

which

I could
in

Leipsic

AllwilVs

of the

Jacobi

Lessing,

as

his

works

own

"

den

by

( Ueber
third

das

referred
Jacobi

of

"

"Open
the

des

Letter

19.

Jacobi

charged

with

in
to
of

Kriticismus

in

die

Vernunft
1802),

the

latter

hypocriticaluse

at

novels

problem

relation

of

; the

vidual
indiwork

(Berlin, 1785),where
the

latter

is represented

substantially the

Leib-

also

expresses

Philosophy
zu

Verstande

UebersicJit des
and

work
of

"Of
was

Divine
directed

theistic

and

but

Qlaiiben.,

den

{Sendsc?ireiben an

Critical

leichteren

which

to the

Jacobi

zur

Beitrdge

edition
Bouterwek

theoretical

Ilumellber

Fichte"
the

and

made
power

speculative theology,

David

which

higher

(which confession,since

Jahrh., Hamb.

gottlichenDingen^ Leipsic, 1811),

Schelling,whom

sense)

writings

and

philosophical

occupied

"

himself

; my

complete

in which

Spinozism

"Attempt
des

Lessing,

"

the

as

10th,
natural

He

specially discussed

single points

in too wide

Reinhold's

Anfange

to

by

Goethe

the

are

March

order,

in

besides

is

always

prove,

only

school

Mendelssohn''''

and

(Breslau, 1787)

JJnternehmen

number

of morals

times,

authority of

on

with

question

towards

leaning

indubitably

Realismus

und

Philosophiebeim

( Von

his

have

can

rule

moral

himself

between

confessed

philosophy
on
1799), the essay

in the

gen^

conversation

the

world,

of

selves),
them-

modem

thought.

appeared

in which,
Woldeniar^''''

'-''Letters to Moses

in

the

drawn

correspondence

forms

poetry.

historical

which

"

and
and

Schiller

and

and
tics
aesthe-

of mind

different
and

for the

system

harmony,

Diisseldorf, died

will, but

at

works

universal

of Kant's

Hamburg,
Reason

to the

understood

Idealismus

judgment

der

"

the

Goethe

to establish

received

of
in

means

"Naive

real,and

antiquity

modem

deserving of mention

and

Spinoza,

standpoint,

obviously

was

of

having

as

Oder

duty

not

Jacobi's

most

"

life,they

Jacobi's

external

of the

and

relates

nitzian

Of

Briefsammlung

doctrine

25th,

and

the

only

in

1743, at

to set up

myself,

to which

those

"

Jan.

essay

philosophic, system-making

to

of

not

to Hellenic

ancient

between

the

as
on

of natural

ideal with

poets (as illustrated

peculiar

replied

culture

the

conceptions

of the

characterizmg

intention

not

resist."

not

knowledge

the

history,the

interior

most

1812-25, and

right
on

of

(born

it my

sense,

supplement

sentiment.

culture

opposition

was

and

Kant

Dichtung.,1795-1796),in which

und

in

sssthetic

sentiment,

harmony

complement

of the Mevv Reason'''')

;
Erziehung des Menschen,

dsthetische

philosopher of faith,sought

of my

out

in

in

"Never

them,

form

of

Jacobi

the

faith

direct

confesses
came

of

(to this

Dignity"

the

or

the

to

phical
philoso-

and

the

as

though

preface

Grace

forth

sions
by discus-

SchiUer's

grace,

Limits

the

recommends

unity

"On

nature

among

attention*

certain

; the

Of

moral

set

above

moral

recovered

forms

Heinrich

Friedrich

and

of

naive

of schools

the

mind

Schiller

particular,the differences

in

and,

which

philosophy

and

1793),

the

nature, being employed

with

won

1794

are

which

Religionidthin
{Briefe uber die

elevation

ideal and

in

"

"

( Ueber

with

to the

of elevation

poetry

"

important

Kant,

his

furthered

was

year

of

receive

of Fichte

the

as

is
inclination,

of

his

Culture

produce

to

is combined

in

of

edition

1793-1795), in

in

adapted

culture

elevation

Esthetic

on

written
best

second

early

most

in

and

nature, duty

of the

dignity, or

the

period,

Wiirde, written

and

doctrine

speculations
as

groat works

first to

suggestions of Schellingian ideas.

in his Kantian

Anmuth

him,

over

the

vfixs,

Kantian

The

the

study

to

of the

understanding

slight influence

essays,

commenced

disciplesof Kant.

"
i^v'if^e(9/
Jlfe,ss*/ia
contains

( Ueher

'"'

that

his

zealous

relativelyvery
"

he appropriated the idea that historyis to be viewed

the results of his historical labors.
materially influenced

until

with

KANT.

which

which

1791

OF

OPPONENTS

not

was

which

idea

AND

his

Fichte,

to

explain
zu

brin-

Zustandes

Things"
against
Christian

AND

DISCIPLES

in

words

pantheistic

Leben

JacohPs

1834;

F.

ein

Dlchten

und

Denken,

Vienna,

18G7

; cf, also the

yd. Anz.

for

Friedr.

June

Prot.

Gelzers

leads

world

to the

only

for in demonstration
and

point

out

which

ground

the

postulates
to know

unable

irn Beuken

reason

could

the

hand,

was

(which
of the

perception,
former

the

have

must

Kant

actually adopts

Grit, of the Pare

the

critical

within

world

of

the

and

the

to demonstrate

perception

he

are,
each

other

objects.
Jacobi

in

is

his

view, not

only

accordingly,

although

of

not

to

such
in

were

ideas

and

has

no

the

relation

affect

i.

sense

as

rect,
cor-

alternative

following editions
and

effect

elsewhere)
exists

only

"

e.

by

Kant,

restricts

Kant.

Jacobi

of

representations
the

in

that

objects

real,although

finite

sphere

likewise

of

the

of

ception
perwith

combined
and

able

act

sensuous

understanding,

to the

to be

pretend

not

affirms

The
,

categories, but
objects that are known

same

latter

and

does

but

us,

existence.

phenomena,

with

himself

to

himself

Jacobi

which

their

things-in-

Kant

as

hypothesis were

in the

cause

Kantian

things-in-themselves ; the
Critique destroy each other {Jacobi iiber

seq.).

of

of

the

on

empirically

from

article against Eberhard,

relation

of

as

the

the

or

the

; and

the first

for

receive

this

if

she

compatible
Jacobi,

phenomena,

hence,

the

certain

agreement

in the

because

that

limits of theoretical

is fatal
we

theoretical

were

of the

phenomena

and

well

in the

objects

mere

from

that

Vol. II., p. 301

existence

there

God

is

seq.) found

believed

was

in

which

with

lieisst sich

the

incompatible.

through which

mind,

also

part

directly convinced

according
It

doctrine,

subsequent

the
is

as

belief

dilemma

affirms, as

Reason^

it

demonstration

absurd,

which

that

of which

were

either
is

in the

phenomena,

Jlame, Werke,

the

come

before

and

God

senses,

hypothesis
ideas

been

contradicts

David

must

in

Kantian

clearly
of the

that

not

Was

as

Kant,

to

edition. Vol. I., p. 386

believe

to

philosophy and

to the

affection

but

belief

and

only representations

are

beginning

critical

indicated

the

of

; but

there

disprove,

nor

to assent

He

material

teaches,

quite possible

proof,

practical reason
"

to

Near

causes.

(in the Essay:

Kant

Schub.'s

and

Ros.

was

Spinozism

unable

Criticism,namely,
themselves

it

prove

but

knowledge.

given

Werke,

f''

to the

ditioned,
con-

be

indirect

which, according

reason,

the

dependent

the

of

world

would

made

be
of

knowledge

conceded

who

Kant,

the
to

existence

would

importance

the

theoretical

the

contrary ; the

other,

of

to that
over

God's
God

tion
demonstra-

conditioned

the

an

rejected,

be

of

from

Briefe

considers

must

author

the
to

it

spirit.

existence, whereby
of effects

that

Gott.

the

Jacobi

extra-mundane

demonstrate

imconsidered

in

All

pass

"things-in-themselves," yet

any

neither

prove
each

other

stood

primacy

holds

far
Leben,

Philosophie,

u.

Zoeppritz,

human

of the

an

J.'s

Mejer, F. 11. Jacobi's

; W.

only

can

To

knowledge

replying, that

could

to

leaves

the

orientiren

for

ground

whole, not

of his

cause

this opinion of Jacobi

imperative

unconditioned.

Jacobi

from

lead

may

or

here

Litteratur

Rudolf

of philosophy, but

understanding

to the

not

(But

being.

the

as

Zirngiebl,F. H.

deutschen

work, by

needs

Wie-

18(33 ;

Zeitachr.

the

1800-1819, Gottingen, 1808.)

system

the

in

gottl. Dingen^

881-904

W.

Weltansicht,Progr.^ Worms,

s.

der

latter

23, pp.

Art.

Jahren

it is in conflict with

because

of the

consistent

only

Gesch.

zii Goethe^
Jacobi^ Augsburg,

H.

Monatsbl, July, 1858;

; Eberhard

113-173

zur

review

den

aus

the

as

Beitrag

5th, 1867,

Bouterwek

Spinozism

with

J., in

VII., Leips.,186(3,pp.

exactePhilos.,Vol.

its

H.

F. 11. J. u.
Erinnerung an den Denker
den
^oii
Thilo, F. H. Jacobi's Ansichten

A.

and
Thiersch,
PhilosopJdeseiner
Jac, Jena, 1848;

die

F.

des

Phihsophie

Zur

gand,
Chr.

Fricker, Die

H.

JJeber F.

Ueberweg,

Weiller

und

philosophandi ratione F. 11.

seiiien Zeitgenossen,besonders
VerMltniss
zu

im

1849;
]''rankf.-on-the-M.,
1854;

Jacobi

Kuhn,

199

KANT.

v.
Schlichtegroll,

1819

OF

Roessler, Be

C.

Deycks, F. H. Jac.

t'erd

cf

(On Jacobi

sense.

Wirken^ Munich,

und

Zeit, Mayence,

OPPONENTS

dependent,
whose

range

possible experience,

affirms,with Kant,

that

200

DISCIPLES

the

speculativereason,
He

sphere.

same

to moral

that

added

Reason

to the

the

have

we

well

as

of the

he

an

denominates

are

with

with

this

separation of realityand
and

substance,

ideal,not
raise

hunself

which

which
this

spiritis

the

giver

faith

or

the

hazard
be

cannot

seen

With

heart,

the

illumination

that

is the

defined

and

fixed

indeed

it sends

one,

shapes,
of

rays
In

understanding,

but

the

essential

finds

God,
thus

as

also
in

there
this

rational

Cajetan

von

of

this

is

for

Weiller,

agreed
substantially

Jak.

with

"

him

characteristic

of

elements

and

based

his

Salat.

him,

his

"

Chr.

Jacobi

spirit

says,

As

essence.

of

which
of

that

true,

We

our

may

race,

alone
is

There

light

light

in my

Which

extinguished.

well-

discloses,indeed,
the

"a

caUp himself

while

heart, which,
the

supply

of

want

heathen

he
the

rational

to the
which

from
:

spirit,

him, although

crown

it is

the

mind.

see

"

is

nature

as

move

themselves

spheres

to

to
fined,
con-

objects, the

of the

Christianity in theism,

and

nothing
of

or

is unable

he

so

we

confesses

abyss,

an

remains

heart,

in the

reveal

understanding,

the

seeks

definite
with

the

spirit."

the

with

eye

understanding,

them

freedom

purity

Jacobi

also

antagonism,

Christian

in moral

its

the

jewel

those

upwards,

promise

knowledge?"
Jacobi

view

of

objects

eternal

the

can

absolute

because

toward

the

into

behind

but

these

But

that

It is

body.
that

bring it

in God

away

the

object

the

it

this

personal consciousness, so

most

those

do

with

Jacobi

us,

is

blames

(without,

intimate

most

he

; but

conception of

poetry).

through

with

seen

believe

we

of earth.

true

and

of Fichte's

filled with

as

Jacobi

He

understanding

sensible

object, as
be

doctrine
to do

lives in

man's

man

No

his gaze

turns

to

present to

can

the

; his
such

; but

world

seeks

of

There

constitutes

senses.

of this

eyes

man

I seek

is

true

assertion

awe

and

the

of his

finite

form

says,

highest, deepest,

which

darkness

when

but

things.

of humanity,

mark

holy

falls in upon

as

divine

sublime,
the

with

distinguishing
soul.

bold

which,

as

he

him

spiritual life.

anthropomorphizing

in

external

itself to it

and

legitimate

to

God,

the

demonstration

acquit

of

be

spirit can

understanding.

which

lates
postu-

conviction

logicaldeduction)

order
the

comprehend

to

himself,

the

of

stand-point

only

in his

man

through

good, beautiful, and

even

from

spirit,God

demonstrate

so

and

of

moral

correctness

hypostatic

but

sphere,

in God

present to

of this

to him

present

the

in

that

immediately

we

whose

by

of

elements

(as a matter

belief

towards

in the

immediately

comes

noblest

holds

Kant's

which

forced

be

cannot

the Practical

sons
merely practical rea-

him

On

Spinozistic consequence

ideality,and

sees

above

through

the

to the

higher knowledge,

faculty,by

sidered,
con-

Kant's

objects. This

philosophical justice must

up

the

said, being fully just

be

belief

and

logical

mere

the

supra-sensible, reason.

God

to conceal

of sensible

be

censures

supra-sensible, to which

terms

philosophical correctness
a

the

existence

he

opposite

an

belief in

the

Schelling for seeking

must

works

the

opinion, gives

the

of

satisfied

not

of

logicallyconsequent,

acknowledges
reduction

later

; in
aware

Jacobi's

in

one,

of the

relate,as

Spinozism

is

reasoning
an

faith

and

of

feeling,

should

Critiqaeof

for

true

moral

and
believe) is self-destructive,

to

conviction

thing

of

He

in the

this

beyond

ing*
principle,claim-

circumstances

is determined.

holding

needs

one

moral

impulses

Postulates

the

conduct

not

Kantian

immediate

individual

force, since

immediate

the

validity of

the

because

practicalreason

apprehend
satisfied

of

of the

rule, the particular

of each

duty

without

(believing merely

be

abstract

moral

being

as

should

KANT.

OF

demonstration, does

reflection

in defence

argumentation

of

org-an

formalism

which

by

the

as

OPPONENTS

criticises the empty

that, in addition

and

AND

the
on

eternity

the

greater

of

immediate
than

friend

and

belief

in

personality.

witness

of the

Christianity.

Neeb,

the

human

faith-philosopny,"in
Weiss, Job.

or

which

J. J. F.

follower,Thomas

In

'

personal

Friedrich

Ancillon,

ceived
Consciousness,
con-

from

distinction

Wizenmann

sonal
per-

a
'

Koppen,
and

others

(cf.on

him

DISCIPLES

Al.
the

Freund

Goltz, Wiz., der

der

von

of

source

faith, to the

of

of

and

Herder

consolation

of Christian
'"'''pudenda''''

though original,often
made
works

I808-6O,

H.

and

is the

of

for
with

the

"

at whose

success.

In

which

divine

spiritand

and

time]

less

and

similar

fancy

of

from

in the

work

that

''

language

of man,

nature

who,

things disinterestedly,uninfluenced
far

-witnesses

the

and

the
the

the

from

of

"

aim

of

is one's

what

up

Letters

for the

of the

worth.

divided

in

if it

and

and

national

literature

mann.

Herder

als

1871.) [//

as

Fries

of

of

are,

nature

he

however,

Germany

than

each

metempsychosis

as

works

of

noza's
Spi-

unknown

This

in

philosophy he

seeks

devotion

which

history

Barby,

Rev.
died

Herder

and

in

{Ideen

the

belong
of

; A.

rather

philosophy.

Werner,
Lond., '72.]
Aug.

H.

als

ment
mo-

every

phy
philosoder

exerted

by

Humanitdt,

der

of collecting

work
of

was

of

of

learn

Philos.

zur

grand

theory

does

to

to

was

whatever

; the

declares

realize,is

influence

to

develop

so

language

"Critique

Beforderung

zur

names

of

origin,nor

of

manner,

of culture

1866

in their

humanity

to the

divine, in

principal service

important

to

contemplating
is

Knowledge.

Herder's
of

origin of

the

history

difficult to

{Briefe

forms

of

empirical conceptions

easiest

history
"

the

other

of

the

An

(1772)

need, instead

we

most

in

Hersfeld,
ReligionspJiilosoph,
J.
F.
Thex)logian;
Smith, Theol.

(born Aug. 38, 1773, at

and

idea

the

Metakritik, 1799) against

his

are

argues,

enthusiastic

historicallygiven

tween
be-

forward

puts

language

in

in

from

etc.).

Humanity
his

he

duty.

of the

treatment

nations,

affirms

in

those

in

cate
deli-

most

Kant

capable

of

illustrated

one

how,
not

were

general, by

Herder

of the

the

Herder

finds

is

origin

Faculties
the

Kalligone (1800)

his

; the

faculties;

Human

duty,

Furtherance

various

In

Jacobi,Hamann,

Jacob

not

life,and

as

philosophical

1793-97),as indeed,
human

it

time,

other

Herder

remarks

and

MenschJieit,Riga, 1784-91,

der

out

the

which

Bruno).

thinking being,

desire

Hamann,

are

human

of

life,to perform

lies in his

Oesch.

knowledge

Prussia,in 1744,

with

(conceived

final

God, Dialogues concerning Spinoza's System"

development

Physiology of the

noblest

youth

of

Space

apart from

subsist

Reason,''

that

of

as

by

part after

of Kant.

matter

reason

order

in

(as Herder,

"a-priorism"

form

his

The

it is human.

as

and

exemplified

{Qott^ Geaprdche iiber Spinoza'sSystem, 1787).

in the

he

(His

ity,
human-

poetic Spinozism, filled with

doctrine

entitled

end

the

as

into

development

immortality

the

or

which,

Bruno.

man

Bast

thought,

developed connectedly

G.

[although this form, historically,was

removed

need,"

this

; to

lives of different

dualism,

gradual

to

its

mysteries

thought,

of

humanity,

of the

poetry

emphatic

of

"the

und

Morungen,

at

d priori form

in

and

progressive development

abundant

to the

unity

Etliica

the

preceded*

(bom

culminates

philosophy
of the

Herder

the

of

religion
as

and
realitj'^

essential

an

Spinozism, therefore,

of

Herder's

and

II.).

with

of the

opposition

material
of

idea

personality

form

"

oppositorum

Kant, and

Schr.'ften,
Gotha,
[J. Disselhoff,Wegweiser zu Hamann^

history

endowed

man

appreciation

cosmical

His

solution

of

of

Hamanu

found

the

fanciful

and

of

its sin

honor

flashes

with

Georg

North,"

by

concerns

substance

friend

the

special

far-fetched

the

as

human

and

nature,

empirical

uber

Vortrag

the

the profounder

of the

the

was

of

what

the

Johann

spirit,rent
for

up

priiicipium coindderitim

Christianity

1803, at Weimar),

mind.

' '

Stein's

von

problem

sense

labored

into

latter

"Magus

faith, illuminating them

the

comprehend

To

development
died

holding

respect of

1788), who

the

inconstant

an

in

these

fast,in

by Roth, Berl., 1821-43; cf. Gildemeister, H.''s Leben

ed.

'71.]

in

called

for

degenerated

especially of

use

In

at Munster
was

particular pleasure

took

he

201

KANT.

also, in

consequently,

Christianity.

and

Jacobi,

OF

Jacob'Ps,
Gotha, 1859),held

1730, died

and

support

necessary
and

in

Konigsberg

at

(bom

OPPONENTS

and

Bible,

faith, to the specificdogmas

also

AND

the
to

universal

beautiful.
the

history

(Cf. H.

Erd-

Berl.
TJieologe,

10, 1843, at Jena)

wrote

202

AND

DISCIPLES

series of

philosophicalworks,

the

Reason"

this

the

Kritik

{Nme

the

important of which

most

der

ICANT.

OF

OPPONENTS

'*

the

was

New

Critiqueof

Heidelberg, 1807, 2ded., 1838-31;

Vcnmnft,

mentioned

besides

als ecidenter
: System
foUowiug are
Philosojjhie
und
Wmenschaft, Leipsic, 1804 ; Winsen^ Glaube
Ah/iung, Jena, 1805 ; System der
Logik^ Heidelberg, 1811, 3d ed., 1819, 3d ed., 1837; Ilaiidhuch der iiraktischeiiPhider
Jena, 1818-33 ; Ilandhuch
losophie^
'psycJdsohenAnthropologie^ Jena, 1830-21, 2d

especiallyto be

der

ed., 1837-39; Mathematische

die ScMnheit

Oder

Naturphilosophie^Heidelberg, 1833; Julius und Euagorm

Seele,ein philosopJiischer
Boraan^ Heidelberg, 1833 ; System der

der

Metaphysik^ Heidelberg, 1834.

Ernst

son-in-law,
Nachlass
of

the

alternative

which

we

how

the

and

the

branches

of

at least

in

he

since

deduces
in

the

moral

denied

of internal
every

that

else
his

known

of

theory

mathematical

and

while

only

we

is done
distinct

in the

from

viz.

recognition,
Kant,

that
upon

mental

space,
the

also

upon

time,

material

"

the
ard

representations)

of

sense

this

or

at least

limits
the

the

of

of their

the
these

yet

reason,
sciences

sciences.

and

teaches

ity
absurd-

our

sion
posses-

very

selves,
them-

"

were

well

be

to

be

posed,
sup-

Phenomena

on

of

apodictical

Fries

"

we

(which

empirico-mathematical knowledge,

to

with

assumes,
which

is specifically

claims

the

but

any

science, based
upon

the

to

such,

as

there

priori forms,
:

"

mathematics,

another

claiming

such

subjective

by experience,

objects of

that

decide

must

reality
relative

duty

cognitions

with

that

only

of

consciousness

manner

in

"

is ascribed

expression, it might

in like

can

d pn^icn'i
f since

experience of

these

to

tinently
per-

Whence

intrinsic

character

be

case,

furnish

Supposing

validityas

categories are

the

to

the

of the

an

not
can-

facts

philosopher

critical

question

can

it
"

that
jvistified,

the
posteriori,

internal

not

empirical science, and

critique of

these

immediate

the

is

of

affirmed,

them.

metaphysics,

or

priori

also

as

possess

science
of

supposed

or

the
view

the

induction
have

some

is attributed

we

the

reason,"

pure
real

criterion

apodictical and

furnished
are

said of

be

and

experience

an

from
neither

assumption

this

d priori

either

as

the

himself

apodictical knowledge,

"

himself,which

in

; for

the

the

why

necessity constitute

means,

of

empirical psychology

the

on

therefore, in

may

that

argues

(Kant

departure

of

reason

cognizant through

Kantian

all

"fact

the

and

of

point

become

by Fries, that

experience,
and

same

no

that

apodictical sciences

these

were

whether

may

scious
con-

internal

on

of his

basis

the

his

critique of

"

priori cognitions
as

it

latter

investigations,and
ments,
empirically given forms of logical judg-

for

as

part,

the

character

with

of

existence

critique
its

become

Fries

its exclusion

is identical

it at

the

things

character

consciousness

involves

assumes

demonstrate,

by

by his

handschr.

of

favor

this

of

exclusion

the

metaphysical cognitions

empirical

an

our

internal

that

in

d priori knowledge.

on

means

chooses

same

proposition, that
is

no

says,

The

to

there

decides

apprehend

express

places

experience,

priori cognitions

to

the

; his

from

his

universality and

"

he

question

to Kant.

But

universality.
in the

; the

impossible

indemonstrable

"

is,he

internal

that

alike

seems

seirtem

aus

philosophizing.

to

reason," which

fact, and

he, too, bases

addressed
it be

the

categories

experiences

own

by

since

which

experience

one

in

finds

ethics

philosophy,

consciousness,
be

and

all

resting

as

question

But
as

of

basis

it

"critique of

philosophy.

also

the

viewed

above

mathematics,

and,
moral

the

or

Fries,

the
the
proposes
question whether
possibilityof d pyriori
knowledge, is,on

altogether,failed

metaphysics, logic,and

of cognition

furnished

been

internal
experience,
cognitions d priori. Psychology, based

form

Reinhold

reason,

raised

has

Fries

the

possess

therefore

must

has nowhere
from

Friedr.

namely, through
posteriori,

we

partially, and

critique of

it

only

can

and

experience,

into

inquires

Jak.

by d priorior d posteriori
knowledge,

that

Kant

Theod.

Ludw.

of him

complete biography
Henke

dargestellt,
Leipsic,1867).
reason,

effected

to be

and

pose
imare

its

DISCIPLES

"julyobjects; for
.sumed)

cognition

ioal

"nnded

ast

counterpoise

true, eternal

the

]"raxisof

the

dignity of
of

cunobling

In

belong.
; in the

all

controls

have

by

E.

etc.), Ernst

Fries

his

In

the

with

in many

exerted

respects

kritische

PMlosoj)Me

heurtheilt

of

^'

Erlduternder

also in his

''Compendium

and

works,

other

Maimon,
(which

of the

Jakob

in

that

the

to

indeed, that
well-nigh
the
the

render

material

involves
on

the

affect

the

operation
us

of

before

of

absurd
of

our

from

Schmidt, Jena,

and

principles of

the

Fries.

of

doctrine

the
us,

asserts

the

the

and

of

to

the

time, space,

theory,

supposition,

Beck

representations

they exist); the

(A

kind

on

relation

the
our

the

disposes
the

theory
are

origin
senses,

of the

of

of

author,
the

of the

our

hence,

individual

of

didactics,
would

but

question

themselves
of

for
Beck

affirms

curious
of

senting
repre-

causality.

or

accommodation

phenomena
that

us

in

material

the

didactic

understanding

since

Kant

of

were

of

example

things-in-themselves, and

reader.

impossible. )

the

Wisscnschaftslehre

Fichte's

thereby giving

contrary

correct

die

third volume

Riga, 1793-94), as
Schriften,^''
der krit. PJiilosojjJiie,
1796),

logical inconsequence

by

dogmatic

the

icelchem

{Orundriss

relation

is affected

the

which

from

the

forms

1796, which

empirical representation by

(which

{Abhand-

mathematician

the

partial influence

affecting

understanding

by phenomena

senses

Kant

facilitate

not
such

GeLeipsic, 1854 ; Zur

Menschheit, Jena, 1845-

(1761-1842) sought, after

existing without

stand-point

would

origin of the

depends

as

in which

the

der

PMlosophie? Jena, 1839;

{Denklehre oder Logik u. JJia-

out

kritischen

Beck
the

percipient subject

passages

the author

yet

as

goodness

possible Stand-point

Riga,

muss,

1794), to explain away

representations, and
that the

"Only

Crit. Philos."

probably, also, under

and

appeared

to

which

presentiment, and

and

(Einzig moglicher Sta?idpunkt, aus

KanVs

aus

Sigismund

things-in-themselves
denies

the

werden

Auszug

light

end

important influence.

an

Judged"

be

set

the

ist

Schlomlich,
also

the

as

the

psychological empiricism, the

elaborate

entitled

principal work,
can

the

was

Calker

van

theologian,

an

Philosophy

Critical

F.

eternal

Schide, by Schleiden, Apelt, Schlomlich,

ended

Beneke, who

OeschicJite

und
philosophireri

seen

1857

Inductm\

der

Haflier, Schmidt,

Wette,

; De

others

1847), and

heisst

{Was

Fries'schen

der

E^wcJien der

Nachfolger,Jena, 1841),

seine

und

Theorie

die

The

besides
disciples,
Schleiden,
ed.
; ReliglonspJUlosophle,

Fries's

of

sonal
per-

edge
knowl-

interpretedin

faith

of

Metaphysik^ Leipsic,

; Zur

Ueher

science

equal

between

by presentiment

objects the

natural
is the

is

the

finite is

the

world

the

discerns

reason

important

more

Apelt (1812-1859

F.

Astronomie,

lektik^1822,

On

universe

The

46, etc.), E. S. Mirbt

liingen

religiousreflection

the

Frank, Leipsic, 1860

schichte der

Kant

; in

Fries
all the

plation
religiouscontem-

and

ajsthetic

ry,
nota-

"

which

of morals.

requirements

sublime

and

all in

to

processes

Underneath

above

law,

attempt

all the

mediating link

which

of

sphere

the

The

duty.

beautiful

the

Religiousphilosophy

them.

from

been

S. G.

to the

life of beautiful

in the

things.

derived

not

of

course

tends, and

it

which

eternal

moral

highest

feeling of

the

of the

manifestation
of Ideas

is the

presentiment,

is

principle

this

(An

laws

faith.

and

worth,
flow

as-

is their

vegetable kingdom

objectsof

reality and

world.

mechanical
the

had

explanation,

; circulation

Things-in-themselves,

the

things, are

belief in

; from

men

humanity

faith

and

all

of

essence

mechanical

inorganic
to

(as Kant

not

by empirico-mathemat-

other

of the

law

Schleiden.

Matthias

lies the

reason

each

parts upon

is the

of

susceptible

principalreference

with

"

pupil, Jak.

by Fries's
terms

be

reached

be

can

possibilityof explainingby

made

organic life,was

208

KANT.

things-in-themselveSis

must

indifference

or

OF

phenomena

of their

action

of the

this idea

out

existences

organic

of

; all

laaowledge

the mutual

on

as

arry
of

of

matter

OPPONENTS

existence

the

"even

AND

as

affection

only

to

of

sentations,
repre-

representations
that

our

to other

sentations
repre-

Individ-

204

FIOHTE

uals he leaves
to

the

unexplained ;

Religion
which

is defined

man

him

by

conceives

the

of

symbolically as

to which

the

to
external

time, he refers back

Categories are referred.

the

of

voice

to him

conscience,

and

the Critical

l-*rmciples
of

and

intuition,space

manifold

obedience

as

published J. S. Beck's

was

of

FICHTEANS.

forms

tlie pure

original synthesis

same

AND

God.

as

the

inward

judge,

[At London,,in 1798,

Philosophy^translated

by

an

audi-

of

physics
Meta-

U/r."Tr.]
Christoph Gottfried

'

"

{Brief

still

in 1798), and

gereinigtvon
doctrine

in

logicand
natural

the

The

in the

Realism

Of the

realistic

idealistic

the

adopted

as

the

remove

of

idea

the

correct, and

immediately

from

fundamental

doctrine

Kant,

whole

of

Herbart

took

Fichte,

and

once

their

unity
for

Criticism,

the

Beck's

arbitrarilydisposing of the
could

with

equal right

things-in-themselves

point

of

"

This

this basis.

on

he

essences,

doctrine

latter

opposed
akin

be

being

departure, however,

subjective idealism

of,the plurality of simple, real

at

arguments

Kantian

transformed
his

tive
subjec-

be

personality,and

mind,

of Kanfs

opposite way

to whose

and

should

of his ideas.

in the

"

the universe, comes,

and

nature

Subject by
being

objective

life rises to

association

prominence,

the

the

doctrine

from

but

into

the

of

permeates

contained

contradiction,

by Herbart.

pursued

was

the

of the

to found

speculations,and

later

logic which

feeling of

realityof

elements

element

affection

of

complete refutation

contradictory

of

germs

which

the

the

contain

many

indifference

man

laws

become

the

To

one.

followed,

not

the

thought,

pre-supposes

does

Altona,

at

by great abstruseness,

(Hegelian) idea
; in

two

elevates

Idealism

of

active

of phenomena

Absolute, but

contrary.

contained

of the

same

Origin

of

characterized

was

which

to consciousness

man

laws

Bardilian

course

The

oi^tology.

Bardili,m

says

der
which

and

the

on

Logic {Grandriss der erste/i Logik,

hisherigenLogik^ besonders der Rantischen, Stuttgard,

idea
Schelling's

reason,

"Letters

his

Metaphysik^ published anonymously

der

Compendium

realism,"
of

germ

absolute

an

his

form

"rational

especially the

in

more

Irrihumern

den

of

Vrsprung

den

1800),attempted, in

(17G1-1808),in

Bardili

uher

to

not
his

the

of Leibnitz.

monadological doctrine

a Spinozistic
" 126. Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814),originally
of
influence of
the
led
to a change
opinion through
determinist,was

his
to phenomena, and
causality
of the Ego as a noumenon.
assertion of the independent moral freedom
in theoretical philosophythe
he carried out
Accepting these opinions,
a
principle
principleof the limitation of causalityto phenomena
which he had learned to value in moral
fullythan
philosophy more
not
of representations
that the
matter
was
Kant had done, affirming
derived,as Kant had affirmed,from the action of things-in-themselves
the percipient
the agent of representation,
or
subject,but that both
on
that
of the Ego, and
the result of the activity
and form were
matter
furnished
produces the
syntheticact which
by the same
they were
Kant's

of

doctrine

the

of

limitation

"

"

"

forms

and

of intuition
like the

faculty in
which

us.

the

categories. The

priori forms

It is not
is the

any

ground

of

"

manifold

are
cognition,

given fact,but

produced by
The

of

creative

production,
Ego positsboth

it is this action

of all consciousness.

of experience,

contents

206
"Princes'

School"

position

he

laid

l:)th

KrUUc

aller

and
Offenbariutg)^

by

18th)

year

had

his

choice

in

man

Divine

is."

one

his

1794,

in

atheism,

Government

of the
the

world

Fichte

and

Forberg."

Fichte

and

Forberg, forbade

the

punishment

the

Elector

of

yielded

Journal

censured

beforehand

before

the

he should

of

case

Professors

would

also

to intimidate

meant

in

that
the

and

he

others

of

to

to

stay in Jena, and

seemed

opening
of

course,

himself.

view

of their

to

sacrifice

childish
that

he

own

(Sush
own

all,and

promise

interests,or
to

even

thoughtlessness.)
would

as

leave, which

tone, being unreasonably

wovdd,

teachers,
call to

Paulus
a

was

should

have
as

in

the

others

the

so

reprimanded,
been

request

resented
for

of
and

the
at

only

as

formally

being placed
tend

to them

it

made,

Paulus

by

meant

as

rectly
indi-

longer

where

at

whether
them

to make

an

meaning,

University

have

cannot

enthusiastic

welfare

the

sure
cen-

his persecutors

Mayence,

as

Fichte

colleagues,

would

understood

quit

to

case,

any

place,

Fichte

But

and

remind

distasteful

other

other

case

which

restraint

as

was

Senate,

that

of his

some

the

government,

publicly to

probably

was

render

to

the

might

of

case

This

some

friendship

Fichte

treated

in

and

jeopardize

Fichte

at

of

Academical

procedure against Fichte,

promise,

from

that
"in

itself for them.

offer

and

said

subjects of

immediate
of

of

essays

demanded

editors

its purpose

utterances

of

Fichte, learning

that

to the

an

government

intimation,by

of

led

in Jena.
a

as

acceptable

it out

on

to have

remain

This

by

by permission
of

the

moral

Atheism

the

the

but

intimation

it and

founded

of such

case

to make

more,

not

from

the

and

The

member

Philos.

the

the

imprudence.

to

him.

frighten

others

freedom

likely to

much

with

in the

their

addressed

the

opuscule

of

Saxony

cerning
con-

in

denounced

have

private,

was

threatening

and

was

and

teaching,"

apply

limit

(which

irritated

appears

(Paulus), too,

freedom

the

Fichte,
who

particular of Paulus,

on

added

realityonly
of

their

sharp admonition"

government

in

unjustifiabledismissal

"

for

became,

an

(in

otherwise

to

the

on

Faith

to

on

Jena,

resolve

to

the University with

leave

which

but

him,

receiving

the

letter

that

University of
as

Senate

22d, 1799, and

leave, and

his

take

his

the

threat

; it

dtspute

and

Son

the

doctrine

our

and

in

of

nexus

Fichte

confiscated

Saxony
Journal

the

the

far

so

Academical

March

of

with

to attend

in

of

government

God

his

to

the

Wissenschafts-

the

of

censured

was

Father

circulation

menace

this, declared

of

from

Kiel,

Religion"

conceptions of

the

position

held

depends

introduction
of

Conception

treated

Kantian

filled until

an

and

him

the

"Ground

as

was

sophy
philo-

doctrine,that

chooses

he

the

on

Spinoza,

to the

for

It

Kantian

causal

Introd.

Jena

July
einer

assure

and

one

from

prefixed

the

Forberg,

this
the

by

public), dated

that, in

the

and

that

(between

the

on

dogmatism

essay

which

electoral

forbidden

be

Weimar

made

Fichte

would

of

to

will

applies (First

he

Letter

The

an

which

1), Fichte
"

his

the

where

(Versuch
the

Kantian

1790

to

good-will.

of

system
the

seemed

of

departure

In

equivalent,

pamphleteer

anonymous

1799.

in

as

professorship,which

World,"

No.

as

the

philosophy

"Development

Journal^ Jena,. 1798,

of the

in

and
with

soon

motions

"The

Jena

respect

phenomena,

Reinhold's

the

Fichte's

on

up

to

Revelation"

familiar

1788

Konigsberg,

to

rapidly written

with

as

filled from

went

All

become

deterministic

between

After

successor

by Forberg
order

gave

of

Kant's

won

first

of the

lehre, 1797, Werke, I., p. 434):

of

it

following aphorism of

that the

first and

acquainted
he

non-dependence

the

his

1791

in

"Critique

had

been

previously

especially to

kind

of

causality applies only

possibilityof
of freedom

Fichte

doctrine, which

of

category

since

and

Jena,

at

theology

Switzerland,

manuscript
the

deterministic

is

the

FICHTEAN8.

studied

work,

one

; he

in

tutor

Kant

August

only

Pforta, then

at

family

as

before

and

then

AND

FICIITE

once

in

ready

University, or, finally,in

the
on

dismissal, he

same

account
was

time
of

dismissed.

his

threat

its

defiant
In

vain

FICIITE

did FicMe

explainthat
in his

tudents

:ated Aug.

Fichte's

protested against
latter

which

contradiction

that the

construction

only

of

the

the

between

religiousopinion

In

men.

-of Erlangen
of 1805.

In

French,

the

in the
in the
the

where

he

Academy-building

Fichte

the

at

Critiques^

to

of

utterance

an

(at

there
in

entered

time

German

; here

Nation^

1807-8.

of

of

that

other
of

cated
edu-

Prussian) University
semester

summer

of the

consequence

into

and

circle

the

only during

short

winter

time

the

made

was

He

numerous

supposed

empirically given

of toleration.

that

he

WissenschaftsleJire
was

the

before

that

that

own

fitting discrimination

in the

to the

founding

and

previously declared

Berlin,where

to

lectures

for

the

109, 1799)

in his

had

went

declaration

Schlegel, Schleiermacher,

went,

lectured

that

him

lectured

he

Berlin, in

at

Berlin

and

in which

Friedrich

his Addresses

of

Kant's

according

not

Kant

manner

repaired

professorship

180G

preparation

University

like

right, assured

; but

of

summer

letter,and

the

Fichte

altogether faultj"system,
of Fichte

dishonor

petitionfrom

unsuccessful.

appeared

doctrines

Great,

with

to him

No.
Allg.Litt.-Ztg.^

the

to their

delivering public

year

of

civil

1805

Konigsberg,

to

and

soon

given

was

Fichte
the

be

afterwards

ghostly impression,

intercourse

was

the

but

coupled with

arisen.

not

without
of self -consciousness,

out

Frederick

familiar

note, and

of

men

sjoiritof

of

world
a

reprimand

not

an

the

^In

letter.

production.

king, in
relations

long

to discover

the

him

on

ephemeral

an

Not

judged according
with

material, produced

could

to
IiitelUgenzblatt

attempt

to be

spiritin

but

as
WissenscJiaftslehre

any

were

meant,

the

of

professorialchair,had

remained.

7th,1799, in

regarded

'";

well

was

Professors

other

lid the

favor

of the

207

FICHTEANS.

supposed by him,

case

freedom

tho
restrainin^j

and

the

AND

advance

he

Professor

(1809),

gaged
en-

delivered

were

Appointed

institution

the

already

was

which

of

he

in

continued

until

his

from

caught
and

his

herself

Fichte's

the

on

who

Belf

"

to have
or

of the

name

as

intentional

was
desire),

Fichte

to ascribe

the

to

have

contract, and

his entrance
fdea of the

the honor
This

of

the

''

Science

and

to Free

Knowledge

( Ueher

pure
at

form

knowledge
AUg. Litt.-Ztg.,and almost
; when

the

which

the

been

to

the

of

of the

the

this

of ourself, in the

following
of

the

who

rests
;

ment
Judg-

idea

all

Ego.
pure
published the opuscule

Begriff der

Klop-

Europe
Public

State
ideal

ble
possi-

procuring

sister

develops

by contract, yet
nearer

of

became

error

it had

Princes

Correction
Fichte

Jena, Fichte
den

him-

Fichte's

daughter

from

which

not

describes

coinciding indications

work

to the

in

out
with-

appeared anonymously

Thought

Contributions

in the

they throw

essentiallytowards

married

constantly brought

law

hospitals

publisher

the latter

of Kant
a

the

without

Jen.

the

work

1793

year

Revolution,"

be

he

preserved his

are

by

numerous

contributed

Fichte

his professorialduties
of

arisen by oppression and

it must

measure

upon

French

in

be

circumstance

Right

from

authorship of

In the

in the

light which

issued

publisher and

reviewer

of the

suppressed it," and

positive finds its

the

system,

his

spirit,and

appears

part of the

by

sick

1790

year

for the

the preface, in which

which

Switzerland,where

concerning the
although States have
on

the

the

his

fever, which

nervous

In the
iSennons,1791.
publishing-houseof Hartung) his Critique

Kantian

without

call to Jena.

in

"Reclamation

hitherto

and

at first

Kant.

his subsequent

in the

omission

Elom

of the

care

development;

the

(from

of

died

of interest

are

intellectual

constantly modifying

to the

following.
which

"

philosophical public, to

received

writings(written
stock)

the

on

supposed

universally by

him

are

written

author

beginner,' (an

been

known,

infection.

Konigsberg

at

He

herself

the

author's

the

appeared

1814.

devoted

Deism

and
lieligion

of all Revelation,which,
the

had

from

profession, and

of January,

principal works
on

history of

1792

year

wife,

recovered

Aphorisms

27th

the

death, on

of his

duties

in the

earnestly engaged

that

ideally
that

is

After
on

Wissenschaftslehreoder

the
der

208

FICHTE

AND

FICHTEANS.

aogenannten PJiUosopJde,
Weimax, 1794), and
Knowledge"

der

{Orundldge

ZaJuJrer^Jena

and

(JJeher die Beatimmung

the

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year

The

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titles

of his

and

dates

lectures

Qelehrten) were

des

Foundation

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Destination
in

published

//cre/i,"
on

Science

Orundlage

and

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1794, and

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Wissenchaftslehre.1790

in der

of the whole

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gesammten

Leipsic, 1794); the

"

the

1795

Scholar

the

to

Letter

of

seine

same

in Philo-

GrundriKS-

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Wissenschaftslehre.1797 : Elnleitung in die WissenscJiaftslehre,
1798:
Versuch einer neuen
Unrstellung der W.-L.^ in the Fhilos. Journal.
System der
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an
;
Principien

Principien

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1799 : Aprpellation
das
Publicum
an
gottticheWeltregierung,in the Philos. Journal.
eine Schrift,die man
des
lesen
ehe
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sie conzu
bittet,
man
Anklage
Atheismus,
gegen
Journals
des
and
Der
gerichtliche
philos.
Herausgeber
Verantwortungsschreiben
Jiscii%
1800 : Die Bestimmung des Menschen
die Anklage des Atheismus.
geschhsgegen
; Der
1801

Handelsstaat.

sene

Bericht

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Publicum

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Versuch, den

ein

Nicolai's

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uber

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:

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zu

seligenLeben.

zum

1806

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der

phic^
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neuesten

OrundziXge
Beden

des gegen-

die deutsche

an

Nation.
In

of Aenesidemus''^

"Review

the

Reinhold's

positions of
the

Skepticism against
in

1792

Reinhold

and

from

principle,but

one

"

by
For

Subject

that

to

mind

the

prepare

expresses
and

opinion

Kant's

from

to him
he

pronounced

held

to

the

the

Ego,

fast

also

that

this

and

that

the

of

leaves

it

that

in this

was

there

non-Ego

the

doctrine

alone

"holy

spiritin

"

therein

proof

is not

fancy,

pure

the
the

That
of

which

of

limits
absolute
Kant

did

philosophy
simply

nevertheless, adds

Fichte,

plan,

regard

in

But

they

as

to be
was

to

tinction
dis-

themselves,

in

are

the

sionally
accepted only provi-

deceived,

became

soon

of

Aug. 7th, 1799,

"three-quarters

on

learning

man,"

but

things-in-themselvesindependently of
contradistinguished

corresponds
Kant"

was

his

things

Reinhold)

"

furnished,

dently
qualities,indepen-

derivation

the

particular he

no

of Reinhold's.

demonstrates

Kant

Declaration
to

exist

which

this

possibilitythat

Criticism

theoretical

higher conception

negatively dogmatic.

and

us

latter

letter

be

is sufficient.
of

basis

definite

certainly intended

"

the

in the

Apperception.

(above-mentioned)

no

must

resulting from

to

appear

that

there

open

; but

as

"Principle of

representative faculty,is

in

that

(in

for

various

philosophy

they

Kant

conviction

thinking Subject,
and

as

conditionally; "

of which

explains
derivation

such

things
the

of

with

derived

be

must

both")

to

serve

doctrine
and

admits,

representation is distinguished

referred

attempted, namely)

first

science

the

for

basis

critical

existence

of

written

was

Reinhold's

damental
fun-

defence

which

higher principle than

is therefore

and

the
and

the

on

with

doctrine

purpose,

only

can

transcended

Reinhold

this

philosophy

Skepticism

progress,

for

way

the

of

being

some

yet be

may

between

clear

in

"

Schulze

Reason"),

philosophical

Object,

of the

contents

thing possessing

of the

consciousness

the

system

single principle,Fichte

discovered

Fichte

whole

notion.

irrational

an

effectualie(what
a

and

representation,and

impossibility of such
not

In

"

thus

Subject

existence

the

human

from

for

essential

of

notion

of

the

the

finds

the

dream,

body

runs

Ernst

AUg. Litteraturzeiiung,Fichte

questions whether,

the

mental

of

that

Fichte

whole

Gottlob

Philosophy, together

of

the

for

but

philosophy ;

of

Critique

principle of Reinhold's, hegirgues,

this

than

(which
from

of the

Jenaer

the
the

that

Schulze,

Consciousness
the

in

work

Elementary

pretensions

published

and

(the

had

with

the

thought

from

spirit of
more

in

the

correlative

critical

aocordaace

losophy,
phiwith

in

already

real

time

same

intelligencewhich

lehre)Fichte
from

of

unity

finite

intelligencecan

the

he

of the

subsequently

{Qrundlage

derivation

If in the

proved.
the
of

of all

in

that

conceive,

the

every

foimda-

Kant's

doctrine

of the

whose
principles,

in

Wissenschafts-

der

philosophical knowledge

consciousness

synthesis is repeated

mere

done,

be

proposition A
as

prius of

the

I am,

Ego.

mutual

of the

The

tents
con-

tion
logical rela-

divisions

all the

of

Fichte's

we

2. The

Ego posits in

3. The

Ego

to the

itself

from

distinction

divisible

to the

opposes

definite

left,as

be

not

knowing

for

have

subject,we

the

substance,
the

poses
pur-

A.

discovered

judgment.

of

all acts

of the

made

ground

principle of logicthe proposition A

the

as

regard

pay

be

is the real

discovered, though

be

can

"

act

positionto existence

from

obtain

we

this act

' '

This

being.

abstraction

inference

of the

form

which

from

A,

proposition :

logic must

If in the

Ego

three

Ego originallypositsabsolutelyits own

logical principle A

I,and

and

1. The
of the

in the

in

expresses

thesis, antithesis, and

System.

ciated
enun-

qualification: "for

became

Knowledge"

finds

apperception,

of this consciousness
of

had

really and

are

intelligentEgo,

every

rest,Fichte

things

single principle. This principle,Fichte, setting out from

tiranscendental

the

of

Science

problem

the

to solve

seeks

by

conceive,"

intelligencecan

the

that

doctrine, without

(This

of the

"Groundwork

the

For

Hegel's doctrines.)

Schelling'sand

tion of
In

finite

be

to

intelligencewhich

every

truth.

done.
doctrine

conceived

be

must

is,for

logicaltruth

therefore
at the

they

as

the

review

above-named

the

such

themselves

personalityhad

in his individual

Kant

truth than

209

FICHTEAN8.

AND

FICHTE

Ego

(Non-A is

non-Ego.

divisible

non-Ego

not

A.)

which

act

an

"

is twofold

:"

a.

Theoretically : the Ego posits itself

b.

Practically:

corresponding logicalprinciple is

The

Ego,

is
intuition,

which

the

pure

being,

when

Reason
after

in

our

in

ends

should

reason

infinitum.

Ego
5l5

p.

is

; cf.

seq.

"

the

which

the

by

away

Sun-Clear

it

within

Statement,"

is

and

us

only approach

can

rational

is

being,

laws

in

Sonnenkl.

itself.
the

as

by

end

p^ogress^

longer

no

accordance

with

WmenscJiaftdehre,1797,

the

rational,

the

without

before

it sets

universal
to

consciousness, the

Idea

as

of intellectual:

Ego

of

object
Ego

reason

ultimate

Introduction

(Second

developed.

of
the

Ego, which

this

this

Ego,

and

reason.

or

the

begins, or

But

universal

strive,but

This

"

subject

the

with

individualitybeing swept
this

determined

as

principle of ground

individuality.
forth

by tlienon-Ego ;
by the Ego.

determined

or

Knowledge

conscious

without

practical part

its

the

of

Science

perfectly set

it has

which

prolonged

yet

as

"

the

identity of

mere

Ego-form,

limited

Ego posits the non-Ego

the

The

with

as

vidual,
indi-

which

Werke

I.,
II.,p.

Bericht, 1801,Werke

382).
From

these

respect
believed

that

he

deduces

principlesFichte

three

of content

and
was

form,

and

adding

the

also

of

whole

of ethical

norms

Kant's

to

the

Critique the

theoretical
In

praxis.

completed

philosophy

in

doing Fichte-

so

of

system

the

pure

reason.

If

from

specificact
in

the
of

general, we

judging, and
have

the

category

category

are

obtained

of

Negation, and

Similarly,the

other

by abstraction
14

of

in

it

in the

only

Reality.

make

we

abstract

we

am,

regard

principle given above,

the

proposition :

case

the

of

If in like

the

judgment,

mode

abstraction

of
third

of

action

manner,
the

action

in
of

also

the

forms

the

Ego.

and

the
the

in the
of

principle,the

activityof

categories,as
from

all

the

human

case

category
of

mind

of the

judging,

material

of

sense

we

of

ond
sec-

have
itation.
Lim-

perception^,

210

FIOHTE

Oroundworh

in the

Not
Fichte

first arrive
itself

free

as

Subject without

also

rational

other

But

therefore

must

as

external

beings,

having- found

first

It

in his Natural

but

pluralityof individuals.

to itself.

external

being.

rational

of Knowledge^

of the

deduction

by something
by

FICHTEAN8.

the Science

of

at the

AND

it

only

can

Bight

does

Eg-o cannot

itself determined

conceive

itself,and

to

The

ceive
con-

mination
self-deter-

to

be solicited to self-determination

not

the

only

hence

sensible

posit itself

as

world, but

Ego

one

among

several.
*'

The

Systematic Ethics

Sittenlehre

der

nach

in the

morality
an

of

independence.

intelligentbeing,

In

acttial total

of

From
a

part

addressed

Religionicithin
them

allowing

the

the

of the

Science

the

world.

So,

Government
of our Faith in a Dimne
Charge of Atheism^ supplementary to the

Ground
the

which
''

The

living and

itself

God
ia

ground
inference
of

the

be

caused

head

and

that

ground

certainty, and

his

by

every

for those

sphere of

conception
lawful

the

there

essay
was

rally,was
view,

was

the

belief

tue

on

work

to
a

far

earth,
at least

and
so

in

immortality
belief

long for

of

this

no

him

is

the

with

the

that

of

prating

in

kingdom

advancement

that

of

God

cause

things,

all

the

be

on

it

of

gods

and,

to two
has

earth, i.
as

the

out
with-

together
an

that

order

the

e.

and

the
it is

that

the

(Forberg,
whether
acted

will

maxim

of
impossibility

iv.o-

point of
of

articles

been

for

instant, and

artistic

an

as

abortively,

mythology
in

this

far

ground

uncertain

was

that

falls from

hair

honor."

to

come

always

goodness

in

so

contradictory, and

confined

there

for

schools,in

of the

in

less certain

be

and

that

of

an

the

place

work

must

cannot

religion as monotheism,

e.

of

results

reflect

will

prefixed, declared

virtue, i.

result

of

no

is
no

him, except

one

"

is

as

falls to the

things

all
who

impossible

religionshould

good'.

There

the

as

certain

bad

joyously doing right, may

was

dence,
confi-

the

opuscule,

other.

; that

plan

every

good,
to

the

on

is the
of

his definite

has

sparrow

it
reflection,

put down

to

compatible

the

hand,

God

in

Defence against

power

most

befalls

that

polytheism, provided only

})referable,and

in the

the

result of his

Fichte's

; that
as

other

the

from

only absolute, objective truth,

and

succeeds

particular substance

consists

which

God

quite

the
the

plainly, and

religion,which

true
in

this

to say

as

year

above-cited
no

ments
ele-

religion),

1798

particular being

aU

operation)

only heartily love

On
highest interest.
frankly confess to himself
God

result

moral

in the

assuming,

individual

is

its

the

of

of

religion to faith

all

belief in

and

an

means

immediately

of the

absolute

in

of

extra-moral

all

purely

to

The

the

in

the

upon

by the

returns

supposition

terms

comprehend

every

vidual
indi-

susceptibilities(whereas

opuscule

order

; that

action

truly good
who

; that

conduct,

own

the

their

of

world

is reckoned

the

awaken, by

reduces

it is rather

doubtful,

of the

the

emanating

Fichte
the

existence

at all

his labor

in

to

accessory

can

of all

(within

it ; that

the

aids

are

Fichte

says

of tha't moral

to its cause,

able

moral

former.

and

God

outside

going

order

that

other

Ego

pure

of the World^ and

It is not

it is the
moral

order,"

freedom
freedom

the

Reason^

practicallyconfirmed,
moral

no

caused

"

and

it may

and

for

order."

is

there

order,

need

reason

more,

nay,

also

operative

we

from

that

his

finds

he

his

devices

of Knowledge
particular,in

in

the
the

that, on

religionis

they

{System

principle of

exception

empirical Ego

assumes

senses,

that

the

intelligence,that

without

the

the Mere

of

human

only

Knowledge"
finds

Ego.

pure

man,

to

the Limits

be

to

stand-point of

order

moral

the

of

morality
the

Fichte
of

religion "statutory,"denying

and

God,

Through

Revelation

notion

representation of

infinituminto

on

revelations

in his

Kant,

in

degeneracy

and

and

morals.

All

Critique of

the

miracles

of

law

approximation

an

in the

absolutelyand

be

must

manifestation

The

is the

Ego
of

way

such,

as

of

Wit^senschaftslehre,
1798)

necessarily involved

idea

of

Principles of the Science

the

upon

Principien der

den

or

faith
be

\'ir-

rule, to

success

is

AND

FICHTE

not clearly demonstrated

whether

wiser

and
rather

or

it

thereby
the

lay

to

impossible

even

Paulus

to

was

old

latter

the

in

in

Forberg
while

decided

always
which

has

unbelief

at different

real

times

perish
it remains

can

eternal.,

Cf.

Lowe,

Die

"Destination

of

Man"

{Die Bestimmung

after
his

Absolute

of

the

Ph.

of

point

in

departure

which

He

seligenLeben).
thought places

the
three

more,

communion
In

he

with

God,

alters,lectures

regulated

are

few

elect

for

it

yet

and

firmer

completes the
reached,
the

and

third

lester

of

of

hand

to

1813

In

"

energy

^Grantthat

is

sciously
con-

something

versal
uni-

life

freedom

has

in

few

according

on

p.

relations
character

of which

was

by
was

the

disappeared for

defines

time

Fichte

human
of

tinguishes
dis-

relations

the

external
in

reason,

into

enters
this

the

reason

the

in which
of

end

world.

as

in

in the
with

freely

art

earthly living

Fichte

history

equality

form

race

this

all

;
in

authority
only

science, in order

delivered
of Politics,

finds

in the
the

which

his

age

summer-

advance

results

is

from

from

the

understanding.

most

to excite

1806)

instinct

reason

that

adds

expressing itself only

with

of another

508), Fichte

of

that

now

gegeniddrtigen Zeitin

compulsory,

relations,the

the Science

To

(in agreement
and

Fichte

in which

science, and

to

lute
abso-

morality, religious

des

mere

it the

associated

his

himself.

pleasure

Berlin

at

the

{Anweisung

customary

of

Works,
gion,
die Reli-

through

creative

and

into

"

the

Expo.ntion

of God.

1. That

in which

human

who

make

his

against

{Grundziige

with

That

comes
be-

fervid

iiber

Lif

been

stand-point

weaker

and

is

Reden

over

previously

painful effort by

art

printed

his

Blessed

non-Ego,

periods

faith, toward

mere

moral

object

first
in

truly Existent,

Age"

higher spheres
IV.,

of human

the

categorical imperative,

become

is

to

especially in

to the

Way

the

the

by these

Lectures

on

and

it had

five

off ; 4.

( Werke, Vol.

the

an

unreal

authority,

mould

of Fichte's

Nation,

or

in which

the

1801,

1804-1805, printed

history

treads^the

race

epoch.

alone

Present
in

disposition of

ipletearrangement
The

of

this

^ginalinequality, resting

"'.nnan

the

is transformed

That

the

of

instinct, having

rational
our

Ego

224-230.)

pp.

higher, namely, positive or

compulsion

; 5.

seen

philosophical knowledge

exists,is thrown

science

as

form

as

the

in which

is

as

ideas,

"

in his

life,which

at Berlin

this

That

as

shape of
surer

without

persons,

all ; 3.

which

and

philosophy

in which

of

in the

regards

delivered

in the

parts, into

to

year

distinguish, viz.

to

duty

which

the

as

nature,

"Characteristics

the

2. That

Ethics)

in

seen

God

defines

external

of

consciousness

in its

philosophizing,

is also

as

practicalstand-points
Kant's

itself

tained
enter-

Idea

of the

of

out

to

etc.

that

only

Menschen^ Berlin,1800)

of Schleiermacher's

some

and

entrance,

with

but

expect

Fichte,no

to

individual

or

seq.),

ways,

Spinozism.
opposition
came
controversy respecting Fichte's atheism, Fichte

the

II., 1845),into

two

developed
des

24

end,"

According

life

the

F.'s,Stuttg., 1802,

Idealism

of the Science of Knoicledge (written

found

has

which

total

or

letter

Reichlin-

and

in different

eternally ;

in

term,

therefore

of Fichte's

presentation

himself

me

ception,
con-

former,

Zdt, by

faith,

for

be

vidual,
indi-

difficult

more

s.

of

elements,

severed

which

Soon

the

those

and

exoteric

zum

; into

sense

manifested,

u.

need

will

expressed

in the

Flchte-B'dchlein,
p.

opinions respecting immortality.

ever

the

which

full

and

Vol.

he

I had

be

each

kindred

new

Later, also, in

Paulus

in

; cf. Hase,

end,

originally severed,
in

real,

The

the

it would

persons.

life have

of

judgment

religion,"a

case

given

seq.

of my

until

affirmative

more

become

Being

position

no

Fichte, although

that

Ego

in my

continue

"In

"

being again swamped

many

and

1821,

of

which

of

the

it to

term,

danger

Meldegg, Stuttgard, 1853, Vol. II., p. 268

affirmed

left

old

an

confidence

Coburg

at

to

wholly aside, in

term

secure

(written

unite

the

place

to

to

finally,Forberg- had
to

211

FICHTEANS.

manifested

in

his Addresses

spiritualregeneration

from

the

visible world

of

the

; let

us

to the

nation.

give it

212

refuge

around

in

the

the

us

shall

lead

the

Pestalozzian

the

and

at the
for

later

the

stand-point.

But

and

more

doctrine

of

; the

(1706-1848)
Baptista

of

man

"

Kant

rising

the

fresh

and

no

Schlegel

in

his

all

of modesty

formalism

novel,

and

to the

F.

Schlegel

was

unable

Fichte's

of

of abstraction

transferred
found

consequence,

in

thought
but

in the

of

protagonist

that

which

lier
ear-

Fichte, having

was

of

set

sciousness
self-con-

the

pure

his

philosophizing;

in

viduals,
itself all indi-

ent
inconsiderably differ-

means

doctrines
and

of

for

and

time

Bardili, and

poused
es-

partly

Niethammer

Imm.

Friedr.

writings

the

of Johannes

lectures

is the

all the

above

recognizes itself,its

it

his

was

iV^mZ^.9

war

against morality

he

and

faithful

plant

in

is

to the

said, that

true

of

means

of

with

comparison

consciousness,
Akin

ironical

Hardenberg,

von

with

performance

common

conduct

Ego

pure

Opposing,

which

in art the

of the

(Friedrich

the

sees

dried

limits

for

genius.

(referring to

laborious

art than

with

rises

of

cultus

inwards"), Schlegel

struck

of

to

ethical

in

afford

volition

(as Lasson, in

in

by his

extreme

to

1772-1801).
criticism
in

the

his

Lucinde

the

Schlegel,

arbitrary pleasure

work

on

Fichte,

p.

their

historical

in

far

of the

so

philosophy

his

which

satisfaction

Notwdthstanding
Irony of

and
the

novel

content, the

Catholicism

him.

Romanticism
and

"

impudence

positive

subsequently
the

may

subjectively Fichte's

of Knoicledge was
the

categorical imperative

thought

permanently

doctrine,

for law

into

ling,
Schel-

thinking,

which,
(Berlin, 1799),
against the
legitimate warfare
degenerated into frivolity. (Schleiermacher, in judging of the
it his own
ideal conception of the rights of individuality.)
more

praise

absence

same

Fichte'%

form.

later

principle

Forberg C1770-1848)

commonplace,

his irony and

"

the

between

doctrinal

denied

no

into

Germat*

in

teaching

Schlegel (1772-1829), substituting

genius

of

Science

the

in

is maintained

had

which

type

Schlegel carried

owing

the

and

Since

above

even

between

comprehending

as

adopted partly

comparison

in

more

Absolute

the

warm

intensified

Mehmel.

the

of

vulgar

flower.

the

its

too

apperception,

that

to

bad.

Fichte's

be

to

is,consequently, by

Friedrich

jurisprudence

above

duty being
the

A.

became

Jacobi, the formalism

"with

of

Carl

doctrine

G. E.

genius,

it is not

afterwards

Fichte

by

by Friedr.

Inspired by Fichte,
the

in
on

German

happens

and

was

difference

than

Fichte'

which

distinction

The

influence

own

of the

between

that

and

to

were

self-sacrifice in

State

of his earlier

advanced.

hand

afterwards

same

and

Schad

the

good

beginning

which

educated,

love

which

principle underlying

sharp

the
a

up

earlier.

down

also

Jacobi;

of
"

perhaps interpreted

other

system

by Reinhold, who
those

his

education,

elevation

is

grows
tion."
manifesta-

finds

cheerful

in the

see

in which

is less in its substance

conception

his

laid

to

between

of transcendental

his later

from

in matter
The

contrast

1804

development

still farther

the

on

in the
that

further

individual,found

every

more

and

that

ethical

moral

engage

in his Addresses

with

of

Fichte

with

fatherland

true

difference, and

doctrine

Kant's

of

is

the

The

everything German,

overestimated

exaggerated

to

in

him

the

identified

philosophy

probably

from

led

manifest

Schelling

later

and

of

doctrine

in which

who
have

which

mode

new

which

by the

essentiallyto
young

rises and
outward

to

particular proposals,

fanciful, but

the

thoughts

of

and

his

by

not

and

civilization

almost

morality,

is

these

altogether

independence.

nation

cultus

was

Fichte's
direction
earlier

of

German

bring

an

contributed

national

head

the

foreign

out

idea

Fichte

for

extravagant

and

in

cosmopolitanism,

stand
love

It

thoughts, until there

our

by

and

especially inspired

struggle

earlier

system.

FICHTEAN8.

to

power

reached

be

exaggerated

discourses,that

nation,

an

is to

personal activity

to

of

recesses

world, having

end

great extent
his

innermost

new

This

in

AND

FICHTE

as

relation

they

individual,

not

were

240,justly remarks)

to

ted
substitu-

' '

th"

direct

214

SOHELLING.

Schelling'sWorks

have

Aun

HchelliiK/H Leben,

SciiellingisC.

llosenkr.iuz's

1843;

18U3), and
the

of

the

1843

Notice

Berlin, 1859 ; Mignet,

Ex(anen

Transactions
Vol.

laphiloH.

de

critique

of the

X., 2, 1865,

thum

of

Aiad.

der

Berlin

the

Philofiophie

The

Einheit

als

of

son

(1855)

Kl.

permanent
of

in

the
in

II.), and

the

in

of

Theol.,

Brandis

: E.

B.

and

the

Weber,
in

of

Nature,

in

his

added,

Leipsic

at

at Jena

to lecture

the

at Munich

years

of Munich

1841

to

and

bom

at

tis

He

that

died

expUcandi

the

fall

The

essay

of

Schelling'tfpositive

Leonberg

church

wrote

the

But

work,
in 1794

as

the work

Eeinhold's

theorem

the

form

Ego,
and

opuscule,

content

"

On

which

the

he

for the

of

to
nor

show
a

that

merely

and

conditionate

each

of

formal

other.

; this

In

of

of

earliest

Herder.

Times,"

written

in the

the earliest history of

epistolantm
and

emeii-

to

more

losophy.
phi-

Elementary Philosophy.,
Fichte's

and

review

of Knowledge.,and
Philosophy" (published at

neither

posited coincide.

academic

the Science

Possibilityof anyForm
seeks

the

more

Aenesidemus,

Idea

in
at the

narrative

ideas

Paulinarum

constantly

principle of philosophy

positing

mutually

the

his

biblical

1-65),was
and

Reason.^Reinhold's

on

in
and

years

up

the

of

pp.

criticism

E. Schulze's

of

origitiephUosophema-

of

basis

Marcione

Wiirzburg,

summoned

gave

to the

gave

(No. V,,

of

in Switzerland.

Philosophemes

directed

was

opuscule

of consciousness,

in which

De

entitled

the Pure

Fichte's

also

and

began

abolished

several

malormn

the

Testament

of New

Kant's

Tubingen,

in

1792, he

were

he

Erlangen

at

was

his

studies

Academy

Thence

soon

in

departure
at

the

lectured

lectured

of Ragaz,

Memorahilien

in Paulus's

Schelling's interest

answer

in

Legends,

department
the

1795), in

identity, can

baths

the

of

latter.

C Antiquissimide prima

Historical

He

revelation, but

at the

Critiqueof
Theory of Thought.,G.

read

New

Maimou's

20th, 1854,

the

1798

philosophy

at Landshut

University
in

after

of

27th

the

on

to which

In

member

of Sciences, he

and

mythology

there

secretary).

Professor

mathematics.

made

allegorical interpretation, on

in 1793

belongs
He

this

became

philosophy,

professorship

the

written
criticum'''')^

an

To

datore.,1795.

of

he

Dissertation

Myths,

appeared
spirit.

same

1827, when

and

remained

was

permanent

of the Academy

August

man

on

its

and

he

year

in

city, on

tentamen

"

the

later

member

Master's

his

which

appointed

was

to

and

philology

science

colleague of Fichte,

founded,

in

University

natural

(and

Berlin,as

labors.

1797,

he

1820-1826, and

that

In

and

filled till 1806, in which

he

Sciences

as

1803

In

the latter.
which

in 1796

also

but

Bert.

der

Berlin, 1869.

Wiirtemberg,

only theology,

not

in the

Address),

Monatftber.

early developed, entered

1775, Schelling, whose brilliant parts were
the
at Tiibingen. His
at
theological
Michaelmas,
seminary
1790,
year,

included, however,

1-

pp.

Christen-

of January,
sixteenth

the

Transactions,

XI., 1, 1866,

Hartmann,

v.

A.

Beckers,

(Memorial
in

Leibnitz,

also

lie

und

Schelling'sPhilos.

deutsche

to

of

neueso-n

liomantik,

der

Hubert

by

papers

etc., ibid., Vol,

Athenmum

occasion
des

Schelling's Metaphysics,

fur

Cf.

the

on

Kritik

PhiloHophie

die

Significance

Jahrb.

other,

Schelllng (Leips..

Schelling. Paris, 1858

Immortality,

others.

tSchopenhmier,

clergyman

und

de

of

Significance

Ki'ntiij,

zu

and

Sdielling'schen

der

i
oi,

Berlin.
Qffenburungii2)hil(m"phie,

; and

Sciielling's relation

on

Vol.

und

Hegel

vo7i

M.

de

and

by Hoflfraann,

Bcickh,

Schriften,

country

Schelling

and

published

(Glaser),IUfferenz

doctrine

true

by Bamberger,

(1863),and

Acad.

(1855;

Wiss.

the

the

Fichte,

addi

sp"!cialw"jrk

Univer.sUat

der

utL

F.

be

may

1809-70.

Offenbarung,

Schellimfscheii

Noack,

these

worki

K.

son

Michclet, Erdmann,

were

die

uiid

et les iravaux

(On

Sciences

401-449; Schelling's

by Dorner,

which

writings

der

; L.

of

Reinhold,

on

Sch., these, Strasb., 1800

de

On

399-546;

pp.

Cultur

moderne

und

Trans,

of

Acad,

pp.

112), by Ehrenfeuchter,

Kritik

la vie

sur

religieuae

Bavarian

1803,

IX., Munich,

ibid..Vol.

historique

works

Schelliug

Leips., 1842;

Marheineke,

1842:

Mi'cnchen, Heidelb., 1845

in

Schelling

; Salat,

Berlin, namely

diefreie Fhilosophie,

gegen

geCuchen Plalosophie, Leips.,

Fries

Jak.

1842

iSomnier

im

to the

his

by

To

1775-1820), Leips,,

historical

the

edited

was

lfc"56 seq.

Augsburg,

years

controversial

several

in

lectures

in

System

especially, of

work,

works,

recent

Schellings

lieactionnverimchs

and

the

^covering

of his

accounts

works,

more

among

opening

2 vols,

contains, in addition
and

unpublished,

iSc/ielliny,Vorlenuii(jeii. gehuUeri

cf. the

earlier

among

remained

Div., 4 vols., Stuttgard

2d

edition, which

complete

had

till then

Brie/en,

in

bery^ Dantsic,
also,

that

Div., 10 vols.,

Ist

Bchelling,

in

published

been

much

previously published,

one,

such

principle
the

principle,like

material
as

the

must

principle of
be

contained

proposition Ego

Ego,

215

SCHELLING.

next-following work,

the

In

"Ego

the

on

Principle of Philosophy," etc.

as

(Ftwj

das
oder uber
Unbedingte im menscJiUchen
Wissen, Tiib.,
Philos(yphie
Philos.
the abin
the
1809),
solute
Landshut,
Schelling
designates
Schriften,
1795, reproduced
cler

IcJi ills Prmd'p

Ego

the

as

by

distinction

does

not

depend

question

Kantian

How

of

to

therefore

knows

causality of

the

only

as

absolute

power.

Journal.^179G,
Criticism,

his

on

the

Philos.

in

old

of

between

of the

nature

the

remove

other, viz.

the

reason

the

of

mutations

which

on

this

two

all

than

in

so

far

as

in the
we

of the
time

and

"

of

in

Kant,

denies

is to

ground

' '

is

be

Kant

purely

affirms

is

not

in

the

pure,

"

Fichte
his

I," in

the

are

the

one

in his

one,

sensible

but

is in

all

Kant,
the

gues
ar-

Wissenscliaftslehre,^^
Philos.
in

Journal,
that

spiritwith

think," to be

the

purely
The

principle of

is thus

answered

ground

of

supersensible.

philosophy, to

;
tuition
in-

us.f

empirical thought.

assertion,that

the

the

in

intuition,in which

our

der

"

or

of himself

lost

are

agrees

assertion,that
in

is

in it he

that

intuition

Niethammer's

from

the

eternal

the

intuition,yet Schelling

sentence

diifers

in the

obliged,in his theoretical

we

eternity

and

from

behold

that

doctrine

own

all,"says

us

mystic)

the

as

Idealismus

des

the

to

one

Schelling, dogmatically

intellectual

an

of

the
which

describes, however,

is lost in this

absolute

Fichte

internal

philosophers

found

that

in

he

recognizes it
it is not

of

peculiar experience,
supra-sensible world."

(like the

necessarily precedes

whether
an

argues

believes

Erlauterung

zur

of

Spinoza,

world

and

believe

from

both

and

innermost^

our

that, rightly

in

there

out

diate
interme-

withdraw

can

would

make

deduce

dwells
we

selves, and

in us,

possibilityof

which

by Reinhold,
Both

us,

the

; and

reduction

"There

an

connection

to

doctrine

systems,

the

which

idealist

that
Scliriften)

himself

apprehension,

apprehension

Schelling:

Philos.

Kant

question raised

absolute

'97, first published

and

in the

since

intellectual

the

Abhandlungen

1796

reprinted

the

the
but

only

as

trophies of

thinker

God)

contradictions

(That

hence

But

disappear for

Kant

(in his
and

to realize

objective world,

duration

Although
written

absolute.

strive

is

of which

and

intuition."

realistically
objectifiesthis intuition,and
loses himself

is

know

intuition.)

an

of

existence

Kantians,

virtue

appears

candid

but

etc.

Philos.

(particularlyin

seeks

unity

personality.

of the

out

up,

itself,

is

(in Niethammer's

every

object by

of

morality, wisdom,

build

Realism.

vision

we

The
in its

there

consciousness, no
as

the

disrobed

; such

that

knowledge

object whatever,

designed precisely to

and

an

Ego.
out

Ego

no

mutually repugnant

and

innermost

"intellectual

abstraction

of

is

faculty,by

immutability

to go

finite

knows

which

full of

Reason

Idealism

our

depends

terms

an

of

for

majority

subject

wonderful

into

of

alone

Schelling
rather

time

form

the

under

between

systems

Schelling, ' ' a secret,

of

Schelling

criticism,and

possibilityof

antagonism

the

Ego

to

place of

argument

Critique of the Pure

the

understood,

in

about

again."
the

by
and

dogmatism

''

found

moral

as

In

Criticism"

and

of
the

to

Ego

ditioned
con-

object.

any

content

ScJiriften,
Landshut, 1809), Schelling

back

understood
thatAl!riticism,

whole

conceived

be

excludes

absolute

unity

no

Dogmatism
he

the

the

infinite

and

Dogmatism,

structure

consideration

the

Ego,

presupposes

prioripossible? is,considered

non-Ego ?

is the

object

by contra-position

comes

cannot

whom

of

system

the

Ego

Letters

Kantians,

new

wish

with

and

of the

opponent

sooner

infinite

"Philos.

the

In

How

But

consciousness

no

The

against itself

posit absolutely over

consciousness, i. 6., personality.

and

itself and

this

than

other

; the

knowledge

human

subject

and
rather

Object, but

an

synthetic judgments

are

highest abstraction,no
and

in

knowing
subject

between

upon

through the Ego

determinable

be

must

the

unconditioned

is the

Ego

object ;

which

Ego,

absolute
The

an

The

principle of philosophy.

true

This

symbolize,and

our

tal
men-

by
ments
judg-

sible
supersenhe

speaks

216

SOHELLTNG.

therefore

of

things-in-themsdves
as
this

With
of theoretical

peculiar

places

the

as

at

to make

head

of

it the

which
theoretical

merit

practicalalone,

nor

of

interpretation
contempt

of the

as

of the

Platonic

is

had

reproductions.

also
from

the

something

originallyforeign

accidental

one,

which

for

them

it works

transfer

to

with

freedom

and

perfect

eternal

and

fanciful

and

In

the

the

ErM'trung

zur

also

the

to

Real

the

there

remains,

the

by

of

solved
the

only

the

same

truth.

subsistence

in

the

far

so

the

itself.

nor

took

"

"

like

understood

even

by

external
he

that

proves

laws

If, for

him

in his
with

is the

condition

Schelling

did

on

not

true
the

that

the

contrary,

direct

his

of Kant

the

the

object

Ego,

others

and

strict

his

"

with

And

is

it

ridiculous

more

and

and

that

Ideas

for

the

1800,

"

between

the

his

after

him

out

of

is

that

condition

certainly
case

of

believed
of the
an

every

consciousness,

that

of

to

exist

of

of

the

of cog.
Kant's

had

been

nature,

as,

and

jier-

profound

this

and

relation

while

both

particular
but

good

there

problem

existence

idea

to its

real

the

of this

place

mined
deter-

problem

Kant's
of

these

all

represented

between

that

"

that

at

next-following writings,

erroneously

in the

human

the

not

according

solved

; but

part determined

absurdity

were

and

exists

him,

to

in

tions
representa-

applying

as

connection

in this

not

the

to

be

also

they

problem,

in his

is the

mind,

knowledge,

but
Kant

by

freedom

had

"

as

Principles of Natural

must

difference

different

followers

of

Relation

disciples, the

holds

no

profundity

genesis
of

'*

the

edition, Hamburg,

though

as

perfect

himself

essentially

an

of

represented

are

and

latter,and

it subsists

attention.

world, this

this

system

First

the

resistance,

teleologically speaking,
of

they choose

where

; and

thinga-in-themselves,

laws

rest, Schelling

Schelling

law-givers

at

things-in-themselves,

on

which

Hegel

the

world,

ings.
understand-

supreme

as

on

essay

of

the

to
and

without

to the

such

things-in-themselves, do
them

sense

second

an

philosophizing, unconsciously

nature

act

forms

originality

mind,

it is not

the

to

obey

it;

That

that

the

realityare

to it than

1798,
Hamburg,
year
Wdtseele^ eine Hppothese der hijhereii Physik

it is not

doctrines

time

aR

in their

in the

and

Development

since

infinite

productions and

govern

(and only) part

annexed

was

or

were

The

of propriety ?

existed

never

first

der

priori

the

same

time.

But
on

the

they depend

as

reality, in

of

(l

unsolved, although

hand,

other

depends

that

at the

discussed

was

remained

manent

in

mind,

and

nature

at

Nature,

representations

our

this

out

cognition,

and

problem

on

of

objects,

nition,

( Von

etc.

1809,

things-in-themselves,

originals

between

in us,

must

pleasure," generates

theory

in

representations,

representations

fiame

has

(2d ed., Landshut, 1803),

Ideal

of

pleasure

speculative

allgemeinen Organismus

call up

they

these

by them,

the

they,

good

own

tradictions
con-

tuted,
quite differentlyconsti-

be

consists

world

the

of them
"

relation

engraved

are

same

Leipsic

at

critique is only semi-pertinent,

which
since

be."

third. Hamburg,

and

This

There

would

World-Soul,"
des

their

the

on

and

world

they

well

as

losophy
phi-

contradictions

others

other

no

understanding

their

to

this ?

one

appeared

of Nature"

"Of

just

the

with

infinite

in
the

things-in-themselves, applying

according

taught

such

1797

year

Philosophy
work

Kant

than

these

the

that

nature, obeys

necessary
that

pretended

real

of

laws

and

conceptions

of

spirit it is neither

of these

; but

them

whence,

or

the will, so

of

pretation
historicallycorrect) inter-

Nevertheless

might
how

its

Most

having

that
Kant'

literal (but historicallycorrect)

itself

For

this

founder

misapprehension.

own

mind.

which
not

nature, having full consciousness

nevertheless

no

and
know

in

by others

mind,

the

upon

which, they

These

human

the

Schelling speaks

man

scholar

in

principle whicli
autonomy

since

the

just

particular, he lays stress

out

of

mind

Kant's

the

involved.

Schelling's

the

to

is accidental

laws

by
for

that

In

pointed

creative

not, then,

am

been

the

likewise

essentials

substances.

as

resulted

else than

nothing

in

interpretationbecomes

and

and

Of

things -in-themselves

ideas

that

undeniably existed,
world

at once."

and
(Aristotelian,

in which

only supposed,

both

it is

becomes

thus

higher philosophy,

but

Kant's

For

principle of
and

for our
tions.
representanot, like Kant, treat

does

extends

he

the

philosophy,

called

justly be

can

that

practicalphilosophy,
all

material
he

because

practical philosophy.

consists, namely,

principle of

give the

dispense,

can

from

philosophy apart

Fichte's

of things which

Fichte

symbolism

act
form

of

ing,
knowof

real

217

8CHELLING.

founded
iflosopTiy,
year

"

Entwurf

"

Introduction

smaller

work:

of Speculatwe Philosophy,
In

1800).
real

poles which

depends

argues,
There

of Nat.

The

the

first and

first

Transcendental
ideal

lowest

must

to

World

highest formations,

the

as

recapitulates,in
of

yet

is to

nature
endeavor
would

that

of

so-called

dead

nature

nature,

which

highest
which

in

should

resolved

be

general, is

into

call

we

us

it is made

evident

transcendental

either

be

must

of

with

the

and
thi^!

and

Sal.

Maimon

and

practical,and

the

the

among

the

existence

1, July, 1790,

of

existence, etc.,are
allowable

as

an

"

cause

of

pp.

47-92.

in

forms

thought,

which

without

and

useful

to natural

of

inorganic

and

one

"

or,

general,

organic creations,of animal

perfect theory of

of

only

that

parts

of

of
are

the

Berlin

of

forces

sensible

"

science,

the

world,

Plato

life,and

of

one

cannot
of

soul

of understanding

herself,
is known

the

mental
funda-

at

we

ed.

can

treats

by

no

A.

more

of

Riehm,
affirm

plurality, unity,

/but

employed
world

reason

con-

phers,
philoso-

Iilaimon

soul, since

of the

unity of

once

ancient

the

among

formity
con-

philosophy,

to the
be

may

and

of all

in

philosophy,

be

the

on

end

necessary

Aufkliincng,

'fur

that

theory

into

If

note-worthy.

most

Schema"

generally,

relates

ideas

Journal

than

"

her

that

(1) theoretical

how

the

in

intelligencenature,

other

which

highest

nature

philosophy,

subjective.
the

character

which

"

and

herself;

Her

by

completely
with

nature

dead

the

more

or,

man,

returns

philosophy

soul

The

to reflect

nature

to Kant
correctly, that/according

remarks

of

hypothesis,

souls

He

plurality

aU

transcendental

by Kant,
in the

universi)

underlies

reached

explains

of

incited

else

intelligence.

office,is

three

of

which

assumption

thinkers

of

nothing

phenomena.

the

divides

into

branch

(3) that

all science

intelligence,'or

an

latter

Schelling

subject("7e6erdie Weltseele, entelechia

Vol. VIII., Art.

the

Critiques of Kant,

ScheUing's predeces.sors in

Of

has

philosophy,"

three

(2)practical philosophy,
the theoretical

of nature

which

of

office of transcendental

arising from

notions,

tendency

originallyidentical

The

objective as
to make

philosophy,

science

is

nature

Schelling

fantastical

all her

than

the

of the

conceptions of

is

first

nature

Conscious."

the

else

nothing

which

that

the

is to show

hand,

philosophy

is

through

reason,

intelligenceor

as

other

reflection,which

last

the

from

Soul

system.

iatelligence,whence

herself,

to

to

The

attempts

immature

an

the

to

reason

of

and

and

theory.

abortive

but

are

wholly objective

become

is to

and

whereby

the

with

phenomena

it?

with

philosophy.

fundamental

necessary

intelligence. This

to

all nature
of

The

subjective

of nature

progress

erroneous

intelligenceshines,though unconsciously, through

end,

in

nature

which

by

products

follows

as

natural

connect

unconscious
but

from

pass

to
be

worth),

permanent

it is

understanding ;

our

existence

is reduced

with
"

the

it,or

of

two

order, and

ideal, in turn, springs from

the
Idealism.,

mixed

or

tem
of a Sysshow)

to

on

in

activity of

the

world

objective

of transcendental

the

assumes

System of Transcendental

his

the

added, agreeing

organism

explain

to

the

which

philosophy (which, though

his natural
are

order

is

other

also the

how

pp.

(Tiibingen,

to his Sketch

with

agrees

element

visible

"

All

other.

unconscious

or

Schelling

organizing principle,by

an

as

the

In

it.

explained by

be

real

contrary, shows

the

on

the

nature

and

first element

which

the

in the

Davidson,

Idealism.,
goes

the

objective

an

{Erster
with

knowledge, he
factor,/
or
subjective element

Transcendental

speculative physics, the

of

considers

physical philosophy,
real,and

jjhilosophy,reducing

conscious,

or

is

how

ideal

or

Introdiictmi

made

following

I., St. Louis, 1867,

Idealism

each

demand

subjective element

problem

is that

problem

and

objective is

the

to it

is added

there

subjective

objective with

System of

/ Either

Vol.

Harris,

Schelling, especiallyin the

in the

and

the

an

Tom

of Transcendental

System

of

T.

the

Philosophy"

[translatedby

etc.

presuppose

agreement

sciences.

how

is made

the

on

Philos.

fundamental

asked

mutually

accordingly (as

are

"

the

Natural

Leipsic, 1799), together

and

by W.

edited

workspchellingconsiders

these

two

as

followed

Then

2V.].

"

Sketch,"

to this

In

Light").

of

System

Natiwphilosophie^Jena

Journal
19iJ-230.

of

Sketch

First

Syfitems der

eines

Principles of Gravity and

the

upon

published the

was

in

as

man.

he

the

regards

ground

218

SOHELLING.

ceived

governed by their objects,and

as

ideas,by showing
the

words,

doctrine

transcendental
relations

cousciousuess
their

to

powers

the

its ideas, in

into

far

so

that

making

degrees

this

as

of

stages

the

whole

fact that

the

objective to

through

intelligencesexternal
the

beings through
whether

part of

their

all

erected,

action

others,

the

inviolabilityof

the

order

legal

impulse

to reaction
needs.

be

in the

sought,

of

of

against
last

that

or

proof

the

regarded
exist

by

as

as

resort, in

No

as

determining
of

existence
between

the

unconscious,
of

free

then

as

God

himself

of

God's

is

the

in

or

free.

higher element,

If

history

the

itself is

separates itself for the

is

superior
and

purposes

never

gradual
pointed

be

can

; it is

All

order

moral
this

to

that

under
the

manifestation

of this manifestation

of

trace

whole

latter

be

to

of

of

of

freedom

is

of that

into the

conscious

the

identity

conscious

revelation

law, and

the

of the phenomenal

will
of

in virtue

condition

ground

only

fully completed

; the

the

was

end

tice,
jus-

is the

revelation

the

conforms

absolutely objective, the

to the

must

of

law

history as

world

the

which

being

as

their

of

law
of

where

out

all

single intelligences may

of

only conceivable
both

in view

history approaches

end

with

to convert

gradual

only through

be

must

rule

common

and

the

on

particular State
a

son,
rea-

Originally the

realization

progressive

But
of

Nature
shall

despotism.

to

than

rational

action

attempts

the

phenomenal
a

is

objective, or

harmony

originalseparation

action.

To

All

of all States
The

arise

freedom.

free

higher

It

world

individuals

requirement

for

in each

completed.
the

it.
the

absolutely subjective
whose

of

or

establish

This

history

be

can

between

constitution

really visible

existence

former

to

other

the

of

of

legal order, disposed

men

whole,

the

and

in

that

other

justice,which

end

and

commerce

room

identical

as

otherwise

condition

freedom.

good

of nations.

integrant parts of God

soon

single passage

of

of

of

and

subordination

the

History,

law

interests

led

of

Areopagus

an

pre-established harmony
the

violence

;
the

abortive

are

guarantee

History.

Absolute.

the

providence

order

accident

leave

an

organization

all its attributes.

mutual

second

of

upon

with

to

be
the

becomes

myself

cannot

is the

which

limits

in the

law

moral

with

not, conformably

namely,
first,

natural

The

administered
substance

into

immediate

the

above

those

world

ing
return-

individual

commerce

The

without

intelligenceis

look

the

me

this

must, however,

that

so

to

consciousness

to

do

degrees

between

only through

shall

left to

be

cannot

it were,

as

within

end,

successive

of

succession

which

intelligencesbeside

objective

or

resort,

succession

There

succession

without

freedom.

my

the

shall

beings

it cannot

at rest ; but

the

action

of his

; and

me

of

of

medium

all rational

restrict

to

Now

as

of objects external

idea

consciousness

the

to

come

; the

me

it

the

other

are

last

intelligence

in the

or

intelligence is forced

circle

there

is made

itself.

limits,itself

which

one

self-

processes

in the

because

effect,

to

organization, because
its

of

epochs

of

rest, is organization.

never-ceasing reciprocal

intelligences completes
is only through

into

self-organization. Among

at

Only

at

as

in their

and

successive

is necessary,

cause

representing

or

acts

part of his

knowledge

Leibnitz,who
regarded
is, properly understood, in reality not different

from

returns

of

reducible,

idealism

spondent
corre-

activity; in other

in the

are

by their

theoretical

; the
and

universe
; the

the
stadia

mind

Organization

transition

permanent,

necessarily be

must

itself.

the

conscious

In

of matter

monads,

succession

represented

or

effort

unending

can

of

idealism.

intelligence,is,within

of

of

and

various

is extinct
forces

forces

productive

succession

itself,and

various

in the

condition

itself in its

being governed

as

art.

the

(mental) representation

sleeping

of

considers

Matter

the

transcendental

view

there

ideal

of

as

with

of nature.

All

latter

and

adaptation

rediscoverable

are

from

object

natural

development.

matter

must

stadia

the

identity of unconscious

philosophy Schelling

to the

of

of

the

and

the

tation
manifes-

ending,
necessarily un-

Absolute,
and

the

which

uncon-

219

SCHELLING.

which

Bcious,but

the

and

both

is,in

eternal

in this revelation

the

of their

ground

of the

Absolute,

respectively,of fate, nature,

tragicalperiod, the ruling
greatest and

flourished,and

ever

In the
thus

second

into

period Schelling represents

whereby

the

nations

art, and

science

nations, were

had

been

only

into

brought
manifest

become
the

was

is

adapted

one

and

to

the

same

perception,

The

identity of the

of this
the

freedom,
of

latter
of

separation of

the

in the

aesthetic

terms

is

such

condition

is

of nature
the

science

Where

; where

and

problem
of

' '

solved

be

genius

in

here

the

Art

to

perception of

our

because

its

forth

is

organic products
has

highest function,

remaining

tradiction
con-

tory
contradic-

genius,

is

of solution

mode

infinite
the

is intensified

in

in

its

by genius.

except

for

short
in

Leipsic, 1800-1801)
by Steffens, a
"

Physics
can

go

him,

herself

nature

forth

of

We

direction

includinga

of

presence

can

the

art ; but

the

perfection brings

which

beauty,
Science,

be

one

in

different,since

always problematical,
is the

highest

of

union

Speculative Physics" {Zeitschrift

fur speculativePhysik^ 2 vols.,ed.

and

to articles

Categories

utterance

of natural

are

to

finitelyrepresented.

disappears
its

tion
percep-

required

are

contradiction

in

sciousness
con-

phenomenon

necessity.

"Journal

in addition

the

mechanical,

artistic

no

with

be

only possible through

art

artistic
the

activity),which

activities

the

and

intrinsicallyinfinite

an

must

in
itself,

in

in the

sublimity exists,there

which

That

judgment

to solve

problem

same

the

is

production

Ego,

united

are

"

mony
harNature

art.

in the

it

nature,

is for

Ego

in the

from

the

necessary

and

beauty is,there

but
object itself,

absolutely accidental.

as

by Schelling, Jena

which

an

The

unconscious
two

infinite element

Beauty.

opposition.

for

norm

it is

The

infinite

an

appears

freedom

true

in the

Artistic

object.

principle and

while

and

these

and
degree that it involuntarily destroys itself,

the sublime

and

since

object itself

reconciled

not

are

products

in

or

unconscious, namely,

production proceeds

united,

as

in the

of nature's

But

the

apart, the former

exist

different

which

of fate

On

the unconscious

and

the

adaptation

end.

an

and

(namely, conscious

infinite,finitelyrepresented,
is removed

the

conscious

production.

product

of

conscious

perception

All

natural

Republic,

providence, and

as

work

mere

and

; this

morality, law,

that

period,
itself

desire.

law

to

Roman
of

is

which

nature,

as

among

providence.

in view

once

the

be

the

isolation

the

what

eternal

an

itself

of

third

develop

to

revealed

things which

activities

two

all free

in

represented

in the

art.

at

two

"

products

separated
The

identity

will

termed

humanity

elements

of

the

activitydepend
created

noblest

conformity

expansion

In

periods,

be

may

manifests

state

periods

the

as

object of only

whatever

seemed

imperfectly

an

conscious

ends, although not

perception.
of

and

of the

mechanical

and

three

unconsciously destroys

now

the

nature,

or

what

even

of

commencement

of unconscious

contact.

fate

as

that

least

in

preserved

mutual

foregoing periods appeared

will

fate

together,

and

identityof

eternal

characterizes

first,which

is the

with

beginning

united

were

the

as

appeared

he

extinction

earth

upon

history at

as

In

falls the

period

before

introduces

gradually

history, which

fully blind, coldly

return

what

period,

in

dwells,the

it

Schelling distinguishes

providence.

power,

whose

harmony.

or

and

; in this

grandest

light in which

inaccessible

on

and

contains

General

nature

"

the

same

of which

close

is of

volume

philosophy,
the

manner

development of the giant-mind, that is as

Man, we are told, can look at the world

of the

ourselves, or from

knowledge

natural
forcible

to

particular, in

in

Deduction

Schelling,at the

to whom

adopts;

poem

clear

by

from

"

if

ourselves
account

contains

also

deserves

fundamental

Dynamic
is found

more

which

and

say

am

to

than
"

to

be

volume,
or

the

all

of

but

whom

the

else,is that

the

consciousness

God

of

noteworthy

nature,

mentioned,

conception
the

first
Process

Miscellaneous"

petrifiedin nature, into

"

the

part,
as

ting
set-

gradual
in

man.

it cherishes

220

SCHELLING.

in its

bosom, the mind

that

forces

to the

of the first

and

outpouring
into

matter

light, which

new-born

of the

eyes
One

higher

life."

Schelling
that
and

the
the

In

know

to

gives

Schelling apprehends
Ego

All, All

the

latter

Ego

=r

his

the

and

stand-point
the

on

from

One

volume

is founded

own

objective idealism,

1803

appeared

he

of

they

also

force,
ever

Journal^
the

on

it,and

the

orem
the-

adds,

subjective
in

are

selves
them-

of

of

potencies

of

difference

which

The

the

subsequent agreement)
him

in

by
subjective idealism

the

which

are

are

of mind.

Fichte's, is indicated

former

in

of

sand
thou-

towards

of this

as

nature

hope

the

figurative employment

of

stadia

the

things

things
By

first ray

philosophy

all

unseen

into force

is One

impulse

indifference

stadia

the

with

creation, and

heavens, there

that

know

to

exposition of the

no

the'

second

reason.

how

(hypothetically, and

his

subsisting between

shows

Schelling

He

Subject-Object.

se

per

in

are

and

"

bent.

total

the

as

force grows

transcendental
but

Reason,

true

they

as

formulae

mathematical

is the

them

and

conceived

straggling of
to

the

in the

System,"

absolute

be

must

second

forces,One

of natural

the

Reason

objective.
is

of my

first

swell

blossoms

like

of

interweaving

of

reason

and

the

vegetation, when

by night, illuminates

as

co-ordination

is out

nothing

livingjuicesof

first buds

Exposition

''

his

absolute

One

From

things.

through night

by day,

and

the

founds

that

breaks

world

changing play,

the

and

matter,

in all

moves

the

terms

as

the

formulaj

of

Fichte,
of

system

:
on

absolute

identity.
the

In

year

Principle of Things"

the

{Bruno

Dialogue
iiher

oder

Berlin, 1802, 2d ed., ibid., 1842), in

Giordano

on

God

is

the

Bruno's

given

Ideal.

teachings
to the

only

not

''

The
dem

aus

Exposition of

der

teaching, partly
in the

second

the

Philosophy

from

the

the

fact, pointed

universal
which

has

been

in his

would
are

by

articles

for

that

of

that

Weiss"

and

which

both

as

its immediate

regard

to

absolutely

its

and

science

and

absolute

identical

in

ascrioed

to

form

in his

1802

yet
72

seq.

Lectures

its

and
a

basis

absolute

e.

with
,

die

is also
of

of

absolute

contrary

and

the

his whole
of
des

495,
elet
Mich-

articles
;

yet it

system

Academical

akademischen
here

defines

having,

knowledge

intuition,which
itself.

The

for

With

[das Urwissen].

intellectual

tinction
dis-

Rosenkranz

doubtful

Method

Methode

knowledge

Logic,

and

knowledge,

science

direct, rational,or

object,i.

by

Zeit, pp. loG

outlines
the

inferred
of

the

yet

of all

identity, the

is

;
and

of

furnished
be

may

Schelling

Tubingen,

Relation

who

ed., ibid.,1830).

of

subject

iiher

the

authorship

on

(1802)
Journal

philosophy,

s.

"

System"

year

contra, Rosenkranz

The

The

( Vorlesungeu

absolute

u.

Philosophy

Hegel.)

3d

Hegel

in

spiritand

distinction

made

already

cf. per
,

in

"

On

Hegel,Berlin, 1889,

1803,

philosophy
with

;
p.

same

transcendental

time

Darstel-

of the

by Hegel,

in it of the

in

are,

by Schelling, as

and

at that

Hegel

written

absence

natural

Construction

on

be

must

the

form,

the

190-195; Haym

pp.

"

and

delivered

were

Studiums, Stuttgard
philosophy

of

occasionally to

Kriiisches

"

in this Journal

journal, but

Berlin, 1861,

I.

the

not

of

name

{Fernere

Exposition

publication of

was

Schelling'sauthorship
Vol.

"

the

"

partly

the

Zeitschrift
fur speculative

In

essay

Schellingund

in his

given by Schelling in popular

Study,"

the

also

published)

was

Divine

Dinge^

der

founded

Philosophy"
Neue

of the

the

The

by Erdmann,

Michelet

Oedanke,

seem

for

in General

it is demonstrable

in favor

Riickert

Hegel

1802-1803.

Schelling,
Dantsic, 1843,

in Der
on

with

out

Journal

the

part of philosophy, from

asserted

pronounces

"

of

number

greater

of

and

Here

object, but

in the

continuative

partly

Philosophy

to

of

doctrine

of Plato.

Zeitschrift
far specul.Physik.

himself

Philosophic(Tubingen,

Natural

as

and

of the

Schellingassociated
der

volume

one

Natural

gottlichePrincip

teaches

System

Philosophiescontained

Brunoistic

volume

the

und

and

subject

the

on

TimcBus

the

on

of

indifference

Further

System
lung
Physik^ Tiib., 1802; only
en

Schelling

partly

or

natilrliche

das

which

and

"Bruno,

is

expo-

222

6CIIELLING.

Orient,found

entire
earlier

that

times

while

highest beauty,
and

philosophy

prophetic

of

character

of the

in

other

pointed

The

first books

them

back

of

history
and

they

the

in the
of

of

he

The

as

the

that

subject

particular part

in itself.

end

an

in the

universal

and

which

The

lost

so

particular things
and

necessary
as

it is pure

idea

than

in the
In

production.

art

philosophy,

hand,
the

various

is in

art

real

the

to

philosopher,
The

turn

ideal.

who

system

gave

proceeded,

ever

the

of

place
more

Schelling.

more

and

gloomy,

adoption

on

only

and

familiaritywith
adaptation

of

all
the

of

the

are

is the

It

the

of

monuments

is

art

the

magic symbolical mirror,

in the

But
to

from
a

this

time

his

same

on,
and

syncretism

yet at the
in

writings

time

separate

other.
on

the

Art,
other

coincides, as
aim

of

the

of his science.

essence

was

the

tively
rela-

own
copious productivity
he
as
mysticism, which
grew,

his

pretentious.

more

works

doctrines

to

of natural

But,
she

far
no

science

necessary

was

not

previous philosophical productions,

philosophical

so

to express

each

mentioned

far

thus

Ideas,

science,

history

true

it,
the

science.

science,in

highest form,

philosophy of

the

antagonistic.

in her

which,

natural

seeks

completely interpenetrate
is

in

of natural

business

or

through which

of

body

from

constitute

of natural

side

itself,and

phenomenal

Object,

founded

empirical

is the

subjective is

and

mediators

exoteric

science

an

time

same

separated

nature,

in

procedure

phenomenal

with

beginning, Schelling'sphilosophizing
founded

the

science

the

these

"

of

perfect

measure

the

been
it

ideal,
divine

formation

Subject

has

the

of the

poem

which

are

Ideas
absolute

with

of

The

mer
for-

the

jectively
definite,sub-

by

with

ideal

more

and

act

Identity
which

of

is at

whole,

reunited

in the

in

the

eternal

the

everything

of nature

acquire

it,as

tory,
his-

Gospel.

is,that

real

is the

to become

the

identity expounded

original work
constantly

To
in

sees

of

the

Empirical

philosophy,

to

earliest

absolute

is in that

State

for

in

phenomena.

and

an
sense

Every

correlate,theory,

what

reconciles

of

methodical

existence.

real

be

the

in view

history

narrower

means

The

products

the

pendent
de-

philosophical
empirical reception and

the

world-spirit,as

everything

through

is not

for the

idea

From

real.

eternal

side

real

objective presentation of

otherwise

recognize
like

objective

an

degree

in its whole

of the

given and

in the

in Cod.

its necessary

to its

idea

are,

is
Christianity

of the

State.

unity,

of

of

of the

phenomena.

condition

the

by

this

they

as

religion
pleasure.

universal,it cannot

proclamation

synthesis

striving of

own

exist

can

necessary

Experiment

its

of vital

general ground
is the

the

measured

and

methods,

treatment

it,while

of

of

in the

other

history

or

in

being

soul, and

has

for the

expresses

of the

for

is the

Nature

objective.

latter

mirror

idea

it

particular and

Nature, Schelling'sleading

and

artistic

objective organism of freedom,

made

of the

also

pragmatic

and

is absolute

unhappy

of

of

Christianity. Since

documents, weighty

distinguishes, as

facts, the

understanding.
each

it,but

by the

Philosophy, in recovering the truly speculative

and
stand-point of religion,
prepared the way for the

History

what

ideal

presents history

in which

of

of

but
be

must

found

religion and

influences

making

the

to

were

popular

explained
the

and

birth

gave

elements

by it.

the

of

study

proposed end,
which

created

worth

distinguishedin

was

art

the

to
is

Christianityare

idea

of these

Christianity,as

history

ascertainment

of
their

development

also recovered

on

expresses

the

express

The

of esoteric

opposed

"

susceptible to

doctrine

and

it

and

Hellenism, mystical

ideal,teaching self-denial

exegesis

world

new

stand-point, has

construction

the

; from

Christianity

men

Christianitj^and

the

on

in the

In his remarks

of

spread

rendered

history
of

Christianity.

regeneration

soil of

particular manifestation

dependent

made

The

to

in which

this

Hellenic

Platonic, pre-eminently

of the

perfection

in

the

on

times, which

imperfect expression

on

religion

even

Christianity.

that

of

bed

yet,

the

"

Christianityits permanent
current, which

of

but

individual

From

the

system-making
rather
thinkers

direct
; the

223

SOHELLINQ.

extended

therefore,he

more,

his

study, the

and
Occasionally
system.
])rinciple
founded
A
mysticism,
Study.

"hord

mystical

did

more

his

is struck

Neo-Platonism,

on

the

in

point of

Lectures

in his

and

"

in

lack

thinking

afterwards

demical
Aca-

on

also

the

on

gain ground
begins
provoked by
Boehme,
Uebergange zur
NichtpJiilosophie''''
(Erlangen, 1803,
lyer's ^'- PhilosopJdein ihrem
of Jacob

iloctrines

.vhich

the
of

that

affirms

Schelling

history,
the

later

affixed

this

Schelling's)

*"'

old

and

beauty
in 1807

and

Plastic

Arts

of form

the

included

and

in

that

through

in

and

reserve,

which

in accordance

of

higher

ever

greatest beauty

order

combination

in forms

Untersuchungen

iiber das

the

Wesen

Schelling

conceptions
can

become
; he also

of

reason

the

is
way

the

holds,

Lessing,

of

the divine

things have

^vil, so

first

to

basis

and

[or cause]
momentum.,
nature

basis

of

their

ground

speak, a part

they

seeks

"

the

or

abyss"

in God

it the

God).

the

natural

the

him

zusaramenhiin-

and

beings

have

they
in

the

three

himself
which

Boehme,
a

truths

into

mysticism.

bare

human

race.

lowing
Fol1.

momenta:

tion
; 2. Differentia-

nature

evil
of

highest

that

to

of

is yet present, is

doctrine

this

In

of the

to

conciliation

God

on

losophical
"Phi-

the

1809).

truths

in God

divine
or

is not

imperfection

in

eternally grounded

service

leads

Identity

which

on

All

of

personality

no

(a refinement
of

and

any

end

to

{P?dlosop7iische

etc.

die damit

of revealed

of

this

and

whole,

to attain

comprehension

ourselves

be

to

; 3.

forms

comprehension

such

Schelling distinguishes

in which

In

are

to reach

in the

Martin)

St.

und

rational

into

infinite

faithful

be

beauty

Freedom,"

transformation

existence

; it is that

reality.

up

the

Boehme,

the primordial
Indifference,

The

if

Schelling

of Jacob

that

first

the

meaning.
increasing inlluence

the
and

only through

taken

be

necessary,

it is

by

Schriften,Landshut,

clear

first tends

of infinite

Freiheit

Phihs.

the

of tJie

annihilation

original force, and

manifold

of

Human

main

ing
concern-

highest benignity,

as

must

the

delivered

works

conceived

as

of

and

Bohme

of

principle that

can

own,

with

by which

into ground

in

possible, since

absolutely
lead

the

to

be

must

really our

us

But

adheres

of Jacob

the

as

and

idea

in

Relation

the

on

appears

creative

blending

menschlichen

der

(A. F. Marcus

Festrede

the

in

elementary

perfection

consequence

Nature

genden Oegenstdnde, first published

work

in her

eternally

final

in

losophy
Phi-

Verhdlt-

ideas

the

of art is described

highest simplicity

Theosophy predominated
(partly
Schellingof Franz Baader, the follower
Inquiries concerning

is contained

of

produce perfection and

and

of the

extension

their eternal

to

in

philosophy,

perfect existence,

most

in

of the

the

wahren

des

theosophical elements,

nature

her

the
with

their

is limited

in

as

of

Relation

Lehre.,eine Erlduterungsschrift

and

end

as

only

nature

moment

certain

works,

of form

only beginnings

Wissenschaff''(Tiibingen, 1800-1808),

als

ultimate

final

Relation

the

on

true

Schriften (Landshut, 1809),

the

perfection

products

earlier

which

is the

Yet

(Barlegung

natural

development

PJiilos.

the

in which

"

in

opuscule (above-mentioned,

the

Fichte^schen

of

presence

of

in

ing
think-

falling away

which

God.

World-Soul)

the

in

of

of

the

work;

Fichte

essays

products of

revelation

on

of

Medicin

excellent

emulates

at the

and

mind,

the

the

who

artist

represents her

true

in

Nature^

to

severity and

the

An

the

der

art, expressed

through

towards
so

of ideas.

order

and

Jahrb'dcher

contain, notwithstanding
the

Doctrine

philosophical

remedying

"Exposition

verbesserten

1806),

ersteren, Tubingen,

work

the

improved

to the

in this

of the
also

as

from

the

are

fall,the

perfect

visible

are

edition

Nature,

the

of

Naturphilosophiezur

nisses der

and

corporeality

second
m

of Nature

der

and

means

Eschen-

Religion''''
(Tubingen, 1804),

that

stand-point

the

to

the Ideal

to

Philosophieund

declares

the

was

work

advance

an

finiteness

absolute, but

of

Real

'-'"

religious faith),viz.

from

and

Jacobi, demands

like

Eschenmayer,

to

aim

to

"

the

only

tiated.
differen-

the

ning
beginprehensible
incom-

; it is the

pertain
who

to

finite
the

makes

existence

in

the

SOHELLING.

of

"ground"
made

the

with

one

is

of

before

is

and

self-determination.*

separation

central

just

being
it

as

Nature

is

of
after

God,

In

the

the

controversial

gottlichenDlngen
tduschenden. Luge
that

his

him

both

theism

and

; the

vain.

is the
The

World

on

form

the

concept

his

Munich

different

the

concept

only

mind

He

The

the

on

in

of

"History

condition,
Nature.

1841)/
Schelling
This

doctrine

is in

it ; it presupposes

it is therefore

hence

God,

as
Christianity,

irrational

and

tical
mys-

Samothrnke^

von

Ages of the

the

to

in Schel-

described

as

In

had

with

distinction

with

did

he

that

harmony

in contradiction

in

Opening

his

Hegel

the

only

only

the
of

general

denial

of

which

by Schelling
Geschiclite

{Zur

of

his

and

on

of the
from

Kantian

ground

the

its necessary

of his

System,
;

and

postulate.

selves,
them-

Tubingen,

youth,

from

and

nature

precede

logical form,

phenomena

der

Conv-

conceptions

that

(Stuttgard

discovery

in

conceptions (being,

finally,by externalizing

abstract

to

this

cannot

for

to that

philosophy,

Berlin

the

things-in-themselves

his previous

and

and

at

reject

connection

logicalconcept,

first division

abstracted,

in the

phy
philoso-

hypostatization,

or

abstract

mental

mind,

reduced

the

most

and

Lecture

not

fiction

Philosophy"

it is

the

the

real

lation
trans-

contained

Hegelian

belongs only

1 0 of

the

which

from

the

substantially, is made

in vol.

natural

Becker's

Philosophy,

living and

Modem

of

Hubert

to

singular

potentiate themselves,

nor

declared

of Identity, which
*

the

describes

the

most

presentation

that

presupposes

consciousness,

become

borrows

existence.

allegorical interpretation

an

German

for

criticism,

same

the

censures

abstract

their

as

that

Preface

here

Schelling

nothing, becoming, existence, etc.) before

exist

in

essential

in

of self-motion, which

power

is substituted.

pleteWorks).
the

is for

of

subject

argues

it), is

and

substituting

as

empirical elements, and, by

all

lectures

that

charge

God

Schelling, is impotent

die Gottheiten

momenta

in 1 834

Philosophie,published posthumously

neiieren

abdchtUch
the

implidtus^impersonal

supplement

with

published
the

(on French

Cousin

by Victor

to the

ascribing

to

was

Par., 1833).
PhilosopJdqiies,
of

( Ueher

which

Schelling published

being merely negative,

divested

the

"

representing

as

silence

work

Fragmens
as

eines

that

den

ton

Freedom

long

of

with

of Samothrace

Divinities

not, however,

were

divinities

After

God,

bitterly,maintaining

argues

Tiibingen, 1815),

and

ling'swork

"

the

on

(which

of those

in

theism

pure

Deus

as

with

truly speculative.

work

Stuttgart

of

identity

covenant,

new

part of himself.

says

personality, as

as

their

is united

Beschiddigung

former

created,

from

1812), Schelling repels

He

Ls

himself.

Schrift JacoMs

atheism.

and

nature

or

it

der

gemachten

the

will
Man

are

it with

himself

makes

Deukmal

'

last, the

"

ground

and

(Tubingen,

God
eoypUcitus^

' '

the

by Jacobi, Schelling

asserted

'

of

as

his

universal

still away

are

he

on

is evil.

unites

beginning

nature

the

will

all things

he

and

is ; man,

now

with

and

since

he,

"intelligible

an

necessity rests

him

things

mediation"

"

and

it

is the

derselhen

first

Deus

as

the

Against

in

Omega,

latter

recognizing

not

whose

In

nature

in

Man

naturalism, Spinozism,

and

Alpha

indifference

is

since

he

universal

centre.

adopts

law.

Atheismus

the

in

and

merely peripheric

in God

what
this

but

particular will

in the

God

immanence

himself

from

God

to

exercised

necessity,

will

against Jacobi

redenden

philosophy

of the

yet harmonized

not

relation

was

made

Unity

the

ihm

der

man

to

separation, receives

work

und

he

in

of this

action

Testament,

through

final

of

that

under

nature,

freedom

remain

man

Old

or

therefore

virtue

particular

therefore

must

first

are

redeemer

God"

the

only through

is the

centre, and
the

and

of

are

which

in his

non-temporal

therefore

by

through

subject

original yearning

an

and

The

is

goodness

in

or

God,

freedom.

time,

empirical being,

an

is in

only

capable

act," done

nature,

understanding, and

Man

beings.
alone,

divine

the

but

which

the

tem
Sys-

that

he

Schelling

Schelliug's adoption

of

AND

DISCIPLES

^Irould
have

of

University

at the

from

however,

The

seek

Lectures

begun

in the

of

God

work

essence

of

omnia

jiunt;
the

the

overcoming
unity

operating

became

divine

natural

purely

man,

of

that

the

Of

of the

proceed from

the

in the

conscious,

three

potency

The

second

of

John,
the

with

its

Christian

or
Christianity,

reality,.
potency-

of

the

Father

Protestantism

into

the

the-

Logos,
of

periods
;

formi
and

bears- the

of the

Protestantism

man-

process,

itself of this

with

conception

work

present in the-

was

divested

era

its

to

consciousness

one

the

as

nature

theogonic

of Fichte, that

idea

Son,

freedom, destroyed

potency

to become

coming
over-

; these

process

degraded

the
the

through

person

the

Pauline

of the

in

guam

potencies by

deprived of

was

the

ing
consider-

secundum
Jinalis,

of his

use

recovers

not

potencies of

three

of creation
causa

having,

lations
specu-

does

author,

Schelling distinguishes in

but
(eV fj-opcp^
(S-eoC),

Gospel

; of

Church

the

rather, setting out with

but

the

obedience

Christianity)divides
"

Johannean

God,

being; {b) the

potency

form

public,

Paidus, Darmstadt,

says

existent.

both, or

revelation.

through

Catholicism

Christianity,or
"

and

in divine
order

character, but

purest expression
of the

the

G.

being through the theogonic

divine

Schelling (carrying out

person.

Pauline

becomes

in

E.

possibilityof overcoming ; the

In
completion of the overcoming.

This

ways.

division

to the

development

blindly-existingprinciple,and

the

mythology

are

second

absolute

Spirit,as

over

consciousness

mythologic

who

persons

H.

von

of

potencies, the second, mediating

of which

factors

of

Religion, delivered

in the

{ScheUing^s Vorlesungen

philosophy,

idea

causa

union

of

previously given

farther

materialis

personalities. Man

of its control
in

the

the

as

the

; in man,

authority, and

its lost

and

; and

of the

i. "?.,robbed

will,the

unpremeditating

Father,

power

only potencies
the

of

from

beyond merely
Revelation, i. e., of

and

offenhar gewordene positivePhilosophie

premeditating

un

three

(c) the

element

are

persons

or

the

divinity of

the

efficiens
; and

and

been

dargelegt
Positive

God

prove

unconscioyis

caiLsa

{Die endlich

Freedom.

on

existence, to

will,the

Mythology

had

contain, substantially,only

{a) blindly necessary

divine

of

by positivephilosophy.
to advance

was

class-room, by Frauenstadt

Paulus

existence

the

to prove

the facts

of them

allgeineinenPrafung

der

These

1843).

the

in

taken

notes

Offenharung,

experience

the
lectures
on
Philosophy
published after Schelling'sdeath

substance

Berlin, Berlin, 1842), and

der

of

aid

the

by

Berlin, were

Works.

Complete

of his

225

SCHELLING.

The
religion./

perfect

and

imperfect

in

which

particularlvthe philosophy

science, was

rational

OF

being negative philosophy, supplemented

it,as

positivephilosophy,

This

FELLOWS

is the^

Petrine-

and, thirdly,,

Future.*

numerous
Schelling's

the
disciplesand kindred spirits,
for
the
most
are
names
followingare
important
historyof
who
most
philosophy(ingivingwhich we shall begin with those men
followed
in
the
first
of
form
his doctrine^
closely
SchelHng,especially
relation to him
and then go on to those whose
was
more
independent^
of M^hom
influence
in
and some
exerted,. turn, an
him): Georg
upon
Michael Klein, the faithful expositor
of the System of Identity
; Johami
128.

"

those whose

This

which,

"Church

of

like its ancient

philosophy ; besides,
ft"

Petrinism
the

problems

of the

by

of

play

Future"

the

for

that

future

analogies

15

The

is

cannot
with

be

unhistorical,
of

which

solved
the

by

be

not

in

phantoms

"Gospel

reconciliation

clad

certainly

can

substituted

assumption

Paulinism.

and

way

the

prototype,

was
an

semblance

the

of such

of

by transforming

return
a

to

return.

the

revived

the

and

practically illustrated
actual

the

on

place

Catholicism

that

John,"

founded

Protestantism

and
in

past,

Gnosticism

conceptions

the

nor

are

ante-dating
Early
can

be

Schelling,
religious

to
to

Pauline

Catholic

they

of

proper

each

other

ideas,

Church.

correctly

pared
preThe

indicated.

220

DISCIPLES

Jakob

OF

FELLOWS

continued

who

Wagner,

AND

SCHELLING.

])antheismof the System

of Identityin opposition
and mysticism of
to the Neo-Platonism
later writings,
and who substituted in place of Schelling's
Schelliiig's
Friedrich
division; Georg Anton
Ast,
trichotomy the quadripartite
contributions
author of meritorious
to the historyof philosophy,
cially
espeof the Platonic philosophy; Thaddseus
Anselm
known
Rixner,
the
Lorenz
his
Manual
History of Philosophy ;
turalist
Oken, the naof
by
who
wrote
Esenbeck,
; Nees von
upon the physiologyof plants;
writer
and
Bernhard
lieinrich Blasche, the educational
religiousphilosopher
for his
Vital Troxler, who
mention
deserves
; Ignaz Paul
and who
in many
of cognition,
services to the science
points differed
Karl
from
Schelling; Adam
August Eschenmayer, who taught that
philosophyshould end in the negation of philosophy,or in religious
and
enthusiast ; Gotthilf
Catholic
faith ; Joseph Gorres, the extreme
lieinrich von
Schubert, the mystical,physicalpsychologistand cosand
psychologist,
mologist; Karl Friedrich Burdach, the physiologist
who
with Sch^^lling's
natural philosophya temperate empiricombined
cism
Karl
the
Gustav
and
Cams,
giftedpsychologist
craniologist
;
;
Karl
the
Wilhelm
Ferdinand
SolChristian Oersted,
Hans
physicist;
of many-sided culture,
a man
ger, writer on aesthetics ; lieinrich Steffens,
adherent
of the strict confessionalism
became
of
who finally
an
Erich
the Old
Lutherans
von
Berger,a friend of Steffens,
; Johann
Baaand writer on
astronomy and the philosophyof law ; Franz von
Friedrich
Krause, the many-sided
der, tlie theosophist
; and Christian
The

thinker.

last-named,

two

the

maintain

to

also the theolo^'ian

as

Schleiermacher

"

from
the study of
philosophicalimpulses especially
pher,
Plato,Spinoza,Kant, Fichte, and Schelling and Hegel, the philosoFriedricli
of new
schools.
became
the founders
philosophical
Julius Stahl, the anti-rationalistic theologizingphilosopherof law,
with certain of Schelling's
later
especially
agreed in his doctrine,more
of his philosophy
againstthe designation
principles
(althoughprotesting
his

received

who

"

in

generalas
For

works
whose
more

the

of

"

").
ew-Schellingism
of

purposes
the

this work

named

men

philosophies

are

treated

particular information
treatises, in

der
'"^Entwickelvng

G. M.

Klein's

lectures,is

are

particular to
deutsclien

of

suffice

it may

(with

above

in

the

referred
Erdmann's

the

sections
the

to

works

General

of

zum

Studium

der

Hegel

dnd

Schleiermacher,

following). ^ Those
themselves

and

(in the

Review

Oesch.
Speculationseit Kant,''''

Beitrage

principal philosophical

the

name

next

(1776-1820) principal work, based

entitled

to

exception

d.

n.

to

second

who

desire

ical
special histor-

part of

his

PA., Vol. III.,2d Ahth.).

Schelling'swritings and
Wissenschaft dee AU,
PMlosophie
entirely

on

als

fe

AND

DISCIPLES

dncr

nebst

of

the

System

edition,entitled

revised

Ethik

Versuch, die

the

works

Anschauungs-

und

Denklehre

Identity,

Wmenschaft

als

followed

by

in

direction

similar

(Erlangen, 1806),

(Bamberg

to

the

(Bamberg,

and

ciples
prin-

1810),

Wiirzburg, 1818),

(Rudolstadt, 1811),Darstellung der

(Bamberg

and

Geschichte

der

Wiirzburg, 1818).
allied

more

one

(1777-1816)

Stutzmann

der
Philos"yphie

begrunden

philosophy, though

Josua

Johann

zu

Sittenlehre

und

BdigionsfhUosophiscJien

Hawptmomente^ Wurzburg,

religion,according

Verstandeslehre

in

of

227

6CHELLING.

speciallyof logic,ethics,and

treated

also

OF

fasslichenDarstellung Hirer

und

volUfdndigen

Klein

1805.

FELLOWS

in

to that

of

Fichte,waa

des
Pliilosophie

his

Menscliheit

Universums

(Nuremberg, 1808),

and

works.

other

Jak.

Joh.

(1775-1821)wrote

Wagner

PhUosopMe

der

Erziehungskunst (Leipsic,1802),

Idealphilosophie
(Leipsic,1804),
Binge (Leipsic,1803),System
und
Politik
1805), Theodicee (Bamberg, 1809),
Grundris-s der Staatswissenschaft
(Leipsic,
Math.
(ErI.,1830 and Ulm,
(Erl.,1811), Organon der menschl. Erkenntrms
Pliilosophie
Von

Natur

der

der

der

Rabus,

Geistes

des deutschen

Wagner^s Leben,

J. J.

Lehre

Handbuch

wrote

und

seq.). On
ein

Wagner, see
Gesch.
Beitrag zur

1862).

(Nuremberg,

(1778-1841)

F. Ast

(Ulm, 1853

Bedeutung^

Adam

ed. by Ph. L.
1851), NachgelasseneSchrifteti^
Leonard

der

Aesthetik

(Leipsic,1805), Grundlinien

der

Geschichte
dner
der PJiilosopkie
Philosophie(Landshut, 1807; 2d ed., 1809), Grundriss
Leben
und
Platon's
2d
1807
Schriften
(Leipsic,1816).
ed.,
1825),
(Landshut,
;
der
Rixner
Philosophie(Landshut, 1809,
Th. Ans.
(1766-1838) : Aplwrismen aus
Geschichte
der
der
Handbuch
Philosophie(Sulzbach,
revised
edit., Sulzbach, 1818),
1822-23

; 2d

Volume,

ed., ib.,1829; Supplementary

Victor

by

Philipp Gumposch,

ib.^

1850).
Lor.

Oken

(1779-1851)

this work

of the

occupant

from

his

of

work,

animal

is

life

Zeugung

is described

matter

; 3d

resolved

ed., Zurich,

into

independent

1843

his constituent

antagonisms

B. H.

Blasche

(1776-1832)
der

Das

Bose

im

der

EinUang

as

in the

Lehrbuch

kingdom,

animal
; what

says

the
der

Oken

in

the

as

attributes),Isis.,

higher

lower

in

position
decom-

flightof

the

(Jena, 1808),

the

the

taking place by

as

is described

stages

Vol. I.
specidativenPliilosophie^

mit

der

Weltordnung (Leipsic,

ErziehungswissenscJiaft
(G-iessen,1828), Philosophieder Offenba-

rwTi^f (Leipsic,1829),

oder
PhihsopliischeUnsterblichkeitslehre^

ewige Leben?

and

(Erfurt

Wiirzburg, 1805;

and

elements

reappear

Zeitschrift
encyclopadische
(Jena, 1817 seq.).
Nees
Esenbeck
von
(1776-1858) : Das System
NaturpliiJx)sophie
(Glogau and Leipsic, 1842).
1827), Handbuch

(Bamberg

into

(Jena, 1809

man

are

Die

wrote
seminal

and propagation
infusoria,
fallinghouse), Ueber das Universum

organism

Natuiyhihsoplde
in this

of

formation

the

mie

offenbart sich

das

Gotha, 1831).

Troxler

des memcldiclien
(1780-1866) : Naturlehre
Erkennens
(Aarau, 1828),Logik,
und
Kritik
aller Erkenntniss
Wissenschaftdes Denkens
(Stuttgard and Tiibingen,
1829-30), Vorlesungen ilber Philosophie,
als Encychpddie und Methodologieder pldlosophischen Wissenschaften(Bern, 1835). Cf. Werber, Lehre wn
der
kenntniss
Ermenschlichen

die

(Carlsruhe, 1841).

Eschenmayer (1770-1852) : Die Philosophiein ihrem Uebergange zur Nichtphilosopliie

(Erlangen,1803), Psychologie(Tubingen, 1817; 2d ed., ib.,1822), System der Moralphilosophie(Stuttgard and Tiibingen, 1818),Normalrecht
{ib.,1819-20), Eeligionsphihsophie(1. Theil : Eationalismus, Tiibingen, 1818; 2. Theil: Mysticumus, ib.,1822; 3.
Tlieil: Supematuralismus, ib.,1824), Mysterien des innern
der
Lebens, erUlutert aus
Geschichte der Se/ierin von
Prevarst
Grundriss
d"r
Naturphilosophie^
(Tiibingen,1830),

228

"blSCIPLKS

ATs^J)

OF

FKLhUWS

SCIIELLINO-.

{ib.,1833),Die IlegeVscheReligioiispJdlosojMG
(Tubingen, 1834),Orundzuge
PhiloscypMe(Basel, 1841).

dner

chrint

lichen

G. 11. Schubert

(1780-1800)

(Leips.,18CG-1821),Amichten

Nachtscite

der

dor

4th ed., 1840),Die Symbolik dcs Trawnes

Die

Krankheiten
K.

(1776-1847)

F. Burdach

(Stuttgard, 1836;
Ernst
.

David

Theod.

Jacobi,

Mensch

Lehem

1814),Die

Urwelt

und

(Tubingen, 1830;
(Stuttg.,1845).

die

4th

Fix"iterne

ed., 1847),

Seele

nacJi den

verscJdedemn

Sdten

seiner Natur

Anthropologiefar das gebildetePublicum^ ed. byin^s Leben^ comparative Psychologie(Leipsic,1843-48).

(1773-1835,influenced as much
by Kant, Reinhold,
Die Betrachiung des Menschen
(Cassel and Leipsic,

Suabedissen

Aug.

by Schelling) :

as

Einleituiig in die Philosophie(Marburg, 1827), Orundzuge

1815-18), Zur
Menschen

Der

des

ed., entitled:

1847),Blicke
iZ".,

Burdach,

and

2d

Oescldchte

NatunovtHemcJiaft
(Dresden, 1808

Seele

^er

menschlichen

StiJrungender

und

allgemeinen

der

(Bamberg,

ed., 1830), Qeacldchie

(Dresden, 1823; 2d

einer

AJindungen

der

{ib.^1829), Orundzuge

Lehre

der

philos.Beligionslekre{ib.,1831), Orundzuge

vom

der

MetapJiysik{ib.,1836),
Anatonde
und
3, 1789) : Orundzuge der 'cei^gleichenden
PJiysiologie
(Dresden, 1825), Vorlesungen uber Psychohgie (Leipsic, 1831), System de^
Physiologie(Leipsic, 1838-40; 2d. ed., 1847-49), Orundzilge der Kranioskopie (Stuttgard,
1841), Psyche^ zur Entwicklungsgeschichteder Seele (Pforzheim, 1846; 3d ed"
Karl

Carus

Gust.

Jan.

(bom

Oescldchte

Stuttgard, 1800),Physis^ zur

leiblichen Lebens

des

(Stuttgard, 1851),Symbcde'"^
1857), Organon der Erkenntniss
und
des
Natur
Oeistes (Leipsic, 1855), VergleichendePsychologieoder
Oescldchte
der
Seele in der Beihenfolge der
Thierwelt
(Vienna, 1860). Cf. Cams' Lebenserinnerungen
und
Denkwurdigkeiten (Leips.,1865),
menschlichen

lik der

Hans

(Leipsic, 1853

(1777-1851)

translation, Leipsic, 1850,

"

Bohn's

Scientific

Oesammelte

Libraiy."

etc.

; 2d

Der

ed.,

Oeistin

{The

7V.]),Neue

"

Natur

der

Sold

(Copenhagen,

Nature^ English

in

Beitriigezudem

O. i. d. N.

1850-51

translation

in

(Germ. Lps. "51),

vols,,by Kannegiesser, Leipsic, 1851-53),

Schriften(Germ,
Solger (1780-1819): Erwin, vier Oesprdche iiber das Schone und
trans.

Ferd.

W.

die

(Berlin, 1815), PhllosophischeOesprache (Berlin, 1817), Nachgelassene Schriften

Kunst
und

Oersted

Christian

German

K.

Oestalt

Briefwechsd, ed. by Ludw^ig

uber

H.

Aesthetik, ed. by

Stefifens

1-48, and

No.

der

Universitdten

ich wieder

the

union

Beforderung

der

of

der

ward

Calvinistic

the

and

und

was

[Of

by W.

Steffens's

work,

Gage,

under

the

1846).

exerted

Polemische

BUitter

especially

a
on

have

been

Career.
Preface

zur

(Breslau, 1837-38),
translated
Boston

; 2d
and

Gould

ed.,
lished
puband

by Schelling (Berlin,

Braniss.

des
Weltalls
PldlosopldscheDarstellung der Harmonie
Orundziige der Wissenschaft(4 vols. ; 1, Analysis of the

Berger (1772-1833)

(Altona, 1808), Allgemdne

(Breslau,

ist {ib.,1831

ich erlebte (Breslau, 1840-45

Schriften, with

great influence

Glauben

Lutherthum

churches),

Lutheran

Autobiography, parts
Story of 7ny
: The

7".]), Nachgelassene

V.

das

title

Lincoln, 1863."
Steffens

mir

speculativen Physik (Breslau, 1829, 1835), Novellen

this

L.

icahren

dem

falschen Theologie und

Lutheraner

Beligionspldlosoplde
(Breslau, 1839), Was

1844-46.

J. E.

Schelling'snaturpldlosophischenSchriften

von

in

gie (Breslau, 1822), Von

Christl.

(Berlin, 1829).

L. Heyse

pldlosopldschenNaturwissenschaft (Berlin, 1806), Ueber die Idee der

des Heiligsten(Leipsic,1819-21), Anthropolo(Berlin,1809), Garicaturen

Orundziige

against

lesungen
(Leipsic,1826), Vor-

Raumer

von

Schelling'sJournal of SpeculativePhysics,Vol. 1, No. 1, pp.

der Erde
2, pp. 88-121), Ueber den Oxydations- und Desoxydationsprocess
143-168), Beitrdge zur innern Naturgescldchteder Erde (Freiberg, 1801),

{ib.,No. 1, pp.

1823), Wie

W.

(1773-184.5): Recension

1800, publ.

(written in

K.

Friedrich

and

Tieck

230

DISCIPLES

AND

FELLOWS

(author of SpeculativeEntwickelung der ewigen SelbsterzeugungGoties,au*

Hoffmann
Baadefs

Schriften zvsammeiigetragen^

losophieBoMder's,Aschatfeuburg, 1830
; Franz

Baader, Wiirzburg, 1837

and

Luttefbeck,
Annotations

Franz

von

Attacks

indirect

for

Hoffmann

phischenStandpunkt Baadefs,
Mayence, 1852)
griffe,

gard, 1855 ; Christenthum

und

von
Pliilo8opMeFranz
37, 1800, pp. 192-220, and

Natural

Philosophy

Natural

Science,"has

published Die

Cf. J. A.

B.

(cf.also

Lutterbeck's

B.''schen

; Theod.

Schaden''

von

in
si,

to direct

reply
also

Ueber

Die

Cultur, Erlangen, 1808

E. A.

und

in

been

lished
pub-

LichUtrahWeltalter,

Lutterbeck,

Cardinalpunkte der

moderne

B.'s

der

der

Haftiberger, von

Leiblichkeit,
Stuttgard,1809

Jdmmlischen

Begriff der

Die

speculativcn Phi-

zur

Franz
/Societdt.'ip/uloso])/de
von

under

also

1854

Mayence,

Hamberger,

and

has

1808.

Werken^ Erlangen,

Baaders

aus

Baader's

Philosophy

Modern

of

Apology

an

VorhaUe

der

Fhih^ophie der Zukunft^

Schaden, Schliiter,
Introductions
and
complete edition,with
Werke,^'10 vols,,Leipsic,1851 -GO ; the
Beg

aid of J.

mmmtUche

separately,Leips., 1853.
len

in

als

Baadefs
"

Introduction, entitled

Grundziige

the

Oatensacken,

von

"

1835

Amberg,

Baader

von

works), with

other

Leipsic, 1850, and

and

6CHELLING.

OF

philoao-

den

Lehrhe-

neutest.

StuttPhilo8oj)7de^

Physica Sacra, oder

Die

Culman,

Principien

ZeiUchriftf. Ph., Vol.

the

38, 1801, pp. 73-102 ; Franz

Hoffmann, Beleuchtung
Rechtsund
Angrifs ayf
Schrift: ''Die theologisirende
StaaUlehre,'''
in the Athenceum
Leipsic, 1801 ; Ueber die B.'sche und HerbarVsche
Philosophie,
(philos.
journal edited by Frohschammer), Vol. 2, No. 1, 1803 ; Ueber die B.'scJie und Schopenhauefsche
Philosophie,
ibid.,No. 3, 1803 ; Franz
Hoffmann, Philos. Schriften,Erlangen,
1808;

Fischer, Zur

Ph.

K.

Versuch
einer GJmhundertjahrigen Geburtstagsfeier
B.'s:
ihres Verhaltnisses
Theosophie und
den
zu
Systemen Schelling'sund
Schleiermacher's,
Lehre vmn
Erlangen, 1805 ; Lutterbeck, Baader's

seiner

rakteristik

HcgeVs, Daub's

und

1800

Weltgebdudc,Frankfort,
plde

Franz

Baader's

S. Morris

by G.
B.

Smith

and

Chr.

others, 1809.

Fr. Krause

purely German,

on

; Alexander

of

System
notion

Germans

but

by

in fact

was

all

things

TJieoso-

der

are

limited

sought

un-German,
a

form
Re-

als

Dogmatik

1808.
the

strange terminology,

his

Identity by developing
that

Uebei' Baader's

Jung,

himself

(1781-1832),who

among

Gharakteristik

einer

Rritiken, 1807, No. 1, pp. 107-123 [translated

Presbyterianand Theological Review, edited by Dr. H.

2V.]

"

Versuch

Studienu.

American

in the

writings

the

Hamberger,

Theol.

in

Erlangen,
Societdtswissenschaft,

der

K.

the

Vol.

B. in Thilo's

des

of

doctrine
He

in God.

wrote

improve

.to

Panentheism,

or

all the

on

forward

put

was

as

of

pantheism

the

upon

phical
philoso-

of his

circulation
which

philosophy founded
of

branches

philosophy.

phUosophincherGrundnss
des Ideales
des
Rechts
(Jena, 1803), Entwurf des Systems des Philosoplde(1. Abth. :
und
allgemeine Philosojihie
Anleitung zur Naturphilosophie,Jena, 1804), System der Sit-

His

works

Unlehre

are

the

following

(Leipsic,1810), Das

Abriss

des

Systems

Abriss

des

Sy steins

1828), Abriss
der Philos.

Logik

Systems

des

Urbild

der

(ib.,1828, 2d ed.
,

Wissenschaft(ib.,1829
by
mann

of

number
:

most

of

Cours

Naturrecht

Krause's

und

Droit

Prague, 1808', Vorlesungen ilber die

ed., 1809).

Oder

His

Philos.

el
des

been

(Paris, 1838;
Rechts

u.

Posthumous
and

und
zur

Henry

der

; 2d
das

Karl
Wissenschaftslehre

philosopher
in

of

French

law
and

Syst.
der

S. Linde-

Christian

Freimaurerbruderschaft.Munich,
Ahrens,

ed.,

published

been

Cf. H.

others).

frequently reprinted

Staates

1825
ilber

Grundwahrheiten
have

Works

Lindemann,

DarsteUung des Lebens

dessen
Standpunktes

Natur

(Dresden, 1812 ; 2d ed., GCtt., 1851),

analytische Phihsophie, Gottingen, 1825),

pMlosophischerWissenschaft(Gottingen,
(Gottingen, 1828), Vwles.
Rechtsphilosophie

distinguished pupils have

de

als

pupils (von Leonhardi,

Uebersiehtliche

Friedrich
His

his

; 2d

oder

Menschheit

der

PhUosojihie(1. Abth.

der
der

des Naturrechts

Gr'undlage

and

1839.
author

German),

(0th ed., Vienna, 1870),Juristische Ency-

231

HEGEL.

1858), and of Cours de PMIoh. (Paris,1836-38), and

dopddie ("5.,
and
of
author
Tiberghien, pupil of Ahrens
(Brus., 1840), and
tongue

la

sur

religion (Paris et

duneintrod.

la

pupil,H,

Krause, works

ses

rapports

ph.

de Vhist.

tliem'iqueet Msaveo

la

la

morale,

de

has

S. Lindemann,

work
published,besides the above-mentioned
on
(Zarich, 1844, and Erlangen, 1848) and Logic (Solo-

Anthropology

on

Also

1840),

thum,

dans

de

Essai

Leips., 1844), Eaquisse

philosophiemorale, precedes
metaphydque (Brussels, 1854), La science de Voume dans les limites de
{ib.,18G2 ; 2d ed.,1808), Logique,la science de la connaissance
(Paris,1865).
a

VdbsermUon
Krause's

humainefi

connaissances

den

gemvation

politiqueet la

C"ara

Altmeyer,

Bouchitte, Duprat,
Naturrechts

Hermann

Freiherr

Leonhardi,

von

{Grundzuge
RecJitsphilosopJde,
Heidelberg,
1846; 2ded., 1803), Schliephake {Die Orundlagen des sittl. Lebens, Wiesbaden, 1855;
Einleitung in das System der Philosophie,
Wiesbaden, 1856),J. S. Del Rio, the Spaniard
des

Roder

Monnich,

in

published

(who

accompanied

and

and

at

with

explanatory notes,

others

of the
the

1830-37

and

of

"History

Legal

of the

and

the

State

State,
the

on

or,

I^eo-Schellingian

Wissen3,Munich,

the

School

from

the

; the

Chiistian

first volume

to the

second

title

contains

in the

New-Schellingism

of the
the

of the

2d

World

' '

and

3d

Genesis

editions,
of

Theory

Doctrine

of

impulses.

(author of Die

Rosenkrantz

"

the

Right

"), the theologizing

unimportant

not

geschichtlichef

"Christian

edition,

second

Conception

contains

Wilhelm

Friedrich

To

the

Wissenschaftdes

He^^el (1T70-1831),developing

and
principleof identitypostulatedby Schelling,

the forms

into

Spanish
losophy),
of the System of Phi-

Philosophicdes Rechts, nach

it is entitled

belongs Wilh.

translated

Outline

Krause's

according

or,

of Humanity,

1800-69).

Georg

129.

as

Die

ed., 1854-50

of the

Basis

and

der

of Krause.

Philosophy;"
"

legalphilosopher,received

"

; 3d

Legal Philosophy,"

Current

Right

(1802-1801

Stahl

AnsicM, Heidelberg,

school

to the

belong

Julius

Friedrich

Madrid,

Ideal

Krause's

1800,

oder

subjectingit

to

of demonstration

according to Fichte's method of dialectical

created the System of Absolute
Idealism.
develo})ment,
According to
this system finite thingsare
not (asin the System of SubjectiveIdealism)
simply phenomena for us, existingonly in our
consciousness,but
are
phenomena per se by their very nature, i. ^., things having the
ground of their being not in themselves, but in the universal divine
Idea.
since

The

absolute

it not

only underlies

Subject,returns
from
alienation
it is

the

through
lowest

itself.

to

is revealed

reason

to

both, as
them
the

thinkingconsideration

of the

eternalizes
I'om

"

by

and

nature

substance,but

means

of

highest stages
"

Philosophyis

it has for its necessary form

in the consciousness
of the
lent

their

in

the science

also,as rational

progressivedevelopment

from
of

spirit(mind),

the

its state
absolute.

of the self -unfoldingof the absolute

the

dialectical

method, which

of

self-

Since
reason,

reproduces

the

thinking Subject
spontaneous move
object(content)of thought. The absolute reason
alienates,
becomes
itself,

this its

the

other

of

in nature, and
returns
itself,
in Spirit. Its
into itself,
or
otheriiess,
self-estrangement,

232

HEGEL.

self-developmentis therefore

threefold,namely: (1) in the abstract

element
of thought,(2)in nature, (3)in spirit followingthe order:
thesis,antithesis,
synthesis. Philosophy has, accordingly,three parts:
which
in itself as the jfrm*' of nature
considers reason
(1)Logic,
and
spirit,
(2) the Philosophy of Nature, (3)the Philosophy of Spirit. In
order to raise the thinkingSubject to the stand-pointof philosophical
thinking,the Phenomenology of Spirit,i. e., the doctrine of the stages
of development of consciousness
forms of the manifestation
of spirit,
as
be placed propaedeutically
before the system, while retaining,
can
theless,
neverits place as a branch
of a philosophical
science within the System,
branch
of
the
of
considers
a
as
namely,
Philosophy Spirit. Logic
"

the self-movement
the

of the Absolute

conceptionof pure

which

from

being,to the

precede its division

the

most

into nature

most

concrete

abstract

conception,

of those

concei)tions

and

i. e., to the absolute

spirit,
Idea.
Its parts are : the doctrines of Being, of Essence, and of tion.
ConcepThe
Doctrine
of Being is divided
into the sections:
quality,
quantity,measure
; in the first,
being,nothing,and becoming are
pure
factors or
considered
definite being
"momenta"
of being; then
as
is opposed to pure
being, and in being-for-self
[independent being]
the reconciling
is found
the
transition of qualwhich
leads
to
factor,
ity
into quantity. The
of
momenta
quantity,
Quantity are : pure
and
the
and
ure.
quantum,
degree ;
quantity is Measunity of quality
the ground of
The
Doctrine
of Essence
of essence
treats
as
of phenomena, and
or
existence,then of its manifestation,'
finallyof
and phenomenon ; under the conception
realityas the unity of essence
of realityIlegel subsumes
causality,and reciprocity.
substantiality,
of Conception treats of the subjective
The Doctrine
conception which
logism
Ilegeldivides into the couceptionas such, the judgment, and the sylof the Objective under
ism,
Mechanwhich
Ilegelcomprehends
the
and
and
of
Chemism,
Idea, which dialectically
Toxicology
"

"

"

"

unfolds

itself

nature

from

strives

to

in

as

itself by

natural

is the

plant is

the

negatived in

goal

existence

Physics,and Organicis
;
of the plant,and of the
the

union

absolute

into its other

passingover

its lost

recover

which
spirit,

stages of

and
life,cognition,

with

and
in

the

end

of

three

the latter treats

animal.

process of
its immediate

That

Idea.

is recovered

Ilegel considers

sections, entitled
of

the

which

emits

[Anderssein'].Nature

Idea ; this union

nature.

Idea

The

organism of
is highestin

the

Mechanics,
the
the

earth,
life of

the individual,while
generation,by which
is elevated intc^ the genus.
individuality,

HEGEL.

In the animal

nature, there is

233

only the actual external existence of

is also self-reflected in itself,
but this individuality
individuals,
a selfcontained, subjective
universality.The separate being of the parts of
is therefore"not
space in material objectsis not true of the soul,which
present at any one pointalone,but everywhere at millions of points. But
of the animal is not subjectivity
the subjectivity
for self,
versal
not pure, univiews
subjectivity.It does not think itself;it only feels itself,
The
state.
itself;it is objectiveto itself only in a distinct,
particular
presence of the Idea with itself {das BeisicJisein der Idee]^freedom,
the Idea returned
from its alter Ityinto itself,
is Spirit. The
or
losophy
Phiof Spirithas three parts : the doctrines of subjective,
of objective,
and of absolute
spirit.SubjectiveSpiritis spiritin the form of
relation to self,or spirit,
the ideal totality
of its Idea,i. ^.,
to which
of its conception, has become
inwardly real. Objective Spirit is
of reality,
in the form
spirit
realitybeing here understood in the sense
of a world
and indeed
to be brought into being by spirit,
thus brought
exists in the form
freedom
of present necessity.
forth,and in which
in
i
s
Absolute
Spirit' spirit the absolute,independent,and eternally
self-producingunity of its objectivity
and its ideality
its conception,
or
in
its
absolute
The
truth.
or
spirit
principalstages of subjective
spirit
natural
or
are
soul,consciousness,and spiritas such ; Hegel
spirit,
the
terms
nomenology,
correspondingdivisions of his doctrine Anthropology,Pheand
is
realized in legal
Psychology. Objective Spirit
social morality],
and
concrete
or
{SittUchkeit,
right,
ethicality
morality,
which

in itself the

latter unites

recognizesthe

spiritof

family,in civil

and
society,

spiritincludes

art

not

the

which

"

in which

former, and

two

the

community,
in the State,as

person

ethical substance

his

own

the

in

Absolute

essence.

the artist's concrete

expresses

the

perception of

the

trulyabsolute spiritas the ideal "in the concrete

shape generated
the
which
is the
t
he
of
by
subjectivespirit,
shape
beauty religion,
in the form
true
of mental
and philosorepresentation(Vorstellung)
phy,
"

is the true

which

Of

life

Hegel's

Werk
Werken^

Weseu

the

Vn gegen

volMandlge
single
1832.

appeared

Au.sgahe
have

U.

U7id

seine

PMloaophie^

sharp, unsparing

doctrine

Wilh.

{Georg

{Hegel

HegeVnchen

with

of truth.

in
(especially

FrUdrich

Berlin, 1857),the

criticism,
his

RegeTs

directed

philosophy

of

Leben,
liber

Zeit, Vorlesungen

former

.,

per

HegeVs

Eiiticickattachment

anti-liberal

the

contra^

zti

and

affectionate

with

notably against

law). Cf

Supplement

Entstehiiag

Rosenkranz's

elements

Apologie

Berlin, 1858.

Haym^
Works

volumes

Vol

and

Rosenkranz

Haym

R.

der

latter

egel's character

Hegel's

and

Werth

und

veneration,

Karl

treat

Berlin, 1844)

in the form

durch
been

soon

einen
since

Fhanomenologie

after

his

Vereui

reissued.
des

death

Vol.

in

Freunden

von

I. :

Geistes,

cd.

complete
des

HegeVs
by

Joh.

edition,

Verewigten,

entitled

Vols.

pliilos. Abhandlunge7i,

Schulze, 1832.

G.

TF. F.

Vols.

ed.

by

Karl

III.-V.

HegeVa

Werke^

Berlin, 18.32

I.-XVIII.,

Ludw.

seq.

Michelet,

Wissenschctft

der

234

HEGEL.

.
.

Logik, ed. by Leopold

aclutflen
under

the

guidance

(Vol.

of

Vol.

VII., 2d

Vol. UlII.

by H.

Schrift

1835-38.

Vols.

X1II,-XV.
XVI.

Beweise

Systematic

Hegerschen

des
work

Erdmann's

and

other

many

Michelet's

in

Sloman

J.

and

III.,

Principle

J.

by
have

the

(from
H.'s

^Esthetics

the

by

Miss

(transl. by

Vol.

S. A.

Philos.

the

translated

in the

will

1848

Janet,

of

1866;

the

System

1867),

G.

(Cf.

21,

Vol.

250 ; F. Harms,
and

Brit.

Karl

382

pp.

the

of the

Coancillor").

seq.

in Cont.

Thought,

officer

HegeVsche

; T,

Other

ducal

G.

C,
an

who

; Art,

discourse

Hegel,

Hegel,

at the

bom

at

in

at

Berlin,

of Right,
of Bei

New

Am.

in

1858

; Paul

HegeVsche
A

critical
System

Hegelian
French

and

derselben

durch

A.

Galasso

are

als

Hegel
?

in

tated
anno-

and

also

Amer.

1855,

Essays,

3, 1871)

Exchequer, afterwards
as

ital.

den

(Naples,
Natio-

deutscher

the

Cycl, by Henry

universityat Tiibingen

He-

Tiibingen,

philosoijhie hegelienne,

de

Oxford

lin, June

which

der

1868.

Church
pp.

; T. C. Simon,

Smith,"

B.

the

Stuttgard, August 27, 1770, was

the

of

some

die

the

into

Pantheist

likewise

Aesthetik

Ueber

lenburg
Trende-

by

Regensburg,

Hegelianism

he

of

Brackett,

has

Hegel,

die

Reiff,

Bearbeltung

Rosenkranz,

was

University

Appleton's

(Secretary of
national

on

Karl

Philosophy

HegeVs

die

und

Hegel,

C.

works,

Ueber

Essai

an

upon

234-251

pp.

(Paris, 1859, 1863-1866, 1867),

written

have

article,entitled

Hegel (a

government

studied

among

V.,

is that

of

translated

has

Vera

same,

Chivalry

Essay

Anna

by

numerous

Methode,

others,

(Milan, 1868)."

Allievo

Sandars,

Rev., 1870

A.
Mind

Art"

Eiicyclopcedin

Vol.

of Hegel, bei7ig

Secret

of

Naturphilosophie

Italians

the

The

gion
Reli-

the

(from
of

H.\s

Logic

Logik,

First

and

36-52, 91-114, 169-176,

to

; Friedr.

II.,

(transl.from

GeschichtsanscJuiuiuig,

dialektische
:

1865.

Philos.

stand-point,

HegeVs

Friedricli

He

and

in

Vols.

Vol.

HegeVs

Critical

and

W.

Propaedeutik),

Plato

Philos.

doctrine

HegeVschen

der

die

2 vols.,London,

Hegelian

[Cf. also

Erinjieruiig

Zur

Georg Wilhelm
an

Die

Stirling's work

J. H.

of Nature,

Rosenkranz,

Leipsic, 1870.

nalphilosoph,
Revieio,

matter,

(Naples, 1868), and

Prisco

Wilh.

by
G.

Harris,

analysis.

of

article

Danzel,

Theod.

by

languages,

T.

H.'s

Davidson),

whole

by

and

translations

W.

Aristotle

of

Hegelian

the
the

Anti-Hegelians

and

Ueber

Hartmann,
in

of
also

Hegel, Paris, 1860

et dans

by

257-281;

pp.

HegeVs

Cabot's

of

Works,

different

Numerous

Philosophy

T.

his

of History, by

ed.

Analysis

by

of Rosenkranz's

of Eights, Morals,

Philos.

Erzie-

of Ilegel, translated

1861.

; Introduction

Analysis

Springer,

H.

Platon

von

Vera, Berlin, 18()8).

A.

Philos.

E.

and

from

works

several

written

Paris, 1864.

Ant.

the

Benard^s

criticism

works,

in

Logic

Hillert

ilber

Philosophy,

of Spec. Philos., I., pp.

subject,as

same

other

among

dans

Logic, Philosophy

Hegel's

; the

Modern

III.,

the

Rosenkranz,

K.

searching

very

1844;

is contained

principle, form,

origin,

also,

la dialectique

sur

Dialektik, Tubingen,
account

of

of

Science

on
on

and

of

accompanying

Vol.

HegeVs

further
Journ.

(of Dillingen), Entwickelungsgeschichte

Aloys Schmid
Etmles

Cf.

standipoints by Hegelians

Hamburg,

Philosophie,

geVschen

Tr.']

"

Cf.

below.

mentioned

be

various

from

discussed

been

same),

Hegel

1868, April

Review,

Am.

Vol.

Erlduterungen

editors

(transl. from

Phenomenology
the

Frantz

to that

the

Philosophy

of Spirit, with

344-372;

Merling,

similar

Philosophy,

61-78, 180-192, 251-274;

German

the

Untersuchungen

Logische

in his

from

North

38-48.

in J. of Sp. Philos., V.

J. A.

einer

Baner).

1834-35.

Kritlsche

of

Library), London,

(from

368-373.

pp.

by

Gans,

Michelet, 1833-36.

by

published

the

on

of Speculative

pp.

end

Subjective

; Lectures

Logic)

of HegeVs

pp.

Bruno

by

Ludw.

notes.

been

The

III., 31-46, 147-166, 281-287, 317-336

(translated

Sciences

V.,

Ed.

Religion, 7iebst
ed.

Boumann,

published

Histories

have

English

225-268, 320-380

pp.

Vol.

Longwell), V.,

of Hegel,

Cabot, Hegel,

E.

IV.,

Translator),

Aeslhelik,

die

{HegeFs Aeusserungen
An

38-62, 155-192; Hegel

pp.

Karl

prefaces

their

Phenomenology

Logic

IV.,

in

Philos.

III.,

Vol.

in

Journal

Outlines'

Uber

der

(second

by

been

the

works

Hegel's

of HegeVs

221-224; II., 39-46, 157-165;

in

HegeVs

uber

Michelet, 1842

Geachlchte, ed, by

Ludwig

numerous

by

system

Bohn's

(in

ed.

Thaulow

liosenkranz.

by

Hegel's

in the

L.

Vorlesungen

1832

and

have

with

is served

Translation), Vol.

Outlines

Philosophy)

Commentary

work

Hegelian

of

A.M.

follows:

Propaedeutik),

of

History

with

accompanied

of

VurieKunyen

K.

Rosenkranz, 1840.

Hegel's writings

Wlsaeiu

supplemented,

Ludw.

Philosophie

die

Furster

Berlin, 1843), and

several

published

as

(Exposition and

the

(a part

Sibree,

been

166-175;

pp.

from

ilber

Part:

by

der

1-3:

Parts

X.,

ed.

and

Boumann, 184.5).
StaatswiHsenschaft im Grundrhsae

und

Philosophie,

der

[Translations

94-103, 165-171, 181-187, 229-241

Vol.

J.

of

VII., Ist

Philosophie

Vol.

philoaophlschen

Thell,ed. by

Geiates,

den

die

Friedrich

by

Karl

by

latter

of

; Vol.

by Philipp Marheineke,

Hegel's meaning)

of

1855

I.-V., St. Louis, 18G7-1871,

pp.

ed.

the

Italian.

Wallon,

works

He:jers

ed.

Ausziigen,

accounts

and

F. Hegel, translated
from

ed.

Geschichte

die

extracts

Translations

French

ilber

Vorlemngen

Gottes,

(Konigsberg, 1843) is

exposition

works.

particularly
H.

of

wortlichen

in

1"40

Naturrecht

Oder

der

Logik, edited,annotated,

PhiloHophie

die

Hegel).

XI.-XII.

ilber

Encyclopadle

die

Henning,

von

Karl

son,

Propddeuiik,

Systems

critical

(the

Theil,

Eechts

des

Schriflen,

Unterricht, Kiel, 1854),

und

VI.-VII.

Vorlesungen

Dasein

compilations

{HegeVs Philosophie
hung

Vols.

VermisclUe

Theil,

by Hegel's

vom

Philosophische

IX.

Vorlesungen

-XVII.

Vols.
erater

philon. Wi-inetisc/ia/teu zweiter

der

dritter

Vol.

Hotho,
die

Encycl.

FhiloHophie

der

edited

Vols.
XVIII.

Encijcl.

edition

G.

ilber

Der

Encycl.

1833.

Gans,

(second

ed.

Der

: Grundliiiien

ed. by Eduard
1837

tils der

Part

VI.

Hegel's lectures, by Leop.

NaturphiloHophie

die

1833-34.

Henning,

von

Grundrisse

im

"

member

son

213H.

7"-,]

of

Dispatchof the

235

"

HEGEL.

cbaritable foundation,going through the philosophical

theological in 1790-93.

the

"

the

on

of

Judgment
and

the

on

F.

by A.

written

of

manuscript of Hegel's
Le

"

Bret,

i?6

in this

Flatt, who

of

rationalizingProfessors
and

Kant, Jacobi,

friendship for Holderlin,

which

with

as

French

only

his

his

with

of Jesus
from

written

which

underlies

life and
the
the

and

work.

the

need

of

teachings
in which

of

moralism
'

love,the

'

and

opposition

Kantian

remains."

unity

Jewish

of the

and

the idea that

apart from

and

with

the

Hegel explains
last

centuries

empire had
States
no

the

his

the
of

to this

the

republic

longer free, and

looked only upon

was

at the

of the

dogmatized

reference

to

men,

when

himself.

biblical

is unreal.

"

soul," was

estranged from
The

hence
the

to

opposition

bondage
States.

the

to
To

it is

universal

right of the citizen gave

the

citizen

interests

him

only

the
of
a

on

severely

says,

at

an

revelation.
ruled

the

the

finite ;

and

very

only the

which

tual
spirisingle

resting

as

he

advances,

But

eternal.

element

to

not

infinite

into

this

respecting

Hegel speaks

which

larity,
particu-

virtue

definite

churchly Christianity,which
the

his

pathological

statements

; it

the

from

through

overcomes

interpreted by Hegel

of

reference

appears

individual

the

in

worked

tween
be-

church

Hegel here, represents

life,distinguishes it

slavery of

him,

to

Life

justifiedin

conception of

time

special

is the

historical

in confinement

falsely objectifiesthe Deity

and

spondence
corre-

Of

distinction

time

Jesus

Kantian
same

are

separation

previously independent
his

says

The

He

engagement

Christian

the

that

Judaism,

consists

praised

manuscript, and

in

purely

at

worth

the

in Christ

divides
this

truth,

antiquity, by

reduced

in

itself.

fate

natures

corruption
victory

of

universality, the

its

events

animated

an

of

dogmas

d^tinction

out

in

of

principle of love,

only reflection,which
in

his

Lessing' s

extracts.

stand-point

Fate

dangers.

human

or
reflection,

loses

thy
sympa-

the

prescribed studies,

preserved

motives

own

this

Hegel points
its

against this separation, which

equal pace

law

the

development

categorical imperative, which

fate, but

divine

much

so

made

the

direction; Jesus, through

sides of the

not

opposition, while

Yet

love

religion

was

is

the

practicallydeveloped it.

their

mere

it

of

Schiller,his

and

University, which

of his mental

and

more

works

Tiibingen foundation.

which

published

Jesus,

synthesis

in

have
of

that

both

his

engaged

was

at the

course

of finding his

in which

lose

studying

desire

he

the

still

Haym

That

and

he

spring of 1795,

in the

the

antiquity, and
than

worked

philosophical acquirements).

his

time

of the

personal conception

manner

involved

him

Rosenkranz

Hegel's

rather

was

comprehension

by

Jesus'

as

the

reading of

left the

he

even

same

the

; at

him

Hosier, the

and

Herder, Lessing,

more

in the

written

with

philosophical studies industriously during

Schelling,who

for

(not

acquirements

in Berne

which

with

certificate

theological and

family -tutor

importance

the

his

talents,not

continued
as

from

of Chancellor

(Of Hegel's

strictlybiblical

The

seq.)

for

occasion

has

Zeller

The

from

dissertation

Schnurrer

him

occupied

to have

seem

officloruin

of his fellow-students, followed

others

and

Schelling

Revolution,

inferred

be

may

like

he,

the

of Hellenic

student

enthusiastic

the

of

also

and

philosophers,

other

also

dissertation

(as appears

Dogmatics;

History.

Church

tivity,"
Subjec-

culamitatibus.''''

p. 205

of

Storr, and

and

essays

and

also, much

defended

he

renascentis

Professor

with

Exegesis

wrote

Z)"3 Umite

"

which

succeeding period

next

time

defended

Eloquence,
afterwards,

Theology

the

that

sentiment

of like

was

and

at

was

and

Jahrbucher, Tiib., 1845,

2'heol.

Storr

supranaturalist

in

Wirtembergicm

he

concerning Objectivity

him

gave

1788-90, and

years

Philosophy

Philosophy," and

Philosophy

1795)

year

ecclesm

of the

volume

in

immortaUtate^'^a subject

the

theologicaldevelopment

of

History
of

of Candidate

rank

the

For

thought.

of the

the

in the

course

Magister

Understanding

Professor

Boek,

of

degree

Common

the

Study of

"

the

sepositaanimorum

humanorum

fourth

For

Roman

of the

in

the

worldancient

individual, when
the

body politic,

right to securityin

236

HEGEL.

his

posaessions,which

whole

fabric

and

under

being trampled
The

been

three

1797, became
had

extent

already

in addition

Hegel

in

tutor

to his

wrote
of

Constitution
his

during

youthful
of

The

published,

is

whither

Jena,
and

been

third

removed

into

changed
in

in

It

on

him

by
2d

the

at

Here,

as

his
In

Jena,

Fichte''s and

the

the

two

of

of

The

had

1801,

1800)

worked

co-editor

of

Critical

the

or

for

time

same

the
iise

Hegel
of

System

which

; this

part

of Sjyirit.Gradually
Schelling, especiallyafter
personal intercourse with
des

details

of his

himself

left Jena

time

the

directorship of
year

1816,

made

became

of

summer

Propaedeutik^and

at

Nuremberg

also the

extensive

He

longer possible.
"Phenomenology

which

was

in consequence

of

had

completed

the

been

he

wrote

and

work

"

appointed

in

objective ;
in

point
stand-

dissertation

propagation of
the

in

the

(1802-1803)
account

contributions.

as

of
At

had

immediately

more

losophy
Hegel's Phi-

became

left Jena

indicates

from

divergence

direct

and

sharply

sively
inci-

and

of Spirit" {Phaenomenologie
in the

in

year

was

post he

This

delivery

Logic and

Soon

1800.

giving

February,

1808, he

gymnasial

in which

Schelling

to the

and

of his

of the war,

events

for

first work

thought

the

the

of

1803)

of

in his

work,

the

number

conscious

more

(in the

no

he

part

on

jects
sub-

system, the. part relating to ethics,

Bamberger Zeitung, until in November,

the Aegidiengymnasium
at Nuremberg.

While

wrote

above

subsequently enlarged

latter

which

he

instructor

greater
of his

the

is construed

adhesion

in manuscript,
Sittlichkeit)^

der

Hegel

was

the

third

was

divergence

professorship to
for

the
him

a comprehensive
Geistes)^

Hegel

the

Morality {System

in his lectures

the

he

elaborated

and

his

of PJiilosophy(mentioned

Journal

Schelling's
philosophy),to
the

position as

which

academical

an

his

taken

up

Hegel's

Absolute

Schelling for

with

together

worked

in his

the

confesses

Hegel's habilitation,for

he

of Identity, both

Hegel

of

also,in manuscript,
that

subjective

the

philosophy

existenoe.

hence

ideal

SchelUng'^sSystems of Philosfyphy.

identity of

absolute

transcendental

its

After

Schelling.

Orbitis Planetarum,

System

the
and

nature

forms

necessary
of

De

is that
of

philosophy

1798

9, 1801,

of

Schelling'ssystem
in his

hours,

year

another, on

Feb.

Fichte, says Hegel here, is subjective Idealism, while that

fundamental
The
hence
and
absolute
Idealism.
subjective-objective,
system

some

ditions
Political Con-

to which

of nature
in

to

Wirtembergs, besond"rs

after

Hegel

January,

leisure

of November,

philosophy

was

in

January, 1801.

system

part the

ethics.

on

Dbjference between

the

on

part

written

Schelling

to

VerJidltnisse

developed.
and

Internal

supplementary

as

as

radically by Bruno

neglected.
the

highest

present

religious philosophy

Germany,

on

the

is

farther

occupied

not

tence,
impo-

repining the
of

and

notions

and

to

printed,

innereri

was

he

and

metaphysics,

to add

also

been

never

Empire,

honor

to

which, by

to moral

conservative

returned

were

neuesten

(as he wrote

now

logic and

German

in

of reflection

intending
was

the

residence

age

forms

the

of

had

has

Deity, and

welcome

without

to traditional

Berne, politicalstudies

MaglstraUverfassung),

der

of

marks

the

himself

saw

the

Frankfort-on-the-Maine.

theology, which
which

suffered

prominence

Hegel
in

be

Hegel's pupils (most

independent

in

{Ueher die

Wurtemberg

which

the

of

number

into

case

in

work,

with

in Switzerland

the

studies

"ilber die OebrecJien

the

by

man

in

but

not

Hegel's later,more

private family

been

small

disposition
them

in

Absolute

down

tore

Thus

ruling spiritof the times,

youthful opposition

again brought
years' stay

his

save

to the

element

which

element

has

After

of this

to

religion could

Death, which

frightful to him.

misery

heaven

world.

entire

seem

submissive

unextirpated

an

"

Bauer)

and

foot, stamped

radicalism

but

repressed

in

the

disgrace,to

virtue.

"

unfreedom

his

but

not

of suffering obedience

name

to

could

happiness

expect

the

giving

"

his

compelled by
seek

filled up

now

of his aims,

up

1805,

the
and

appointed
retained
his

[1806]
ordinary
extra-

editing
to

the

till the

PhilosopJmche

Metaphysics, previously

238

HEGEL.

spirititself. Absolute,comprehending knowledge

earlier

stages through

comprehended
of

t?ds realm

end

of the
In

of

Pheno^meiiohfjyin
Introduction

the

by

objectivitywhich

Dogmatism
Absolute

and

have

Empiricism,

in the

Criticism

and
and

recognizes thought

knowledge

himself

of

to his

preface

of

"

"

its view

upon

from

the

chalice

(says Hegel

the

at the

stand-point of

philosophical thought
in

philosophy,

the

being

of all the

fore
; it is there-

IVieosophyof Julius'''').

in modem

exemplified

been

development

establishes

of

attitudes

those

existence

preserved;

are

"

to Schiller's

Kncydoipmdia Hegel

critique of

of its

course

forth

foaming

the

pre -supposes

forms

it all earlier

allusion

the

to

in the

Spirit passes

history; in

spiritsinfinitypours

knowledge
to

which

of

theory

Philosoi:"liy
of Right) the

rational

real

of

Knowledge.

(as Hegel

as

lute
abso-

reference

particular those

Immediate

identical,or

as

with

and

expresses

the

real

as

rational.
The

of

System

science

of

the

idep, in its state

of

the

Idea

considers
of

the

of self -alienation

passing

which

reason,

Prius

the

and

1, the

doctrine
of

doctrine
and

being
the

idea,

the

of

the

being,

or

of

or

essence,

in and

the

itself.

difference
of

and

Being
and

since

Hegel

viz.

last part

abstracting

be

is

of

reckons

and

all

last

as

difference
in

difference

is al^^o made

of the

may
my

be

activity of

its

by

to

the

the

skeptical

or

element

simply

It

falls

the

of

the

the

three
se

3,

independent

conception and

form

Logic Hegel

of

as

into

conception per

developed

Being,

in

the

as

the

with

itself,
latter

this

terms

The

The

to

conception

is

with

the

his

which

and

that

the

The
of

doctrine
of

or

logic,"
which

things

some

Hegelian

doctrine

nation
origi-

"'

science
but

higher

are

is identical

which

being

diversity)

Becoming

spirit;

of

of

is the

fundamental

of

character

the

such,

philosophy.

in natural

as

of

science

To

Nothing.

midst

of

species

part

the

between

nature,

in

which

difference,although

identity (in

third

place

hence

higher conception,

the

as

Logic (and

identical

identity and

being [Da^ein]

wavering

or

in

therefore

of

and

new

doctrine

such,

is viewed

doctrine

on

is pure

relation

appropriate

the

the

of

conception

identical

shown

to be

be

can

objects

itself.

illusory ;

held

but

S"jat.of Logic, "" 31, 70-80,

specified
of

like

the

follows:

former

the

the

suffice

to

refer

is carried

following steps

immanent

onward
on

[Transl. Lond., 1871.]

this

of

conception
retaining

and

process

all the

manner

fast, and

it may

S3.

as

conceptions,

true

nothing,

In

by sharp distinctions, firmly

refuted

reconciliation

abstract

mediated,

development

sufficientlyshows,

obscured
mind,

science

parts together Objective Logic.

is determinate

their

the

development

of

which

forms,

forms

belongin)?

spiritual reality.

reality this

in

this

find

thinking

the

3,

content, and

God

as

and

larger work

Hegel

rise to

definition

its

as

the

negative

creation).

present

f
specified,

or

result

everywhere

Ih*^

forming

also

; its

rather,

in

: while

theught
C".

in logic would

all natural

them

of

far

conception of Becoming.

the

incorrectly

P'"rt.ain"^nlyto

+ But

expressed

the
the

in the

thought,

; and

dialectical

double

Nothing, gives

belongs

includes

of this

be

decay

Hegel
it

in the

of

dialectical,which

and

of the

is the

science

Spirit,or

involves

Idea

reflected

as

the

first two

stands

cannot

unity of both,

to

the

In

the

so

immediate

itself and

into

philosophical system)

Nothing, Being

It

the

is the

opposite,

before

speak,

conception

abstract, absolutely devoid

most

of

in

Logos,
to

thought

returned
for

the

or

point of departure for the

whole

its

is,of

that

Idea,

pure

is,so

part Subjective Logic, and

The

into

method

Logic, which

or

of

philosophy

The

higher unity.

(as he

of

thought

conception

Nature,

differences.

of God

mind

appearing of

the
or

in

of

the

itself.

conception

these

of the

science

of nature

parts:

each

cancels

Science

it is the

thought;

into

state

principal parts

merely distinguishes differences,and

simply

is the

Logic

of

three

philosophy

(alterity); and

developed,

which

understanding,

this

over

opposition, thus

into

for itself ; the

in and

returning from

the

is divided

Philosophy

Idea

one

to

being

is obtained

by

what

is

in

identical

step farther, and

of the

motion

point

only

Hegelian
or

dialectic

development

Trendelenburg

tion
abstrac-

and

may

of

pure

others.

239

HEGEL.

negation,or being"with

with

words,

other

reflected

itself,is

into

"

is

being

in

moment

[Ansichsein].

se

per

Something,

still other

in turn

the finite is at

; but

comes

only

this

progress
and

philosophy, and

every

infinitude,is

solution

the

ones,

ideality of

of

of the

being,

magnitude,

itself

is

and

the

in this
of

unity

form

is

and

and

To

negation.

difference,and

being,

the

belong

ground

(or reason).

are

or

is the

that by which

Totality,or

the

mere

Other, by
these
*

Hegel

apart

here

of
*

gives

signification.

from

restoration

all relatioas

its

that
the
into

over

; this

tion
rela-

is the

true

Kant

"

speculative

Kantian
did

of

not

whatever,

ground

but

only

the

as

qualitative quantum,
(unmediated)

itself,reflected

pure

especially identity,
reflection,

character

far

so

itself

"

and

"

altered

an

the

thing

to

momenta

is

[non-mediation]
from

it results

"

the

in

as

"

and
to

conceived
the

Hegel,

as

the

it is apart

from

the
a

thing

in

one

claiming

basis

into
of

subsist-

between

without

ject,
sub-

abstraction;

an

unqualified

signification,although

of

mediated.

its reflection

contradiction

thing-in-itself"

is

restored,

sublation"

existence

from

distinction

and

ground of

is the

Essence

reason.

difference,as
mere

logico-dialecticaldevelopment]

things involves

by

given

itself by

into

identity of identity

is the

truth
or

as

is

qualificationsof ground

expression
understand

its

in

posited

in its immediate

immediacy

or

the

attributes
of

tum,
quan-

tions,
all determina-

to

as

is

tion
rela-

in its externality is

itself

indifference

thing-in-itself
," according

existence

to itself

thus

of

many

with

independent

an

the

quantity,

pure

logicalprinciples of identity and

the thing into

it has

as

Quantum

Measure

the

quantity the

of

category

finites.
form

posited.

of directness

of

which

to this

is

(in

between

true

infinite

the

of two

one

relation

quantitative
with

unity Being

this

; the

of the

and

difference

the

as

and

finite

itself only

quality.

The

of being, in

Thing.

The

In

previously [in

was

the

is Measure.

conception

form

development
the

attributes.

Kantian

the

reflection

virtue

untruth

in the

being

constitutes

it is the

with

involved

; in existence

existence

principle of

externality of quantum

united

The

of truth,

tainted

In

qualifications of

essence

the

of

lack

being mediated

or

abstractions,through which

existence

other

Ideality,

between

many,

to the

The

here

Essence

thereby

one-sided

difference,as

other

fundamental

being-for-self,is repeated

quantitative

quantity.

is sublated

the

one,

constitutes

being

the

sense

sublated,

the

quantitative relation.

quality

Essence

is

; and

passing

its

Idealism.

is
finite,

the

degree.

or

relation-to-self,
or, being-for-self is
and

is its

contradiction

in

in

being

becomes

something

of that

finite is the

opposite. Quantity.

independent

of

function

its

into

the

beside

Quality, owing

determinate

intensive

determinate,

to this

it

otherness

something

by the

and

from

Other,

some

because

new

other

other

logicalantagonism

being-for-self are

over

being,

and

the

its

to

of

omnis

tion
determina-

"

alterity,the

but

something

the

is therefore

philosophy

true

repulsion).

passes
of

basis

of

(of the understanding), which, placed

and

The

ent
negation, or being-for-self [independbeing as negation
The
truth
being-for-selfthe qualificationof idealityis introduced.

momenta

into

over

of

restoration

With

attraction

as

arrested

other corresponding

the

passing

thing,

becomes,

infinitumis
that

of the finite is its ideality. This

The

it

in still

determination

distinguished

nothing,

Other-

becomes

in

in, but

to its relation

opposition

which

other

is^or,

its

being determination

abstract

the

to itself in

something

infinitude,the

and

this

this

approval Spinoza's principle :

as

consideration,
by
together with itself,or becomes

contradiction
its other

being]

in

Something

something,

once

is removed

of

longer

no

being of quality, as such,

The

the

which

or

in

as

simply Something.

or

with

cites

negation contained

the

is

the negation

; but

Reality

other.

from

^", in distinction

which

is immediate

being,

in its character

Quality,

which

Determinate
Determinate

something

determinatio)

est

determination

quality.

negation (and Hegel

is

all determination

negatio

with

being

to

report

its attributes

th"

and

specified relation, namely, apart

240

HEGEL.

in self and

ence

existence

reflection into other, or

is Manifestation

being,

distinguished from

as

the

manifestation,or
to the
existence

but,

phenomenal.

The

of

richer

of reflection

its
of

self and

into

defective.

But

support

than

content

the
in

not

It

Reality.

"

it

the

other,

itself,which
Kant's

was

the

the

merit,

whereas

being

Hegel,

says

being

and

world

only phenomenal

to be

and

the

confined

essence

to it

reality;

existence, or

thus

with

sense

of
The

as

as

the

to the

of the

reality,i.
dialectical

of the

the

the

syllogisiais

the

rational

in the

objective conception

or

each

must

natural

the

Objective.
of

momenta

the

pure

the

The

form

absolute

its reflection

from

as

of the
and

in

the

observations
Essence
But

and

this,as

on

the

Idea

guided
the

the

difference

shown,

as

the

as

[the
Real

of the

procity
Reci-

in the

between

its

In

merely

the

dogmatic

antitheses

Kant's

meaning.

the

is the

posited

Syllogism].
in which

orbit

realization

The

revolves.

the

and
to

realization

as
as

passes

from

; the

Idea

their
of

use

the

over

the

thought).

the
The

Idea.

is

Idea

absolute

life,and

immediate,

not

ante-critical

The

merely,
ness,
conscious-

System

of Logic, % 40.

Appearance

(phenomenon),

Cf. in my

Thing-in-itselfand

End

of the

logicalIdea.

or

into

in

self-knowing truth,

the
itself,

thinking

The

Teleology

essence

self),is the

for

as
ception
con-

formal

the

reality,the intrinsic unity of

absolute

Idea

of

unity

\an sich seiemle]

(as being
the

exhibited

it is also

of

Chemism,

particularly, apart
and

as

peculiar

its content

-thinking

far

so

Terms

special sense

of

Free,

is the Objective.
itself,

into

intrinsic

the

universality,

which

Mechanism,

independent

it not

is the

syllogistic; it

is

and

in

judgment,

in the

not

self

(more

noc

is

remains

considered

singular is

which

simple identity into

momenta

of Essence.
was

which

of

syllogism,

momenta

by sense-perception

Manifestation

above

ideal

is that

consciousness

our

unity

immediate,

momenta

the

is rational

conception

the

truth,

The

substance,

the

and

conception,perceiving

all

or

as

of

(c) the

and

its momenta,

life,cognition, and

are

of the

determined

and

Idea

freedom

absolute

the

purely

objective

{n) the conception is posited

in which

its determinations

itself

objective,posited

the

in itself the

general metaphysical sense).

declares

his

subjective conception develops

The

judgment

all that

through

of

unity

and

subjective

the

understood

in the

conception

of

in

reciprocity.

latter

truth

the

essence,
power.

returned,

of the

here

the

being,

to

includes

which

of

and

become

reciprocal motion,

syllogism as totalityre-entered

passes

be

science, but

Aim,

have

difference

development

conception

(which

and

and, finally,(3) as

judgment

e., in

it has

he

distinguished

immediately

substantiality,causality, and

{b) is separated into

;

of the

when

this

the

; but

circle

impenetrable

an

self.

singularity; (2) as

universal

and

that

which

to

Conception.

such,

as

that

sense,

to

But

and

itself,
having

independently existing.

outer,

returned

in

thing-in-itself
; Fichte,

of

judgment, being conception

diflferences

The

and

unity of being

conception

particular, and
and

in

is the

fixedly and

viomcnta

unrelated

purely phenomenal

as

nature

proper

the

higher category,

next

apprehended

of the
within

men

has

is the

he

name

substantial
{f'drsicJiseiende]^

particularity,and

related

which

simple immediacy,

(I) as

inner

relation

essence

Conception

not

of

relations

negative

itself,or

independent

itself

the

belong

is infinite

and

in the

that

broken

so

purely subjective

subjective representations ; it is,rather, the

of

it is

independence

in the

phenomenal

subjective idealism, erroneously

remedied

is the

exists,

tion
determina-

in itself

immediacy

or

is

ia

dent
transcen-

which

and

mediate
Im-

appearing
or

essence

being,

united

is that

phenomenal

essence,"* under

abstract

it contains

as

deficiency is

ascribes

incorrectly conceived
from

into

far

so

of

truth

tion
contradic-

itself.

behind

not

it is the

because

is the

this

developed

is therefore

; in
manifest

must

is appearance

contrary,

in

being,

Essence

essence

phenomenon

deficiency of

consciousness

common

the

on

form

and

matter

essence,
The

phenomenon.

phenomenon,

is

between

Phenomenon.

or

241

HEGEL.

of finite

in the form
of

truth

itself

itself

but
itself,

that in the

the

absolute

of

moment
its particularity
mediate
[otherness^
Andersseiii]or the im-

self-extemalization

in

[non-mediated] Idea,
The

Idea.

Idea

Being,

as

Idea

is the

Nature

body,

of the

the

in

have

the
is

finally,gravity
history, while

which

In

free

an

as

in which

is the

which

later,but

to the

being-in-

the

on

sive
progres-

Idea

is

; then

belonging
physical

discharged

externality is

to

individual

an

motion

; in

vitality,

subjective unity remains.

for

one,

; the

contemporaneous

are

time

gravity the

and

temporal

and

reflex

through

runs

celestial bodies

immanent

is the

Idea

depending

which,
qualities,

members,

by Hegel

is the

the

the

subjectivity. Its leading momenta

to

processes.

are

and

all forms

in nature

development

organic

It

The

space

of

is jS'ature.

Idee],

succession
or

reflection

self-alienation.

of

or

their

organism,

into

conceived

is not

succession

being

otherness,

Process

discharged

[dieseicmU

is the

definite-being [Dasein]

attributes

into

Chemical

which

Nature,

being-for-self

to

of

of

in
being-out-of-self

animal

tendency

members

inwards

developed
unity,

of

mechanical, physical, and

the

into

form

its abstract

self of individuality in the

are

Idea

in its immediate

series of stages, from

realization

form

the

the

or

in the

the absolute
spirit,

of
a

in

appear

from

to emit

freely
and

its first determination

of

or

life to

makes

knowledge,

it determines

ideal

only spirit,he
which

higher,

of the

prius

This

has

says,

in

the

lectical
dia-

lower, is only

in

spirituallife chronologically later.

The

death

of

[Beisichsein]of the Idea,

being-with-self
Its

to self.

Its

momenta

its relation

the

stage

of

of

it finds

is determined

this

The

The

The

of

opposed only
free will

is

; the

treaty is

of
will

negation.

reflected

into

third stage is the

the

ethical

State

to

ethical
world

ethical

actuality

stage, in
:

of

the

; the

divine

organization

of

16

will, as
world.

in

the

ethical

the

as

the

spiritat
self

sciousness,
-con-

posits that

self-realizingend

is the

which

character

ing
of self -determin-

free will is

in which

arbitrary. Right
includes

the

right

definite-being [Dasein]
of two

wills

the

individual

the

the

family,
idea

the

the

will

civil

tion
actualiza-

formal

or

the

of

gives

penal right

right as

tion
nega-

stage, morality,
as

conscience

society,

self-conscious

into

the

is

the*

one

with

State.

The

as

the

ethical

the

or

; while

himself

and

the

and

person

will ;

recognizes

monarchy,

objectified.

an

property, treaty

which

comm-on

second

spirit,unfolding itself
constitutional

of

is the restoration

punishment
as

in

is

such,

as

organized actuality; spirit,which

present
In

of

but

praxis, in

is the energy

its self-determination

which

with

into

the

right comes,

will

viz.

spirit developed

of

thinking

immediate,

is the

formal

itself,the

substance,

is the

After

universe

way

to the forms

confluence

the

soul

will
intelligence (theoretical),

objective actuality,is legal Right. Right

an

the

scope.

is right against injustice(un-right); and

its

manifestations

ethicality[socialmorality, Sittlichkdt]is,that

penal right. Property

to his freedom

by the

willingand

Objective Spiritrelates
is

that the

it arrives

of

and

to freedom.

Phenomenology,

the

spirit as

comprehends

unity
of

essence

right, in which

right, and

it

when

product of free will,as

abstract

Anthropology.

considers

universal,rational

freedom,

is the

its self-ahenation

determinateness

consciousness, perception, understanding,

sensuour

of

ends

doctrine

of

of

subject

comprehension

by will.

only

The

its own,

as

freedom.
foUow

natural

ethicality(free). Intelligence finds itself determined,

To

reason.

Spirit. Spirit

returning from

from

of Subjective Spirit,considers

Psychology

reason.

and
(practical),
which

is the

body,

doctrine

in
reflection,

and

the

or

advance

of

birth

absolute, spirit.
blending with natural determinateness,or

its immediate

the

to

gradual

is the
Idea

subjective, objective, and

are

part of the

second

is the

development

Subjective spirit,m
in

particular life

immediate,

mere

substance,

actual

or

in

the

shape

and

present

form,
political

of the

242

HEGEL.

modem

which

forms

world, the

in the

autocracy, aristocracy,
democracy,
his person
decision.
the

In the

diirerent

of

classes

be

the

in

rationalityof

of the

of

the

its

government
Many

the

individual, but
His

is

State, and
and

of the
the

overcomes

Roman

world

of the

world

rises.

In

empire

but

founded

substantial

shape, just as
of

the

In

the natural

spiritual.

is the

Socrates

It

universal

end

of

of

the

Subject;
The

here

the

it

universal

was

upon

nations.

into

its innermost

and

begins

become

concrete

true

of the

Empire

world

German

still satisfied

in its

and

conception

the

but

at last

only

period

under
will

with

is the

the
is the

plastic

expression

tial
natural, substan-

depends
order

the

of

The

drives

of

in

the

to

fate

like

falls

spiritback

the

have

banished,

been

individual

of the

will

might

universality of

the

gods

it

manhood

sacrificed

are

the

ethicality

that

age

tive
reflec-

the

on

substantial
in

consciousness

and
intsriority,

history

the

to

but

private right.
its

tions
qualifica-

quickly passing bloom.

that

and

Greek

history

Oriental

and

Individuals

will

The

self -consciousness

lies the

latter

which

absolute

dom
free-

free, the

subjective

independence

from

the

as

reconciliation.

is left to be

At
for

cared

the

secular

the

Principle itself shapes itself

Subject

is united

with

the

of freedom

is the

goal

of the

of

substance

world's

the

spirit.

history.

by
to

The

ment
develop-

Its

theodicy.

objective

spirit,is realized

knowledge,
narrower

philosophy.

world

prevails

Spirit,or religionin its

in the

The

arbitrary;

the

of

of national

the

forsakes

is

free.

all rational

compensation

as

him

by

is united

represents

universality.

loss

interiority.

barbarous

of the

Absolute

as

; it

reality,in which

is the

sensuous

the

In

are

realization

and

of

life

spiritis

who

pain

depths

the

one.

first the
those

The

One
are

impress

necessary

themselves, i. e., personality, by the development

the

Idea

which

which

world,

substantial

and

end

who,

superior

through

subjective freedom,

receive

they

the

corresponds

the
the

the

disciplinewhich

beautiful, but

most

Roman

abstract

; but

State

for

of

viewed

empires

morality

opposed morality,

ethicality.

the

social

bears

with

of

light of

mind

State, on

It is the

All

the

tive
subjec-

of those

conviction

subjective freedom,

sensuous

in a' struggle with

en:"pireof

is the

of

its

demonstrate

criticism

only that
that

the

on

of the

only accidents.

Grecian

The

leads

that

not

to

history

Oriental

remain

beauty,

individual

of the

itself into free

by

of

time

West

the

empire

of

This

involved

history.

form

of fine art the

seeks

sharp

world

as

obtain

may

structure

freedom.

knows

far

institution

subjective self -consciousness

The

will, and
and

union

work

self-determination

f ornv

the

This

tho

of

The

freedom

; in

of formal

legislation,as

by Hegel,

is One

cases

him.

politicalhistory,is

subjects

humanity.

in all

subjective

ideals.

it is in the

the

developed

unity of the

become

Orient

knew

'

of

ethicality,to which
should

that

under

in

natural

assumed

shapes

freedom.

of freedom

the

but

East,

of

wholes, vis.

monarch

in

formal

with

on

free, the German

are

so

is first

Here

of

in the

childhood

the

youth.

Some

substantial

present,

represents

cover

that

begins

the

are

of

The

with

politicalphilosophy

consciousness

of

untractableness

subjective freedom.

to
a,nd

of the

development

joined

reasoned

accompanied

sentiment

Some,

is laid

the

on

chief
and

right

to various
the

is the

of

the

knowledge, take pleasure in proposing empty

substantiallyas identical with
Hegel conceives
history

are

moment

that

order

rationality.

actual

reflection

in

; he

principal weight, however,

The

architectonic

his

that

order

is necessary,

jury

satisfied.

relying on

of

belonged

to momenta

is actual

participate in it,the

self-determination
the

degraded

State

the

administration

classes

is necessary,

right ; and
may

personality of

the

world

ancient

are

as

art, in the

sense,

The

comprehensive

more

in the

subjective form

in
and, finally,

beautiful

objective form

is the

the

of

sense,
of

as

the

intuition

feeling

and

in

sensuous

or

of

tive
subjec-

of immediate

imagination,as

form
subjective-objective

absolute

unity

of pure

gion
reli-

thought,

existence, the actuality of

243

HEGEL.

form

in the

Idea

the

of limited
the

distinguishedby

are

symbolic art,

and

fully to penetrate
.in G-recian

art,

and

.world,internally rent
Romantic

period.
of

depth

the

of the

highest
which

form

and

of

stadia

religion in

in which

(Orient,

is viewed

-God

; the
or

its

God

Greek,

; 3. The

adaptation

in finitude

alienation

eternally in

with

and

in

the

element

of

of the

The

thought.
of

the

of absolute

in

the

take

abstract

most

philosophies of

pure

being, becoming, and

with

of

that

occupy

occupies

the

the

What

eUboration"

was

the

stand

The

place
to

in

said

in Vol.

the

from

or

essence,
as

of reason,

I., " 4,
much

of

conception
conception of

and

same

more

the

and

of

Aristotle's with

totalityor

the

or

with

the

newest

the

concrete

Schelling,

principles of

all

the

or

in them

in

that

of

being

for

is

self -comprehending

of philosophy and

namely, by

; the

Idea,

truth.

correspond

with
Plato

and

The

the

philosophy

the

philosophy

Cartesian

Fichtean

with

sophy
philo-

philosophies
Hegel's)
in the

substance

thought

or

absolute

contained

are

gress
pro-

of

philosophy of

conception,

pure

ception
con-

Philosophy
religion known

and

Atomists

previous systems

the

to the

cognitions

identical

cess
pro-

dom
king-

movement

and
philosophy (Schelling's

of subjectivity as
and

self,the

truth,

manner,

the

in

difference,the

being.

concrete

independent being

for

of God

is that

art

in and

idea

this

to

munity
com-

(1) Being

idea

into

express

self-

particularization,
of

from

the

his

are

eternal

moment

systematic development

richer

in

These

existence
to

The

reconciled

religious community
God's

for

or

men.

once

eternal

Idea
as
spiritor the self-knowing Idea.
and
-point of consciousness, the Kantian

absolute

notwithstanding

of

forms
in his

all

the

of manifestation

out

is the

Religion

religion of utility

at
in

spirit,the

essentiallythe

ever

thought

The

Hegel.

God

manifestation,

intended

are

true

being-for-self

intuition

in the

finite

proofs

try,
Poe-

art.

ity
religion of .sublim-

self-thinking Idea, self -knowing

and
self-consciousness,

stand-point

with

lated momenta

the

categories of

with

of

Eleatics,of Heraclitus,

with

of intellectual

knowledge

the

times

occupies

form

the

Neo-Platonists

of modem

they

(architecture;

religions of

the

life

teleologicalproofs proceed

thought.

development

corresponds

truth,

The

bf the

and

form

sphere of the

Philosophical knowledge

reason.

from

that

or

on

of and

religions in which

the

or

his

representation,

of the

sense

Christian

itself.

natural

Roman,

universality,God

ontdlogical,conversely,

comprehended

its historical

in the

Roman

out

of

for

hence

recognizes

of return

the

going

into

religion,or

the

finite

in the

existence.
of

arts

; 2. The

itself in three

(2) the

mental

and

cosmological

God,

thinking

and

and

true

God,

to

of

nature
and

the

unfolds

form

Idea

The

Spirit.

spiritrises

Idea

(3) the form

; and

reconciliation, the

human

the

Son

with

pre-eminently

forms

up

1. The

substance

Jewish
; and

beauty

Father

of consciousness
of the

kingdom

unity

itself,the

physical

are

religion,which

divine

of the

himself, the kingdom

Being-for-Other

as

the

the

sub-

as

philosophy.*
of the
that

tnith
is

in fundamental

exaggerated,

conception

arbitrary,and

and

distorted

the
"

"

is unable

representative consciousness,

the

natural

particular,the

in his

The

for

development

absolute

and

church.

or

historical

religion of

the

or

all forms

totalityof

the

It is art

of

In

spiritualelement,

system of

to that

material.

of the

art

the

reflectingunderstanding, and

is conceived
in

The

analogous

assumes

the

Subject,

as

poetry)

truth

feeling,representation, and

is

romantic
of

art

sensuous

artistic product

subjectivity.

of art.

form

arts, takes

absolute

of

into

romantic

form

and

beauty,

predominance

infinitude

the

classical

discharged

satire,the

the

on

itself,
yet retaining the

sculpture; music, painting,

as

In

and

rise,the

not

positively in the

and

decaying,

on
spirit,

could

is completely

is founded

art

feeling and

rising above

is the

material.

the

content

itself negatively in the

dissolves

art

Classical

ideal

idea

they present

Orientals

the

notably,

permeate

the

in which

varying relation

which,

above

and
Symbolic, classical,

manifestation.

grandness
of

Hegel's

in
view

its detailed
of

the

his-

244

80HLEIERMACIIER.

temporary
cona
" 130. Friedrich Ernst Daniel S(3hleiermacher
(1768-1834),
the
firstand
and
of Ficlite,
last
of
whom,
Sclielling, Hegel,

he

survived,and

Plato, modified
to

especially
by the study of Kant, Spinoza,and
Kantian
philosophy,attemptingto do equaljustice

incited

the

the realistic and

time

viewed

are

themselves

by

and

contained

idealistic elements

the

Schleiermacher
of

forms

as

in it.

Space

of the existence

of

and

things

apprehension of things. In like

Schleiermacher
concedes
for things
to the Categories
manner
validity
The act of apprehension,he teaches,depends on
the acthemselves.
tion
of the senses, through which
the being of thingsis taken up into
merely

not

The

consciousness.

our

condition

macher's

merely

forms
the

world

of

thought,which

elaborates
"

in the

or

of

had

the whole

with

of Schleier-

nc"t
are
causality
space, time, and
ness
w^orld existingsolelyin the conscious-

phenomenal
percipientSubject,but
confronts

him

which

is

senses

sumed,
inconsequentlyashad in vain
logicalconsistency,

logicalagreement
with

doctrine,since

of
real

in

Kant

doctrine

Fichte, for the sake

disprove,is

to

affection of the

that the

doctrine

knowledge, which

of

and

sought

our

him

the

and

function

intellectual

external

"

which

of

the

objective,
knowledge. In

his

conditions

of

content

forms

also

are

and

internal

supplements

rience,
expe-

the

"

ganic
or-

detects,with Kant, the element of

function,"Schleiermacher
which
is combined
in man
with receptivity,
the djpriori
or
spontaneity,
element
of knowledge which
co-operates with the empiricalfactor.
avoids the djpriori
Through this theoryof cognitionSchleiermacher
of the Hegelian dialectic. The plurality
of co-existing
jects
obnarrowness
and mind
constitute a unity
and of successive processes in nature
is not invented
and
which
includes
by the mind, but has true reality,
As
real
the
world of manifold
istence
exunity,
objectand subject.
being a
whole.
The
of all existing
constitutes
articulate
an
totality
thingsis the world ; the unity of the universe is the Deity. Whatever
afiirmations are made
with reference to the Deity must
be either negative
a
nd
A
o
f
influences
or
figurative
anthropomorphitic.
reciprocity
exerted and received unites all the parts of the universe.
Every part,
and
hnman
active
With
is
both
therefore,
passive.
activityis contory of

rejects

philosophy,
in

stmction

in

basis, he really
same

the

itiealistic

the

former

side.

side

in

sets

extended

form

every

opposition

The

be

can

principle

to
up

of

empiricism
a

to

dualism,

justicehas
Hence

in

the

essentially the

dualism, yet,

not

been

an

in

Rame

which
done

is not

philosophy.

power

removed

by Hegel

to the

and,

to

sense

method

independent

greater prominence,

post-Hegelian

the

in

of
and

by

his

his

separates

the

system.
which

"

pure

supplementary

realistic
many

whole

system

casea,

side
th"

of

the

Decidedly

elevates

thought
reference
Kantian

one-sided

Hegel

as

dialectical
"

from

its

made

con-

cal
empiri-

to

philosophy

exaggeration,

rience.
expeas

given

to
to

246

SOHLEDGRMACIIER.

introduction

the

published

latter,are

the

to

Berlin, 1854.

LancizoUe,

V.

the

lutU

rs

which

Jonas, and,
I. : From
Till

his

"with

after

his

Schl.'s

which

letters

removal

have

treated

of

Schh's

Braniss,

Schl.'s

Ueber

occasional

passages

in H.'s

Theologie

unserer

Zeit,

Ueber

Bedeutung

die

in the

Schwarz,

Schleiermacher,

in

Preuss.
Rud.

Erinnerung

Indworks
dorff,

Woltersdorf,
1869),

others.

and

A.

{Die

Petersen,

the

(in
Cf.

also
der

works

2),

Zeitgesch.,

Vol.

1868),

32, Nov.,

P.

Dialektik," Dissert., Jena, 4868),

(Zur Erimierung

an

brethren,
tendencies

(from

his

form

their

and
an

influence

nineteenth

renounced

his

Grundanschammg

{Schl.'s phUos

{Schl,

Hossbach

was

of faith
which

brought

the

acquired

connection

Michelet
and

Westm.

by
with

the

the

need

Treblin,

Thomson,

the

Th.

Monatschrift,

Moruztsblattfur
metaphgs

dem

Berlin.

Wirken.

{Der
Rev.

Moravians, and

was

s,

the

of Moravian
his

over

spiritual

even

when

examination,
no

at

bom

was

its power,

independent

semer

Twesten

m.-Tr.]

community

profound influence

A.

Schl.

Standpunkt
vol.

mnere

Theil

1868),

clergyman,

of the

of

{Schls

Wilh.

PhMos.

in Gelzer's

Reformed

member

most

/"r

kel,
Schen-

nach

indestructibly to assert

continued

year), impelled

outward

as

up

C.

53,

of

son

und

Leben

sein

vol.

Exam.

S. in Christ.

Schleiermacher,
He

21, 1768.

Breslau, Nov.

Th.

[Arts,on

Daniel

Ernst

Friedrich

Leo

Drey-

Z""^scAr.

Schellenberg,

O.

(in

Hulsmann

Schleiermacher's,

[akad. Vortrag], Berlin, 1869),

Schl.

Geda7ike, VIII., 2, 1869).

had

1868),

G.

(^^^^^^i^^'^^'^lf^^^'J.;
^^'f'''^:
/'^^^^'^
Bender

T.

and

Bratuschek

Ernst

E.

dresses
ad-

1868,

Biedermann,

(in Hilgenfeld's

Sack,

Ver-

gegenseitiges

November,

of

Stuttgard. 1852, 1869),

Schleierm.,

nach

21st

Sporri, Thomas,

H.
Beck

Carl

opuscules by

and

G.

H.

Ruge,

TheologieX

deutsche

{Die zvissensch. Bedeutung

Steffensen

Karl

Renter,

Herm.

Volksschule

Gotteslehre, Dissert., Worms,

1 and

A.

zur

8, 1867

No.

IV.,

ihr

und

Lipsius

Kahnis,

Henke.

macher's
Schleier-

(Inaug. Dissert.), Leipsic,

Benfey,

R.

Leben

Lebensanschauun-

christliche

the

Baumgarten,

M.

by

Hagenbach,

Jahrb.filr

Idee

the

published

were

George,

L.

Nitzsch,

Eisenlohr

Th.

pMlos

^^

F.

Schultze, Sigwart

L.

II

on

Theologie),

Wiss.

Schleiermacher

Frickey,

Duncker,

L.

of

occasion

the

On

Berlin, 1868.

hmtniss

und

Kittlitz,

v.

Charakterbild,

und

Monatsschr.,

on

in the

Leben

sein
Rich.

Dilthey,

Wilh.

Systeme

celebration

centennial

chr istl. Wis9.

fur

1866;

Lebens-

desselben

ihrer

Geschichte

die

Schleiermacher,

mid

Spinoza

Schmidt,

der

(Schenkel,

{Diss, iiiaug.), Berl., 1864;

Altpreuss.

the

in

Voraussetzungen

philos.

die

Philo-

Wirksamkeit,

uiid

BerUn,

ein

; Karl

als

Gegner

Zeitschr.

Baiir, Schleiermacher's

A.

Drei

12.

Zum

178-201

Athenceum

Schleiermacher,

same,

Charakter,

Schleiermacher,

Ostpreussen,

in

uml
Religioiisbegriff

Schl.'s

Schiirer,

1868-

Schl.

the

fur
Ehren-

cf. Dorner's

Schl.

dem

zu

Deutsche

Leipsic, 1867

Versuch,

Friedr.

Schenkel,

Daniel

Hirsch.

; Franz

1864;

Sigwart,

Zeller,

pp.

Bobertag,

; Schlottmann,
the

E.

Abh.,

u.

Scheiermacheri

ethices

politischer

als

Schl.

biographischer

ein

21. Nov., 1768. Elberfeld, 1868;

den

an

Leips., 1868

Dilthey.

irrinciinis

De

Vortr.

die

SchVs

uber
1851

which

(with

politische Gesimmng

SchVs

fur

Charakierisiiken

Schleiermacher^s

Basel, 1859;

1861

Glati-

by Liebner, Domer,

ed.

Beziehujigen

1861

Tubingen,

Eeligionsbegriffs,va.

Wilh.

Beyschlag,

Sigwart,

who
Jul.

; cf. also

Bedeutung
in

Vorlesu7ige7i

829-864

inZeller's

seinen

in

Schriftstellern, Bonn,

im

W.

Schl.

: Chr.

ihrer

dan

in Vol.

particular

repr.

II.:

IV.

those

Voraussetzungen

Theologie, Gotha,

seiJie

und

sehen

Guil. Dilthey,

I., 1867-70

176-194, reprinted

; Vol.

Of

Sittenlehre, Marburg,

and

Vol.

'"'"Dialogilber

Leips., 1837

in

Weiasenhorn.

267-327

Vol.

en.

Schleier-niacher'tichen

Daub

Charakterbild.

ein

in

der

Theologie,

deutsche

respondence,
cor-

correspondence

followed.

Itu7isi, 1839,

u.

been

April, 1794, is given

to

fundamento,

und

Wiss.

psychologischen

Blaubeuren),

at

Oct.

BiMungsgang,

Vol.

Emil

1861,

Anfinge

Wirke7i, Elberfeld, 1868;

Schleiermacher's

gen,

Sem.

47

Schleiermacher'

SchVs

Baxmann,

der

Schleiermacher,

No.

Kritik

nishes
fur-

by Ludwig

Brief

in

Schl.'s

mention

proposit(je

deutsche

Jahrb.fiXr

Pers'dnlichkeit

1861,

Jahrb.,'
X., 1862;

Schl.

published

L.

by

have

Schlegel, Berlin, 1861

may

Rosenkranz,
a

Weizsiicker, Vol. II., 1857, pp.

the

S. IV..

N.

Leben,

christl.

; C.

Grass

Leben,

Dilthey) has

we

cd.

Schleiermacher's

and

III.

Schl., extending

(by Wilh,

Schl., Halle, 1844;

und
in the

Auberlen,

seine

of

Vhiliviii) des

and

Stahl,

A.

Kirchenz.,

(Progr.

Schlegel

heiden

u.

Preicss.

Prot.

the

C.

of

J. Chr.
of

1834, Memoirs,

to

Vorliinder,Schleiermacher''s

Jahrb., III., 1S59, pp.

Fehruar,

soph,

and

Palmer,

1804

Werken^

correspondence

1858,2d ed., 1860 ;

; Vol.

Wilh.

Aug.

Strauss, Schleierm.

uber

; F.

Erkeimtisslehre

rejoinder,ibid.,p. 499) ;

edited

been

from

Schl.

ethices

Friedr.

Glaubenslehre,

seiner

feuchter, Landerer,

1824

De

Fort,

Schaller,

and

friends

on

Jahrb.filr

HalUsche

Leips., 1847-49

der

Grimdbegriffe

die

work

and
All

Schleiermacher''8

theological doctrines,

; Dav.

Ethik

in the

Dogmatik,

und

and

his

autobiography

short

Hartenstein,

Leips., 1839;

Kritiken,

und

Dialektik

Friedr.

with

Glaubensleh'te, Berhn,
18o6

him

October, 1804, Berhn,

in

Halle,

at

biographical

philosophical

benslehre, Konigsberg,

between

passed

preface, Berl., 1852.

12, ia34, Berlin, 1858. 2d ed., 1860

1863.

Berhn,

copious

title : Aus

the

under

correspondence

comprehensive

SchleVH

his

general interest, has

Halle, chiefly with

to

3-16.

Dilthey,

appointment

Feb.

Brinckmann,

to

Anatdndige,'"' Reviews,
I., pp.

till his

occurred

till his

friends

Wilh.

death, by

aus

relations

which

letters

is of

Beirachtungen

personal

biographical

and

i)rcserved

childhood

death,

Schl.'s

Inn

una

life and

The

Grass, with

\V.

,^uii.

has

/deeu, Rejlexionen

Schleierrnacher's

information.

trustworthy

most

by

the

Of

longer able

he
to

247

SGIILEIERMACHEE,

approve

the

iu 1785

he

definite

educated

was

of the

Seminary

the

the

completing

'"''

the

1802

in

1794

1796

and

himself

of

emancipation
received

in it

retained

till his

death

studying

criticisingit

and

with
of

to

criticism

of other

series

and

Reformed

doctrine

and

the
to

free

union,

union

only

effected.
his

received

and

advances

the

to Greek

effectual

as

to

in

in

him

personal insult.

In

as

well

It

not

was

parties,friendly

of

till in

relations

his

in

were

UniversityProfessor, and author, Schleiermacher's

salutary. In the fields of theology, philosophy,
broadly stimulating, intellectuallyawakening,
(says Zeller

only

the

in

his

Vortr.

greatest theologian that

Reformation

; not

of
confessions,

only

more

u.

the

churchman,

liberal

Abh.,

constitution

and

the

of individuality
in religion,
will force their way

ideas

the

has

to this

period,

of the

As

and

union

also

his

mutual

preacher.

labors
"

200)
the

to

macher
Schleier-

Varied

paths.
since

of
was

enjoyed its
the

extremely

179

but

owing

Hegel

learning,

had

in

idea

true

restored.

pp.

to

was

by him,

and
were

macher"
Schleier"was

not

period of the

of the

Protestant
science

of the
rights of
and
spite of all resistance,

Church,
in

of

indicating new

of

churches,

which

that, through

ancient

Church

labored,
forms

and

conflict,and

measure

was

Altenstein, not

finallychosen

Leipsic, 1805,
grand

of

Von

activity was

and

Protestant
whose

he

Protestantism,

to Minister

as

he

Lutheran

all

preachers

government

the

which

1817

leave

to

union

last years

chieflyin

year

doctrinal

this

and

interest,been

of the

spirit of

subsequently

as

of the

the

union

corruption

course

consequence

constantly the disfavor

as

support.

of both

the

the

Plato

Schleiermacher

individual

history with

of

quainted
ac-

tion
exposi-

Sciences, for

as

the

and

he directed

iudependently and

In

manner

addressed

from

phy.
philoso-

Jacobi's

first

at

of

which

to

the

warning,

associatsd

turning

rigidlylegal

more

politicalactivity,previously
active

of

of

less

more

the

on

for

in such

conscience

the

ideas
and

Academy

conformed

were

of

courses

first became

far

philosophy.

union

He

systems

with

own

to deliberate

Churches

two

the

in

more

of the

of

he

position
his

Subsequently

but

his

proceeded

kind

preached

Universityhe

to

1794) through

himself

member

future

he

branches

Schelling.

year

previously,

at Berlin

the

from

to be

experienced
favor

Schleiermacher's

name

not

his liberal

made

of the

according

was

was

But

radically different
permit

afterwards

cultus, provided they

determined

end

but

assembled

Synod

Churches.

the

was

he

in the

developed

opuscules relating mostly

of the

namely,
be

systems,
In 1817

of

had

the
last
with

of

1809

addition

various

on

and

interested

he
attention

In

1786-1790.

Fichte

(probably

Schleiermacher

Aristotle.

constructively.
wrote

His

philosophers.

directed

President

doctrine

up

on

this

measure

Berlin

the

1796-

philosophy, being especiallyoccupied

decennium

the

(1785). Afterwards

it

of earlier

Spinoza's

Kantian

the

give

Theology, which

1834.

lectures

Halle

work

From
of

of

the

tered
en-

Stolpe,and

at

in his

sition
po-

tion.
direc-

Warthe,

at
to

war,

for

mind

founding

February,

philosophical

in

the

co-operated

Ordinaiius

speculations of

to the

attention

critical

of

with

familiar

of

public

the

Professor

12th

delivered

early

became

On

the

on

he

Gedike's

Philosophy

events

the

afterwards

court-chaplain

foreign domination.

from

as

the

on

he

theological lectures
He

Trinity

the

bracing

in Berlin.

appointment

an

of

After

May, 1793)

to

under

was

into

1787.

May,

Soon

and

Theology

was

in

Landsberg

at

literarylabors, and

Fatherland

the

of the

Church

at the

of

in

received

he

quitted

Berlin, 1802-1804

at

with

patriotic men

other

he

which

preacher

in consequence

Being compelled,

Fichte

assistant

was

Extnwrdiiiarius

position, he occupied

iu

he

until autumn

thence

Dohna-Schlobitten.

Count

Clmrite-ILms

the

Professor

Saale.

which

fur gdefirteScJiulen''''at Berhn,

to

at

chaplain

1804-1808

of

spring of 1783

occupied (Oct.,1790,

he

Halle,

the

Niesky;

at

Barby,

at

at

family

the

From

Pcedagogium

Brethren

United

Seminar

From

the

in

faith.

their

theological course

teacher

as

of

substance

have

and
even

248

SOHLEIERMACHEE.

begwi

only

to

now

the heart

fruitful seeds

of

who

awakened

first

one

and

in many

to do

thereby
for

who

from

import

accordance

the

mass

with

the

of

also

; he

is

in the

been

laboring
of the

times, one

our

Schleiermacher's

Among

Religion,Reden

GeMldeten

ihren

unter

Festpredigten,1820

further

in

and

of

collections

Complete

his

Berlin, 1803.

2d

its
the

among

is of universal

the

past has

human

given

in

us,

protagonists of

the

among

10)

Vorrede

Jonas, 1843).
1842.

Die
C.

Bidlektik

Lehre

2d

in

delivery

them.

of David

In

inconsiderable

after

latter,namely,

impression
may

Schleiermacher's
in

so

far

as

the

said

be

death,

provoke

uniform

Schleiermacher
learned

person,

but

principles

had
from
with
and

ed., p. 597,

not like to pour

of

held

especially when

the

Idea

the

and
out

the

same

not

Hegelian philosophy

indeed

itself,which,

after

in

his

the

partly

number

partly

been

of the

accounts

into

any

taken

of

Kant

the Limits
one

up

to connect

Strauss

as

precedent

Religionwithin

all its riches

to have

and

large

the

among

the

time

of those

who

-on

by
his
the

in his

would

In

an

it ;

to

which

thinker,
with

who
any

the

Hegelian

the Pure

Reason^

authority

Critique of

which

necessarily

reference

religiousinterest

of the Mere

individual.

anticipation
Jesus,

indirectlyto

consequent

at

direct
life of

led

have

to

critique to points, with

extension

back,

C. Lommatzsch,
von
Erziehungslehre,
hrsg.
(The Lectures on the Life of

partialcritique of Schleiermacher

'

mit

Sitte,

christUche

Eiitenik, produced

of

evangelical

critique of the

eines

Entwurf

dargestellt,
hrsg.Don

Zusammenhang

George, 1864.

editorship

the

cited

jiMlos.Ethik

der

cf. Pie

which

Phihs.

der

Brandis,,1845.

A.

1864

Strauss's

soon

Ghr.
von

under

Gesch.

the

death.

Schl.'s

since

Aesthetik, hrsg.

Jonas, 1839.

hrsg.
Psychologies

particular,they

Friedr.

appeared

not

(with

im

lin,
Ber-

Kirche,
evangelischen

Grundriss

and

fession^
Con-

Augsb.

Amnerkungen
Weihnachtsfeier,

Die

etc.

philosophical importance

most

mously),
anony-

Schleiermacher's

und

reprinted
to

eine

lislierigenSittenleJire,

der

der

addition

emngelischen Kirclie
lirsg.ton

after

Einleitungen

; frequently

ed.,

Coll., 1814;

der

Denkfeier

Grundsatzen

Twesten, 1841

A.

(publ.
3d

Coll., 1808;

Kritik

mit

Schweizer, 1835,

Stoat, hrsg. von

vom

published

of their
heard

der

Platz,1849.

Jesm,

are

lirsg. von

Grundsatzen

nacJi den

of

those

I., p.

Sittenlehre,hrsg. mn

2d

Monohgen,

ScJdcgeVs Lucinde

einer

following (in

the

Systems
dnldtender

nacli den

edition, 1830-31

works

posthumous
der

death,

appeared,

und.

Ueher

especial mention:

Schl.'s

Zur

'33;

uhersetzt

Glauhe

revised

above. Vol.

2d

what

2; II., 1-3; III., 1, Berlin, 1804-28,

and

1821-22;
his

Werke.

JDer chrisUiche

1806, etc.

had

religion,

VerdcJitern,Berlin, 1799;

sermons

Orundlinien

Works.

Platon^s

versehen,I., 1

the

the

was

of

nature

distinguished

foremost

death,

von

and

minds,

practicallydetermining

writings the following deserv^e

die

an

Coll., 1820;
1831

Of

era

in the

personal intercourse,

to sift what

1806; 3d ed., 1821; frequently reprinted since

Vertraute
NevjaJirsgahe,1800, etc.
Bricfe iiher F.
1800.
Predigtsn, 1st Collection,1801;
4th

new

Schleiermacher

most

transform

honestly

countless

peculiar

of

the

in

on

life.
the

way

of

one

positive tradition, to

spiritof

co-operated

scattered

yet

introduced

Humanism."

modern

die

new

century have

intellectual

; not

Schleiermacher

system,

who,

but

works

instructing influence

service

thought

of

than

more

heart

formal

finally,who

man,

comparative thoroughness

incalculable

fields

and

altogether

an

an

to other

any

suffered

religious teacher, forming

the

finished

j^olitical
regeneration

Germany's

investigate with

to

relations
men

and

having

they have

deep-working

understanding by

philosophy

stimulating, educating,

and

investigator of antiquity, whose

an

of Greek

Prussia's

exerted

without

deep eclipse which

the

the

and

understanding

knowledge

work

again from

highly-endowed

philosopher, who,

the most
in the

the

by

also

was

forth

come

gifted preacher,

of

i?ms"?7i" affirmed, did

historical

point of view

249

SCHLEIERMACHER.

have

lectures

these

in its

animated

Equally

on

that

other, so
2d

Principle in
geeks

his

On

the

of

import

feelings and
religion
Kant

the

theoretical

Schleiermacher,
of

the

are

expressed by

means

the

finite,is able

to

his

essentiallyby
mid.st

of the

idealistic
shall

to the

consider

each

phraseology
is

unity

be

of

thing
:

sub

of his

intuition

If

and

unity
speculation of
does
may
that
will

not

again

cause

this

to

which

annihilate

proud
it
the

so

universe

limitation
of

of

the

its

vacant

while
mere

"

finite
not

the

the

to prove

and
self

with

holy, rejected Spinoza

the

In

means

critique

the

infinite

which
outside
in

he

our

differs

with

eternal

this
the

from

of

that

there

seeking
empty

an

so

the

may

be

asserts
to

highest

that

its

shadow

reverentially
was

filled with

the

of

the
if it

religion

realism

than

superiority ?

own

with

of

Idealism,

another

of

derived

utterance

humility

construct

immediate

it in the

finished, rounded

the

macher,
Schleier-

says

in the

eternal

of

this

shall

Spinoza's

in

(or,

Eternal,

the

which

realism

the

to

isolation,but

in its

the

of

these

objects

opposition

become

He

mythology.

is- reflected

end

Offer

and

only phenomenal,

demands
finite

with

one

perfect justice

consciousness.

science

objects of

will

allegory, to

our

for

however,

eternally separated

seemingly

gious
reli-

indicate

reality of

eternal.

with

one

suspect

the

the

to

and

the

for

space

the

original unity,

to

finds

vindicate,by

(from whom,

of

become

the

be

open

Schleiermacher

remains

he

significance of individuality), in

whole

not

that

subjective spiritualstates

infinite and

one's

or

therefore

and

recognizes

them

the reason,"

left for

the

no

and

the

simply

to

in

admits

; and

mysticism
of

Ideas

space

Spinoza

Fichte,

this

speculation
and

is

Kant

to prove

religiousfeeling,

on

through

consciousness

consideration

to feel

shall
into

boldly

is

into

Social

Schleiermacher
but

objective science,

was

worth

itself

what, then,

what

back

sink

significationof

it to the

manes

But

days,

our

office

decline

seeks

its

the

feeling, he

of consciousness.

for

there

he

this, that

he

so

eternal

objective reality, "which

does

man

faith,

and

whose

legitimacy of

with

specieceterni);
"

of

As

pretends
while

reason,

notions,

and

in its union

religion.

which

finite

the

to

that

moral

finds, like

Kant

in

the

Religions) Schleiermacher

needs

perishable

confined

infinite

doctrines

that

the

only

of these

speculation
indeed

not

that

contrary,

and

the

objects

objects of the

the

recognition of

finite

On

cation,
Justifi-

On

the

former."

the

Discourse
:

faith

itself,on

exclude
1st

faculty, namely,

the

the

of

all

consciousness," inviolate, and

5th

of

as

noble

inevitably

basis

for

justificationof religion.

ideas

is taken

since

leave

Religion;

special want

Christian

ReligioiisCulture, 4th

Ideas

when

; but

show

religiousnotions, but

our

the

the

as

vital

latter

spirit,

accomplishment

independently

philosophic dogmatism

and

sphere of

the

on

notions

to

reason,

beyond

realityof

and

between

the

die

uher

the

spirit toward

the

to labor

Priesthood,

those

in words

on

Reformation

compact

On

special and

follows

there

Postulates, the

"Ideas"

on

the

them

in order

needed,

of his

who

theology

scientific

the

teachings of theological dogmatism,

expression

to

once,

of

of the

of

represent

at

German

earnest

an

towards

latter,nor

what

that

truth

theological

feeling comes

and

objectsof

the

man

direction

and

opposes

scientific truth
in

the

Religion,3d

nature

moral

the

is the

true

on

or

eternal

hinder

Church

reason

religion is founded
which

of

reality of

theoreticallythe
the

of

course

filled with

the

of

goal
an

Religion" {Reden

is the

what

enforces

the

contribute

to

inquiry,left free

may
on

Religion,

the

not

Essence

the

critique of

denies

scientific

Discourses

to show

and

as

establish

former

the

"

the

In

indicates

"to

and

hand,

one

all his works

time:

present

the

visiblyin

he

which

work

of the
of the

importance is great for those

and

by deep religiousfeeling and

seeks

Schleiermacher

Schleiermacher

development.)

recent

more

theology

the

understand

would

of

their

value, but

scarcely any

now

it, and
the
me

will

degrade
and

narrowness
a

lock

It

to

the

lofty world-spiiit;

260

SOHLEIEEMAOHEE.

infinite

the

his

was

innocence

holy
and

and
spirit,
the

above

he

too

hence

he

cultured

immediate

the

eternal

the

eternal, is

of

action

that

religion is

and

sense

is the

every

moment

; and

when,

when

is the

of

communion

between

pious

between

the

whoever

he
of

faculty
The

the

of this

various

religionincludes

the

possible ;
it

the

religionsare

were

extending in infinitum,of
in which

of his

religion.The

which

the

either

in the

world

in man's
the

among
Lucretius

in

the

of

the

(3) the

the
the

form

in which

appeared

the

in his

of
of

the
finite,

and

of

being

man's
the

position

conception

latter

in

the

of direct

being viewed

as

of

priest,

himself

to the

man

universal
of

the

his

Deity

religion

abstraction.

often

in

impoverished
is

appearance

regard,
is

Deity
elements

represented

is either

form,

the

the

is most

its

source

of
a

his

nent
promi-

relation

the

as

or

which

reaction
in

at

mind

with

totality,as

as

monotheistic

consciousness

retribution, of

ner
man-

worth

polytheistic,as

represented

and

universe

work,

stadium

necessity in nature,

is either

having

to

ferent
dif-

fate ; (2) the stadium

forces

and

and

God
or

blind

as

of God
of

(1) the

are

but

must

The

The

this

religious nature

mere

which

is conceived

properly religiouselement,

in

spirit

difference

be

to

the

recognition
of

the

of union

history.

notion

notion

the

of

devoiit
bond
The

developed

impersonally,

or

object,

feeling decides respecting

the

the

world, and

at which

the

fetish,

the

the

in all human

is revealed

to him

pluralityof heterogenous
the form

is

men,

among

finite

religion.

into

is called

one

infinityand

unity, and
a

is

development

religion

of its

and

in

us

directly

of expression.

kind

individual

rational

chaotic

He

sacrilegious

representation

true

former

the

itself to

seeking after piety.

one.

True

produces

furnish

completely

any

shapes
true

or

system,

as

action, this

as

of all the relations

spiritwhich

of the

stadium

Judaism

takes

or

gleams through,

against

as

definite

plurality,or

eternal,takes

complex

personality, as

conception

In

the

has

that

our

principal religiousstadia,in

three

Hellenes,
;

facilityin

Deity present

appears

form

at which

unity

has

man

natural

God, it

for

relative

religion as, stripped

incarnate

an

be

of

separate

whole,

still

and

art, and

reveals

the

are

and

it thus

churches

deeds

co-exist.

cannot

either,is

lives every

our

peculiarly and

possess
possess

which

and

knowledge

either

activity,and

Particular

only

alone

so-called

thus

culture

in

spirit to

religious culture.

already inwardly ripened

who

definite

in which

itself,and

motive

those

so

to

being of

utterances

of

part

have

acquire

to

seek

does

into

up

the

laity can

of

is the

temporal

of the

knowledge

means

impressions

church.

has

To

one

the

as

who

class,and

feeling, as
of

that

take

we

true

be, who

may

religionsare
as

the

priests and

idea

express
is

of those

of uninterrupted

herein

find

we

communion

The

is

is

and

measure,

two,

universal

accompanies

of

holy

exalted

; art

to these

the

all the

conceit

full of

gives

direction

praxis is self -produced

through
us,

the

it

of all that
the

it

not. produce,

infinite.

itself alone, but

by

infinite,and

the

of

nature,

to which

In

world,

art, but

reason

which

third"

and
infinite,

science

true

scene

indirectlywithin
not

indispensable

as

and

his

in human

things, to

and

he

in

love.

eternal

right."

things

in

the

and

and

art

civil

Piety, devotion,

it does

imagine

to

latter,or

of

eternal

of the

religion was

without

reason

through

immorality

for

taste

universe

regarded

unity

of

mirror

unrivalled,master

existence

of

his only and

in the

; full

and

and

genuine

The

and

is the

point;
it

error.

upon

and

universe

of spiritualexcitation

men

with

; but

the

without

mirror

alone

necessary

completed perception,

is

lovely

eternal.

the

state

advances

science

himself

saw

reason

the

infinite

through

divinely-inspired

Whatever

he

of human

religion,the

and

; the

disciplesand

existence

is finite in the

moral

without

consciousness

all that

of

the

are

order

and

there

Schleiermacher,

says

skill

shape,

its most

was

stands

profane guild,

Science,

his end

deep humility

and

how

saw

and

beginning

theistic.
pan-

where
everyto

of the

the
nite
infi-

arbitraryor

251

SCULEIEBMACIIER.

Deity is conceived

accidental.

The

is individual

in the

of the

is that

whole

universal
it

; and

is

the

is actual

confined

that

and

our

adoption

the

reverse

the

reconciliation
The

be

greater

of

centre

at

of

finite and
and

against

will

and

man

The

of

the idea

quire
re-

person,

peculiarity
and

redemption
of

centre
this

all,but

not

not

his

to

spirit.

is the

all in

be

in all that

Christianity does

the

it makes
himself

Christ

ciliation
recon-

infinite,

Christianity

in

state

attachment

our

upon

is that

But

of

of the

reconciliation,

holiness.

permanent

contrary,

unity

action

an

once

infinite

founder

sin

is the

Father

the

goal

be

consequent

sin

religion.
when

come

as

its

The

relations.

of his idea

striving

as

the

the

feeling. Christianity,
detecting

should

piety

towards

redemption, of enmity

and

religion of Christ

will

time

ruin

that

and

to this

on
Christianity,

places through agencies

unholiness, proclaims

; the

the

of

substance

all finite

in response

of Christian

requirement

particular times

to

rather

but

the

things

of

sense

of

element

first put forth

striving of

and

characteristic

fundamentally

of

and

times

The

divine.

and

whatever
rewarding, punishing,correcting-

as

originalconception

action

God's

at various

only

The

tending

represents

exerted
human

individual.

all reconciliation.

time

lies

of

out

all time.

Monologues (1. Contemplation

the

In

each

man,

is viewed

life to

in

The

morality.
its

and

work

commented

elements

in

on)

love, and

classifyingthe

empirical

an

into

Natural

with

each

the

"

that

which

is the
the

"

the

which
''

The

the

idea

show

so

to

the

the

former

is

latter

has

faculty
of

of

and

Space
The

forms"
to

origin

"

in

and

concept
termed

time
of

are

and

while

the

The

the

and
the

ual
spirit-

follows

from

founded

on

accordingly

its idea

has

complete

forms
forms
The
to the

or

the

as

erence
refinter-

by

forms

the

Organic
in

or

knowledge

independent being

phenomenon

judgment

to

tion,"
Func-

thought,

things, and
are

of

the

in

their

cept
con-

things,

(the higher concept

things

and

correspond

of

existence

of

With

knowledge,
''

knowledge

our

of the

Formal

or

knowledge.
of

of

idea

the

"Technical

Function,"
of

of thinkers

considers

of

of

agreement

agreement

the form

and

perception

corresponds

phenomenon"),

as

Dialectic

"Intellectual

things.

force

time

development

matter

sensuous

the

and

are

to the

or

knowledge

the

the

the

distinction.

apprehension

our

judgment.
lower

its

unity

being.
of

given through

of
same

of

or

than

better

them
in

Philosophy

in repose,

speak,

tion
ac-

experimental.

itself at the

in movement

and

flesh.

they

knowledge,

idea

Part"

culture

are

divides

and

mind,

point
stand-

combination

it, which

in

whether

Ethics.

ethical

on

Transcendental

same

''substantial

force,"the

and

lower

sensuous

spiritand

into

and

and

the

of

emptiness

age.

(which

divine

considers

nature

is founded

must

the

forms

the

of

low

of old

Lucinde'''

of the

quirement
re-

interior,personal

any

unity of

elements,

distinguishes between

simply forms
and

its

Schleiermacher
view

independently, and,

while

to

of it into

"'

undivided

desecration

Physics, History

and

Schleiermacher

teaches

the

the

accidental

time, of youth, and

contemplative (speculative) and

being,

considers

Kant,

for

that

oppose

Dialectie

other.

knowledge
Part

of

of

work

Kant's

Categorical Imperative,

from

its most

in

4. Prospect

moral

higher individuality in

SchlegeVs

highest unity of physical

Scbleiermacher's

thought

of

power

plea

speculative

or

of

penetration

not

are

sciences

History

the

to

with

on

itself,asserts

F^iednch

on

unintelligent separation
In

with

of tho

even

Letters
Confidential

The

the

of

highest

constituting, nevertheless,a

as

insists

certain

me,

but

World

humanity.

advance

independently
free,spiritualself-determination,

of circumstances

the

the

Ego,

creditable

the

as

manner

action, the

of

uniformity

which

that

peculiar

3. The

it

defines

in

higher plane,

with

comparison

of

indeed

marking

as

animal

sensuous

of reason,

name

him

by

himself

in

represent

one

in the

Age) Schleiermacher

Old

and

; 5. Youth

that

2. Examination

or

to

co-exist-

252

SCHLEIEEMACIIEB.

in their

ence,

knowledg-e
of

or
reciprocity,

induction

are

from

conclusion

inductive

Schleiermacher
the

beginning of

form

of

of God

idea

the

ideal

and

the

to be

conceived

as

identity of

the

acts.)

is based

infinite

posited

us

of the

us.

something

willing,and

of

this

of

faculties, hence

the

among

theoretical

the

Hence

has

philosopheme,

in

fact

of

the

Jesus

and

historical
with

Bnd
so

far

Aiuation

of

and

and

of

actual

what

as

was

Now

and

an

or

mere

of the

progress
and

involved

in

in the

is exerted

servitude,

to

enter

into

rather

science

Persian

War

to

this

world

of

around

Christianity.

there

of

and

free

is involved
mutual

not

furtherance

far,

so

; the

him,

and

detail, and

point
on

and

benefit.

and

consciousness

what

relation

facts

processes

in

and

patriotic
in

joy
the

reproduce

in the
also

on

of
on

example,

whole

the

With

for

real

a3

and
ordination
co-

feeling

based,

are

of

objectifies

is founded

these

place

now,

dogma

Schleiermachers

poems

must,

took

In

^schylus,

scientific activity is co-ordinate

direction,
one

; science

of
or

Deity.

to

between

and

exhibit

the

between

functions

processes

Christian
and

fidelitywhat

the

extension

and

such,

which

in

not

relation

merely

life, feeling, which

of

of

direction

desires, and

i. e., not

relation

or

defect

preparatory

princii)aldirections

psychical

objective fidelityin

with

historical

with

on

ing
think-

the

praxis,

emotional.

Persce

ascertain

of

from

and

rational

of

events

in the

consciousness

our

relations

origin

in either
but

feeling,

of

his

as

internal

other

feeling

For

stadium

three

correct,

spheres

aU

poetic expression

Christian

represent

religious poetry,

influence
of

shall

In
or

the

to the

is indeed

knowledge,

is free

willing

is the

as

the

equally legitimate

and

reference

work

the

the

with

to

of

to

means

On

mental

in all his

man

ent
transcend-

and

one

religion

to

external

the

indifference

or

est
high-

inspired only by

philosophy.

merely

also

as

its

(scholastic)

God.

merely devotion,

of

untenable.

real

on

itself

and

essential

is

of

to

sensuous

is not

considered

Such

were

philosophj'
is

another
each

it is relation

scientific

and

it is

of

within

religion

as

are

given

of them

agencies co-operated
patriotic

But

feeling

founded

has

general,

in that

only

the latter

toward

idea

and

representation,"
in

external

things
in
being of conscience

God

original unity

spiritual feelings, among

elements

be

apprehend

manner

well

image

true

subsists

conception.

which

"

but

order,

the

religion

between

religious feeling

the

directed

replaced by thought.

cognitive activity

equally legitimate

must

the

us

to the world

its

especially as
significance,

from

is

Ego

temporal
which, with man's

in

religion.

to think
as

the

tions
equally legitimate func-

are

to

the

of

unity

totalityof

the

stepping-stone

be

side, Hegel's position,

life.

inward

motives

as

reason

and

mere

relation

order

medium

as

example,

that

in like
as

can

particular

thought, to

perception

and

philosophy

elements

feeling, like

to

victory actually secured,

or

so

real

must

In

for

the

of outward

events,

faculties

representations,

triumph,

the

religious representation

of
itself in

thought^

relation

Through

subordinate

not

cannot

higher

or

ethical

and

theoretical

of

sensuous

the

Deity through

religion

is

; it is in

to which

relation

perception, representation,
to

unity

lower

The

psychical activity.

man

which

on

(Since the

God's

in

as

is

highest subjective, and

itself worth

us

stands

Feeling

function

and

is its

itself

not

conception

conception.

in

with

permanent

Schleiermacher's

relation

former

anthropomorphitic

Hegel's conception, according

to the

the

is,therefore,neither

dependence,

just

of the

Religion

us.

the

in us,

Ideas

Philosophy

hand, however, religion is

and

of the

existence,has

of

removal

of

principles.

theory

relative

world.

to the

implied.

once

posited

the

Ego

absolute

is at

is

the
God

momenta^

the

only be justifiedif all attempts

speculative activity of man's reason

the

of

ground

is

of

other

real

world

from

would

But

feeling.

in

spirit;

function.

subordination

the

all

the

contrast.

of its

unity of

feeling of

of God

being

God

human

objective

the

being

The

being of

the

are

the

of

derivation

results

upon

cognition

from

and

of the

separated

as

of the

of existence

originalground

are

except
the

to

ideal

of

form

difference

relation
on

the

nor

in the

Subject

Religion

in

with

the

conception

under

identical

to the

being, the

own

the

primitive,independent, and

of

unity

in the

is conceived

real

compared

be

the

development

deduction, or

thought, separated

originate as

absolute

of all contrasts, while

may

phenomena

the

perfect logicaljustice)disputes

pure

can

exclusion

the

process

of

thought.

the

In

its own,

of

rightly employed

from

with

expressly (and

forms

The

passive.
The

never

advances

Hegelian dialectic rests,that

make

and

deduction.

principles,is

which

process,

active

as

and

more

of

general

religious feeling

or

of

either

legitimacy,
part of

Scientific

and

subor-

knowl-

254

SCriLEIERMACIIER.

with

ization

consciousness.

the

these

four

in intercourse

ethical

may

mutual

these

which

derived

ethical

the

for the

and
of

of

the

and

sense,
those

Idea

which

The

State

and

subjects.

their

four

is

identically formative

of authorities

is the

ethical

Society

learn
of

under

uals
individ-

of

content

goods

or

which

men

are

action),under

of

union

in

individual).

activity (for common

is the

of

relation

organisms

form

the

the
who

relation

each

belongs

truthfulness

feelings(the

controls

most

correspond, again,

and

sense,

individuality of

or

Church.

of the

general ethical

exclusive

what

the

who

teach

individuala
as

that
in

leg-alright,

of

individuals

others,so

confidence

ethical

general

the

relations

exercise

distinction

in the

from

Faith, or

those

of

of

relations

co-existence

relation

in the

between

separateness

State, Society, School,

united

exists

in the

other

these

individuality,or

ethical

ethical

proprietorship

conversely.

Revelation,

feelings being

With

of the

ethical

by another, expresses,

language.
to each

and

ours,

made

dependence

common

with

four

Legal right is the

recognition

become

of statements

symbolism

provinces correspond

is the
Sociabilitj''

traffic.

or

province

revelation.

it is the

proprietors ;

of

Thought
community

of consciousness.

sociability,faith,and

to others

is the

Feeling-

primitive variety
With

of the development
of the untransferable.
province of symbolism with
identity, or of the

or
individuality,

lanj^iag-econstitute

for

men

ally
individu-

of personal friendship and more

extended
the distinction
organizing activity,under
School
The
personal relations.
including the University and
(in the wider
sense,
is

Academy)
in

knowledge

association

an

of

men

in

association

an

the

under

for

their

the

basis.
and

Duties
and

of conscience

Act

at

work.

every
That
of

occasion

and

instant

in

thy
all

whole

which

feeling,or

as

existing alike

as

of the

religiousbelief

former

diverse

which

and

the

which

and

do

to

most

inward

the

on

one.
tion
voca-

distinction

the

latter

on

lav/ of

duty

is

entire

thy

all

promotes
and

impulse

(or

of

duties

general

most

the

and

in the

and

relations, and

social

the

Christian

dogmatics
Schleiermacher

of
that

very

complex

in consequence

asks

ethics

What

operates

in his

signification,
of

religion or

moral
the

terests
in-

outward

the

this

he

has

moral

with

asks

form

the
:

What

of
does

an

ethics

too

often

with

which,
contents

like

true

as

expressions

symbols-", may

himself

propensity

Christianity,as

Christianity imply
much

postulate

contrary, postulates

iuAvard

does

and

the

with

an

the

reason

the

as

on

sentative
repre-

(perception)
human

the

consciousness

Theological ethics,
in

and

action,and

intuition

as

to do

theological

to

operative

propagating

sphere)

former

The

consider

can

and

purifying

religiousconsciousness

action.

that
are

and

Christian

distinguishes between
into

worship

of the

religiousconsciousness.

? while

It is obvious
etc..

in

in all men,

primary

law, require

in

second

outward

is founded

The

the

duty

ethics

objective to subjective.

as

condition

to the

Schleiermacher

representation

to

and

of

community

all find

self,the

an

hand,

one

endeavoring

duty,

as

fourth

productive action,

energy,

required,

performance

is related

ethics

general (in

into

the

appropriation.
moral

case

action, dividing the

latter

of

one's

against

distinction

community

of

coincide.

must

Philosophical
ethics

; tl"e former

is

number

or

organisms

the
(^vivification),
on

Church

discretion, perseverance

are

combat

of love

of

union

ship
partner-

The

public.

the

These

for

provides

cognitive function,

virtues

and

of law

other

is in each
In

life

inward

individual

and

morality.

first is the

individual

with

action

cardinal

the

it exhibits

laity.

The
an

the

and

clergy

and

learned

The

duties

on

universal

between

is

into

universal

"

love.

third

divided

are

between
that

; the

of

distinction

common

others

of the

individually symbolic activity;

bravery), wisdom,
against

distinction

the

it

identicallysymbolic activity,or

type for subjective activity of the

same

religion under

family

for

such
cover

abstract

an
*

as
a

to

inward

reason,
multitude

ture,
na-

of

schematism,

255

SCHOPENHAUER.

"

the post-KantianspecCloselyfollowingKant, and rejecting

ulation,
Arthur
Schopenhauer (1788-1860) developed a doctrine which

131.

described

be

may
the

as

of the

prevalentrealism

the

of Kant

idealism

to

Schopenhauer teaches,namely,
gory
(among which the catecategories

present.

Kant, that space, time, and the

of causalityis treated by him

with

from

transitional form

purelysubjectiveorigin,and

fundamental

the

as

one) have

valid for

which

only
phenomena,
In oppositionto
consciousness.
in
merely subjectiverepresentations
which
is independent of our
Kant, however, he denies that the reality,
are

are

finds it in the Will, which, he

is unknowable, and
representations,
is fully known
to us
through internal perception. But here
avers,
in the
in the followingcontradiction
himself
he involves
: he
refers,
development of his doctrine,if not space, yet at least temporalityand
all the categoriestherewith
connected
though
and
to the will,alcausality
declaration of principles
that they
denying in his fundamental
such

have

can

; this contradiction

reference

he does not,

nor

he,

can

incapable of a consequent, systematic

ing
real,accorddevelopment,and disprovesitself. The absolutely
be termed
transcendental
to Schopenhauer, cannot
a
object; for
no
objectis without a correspondingsubject,and all objectsare simply
in the subject,
and hence phenomena.
The conception
representations
of will is taken by Schopenhauer in a far broader sense
than that given
in it not
He includes
to it by common
desire,
only conscious
usage.
avoid, and

philosophybecomes

his

so

and the forces

instinct,

but also unconscious

in

inorganicnature.
individuals

the

and

precedentof
the

'Krhere

and

which

duties

development

in

action

concealed,

Herbart

has
admits

macher's

with

and

it,and

on

subjective

positive

no

by

sought
concrete

ethics
to

; Beneke

themselves
will

universal

one

the

unity of

are

the stages of the

its

in

Yet

into

the

took

spite

doctrine

the

in

'ethical

fruitful

founded

which

Ideas

on

his

ethics

has

tably
indispu-

goods, virtues,

it contains.

(whose
which

internal

representa-

between

philosophy

idea

In

the

the

philosophical
;

of

lies at the
abstract

basis

schematic

of

ics
eth-

legitimacy

Schopenhauer's

experience.

tion
direc-

single principle

the

treatment
objectivistic

Hegers

logical consistency, replacing

psychological speculations

relation

goods

to theoretical
the

deficiency

this

the

objectificait is

pure

really discovered

principle

various

again

of

and

cop}^,
overcoming the

in

The

of

has

unrelated
up

of which

own.

in which

manner

will, which

substance

is consumed

developed

remains

it with

the

Schlei^rmacher

of

apart

and

develop

the

good
acts

falls

the

displaysthe Idea

place.

of

of

account

Herbart

in

be

highest

the

Ideas

as
power
order than

account

on

demonstrated)

ethics, and

of Schleiermacher

would

value

toward

nowhere
of

such

lower

permanent

judgments concerning

Inoral
is

and

is treated

of moral

of

are

concrete

more

high

between

Every organism
loss of

between

manifest

after the
appears, Schopenhauer posits,
Ideas,as real species(justas Schellingposited

individuals).These

only after the

which

it

intermediate

as

tion of Will.

Ideas

intermediate

in which

Plato,various

same

of
plurality

'

As

of

mism
pessi-

Schleierformulas

256

8CII0PENIIAUEE.

Consciousness
first
shapes is Art.
fication of will.
becomes
manifest upon the higliest
stages in the object!
All
serves
intelligence
originallythe will to live. In genius it is
positionand gains the preponderance.
emancipated from this ancillary
Since Schopenhauer perceivesa progress in the negationof the inferior
and yet, without being untrue
to his principle,
whicli
sensuous
instinct,
ascribes true reality
will
this progicss
term
to
alone,caimot
positively
of reason, only a negativeethics remains
an
acquired supremacy
ble
possifor him.
His ethical requirements are
ing,
sympathy with the sufferwhich
is connected
of the will to live,
with all objectifications
and,
of

tion

the

Ideas

in individual

above

all,the

will to

live,through

mortification

in

ourselves,not of life,but
The

asceticism.

world

is not

the Buddhistic
of saints

of Kirvana,

doctrine

purifiedby

and

asceticism

; it also

state

resembles

who

those

of the fortunate

or

have

The

following

Grunde,
1864.

Natur,

increased

of

doctrines

Ethik

der

ed., Leipsic, 1860.

ibid., 1862.

Aus

have

writings

Schopenhauer''

209;

(Chap.

Of

of

: Die

reprinted
Herbart

the

Reinhold

clearest, most

1840,

pp.

475-481,

and

{Ethik, I., Leips., 1850,

{Gesch.

Fichte'8

der

neuern

Zeitschriftfar

most

only
are

1820,
Deutsche

394-415),

as

united
Nos.

66

XII.,

in

369-391

in

edited

{Genet.

381-471,

series, XXI.,

T.

1841

transl.

by

Josef6,
the

; 2d

Frauenstiidt,

18()7-1871

Louis,

Thoughts

der

beiden

Schopenhauer's

St.

Harris,

in

Die

AtJhorinmen

from

Charles

by

Jul.

by

in

; second

Willen

den

Anmerkungen,

232-236

Art.

that

says

thinking,

and

V,,

Vol.

193-

pp.

S07-319.

ib., pp.

same,

Philosophy

on

his

Karl

Gesch.

pp.

of

all

seit

und

209-226),

of

Beneke

Kantischen

1854,

Philos.

G.

No.

Herbart,

Miohelet

and

penhauer
Scho-

but
is

extremely

the

erroneous,

(in

the

Jena,

Philo?..,Leipsic,

22), I.

Kant,

pal
princiZ.,

philo.'^ophy,

work

features

F. Ed.

der

E.

Kantian

the

Schopenhauer's
that

Godeke,
der

Schopenhauer's

comprehensive,

most

Gesch.

Schopenhauer

Halle, 1852,

the

of

131-149, signed

pp.

mirror),

clear

(in
by

3,

modifiers

the

Schelling

; he

(review

Herbart

; of

Rosenkranz

and

edited

ed.,

W.

by

transl.

1820,

Schopenhauer's

Fortlage

Ueber

translations

I., pp.

work),

Hermes,

exercise

pp.

ed.

Friedr.

companionable
an

1819

Leipsic,

Morals), Frankfort,

of
; 2d

Leipsic,

Vorxtelluwj,

und

Tr.]

profound,

most

ziireichenden

Frauenstiidt, Leipsic, 1867.

Vol.

same

seq."

pp.

226-229),

Karl

the

Joh.

in the

Wochenschrift,

Philos., III., 2,

Philos.,new

II. of

thought

vom

Wille

als

Abhandlungen,

Philosophy,

Bernays,

L.

written

the

first,Fichte

Dec.

pp.

Vol.

Works,

useful

in the

(Chap.

life have

skilful,and

reading, though

C.

asceticism

Frauenstiidt,

philosophy,

following

Paralipomena''^),

und

Vorstelhmg,

mid

the

by

J.

ed., 1859.

; 3d

vols., Berlin, 1851

[The

Satzes

by

Welt

Foundation

the

on

ed.

state

scious
uncon-

modern

cles

Kant's

J.

by

Nachlass,

Vol. 53, pp.

and

Complete

Litter aturzeitung,

Parerga

Examiner,

idealistic-Spinozistic philosophy
allgem.

"

Dialectic

Wille

als

in Herbart's
terms

worth

Welt

and

of S%)eculative

Will, transl.

doctrine

Schopenhauer's

work

Journal

the

and

Christian

Will,

handschriftlichem

I. of the

Logic

on

in the

the

Die

ibid., 1844

edited

ed.,

Paralipomena,

of

ed., 1854.

volume,
3d

which

edition,

od

criticiue of

the

Frauenstiidt, Leips., 1864.

J.

in the

Doctrine

Thoughts

article

by

appeared

Method

its

und

second

ed., 1854;

Freedom

(on

Parerga

ed.

of
2d

Schopenhauern

Fragmente,

containing

Supplement

1836;

1847;

the

monastic

Wurzel

vierfache

die

181(5 ; 2d

Leips.,

Farben,

addition

the

by

Ueber

Pranldort-on-the-M.,

ed.,

die

Frankf.-on-the-M.,

Grundprobleme

und

iind

with

Books, together

edition,

2d

1813;

Sehen

das

works:

Schopenhauer's

are

Rudolstadfc,
Ueber

four

mann

is the

final

into

entered

of Christianity,
but
wdiich appear in the history
avoids by denying all ethical dualism.

well

best,it

while asceticism
possibleworlds ; sympathy alleviates suffering,
destroysit by destroyingthe will to live,in the midst of life. In
in man,
nature
without positive
tion
determinanegationof the sensuous
of the true end of spiritual
life,Schopenhauer's doctrine resembles

its

Cf.

the

the

of all

worst

and

of

rather

pp.
eine

Hcrm.

Fichte

407-423),

Erd"

Antithese,

{A. Sch.,

discourse

itt

257

SCHOPENHAUEK.

1854

in

delivered

als

{Arth. Schop.

Cornill,

Psyche, II., 1, 1859;

Die

1860;

nach

Sansara

delicate

ridicule

second

edition

Schopenhauer,

in the

Preuss.

most

A.

Foucher

Careil

de

Liiwenthal, Spiegel,

(De Schopenhaueri
die Ethih

und

fur

Zeitschr.
also

the

Gzernovvicz

kauer'schen

1866),

Real-Schule,

Philosophie,

in

Arthur

E.

His

travel and

mother

he

England,

entered
he

history,

and

Schulze, the
Plato

and

skeptic, by

of

colors

he

From

1814

winter

he

completed,
qualified as
a

"

Sufficient

als Willeund

"

or
private lecturer,"

life had

academical

long

later
but

notions
as

writings

contain

much

more

are

in

theology

Schopenhauer

the
with

of

success

incessant

the government.
not without
17

under

(Ueber
in the

(venting
his

Hegel,

more

'

As

the

display

of

'

(Quomodo

Pessimismus

Kiy (Der

in the

Atheismus,

he

and

the

from

for

in

to the

their

died

on

originalityand

place

neither

of

From

that

21st

were

wit, and

and

Fourfold

The

theory of
antiquity.

of

and

his

optical

tion
Representa-

of this work

he

was

1820,

in

connected',

was

successful

nor

cholera

ened
fright-

time

he lived

on

1860.

September,

perfection
against
same,

of

the

his

his

tem,
sys-

prevailing"

to do

which,

primary reference,doubtless,
to

of

call
Schelling's
Philosophy were

put forth in
which

Ernst

his ill success,

of

justify the

to

Professors

and

left him

"

Hindu

the

account

of

philosophers,

whose

zealous

1831

In

development

antagonist, and

insinuations,which

was

books

France

the

on

Will

piquant utterances

"

Zeit,

Gottlob

all other

study of

the

of

physical science
of

Goethe,

in which

personal displeasure with

fortunate

of

through

manuscript

for him.

he

father

His

Naples, and, afterwards,

Berlin, since, on
valueless

(in Unsere

(writer

as

Italy.

1-

pp.

Schopen-

der

Frauenstadt

preparation

World

University
again

was

Umbildung

essay

of

the

as

1, ibid.,1867,

No.

besides

to

the

to the

The

soon

Rome

these
repetition insinuates,
These

penhauer
{Scho-

merfache Wurzel, etc.).

society

attempts of philosophers

his

Korten

doctrine,however,

die

occupied with

to

become

noted

L.

direction

whose

his attention

contributions

the

and

the

until 1831, although

Z"(?ce?2?,"

since

H.

ethischen

friends

with

Jena,

at

private at Frankfort-on-the-Maine,where

His

with

Fichte,

principal work

easily away

more

{Arthur

Gwinner

Frezmde, Leips., 1863),

22, 1788.

Gottingen, where,

at Weimar

Dresden,

1822-1825

In

himself),

Haym

Bev., Apl. 1853.]

read, in preference

1818

Berlin, with

at

457-469),
Westrt\.

the

Hal., 1864),Steph. Pawlicki

Schopenhauer

youth

of

Reason"

journey

lecturer

all the

his

he

devoted

he

of

R.

4,

and

article

Lindner, Nagel, Suhle, Ed.

nothwendige

II.,pp.

Johanna
in

in

eine

Dantzic, February

in his instructions.
him

in

Vorstellung)

undertook

him

in

particularly,of his

(Die Welt

"

degree

of

s.

essays,

sit.Diss.

Asher, Berl., 1871,

University

his

lived

he

Monatschrift,
D.

Berlin, he heard

Here, too,

1818

to

at

last-named

1864),Wilh.
u.

Hauptlehren

des

(Ueber

Hartmann

advice

spent by

was

adopted.

and,

essay

Principle

the

following

1811,

took

He

unsatisfied.
Root

In

Kant.

Weltansicht,in

s.

Schopenhauers, Programme

Dr.

whose

u.

over-estimation

( f/'e"er Schopenluxuer'' s

especially philosophy

studied

realistische

(Charalteristik

authoress

the

the

Vratislav., 1865),Victor

Diss.

Thilo

and

conatus

eine

Seydel (Schopenhauer's

VIII.,

joumejdng

in 1809

in

E. 0.

and

articles

penhauer,
Scho-

4, Leipsic, 1867,-pp. 321-1356,and

born

the

After

novels).

A.

Philos.
von

was

was

Schop.

extreme

Ascher

Dav.

constituere

in

Leips., 1862, Chapter X.),

in various

ratione.

Chr.

Von

Bergmann's

Schopenhauer

banker.

No.

Scherzel

21, 22, 1869). [A. Schopenhauer

Nos.

in

VII.,

Vol.

jmblished separately),Al.

35;

as

Berlin, 1866),

Philos.,

exacte

philosophandi

et

doctrina

others,

and

Arthur

Frauenstiidt,Ueber
1867, Nos. 22 and 23,

[Daumer], ilAd.,III., 3

1862;

227-

and

Schopen-

aus

1857),Ilud.

printed separately, Berhn,

and

49 ;

and

{Arthur

,Yo\.Y.,

; Jul.

idealistischeii

Frauenlob

against Schopenhauer's

metaphysico

fundamento

Schopenhauers,

Noack

und

Jahrb.

Paris, 1862), also

Springer, Wirth,

ethicam

Schopenhauerus

48

Nos.

einer

Philos., Dresden,

Log. Untersuchungen,
XIV.,

1863

dargestellt,Leipsic, 1862 ; Schopenhauer

Schop.,

et

1866,

Lichtstrahlen

JVachlassstilcke,in

nnd

Berlin,

von

Sch.'^che

Deutsche

directed

Vol.

Umgang

{Hegel
Rob.

mation

[Schopenhauer]

the

are

Mus.,

Deutsch.

{Die

Briefe

Lindner,

Leips., 1857), Ludwig

of hia

Jahrb.,

personlichem

aus

in

Nirioana,

(in the

of the

Biihr

Weiberfeiud

Meister

Trendelenburg

weapons

G.

beurtheili,

und

dargestellt

System

in the

0.

E.

and

Uebergangnfor

eine

Heidelb., 1856), C.

Weltanschammg,

Von

Frauenstadt

1855, pp. 34-59

series,XXVII.,

new

Philosophie, Leips., 1854;

sclie

ed., ib., 1867; MemorabiUeJi,

2d

Geschichtsphilos., etc.,

Sch.'n Pessiinismns,

Zeitschriftf. Ph.,

Schopenhauer''

die

ihn, by

ilber

ihm.

vail

etc.),Ad.

liber

Leips., 1862;

Werken,

hauer's

published in Fichte's

and

{Brief e

249).Frauensttidt

"

ever-changing

furnished

nourishment

to

to

Berlin)
paid by

form

and

for the

258

scnorENiiAUEE.

whether

doubt

accuRtomed

was

of its trath

conviction
for him

what

to the

or

assents, and

who

Schopenhauer's writings that

by

few

wanting,

it

last years,
But

of

the

other

Only

effect.

transient

each

with

or

time, during

and

of

condition

other

to believe

when

there

in

were

Schopenhauer's doctrine

in

in

permanently

nof
gave

Schopenhauer.
the

namely,

but

wideff

after Schopenhauer's

in

permanence,

seeming whole,

for

only

opposing,

bility
possi-

Original

realitydestroying^

only produce an
contradictions,can
of a more
the
satisfyingsystem can

elements

as

undeniably contained

are

time

approving

of fashion

matter

essential

scarcely concealed

by

For

the

utterances

only

opened

intrinsically
harmonious, systematic development.

aphorisms, loosely united

each

circles

some

most

and

all-sided

an

in

was

such.

as

bread

insinuations

from

either

who,

office and

system, originallynoticed

exoteric

more

thinkers

system

these

"

his

to find ; but

in his"

cases,

to the

lacks

doctrine

his

such

attention

careful

more

in

is usual

as

unable

been

its acceptance to

provides

"

will to live

public which

themselves

interested

readers

''

the

to the

way

of profession, had

men

of

circle

organization,which

controls

so

publicly taught owed

be

to

civil

exceedingly,
which?!

truths

themselves.

assert

Fourfold Root of the Prind'pleof Sufficient

llemoThy
the
of
principles
distinguishes
Schopenhauer
being, becoming, action, and
knowledge {principium essendi,fiendi^agend% cognoscendi; this order in naming thein^^
his

In

graduating

the

on

essay,

between

point

become

of form

for

of

and

alone

the

and

us,

and

be

can

all

external
sufficient

principle of
as

has

reason

svfficientis
fiendl."Whenever
must

have

state

exists

; such

second

the

since

without

of

the
the

As

these

this

which, further, nothing

single and

and

which

of

Ftate

in

it follows

four

of

the law

and

states

of the

and

not

narrowest

take

as

are

external

actions

the

this

class

forms
of

one

or

objects,this

several

the

The

degrees

of

the

but
con

he

the
labors

*dornsness

effect.

of

changes

of all animal

difference

in

part

taken
of

between

the

than

under
a

the

life

organic

as

the

the

cause,

beings

or

things

understanding-i-which

erroneous

in

notion

thinking reproduction of

on

which
the

controls

application
much

connection,

says

that

it is

creation

the

real

free

order

of external

of
that

of

conscious,
edge.
is knowl-

of varying

the

second

The

the
is
order

existences

law

of

worthy
of
that

and

action

the

consequence

they act.*

this

the

in

cause

of which

medium
is

term, where

stimuli, and

the

motive

and

"

inorganic kingdom

in the

the

from

motives,

stimulus,

cause,

causality are

of

sense

the

changed.

be

cannot

other

of inertia^-

law

the

state

often

first state

state

Changes

follow

follow

perception, Schopenhaiaer,

constantly
rather

by

narrowest

existences

susceptibilityin the

results

in the

causes

the

of causalityapplies only to

of

forms

stimulus, and motive.

term,

result

earlier

since the law

The

of

objects the

causality. Schopenhauer

causality follow
the

without

themselves.

substances

equal

from

exerted

persistence of substance"

of the

the

reaction

On

to

sense

place

shaping

influence

The

complete,
intuitive,

are

'

an

classes,

form.

becoming, ])rinciinumrationw

and

of

into

the

object

an

fourfold

regularly,i. e. ,

consequence,

the law

of

of

commences

which

law

reason

become

divisible

caa*

with

varies

can

Within

space.

disconnected,

connection

representations

character

from

corollaries

of

whicli

ideas, and

our

corresponding

sufficient

is termed

sequence

effect.

is

nature

time

preceded by another,

been

that

representative facultyis that

now

of

(representations),are

forms

principle of

such, the

it,

terms

nothing

assumes

namely

senses,

all

among

account

on

Everything, namely,

our

The

and

The

us.

reason

possibleobjects for

and

and

ideas

our

sufficient

empirical representations.
internal

for

ideas.

our

consequently

firstclass of

subsists

jiriori
determined,

of

objects

princij)leof

the

which

independently,

object of knowledge

an

nature

connection

S., the regular

to

subsists

that

systematic ; the didactic order being : fiendi,

cognoscendiy
c;?nsidered generally, expresses^T"
principle of sufficient reason,

The

essendi,agendi).
according
in

the

by Schopenhauer

is termed

the
the

class

caiisality"in
of

attention
contents

mind

has

;
o"
to

259

SCHOPENHAUER.

the thinking subject is made

objectsfor

of
To

and

them

judgments

the

to

judgTuent is to express
the

it receives

cognition, it

predicate

founded

is founded

which

and

middle,
of

class

of

the

internal

and

of

principle

separated
and

Space

In space
:

which

this

the

parts

one

this

on

all

manner

scientific
manner

geometry

i^roblem
if

as

"

from

them

faculty

they

is found

is

sense,

whence

in

in

space,

form

of

not

agendi^
sufficientis
conditions
the

like that
with

external

/. e.,

we

and
become

t That
of

desire

"*!"desire

and

commonly

are

assumes,

conscious

connected

unknowable.

which

of

will

is the

from

spatial
exclusive

which

will, immediate
with

Kant

of

; for

in

necessity

geometrical

figures

of

reality

the

conceive

is

the

to

internal

only

sufficient

by

and

nal
exter-

connection

causal
as

motion

objectivelygrounded

world

merely,

not

from

; here

numbers
the

us

also

operation

genetic

reason

material

the

in

rationis

are

in

above
of

arising through

causalitywhich

deduce

representative

motives

as

willing subject,

of

is known

; if

we

; it is

it appears

indirectly,but

mode

as

far

so

contents

motives

hence

entire

genetic

of the

the

of

action

In

like

accidental

action, prihCipium

considered

been

supposes
preIn

any

the

principle
of

reason

have

number

propositions, but

only given

the

being,

preceding

parts of space
in

by

those

of

the

on

objects of the

indeed

law

within,
learn

we

reference

arising
of
in

is not
from

the

points, lines,
the

of

natiu-e

co-existence.

object of
was

objects

knowledge,

is

volition

up

in their

and

of

of motives.
and

in mathematical

genesis

of

lation,
re-

to

its existence.

the

truth

The

; every

of

in

by another.

reason

depends

internal, sense,

sufficient

the

termed

the

and

without, and

unities, and

of their
and

the

is made

hence

the

"

last class

to

causes,

from

causes,

"

other

reference

sufficient

reasons

our

nal
exter-

by themselves

sequence.

Kant, erroneously assumes)

action

But

perception.

plurality

the

of the

they

separation

Schopenhauer,

"than

The

reference

are

or

third

of the

each

to

merely demonstrate

not

as

subject,

of

the

the

representative faculty.

all numeration

rests

proofs

with

objects,which

Schopenhauer

homogeneous

law

directness, and

proofs

as

combination

etc.,

of

of all other

absolute

wanting,

the

or

are,

with

instant

every

object of

principle

of action

first class

in

given

f
a

these

it is termed

of

in

excluded
The

conditionated

of position among

nexus

knowing
With

forms

determined

grounds

as

mouse-trap

(as Schopenhauer,

the

with

the

time

and

pure

portion of

the

parts stand

principle

proofs

such

immediate

the

for

object

an

and

assumes

' '

were

the

on

reposes

to discover

time

In time

their ontological grounds.*

which

time

the

itself

before

numbers

in

mutually

are

parts of

the

between

nexus

all the

formal

of the

is determined

position ;
time

essendi.
sufficientis

rationis

principium

in the

itself.

judgments

intuitions

pure

as

designates that

of

all of their

of them

by Schopenhauer

is termed

relations

each

and

space

far

Schopenhauer

representations, objects for the

is termed

of

tion
connecso

(3)transcendental,

or

"

the

i. e., in

"

and

term

reason

As

time.

peculiarity that

to which

relation

truth

intuitions,given d priori^of

and

complete

the

reference

with

sufficient

the

the

space

our

have

time

latter

reason

understanding

representative faculty consists

senses,

from

which

in

conditions
of all thought, as
contained
principles of identity, contradiction, and

the

viz.
complete representations,

and

intuition

the

if

that

such

; having

correctness

sensuous

in

sufficient

formal

of

the

on

the

affirms

Schopenhauer's, in part, very

to

formal

contained

by

"

the

on

for

objects

representations.

principle of

reason

experience, empirical

knowledge

truth

the

namely,

reason,

of

(4) metalogical

sensibility,or
truth

directly on

forms

the

on

6., it is

^.

"

sufficient

(according

(2) material, founded

or

"

is

(1) logical

is founded

judgment

the

abstract

or

the

applies

have

must

Truth

true.

arbitrary division) either

of judgments

them

cognoscendi, which
princi'piumrationis sufficientis

of knowledge,

teason

of conceptions

up

from

derived

and

free
of

our

could

the

internal

; sensation
acts

of

therefore

sense,
and

or

of self -consciousness, is

feeling, representation

self-apprehension.
not

be

known

Will,
if the

in the

act

of

and

fundamental

thought,

proper

knowing

are,

erior
no

le.-s

sense

of the

term,

were

itself

really

260

SCHOPENHAUER.

by experience the mystery of the production of effects by

the

[" Motivation''^ \

of motives

action

the

Vorstellung)is

world

Book

notion

as

I. treats

the

critique of

(which

the

it

with

begins

the

for all

is true

subject that

empirical, is possible

the

entire

world

is

it exists,

only

in

ficient

with

other, which
*

But

in

and
can

i-eality,in

be

never

above

with

particular

causality
class

from

of

; both

sides

reason

to

effect,or
with

two

which

Kant

which

may

be

expressed

"

sought
the

and

to show

syllogism

in my
must

Ego

knowledge
manner

than

not

and

merely

object without

opened

up

to what

extent

from

of the
a

But

but

realm

they

and

by

way

the
"

the

"

of our

affirms

real

of

obviously,

agree

with

assumes,

knowledge,

which

that

of
is

the

of

exhibited

second

of

the
are

principle

of

which,
of

of

reason

to the

consists

knowledge,

ference
in-

an

effect

of sufficient

trasted
Con-

with

inner

the
I

as

have
in

judgments

clearly

more

by

knowledge
of

is not
is not

identical

with

consideration

of

consequently,

bring

this

real

subject, and

whereas

him

the

end

which

Kant's
aimed

the

tence
exis-

question
which

simi^le

object,

by him,
to

the

our

there

whose

subject,yet

Schopenhauer's
a

non-

all

Kant,

with
in

no

subjectivityof

detailed

knowing

answered

not

the

"things-in-themselves,"

representation

it did

; for

man

in the

are

"

subject "' (like Fichte's

simply pre-supposed

although

then,

through

nexus

logical combination

the

finds

connected

as

or

fore
there-

objects.

other

which

cause,

ground

which

naxus.

all notions

question

non-agreement

reason

objects"'or

"transcendental

itself ; this

has

the

subjective nature

the

to

principle

science

inner

cause,

are

each

to

moreover,

to
not

effect

one

of the

object without

No

and

of
that

causal
"

forms

change

every

" 101),

from

or

the

suf*
scious
con-

they

as

every

total

as

primi

are

reference

objectivelyreal

an

we

far

so

law,

but

coonoscendi),
of

which

the

well

edge
knowla

principle of

For

This

as

the

already distinguished, namely,

had

principle

purely

by

"will," every\vhere

elements

to it.

for

four

him

the

the

penhauer
Scho-

as

can,

contained

elsewhere,

as

belong

can

without
are

union

or

objects

necessary

well

it is

subject, for whom

expresses.

causality.

(ratio

subjective theory

although,

subject,"or, rather,

apart
consideration

at his

all

they

inquiry

man

subject;

belongs

objects, in

as

alone

distiactiou

the

knowing

of

in their
of

to cause,

simple phrase
more

all

reason

law

one

effect

objective and

in the

of

mathematical

before

cf.

tion,
proposi-

cognition, and

objective forms, of

cognition

and

is conditionated

denied.

in him

in
of

formula
"

apprehended

(says Schopenhauer)

arises, whether

others

in the

the

arrived

knowledge

Schopenhauer

exists

with
that

had

who

Kant,

in which

remained

believed

Ego ")

an

and

of Logic (" 81,

Spstem

he

Thus

condition

external

correspond

t Schopenhauer
without

the

united

of

This

for

knowing

i. 6.,

constitute

and

Schopenhauer's

to the

reason

intuitive,
pure

which

entirely in their

from

reduced

or

all

conversely,

to be

caiisality

is

or

exists

the

on

manner,

first.

belonging

of

negation of

abstract

completely known

subjective recognition

the

as

cause,

ground

II.

of

the

to

ors?anic processes

objects

ground

same

the

and

sufficient

and

be

must
to the

or

objects,but only

cause

Book

form

which

forms

existence

belong together

application

is the

the

in mechanical

notion.

the

Everything

for

principle of

the

conditions

its

that

is my

reference

universal

else, consists

nothing

simple

mentioned,

quently
conse-

ent
independ-

as

and

will.

as

and

of art.

object

affirms,in addition, that

expression

all cases,

external

hence

Schopenhauer

teaches

and

reference

the

notion

affirmation

whether

dependence

discovered

be

common

He

pnori.

objects,notions,

reason

But

is the

with

purely subjective

only

notion.

to this

and

Kant,

objects, in

reason
a

as

essential

consciousness.

our

the

as

under

Everything

objective only

percipient, or

The

assumes

of these

world

self-knowledge). Subjoined
world

whatever,

conceivable.

inevitably subject

It is

notion

any

or

is

world,

of the

perception

to the

III. of

als

relatato

knowing beings, although man

consciousness
consciousness,to which

reflected,abstract

of

through philosophical speculation.

this

to the

sufficient reason,

to the

of

{Die Welt

of which

living and

object

or

IV.

proposition : The

into

hence

Book

attainment

rises

and

fourth

consequently

Book

Notion"
third

philosophy.

subject

the

and

principle of

; and

will,and

and

first and

second

and

Idea,

accompany

Schopenhauer,

make

science

and

Platonic

as

Kantian

first book

says
can

experience

the

to the

subject

as

objectifyingof the

to live

The

of

principle,or

to the

will

notion

nature;

within.*

Will

as

the

Books,

in its innermost

causes

from

seen

World

four

into

representation, and

or

the

object

as

of that
relates

of

divided

causality

"The

principal work:

Schopenhauer's
Wille und

is

*""

no

penhauer,
Schominute

at, yet

262

SCHOPENHAUER.

retical
the

egoism is,while

twofold
and

essence

in

in

presented

not

to

that

assuming
far

so

of the

these

as

of the

existence

The

when

will,as

objects
its

wholly free

is

it appears

The

be,

innermost

from

phenomenal)

(becomes

Time

and

of

knowing

the

the

with

same

latter

principleof

sentations,
repre-

notions,and
make

what

its

or

justified in

subject,that

from

tion
abstrac-

which

wards
after-

will.

term

we

manifestation

; it enters

its manifestations

the

notions

as

bodies,are
hand, if we

own

other

different

of

simply

into

relate only
they, therefore,'

while

constitute

space

our

the

on

essence,

forms

the

is one,
thing-in-itself,

notions

as

in

like

hand,

one

phenomenon

which, therefore,are

are, therefore, further

we

bodies,so,

is completely
thing-in-itself,"

and

I^earance,

the
our

but

manner,

; and

of the

ways,

of every

essence

bodies,and

our

twofold

to the

key

justifiedin employing

are

wholly heterogeneous

two

than

bodies

our

with

of these

must
"

will, as

in

objects, on
nature

same

remains

of

as

other

objects

analogy

us, in

bodies,

own

all

consciousness

our

after the

in

our

judging

necessary,*we

not

is given

which
of

operation
and

nature,

impossible,also

knowledge

in space

these

to it

ap-

forms

objective.

as

time

and

individuation

or

merable.
innu-

are

{principium indi-

mduationis).\
*

The

also), prove

in which

sense

as

one

any

to this

perceiving,

had, indeed,
with
a

directness

by

in internal

us

and
in

and

the
the

is

philosophy

of

apprehension,
.sents itself

which,

only

the

other

the

principle

of

will.

which

To

would

be

this

forces

though
The

of the

notion

their

to

he

since

and

the

whether
our

ideas

us,

; and

neither

could

complete

most

si)ccies,and
terms

them

the

literal
all forces

senses

and

to our

of

the

wills

be

in the

tion
assump-

doctrine

of

do

"

plurality

not

of willing,

objective,real

in nature,

the

conviction
If

known

were

as

hereby
well

loill
do

not

known

pre-suppose

in themselves

not

for

that

he

false
to
us

internal

forces,

but

become

could

we

name

the

or

theory
wiU,

human
of the

leaves

thus

the

know
without
cording
ac-

genus

the

though
will, and

conscious

us

will.

uninvestigati

qualities, which,
such

the

activities

to do

as

no

how

of

their

is unable

is that

states

form

causality,

attainability, with

will

as

viduation
indi-

intellect,on

completely

appearance,

us
as

without

together

with

man
hupre-

the

conception

that

Schopenhauer

confounded.

are

says
the

of

Schopenhauer's

theory,

But

seq.

form,

like

most

its

most

of his

et

form

while

which

intellects

; the

He

term.

this

the

of

our

objects known,

individual

of
of

the

known

self-apprehension

shown

development

the

to the

space,

has

penhauer,
Scho-

was

also, with

faculties,is

Schopenhauer,

Seydel

easily comprehensible

as

and

and

doctrine

this, that

the

of

tained
mainfoi- him

assure

but

without
is

which

to have

subjective

of

se

per

trvith

of Logic, " 40

case

Schopenhauer,

thus

only produces

the

time

this

foreign

simply

as

is

to

intellective

existence

development

of that

will

desires, are

(the

merit

will,

our

System

exist

logical elements.

sense

term

in

will

R.

in

and

he

all instincts

interior

in

only

my

Kant

subject.

after

yet

were

"

the

is sufficient

contradiction

of

by

our

in

of the

Involved

yet Schopenhauer,

in the

in
of

own

master

of time

the

confusion,

these

without

while

our

not

intellect,since

thinking

of

apprehension

doctrine

doctrine

actively sought

exist

may

of

condition

the

universal

something

In

argument.

Schopenhauer's

percei)tive and

our

unremoved

this

of
to

subjectivism,are

intelligent action

than

the

hand,

and

that

nevertheless,

further

the

by

will

perceiving

that

it must,
A

existence

Will

it involves

hauer,
Schopen-

things-in-theinselves
one

incomplete,

teaching,

to Kant's

to this

eminent

apparently

figurative
question

one

of

Beneke's

added
of

instincts

of the

of nature,

analogous

be

knowable

blind

conception

the

on

action

subjective form

will.

it is

immediate

consideration,

the

of

temporality,

whence

Schopenhauer's

"

in the

maintained,

Solipsism

assumption

analogy

which

whose

Beneke,

assents

as

the

by

truth, although

inconsistency,

previous

of inHtinct, which

to its most

the

the

must

the

our

of

constitutes,

forms

directly

not

were

this

individuation, have, according

as

involves

conception

the

form

contradictions, owing

many

the

that

the

the

"

or

to

of

without

but

thinkers,

any

basis

who

conceivable

it pre-snpposes

validity except

of

will

by

the

on

remains

the

applicability

individualization

be

for

as

world,

"madhouse"

"

proof

(as well

external

denial

to the

egoism

of

the

vialling beings,

or

to resort

but

their

existences

complementary

unmodified

Schopenhauer

reality of

some

of

animate

theoretical

lunacy,
of

for

of the

Schopenhauer's

of

obliged
"

real

philosophy.

of

Schopenhauer,

it is not

of the

by

equally perfect truth,

there

of

denial

is the

exposition

developed,

under

however,

his

of other

nature

essential

perception,

view

same

hand,

is

which,

denial

plurality

so-called

unity, plurality, etc.

history

with

the

other

piece

premises

on

subjects logically conceivable,

His

to it the

the
of the

that

exists) is

How

force.

rest

against

consequence,

proof

doctrine.

interior

in the

place
added

same

also

previously recognized

peculiar

permanent

if, on

and

of

the

been

alone

thinking

know

we

it ;
denial

categories,

absurd

and

categories

the

t That

all

of

must

militate

unfortunate
not

he

of

nature

logicallylead
validityof

that

man

subjective

they

the

need,

great

effected,

denies

this

to escape

was

if

since

much,

Schopenhauer

in order

by

question,

too

logical consequence

rea,litythere

the

in

disproof

Berkeley

only through

moie

their

'

263

SCHOPENHAUER.

things,

individual

In

sufficient

principle of

the

the

will

is

will

into

being

unchangeable,

ever

and

ever

decay,

of the

cation

are

the most

of its

by
when

of

form

subject, when

it stands

The

that

from

the

takes

in

of the

the

ceases

of

consistently
"will

mere

end,
*

but

the

similar

the

to

can

imitates

in organisms
leaslj/

states

will,upon
in

which

the

or

dispute
of nature

forces

further

from

more

the

or

ideal of

that

the

man's

in his
of

are

ethical

the

of

the

endeavors

Megarians,

essentiallyfounded

as,

to the

also, in

on

form

with

to

like

How

is left

of

the

of that

Plato

the

Ideas

other

real

to

the
are

and

never

that

so

essence

and
more

of

object, in
of the

of

things

of

to

man

Schopenhauer

that

this

the

nition
Cog-

therefore,

is

able
un-

since

elevated

ical
eth-

will.

Schelling, falsely objectifies

and
of

that

guidance

cognition,

and

point beyond

of
the

contemplation

the relations

consequence

doctrine

such

in man,

the

after

cluded.
ex-

with

servitude

any

under

limitation

extirpation

his

Spinoza.

and

in fixed

representation

unable

Ideas, Schopenhauer,

thought"

rests

trolled
con-

is

Originally

this

servitude

follow

unfortunate

of

as

Ideas

knowledge

will.

the

this

ceases

Schopenhauer's

With

the

to

animals

of

to

reason

satisfaction, is

true

one

the

form
is

longer individual.

no

its connection

When

positive significance

theory
human

Eleatics,

which

from

sufficient

qualities.

no

cessation

of

alteration

an

"

remains

will ; with

the

the

such

subject corresponding

known

individual, and

lost.

of

be

bearing already

assumes

except

things

III.

of cognition,

as

it

knowledge

of concrete

to

but

that

objectification of

the
of

in

Book

in

forms

reason,

the

Ideas,

practical philosophj^,

furnishes
direct

only

or

in
the

recognize

to live"

It is obvious

he

those

knowledge

no

knowing

the

merely

becomes

principle

further,

abstractions
hjT)08tatizes
where

he

contemplation

his will is connected,

the

the

Ideas

subordinate

thought,

; thus

implies the
be

to

we

object

servant

of Ideas

the

have

knowledge

the object presented for cognition, apart

to other

attributes

will, it becomes

to

sufficient

all

reason

place

nature

is but

of

individuals

in

the

subject

relations

of forces,

manifested

given by Schopenhauer

art
into

principle of

higher stages

to

cognition

forms

the

nearer

entered

of

becomes

essentiallycognition

various

variously

are

set

chemical

inferior

overcoming

in

succeeds

e.

cognizant

he

belongs

which

either

are

or

"

one

into

differentiated
specifically

o.fthe

overcoming

theory of

sufficient

alteration

an

the

As

rise

only

the

cognition,

subject.

can

the knowing

objectifi-

objectification of

of
objectification

Idea, i.

having yet

great change in the whole

ceases.

the

rise

in the

which

by

ever-increasing significance,are

the

in

under

principle of

the
We

Ideas

in

higher stages

in the

rests

not

as

general

object for

an

is controlled
thus

things

stage

gravity, impenetrability

of matter

portions being

organism

stages

comprehended

are

g.

able,
immov-

but

species.*

is viewed

Idea

which

of

the

as

this theory of ideas

On
The

lowest

as

entering

man.

is involved

as

inferior

in its

beauty

individual

The

ob-

exist

not

things,

that

the

another
its matter, space,
Every stage disputes with
of which
it is an
image, only with such
represents the Idea

to

up

According

express

things,

to

diately
me-

as

of

stages

general forces of nature,

e.

"

various

while

are.

most

portion

one

The

appear

perfect expression

less

never

of

of individual

media

uncreated,

but
the

swith

organism

of force

its matter.

and

exception

the

the

are

existent,

kind.

every

Each

decrement

which

which

Idea,

individuals,they

forms

eternal

only

the

the

are

in numberless

the

as

stands

Ideas

conformably

will, becomes

object

The

and

space,
the

rigidity,fluidity,elasticity,electricity,magnetism,

animals

and

time.

and

time,

without

individuality

plants

individual

objective.

or

becoming,

by another,

qualities of

and
which

latter

through it, so that

another

examples

the

represented by

is

will

in all matter

present

distributed
and

are

the

and

will

and

time

thing-in-itself,or

immediately

and

space

the

in

us

imperfectly expressed
of

the unequalled patterns

themselves

the

the

alone

in which

to

appear

reason,

between

objective ;
of
jectification

they

as

one

Will

to exist

as

the

objectivelyand

unintelligible.
absolutelj^

and

Thing-in-itself,
spues'

264

IIEKBART.

to each
their

other

and

further,this
in calm

but
is

immediate

Subject

partly

Its

Art, the

essential

beautiful.

only for moments,

will, such

the

knowledge

knowledge,

the

will

to

the

various

this

the

whole

when,

knowledge
of the

of the

thus

highest

the

on

ethical

is

IV.

in Book

The

it.

of the

the

us

forever

from

of

and

life,not
in which

of

knowledge

his

acquired

Ethics.

of

of

is the

man

the

the

with

sympathy

identity

annihilation

previously

negation of

of

life,but

idea

the

is developed

requirement

all will
of

"

prehension
ap-

quietiveof

first

with

will

our

the

through

This

The

ceases,

volition,but

suffering inseparable

of

not

"

quietive of

it

to

will,becoming

annihilating itself.

contains

ment
enjoy-

life,but

life,volition

motives

as

is

the

intuition

affirmsiUelf^when, after

is such

of
the

to

the

opposite of this,the

which

world,

mirror

of

manner

longer acting

no

in

will

same

in pure

torment

out

way
The

life in the

which

consciousness

work

complete

result

of

which

According

from

release

not

release.

freely renouncing

by Schopenhauer

rests

the

essence

ethics, according to him,

as

it wills

as

hended
appre-

phenomena

music.

or

Ideas

the

knowledge.

freedom

does

the

not

phenomena

Ideas, and

will

this

all

of kno^vl-

sort

eternal

simple notion, viewed

as

impulse, willed

individual

in

Form,

contemplating

This

the

thought,
that,which

eternal

the

Subject.

when,

itself,is perpetual suffering,

partly pitiable,and

permanent

begun,

and

things

and

abstract

Idea, the

Idea,

permanent
of

knowledge

for

blind

as

live, appears
known

and

contrary,

is,therefore,

of life has

the

the

genius, repeats

significantspectacle

is necessary

as

without

will, and

But

and

the

on

same,

affords

repeated by art,

life

of

work

of

object, then

the

but

of

stage

repeats, it is plastic art, poetry,

it

; the

the

such,

communication

is the

aim

only

dreadful

of the

medium

present natural

as

the

at

realityof life,the will, existence

The

of

Will

the

contemplation, the

material, in which

or

single thing

the

of art.

source

world.

immediately

in

only their What,

the

through

not

longer considers

no

and

simply

involuntary, painless,timeless, knowing

is pure,

in pure
the

place,

of the

longer

no

but

Whereto,

takes

objectivity of

is the

edge

and

contemplation
is

will,when, therefore, one

own

Why,

consideration

cognized,

so

the

to one's

Where, When,

the

from

all

; but

will

the

live,

to

by asceticism.!

"

In

132.

oppositionto Fichte's

ling'srenewed

subjectiveidealism
Friedrich

Spinozism,Johann

and

to

Schel-

Ilei'bart

(1776-1841),on
the basis of the realistic element
in the Kantian
philosophy,as also of
Eleatic,Platonic,and Leibnitzian doctrines, developed a philosophical
he himself
doctrine,which
named, from its predominant character,
realism.
ceptions.
Philosophy is defined by Ilerbart as the elaboration of conrection
metaphysicsat the corLogic aims at clearness in conceptions,
of
*

in

Schopenhauer,
apprehension,

able

to advance

condition.

In

to
his

with
the

give
a

the

exit

ascetic

renunciation
more

relation

from

and

separation

of Ideas

sympathizes
the

(as

is essential

with

the

world

of

But

"

has

will"

{SanmriC)

his

senile

is inferior

attempted
from

from

to

its lowest

do)

the

knows

no

duty.
relation

up.

all

oretical
the-

being

"

feeling depends

for its

positive
this

of the

aim
end

"will"

tennination

the

of

(Nirvana),

unconsciousness

To

closely to

beautiful.

perfection.
doctrine

into

to the

stages

which

on

Buddhist

moral

of the

enjoyment

aesthetic

entering

ethics
is

will,

into

with

an

it includes

it vt-ry

allies
""w'ill,'"

the
of

to the

and

in which

sense

notion

is converted

penitents,

of life

whatever

Frauensta^t
in the

Hindu

the

all relation

of it from

Christianity.

destruction

admits

he

logical universality

checkered
in

since

"

wider

apprehension

esthetic

to separate

complete

elements

prominence
which

order

that

in
sesthetics,

without, however,

theory

+ Schoijenhauer

suffering by

and

them,

for
it
to

the
were

the

sake

of
and

of which

necessary

to

""intellect,"

^65

HEEBART.

ethics,at the completionof them

,\

Ilerbart's

orth.

rests

the

on

in the
attributes,

of
a

the

Ego,

contradictions

is, according

of
qualifications

Kant's.

in the formal

to

contained

are

conceptions. The
Herbart, the

w^hich
removal

thing with

the

render

of
of

work

proper

Ilis metaphysics

nished
conceptionsfur-

in the conception of
especially
and in
conception of alteration,

of those

transformation

of

principlewith

presupposition,that

by experience,and
several

in

logic agrees

the addition

by

tion
concep-

necessary

these

dictions
contra-

speculation.

tions
positioncannot be thought as involved in contradicthe conceptionscannot
be left unchanged. But, on
the
; hence
be so conceived
other hand, being must
that it may explainthe appearances
in
all
for
cum
to
an
experience,
given
points
equal modiappearance
of being. Consequently the conceptions in question, although
they cannot be retained unmodified, are yet not to be wholly rejected,
but rather to be methodicallytransformed.
The
in the
contradictions
conceptionof the thing with several attributes force us to the theory
that there exists a multiplicity
of simple,real essences, each possessing
a
in the conception of alteration
simple quality. The contradictions
lead necessarily
to the theory of the self-preservation
or
persistenceof
these simple,real essences,
whenever, in the case of a mutual interpenetration of such essences, a
disturbance
of their quali(modification)
ties
is threatened.
The
in the conception of the Ego
contradictions
force us to the distinction between
apperceiving"
apperceived and
ideas ; but the mutual
and unity of ideas prove
the
interpenetration
The
soul is a simple,
simplicityof the soul as their substratum.
spacelessessence, of simple quality. It is located at a singlepoint

Being

or

absolute

''

"

"

"

within

the brain.

by the

When

the

senses

are

affected,and

"

motion

is transmitted

penetrated by the simple,

real essences
which
it. Its qualitythen
immediately surround
forms
perof self-preservation
in oppositionto the disturbance,
act
an
it would
which
otherwise
whether
suffer from the
or
partially
totally
such
oppositequalityof each of these other simple essences
; every
All ideas
of self-preservation
idea.
the part of the soul is an
act
on
called them
which
after the occasion
endure, even
(representations)
nerve

to

the

brain, the

soul

is

"

"

"

forth has

ceased.

When

there

are

at

the

same

time

in the soul several

or
totallyopposed to each other,they
partially
arrested ;
conti-nure to subsist togetherwithout
camiot
being partially
they must be arrested,i. ^., become
unconscious,to a degree measured
of the intensities of all these ideas with the exception of
by the sum

ideas,whic^h

are

either

266

IIERBART.

strongest. This quantum

the

of

idea in this

of

sum

Ilerbart

by

sum

greater the

is

arrest

"

the

relations of ideas

and

the

on

and
change of these relations are founded the possibility
of applying mathematics
bart
to psychology. Ilernecessity

the

the scientific

tlie
aesthetics,

makes

is termed

the intensive

On

idea is.

the

less intense
laws

part of each

The

of arrest."

of arrest

important part of which, with him,

most

is

ethics,independentof theoretical philos"jphy.^Esthetic judgments

the

with

the satisfaction

dissatisfaction

or

of

agreement

reference

of perfectionhas

Idea

of the

volitions
to the

in the

the

of

two

the

ent
differ-

the

love,

or

partieswho

of

the

tion
direc-

object; and the

unpleasinginequality
same

unlike

are

of

arises from

the

removal

also the science

doing. Pedagogic,as

of

of benevolence

which

toward

time

same

more

or

relations

; the Idea

the

one

equity to

or

to the

judgment concerning it ;

conflict
dissatisfying

the

has reference

The

the will of another,

person with
of satisfaction ; the Idea of legalright,
to

sentiment

retribution

case

of

will

of several wills at the

of

is connected

relations of w411.

to the mutual

individual

same

of

agreement

accompanied by
the avoiding of
Idea

which

freedom

interior
moral

w^ith the

will

the

with

connected

typicalconception")of

''

(or

dissatisfaction

or

in particular,
from
relations,ethical judgments arising,

certain

Idea

satisfaction

the

from

out

grow

their well

in

rests
politics,

ill

or

w4iich
ethics,

on

their ends, and

psychology,which
points out their means.
The State,in its origin a societyprotected by force,has for its end
the exhibition of all the ethical Ideas in a societyanimated
by them.
of the validity
in defence
of which
Ilerbart
The conception of God
in
gains in religioussignificance
developstlie teleological
argument
more
fullydetermined
by ethical predicates.
proportionas it becomes
Every attempt at a theoretical elaboration of philosophical
theology is
incompatiblewith the Ilerbartian metaphysics.
determines

"

"

Of

Uebtr
G.

A.

the

are

important

most

PestalozzVs

p. 74 seq.,

and

Pestalozzts

in the

eines

Works,

ABC

der

Gertrud

wie
pp.

XI.,

p. 45

als
De

at

das

Ilauptgeschaft

Platonici

systematis

fundaniento

aus

dem

Hauptpimkte

der

Metaphysik,

Hauptpunkte

der

Logik

Schr., I., 254.

ein

als

Zweck

s"q.

Cyclus

Irene,

end

eine

Herbart's

Schr.,

Erziehiing

and

Vorilbungen

von

Abh.

eine

(upon

Kl.

der

in

ilber

Anft., ibid., 1804.

conimentatio

p. 61 seq.

Giitt.,1806

reprinted

same

zioeite, durch

(originallypublished

W., I., 465

the

at

of

XII.)

Vol.

the

Monatschrift,

Minor

Works,

ed.

Vol.

by

III.,

seq.

Aiisc/imiung

vermehrte
Erziehyjfig

Giittingen). Giitt.. 1805, W., XII.,

Allgemei7ie Pddagogik,

Kl.

der

lehrte, in

Kinder

ihre

1.5-51 ; the

wisse7i"ichaftlichausgef'dhrt, Giittingen, 1802;

Welt

given by Hartenstein

"

I., Berlin, 1802,

Complete

Idee

is

Schrift

neuente

Vol.

Halem,

von

list of which

writings (a chronological

Herbarfs

following

entering

Vol.

Werke,
his

Auffa^sen

XI.,
duties

der

Gestalten

Darstellung

der

p. 79 seq.
as

an

Extraordinarius

I., p. 67 seq.

abgeleitet, Giittingen, 1806, W., X.,

1808, W., III.,

as

upon

im

dsthetische

die

Supplement

p. 1 seq.
to the

Kl.

p.

1 seq.

Schr., I., 199.

last-named

180S
work, 1808), Gi)tt.,

267

HERBAET.

Bemerkunfjeii

Psychologische

I., 409.

This

Thomas

and

work
with

Ueber

zur

Psycholngie,

itber

attentionis

Ueber

1841, W.

S.,
Karl

by

ed., 1821,

3d

ed., 1834, 4th

ed., 1837,

auf

revised

2d

1 seq.

V.,

2d edition

to the

supplement

Gymnasien,

W.

edit., 1834,

ScJir.,II., 115.

Kl.

seq.

of

the

Lehrb.

zur

S., III., 98.

Kl.

1822.

W.,

73

VII.,

Mathematik

Nothwendigkeit.,

Schr., II., 353

Kl.

seq.

ei mechatiica

statica

principia

psycholngice

primariis

auf Psychologie

exemplo

illustra-

seq.

Konigsberg, 1822,

anzuwenden,

Wissenschaft,

gegrilndet auf Erfahrung,

neu

Metaphysik

Mathematik,

und

Konigsberg.

VI.
nebst

Metaphysltc

Anfdngen

den

Philosophie,

der

Konigsberg, 1828-29, W.,

Naturlehre,

phil06ophischen

der

Halle, 1831,

entworfen,

Gesichtspunkten

praktischen

aus

2d

ed.,

241

1836, W., IX.,

edited

The

public

F.

1842

; cf. also

of the

der

Litteratur

No.

1, Leipsic, 1860,

44

pp.

critical

have

recently

Kritische

Bergmann.

in

the

Seele, Hanover,

"

among
K.

Fr.

wissensckafilichem

dessen

have

also

included

been

in

the

Schule

Aufsdtze.

1.

and

Lange,

W.

L.

Herbartuche

die

H:s

I., 1868,

Vol.

H.

%ind.

Stellunq
1866

zu

P.

Kant,

Ziller,Vol.1.,

enticickelt

E.

F.

Die

Lps., 1871,

works,

Kant.

u.

with

H.

phi-

Hauptbetheoretische

Wilh.

(cf., per
Das

Wyneken,

H.''s

den

an

Langenbeck,

1868

doc-

(" 134);

below
Ueber

Leander.

Aarau,

his

Trendelenburg.

mentioned

be

of

some

Kritik, Berlin, 1867:

237-242):
H.'s

and
and

by Beneke,

J. H.

; Herm.

Lpz. ''69. Quiibicker,

Kant.

to

philosophers
following:

in

zur

ZusammienstellunQ

einer
Allihn

by

essays

Trendelenbrirg,

pp.
to

and

bezugliche

mid

Reliquien, suppl.
zw.

the

darauf

Herbart

Heft:

etc., ed.

writings

other

works,

Schultze.

s, nebst

philosophical stand-point

various

Herbart,

(ed. by Taute), Kiinigsberg,

Herbart'

Philosophie,

Herbart's
in

relevant

und

Mowitshefte.

Differe^vzen

to

F.

Vol.

October, 1841,

of

Friedr.

; Joh.

his

Of

of Herbart,

essays
28th

the

on

Posthumum

ein

J.

and

1841

Konigsberg,

1837.

exacte

Hartenstein, Leipsic, 1850-52.

philos, works

(words spoken

Inaiigural Dissert.), Luckau.

seiner

Philos.

1869.

Zacharias, Metaph.

213 seq.

seq.

nebst

works

G.

by

minor

Herbart

Jahr

found

Lotze,
other

of the

Schriften

fiir

be

12 vols,

in

an

die

reference
will

(Gottingen

und

philosophische

(These

Konigsberg),

at
im

und

Zeitschr.

With

1865

Lund,

Herbarf

Leben

Hoffmann,

Philosophie

Philosophie

Society

the

seq.

appeared,

Standpunkt,

griffen ihrer

Griepenkerl, Gott.,

1836, TF, VIIL,

Abhandlungen

und

edition

Katastrophe

das
in

edited

been

Eri7inerung

observations

Chalybiius,Ulrici, Franz

Gottingcn,

Moral,

der

Schriften

of his

German

Ueber

Schule,

seiner

taines, numerous

Zur

Voigdt,
Royal

Allihn,

Th.

have

introduction

Gottinglsche

die

an

H.

Professor

wTitings.)

in the

session

Erinnerung

seq.

Herrn

an

2, Gott., 1839-40, IF., VII., 181

3 vols., Leipsic, 1842-43.

of Herbart

Works

treats

und

philos.

kleinere

of Herbart's

Complete

L, Leipsic,

Willens, Briefe

1 and

Nos.

Haitenstein,

G.

by

life Hartenstein

Naturrechts

des

UerbarCs

Friec'.r.

edition

1835, 2d ed., 1841, IF., X., 185

menschlichen

des

Utitersnchungen,

Psychologische

complete

Giitt.,1833, TF.,I.,

commentatio,

7iegligendo

nan

seq.

Beleuchtung

Awdytische

Joh.

Freiheit

der

von

Gott,

Vorlesungen,

pddagogischer
Lehre

yachlasse,

contradictoria

inter

S., II., 721.

Kl.

Umriss

medii

logico exclusi

prindpio

Zur

Schacht,

Naturgesetz

biographical
iiber

d.

J.

contra,

Wese7i

der

notices.
d. Seele.

1870.

Johann

Friedrich

justice,
May

the Gymnasium
also

and
where
was

in

Kl.

seq.

executed

II.

533 seq.

Jena

521

Latin

S., II., 417.

Encyclopcldie

Kurze

of

the

IV.

and

Berl.

from

2d

1813,

Leipsic, 1816,

and

W., XI., p. 396.

causisque

Kl.

and

Allgemeine

losoph.

translation

1817, W., IX., 49

Herbarf-.,Kimigsberg,

als

Psychologie

more

betrachet

same.

Philosophie

der

mensura

seq.

1824-25, IF.,V.

1842;

in

1859,

Philosophie, Kimigsherg,

Kiinigsberg

Ml'iglichkeit und

de

r., VII., 129

the

in

Philosophie,

scripsit J. F.

De

the

by

in

Berlin,

Kimigsberg,

Bone,

das

Unlerricht

den

Eiiil. in die

III.

p. 1 seq.

Bauer

KiJiiigsberg, 1812, IF.,IV.,

metaphysica,

principia
at

die

in

Einleitung

Geaprdche

De

TT,,VII.,

ihrer

seq.

Lehrbuch

lurus

Introduction

an

zur

Lehrbuch

Function

als

seq.

republishod

was

I., Art. 2

Vol.

Archiv^

Vorstelluug

gegebenen

einer

elementorum

at:.ractione

Theorliv.de

I., 1
IT'.,

p. 29

IF.,VII.,

3 ;

"6., Art.

Starke

p. 1 seq.

W., VIII.,

Konigsb.

in

Tonlehre,

zur

i'lber die

Untersuchung

pgycholog.

Giittingen, 180S.

PhilosopMe,

Allgemeine praktische

Herbart

4, 1776.

He

in his native

with

Fichte

He

doubts

with

first

the

In
the

year

doctrine

1794
of

philosophical thought by
reference

his father

where

to

was

councillor

training through private instruction

early acquainted

became

doctrines.

to

Oldenburg,

at
his

just developing

greatly stimulated

writing,various

city.

Kantian
was

bom

was

received

he

the

with

entered

his

Science

his

teacher, and

particular

Wolffian

the

laid before
the

at

ophy
philos-

University

of Knowledge.

propositionsin

and

at

bart
Her-

him,

Science

of

268

HERBART.

Knowledge
the

on

; he

of
Possibility
human

in
in

thing

to

support

in the

composed

essay

"

involves

of

himself,

of

germs

subsequent

third

"

principle :

1797-1800

he

was

poetry

occupied

his

Homer)

they

could

and
be

the

this

During
Through

of

instruction,in

he

adopted

way

of

the

house

into

Jena

studies.

his

his

he

the

Professor

directed

year

1838

friend

In

and

the

death,

of Kant's

of

definition
the

argues,

use
a

of

in the

successor

Pedagogical

of the

place August

day,

he

mission

not

being

for

in

pedagogical

philosophy and
fessor
Pro-

as

Humboldt, was
Konigsberg, after
Leipsic.

Herbart

himself.

inclined

to

all

the

investigator and

an

by

position

by

himself

devoted
as

to

which

the

In

participate
getically
ener-

more

until

teacher

14, 1841.
the

second

elaboration

word

founded

chology.
psy-

method

Bremen

and

von

his

returned
in

of

place

theory

with

from
and

morals

Docent

ture,
cul-

in Greek

believed,

pupils

Herbart

philosophical chair,

of

chapter

rational

in

of

his

as

This

rational

definition

subject of possible controversy,

since

the

of

first section

the

conceptions.

philosophical knowledge

of the

pedagogic

Seminary,

of

he

as

till 1803

same

years

principles of

of Wilhelm

agency

the

Pestalozzi's

many

as

down

lays

interfered

philosophical
as

at the

Gottingen, where,

to

activity to his

the

the

and

means

his

with

1800

year

of

grounds

many

In

was

of

eldest

remained
with

received

he

philosofjhy and

philosophy (in

as
PhilosojJiy)

By
Herbart

took

the
He

Gottingen

at

1809, through

call

unbroken

defines

to

1805

politicalmovements

which

Herbart

qualified

year
in

Konigsberg

with

In

land.

native

junction
dis-

point

topics (beginning

livelyinterest,and

Smidt, engaged

he

Kant's

Krug,

accepted

the

Johann

ordinarins

at

he

actively in
his

of

departure

also

retained

Ego and

knowledge,

effective

acquainted

became

late.
postu-

Steiger, at Interlaken.

earnestly with

himself

busied

the

ultimate

period, when,

of the

tion,
concepa

critique (179G)

chain,

one

scious
con-

dichotomous

reality in

most

later

one
as

of

his

an

great grief, his plan

his

he

to his

in
the

Von

these

chiefly with

withdrawal

Herbart

the

who

conditions."

two

family

furnish

pedagogical theory.

own

extraordinarius, but
as

have

history till

Pestalozzi

ever

October, 1802,

In

and

for

suspension

is

one

tude
that this infini-

problem

an

the

possibilityof

the

In

Ego.

is included

reality,or^

Bernese
to

; but, to

time

of

in the

premature

the

manifold

as

must

at first

morals

Gottingen

pedagogical theory.
called

pupils

visit to

which

and

of

Or

pokits

mathematics

and

unexpected

without

the

The

but

as

contained

already

conditioned

understood

of

in

Fichte,

infinitude,in

Ego infinitude

insists,further, upon

several

and

three

postponed

better

instruction.

he

all

were

ness
act of self -conscious-

posit myself

critique he supplements
"

of

conscious, etc.

solution

were

this

family-tutor

believed

with

through

"

is

of the

knowledge

Whatever

Herbart

he

Since

general
In

is

they
exactness

from

conception

had

foundations

after

received

problem itself,or

alternative

like

single consequence,

the

as

the

act

important

whether

see

opinion that the

who

subsequent

Ego.

itself is manifold

knowledge

in

Schelling: "Either

reality,"by adding
for

"

this

one

conception

Herbart's

the

on

thinks

the

"Realism

Schelling's work
of

in

of the

to

the

the

to

efforts

he

the

the

expresses

look

order

which

that

one

the Unconditioned

or

philosopher,who

"to

Herbart's

toward

Ego

"

stimulus

directed

he

but

Schelling,the

Ego

the

on

conviction

criticism,in

circle,"since

the

the

at

knowledge.

the

by

is conscious

e.

when

the

of

1794

year

other

build,"

to

incisive

early

was

that, therefore, in

But
of his

i.

ceased

edifice

infinite

an

is exhausted
and

had

aided

of his reflections

arrived

of

first works

two
the

proceed further, there, where

to

most

an

investigations were

course

of

to the

the

Philosophy,and

of
' '

of

critique

Herbart

not,

was

them

subject

really fitted
his

any

great reputation,

to

to

him

Form

Knowledge.

philosophy

attained
and

also handed

is

critical

knowledge
Kant

through

introduces

conception

of

duction
Intro-

his

adaptation
tions.
concep-

into
reason

it,as
is

an

270

IIEEBART.

thought through

f erent, but

opposition

A,

and

Excluded
in the

form

is red

and

fronted

of

sum,
this

event

; the

decision

the

soul

existence

of

the

of

with

other
time

some

in

early and
in
to

from

each

rests

be

and

does

persists in

the

seized

be

may
and

of

sentiments

subject

controlled
sort

some

press

all that

given

which

doubtful
set

out,

exist,we

is true

of

whether

; but

can

This
are

fixed

are

methods

incomplete,

marked

by

idea

forms

"

to

in the
the

the

case

context

of

have

in

reality
involuntarily add

objects
to

anywhere

be

space,
of

whether,

in

case

further

of

by analogy uncertain, and

of the

discourse

judgments
in which

in

general,

they

occur.

is false

the

to

causality, as
it becomes
may

principlesactually

inference
of affirmative

may

perceive

knowledge

for

progress

what

doubt

at all

and

necessary

perceptions

Hence

which
such

elements

thought

in

of

sort

some

But

not

time,

nature.

from

found

of
the

sentiments,

do

lazy

powers

material

place.
we

especially of
the

take

or

among

and

through

filled with

be

not

follows

skepticism.

our

obtain

may

reality

conflict

of

dental
acci-

have

readers

form

to

the

bare

much

how

and

at

of all his

thoughts

by the

Bodies

may

exist

we

the

perceptions and

what

that

that

but

his

off

been

not

separate

to

dependence

animals

not

equally doubtful

the

at least

and

know

ascribe

points

appear

appears

assumption,

the

of,

basis

skeptic, and,

has

from

of changes in time, the

sort

some

to the

we

to the

being of things.

real

perceive,

we

which

discover

specially

advance

the'

of

problems

him

scarcely expect

can

who

higher

the
is

industrious

and

that, owing

we

almighty,

figures syllo-f

shaking

that

been

lower

of

by thought
shows

have

shapes do actually

perception
"

it may

and

and

think

adaptation

experience
*

on,

we

contents

of

also

who

by forces, men

forces, elements, changes, and

still farther

to

a
or

it is

to

the

on

radical

thoughts, and

others'

between

of the

that

thought belongs

each

of

consideration

the

con"

into

initial

is

second

He

enable

can

skepticism

skeptics

discriminates
on

alone

where

weight

become

representation

true

know

are

enter

assertion

Herbart,

says

philosophy.

furnished

increment

not

in

experienced

never

subjective conditions, we

on

in space,

shape
may

who

always

Herbart

apprehension
senses

; he

almost

former

the

oppressed by

thinkers.

he

has

garment-

The

syllogism

first and

unitjrl

this

is connected

enunciation

philosophy,

opinions, which

and

necessary,

But

maturity

them, they

skeptic

ideas

the

fact.

come

The

life

habitual

from

given

his

for the

way

in

beginner

principle ofsr;

will

the

^;hird figure,syllogisms of substitution.

beginner
is

the

isthe-

other

assume

{e. g., God

involve

not
of

to

they

which

conception

poet) does

the

prepares

skeptic

every

so-called

Judgment.

each

conceptions

whether

syllogisms of the

of the

those

Herbart,

hand,

the

the

categorical judgment

in his doctrine

proceeds
terms

neutralize

When

expressed' in

each

is called

attributes,as

sorrowful.

the

the

German

Every competent

metaphysics.
the

that

and

and

is

of

or

arises

b that

Principle of Identity

it is permitted

marks

question

question

was

Herbart

subsumption,

the

subject, and

assumes

subject,

Skepticism,

on

of this

Goethe

immortal,

and

joyful

once

thought,

is the

Herbart

assumption.*

gisms

in

various

contradictory

formula

negatives

is true

same

disparate.

are

the

and

simply dif-

are

color,
of

of

so-called

the

Wherever

include

may

is the

whic

square,

which

red

this

thing;

where

the

B.

not

or

is at

other

predicate.
is

sum

each

conception

presupposed

is either

blue,

the

to this

non-A,

to

affirmative, and

this

not

or

and

illustrations

same

the

thought independently

Conceptions
circle

also

the

and

one

equal

as

be

can

the

furnish

Equivalent

an

with

union

this

to

Middle

such

circle and

of the

each

non-b, it being aifirmed

b and
not

are

those

opposition.

contrary

non-a,

is not

tantamount

are

which

combination,

Contradiction.

properly

or

and

Opposites

of

Principle

as

of

contrary conceptions

as

between

other.

the

not

of

of

such

but

other,

examples

well

as

each

incapable

not

Disparate

Conceptions

with

other, furnish

the
.

them.

united

be

cannot

; the

thought,
the
cases

since

existence
in whioh

it

271

HERBART.

"

for

justgronnd

of any

principlewould

transcend

itself

scarcely conceivable.
holds

Herbart

the

real

axe

reallygiven
should

we

; but
The

on

actual

these

of

forms

and

in space

prolongation through
prolongationthe
identical

it is the

must

should

obliged

be

with

the

which,
should

here

which

the

at

from

these

employ
therefore

still

of that
and

occupies

finite quantum
of
real

of

changes

parts of the

unity

marks.

of

But

such

Thus

the

Vrhose
,Which

thing
:

what

true

as

cannot

that

must

the

an

is

thing

supposed

rectification

manifold, while

? demands

in

rejected.

be

to

portions

the

it is

simple answer.
possession of attributes

infinite

tude
multiThe

the

simple

parts, each

its

is

The

tradiction,
con-

is irreconcilable

different

of

belonging

definition

of the

conception

and

thing,

possessed.

attributes

by hypothesis only

as

of time.

possessor

the

are

is

All

appears

are

as

something

essential

than

yet

one
as

thought, since,as

action

attributes,involves

the

necessarily be regarded

hilation
anni-

endui-es.

them.

between
several

bility
divisi-

the

imply

of

conceive

may

the
tion
dura-

and

infinite

and

Plurality of attributes

into

manifold

as

the

to
must

with

action

acts

inconceivable

we

with

thing, as entering
being itself no less manifold

is

unable

are

of matter

in itself the

contain

interval

thing

result

infinitesimal

small

is many.

thing

The

must

of the

is the

be

of

or

we

would

which

to

infinitesimal;if

by

space

of time

of that

composed,

after, and

one

The

itself is rendered

is

intervals

quantum

is

of

occupancy

in

Evidently we

connection

of time

occupancy

in time.

for, however

and

possession

quality

awaits

given,it

result

inherence,

implies

nature

consequently

question

before

of

subject.

peculiar to the
and

it

the

in space,

into

finite

the

in

form

arises how

subdivisions

matter,
arise

begin

infinite series

same

and

in

we

so,

we

the

question

empirical conception

the

place successively in

parts

conception
since

with

took

reconstruct

existence

extended

This

change.

which

does

into

if

as

The

unoccupied

re-entrance

it is

extended

still resolvable

; for

occupies

action, of whose

The

obviously than

lost

considerations

of time.
divisibility

subsequent
time

reality.

Similar

divisions

which

extended.

If

finite space.

considered

to do

in

matter

such

by

as

order

exist, the

becomes

The

be

implies

division

considered

direction, the

successive

to

attempt

of

thought.

more

which

basis

fill

to

reality

matter,

would

we

as

in

infinite

demands

action

parts

altered

of the

notion

of

begin

compound

reverse

by

is to

one

we

still be

actually

them

attempt

we

parts

infinitesimal

be

If

yet the

space

intervening divisions.

to

it may

in the

but

parts

rise to

rectify.

to

parts, since, in

of

thought

later,psychological problem

matter,

ultimate

sciousness
con-

which

nature, that they give

part must

with

order

overleap,

to

ultimate

ultimate

the

in

take

before.

us

in

attempt

simple elements,

obliged

be

it

must

we

arrested

arrive

of

composed

as

simples

many

from

and

simple

form

any

; but

of

series

infinite

the

overleap

to

with

as

"

subjective

own

Extension

many,

pelled
com-

able

not

are

of

while

at the

parts, nor

our

thought

distinct

each

experience

contradictions.

and

conceive

we

infinitum^because

at all the

arrive

never

the

into

up

When

many.

in

continued

be

We

is broken

the

of

and

of

depends.

of such

are

of

feel ourselves

form,

is

given,

are

knowledge

forms

perception

involve

different

yet

from

derived

business

time

in

action

the

object we

definite

sensuous

experience

numerous

one

with

with

forms

no
attributes,

senses,

being given, metaphysics

contradictory conceptions, which

Extension

all

definite

forms

things

to

manner

of their

given

or

of

given object of

what

fact

the

the

through

perception

added

any

In

choose.

may

of

contents

simply

we

relativityof

apprehension

in the

to connect

"

we

the

ix

be

is attainable

things

us, since

connect

the

while, owingf to

that

of

quality

to

as

which

synthesisd priori" hj

one.

of

The

thing

contradictory conception,

originatingin

what

is

experimentally

272

HERBART.

conception of causality,too, which, although

The

from

yet arises
in

experience, involves

forces

the

change

conducts

change
cause,

or

the

first in the

often

(under

of

external

an

in

regressus

infinitum^nor
is

that

diminish

these

strict

is

eration
of the

that

the

The
all of

in

that

reason

the

i. c., must

think

takuag

place

the

conception
It is the
from

Metaphysics
of
and

are

all

of

so

the

as

the

ideas, involves

appears

represent

consciousness

turned

in upon

"

of
an

itself,"

Ego
of

of

thinking

own

"

in

is divided

by

experience,
Herbart

being, inherence,

and

into

of

the

change

(Eidology). With

transformation

so

on

realityimpossible
and

thus

as

to
to

doctrine

which

into

does

having
the

which

the

trated
concen-

inherence

of the

unit.

itself

think

must

its

think

its

and

general metaphysics

the

To

this

as

pure

Ego,

own

always

on),

so

that

to

remove

these

tions
contradic-

experience comprehensible,-

of principles and

(Ontology), of

so

for

realized.

to be

Herbart,
render

Ego,"

of

source

infinitum ("its Ego"

"

the
are

dology),
(Metho-

methods

constant

connected,

(Synechology),
as

its

tions,
applica-

and

psychology.
conceptions, which

it is the

work

if

not

plurality

primary

the

perfect

it must

in

^en.'

quality

this theory expresses

of

itself,i. e.^

itself,and

Metaphysics, according
of

that

Ego,

the

especially sensible,

Ego

thinking of itself,"of

its

seems

the

of generation

contradictory ;

as

as

contradiction

here

it would

of things

evolved.

be

regarded

becomes

contradiction
to

is

Ego

to the

physical philosophy
The

far

is

from

source

one

passive

subject of

substratum

shall

manifestation

outward

in

the

the

concentrated

substratum

unchanging

one

and

it
not

constituting

nature

the

which

"

does

to determine

united

one

cause

conception

of

passage

of

contradiction, as

peculiar

forms

phenomena

the

the

increased, since

but

contradiction

business
the

be

manifestation

which

objection, that

in order
be

patient,

thing

and

qualifi'

the

itself

the

to

it implies

it divides

as

of

since
itself,

involving the

as

same

active

an

experience
in

nature,
that

that

parts,

lead

to

internal

an

twofold

the

contradictory

of

Ego,

an

manifold

its

of

our

diminished,

not

idea

self-consciousness

added

be

to

such

as

its

regards change

exposed

the

only

single,which

self -consciousness,

the

is

clearly the

the

opposed

which

third

the

(1) the conception

and

contradiction

opposed qualitiesmust

multiplicityand

extremely

our

further

words, opposed qualities must

conception of

multiple

must

various

the opposed qualities of the

and

is

change,

will,and

the

through

generation.
really occurring,

as

appears

of

remain

cannot

changing qualities; whence,

generation

more

yet

generation,

it is also

of

contradictions

in it all

the

thought, except

these

or, in other

the

change,

in

series

generation,

unity,

in

attribute

an

th*

be

changes, since

in, its nature,

into two

changes,

that

impossible

through

it is said

only

which

as

included
and

involves

of the

derived

or

of self-determination

of absolute

disclose,and

not

it,remains

alternative

region

externa)

an

it must

absolute

an

of things. But

explain subsequent

of self-determination

uniformity

the

conception ol

have

words,

original change, since it

agent possesses,

and
difficulties,

act

quality of that

does

in

in
course

the

must

of

each

ception,
con-

given

of change
unphilosophical
place,i. e,, of

taken

But

change

regard

second

naturally

(2) the conception

in the

require

the

foreign to, not

part; (3) the theory

the

it

has

; or, in other

general
the

explain

does

to

the

world,

not

change wrought

before

agent

is accustomed

is

conception

cause.

the

to what

common,

change

it

causeless

the

or
self-determination,

of fate) in the
does

for

seeking
be

of

or

material

name

cause

which

after the
was

the

contradiction

the
cation

process,

understanding

common

explaining why

it must

reference

in

even

Either, namely,

or

cause,

direct,experimental

with

experience

Now,

of

and

not

thought

With

felt of

effect

trilemma.

mechanical

process

consciousness.

becomes

as

internal

an

of

result

to

of

contradictions.

necessity

apprehending

The

necessary

itself directly into

thought,

of

metaphysics

to

accom-

273

HERBAKT.

by seeking out the necessary

is effected

I,

relation, throug-h which

This

be resolved.

only

on

in

the basis of

For

possible.
to

of

is contradiction.

idea

or

in

by

an

(Kant,

which

we

in

method

of

the

tions.
Rela-

obliged, by the

are

It is

only thus, i. e. ,

comes
idea,that a prioH synthesis behence
priorisynthesis,
necessarily,
B ; the
in

the

on

necessity lies
the

general,
the

in

the

possibility
im-

of
impossibility

contrary, had

principle beside

another

-priori synthetic propositionsdemanded

involved

are

the

of

can

an

impossibilityor,

such

which

by Herbart

impossible without

be

must

contrary ; but

the

supposition

any

given conceptions

complementary.

contained
is shown

in the

contradictions
is termed

to the

contradiction
that

contained

principle,from

conclude

it,to

suppose

A ; then

with

belong

is

conception

contained

contradiction
it is

formal

such

Every

the

removing

by experience

furnished

conceptions

formal

of

method

complementary conceptions,or points

contradictions

the

alone

asserted

that

principleof identity

contradiction.)

and

It is

impossible
being

if all

Even

That

sensation.
as

being

is.

be

Whatever
The

marks

in

real essences,

the

by

further

several

the

force

the

each

the

sensation
which

But

attributes

tions,to complete
defined

of

complexes

attributes.

as

several

is never,

of

the

internal

that

the

from

results

the

ance,
appear-

denied, some

form

of

the

in

of

the

thing

from

of these

these

existence

as

of

the
and

thing;

contradict

plurality of

therefore

can

one

simple

single;it

conception of

the

existing within

of

existence

things their separate

to

quality, which

distinctions

appearance

Being ts
relation

found

seldom,

ascribe

conception

assumption

absolutely simple

an

We

contained

to free

in order

us,

extremely

or

things.

contradictions

possessing

assumption

be

of*

element

This

{ens).

essence

an

term

we

conception by

statement

attributes

is called

being

as

element

simple
rather

occurs

is appearance.

cannot

to be.

appear

than the simple positing of A.

e^, is nothing more
all negation and
all
conception of being excludes

The

is conceived

being

of appearance

even

undeniable, simple

the
of

removal

would

nothing

real.

as

position.*

absolute

then

least

at

the

this fact

Since

that

remains

after

remains

assumed

affirmation

there

denied,

be

which

nothing is,for

that

assume

appearance,

must

The

with

to

not

be

quality, and

by

yet possessing

as

in combination

essences

or

together.
In

complex of

change.

We

conception

of

being,
it

and
causes

then

this would

there

there

is

would

be

contradict

no

change

possible

directed

activity. Herbart

Hence

also

activity, as

the

coadjutant conception of intelligible

space,
*

Herbart

thus

excluded
which

the

is the

relation

latter

18

includes

exclusion

was

the

of all
to the

affirmed.

positing
negation

the

of
and

substance

being

in the

relation

positing subject

and

the

the

number

change.

together with

of

saltus

that

alluded

and
to

can.

supposition."of

an

theory
of

activity.

appearance,

supposition of

of the

of all real

conception

involves
the

without

sesses
pos-

operation of

directed

sphere of
as

means

place when

take

together,and

the

the

impossible ;"

are

if the

change

in

in what

change

generation

condition

without

explains change by

which
(acts of self-preservation),

t Ilerbarfs

such

no

explain change

to

constitute

in

even

others

contradictions

original,outwardly

an

while

permanent,
the

absolute

derivative

of

are

which

no

no

all,not

at

experience.
be

be

condition

are

from

original,internal

and

would

the

which
But

things.

to

original self-determination

exist,and it must
original,
outwardly
internal

that

only possible upon

there

ordinarily some

are

changes

it follows

change
since

there

ascribe

follows, further, that

were

But

marks

therefore

of

simple, real
This

original

an

tions
self-preservaessences

theory

rests

corresponding species

on

of

being.
in

demonstrando.

cancelling(negation) of th^ oosMon.

All that
in the

is to be
senije

iu

274

HERBART.

time

of

and

motion,

intelligiblespace
be

must

conceived

sensations

are

formation

of

the

real

other

same

essences

objectswhich

are

equal rapidity in

"primarilyat
itself

existing in

with

reference

other

among

motion

is not

its space

in

only regarded

real

rest, and

in such

as

motion

simple,

real

'Occasions

in

disturbance,

no

point.

one

The

could

essences

enabled

but

disturbance

destroy

each

resistance.

ideas

real

well
to

ideas.

our

concerning
simple
that

which,
the
"

view

real

may

on

the

elements,

the

case,

but

are

simple

beings

be

to
be

with

If

contrariety.
in

It

Bince

simple

the
and

the

to

qualities are
indivisible,and

beings

in the

the

are

really the

to

acquire

of

sum

suppose

ones,

but

of

quality, however,
elements,

hand, complete
for

the

only
in

our

tween
be-

sition
oppo-

comprehension
''

an

product of such

analyzed only

; but

us

of different

component

necessary

gous
analo-

way

the

other

on

the

that

to

difference

and,

and

Herbartian

to

some

to

us

various

qualities are

is unknown

case

into

co-exist

pressure,

in

as

qualities themselves
not

naturally

representations or

are

is necessary

thought

hand, complete agreement

reference

soul

possible for

it is

only difirerent

analyzed

conceived

of real

essence

relations

is not

resembles
in the

alike,

self-preservationis

states, which, according

analysis,although methodically

result,is yet
of

disturbance

internal

are

external

amount

one

; such

The

follows

would

the

case,

is
are

qualities are

disturbance

to

but

original

qualitiesof the

is the

reverse

enlarged in infinitum.

partial,the qualitiesmay
subsists

of

the

difference

and
be

may

of

essence

this

is but

internal

which

the

This

and

of them
this

point, there

opposed,

be

every

beings,
of

their

as

wath

several

or

same

opposite

threatened

principles,must

and

proper

if the

Self-preservations"

beings they

The

their

knowledge,

"

to Leibnitzian

according

as

since

all

one

to

itself

to other

as

motion

only

contradiction,opposites cannot

place

the

negation.

self-preservationa
; in all other

But

against

far

so

be

to

is

regarded

being

velocity.

consequence

the

at

moving

as

compared

as

to

surrounding

would

reference

in which
in

to

constant

qualities are

of

take

other.

to

the

when
theorem

with

seeks

phenomenal

It is therefore

in relation

time

same

with

in

from

regard

motion,

line

that

part, which,

would

themselves

to preserve

peirsistencein opposition

as

the

direct

occurs

at the

which,

disturbance, since,by

in

case

their

on

originallyin

points into each

if it is

rest

equally possible cases.

consciousness

the

arrive

reciprocal interpenetration
toccasion

by

this latter

tion
addi-

intelligiblespace

space,

this

other

the

viewed

are

in

to

prevent

of itself stand

not

however,

to

being (essence)

every

does

essences

is

is motion

relation

'Ccmprehen^lccl. When,

of

existence

reference

in

; rest

being

every

motion

with

nothing

essences

change, since
at

is

infinite number

this

real

remains

there

general

that

and

one,

other
an

that

presupposed

But

itself,or

to

Every

each

Herbart

reference

objects

of

succession

as
intelligible

with

these

The

which

The

necessity of

points into

passage

In

is motion
when

rest

the

of

our

itself.

plane surface,and

hypothesis

relations.

which

rest, is

reference

space.
to

possiblecase

point, an

the

of the

By

essences

in which

soul

by

of

real

space,
the

together.

passage

fiction

opposite direction.

an

with

rest

as

the

that

as

in

occasioned
not

view."

simple

phenomenal

is

also

the

therefore

directions

of irrational

at

the
is

The

space.

relative

are

viewed

and

of two

of
divisibility

geometrical fact

the

isjjace all motions

writh

material

the

from

rigid line," the

"

line,the compounding
direction

space

which

together

the

produces

presupposes

iustifyby

and

in which

intelligiblespace

as

"accidental

expedient of the

that

distinction

of

conception

essences

third

methodic

understands

existing, in

as

the

continuous
of

the

on

ideally represented,

conceiving the
simple,

and

Herbart

accidental

component

consideration

of

them.
In human

Ego

is loaded

consciousness
with

the

fact of

contradictions.

These

an

Ego is given, and

contradictions

force

yet the
us

to

conception of

distinguishbetween

an

**

"

again

whole

divisibilityof

beings (which

be

same

the

very

with

But

simple beings

the

internal

should

state

partial interpenetration

the

in the

If the

other.
also

spheres,

penetration

will

in ;

others, enters
of

state
latter
but

has

external

necessary

When

In

order

them

and

of

their

to the

ultimate

weak

of the

relation

equal

3. Strong, but

(the

and

to the

4. Weak
medium

internal

and

element

in

them

each

states, into

fully

selves
them-

of

act

the

initial

of several

give place

to

the internal

influences

the

to

the

that

of

the

union

should

therefore

are

the

as

in which

measure

of

the

original forces,

not
which

several

different

Atom.

an

of

the

particular the cohesion,

of

between
difference

the

unequal opposition (according

of
this

on

hand,

one

amount

intensity).

principal relations
;

of physics, by tracing

laws

on

the

to

and

equal

qualities in point
four

and

distinguishes,
(according

between

restored, the combination

is

repulsion
or

nearly equal opposition

and

of the

respond

repulsion

other,

result

very

of

unequal opposition

of
not

heat)

very

elements
and

of which

light and

of matter.

Several

(as in the

soul

unequal

gravity
internal

is the

states,under

to the

From

elements

to

depends

the

the

tion
combina-

each

other

of

formation

configuration of

elasticity,and

is

opposition

case

in which

postulated by Herbart
of solid

; this

is the

the

in order

elements
to account

bodies;
relation

in which

electricity

bodies;

stands

to

rests, with
states
with

favorable

relation

is the

elements

unequal opposition ;

very

; this

substance

stand

of solid

Biology (or Physiology)

arrested

it to

and

elements

these

or

existence

phenomena

3. Weak
stands

the

as

order,

penetrated

case

tion
posi-

is

being

conceived

second

of

some

each

occupied by

yet

the

external

it follows

state

be

energy,

only supposed.

of caloric
for the

that

of the

Herbart

of

the

on

of

rigid matter,

or

matter

In

when

enables

attraction

sources,

distinctions

two

1. Strong and
solid

place

material

opposition

qualities)and,

mutual

part not

explain genetically the special phenomena

to

their

to

strong

necessity

takes

time

of

whole

necessity that

in which

the

the

other.

between
a

the

to

; in

the

the

external

of

as

result

necessary

are

whole,

From

of

amount

infinitesimals

conceived

degree

same

its parts

condition

given instant.

the

each

of simple, real beings forms

to

penetrated

the

appropriate

an

be

consequences

equilibrium

the

tion,
self-preserva-

self-preservation cannot

sphere (point, real being)

Attraction

throw

mutually

substances

self-preservation as

others

by

exceeded.

been

of

by

at the

surrounded

being

and

into

repulsion

or

is

with

infinitesimal

beings, repulsion, or

real

simple,
the

takes

of

place

instant

at every

stratum
sub-

partially interpenetrate

is Matter.
act

which

beings

give place

the

acceleration

the

to

if

and

the

really simple

of each

elements

tinction
dis-

the

of simple, real

number

should

necessarily correspond.

again subdivided

be

originalspheres
attraction

act

must

tMs

and

be
divisibility,

is

accompanied

be

assumed

For

real

act

being

must

of

acts

psychical

as

possibilitythat
the

of elements.

of the

state

of

of these

the

that

simple, real being

partial interpenetration

part of each

inward

the

of

of such

attraction

reason

ideas

the

rests
view

supposed parts, this

in all its

being,

as

or
imperfectly together^

the

to that

soul

of ideas.

in

least

at

of the

ideas, of

our

point

result

is also

confined

for

be

The

other.

of the

the

however,

must,

spherical) should
each

of

complex

and
of ideas in self -consciousness,

masses

doctrines

the

reciprocal relations

of the

the

On

apperceiving'

presupposes

of the
and

"

"

and

apperceived

275

ART.

HERB

the

Herbart,

within
ideas

this

is the relation
of solid

elements

one

which

on

the

theory

in which

the

ether

of the

internal

each

tend

mutually

to arrest

limit

each

other

consciousness)

conditions,reappear

the

figurability

being

and

or

bodies.

in

other
; the

co-operate in determining- the

276

IIERBART.

outward

action.

with
assimilation
internal

The

and

accidental

the

higher organisms

not

indeed

of

the

prayer,
ethical
The

be

is

soul

finding

into

of their

idea

the

real

the

idea,

of ideas

of

in

ideas

reduced

are

relates

the

to

object

of

point
cannot

in

of

from

the

were

to
this

the

and

be

may

their

to

The

soul's

to

by

of

addressing

God

reception

of

ideas

ideas

in
the

ideas
be

bined
com-

of

separate
of

succession

it
its

when

Mechanic,

definite

in

Static, when

is

persist,and

degree
exist

relations

their

the

as

arrested

an

The

it.

although

laws

at any

of

to have

the

of them

they

case

to

idcap.

to the

which

computation

may

essences

to

such

; but

the

computed,

idea

an

real

several

according

In

zero.

This

expression.

strength of

1 )y

satisfies

the

intensity in

computation

in which

actual

existence

my

other

other

idea, seeks

such

the

actual

self-preservation are

each

the

mathematically

condition

of

each

arrest

reduced

of

sum

acts

with

be

exact

cause,

is understood

possible for

be

whole

of ideas

arrest

the
their

as

of several

complex

not

for

other

of

below).

it would

nor

each

God,

the

formation

of

but

belief in God's

whence

for

account

intelligence

being capable

of

disparate,blend

or

measured

final

is

man

and

other,

intensity may

is to ascertain

as

thought

of consciously having the

be

tact
con-

processes

the

phraseology

common

(of which

thought,

diminished,

intensities

divine

to

in

beings themselves,

; for if it

essence

Through

instead

mind,

far

so

consciousness.

my

opposition.
is

what

of God

each

homogeneous

consciousness

of

real

simple

in the

rest

partially or totally opposed

are

in

come

the

sensibilityfollow

adaptation apparent

influence

of

in

only

unity

unity of

whether

Ideas,

man

in the

in the

the

hence

of

lie outside

combined

the

But
the

of

(and

simple,

would

depend

beings is sufficient only

real

simple,

presupposes

of

at least

predicates

its ideas

beings, which

this teleologicaljustificationof the

religious need
or

such

irritabilityand

Further,

organic life.

other

But

substances).

of

existence

to each

relations

own;

similar
excitation

in other
on

matter.

meeting

possibilityof

general

its

to

reproduction.

figurabilityof

The

the

simple being-excites
similar

it,states

its

during

moment

change.
each

be

may

the

tone

represented
higher),

octave

one

totallyarrested.

subsist

Since

at the

together
it would

must,

law

but,

of

the

the

fact, so

fraction

this

each

idea

by

complete,

enters

as

so

of the

ideas

The

If

element

into

in

strength,

the

and

the

ideas

supposed

each

continues
strive

to
with

original intensity.
completely arrested ;

of

is arrested

by

of

between

fraction,

proper

computation

the

as

divided

thus

ideas

opposition

the

represented by 1, but

it is not

must

cannot

its

were

arrest

of arrest.

sum

other

ideas

together,

total

and

tone

opposites
two

yet

so

pletely
com-

are

given
the

Both

half of

the

ideas, taken

to.
the

loses

one

two

amounted

determining

if

And

other.

annihilated.

be

therefore

Herbart

that

the

to

ideas

any

of the

point, one

same

cannot

of the

blue,

principle of contradiction)

at the

satisfied

be

much

is termed

two

is not

ideas

would

exactly equal,

are

these

unchecked

is to subsist

one

to the

and

and

yellow, yellow

if the

Each

other.

each

originalintensity of
between

and

subsists

once

of contradiction
matter

as

time

intensities

whose

B,

Suppose, further,that

wholly give place

appear,

equal force against

red

that

so

and

1,

(according

same

subsist, for whatever

The

as

(as, for example,

opposed
be

ideas, A

synchronous

two

Suppose
that

the

of

sum

arrest.
ideas

If the
second

the
*

within
whole.

The
the

b,

real

and
and

groxind

space

B
a

of the

occupied

are

"

b,

unity

unequal
and

if

of consciousness

by consciousness

our

is not
ideas

are

the

intensity of

complete
punctual

interi)enetrate

nature
each

the

first

opposites,
of

the

other,

or

being

it is

soul, but
become

a, of

sufiicient,
the

fused

fact
into

that
one

278

HERBABT.

nearly

a.

:=

of time

employ

dx

but

"

to

dt), not

to

infinitesimal

an

infinitesimal

this

x)

"

dt, but

of time

of

(a

to

force, which

in

portion
portion

increase

portion of time

nearly

amount

an

the

to denote

small

very

amount

an

in
after

force,in

in

increase

must

amount

an

the

(a

If,now,

increased
its force

to the

amount

an

) dt.

"

between

dx, according

to

infinitesimal portion

an

not

idea, after it had

(or the difference

this

time),

"

in

-,and

is

above,

to

wo

x,

before

(a

quired
ac-

and

x) dt-

"

dx
therefore

ard

the

has

idea
the

tain

If the

first

in the

to

follows

the

:x

tolerably soon
it in

finite

time,

In

the

circumstance

that

time

time

but

a(l

its

not

increased

by ^8 (a

"

(instead

its full force

x)
It

thus

a), it

(=

dt,

"

will

idea

the

end
must

idea

quires
ac-

fully acquire

never

of the

limb

the

dt ;

the

x) dt, whence

"

that, while

nevertheless
as

the

which

)8a

after

of

i8 (a

oh

we

log-arithms.

above)

as

o,

"

to
intensity,

force

is,dx

it

immediately

appears

towards

of natural

to x, the

dt, that

)3,the

of

follows

in force
"

basis

1, but

dt) which

only approximate

will

consequently for

(dt),is

{"

idea has

that

hyperbola

asymptote.*
Herbart

manner

the gradual decrease

calculates

of

the

of arrest."

sum

with

When
a

of

altogether analogous

an

"

portion

nearly

toward

approximates

of

represented

equation

and

constant, yet

as

the

amount

an

consider

we

l,e denoting-,
as usual, the

portion

t, in which

time

increase

when

equation,
o

"

is assumed

in the

consequently,

value

a(l

excitation

of the

from

:x

rises

this

"

arisen

result

the idea

dt ; from

certain

idea

one

the

effects

of

raise

the

others

into

order

and

formulae.

and

arrest

previous

seeks

Herbart

is, according to him, the

the

of space

forms

with

by Herbart,

and

Kant,

as

called

thought

priori forms,

ideas

but

; and
as

blend

together,

of

from

also

forms

these

to
nite
defi-

mathematical

but

results

tend

in

but

memory

to

recovers

it will

by

sequence

in which

is

what

human

in

time

idea

consciousness,

this

according

if that

"

however, uniformly,

varying degrees
of

parts

into

determine

to

perfectly, but

not

"

smaller

returns

mechanism

only the

and

itself, not,

with

consciousness

rests, not

arise

viewed

its

sequence.

It

which

which

combined

are

descending gradation through larger

from

upon

others

several

not

are

the

psychical

mechanism.
is the

that simple being which

In

faculties

of

than

ideas.

soul

so-called

The

are

to

the

to

so-called

found

be

in the

faculties

is

of

relations

ideas

of reproduction.

The

for combining

thoughts according

our

its basis

the

complete

through

the

influence

faculty

the

operation

for

The

completely

made

of external

things

in the

ideas
implied

consequence

good

series

complete

newly -formed

necessary

may
nature

result

by

its

and

formula,

viz.
seems

these

of

nominally

ideas

earlier

longer duration,

of

By

the

are

Reason

: that

to be

similar
the

weakness

in

of

be

laws

faculty
has

for
souls

our

understood

is the

coincident

Sense

is the

of

masses

in contradiction

the

as

is to

Internal

the

thought,

formed

; its basis

so-called
but

is

by

processes

follows

defined

which

which

phenomena

psychical

Recollection

of that

The

simply hypostatized

are

causes

counter-arguments

of ideas.

the

be

us.

upon

through
in

of

series

real

other.

which

those

weighing arguments

of several
of

of

effect

to each

to the

Understanding,

original multiplicity of

an

soul

the

explanation
the

illusory;

more

no

of

The

class-conceptions of psychical phenomena.

reference

is

there

faculties

the
with

excitation
oiu-

perception
apThe

ideas.
may

experience.

b#

279

HEEBART.

of

Freedom

effort.

of ideas

masses

The

of

source

the

which

joint

of

case

total

of

will

strife ;

of

Idea

legal right

is the

through intentional

well-doing

(Equity),

Compensation
equal

of

amount

good

original Ideas
the
of

the

and

inward

to life

of

of

Ideas

of

in the

in nature

simple,

real

in

"Whether

not

HiHtor.

really

are

the

the

the

the

relate
cor-

posed
presup-

displeasure

the

upon

another

wills

of the

of

Idea

at

the
or

ties
par-

Retribution

or

the

transfer

of

With

these

primary

by

doer.

an

relating to society, in particular

rewards, of

the

of administration,

system

guidance of

mild

its

zur

of

all

Ideas

in Tr.'s

which

contained

give

can

and

regards
is at

objects

laws,

scientific

on

seeks,

and

which
in

Beitr.

Zeitschr./ur

zur

313-351),

JPhilos.,Vol.

Philoa.

undphilos.

of

order

theology

of

development

love, and

existing

For

needed
is

that

the

ception
con-

conceptiou

justice" predicates

in

of

seq.
a

III., 1867,

pp.

Kritik, 1854

but

logical

also

the

(in

article
in

{Monatsber.
reply

1855), to

to

the

also

of

of
our

Momttsberichte
of

volume
der

Berl.

rejoinders by

demonstrate

the

in the

existence

as

norms,

second

the

upon

beyond

found, rather,

in

63-96),
and

is

science

Metaphysics

reprinted

second

of

to us,
our

forced

conceptions

advance
stimulus

manifest

Herbart's

on

p. 654

formal

the

; such

formation

essay

"

in the

doubtful.

things

and

the

of natural

system

ficient
suf-

The

thought.

the

an

adaptation
its existence

can

qualification of

the

is not

Wissenschafteii, Nov., 1853,

pp.

as

least

nor

human

theoretical

the

contradictions

of individual

of

holiness, power,

them,

of these

chance,

tion
contempla-

The

ethics.

intelligence,in which

source.

pantheism.

Herbart
in

Trendelenburg

Hiit.

of

to

in the

Herbart,

to

work

form

divine

than

wisdom,

Philos., Berlin, 1855,

Striimpell (in the

simply

in

religious consciousness,

worth, ends,

der

is the

referred

be

only

important

stimulus

existence

of

Akadeniie

Beitr.

the

contradictions

"

only

Feb., 1860, and

and

to

violentlydisturbed, the

or

to the

according

faith

it is

have

must

predicates

notions, is founded.

Berliner

that

plea

More

is,for

the

relations,varieties

der

off

Ideas

and

found,

of

cannot

it is found

essences

Bl^here of empiricism

ethical

of

union

be

part incompatible with

by experience

fact that

is to

perfecting
the

on

of

reach.

our

ethical
are

the

but

denied

be

beyond

ethical

and

will

one

disturbance

receiver

system

the

higher organisms

of God

us

the

derived

but

Nothing

explanation

which

the

extension

objective

our

in which

arises

dissatisfaction

tude,
magni-

parties interested,for

of

action

is broken

of

will
on

the

condition,

of

volitions

The

'own

our

the

beside

pleases

intension,

of
the

respecting

manifold

is founded

intentional

from

the

religious faith

nature,

apparent

the

will, are
extension.

between

of

on

conceptions

of

of

out

Right

rectification

reverse

man,

founded
are
culture, and of society as a person, which
tively
respeclegal right, compensation, the public welfare, spiritualperfection,

freedom.

basis

of

by

the

scendental
tran-

of

judgments

always

Those
of

acts

remained,
this

'

satisfying direction.

The

the

of

or

or

^rom

'

is founded

greater

recognized by

or

legal society,of the

system

the

on

connected

are

of the

Idea

have

of

est
strong-

of

in such

judgment

our

the

concentration

ill-doingthe

or

otherwise

of

Legal
the

through

the

involuntary judgments
Freedom

and

will

harmony

of

of

doctrine

is found

of Perfection.

and

established

rule

produces dissatisfaction

act

is

Idea

When,

would

concerned

is

The

of strife.

avoidance

or

Benevolence

another.

the

arising anew

as

same

object

practical interest

our

Ideas

magnitude,

objects willed),

the

the

on

the

supremacy
Kant's

Internal

of

comparison

intension

effect,or

to the

the

in

with

in

Ethical

Idea

the

assured

found

Idea

of

senses

impossible.
be

our

opposite

attainabilityof

impressions.

between

origin of

of

multiplicity

or

of
The

relations

pure

employed

are

source

will.

the

in conflict

is to

Ideas

harmony

is the

; this

smaller

(;".e.,

of

arising from

satisfaction
In

our

relations

respecting

will.

assthetic

of

is the

of character

development

in

or

same

idea

or

is also

false,and

particular,the

in

and,

taste,
taste

the

the

it renders

since

affections

single

over

is

the

by

Will, in psychology,

the

freedom"

in the

work

accompanied

is effort

Will

The

idea.

forces

different

when

Feelings arise

Tr.'s

Akad.,

Drobisch

tlie three

fol

280

HEKBAET.

philosophy of Herbart

The

and

lowing

theses:

experience
metaphysics

parts
There

to be

not

are
are

The

of

principle

law

of thought

into

the

Ego

within

single spot

(Cf.
the

other

this

with

is not

the

whether

and

% 40.)

Syst. of Logic.
when

hand, plurality,

When

isolated

law

greater

and

de

is to

The

being

of

in

thought,

leads

thought,

as

it

in the

is at least

appear

may

atomism

is not

of

my

conception
whether

; but

its seat

extremely

at

matical.
proble-

simplicity, just

as

the

but

but

things,

simplicity having

to exclusive

trary
con-

in

(a misapprehensiou

representations

soul,

unity

of

nature

contradictions

punctual

is conceivable

the

of

and

remarks

scieatifiqne, Lioge, 18"J5.)

misapprehend

groups

identicaL

variety

the

of

smallness

remains

(Cf.

remain

would

and

change,

logique

apparent

by Herbart'*

ones

magnitude

hyi

furnifihed

solved

multiplicity

inherence

of different

isolated

in

and
the

and

Esmi

things

of

fell).

being

others

be

not

objective law, determining

an

presupposes

such

of

conceptions

would

number

Delboeuf's

distinction

representations

of

brain,

the

nniversal

maintain'

to

attempt

an

contratiictory opposition.

Parmenides

as

through

their

problems

in

of it

make

and

the

sf)lvod,yet

of

into

sections

philosopher

Herbart

by

the

law

in

out

as

Trendelenburg,

says

product

connection

contradiction

early

so

my

thus

were

; the

other

relevant

the

and

interpenctration

mutual

on

In

objectify

removed

are

parts.

also

as

identity

; to

indeed,

which,

of the

each

and

continuity,

only artificiallytransformed

are

of Logic, " 77,

System

from

isolated

points

contradictions, they

wore

genetic comprehenflion

regarded

be

may

Herbart

of

subject

the

"ultimate"

no

opposition

which

contradictions

were

considering

the

sigfnally
promoted

of Beneke

(2) if they

contradictions;

(3) if they

;
In

has

doctrine

contradictions

(1) the
not

are

unsolved.

The

mind.

nature

force

facts

as,
the

us

rather

to

assume

number

of

whole.

The

of the

is conceivable

beings,

only

of

this

The

afterwards

to be

fiction

that

Herbart's

internal

In

notion

The

after

the

the

opposed
conflict

which

that

continued

until

Lange

{Die Grundlegung

fur

ex.

the

bas^s

of

the

acconiing

their

resistance,
Herbart

memory,

in

in

points.

through

grouping,

since,

be

abuse

of

he

metaphysics

theoretical

knowledge

advantage

which

theology through
themselves

"

of

be

real

simple

the

exist.

and

the

of God

Kant
a

attempts

had

previous
If the

further

apply

result

to the
of

of

and

of

as

an

himself
indeed

confesses
he

able

to

justify

who
his

(supposed) demonstration
simple real

prayed

for

her

denial

of the

of our

ignorance

essence

which

the

sum

of

validity

is God

; but

be

assumed

to

as

; but

to

he

the

would

threatens

apply

demand
has

it

as

for

not

philosophize

in which

manner

to
rise

by

general

so

the

of all attempts

to the

in

metaphysics

compares

tions
rela-

only

can

explained

attempt

destruction

own

as

his

theology

according

God.

adaptation

the
he

his

of

arrest,

reality of

be

not

that

censures

of

it is associated

which

it could

explanation

of

measure

of

simple quality,

with

essences

the

phenomena

person,

aa

the

the

in itself to its

mtelligence,

magnitude
determine

to

presupposes

As

Zeitschr.

the

metaphysics

beings

Alb.

points.
in

to

or

should

explain

constancy

subtilizing ctariosity),and

Semele,

that

simple

it

assume

Herbart

of

quality of

metaphysics.

theology (and

wish

being

the

divine

to

Herbart's

real

seek

according

and

and

"With

limited

will

law

order

simple

other

the

back.
it to

only

by

the

In

magnitude

which,

to

other,

the

among

of

explanation

to

the

denied

intelligent grouping
being

each

postulate.

principles.

his

essence,

n-atural

siifflcient

experience

that

mere

of fixed

of arrest"

only

and

are

into

ariested

itself

Cornelius,

contra,

"sum

which

of

case

brought

are

contradiction,

impossible,

is

to the

to remain

even

It is not

of

the

absolutely

an

supposed

be

should
law

beings

18")5; cf.,per

limit

to
as

order

is nevertheless

explanation

the

when

tend

idea

this

of

the

them.

between

satisfy the

that

reputed

In

which

according

necessities

two

weaker

assuming

concerning

designful

The

fact

respects

outset

consequences

absolutely incomprehensible,

only throwing
him

assiimptions

which

an
as

ideas

the

the

is

latter

other,

in

the

of

testimony

while

that,

satisfactory

itnder

arising

as

disturbance.

no

each

the

to

itself,

rejection

is founded.

elements

conditions

notion

which

new,

hypothesis

for

who

the

out

compromise

no

least

The

the

Herbart

investigator

it at the

logical

principles, must

intelligence

to forsake
an

the

intelligiblespace,

latter, would
be

with

falsity of

of the

is left without

"

'

"

mately
illegiti-

and

use

spherical

of the

attraction

such

conflict,to

destroyed.

be

censures

assume

in

of

; at

resist,the

to

the

in which

not

admit

arrested

be

alternate

contradiction

really

was

destroy

such

indo-

as

philosophy

of

stem

articitlated

really employed

is

these, according

any

something

the

on

fiction

The

of

nor

conceived

be

can

condition

point

bj' the

Psychol., Duisburg,

; the

degree

will

numerous

Herbartian

such

3and4)

indulges

interfere

conflicts

to

and

only

mathem.

computation
to the

result

ideas

in conflict

proves
der

Nos.

VI.,
/'//iVcis.,

and

absolute

are

the

of

of

is vitiated

cannot

; it is

internal

to

it

alone,
of

substratum,

harmoniously

an

abstractions.

arise, for

ever

its part,

on

and

it continues

case

ideas

result,

which

in

all the

different

shows

which,
together

weaker

and

with

of

that

piu-poses

service

endeavors

yet is developed

there

subsist

to the

annihilated, and,

rather
be

equal

this

punctual

unity

construction

impossibility

the

disprove

principles

in their

could

self-preservations

disturbance,

cannot

further

intelligible space

; Herbart's

the

didactic

rendered

images

no

space

not
of

preserved,

of the

which

quantum

do

theory

is

old

removal
ideas

being
in

extension

is formed

of space

spaceless being.
theory only

real

simple

have

sense,

of

but

hypostatized

for

position correspond

external

that

in abstraction

only

are

in the

it has

when

account

that

alleged necessity

explanation.

aside

cast

element

an

other,

it is

ostensibly

is invented
as

each

to

Herbart

by

which

unity

limit, and

as

assumed

which

metaphysics

in Herbart's
but

only

realities

punctual
real

things,

existing externally

substrata

point

; the

pendent
forms

such

in

synthetic unity

things

the
in
in

intensive,
infinitely

281

BENEKE.

the

extend

and

ground

by Herbart, witbout

won

out, and, in particular, with

of the

overthrow

the

the

defects

which

fiction of

the

have

been

pointed

punctual simplicity of

soul.

the

Friedrich

Eduard

Beneke

(1798-1854),in oppositionespecially
Ilerbart's
and
also
of
and
the
basis
to
to Hegel's
on
speculation,
also of
various doctrines held by English and Scotch
as
philosophers,
doctrines maintained
by Kant, F. II. Jacobi, Fries, Schleiermacher,
Schopenhauer, and Herbart, developed a psychologico-philosophical
internal
doctrine,restingexclusivelyon
experience. The guiding
know
selves
ouris,that through self-consciousness we
thought with Beneke
reallyare, but that w^e are able only
psychicallyjust as we
imperfectlyto know the external world through the senses, and that
we
only in so far apprehend its true nature as we suppose analoga of
own
our
psychicallife to underlie the phenomena of the world of
All of the more
sense.
complicated psychicalprocesses are derived
from
four elementary or fundamental
by Beneke
processes, namely,
of the
the process of the appropriationof impressions,the process
formation
of new
the proor
faculties,
elementary psychicalpowers
cess
of the compensating adjustment or transfer of impressions ["excitations
133.

"

"]

and
faculties,

and

the

of

process

the mutual

and

attraction

blending of homogeneous psychicalproducts; under the third process

certain psychicalproducts,having lost a portion of their elements,
unconscious
become
continue
exist as
to
or
while,
simple vestiges,
these lost elements
being united to other products,the latter,if they
were
previouslyunconscious, are elevated into consciousness, and, if
vivid consciousness.
they were
alreadyconscious,are elevated into more
On
of the complicated psychicalphenomena to
his reduction
it

is,in

the

Herbart
the

second
of

regarded

the

grouping
the

place,

it

itself

as

is
a

in

not

the

be

of the

world

allied

to his

theoretical

of

various

and

1856,
/.

and

particular, they

txacte

in Vol.

3 of Tr.'s

even

the

the
to
an

in

to be
can
can

xtnd
Histor.

Philos., VI., 1, 18G5.

in

world

God

eternal

as

"

be
furnish
die

which

regarded
a

of

If

(in

place.

and

Ethik

whether

it

which

of

It

is

judgments,

in

the

the

as

sufficient
der

ultimate

ground

explanation

Alien,

in

Beltr., Berlin, 1867, pp.

the

of

of

the

of
per

and

in

beautiful

the

Berlin

contra,

which

on

still possible,
the

the

purity

Cf.

the

of

ments
judgmoral
of

moral,

the
and

Trendelenburg,

Acad,

Allihn,

not

are

our

in worth

and

present

general

whether

differences

obligation.

moral

and,

which

of

render

can

God, though

interest

Transactions

12S-170

of

in
be

can

easier, to consider

not

questionable

natural

it
and

by

and,

Intensity

God,

aesthetics

assumed
the

if

between

and

extremely

of

independent

of

easy,

things,

ethics

Herbart's

as

existence

the

case

principle.

hence

it is

of

denied

beings

therefore,

whether,

independently

cannot,

real

infinitude

and

God,

of

number

mere

beings

real

in logical consistency be

not

infinite

an

primitive adaptation

common

absolute

of

depends.

intermediate

by

ideas

the

grouping

imagine

must
is

there

that

questionable

order

ideas

infinitude

this
denies

more

dissatisfaction

functions"

H.''H pra^tiscfie PhiloHophie

he

designful

philosophy

declares

in

of
as

occupies

Herbart

intellectual

whether,

God

of

of the

order

satisfaction

perception,

of

proved),

brder

and

piinciple

order

whether

which

on

equally

hypothesis

rational

adaptation
would

ground

same

the

superfluous

doubtful

place, very

first
the

on

uf

in the

Sciences,
Zeitschr.

282

BENEKE.

these
work

"

fundamental

"

rests

Beneke's

decided

value

processes

will continue

to possess

His

essential merit.
for

psychology and all

rest
on
psychology,

philosophy,so far as these

although his conceptionof the nature of these fundamental
themselves
The science
need to be completelyrevised.
may

processes
of morals

is founded

of worth

other

of

branches

by Beneke

natural

the

on

varieties

relations

or

psychical functions and express

in feelings. That which, conformablyto these
themselves
originally
has the most
worth, not only for the individual,but also for
relations,
which

subsist

all those

whom

measured

the

among

various

conduct

our

is

morally good.
preponderance and such a firm
"

that

man,

his volition and

Conscience
the
in
our

in

of

science

psychology and ethics,says Beneke,

labored

with

enthusiasm
strict

and

in

nature

alone.

action,the idea
for all

is true

valuation

education

decided

moral

be

can

this nature

by
own

which

different

sense

any

The

part.

own

in

of the

consideringour

this

as

in such

consists

determined

are

of conduct

estimate
an

freedom

far

so

"

establishment

action

exists,
whenever,

feelingof an
alongsideof

influence

may
Moral

and

or

enters

men

tendency

or

instruction

on

on'

rests

for the

and

development of it he
religiousphilosophypresupposes
of
knowledge
provinces

His

success.

the

separation between

of faith.

and

"

With
Die
In

reference

the

i)reface

reference
for

to certain

1856

is contained
adds

is

given by

Joh.

took
in

rich
the

his

attention

which

The

writings.

Heinrich

Jacobi

; the

Schopenhauer,

his

until
as

first three

fell

private

the

Dissertation)

Basis
had

as

of

all

of

Berlin,

explains

he

edition

Beneke's

position

in

with

Jahrbuch

the

odical,
peri-

same

their

of

order

in

Herbart's").

Pddag.

Dressier,
in the

of

to

his

Diesterweg's

Beneke,

himself

expressed

Ps3'chology

to which

of

third

Lehrbtich

specially
of

to the

He

tion,
publicachologie,
Psy-

der

by
(Outlines of

above-cited
the

and

(in 1820)

De
did

veris
he

of

reviewed

(" 131,

phy
philosoWette, who

dedicated

by

of

one

the

to

and

more

Fried

Beneke

his attention

Lit.) review

to

in

the

of them.

chology
Cognition, Empirical Psy-

pJdlosophiminitiis,his

become

the

Bemhardi.

De

partly

at

and

Platner, Kant,

turned

of

Science

he

werq

early

of

1798, and
city

theology

directed

were

also

direction

to whom

latter

native

influence

of Garve,

works

his

Knowledge,

Beneke

the

his

studied

the

under

of the

Works

is shown

already appeared

under
then

Schleiermacher,

studies

partly

in

education

time

at that

ITtli of February,

the

on

of 1815, and

of

Complete

works

In

early

Hermes, Vol. XIV., 1822, pp. 255-339.

of

seq.

Berlin,

his

was

Fries, and

Ecglish philosophy, and

in

received

He

VII.

others.

writings

has

of my

and

to the

supplement

himself

Relation

the

(1824, p.

of the

born

was

He

Berliu.
to

On

(also printed separately).

military campaign

and

"

Schmidt,

Dr,

by

in the

Dressier

1, 1854.

Halle

writings
Not

Beneke

he

development,
:

himself

between

characterization

Fridericianum,

earliest

recent

brief

Beneke

Eduard

part in the

directed
his

Gottlieb

March

Gymnasium
He

of

biography

by Dre.ssler,Berlin, 1861

Friedricli
there

p. 76 seq.

Seelenkrankheitskuiide

zur

disagreement

of

supplement.

edited

died

Beitrdge

cases

intellectual

Beneke's

3d essay,

(Berlin,1845,

his

to

history of

to the

Psychologie

neue

acquainted with

Doctor's
one

of

283

BENEKE.

Herbart's works
(1831)

this time

From

psychology

his

on

admitting nothing

but

furnished

such

data

by

that

of relations"

to

remove

finds

the

in

the

fundamental

warfare
says,

yet

his

in

by Beneke

Beneke's
lectures

University of

the

at

that

friend, Minister
and

interdict

this
Von

doctrine

of the

German

Altenstein,

of

confederation

steps

which

designated

had

that

position

the

Venia

from
that

the

as

capacity

appointment

activityas
The

lecturer

following

Outlines
thren

is

of the

Grundzi'igen

Fries.

It is held

Wissens

Object in

this

of

1824

until

and

the

to

"

works

of

(apart

In

this

knowledge,

1820,

in

have

to

the
his

from

reviews

the

work

which

nach

dem

polemical

Kant

deemed

akm

and

irritated

government,

not

appoint

to

to

in Prussia

Gottingen, where

in

permission

to

return

received

he

Hegel's death,

position he, with

his

his

resolutions

Altenstein,
Saxon

covered
disto

propagation

own

illiberal

asylum

obtained

of his

by Hegel

to

was

publication of

prevent

the

he

continuance

made

certain

before

complete

psychology

the

hostile

force

after

long
This

{Erlenntnisslehre

Knowledge

forms"

of

philosophy,

an

then

fiU until

to

the

unintermitting

death.

already noticed)
Bewuastsein
attitude

der

d. priori,

as

well

Vemunft

reinen

is assumed

toward
the

as

Kant
material

in

and
of

experience.

Empirical

in ihren

1832, not

author, continued

Beneke's

of

to

of

found
He

irregular professorship.

list of

in

in

than

pretended

to

was

to

means

1827.

and

part, already
in

after the

Beneke

philosophy

Beneke

he

are,

defends

although politicallyunsuspected,

whom,

dargelegt, Jena, 1S20).

that

work

from

he

most

interpretation.Von

found

bart's
Her-

which

appeared

1822,

year

regular professorship

Berlin, where,

Theory

knowledge, originate
Outlines

from

an

for the

sporadically

By giving

forced

human

it results

approves

; but

representations

Fries.

withdrawn.

been

to

to

for

Bocent

Bocent

and

part of Beneke,

private

the

of any

the

''method
the

that

soul"

complete system

the

the

by

Beneke

the

which

Hegel's object

somewhat

him

legendi had

he lectured
in the like

the

on

In

by following

psychical phenomena,

were,

rather
his

the

a
plurality of psychical faculties.
psychical life to a few fundamental

interdicted.

was

and

Schleiermacher

by further

ailes

Berlin
resulted

reception at the University of Berlin

to the

of
of

it,

to

insistingthat

order

Physics (^naturalhistory) of Morals,

of the

Groundwork

of

processes

by Herbart.)

mathematics

and

phenomena

same

but

rejected from

punctual simplicity of

"faculties

of

founded

of external
experience.
conceptions furnished
by

in

conceptions

these

"

of

experience.

hypothesis

works

Herbart

Beneke

psychology, asserting

those
class

origination of

; in the

development

the

Empirical Psychology"

the

inconsiderably influenced

not

the

Herbart's

with

acquaintance

scientific

of

fundumental

(These

psychical processes.
mentioned

also

of

complicated phenomena

the

to reduce

seeks

He

is necessary

internal

of

explanation

faculties,and

of

general idea

of

results

Many
dtjath)

account

the

in

views.

(after Jacobi's

experience,
scientific

Herbart's

while

application

involved

Herbart's

hypostatized

but
in

forward

put

are

of

But

Philosophy

lively interest.

and

interpret the data

theory

recognition

the

against

realitynothing

in

the

error

the

the

speculation

In

very

to

(acquired perhaps

of

metaphysics,"

put to

contradictions

them.

general falsification of

be

acute

living.

internal

sciences

natural

are

metaphysical

experience,and
Boul he

then

as

from

should

most

and

well

as

experience

there

that

denies

Beneke

basis

is derived

what

by which

method

same

the

in Herbart

philosophers

metaphysical

the

psychology

1819)

with

Herbart

experience, mathematics,

"

Introduction

superficialknowledge

of

works

found
German

of the

profound

the most

He

the

Wissens^ Gottingen,

des
the

studied

he

on

reviewed.

he

of them

possessed only

Theorie

Stiedenroth's

through

of

edition

second

the

was

had

he

then

; until

work

that

Psychology

Emiptzugen
expound

the

as

the

Basis

of

all

Kno-w\e([ge (Erfafirungsseelenlehre

dargestellt, Berlin, 1820).

complete

science

of

Beneke

explains

empirical psychology,

that
but

it is

by

simply

to

als
no

show

Gruiidlage
means

how

his
and

284

BENEKE.

where

all forms

of human

knowledge

13eneke, corresponds

an

force.

fundamental

The

several

fundamental

"

the

faculties."

The

revival

cession

seeks

here
compares

the

aid

of

method,

he

actiones,

to view

assertion

what

our

to

On

and

being,

is

of

hence
and

thought

than

ourselves,

real

the

perfection

the

fact

various

that

our

World

forces

taken

by

of rules,

and,

Contributions

ideas.

Still

by

of

for

of
his

to

1820.

Dec,

are

and

of

of

being;

hauer,
Schopen-

to

"will,"'becomes, in

review

Through

t""

ideas

our

of

blind
the

Schopenhauer's
principles

the

subjective

complete

will."
between

"

of

distance

the

things

ourselvea

perfection

as

between

immediate

resemble

conception

increase

intermediate

acquire

world

of

similar

most

especial opposition

the

refers

of

similar

psychical

being

are

least

scale

extended

the

the

having

our

soul

a
own

imperfect

more

in

Beneke

Beneke

position,

who

in the

knowledge

with

we

of those

psychical

of
of

obtain

we

own

our

who

men,

thn|

wb

representatioft

our

idea

correctly

of other

being

real

decreases

that

conceive

to

being

iw the

which

bodies

our

with

general

is represented

knowledge

occasion

the

relation
a

"wills""

our

of

get the

it agrees

as

the

mental

of

have

work, iH

subsequent^
into

knowledge

i. e., on

far

abnormally

grounded

of

object

we

he

extends

the

bodies,

so

is held

Allg. Litl. Zeitung

well

here

The

little

defines

of

we

downwards

point

in which

Vorle

seineii

zu

which

if^lf, namely,

own,

the

this

on

veritO'^

earum,

above

and

idealism
of

knowledge

the

On

as

in

Morals

{Gnindlegung

account
was

of

the

thus

led

basis

agreement

of
with

morals.

publish

to

Sitten, ein Gegenstiick

der

Wesenunddie

das

Defence

opposition

In

He

Herbart,

fiber

in

argues,

in favor

of

to

of the
the

in

with

determinism

F.

Beneke

work,

Imperative

H.

opposed

as

this

{Schutzschrift f'tirmeine

work

Categorical

agreement

KanPs

zu

Erkenntnissgrenzen

contained

"Epicureanism"

alleged

Sitten, Leipsic, 1823).

the

Physik

zur

A7ihange

Sitteti, iiebst einem

of

Kant,
the

Jacobi, against
to

Kant's

theory

of

freedom,"

transcendental

Herbart

of

critics,and
der

feeling

to

seelenwissenschaftlichen
an

believes

der

1822).
the

Physik

zur

defends

despotism

and

which

Physics

the

Berlin,

in hand

Grnndlegung
Beneke

will

take

form

it.

of

which

own
m

adequate

under

knowledge

Jenaer

firm

Metaphysik

zur

Vernunft,

the
a

this

human

realism

of

Groundwork

Grnndlegung

was

in

assumes

all forces

the,
eni

by sense-perception.

world

der

the

and

Idea,

and

Beneke

external

of

perfection

unphilosophical

that

of

subsumption

already

{nostras

excellent

an

knowledge

which

our

the

is

who

our

it is in

our

the

we

only knows
had

imagines

recognize directly any

imperfect

very

an

in

capacity

doctrine

latter
have

may

we

only

of

as

from
Of

stej) which

This

decreases.
that

have

we

case

than
of

Our

ourselves.

every

Beneke"

to

which,

own,

proceed

we

as

less like

with

our

he

true

Proyramm

science

says

perceptions

have

we

perfectly

in the
the

representation

other

body

the

directly

it is in itself.

as

being

and

ideas

the

Will

as

enunciated

us

than

regularly

affirming
his

other

education,

and

of

natural

by

of

als
This

metaphysics

unable

the

also

to those

analogous
being

of

animals,

of

consequence

of

while

who,

of

forms
age,

being

are

know

w-e

the

absolute

more

Psychology

cogitamus,

1822).

understands

our

is

Metaphysik,

Berlin.

to

are

no

associations, enunciates

mere

functions

knowledge

of

We

Through

own.

perception

our

as

is direct.

which

decreases

to other

in temperament,

our

known

ourselves

the

but

zur

knowledge,

to

ideas, from

that

but

world,

dialectical

The

has

Empirical

latter

principle without

of

movement
man

experience,*

est).

of

restricted

independently

activities

being

occasion

the

own,

other

"

of

All

his

first

one

that

Beneki

through

downwards.

natural

repeteiuias

eas

he

it is in itself, i. e., it is

being

any

ad

apertuni

outlines

being.

incorrectly

itself,and

sense-perceptions

our

to

of

the

ubergeben,

the

suomerated,
enu-

MDCCCXX.

anni

roof

external

in

psychical

own

""metaphysics"

and

had

as

psychical

knowledge

being.

to

something

own

referring

mediate

8U(h

(representation)

it is in and

as

of

precision

By

immediate

previous

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the

the

who

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Druck

of

of excitation."

capable

acquired

assertion

of

objects

quodam

{Neue

from

Kanfs

to

reduced

atHngere

dem

great

subject.

Schopenhauer

of

knowledge

Metaphysics

with

the

thought

between

essentiam

Metaphysik

sketches

Beneke

continued

as

of
tvnd

our

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mensiH

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the

and

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is

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knowledge

house

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of

faculties

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order

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to derive

attempted

build

sense," Beneke,

knowledge

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aliter

non

Groundwork
ilber

than

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internum

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sungen

have

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to

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by

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hypothesis

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is

IX.

reached

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originally
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to

stimulus

significance.

can

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on

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to

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jntbl. def. Die

philosophy

psychical functions

own

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tern

his

Kant's

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i"uug.

foolish

the

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similarity

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philoHophUti

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leave

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"

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Psychologie

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metaphysisch

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Leipsic, 1824).

feelings,in

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286
mont

satisfactoryto himself, and

ness

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physics,"

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Boneke

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primitive faculties," in
^"item
1842).

of

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himself).

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abstract

innate,

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of

substance

themselves.

of

especially)and

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realityonly hypostatized class-conceptions of

in

is the

basis.

of scientific

progress

through
be

(through

must

contrary, metaphysics,

the

on

psychology for its

in the

to

experience

rationally elaborated.

be

and

Herbart

and

experience,

external

of

sciences

of the

the method

(through Locke,

possess

the

Psychology

off

is marked

employed,

soul the

possible by them, have

of

of

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on

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faculty

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all that

we

understanding, judgment,

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"

boundaries

adapted

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hypotheses, etc.)

Beneke, is

as

vols., Berlin, 1850.

Leben,

das

to Ms

our

with

agree

(through

rendered

distinct

Gittnchten, Berlin, 1848.

sense.

ideas"

but
possibilities,

developments,

faculties
a

mere

the

principal stadia

the

complicated phenomena,
not

are

as

primitive, but

faculties.

and

compare

auf

; whatever

it is to be

founded

faculties,continues

as

"

psychology belongs

observations

be

"innate
soul

''faculties"

those

very

of

holds

"energy

Berlin, 1851-53.

immediately

must

of

to

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continued

Beneke

the

but

believed,

in the

Denkens,

des

1832.

of

Anfa'dtze

introduction

sensation

internal

psychology

not

of

be

doctrine
of

psycho-

phenomenon,

belief

the

the

1858.

philosophical sciences, must

banishment

jihilosophisches

subject of

to

if

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begin
is

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the

and

induction, the construction

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religious philosophy

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Berlin,

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*'

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Beneke's

grounded.

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in the

down
of

Seelenlehre

difficult,
says Beneke

senses

that

treated

nnserer

oder

However

and

laid

is

Beneke, Berlin, 1839.

thoroughness,

to corroborate

tends

soul

and

work.

religion

of

range

psychology

der

pragmatischen

psychical from

it

principles already cnunciatwl

the

and

simple"

"

of the

of

previous

only
the

empirical

Psychologie.

die

clear

is

{System

from

Archivfiir

Natural

which

EeUoionsphilonophie,

und

thought

clearness
the

in

beyond

nature

outlines

are

neue

Stellnng

die

Its rich*

with

^'alurtoisseiisc/ia/t,Berlin, 1845).

nls

Psychologie

der

the

than

soul

sound

Thought

which

( Die

Psychology

the

spiritual
of

of

cognition,

Pnyckologie

in this.

abgeleitet, Berlin, 1840).

development

empirical psychology

with

the

of

lies

because

analytical'' thought

Pragmattiche

not

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New

der
Die

'*

theory

84 of my

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to

In

Logic

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Metaphysik.

representative
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explanation

whatever

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death,

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der

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soul

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GeinteH

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religious

relation

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in 18--J2. The

{System

lichen

menscfi

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in the

problem

are

him

profundity

thoroughness

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origines

Religious Philosophy

and

i. e., his determination

bases

the

are

readily afn'ee with

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praise

questions.''

OrtnulverhaltHusseti

author

the

logical

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rmalyticoi-um

fundamental

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Metaphysics

natnrlichen

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den

BENEKE.

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in

combined

287

BETTEKE,

scientific

immediate

The

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in

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-consciousness,

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Fundamental

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psychical processes,

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fundamental

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"

these

analyze the results of direct consciousness

is to

problem

into their simple elements, i. e., to reduce

be

l"ased

288

BENEKE.

the

that

elementary faculties

new

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excitations

the

Process.

Fundamental

sensations

union

they

In

another.

active

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t The

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transformation

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notion

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Herbart,

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this

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unconscious

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one

mobile

the

idea, owing

an

psychical development,

conscious

moment

seen

of

of

says
it

within

from

or

the

to which

soul

are

emotions

in

Every psychical product,

in the

from

in

less

the

comparatively mobile,

at

every

reproductions

sometimes

relations

of the

excitations, as
in

When

all

being. *

and

therefore

are

equalizing

or

this

recurrence

renewed

been

just

of

of the

influence

the

under

balancing

and

elements.

elements

multiform

most

Examples

combinations.

ideas

the

in

of

psychical combinations,

all

toward

movement

these

firmer

of

co-operation

continued

as

formation,
of trans-

process

human

one

faculties

and

classes

two

and

weak,

transferred

be

can

to

in

is

excitations

and

sometimes

of these

interpenetration

and

shows

the

in the

of

perceptions,

peculiar

with

senses,

united

are

combination

The

perceptions,

and

of

means

the

by

up

and

in sensations

originallygrounded
of

by

corporeal) systems which

lliose (spiritualand
Third

formed

are

taken

the

of

laws

transferred

by

the

laws

conversi("x

I
289

BENEKE.

{Anlage,or, in order to express the fact that

sphere, a "rudiment"
*
a technical
term which
this capacityis the result of previous processes, Angelegtiieit,
the
"traces"
we
ifl scarcely capable of justificationin linguisticregards). Of
of
the
but
of
them,
we
are
sure
reproductions
perfectly
through
know nothing except
in
results
of
these
are
the
and
because
reproductions
qualitative
their existence,
titative
quanIn the first
agreement with the earlier (reproduced) psychical formations.
this unconscious

"

fact that the real process in the

of what had been conscious

"

of

called attention

traces,"but

properly only the

was

case

persistenceof the

the
,

explanation,since naturallywhat had once

it should
of special causes

transition

cesses
pro-

then to the

even

into unconsciousness

traces,"he

"

would

existed

continue
But

annihilated.

be

the agency

his ''fundamental

among

of the formation

the process

included

oj PsychologyBeneke

edition of his Manual

added, needed no
until through
exist,

to

he

since,as

the
alleges,

of
here be explained by a partialdiscontinuance
becoming unconscious
process
may
the action of stimuli,which is only one side of the process of the transference or bal
that
ancing of the mobile elements,he admits in the second edition of the Manual
of the action of stimuli is insufficient to justify
the partialdiscontinuance
the assumption
of a specialfundamental
the fact of the internal persistence
process, and mentions
of traces, notwithstanding its
extraordinaryimportance for the development of the
of

"

soul," only supplementarilyin connection

with

third fundamental

the

The

process.

which
the production of a psychical
between
comes
perception)and its reproduction {e.g., as recollection). Since
these two acts are psychicalacts, we
only conceive of the trace in psychicalform.
may
"
There
for these traces.
is no
where
As the soul in general,so also all its parts are
of knowledge, contains
is our
nowhere
which
self-consciousness,
only source
; for our
not the least indication of spatialrelations in itself. The
directlyand intrinsically
with
traces
connected
no
are
bodily organ ; for the space
perceptions and spatial
changes which run parallelwith the psychical developments are only synchronous" at
the most, always synchronous with the latter,
and cannot
internal
possiblybe made
their
to them
or regarded as forming
(substantial)basis.:}:

'Hrace," says Beneke,

activity{e.g.^

is that

sensuous

"

"

"

"

^nZasre=groundwork,

It is very

doubtful

partialdiscontinuance

loss of consciousness

products
of

the

formed
remains
been

That

internal

"'

sense

included.

"

under

space

the

as

the

185",pp. 269-2S2.

the

takes

as

it

is

body

no

the

to

other

"trace

"

longer

struck

by

for such

totat

of all other

and

the

on

away

chical
psy-

occasion

psychical formations, the original

of

it is to

certain

certain

"

not

ideas

of

case

A.

specialprocess.

altogether dies

if any

photographic art, for example

belongs to

external

error, here

shared

up,

also

must

experience

psychical products
space,

the

decrease, and

TV.

such."

involve

for

stimulus

produces

made
not

in

place

if the

But

been

does

exist,this
of

rays

impressions

have

must

light,no

of it have-

traces

or

beea

image- of it

cial process.

internal

in which

on

when

]uat as,

traces

perception alone, and

by Beneke,
itself

be
"

is

given

nothing

with

but

an

our
as

in which

In

up.

else than

in

elements

external

external

to

objectswhich

arguments brought

19

the

affect
Henle

ply,
perception as well, is sim-

if Kant's

of

images

association

of

is involved

question, and

objectsexist, is only

certaintyby

of Vision," in

the

the

to internal

which,

our

and

forward

this

the

continuation

fact of the

against

my

continuation
involves

of
validity

(See my

senses.

Pfeuffer's

the

the

System

beyond
no

Alb.

internal

figurative,but
the

change in

mathematical

Lange

tion,
percepin the

field of vision
the

laws

of Lo(/ic," 44, and

Zeilschriftfi'ir ralionelle
theory by

of the

of these

subsumption

objectof

in any

not

conception

perception space ia.

psychical products" among^^

in the

this,too,

false

sensuous

subjectivedirection,together with

psychical products exist,and

is shown

''Tneory
The

or

not

error

appropriate psychological conceptions, space

The

applied to
cited

"traces,"

exist at all, and

perceptions belong"

projectedspace,

there

longer

of

accounting only

excitation which

of

no

given

sensuous

literal sense.

the

the

"memory.'"

to space

If,now,

these

i. e., in the

of the

to

state

of

capable

seems

in

Kantian
be

formation

reference

through

"

sp

relation

view, a

our

products

"

Angelegtheit=the having

germ

reality the

preserved

specialprocess

visible,unless

in

which

are

of the

produced by
i

"

with

representation can
by

in

of stimuli

which

transference

resultant

rudiment,

whether

nature

of

of mechanics,
the

article

Medicin, III.,V.,

[lu hiw OescliicliU dea,

290

BENBKB.

Fourth
or

similar

or

tend

Fundamental

into

to enter

contluence

of

attractions

is

results
In

which

brute

its

definite

The

of

the

of the

This

ialismufi, Iserlohn, 1866,

relation

between

the

failed to convince
poses
still
the

line

13,

would

rendered

but

also

extension

the

soul

in general
The

only
senses

resting
is correct.

on

twofold

So

in agreement

extends,
pions and

that
and

physical

figure

of

the

do

not

rests

for

changes),

be

cannot

and

one

of

of

basis,

the

such
that

not

or

that
a

astronomer

and

admits,
that
is

that

neous.
erro-

motions

perceived by
of

theory
change

or

occurrence,
far

in three

it

as

dimen-

perception

essential

the

ism,
parallel-

is,so

sensuous

being by

where,'

extension

very

to such

this

occurrence

spatial

furnish

"

are

real

same

a.s

our

assertion

no

The

not

know

Beneke

as

organ,

has
i)ro-

occasions

Beneke's

which

change

of the

would
we

the

by

is

.here

modified.

reality, and

do

things,

bodily

To

he

appear

observed

no

ducts
pro-

"

which

which

only time,

"

hood,
child-

mnids

our

intelligible to

traces

be

must

in

it would

as

not

his

psychical

of what

world

only changes

admitted

sphere
its

"'

with

being

perception

upon

the

of

dimensions

idea

the

of

also

as

question

two
an

rendered

nature

connected

are

motions

to the

belong

which

that

than

phenomena

more

interpretation

the

world

mentary
ele-

its

the

psychology.

negative

If, then,

real

representing

or

it

But

reality.

science

and

internal

the

be

the

of

objects

have

the

not

the

to

of such

perceiving

and

"

of

brute.

external

more

of

soul

long period

Beneke's

never

as

most

are

and
man,

traces

between

laws.)

(these

of

could

example,

"traces"

analogy

that

motion

and

physiological

the

the

space

he

; it would

belongs

processes

in

soul

the

energy

[p. 487 seQf.]

my

other

connection

for

which,

of
in

dimensions

three

"nowhere,"

the

doctrine

with

in

that

after

manner

is the

also

in

of

accepts

of

mathematical

of the

theorem

answer

idea

the

consist

although

[harmonious]

are

psychical

conceived

are

must

no

dimensions

affirmation, therefore,

which

or

in three

the

forces

over

of

[of forces],

other,

character

during

all these

the

from

higher

of

man

images

mathematico-mechanical

all its parts

and

The

sense

soul

the

phenomena,

"

by

of

nevertheless
and

because

to exist

in the

in space

parallel with

run

in

things.

us

who

"

being having

world

intelligibleto

education

leading

bodies

error,

undisturbed

purely planimetrical laws,

are

own

order

this

"

be

not

497-499]

in

of

the

is

pp.

am

his

developed

our

whether

supposing

"

relations

stereometrical

being,

that

mathematical

.perceptions

of

images

me

p. 499.

on

perceive

and

the

the

blending

or

defines

differs

definite

systems

spirituafsuperiority

faculties

or

previously excited.
Mater

language

of the

in

and

in

each

soul

of

case

of

systems

with

human

individual

elementary

union

fundamental

is founded

which

more

different

of

and

causes

powers

the

Further,

hands

also

are

being."

one

result

Beneke

combination
The

other

the

judgments,

only

is added.

processes

in

and

each

in

seen

permanent

of certain

also

are

the

process

fundamental

but

But

etc.

consciousness,

similarity,attract

comparisons

balancing

being, consisting

soul in

Examples

products

like

spiritualcharacter,

separation

possession of

tendencies,

human

their

of

and

themselves,

faculties.

other.

formation

these

constitute

or

one,

by

of

nature

in

each

supplementary,

immaterial

only

intimately
the

the

measure

of

the

together of

coming

when

not

feelings

products of the

with

union

ideas, in

similar

perfectly

"a

of

of the

\'iew

closer

Like

to the

products, according

witty combination

them

ProeeM.

the

and

contribution

to

psychological knowledge.
*

Beneke
of

sense

in the

only

in

to be

various

an

reduced

as

to

balancing''

bond
in

affection

process

also

but

"

along

of connection
consciousness.

one

as

excitation
the

and

within,

directions.

from

the

by

or

It may
with
had
The

one

been

without, formation

of

Caesar

each

transference

this

to

psychical

between
processes

of traces, and

This

it must

enter

other
of

which

then
tmder
or

may

internal

it may

conception

may

not
may

these

simply

pass

through

may

therefore

affection

from

their
be

within

previous

designated
in

had

similar

ns

twofold

take

the

one

previously

or

direction.

be
the

affection

an

in

moment

either

even

immediate

formation

man,
states-

fall,with

of

products,

imion

not
most

should

at the

be

the

combinations,

will

process

the

affection

to

into

Roman,

ducts,
pro-

thing

same

"attraction'-

this

products (ideas, etc.) which

or

as

mathematical

psychical

into various

the

conception
But

of
the

enters
or

literal

requiring

because

Cicero

stimuli,

"

in the

consciousness

in
of

general,

other.
of

state.

excited,

of

or

Beneke's

reasons,

in

places,

or

psychical products

newly

established

fundamental

the
of

either
now

different

by

location

contradiction

at

elements

of

the

"attraction"

an

relative

statesman,

these

For

are

of

speak

involve

notion

the

affection
which

to

in the

fixed

Roman,

process

pass

the

be

to

of similar

an

others

would

Frocess,

philosopher, etc.).

of excitation

different

fourth

here

alteration

real

(as, for example,

of the

from

intend

not

every

places,

consider

that

consciousness
no

this

of

different

we

does

Further,

case

orator,

proceeding
state

term.

combinations

according

"

and

cannot

this

of

of

two

existed

in

though
sion
succes-

faeultiqe,

291

BEXEKE.

into

enter

in

theorem,

explanationof

of

values

moral
We

the

estimate,

which

influence

This

in the

things

of

form

estimated

are

notion

that

or

the form

of

desires,which

actions.

In

all three

their effects
moral
our

own
we

connection
with

with

the

The

ideas

determined
stimuli

with

the

enhancing
the

By

by

these

universal

for

all

every

to

of

higher

etc.*

worth
in man's

correctness

of

pleasurable

the
of the

agent.

legitimated by

the

soul.

Moral

nature

of

human

the

It is to

feotion

these

the

welfare

first
and

soul.

relations

modifications,
to

necessity is

two

the

of

relations
welfare

moral

of

moral

origin
a

in

worth
ethical

in

etc.

in
is

which

in

essay

objective

idea

this

the

and

In

being

and

judgment
subjective

of

right

the

tendencies

to

the

radical

originallyand

I have

I reduce

the

of

and

correct
in-

which

essence

most

(p. 191) cited.

an

it,and

profound
us

and

in determining

distinguished from

most

of

desires

influence

particular,

of benevolence

must
of the

consequent

controlling

to

norm,

accumulations

accompanies

the

above

"Herbart.

the

by

as

of

standard

excessive

an

manifested

the
of

above, the

mentioned

others,

that,
"Ideas"

of

by this

innermost, fundamental

are

mined
deter-

merely personal

own

numerous

values

founded

ties
facul-

as

determined

accumulations

and

moral

the

relations

the

too

order,

necessity

necessity

Moral

the

however"

or

values

of

to the

But

gains

of

morally corrupted

his

to

is
of

accordance

value

Guided

not

life

nature

[subjectively]desired

numerous

inferior

judgment
its

of

the

the

is the

men.

reference

an

too

much

others.

to

baser, the improvement

and

inferior

of moral

comparison

fact

of

sensations

order, whereby

relate

consciousness,

evil,as

community
with

prejudiced by

A correct

the

prejudiced by

be

and

ideas, in

combinations

of

so

all

of

in connection

result, in

the

realize

to

psychical

our

of

psychical life.

group

which

which

and

morally required.

may

their

in

his

of the

judge

we

attempt

we

the

those

object

for

of

of

of

basis

felt,whether

from

an

[objectively]felt

feeling of duty

the

by

be

may

of the

human

essential

is also

or

upon

are

acts

education

those

to

estimated

estimation

will

result

moral
one

is

nature,

also,

objects upon

of

is valid

extended

an

is

nature,

inferior

an

of

unpleasurable

of the

dislikes of

welfare

the

are

upon

with

of

degree of
senses

when

this

and

nobler

and

manner,

in us,

series

nation,
imagi-

values

things by direct comparison

higher order, by

which

given,

the

of

gradation of good

certain

the

the

Whatever

or

grounded

conduct

the

pleasure,

is

of

prefer the pleasures of

advancement,

In

norm

man

is of

causes,

higher.

men

the

influence

the

that

the

man

depends

of

in

things ; (3) as reproduced

experiences

effect

psychical
threefold

of

psychical development,
as

notions

(transient

our

in

elementary faculties,
partly by

our

partly by

of

much

so

of

nature

laws

criterion,a practical

mind

depressing

or

in

estimation

the

to

consciousness

of

like

this

doing

in connection

stimuli.

example,

others'

in

relating to ourselves, or

excitations,and

or

In

reproduced

fundamental

and

for

these

partly by

the

values

effects,as

of the

extent

object

which

of

duct
con-

should

we

depressing

or

of such

character
the

effects

unselfish

or

reference

figure to ourselves,namely,

we

the

is that

(2) as reproduced

basis

psychical development.

selfish

are

the

measure

men

with

things

practical views

our

to the

up
would

subjectively correct

enhancing
itselffor our

the

on

form

we

consciousness

Whether

it is

develops this

sensation

highest

it is exerted

determine

of other

conditions

when

we

forms

our

upon

time

of

Beneke,

to

in

exert

manifest

may

the

(1) directly,at

manner:

the

of all

values

they

according

objectively and

an

naturally

or

the

Beneke,

says

influence

development.

in

best

Beneke

forms

highest psychical processes,

observed
in this compend.

be

by

various

the

of morals,

is shown

to be

permanent)

or

which

in which

manner

of the

and

must

requirement

that

do

case

which

limits

fundamental

The

consideration

complicated

most

the

beyond

us

each

the

the

from

passing

of the

consideration

minute

more

relation

reduced
the

idea
between

"

of

with
i"ersonal
per-

292

directlyin feelings.
moral

moral

founded

judgments,

derivative

very

and

comparison

of

is

law

is

result

particular

to moral

compatible
from

outcome

an

moral

and
high degree of abstraction,

very

things,and

moral

universal

form

same

predicates applicable

as

of

worth

development,
the

on

moral

of

idea

of moral

state

categorical imperative implies

Kant's
a

The

judgments.

feelings of the
conceptions

of these

relative

the

GERMANY.

IN

of moral

employment

estimate

highly advanced

PHILOSOPHY

OF

coalescence

the

we

moral

result

only with

of

from

acts, whereby

tendencies

special

the

From

conceptions, and

to the

STATE

PEESENT

THE

more

values.

is therefore

nature.*

During the last decennia in Germany, the Hegelian,among

of adherents.
all the philosophical
schools,has counted the largestnumber
More
Next to it has stood the Ilerbartian school.
recentlythe
modification of systems through a return
to Aristotle or Kant, and the
study of philosophyupon its historic side, have occupied the larger
134.

"

influence

Schleiermacher's

of minds.

number

has

greater in

been

theologytlian in philosophy; stillthe direction of recent philosophical

with
inquiryhas been materiallyinfluenced by impulses originating
The teachingsof Schopenhauer and Beneke, as also of Krause,
him.
Baader, Giinther,and others, have

been

disciples.Materialism

individual

schott,and

resting in part

the

upon

has

Trendelenburg,Fechner, Lotze, von

others,have
A

list of

volume

77, 183,
of

philosophy,

F.

Allihn
of

summary

and

works

and

the

Bruno

Kunst

und

Gesch.

other

18th

Der

Dreieinigkeit,and
merit

The

and

to the

to

of
But

interests
; for

things

other

oar

Beneke's
the
of

it founds

Die
see

moral
the

of his
action
science

pgychical development,

Bruno

contain

numbers

Fichte.

I. H.

by

semi-annual
also

are

by

E.

further

Ulrici, and

list of all

edited

of

notices.

Wirth,

carefully

by

Herbart,
The

gives,

in

phical
philoso-

newly-published

fully and

very

Bratuscheck."

of the

first number

biography

pp.

condition

present

liealismus,

to his

first

in the

noted

TV.].

Bauer's

Politik

of the

critique

Also

Vol.

attempt

aiid

Posaune

1841

of John

Gospel
his

"History

18.

Jahrh.,

in
des

Oericht$

jungsten

des

IlegeCs

Lehre

Religion

von

{Kriiik
of the

der

evang.

Civilization,"

4 vols., 1843), and

in

ethics
so

Staat.,Bern, 1841.

und

Tiibingen,

Gnosis,
I., "

73

seq.

to furnish

directed
of

Aufkl/irung

und

Klrche

mit

thoroughly
as

; Die

philosophical standpoint.

christliche

above.

earnest

merit

his

Kritik

der

works,

ed.

the

the

Berlin, 1861,

et,

the

In

supplement

TJieologie,Berlip,1836-38

Cultur,

der

Baur.

as

productions

[now

Michel

Germany.

in

Roscnkranz

by

L.

philosophischen

synoptic Gospels (1841-42).

indicates

Streit

Christian

of

out

edited

C.

thinkers,

Ilartmann, and

given

by

(ironical, anonymous), Leipsic,

Cf.

of the

{Gesch.

earlier

Leipsic, 1842.

Bauer

of

published, reviewing

neueren

regular

ed.

subsequent

Krilik^

Bergmann

Antichristen

und

century

Bauer.

is great.

J.

by

des

school

philosophical

latest

edited

been

furnishes,

philosophical works,

1840), and

works,

Ferdinand

"

of

belong

Atheisten

(anonymous).

the

Edgar

School

Herbartian

Zeitschrift far speculative

den

historical

AUihn

is

school

BerlUi,

in and

Sinne

im

i?i

have

philosophy,

philosoi^hische

The

essays.

Johamien,

des

etc., of

notices

Hegelian

Hegelian

the

xmd

Monatnhefte,

Bauer.

Hegel

wider

of

Philosopkie

Hegelian

of articles

Philosoj?hie

exacte

literature

the

Philosophische

of the

series

the

Gesellfichaft

Ziller,Leipsic, 1800,

T.

to its critical

To

journal

same

especially

and

Zeitschrift fur
addition

the

from

philos.

der

doctrines

the

While

others.

and

Kirchmann, von
peculiarpaths.

and

new

issued

have

Organ

Zeitschrift fllr

Th.

H.

In

in

which

works

Gedanke,

256 seq.

Herbartian

the

Der

of

advanced

Czolbe

in

of

basis

by

representativesin Vogt, Mole-

Sensualism

and

Buchner,

modified

reproduced and

reasoned

An

; Die

as

provides

distinctions
an

uncorrupted

of

of the

as

measured

certain

psychical

tions,
func-

philosophical knowledge

is yet greater

worth,
and

to

der

von

characteriza-

excellent

an

contribution

by philosophical knowledge,
upon

Lehre

christliche

and

genetic explanation

complete
ethics,

1835

affectionate

guide

and

by
for

still
the
moral

more

relations
action.

perishable
imof

294:

theology.
U.

F.

G.

Joh.

Eduard

4th

Logik
Idee

die

ed., 1865,

2d

Eiitwickelungsformeii
on

the

Ernst

"

of

Eduard

; De

Gesch.

ihrer

zu

the

Verminchte
ilber

Aufsiitze,

akademiscfies

have

been

je

at HiiUe.

1857-59

Le-

ah-eady

Verachiedenes

Professor

Tubingen,

tioned
men-

nach

Zeii

TV.]

"

; Rovsseau''

als

found

is

achk

1854,

Francfort-on-the-M.,
die

Entstehung

d.

u.

lecturer

and

writer

Trendelenbtirg

and

Kuno

TV.]

"

Die

edit.,iblH.,

Mannheim,

Sequent

an

between

below,

Leipsic, 1842 ;

Philosoph,

1868 ; Ueber

Fischer

controversy

revised

PMlosophie,

neueren

Schiller

be

Naturlehre

Noetik

Logik,

der
the

science

of

from

radically
which

he

science

of

Lehrbuch

richtigen
Das

des

Grwid-

als

Staats,

Wissenschaftslehre,

und

Friedrich

objectivereason,

Hegelianism,
combines

collective

the
the

I.,

Hegel

the

tion
distincof

name

of

theory

Vol.

follows

especially through

under

objectivereason,

philos, Prop'adeutik,

der

logic,
the

and

thought,

Beurtheilung
in

Histor.

Beiousst-

des

; Die

Enticickeliing, Berlin, 1824-35;

weltgesch,

in Raumer's

Jahre,

Kritik

IlegeVsche

Heft 1, Berlin, 1843.

Wiirdigung,

und

Abth,

erste

i)ietate,Berl., 1836

christianam

rellgionem

erga

^rbrecht

JUnfzig

letzteii

der

Friedr.

(1781-1861).

Goschel

Wissen

absolutes

Gedankens,

Verhaltniss

im

Apologie

zur

1832;

J. Hanusch.

L.

Prague,

1850

1833-34

Taschenbuch,

Vorlesungeyi

Vermischte

SchrifLen-

Leop.

fur

Friedr.

Herm.

macher)

Wilh.

Vorwort

einem

; Das

Wesen

der

Bechts-

und

Konige,

Leipsic, 1852.

Heinr.
deutschen

Vorstudien

christl,
he

Alexander

Kapp.

Christian

Kapp.

on

Die

verhdltnisse
title :

Kapp.
und

1826

; F.

W.

histor,

2ind

[Hotho,

seq.

contains

sharp

ed.,

and

Malerschtile
of

of Sclileier-

Logik, Halle,

der

; Geschichte

Leipsic, 1848-52

1835;

Tubingen,
HuberVs

Wissenschaft,

zur

Halle, 1"37-38

is

Hegel's Esthetics,

Geschichte

der
Die

der

Berlin, 1855-

Eyck,

van

The

by Henning.

criticism

Philosophie

der

Dichtungen,

editor

revised

Berlin, 1824.

to 1847

Verhdltnisse

innern

ITimst, Stuttgard
; Die

1843, 2d

1827

from

hist.-philos. Entioicklung,

in

; Bei-

Berlin, 1838.

Enttcicklung,

edited

was

im

Licht

im
1837

Professor

at

Tr.]

"

die

und

in

Seele

1845.

; Grundlinien

; Schiller's

Berlin, 1842-43

Gymnasialpadagogik

Christus

Weltgeschichte, Erlangen,
Beobachter,

fi'irLeben

aesthetics.

Religioji

Halle, 1825

Halle, 1827

Malerei,

Ethik

dea
Grabs

dem

Osterfrage, Berlin,

{Logik), Lemberg,

Lemberg,

(the preface by Hegel

Malerei, Stuttgard, 1869,

lectures

der

Nichtrvissen

MoJiismus

Weisse) auf

Gottmensch.en,

dem

Hegehanisra,

Reformation

der

sett

niederldndischen

der

Bei-lin,where

1822

Faust,

Tragodie,

antiken

Hotho.

Gust.
und

58 ; Gesch.

Ernst

Gothe's

Staatsprincipien

und

H.

Der

menschlichen

der

sieben/dltige

Denklehre

Die

(1794-1861).

Hinrichs

fiber

Vorlesungen

of

organ

Hegel, Heidelberg,

vo7i

; Die

Menschen

Principien

influential

Unsterblichkeit

die

Metaphysik,

der

6, 1866).

Oct.
an

far

dem

C.

(particularlyagainst

wissenschaftUchen

der

Kritik,

loiss.

Gott,

Ilandbuclis

eines

(died

Henning

von

JahrbYicher

Bewelsen

fiber

Aphorismen

1829;
'Be.vMrx,

Glaubensbekenntniss,

PMlosophie

den

von

Handbuch

Faust, Leips., 1824

Goethe''s
christl,

Ostergabe, Berlin, 1835

PMlosophie

Grundzuge

Von

eine

Philosophie,

t-peculativen

Ueber

zum

gegenwartigen

der

Stifters, Naumburg,
speculativen

trllga zur

tte

Briefe. Leips.,

1870.

or

"the

verce]}hilosophice

(1798-1839).

Gans

Karl

gen

deviates

logic, or

Seele,Halle,

utid

1834.

BerUn,

1826

of

Forderung

disciphnes,

der

[Kuno

Kant,will

zur

(1786-1853).

Gabler

1827

Beitrdge

PMlosophie,

die

; Geschichte

account
of

logic proper,"

inductive

and

; Sehr
and

III,, Heidelberg,

Heidelberg,

"

ed., 1864;

philosophy

Hegelian,

Leipsic, 1856

and

but

of

history

; Leib

experience."
Andreas

Georg

nebst

"

of

equivocally disparate

seins, Erlangen,

ihres

Beitrdge

treatment

real, formal,

1849

Mathematlk,

der

Leipsic

particularly Rosoncranz,

doctrine

der

his

In

three

namely,

und

PMlosophie

Friedrich.

Ferd.

more

of

applied U

he

Paychologtsche

Vorleaungen-

gesch. Hauptformen,

Richard's

Some

4th

Spiele, Berl., 1871

(two lectures), ib., 1871.

interpretation

Staatswissenschaft,

Leips., 1864.

uber

the

Halle, 1841,

4th

Wissenschaftslehre,Heidelberg, 1852, 2d

Oder

Verulam,

philosophy.
to

Frantz.

Constantin
lage aller

and

ideas

Berlin, 18(51,seq.

Pforzheim,

voji

1862

right-wing"
ihren

in

Metaphysik

Witzes

des

reference

with

"

Gedanke,

Schonen,

; Baco

of modern

history

Fischer,

Der

ed.,

the

on

Er7iste

leading

Charnkterentwicklung

Shakespeare'' s

whose

Hegel,

Witise7i,Berlin, 1837

und

Stoat, Halle, 1851

deii

works

Sittenlehre

in

und

des

seq.

ilber

II., p. 1].
is

philos.

Olauben

Leipsic, 1840,
Metaphysik,

mid

Erdmann's

Vol.

of articles

Fischer.

Kuno

Logik

der

[Erdmann
Die

series

ilber

Vorlesungen

Leipsic, 1858.

Feuerlein.
in

1865 ; Diotima,

1858

Gricndrlsn

ibid.,1871.

Emil

seq.,

of

friend

trusted

Ptiynlk, Leipnic, 1861.

/Staatswissenschcifteji,Breslau, 1828.

der

Psychologie,

der

[Vol. I., p. 11,

above

Studien.

and

GERMANY.

IN

speculative7i

Systems

Vorlesungen

PhiloHophlsche

Studium,

Oi%

eitier

; Qrundriss

ed., 1808;

und

intimate

the

des

Erdmann.

1849

liPips.,1845;

und

Versuch
Handbuch

Eiselen.

2d ed.,
lS-"i7,

ben

PHILOSOPHY

OF

Tr:]

"

Dellingshausen.

J.

1851,

STATE

mystical ideas,he finally became

of

and

PRESENT

THE

Jos.

im

1841.

Gryfidrisse, Amsberg,

Weltgeschichte,
Schelling,

ein

Heidelberg,
Beitrag

zur

1823
Gesch.

Das
des

Allgemetne

concrete

Tages

einem

von

der

vieljdhi'i-

Leipsic, 1843.
Philosophische
des

Menschenlebens

Vergleichende

vergleichende

Oder
in

ihrem

allgemei?ie Erdkunde

innern
in

allgemetne

Erdkunde

Zusammenhang,

als wiss.

Brunswick,

wissenschaftliclier Darstellung,

Darstellung
1845

: 2d

ibid.,1868.

der

edition,

Erdwith

Friedrich

Rechte,

d'sr eworbenen
Ad,

VI.,

1870 ; Prlncip

Marheineke

Philipp

ed.

Vorlesungeii,

Berlin, 1810

philosop.Vsche

Trilogie

Future

(Vol. I., " 46,

arrives

The

the

; Vol.

in

the

Das

Cul

Monatsliefte^

Philos.

Greek

II.

Part

Philosophy,

II.

in

Berlin, 1848;

and

Menschheit

170,

Right,

II., " 120,

Vol.

etc.) of the

is the

Humanity

man.

Hegel,

4, 1801,

mental
Funda-

school.

"epiphany

of

eternal

Weltphi.

ummderlegte

der

is

of

one

the

Absolute,

The

The

mentioned

already

been

Berlin,

at

Hegelian
the

avS

bis

Right, Berlin, 1866).

have

of the

wing

left

137).

p.

December

17i5

voji

Esquisse

"

Introduction,

I. :

Legal

philosophy,

to modern

[Michelet, born

of

History

General

and

and

(Vol.

The

Berlin, 1852)

ibid., 1843

Entwickhmgsgange

ihrem

iii

eine

Second

Dialogue:

Things,

Unterrichtsfrage,

Zur

1844;

Third
of

End

ewige

Geistes,

Niiremberg,

the

Bechtsphilosophie

Oder

Public

of

die

oder

des

1847;

Darmstadt,

Doctrine

the

or

Unsterblichkeit,

Absolute,

the

Psychologie,

xmd

Personlichkeit

ewigen

Christianity,
Soul,

Theolog.

Imputati07i^

aufclie juridische
; Anthropologic

menschliche

of

the

ed., Berlin, 1827

2d

Biicksicht

und

Personality

to Aristotle
p.

Berlin, 1842 ; 2X"

Griechen,

der

Dogmatik,

mit

der

New

of

der

relative

first

of

History

Berlin, 1828

Epip/ianie

Naturrecht

(with Strauss,

consciousness

at

System

seq.

Morale

Gottes

Di-i

ae

and

140, 142, " 50.

pp.

members

the

of

eminent

Dialog

Geschichte

Right

; Das

paragraphs.

relevant

Begriffen

christl.

Moralprincip,

Jnbelschr/fi, Leips., 1870.

eine

losoph,

1841

Immortality

Michelet,

of

works

Alex

Berlin, 1S58

Stoats,

des

I. :

den

der

Personlichkeit

die

Christ

Die

the

in

und

(Part

Berlin, 1847

philosoph.

Francfort-on-the-Oder

Private

Rights,
historical
above

ilber

Rechts

nach

Grundlehren

Vatke,

der

Zeiien, Berlin, 1859-60

neueaten

B'osen

des

christliche

das

the

1856

Logique, Paris,

die

System

(Fo-st

ZurVerfoHSimgfifi-age,
de

and

und

and

Humanity

of

Gym-

1845.

Berlin,
Die

Historical

The

Dialog-ue:

als
and

Bechtsphilosopfiie, Leipsic, 1861.

above,

see

des

Philosophie

der

Princip

Geistes, Berlin,

des

Natur

Berlin, J871.

W.

Vorlesungeii

Personlichkeit

Fr.

Hegel

G.

Ephesos,

von

der

und

Berlin, 1853.

Matthies

Moral

der

Fichte,

and
die

Dunkeln

Vorlesungen,

(1780-1846).

Michelet.

Ludwig

Carl

Geschfchte

die

Das

St.

by

W.

Friedrich, Ernst,

Leipsic, 1838-41.

Staatsverbande,

Wtlle7isfreiheitim

1834
1835.

Volkerrechts.

Gesch.

der

Marcker.

Aug.

Friedr.

des

Philosophy),

of Mediajval

Rechts

; Ueber

Philos.

Lehrbnch

Marbach.

0.

G.

Hist,

Zukunft

und

Lautier.

Andreas

Gust.

den

posiiive7i

Bacon,

Eckhart,

on

Hamm,

Zeit, Minden,

cousin.

HeraTcleitos"
des

Krieg, Berlin, 1868

der

und

295

GERMANY.

186:3-09,

Philosophie

Versohnung

ei/ie

Works

Lasson.

turideal

Die

Lassalle.

IN

Ganzes,

eiii
unstrer

is their

Kapp

^Esthetik, Tubingen,

Ki)stlin.

Karl

Ferdinand

als

Gymnasialbilduug

der

Christian

brothers.

are

PHILOSOPHY

OF

Schulunterricht

xoias.

H'Ohe

die

Oder

Kapp

ander

Der

Kapp.

nasialdirector

STATE

PRESENT

THE

personality of

most

M.,

says

[abso-

the

lute] spu-it."" Tr.]

Der

Muller.

Ferd.
Oeschichte

which

spticialemphasis

.e

'Dialektik,
Berlin, 1828;

Buch

Wese^i,

ihrem

in

als

Mittelalters

Jah7'lmc.her

the

in which

schiften,
is

popular

the

scientific

in

Heinrich
und

fur

Ed.

Ph.

K,

Prantl

Aitfga^e
Die

der

1853-55.
in

Peipers.
Die

(whose

alte

die

oder

Zeit, Berlin,

unserer

notwithstanding

and

perception

or

as

ideas.

Hegelian

GrundUnien

Philosophie

mit

Mythoiogie

7ind

Logik

der
Biicksicht

bes.

und

auf

Society
applied

of

die

System

System

der

Munich,

geachichtlichen Vorstufe7i

der

written

Bearbeitung

has

Von

Psyche

Eden

the

stadt,
at DarmWisseiv-

empirischen

der

de*

of

works, mostly
edited

he

Noack's

published

also

till 1848

; Die

Mystik

(History
other

numerous

1846

From

ehristliche

Freidenker

der

its transactions.

gesamxnten

Volkerrechts,

des

Vol.

stand-point
1852
neuern

Gesch.

V.

of the

7iach

1846;
'Franct.-on-the-'M..,

New

EncyclopsEdia

KaturioisseTischaften

Dialektik, Diisseldorf,

philosophical

Philosophie,

N,

Die

ligion
Re-

; Das

(1858 seq.)
Golgotha,

Leipsic, 1868.

Oppenheim,

positive

published

psychology.

also

Planck.

speculative

U7id

of Berlin

Geschichte

has

Noack

1852;

die

1845-46

Leipsic, 1850

gesch. Entwicklung,

Liibeck,
;

Offenbarung

Darmstadt,

Vollendung,

seijier

1853

Reiff and

part

spec7ilative Philosophie

journal

in

Organismus,

Gesellschaft, Stuttgard, 1850 (forms

Cologne, 1810-41;

1815;

absoluten

Konigsberg,

follows

he

Philosophical

Bernhard
der

christl.

der

und

wiss.

German),

and

which

biblis'-h-geschichtliche
Forscku7igen,

Rechts

Gesch.

Me7ischheit

der

ihrem

in

Beformationsalter,

sett dem

religious philosophy,

of

Ltchte

Hegel,

[direct intuition

"immediacy"
impress

im
of

Seelejiiolssenschaft. Berlin, 1827

der

relig. Geist

der

Free-thinkers, English, French,

on

of
the

gesch. Eiitwickelung

Beligionsphilosophie

und

criticism

Mundt's

Beligionsbegriff Hegels, Dannstadt,

ihrer

oder

Beligion,

der

Theologie

Kunstwerks

des

of

principle

allgem.

der

Alterthum,

im

1"30.

Der

Noack,

Ludwig

oears

tmd
all

essentially

the

on

book

Grtmdriss

Theologie, Halle,

christl.

Schonheit

der

LeJtrMich

Mussmann.

Georg

Joh.

places

his

Idee

politischen

der

Berlin, 1839,

Notwithstanding

he

thought],

to abstract

sed

Idee

die

1868.

edition, Leipsic,

1S45, new

Enticicklung

die

und

Philosophie,

der

JEsthetik,

Mimdt.

Theodor

Organismus

Standpunkte

vom

agrees
der

nach

of the

Philosophie

Sciences

and

des

Arts),

Pri7ictp,

mo7iody7ia7nischem

1845.

only partially

with

Logik, Leipsic, 1"55

Rechtsphilosophie,

Munich,

the
seq.

1858.

Hegelian).

[see above,

Die

gegenicdrtige

Vol.

I.,

p.

13] ;

296

gen

Jak.

Friedr,

Oder

die

Richter

Berlin, 1844;
Karl

Gott

Kritlk

of

Pierre

an

1847, 2d

Konigsberg,

g, 1850

Mei7ie

Volker,

der

Leipsic, 1866

IlegeVs

1868 ; Hegel

in the

Philos.,

and

of

man

in

not, however,
in

particular,

to

Constantin

labored

the

spirit of

certain

by Hegel.

treated

has

with

degree

servile

the

II., ,

Poesie

Hegels

in

Sendschreiben
ihre

den

ital.

which

the

what

1858;

der

Leben
A.

Berlin,

Vera,

der

berg,
Konigs-

at

"centre"

of

the

the

written

only partially

of

system

in

the

Hegelian

originality.

and

der

Werke,

Encyklopddle

the

termed

perfection

poet.

und

23, 1805, Professor

and

Werke,

s.

Wissenschajt

within

topics

u.

Wissensc?iaft,

Wirth, Konigsberg

IlegeVs

zu

independence

various

U.

J.

Philosophen

was

fillingout

with

but

the

der

; Diderot's

April

born

occupied

System

Berlin,

Erlduterungen

[Rosenkranz,

Gothe

eine

Hegel;

Berlin, 1844;

Leben,
;

an

1862

durch

1836 ;

(in Vol.

Geschichte, Entwicklung

ibid.,

disciplcship,

order

1848;

Epilegom^na,

ability for

Hegels

die

urn

Schelliiig und

ed., 1864

Iluym,

Ueber

im

Wlsseiischqften,

Speculation,

der

am

Pnesle

Philosnphie

Centrum

gegen

Erlauterung

Zweifel

Devtschen

der

KanVschen

der

1840 ; Das

und

CalderoiCn

; Der

Glaiibenslehre, Kimigsbcrg,

Konigsberg,

Leipsic, 1870

eminent

Verdienst

Leipsic, 1845, 2d

ciolture, has

comprehensive

very

He

Die

34, Beriin, 1870.

Vol.

Part

; Ueber

theolog.

der

Leipsic, 1839-48

and

Philosophies

wdLh

ihre

tmd

Das
schen

Geschichte

System,

Apologie

Natioiialphilosoph,

BibL,

Fichte.

deutschen

der

Schelling, Dantsic, 1843;

als

together

Naturpliilos.

Philos.

school.

Hegelian

1855;

1858-59

deutscher

als

1843;

Hegelschen

der

1832-33;

Glaubenslehre,

Pddagogik

EncyclopUdle

Leipsic,

Berlin

K(5nigsberg, 1853;

Konigsberg,

Idee, Konigsberg,

logischen

schen

Reform

Hdsslichen,

des

ed., 1863

Bdndchen,

Die

PhiloHuphiA
of

1833;

I., Breslau,

Geschichte

Schleiermacher"

der

Schubert),

and

KiJnigsberg,

ed., 1856;

Msthetik

; Kritik

Ros.

Strauss'

der

der

philosophy

the

Fabel, Halle, 1829

1830

1831 ;

Halle,

Poesle,

der

; Studien,

WillensbesUmmnn.

der
Punkte

Leipsic, 1828

and

FausCschen

der

Iserlohn,

ed., 1843, 3d

by

Syntem

Part

Bingett,

ibtis, Halle,

impostor

ISJS

Leroux,

Principien

der

Ideate

1840

Kiinigsbei-g,

Konigtbei

Gescfi.

2d

edited

Works,

Sendschreiben
Kritik

Allg.

r.

eiiiige
toward

diss.,Halle

philosophia

Verfttllndniss

Naturreligion,

KiJnigsberg. 1837.

Kant's

Komodte,

1852;

ed., 1845;

Dan

; Ucber

doctrine

letzten

den

von

Splnozce

trtbua

Geschichte, Konigsberg,

der

Psychologie,
XII.

1830 ; Die

1842

in his

approached

Lehre

zum

de

Stuttgnrd, 1841

Tiibingcn,

GERMAN

Breslau, 1854.

De

Beitrag

eln

Schrlften

der

Halle, laSl, 2d

Die

Rosenkranz.

Magus,

has

IN

PHILOSOPHY

PhllosopMe,

der

Hegelian,

an

OF

PhlloHophle,

der

WirkUchkeit,

der

Friedr.

Mittelalter, Halle,

Philos.

Anfang

(of Magdeburg).

Der

tcnnderthdtigen
Olauben,

Der

BeifF, originally

Friedr.

Joh.

ReifT.

STATE

Ormidwisfsemcltaft

Tiib., 184;i
*

PRESENT

THE

He

tem,
sys-

modifies,

philosophy

are

Tr.]

"

System

RiJssler.

Staatslehre, Leipsic, 1857

der

(a work

in the

IlegeUan

spirit).
Heinr.

Kunst,

Theod.

Berlin,

Arnold

ROtscher.

18^"7-47
Die

Ruge.

HalMsche

Jahrb.fur

Wins,

Kunst

tend

deutschen

from

[Ruge's significance
of which

editing

of

division

reform.
"

the

In

has

Ruge
Jul.

latter

latter

lived

Schaller.

Leipsic, 1837
von

the

; Der

Philos-

and

Halle.

"p}lie Ludioig

1850

und

Leib, Weimar,

Die

Max

Die.

London,

founded

in

1855,

unserer

die

und

der

Vorlesungen

ihren

etc.

the

Elemente

of,

of

Strauss,

the

in his

prominent

was

Party

the

in the

of

an

standpoint
and

agitators

Mazzini,

L.

critic,and

government

the

of

the

became

The

forms

distinction

without

Right

biblical

among

Ledru-Rollin,

with

(1868).

them,

upon

Reviews.

hostility to, existing

or

the

and

Enstehm,

1869

Reviews,

employed

was

Centre,

collaborators

in connection

Solidarity

the

left.

extreme
his

he

history of

ihr

Berlin,

above-named

the

Zeit, Vols.

of the

Religion,

Schleiermacher),

which

Left,

the

as

i'lber die

with

Merer

fr
review

and

Ruge

History of

and

for

others,

the

Since

Peoples."

7V.]

Oeachichte

FeuerbacWs,

Die

for

in

years

1840, Ruge

and

to

connected

the

on

criticism

sharp

at

1841-46

the

among

were

he

chiefly

During

1848

Christus

(inopposition

is

position

Reden

(ed. by

Aus

filr

neuenten

zur

of Buckle's

speculative

The

JahrbVicher

Anecdota

Autobiography:

Jahrbi'icher.

Ruge's

of

Philosophie

histor.

Phretiologie

Schasler.

of

one

England."

Strauss, Leipsic, 1838

Leipsic

was

Deutsche

and

184() ; Translation

der

JSsthetik, Halle, 1837.

der

Echtermeyer.

contains

work

parties designated
a

and

Ruge's

latter

Verehrern

Hegelian,

Committee
in

of

movements

year

Democratic

European

1850

into
assumed

Ruge

political

the

ed., 1871.

principal part.

school

by Ruge

Philos.

zur

edit, Leips., 1864.

1843; Deutscli-franz'osische Jahrbilcher

philosophy

of

history

Vorschiile

4 vols., Mannheim,

of the

ihren

uivter

naturalistic

extreme
in

In

volume

suppression

the

the

result, and

finally assumed
religion.

took

Hegelian

the

Fenrrbnch,

in the

he

the

accomplished

until
Gebildeten

die

an

1860, 4th

fourth

The

Thales

edited

were

Werke,

Gesamnielte

; Neu^-

Abhandlungen

2d

(3 vols., Leipsic, 1838-40)

Kunst

und

Heidelberg,

and

Halle, 1832

^sthetik,

Wiss.

Zeitalter, Berlin, 1827:

sein

Dar-itellU7ig,Berlin, 1841,

Publicistik, Zurich,

und

I.-IV., Berlin, 1862-67.

Vergehen,

und

dramat.

(2 vols., Leips., 1841-42),

Civilization, Leips.

und

der

Platonische

Philosophie

philosophy

KiinM

deutsch^

Nos., Paris, 1844;

Marx),

Aristophanes

; Die

Zeit,

iiber

Grundzilgen

der

p/Uloa.

der
voii

Schleiermacher,
Brief

und
Vol.

und

Kritik

Naturphilosophie

Leipsic, 1847;

Psychologie,

Apologie

zur

Philosophie,

nach

I. : Das

iiber

ErUiuterung

Baco

von

Halle,

1844

Alexatider

ihrem

loiss. u.

Seelenleben

Sprachwissetischaft

des

des

Verulam

bis

des

auf

; Darstellung

prakt.

Werihe,

Menschen,
von

Lebens

Jesu

unsere

Zeit^

Kritik

mid

Humboldt's

von

Wilhelm

IlegeTsr.hen Systems,

Ch^undidee

dogmatischen

Kosmos,

Leipsic, 1851

Weimar,
Humboldt's,

der

Leipsic,
; Seef

1860.

Berlin, 1847;

Oedanken

PopuWre

of .Slsthetics

History

Schmidt.

Alexis

besonders

fruheren

HegeVschen^

der

Christliche

Ueber

A.

F. K.

of his life

has

HegeVsche

und

Schonheit

der

first

just been
Lehre

volume,

und

Kujutt,

der

containing

completed.

Seiten

von

Schasler

"Critical

is the

PhilosopMe

der

Philosophies

editor

und

Theolo-

und

Apologie

einer

Meta-

der

Berlin, 1843.
Berlin, 1837

PhilosopMe,

J. H.

by

ed.

Jahrbucher

Theod.

Borneo

Versuch

Solger''8Philosophic^

Friedrich

tchriftenzur

istikenund

(cf.

achrift, XII.,

p. 70

revised

edition,

translations

Parker).

Modern

Review,

Left,

the

p.

Hegelian

of the

Jesus,
on

Gustav

und

Wilh.

relation

the

Hegelian

God.

The

Stuttgard,
the

see

sketch

griechischen

der

1841.

Shakespeare'' 9

von

Zur

menschl.

to

asserted

contrary.

I. :

Philos.

Freihdt

in

(on

of the
der

in

der

varying

the

questions

the

1865.

Other

man
Clergy-

may

be

and

Theod.

230-243

pp.

North
into

(Am.

Edinb.

Painphlets,
the

read

Doctrine

Christian

American

parties

termed

II.,

Vol.

Philosophic,

interpretation,

of man's

popular

Jesus

Hegelians

Gesch.

Of

Strauss

on

in

des
life of

within
the

immortality,
with

the

nature

orthodox

Tr.]

Bcgriff

Grundrisse,

ihrem

Verhdltniss

Einleitung

sdmmtl.

der

Schriften

II. :

Gesch.

der

ibid., 1854; Einleitung

Gehbriges,

Univ.

Philosophic

in die

HegeVs

aus

Kiel, 18o3, Vol.

Erziehung,

der
u.

im

oder

Unterricht,

U7id

Gymnasialpddagogik

der

Theory

Mythic

the

on

in

incompatibilityof Hegelianism

the
"

Erzichimg

Zum

Life of

articles

Zeit-

Christus

L^lthera)l

(Am. edit.).Political

philos. Wisscnschaft

zur

of

124, 1866,

Vol.

Volk,

critically examined

1855.

at London

Strauss'

further,

division

the

Jesus

Revieio

Rev.,

see

found

philosophy

the

of

Der

lectures

in

Kumpfe

im

deutsche

Sybel's HUt.

seq.);

York,

Strcit-

Charakter-

und

dan

Von

Reminiscences

Grundriss

was

in

Lifa of

published

was

the

the

Erdmann,

fur

435

p.

New

at

Westminster

and

originated
.

iiber

Vol.

geordnet.

Strauss'

218-231

pp.

Jesu

Schleiermacher's

are

edit.) ;

Left

Ansichten

III.:

101-135,

division

Pcidagogik

der

Encyclopddie
Die

this

affirmed

Right

of

England,

Strauss

; cf

of the

HegeVs

in

(Am.

Strauss

Centre
of

of

the

1854, Vol.

Vatke.

Aristoteles,

1835-36, 4th ed., 1840;

Jesus, Zeller,

upon

(?) volume,

27, 1841,

basis

The

Erhebung

und

Oesch.

Composition

Lebe?i

Leips., 1865,

Abh.,

edition), Edinbxtrgh

edit.),and
With

and

systematisch

Erziehung.ibld.,
Philosophic

130-148-

of

Life

Life of Jesus)

138-152

Vol.

Rev.,

(Am.

Right,

Pddagogik, Berlin, 1845

gesamwelt

works,

gesch. Entwickiung

ihrer
; Das

Religion (1845). Reviews

(American

Quart.

49-54

subjects ;

Thaulow.

des

Umriss,

im

PersonlichkcU, Tubingen,

der

1861 ; Die

in

translation

22, 1839, pp.

Vol.

82, 1864, pp.

personality

the

and
these

AitfsteU

der

Jriedliche Blatter, Altona, 1839;

1840-41

one

(New

Christian

71-90

For.

Zwei

(a critique

Strauss, published

the

on

Vol.

657).

3 (2d ed.,
" S;:^7,

school,

of

Review,

pp.

pp.

the

Metaphysik

life and

bearbeitet, Tubingen,

u.

[A
in

1846, and

translation"

writings

91, 1860, pp.

Vol.

severally

eds., Leips., 1870.

London,

Science,

Idee

der

Renan's

on

Vortr.

Zeller's

2d

Rev.,

88, 1848,

Vol.

in

and

at

Soliloquies

Westm.

edition

and

47, 1847,

Vol.

edit.),and

Kritik

deren

1857.

(69).

Glaubenslehre

Geschichte, Berlin, 1865

der

Quarterly

Foreign

christl.

vols,

the

from

und

Hannover,

einer

History." TV.].

I.,Bonn,

kritisch

Jesu,

; Die

popular

"authorized

an

and
(18.38),

in the

in

; Die

Schwegler's

his

ed., 1870

dargestellt, Tubingen,

reprinted

seq.,

1st

Jepus) ; Voltaire,
published

this

Jesus

der

und

Leben

Leipsic, 1839

on

of

Schrift. ibia., l"i7-38;

dieser

Wissenschaf'

Leipsic, 1864

Glaubens

Das

Vertheidigung
Kritiken,

mit

Philosophic

der

of

Entwicklung

^sthetik,

der

Gegenwart

1861.

Strauss.

modernen

der

1844-48

account

an

1859 ; 2d

Geschichte

zur

verbunden

Tubingen,

translation

speculativeyi

der

Theismus,

Analysis, Halle, 1853.

hohern

l84("-48 ; Gc.schichte

Stirling's

to

Philos.

eine

ati

substantiellen

des

Mathematik,

der

der

p. 11 ; for

I
,

einer

Studien

Julie, Bonn,

und

David

Vol.

Kostlin, Tubingen,

Carl

Syntem

Gegenwart,

der

[see above.

Strater.

Natur

Tubingen,

Stirling, prefixed

by

Forderungen

Philosophic
die

und

Commentar,

und

Gr. "W. Snellman.

die

The

Trendelenburg,

und

Mensch,

und

eiJier

Zweck

den

Schwegler.

mUosophie,

of

"

Day

Philos.

als

parts.

achen
Schilling''

wesentlichsten

Natur

Versuch

iiber

1848, 7th edition, 1870

views

Religion

die

Gott,

Schwarz.

HegeVs

Text, Uebersetzung

Rev.,

in

297

GERMANY.

TrJ]

"

SchelUng

gegen

; JEsthetik

SchelUng''scJ"en

neuen

der

TJlm, 1846

Herm.

iungen

mid

Present

Berlin).

der

Schwarz.

Heinr.

Vollziehung,

was

in

IN

1841.

BcrUn,

mit

to the

down

Kritik

und

Schmidt.

hold

Rein

Plato

PHILOSOPHY

published

Beleuchtung

Darstellung

gie, nebst

physlk,

from

being

(art journal published

Dioskuren

of the

is

work

OF

Berlin, 1870

Werken,

HegeVs

aus

last-named

[The

Berl., 1871.

STATE

PEESENT

THE

in

Kiel, 1862.
SUnde

zur

und

zur

gbttlichen Gnade,

zur

Philosophic

Berlin,

'

1841.
Friedr.

1837

Metaphysik

des

Btuttgard, 1858
Georg
Logik

; Ueber

Werder.

ed., 1855-68

Zeller.

das

Glinge,

Schbnen,

II. : Die

Kunst,

Verhnltniss

das

Halle, 1850-51

Logik

als

I., 1869

und

Form

und

iiber

ia39

in
s

zu

der

translations,see

and

Wiss.

Philosophic

above, VoL

Schd7icn^

des

Schbnen,

Leipsic, 1846-57

I. :

Register.,

Leipsic, 1847-49

Dogmatik.

und
und

des

Zurich, 1858.

Kunst,

Dialektik

HegeVs
Die

Wissensclvaft

Oder

Reutlingen

Pantheisrmis

Beitrag

ein

^sthetik

K'unste,

Ergiinzung

Tubingen,

[forEnglish

Schlciermacher^

Vorlesungen

Studien,

seq.

Die

Inhalt

iiber

Komische,

und

1844

III.

von

Commentar

Platonischc

; 3d ed., Part

Erhabene

Tubingen,

Vorlesmigen

Metaphysik,

Eduard

Ueber

Kritische

Weissenborn.

und

Karl

Vischer.

Theod.

Stuttgard,

Theismus,
der
der

Logik,

Marburg,
1st

1859.

part, Berlin,

3841.

Griechen, Tub., 1844-52, 2d

I., p. 23."

rr.] ;

Vortr

age

und

298

gesch. Inhalts

Abh.

18G2;

Heidelberg,
1808;

Ueber

die

(see above,
Die

I'lve

Uber

Tod

1848,

caricature

Hegeliun,

an

his
he

egoism,
with

Fichte

absolute.
the

sensible

educated

is not
occupy

philosophy,*

indicated

as

Cf.

philosophy.

no

doctrine

ismus,

of

man

German

in his

I,

which

isolation,

Communistic

is

developed

Reich

Natur,

der

in

Die

of his

society.

final

of

phical
philosotheology

is the

Only

i)erceived by

the

ever,
; this, how-

writings

of

hostility to

one

philosoi)hy

it

that

was

" 341, 3.

and

Real-

reinen

des

waa

Tr.^

"

Geschichte, ibid., 1851

der

Erscheinungsformen,

reinen

only

united.

man

I. : St/stem

Part

Philos-

zur

In
work

Feuerbach's

became

II., " 338, 3, 5,

WeltaUer,

der

is

Der

man.

and

are

for

good

attitude

of

man,

what

is

in

originally

doctrine

of Fichte

Ego

in

man

Vol.

oder

of

ironical

historical

philosophy

sense-endowed
the

own

peculiarity

An

egoism,

early

an

in

True

His

of

at

si"c-cified

breather

Feuerbaeh,

developed

highest

Wiederherstellung

als

he

is the

only by

Idealismus,

des

interest

In

is tnie.

Philosophie,

der
Planck

Chr.

K.

by

II. : Das

but

the

that

Gesch.

der

what

literature.

declaration

repeated

the

man.

and

enjoyment,

to be

1843-44.

[Ludwig

individual

Spinoza

decides

sensuoiis

of

state

the

of

Wei^en

finite,subjective spirit
of

Subsequently

substance

reason,

Grwidriss

Wissenschafi

the

Wenen

; Dm

delivered

need

Feuerbaeh,

especially fellowship

more

Feuerbaeh,

says

the

immortality

pantheist.

claimed

in

1845.

Gedanken

; Dan

lectures

not

Nuremberg,

morals

meaning

a.s

the

do

Friedrich

Leipsic,

1839

Zurich, 1843

Religion,

der

and

of

negation

denied

Pleasure,
in

by
in

1850 ; Part

einer

the

Erdmann,

realism

Tubingen,

GruTidlinieji

place

he

man,

philosopher.

attained

to be

prominent

DIb-

Feuerbaeh.
:

are

Leips.,

Feuerbaeh

by

Zurich

(pseudonyme),

and

The

concrete

it is not

; hence

of the

"

atheist,

an

the

was

himself

announced

himself

Schleiermacher.

is real

6, June,

No.

by Ludwig

Feuerbaeh

Zukunft,

der

Weseti

das
works

Zukunft,

der

sjiirit"of Hegel

absolute

Immortality

individual,

the

senses

"

and

and

styled

and
In

Stirner

the

Death

on

Spinoza

extolled

criticism

Max

by

Uber

L.

Christenthum,

und

; other

of

vols., Leipsic, IS'KMift.

10

Religion

religious

Eigenthum,

interpreted

Thoughts

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21,

Vol.

yViaaenachaJten {KcaAava.

of naturalism

works

Philosophie

der

Vo7'lesungen

Werke,
der

The

1830 ; P/ulosophie

8 of his works

in vol.

GrundziXge

Feuerbach's
sein

2cnd

Erketmtntastfieorie,

der

Jahrb.,

ubngen

doctrine

others.

and

; GrundHiitze

etc.

SiimnUliclie

written
of

Einzige

Preuss.

den

zu

into

transformed

and

ed., 1849 ;

2d

printed

and

Feuerbaeh,
has

Stellung

GERMANY.

Avfgabe

und
the

Jiec/U, in

zum

Feuerbaeh

Friedr.

Leipsic. 1841,

Jieligwn, Leips., 1845,

m

Jiedeutung

Ueber

ihre

und

Unsterblichkeii, Nuremberg,

der

L.

modified

by

ChrMenthamn,

Ludwig,

12) :

p,

Verhdltniss

I'hiloaophie

was

followed

des

here.

I.,

ihrem

in

philosophy

of

18G8.

was

und

Heidelberg

Vol.

in

der

doetrine

Hegelian

stei) he

Polttik

Au/gabe

course), Heidelberg,

In this

state

PEESEirr

THE

Leipsic,

1864.

On

the

partly

in

of

basis

agreement

seek

critical

by

theology, and

the

on

also

modification

other

with

reconcile

to

empirical

pupils

of

also

Baader

Immanuel

Perty,

; and

Charakteristik

U7id

Ziel

heutiger

Leipsic, 1856,

schen,

2d

1836 ; Die

expressed
only

to

himself

expand

in the

Kantian

for the
other

of

an

But

philosophy,
of

progress

article

Untersjichimg

On

he

the

1846-47;

that

Beitrag
of his

to their
elements

Schelling

on

"

55,

the

of

gious
reli-

and

thropology
an-

other

Leipsic, 1859

should

pp.

Soul, Spirit,and

und

he

regarded

elements

be

Hegel

237-259,

taken

up

Consciousness

Vol.

from

of

culmination

pp.
the

47-86.

duly
are

he

ed.,

Lehre

des

Men-

Fichte

say.s,

in

has

sought
all

particular

of

it is necessary

that
also

die

totality of

and
and

and

that

and

Weisse,

Weisse,

seq.

and

fully

56,

2d

Philosophie

einer

philosophies,

anew,

be

Weltstellung

wiezic

Hegel's system,

should
and

the

as

Psychologie,

to those

p. 262

of earlier
in

1833 ; Onto-

Heidelberg,

die

ReligionspMlosophie,

influence

due

and

Seelenfortdauer

3, Halle, 1867,

which

Beitragt

Leipsic, 1850-53; Anthroijologie,

Ethik,

der

Wendepunkt

Gegensatz,

Foridaiier, Elberfeld, 1834,

philosophical opinions

own

essential

Ueber

Selbsterkennen,

als

zur

50, No.

Vol.

philosophy,

series. Vol.

new

Fichte

these
than

with

and

Theologie, Stuttgard, 1826

der

individuelle7i

System

; Die

undein

attained

not

and

also

field

; Hoffman

Schelling

philos. Confession,

eine

that

the

are

physical philosophy

ed., 1841

2d

1829,

der

1864

believes

field

Erkennen
rmd

Leipsic,

relation

Hegelian

philosophers

v.

the

himself

have

Philosophie,

by I. H.

1832 ; Das

Zeitschr.f'dr Philos.,

philosophy

V)ost-Kantian

ZeilHchrift fur

Menschen,

specially cultivated

the

of

hand

one

tendency

has

Vorschule

zur

Sulzbach,

Seelenfiage,

; Zur
des

the

on

similar

doctrine),

others.

Personiichkeit

der

Of

disciplesof

Slitze

1797).

Theologie, Heidelbg.,

perfect

and

previous systems.
the

Gelsie

in

Heidelberg,

Idee

Leips., 1867.

Geschlchte,

der

ed., 1860

anthropolog

eine

in

Huber,

Philosophie,

Philosophie,

beicussteji

dem

who

labored

and

(born

neueren

Leipsic, 1855; SjMculaiive

voti

Becker

Fichte

der

logie, Heidelberg.

has

(see above, p. 238), and

Hermann

zur

who

Herbart's

to

speculation

science.

[son of J. G. FichteJ

Fichte

H.

attention

particular

pays

philosophical investigations of Secretan,

philosophy

teachings, I.

Schelling'slater

Weisse, Chalybiius (who

others

partial adoption, of the Hegelian stand-point, and

criticism,but

with

the

principlesof

considered.

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contained

.two parts

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of

the

Psychophysical

in which,

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lonce

inseparable

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lati07i und

also

Berlin, 1833

Berlin,

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father, in 1829, his

his

in 1834

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position in

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at

contributions

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Gotl

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Berlin, 1835;

four

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Hegelian system

supply

to

particular

gave

for

of

summer

joint editor,he
his

Wianeii, Specie-

xind

edit., 1866

2d

Grund-

Logik, ibid.,

anti-materialistic

; in

for the
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Das

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ed., Leipsic, 1868.

contributions

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psychology

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various

history

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Vol. II., "

Philosophie^

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idealism,Ulrici, as
with

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33, 1806, was

two

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in
the

the

time,

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nal
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and

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die

u?id

; Geschichte

March

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Logik, Leipaic, 1852

Halle, 1839, 2d ed., 1847, 3d

Ulrici,born

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works

Kunst,

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Historiographies

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pros

from

results

the

inconceivabilityof

and

when

depends,

belief rests

regards,
that

remarks

that

from

third

scientific

while

the

or

work

experimental

and

be

scientific belief

on,

second

wishes, that the

mere

affirmations,

(itmay

and

cxacte

fact that

philosophy

of

only

but

personal conviction

three

the

of

Part

Body

preceded

were

and

to the

his earlier

and

in which

in which

Science),

attention

also

religion,but

Farther

and

Exact

'

title

and
othear,

than

first-named

works,

basis,

the

readers

Nature)

the

religion, philosophy,

of

of these

while

of

Wissen, Speculationund

und

and

view, Ulrici directs

in

demonstrated.

and

Olauben

and

special

of these

GERMANY.

supplements

one

circle

(God

realistic

on

Speculation

necessity

of

idealism

the

the

bears

Both

IN

larger

Psychology,'

of nature.

subjects of knowledge,

called

which

Man),

reconciliation

end

not

be

of

which

much

die Natur

und

of Human

work

the

Oott

and

philosophy

philosophy

of

attention

are

(God

outlines

With

the

PTIILOSOPHY

OF

by TJlrici,of

works

two

Mensch

contains

and

in

attracted

These

STATE

PRESENT

to

only
the

us, there-

the

of

production,
tha
of

of the

and

the

world

the

is in space,

world

In

love, etc.
existence

of

disposing

the

man's

life with

is evoked

in
'

treatise

that

of

history begin
' '

With

him

body,

basis

aim

the

conceptions of

which

then

passes

as
latter,

which

is
,

entitled

Gott

and

it.

is the

the

goodness,

from

to

to

the

reference

to

of

point

of

community

of creation.

end

the

forms

this

the

and

last

The
G-od

; while

only by

that

the

of the

between

clearness

the

it is disposed

creating

organic,

The

freedom,

which

and

is

the

as

from
of

both
he

uniting

opponent

an

right

of

which

discussed,

philosophy

and

and

Liebig

others

continues

to its

the
for

the

strate
demon-

from

existence

of

it has
human

The

of

explanation
of

forces,

of

He
which

special force,
cells

numerous

is then

stnic-

the

passed through
body

first

result,that

of resistance.

existence

is

words,

centre

force
the

forms

until

development.

To

own

at the

is

exists

with

cell,and

to exist

his

connection

whatever

rightly assume
the

'

First, or Physiological Part,

this

force,identical

the

philosophy

anti-religiousphysics,

materialism.

fact,'this, in

in

in

of

his

simply independent

not

in the

arrives

As

it seeks

soul, in contradistinction

to the

nature,

discusses

Mensch.

der

enemy

justifiesthe theory, that

a

und

of

an

point of view

another

facts that

force, and

and

in itself and

demonstrated,and

it in

any

order

system

nervous

developed, that

only not,

like

the

this fluid extends

the

to

the

series

more

cially
espe-

gladly adopt

soul
must

form
be

the

from

"

hypotheses

the

conceived

as

but

an

which

subject

latter,consisting of atoms,
out

thoughtful physiologists who,

most

physiological processes

the

soul

the

explain psychical phenomena,

to the
and

of

confession

possible,would

way

posited in addition

The

of

distinction

dependence

him,

from

primitive organism,

end

accepted, that, in
be

By

second

of brutes
it differs from
the bodies
are
considered,the points in which
discussed,
of all purely materialistic
of
sensation,
insufficiency
explanations
consciousness,

etc.
were

the

act

perceive

conception of organized existence,

the

an

the

to

becaufie

forward

end

stages naturally belonging

the

is

this

matter

to the

constructs

work

comes

belongs,

together by

on

is

he

To

Ulrici avers,

which

ture
of

held

are

act, by

other.

non-eternity

creative, and

of

once

upon

contradistinction

science

physical

the

to the

creative

each

ethics,religiousphilosophy,

firmly established

of his book.

modern

his

end

supremacy

the

divine

The

attainable, is

especiallyin the attitude

spirit,in

to

but also the

of

wbrds,

same

psychology

the

on

the

is

on

begins with

causality,absolute

to

us

are

work.'

Ulrici

exhibits
in his

so

Creation

from

its definiteness

this

of God

there, where

of

is absolute

enable

as

\re

physical investigation up
scientific,
from
lower
explaining the transitions

feeling at

operation

precisely the

of nature

God,

ends

their

result,does

same

the

by

man

the

so

world

eternity

hypothesis of

far

so

so

depends

unconditioned, spontaneous

posited (posed), by

inorganic

they

of that

religion,or

of

the

the
and

God,

life of

the

of

foundat'on

from

ones,

of

agency

the

categories

God

for

data

spiritual,without

and

psychical

higher

to

of

results

the

to hand

the

ethical

etc. ; God

God,
the

manner,

furnish

time

present

space

like

of

possible,by the latter,real.

conception

is in

is

idea

part of the

of

contents

logicaland

to the

gives

relations,and

(absolute)'distinguishing
activity

of the
or

world

303

GERMANY.

of creation.

conception

conflict with

not

various

to the

own,

moment

the

it is made

world, it is argued, does

application of

IN

productive activity,which

product

manifold

of creation

former

the

by

in the

second

in that

act

our

w^orld,the

of the

disi^inguishesthe

first moment

than

other

it is involved

as

is continued

God

conditional

own

our

agencies

originalthought
Grod, and

which

of

notion

co-operation

i^o

PHILOSOPHY

OF

conceptions after the analogy of human

foro,to interpretthese
"lightfrom

STATE

PRESENT

THE

of

sort

of

such

fluid,similar

the

whole

atomic

must

phenomena.
the

section,in which
to

the

being absolutely continuous,

8:iven centre, permeating

is

materialism"

something

'accompany

new

of

unknown

view

ether,

and

structure

that
of

304

THE

STATE

PEESENT

OF

the

body, operatinginstmctivelyand

not

identical

with

this

force) as

in

co-operationwith

the

most

forms
the

of the

consideration

the

the

recent
fourth

and

feeling

indistinct

discussed, and

are

Physiological Part.
by the
'

the

separately perceived,

of

sum

those

earlier
then

is affirmed

what

the

latter

from

the

plant,

of

each
which

what

Ulrici

bodies, and

its

the

soul

weaker,

the

is not

the

soul

conscious

relation

feelings,ideas, and

to its

(pure)

propensities of
between

there
relates

to

and

the

of the

of

man

soul

feelings is

of

substance

very

and

nature,
each

other.

that
In

therefore

being
of

sense

in

dependence

between

other

found

the

act

what

idea

of

arrive

in

at

to

other

God

the

other, yet

third

section

of

distinguished
of

the

of

sense

in

also

here

the

Oott

man

religious ideas.
so

These

delicate

and

and
are

and

and

the

religious
cal,
identi-

his

ethical

contradict

Natu7\

man.

the

and

false

basis

proper

in

views
of that

the

which

ing
By distinguishsubstance

various, while
weak

This
treats

not

never

can

by God,

dignity of

existence

ethical

will,

will.

section,which

die

und

sities
propen-

of the
the

by

nature

but

standing
under-

education

that, although

confuted,

in

of the

first

of

complete,

said

social

finallythe

last

to

section, which

naturally

metaphysical

and

the

self- education

taken

elTort

propensity,

or

fourth

is determined

relation

feeling,and
the

and

frmction

or

of

particularly in

are

will

the

nationality,

each

itself and

fifth and

in the

been

feeling is only one, though, indeed, at

other

to

ment
bodily environ-

the

latter

In

and

God's

are

and

and

upon
In

souls, the

on

mutual

do

Tr.]^

"

self -discrimination.

body

race,

tendencies,and

feeling, of God's
our

is not.
of

of its

direction

freedom

ground being

had

with

to its

to

highest potency

religious feeling, implanted

is combined

what

in the

dependence.

the

distinguishes

consciousness;

degree

factor.

including, especially,the

as

and

which

which

The

they supplement

perception,

perceptions, we

also

of representative consciousness

The

God.

with

centre

distinguishing activity [it

its relation

personality depends

concerning the origin of the

idea

in

the

together, just

harmony

but

constantly

propensities,among

fully discussed,

they yet belong

and

Second,

in XJlrici's

conscious

act

feelings,ideas, and

to

the

of life,sex,

ages

personality is discussed

in its relation
here

considered

considered,

are

existence

In

only distinguishes itself

etc.

in its relation
becomes

predominant

in its relations

ethical

of human

essence
or

essence

soul

feelings,the

culture

and
since

not

rise to this

not

body

of mutual

relation

conscious

the

soul.

waking, sleeping, dreams, somnambulism,

and

highest function

the

exists

the

of

the

exhibit

in action

and

which

is

and

of physiological

results

starting-point and

organic growth,

soul

representative faculty.

the

this freedom

realize

its

propensities,propensities

sensuous

soul

it exercises

various

soul

rather

but

this Part, the

the

the

functions,

soul

the

phenomena

concludes, finally,that, while

and

the

that
for

how

aberration, temperament,

mental

which

conscious

question,

too,

are

This

actions,

denied

be

of the

discusses

the

to prove

of the

is

perhaps sensation, does

the

answers

from

go

to constitute

by

own

is necessary

next

treats

then

He

the

has

act

an

it cannot

therefore

which

which

thus
[sich-in-sich-unterscheidet]^
producing

other

distinguishes between
and

as

from

itself and

is not

others,
section

investigated.
origin,as
This
distinguishing activity of the soul.
activity is

in the

precisely defined

more

from

found

is here

works,

and

of this

end

sensations

considerations,taken

origin of consciousness

the

of psychology, and

light of

the

Gemeingef'dJiV JV.J,mood, propensity,

investigation,are again brought together, which

operation of specificallypsychical forces,or the existence
Psychological Part, consciousness

the

state

psychical life. A

Helmholz,

At

iS||

it

the

"

all those

then

of

functions, in

Fechner,

Weber, Volkmann,
of the

section

[as determined

of existence

to be

instinct

organs

of their

and

(ifindeed

it rises to

peculiar phenomena

of sensation

investigations of
last

the vital force

morphological agent, and, where

of distinguishing consciousness, producing

careful

GERMANY.

IN

PHELOSOPHy

that

it

of

our

the

gious
reli-

can

at

cultivated

be

early age

very

STATE

PRESENT

THE

strengthened

and

differences,in this respect, which

Die

to

(1852), what

of

by

Seydel,

Rud.

was

Verhdltniss

Darstellung

at

; System

der

and

biblical

to

Philosophie

Oder

attitude

with

discourse

academical

: In

Leips., 1847.

hat?

welchem

1869

; Chr.

Seydel, Leips.,

1872

(71). Seydel gives

[Weisse was

55, 1869.

at the

HegeFs

to

reference

to him

including

in his

the

so-called

other

of the

to that

efforts

influenced

of

Testament

and

the
of

nearly

laSS;

above,

der

Wlss.

der

Philosophie

hach, Vogt
Jakob

Leop.

X.

120.

Schmid.

of

letzter

in the

these

more

as

necessary

logic to

which

might

and

and

his

In

Cf.

fications,
qualiwith
for

logical

termed

His

freedom.
of

the

to this- end
of

exegesis

as

superior

rank

not

thought

to

be

labors

true

he
the

was

New

doctrines^ a meaning

Grundrisa

Erdmann,

career

assumed

question

the

cardinal

for the

seeking,

by

by Rud..

Hegel

of moral

His

Boehme.

ed.

numerous

method,
censured

God

been

edited

philosophical
less

or

elevated

church.

of all views.

men

orientireti

zu

Hand,

Weisse

were

personal

Jacob

as

Weisse's

following

Zeitschr. fur Philos-.y,

their

Hegel's

doctrine

a
a

of

the

der

Gesch.

der

from

Kant

Hegel,

to

1846 ; System

der

translated

the

from

Ethik,

speculativeii

[The

Kiel,.1801..

Fundanientalphilosophie,

of

German

torical
His-

Ghalybaus,

"Universal

1852

; Abh.

Encyclopeedia

systematischen

zur

Philosophie, Berlin,

Physics" (Vol. L, Leipsic, 1856) contains

6f

by Harms.
Die

Freiheit

Metaphysik
und

Idee

Grundriss

des

Kritik

des

der

Stuttgard, 18:34;

IlegeVschen

philos.

Systems,

Wiss., Erlangen

Materialismus,

und

Fortschritt

Die

Idee

Erlangen,
and

ihrer

Momente,

Tiibingen,,

der

Gottheit, Tubingen,

1845

Grundzilge

Francfort-on-the-Main,
RiXcksicht

besonderer

mit

auf

die

des

1839';

Systems

1847-55

Schriften

von

Die

Feuer-

1853.

Gottes, Heidelberg, 1845-47

der

im

Willens

menschlichen

Grimdriss,

im

Encyclopddie

Die

sich

det

Dogmatik

TV.]

"

Molesrhott, Erlangen,

und

miraculous

Philosophie, Brunswick,

of Karsten's

Senstmlismus

Sengler.

keit,Giessen,
F.

oder

des

Kayit

an

with

having

national

mystics

Kiel, 1853

Christenthum,

zur

Charakteristik

Umcahrheit

the

in

Einleitung

in die

Erkenntnisslehre,

Heidelb., 1858.

Philosophie, Giessen, 1860 ; Das

Gesetz

der

Persl'mlich-

1862.

Schmid

(of Schwarzenburg).

btge,3 parts (Theory

20

of

346, 10."

"

ad

Prolegomena

Philipp Fischer.

Speculative

for

German

possible thinking

of

kurzen

ZukU7ift

die

appreciation

practical religious question,

the

basis

that

taught

notion

to the
of

proper
such

of Speculative Philosophy

first volume

Die

as

und

philosophical introduction
Karl

solution

the

to

having

so

; Ueber

relating

Philos.

contained

beginning

particular,

with

Wissen-

works

Unsterblichkeitslehre,

tmd

much

In

him

charged

fast

rationalistic,denying

was

mentioned

The

further

are

adhesion,

maintaining

space,

held

hand,

precedent

Philosophie

He

attitude.

writings,

einer

other

Ueber

the

For

who,

retaining

nebst

Leips., 1852;

of Weisse

essays

their

and

philos.

der

Gottheit, Dresden, 1833

der

Collegienhefte

men

lative
specu-

(on Schiller, Goethe, etc.) have

Tr.]
Chalybiius (1792-1862). Wissenschaftslehre, Leipsic,

Moritz

E. Harms.

other

II., "" a32, 2, and

Survey
been

the

satisfy as

Vol.

Heinr.

1868.

by

history

should

Leipsic,1850
has

the

on

Christianity

in part

and

philosophical disciplines,and

especially directed

were

Philos.,

of time

account

an

antagonistic

Idee

jetzt wieder

dem

and

greatest, announced

logical categories.

Weisse,

interpretation

which

logic

nach

while

character

Abscheiden,

data

Psychologic

of those

subsequently,

his

Zu8ta7id

particular

1862.

criticism

works

eminent

more

if not

independent,

an

list of all the

was

who

but

yEsthetik

Syst. der

of the

one

system,

other

pantheism.

Weisse's

Hegel's influence

when

time

H.

and

Neo-Platonists,

Schonen., Leips., 1830

des

; Die

in

Philosophie

Weisse'^s

became

clergyman,

ethics

the

Geschichte, Leips., 1835, and

aesthetic

of

of

HegeVs

von

characteristic

deutsche
or

of

he

and
is

chiefly to

given

name

discontinued.

soon

Wirth

imitation

Christologie Luthers,

die

philosophers,
die

related

Idee

der

von

Philosophie,
the

Philosophie

gegenicdrtigen

den

vols., Leips., 1855, 1860,

aesthetics

on

Seydel, Leips.,

Vol.

Ueber

fur

he

and

-Heil-

Tr.]

"

Zeifj^unkt

dem

Seydel, Leips.,,1867

Rud.

by

Ueber

which

appreciation

an

Ethics),

was

periodical.

have

religious philosophy;

to

Sinne

works

in

but

less free

Philosophie, Leips., 1832

der

contemporary

Minor

edited

and

collected

to

latter

or

Wissenschaft

als

and

theology

the

more

1835 ; Evangelische

Christenthums,

des

reference

1866).

in

ed., Leips., 1849;

2d

of

ideal-realism.

philosophy

Philosophie

Hamburg,

1851,

year

Leipsic

Concrete

Problemeder

TJlrici's Zeitschr.

and

dialectical,in

/Esthetik

Systems

des

ecclesiastical

Kirche,

evangelischen

his

in the

editor

Tr.]

"

\_Fhilu8ophischeStudien

philosophical writings

is

Leipsic

zur

Metaphysik,

der

founded
Fichte

II.:

the

Hence

Magnetismus,

Vol.

zusammenhangenden

damit

joint

His

latter

terms

published

Ansicht

he

children."

Ethics;

Studien, 1851.

(Aug. 10, 1801-Sept. 19, 1866

Publicums

das

meiner

Grund'iiige

He

Weisse

scha/ten, Leips., 1829

das

in the

Hegel.

Hermann

die

wid

remains,

Wurtemberg.

method

His

Schelling, and
Christian

Gottes

extensivelyto

still

he

in

at Winnenden,

theology.
of

Idee

Philosophische

checked.

thierischen

des

Pure

and

among

Oder

(Vol. I.

Ethik

philosophical journal, which

Bubsequently
residing

1845

previously contributed

had

Somnambulismus

des

obscured

even

305

GERMANY.

IN

or

observed

are

speculativen

apeculative

Tiibingen,

Stvittgard and

Wirth

der

System

bronii, 1841-42;

by Wii-th

Theorie

Wirth.

Ulrich

Joh.

Stuttgard, 1836;

PHILOSOPHY

OF

Entwurf

etnea

Systems

der

Cognition, Metaphysics, Ethics).Vienna,

Philos.

1863-68.

ceuf pneumatologischer

GrunOr-

006

THE

J. "W. H.inne.
heii

Die

Idee

Maxim.

Terty.

K.

Sederholm.

Der

ReWjionHphiloH.
Conrad
truth

of

Hermann.

Philos.

and

Die

thumfi, Berlin, 1856

als

Wiasenschaft

eine

Christology,

Jac.

condemned

enounced

of

framer
he

But

in

manner,

superior

to the

as

and

etc.
18;:S5),

The

Vorschule

Ounter''sche

und

Clemens,

year

1857.

and

review

be

may

(Die

and

and
and

and

at Bonn.

that

Michelis

(who

George,
The

as

owes

Richard

works

of

had

which

die

Bildung

Abriss

Berlin,

Wissenscliaften^

century,

Schriften

German

on

fon

Student-

the

to

of

in

was

opment,
devel-

which

he

consciousness

and

"spirit,"which

the
the

God

Schelling"-

however,

"natm-e,"

created

is distinct

by God,

in

; and

body

like

from

not

and

the

by

way

der

whose

Aug.

also

during

on

submitted"

Veith,

1852), F.

J. Clemens

Knoodt

number

an

was

Giinther's

1804).
of

the

the

szibjecif'')

se

fate

In

various

years,

{^'laudabiliter
been

Gunther

wrote

Paderborn,

had

previously

also

1775-18^1,Professor

[Georg Hermes,

Schleiermacher

in the

of

the

atMimster

and
to

to the

relative

the

Gesch.

Logik.

und

; Ueber

of

works

and

Acad., also

Ritter

Philos., Berlin, 1817

Metaphysik,

were

Of
be

those

named

Helfferich,

Vorlander,

others.

philosophy
of

him

on

1869), who

philosophy.
history
partly also by Hegel, may

history

die

; cf.

of

the

Logik, ibid., 1824, 2d

philosophischen

vols., Gottingeo, 1805^64

der

in

(died

Steffens), Romang,

other

considerable

1867

of theBerl.

Transact,

Ritter

Heinrich
of

exerted

July 34,

1790"

13,

(Feb.

speculative theologian,

der

P.

Philosophie,

caiTied

Sach

writers

and

die

work

E.

concerning

Schaffhausen,

to this

reply

"honorably

views

and

137). Among

1827 ; System

in

discussions

the

Philosophie,

J.

and

(Vienna,

Zeit

neuester

followers.

much

durch

in

part

of Hermes

Brandis

Ritter

Giinther

by

(Vienna. 1828, 2d

Ckristenthtims

positiven

edited

took

1868,
Leibnitztage,

the

p.

des

been

who

upon

am

and
II.

Philosophen

der

Logik, ibid.,1823;
Pantheismus,

Vol.

18th

principle

"soul"

that

was

erroneous.

as

his

of

and

very

Brandis

10, 11, 2(51,and

the

to

this

Gii liter'schen

der

by Schleiermacher

Rothe,

pp.

Philosophle

Giitersloh, 1867.

London,

Persdnlichkeitspantheisten

der

who

rationalism

students

influenced

were

world

Cologne, 1853,

published separately, Berlin, 1868)

especially

of

ChiHHen-

des
der

; Kleine

representative

teaches

he

1849-54),

{Kritlk

Rome

theological

Christian

eminent

Sides

admits

and

Theologie

Gimther's"

of
at

Vortrag

Trendelenburg,

Night

applied

as

Gunter''8che

{Die

proceedings

Tr.]

"

the

Beweis
Gench.

in the

1867

will),Munich,

Giinther

the

those

Among

Kirche,

philosophers

influence, belong

Braniss

Chr.

especially

more

Glaubenn,

des

being, separable from

(Vienna,

Oischinger

condemned

were

the

Lydia

theses

psychological
"

philosophical

Among

of

result

Beweis

; Die

"enlightenment"

distinguishes from

Transfiguration

unddlekath.

1853), and

the

as

J.

named

the

sensation

speculativen

zur
zur

philosophj.

Vienna,

afterwards

who

Seydel follows

(1785-1865) opposed

Hegel,

of

pantheism,

to

entitled

Philos.

decision

moderate

universal

new,

contraposition."

ScriipuUs,

of theGantherian

to this

"

[Cartesian] "dualism," which,

independent

an

"

by

Giinther
of

world, maintaining

Giinther.
Thomas

theological

1864 ; Zuf

359.

"d., 1840),

philosophy

pfiilos.

Moscow,

that

Berlin, 1853; Der

of

of

authorities,

he

opposition

but

emanation,

"organ

to discover

seeks

; Zum

movement

Socialism,

263 and

Anton

subject

as

it

above

and

Anton

Llchte

im

Weltather,

der

Leipsic, 1860

Boehme,

freedom

the

doctrine

Schelling

by

"soul"

conceptions.

elevates

of

Hermann

GiJttingen, 1863

I., pp.

quarter
a

; Jacob

religious

on

ecclesiastical

by the

the

the

on

Vol.

above,

"x"antheism"

includes

und

Natur

ibid., 1869.

system.

gesch. Christenthum,

Spinoza, Communism

Cf.

Catholic

the

Hegelian

ISCiJi; Die

Wiai^en, Leipsic, 1866.

das

statistics,and

Bohme,

1871.

Life), Leipsic,

und

(studies

criminal

on

From

Urstqff

Welt,{nsonder.

znr

Elberfeld, 18fi7.

Men^chengeiater,

; Der

Hegelian

vom

Antrittsvorlesung,

^ludien

Huber.

Ltimennais,

the

ChriatoHophte, Berlin, 1858

Einleituugsioiss.,
Joh.

Vsrhdltntss

Schelling.

Peip.

Albert

"

above

Wiasenschaft

Oder

sein

und

Heidelberg,

der

Geschichte, Leipsic, 1870.

der

GEEMANT.

Philos.), Leips., 1865.

far

lies next

Logik

1859

Leipsic,

IN"

Christenthums,

des

and

Leben

verborgeiie

Kosmon,

; Oelst

Leipsic

Vortrage,

das

ZelUchr.

which

Seydel.

Weisse

in

geistige
the

(from

philosophy

Rud.

H.

Blicla

Oott

oder

1861

Hannover,

Anthropologisclie

Anschaicu?i(/, ibid.,1801);

PHILOSOPHY

OF

Permnlichkeit

nbsoluten

der

PersOnlichkeit,

mennchlichen

zur

STATE

PRESENT

have

may
;

been
be

Vorlesungen

ed., 1829;

Giittingen, 1856

U7isterbUchkeit,

2d

named

Die
;

already
the
zur

(Vol. I

named

Ueber

following:
Mnleittmg

Halbkantianer

Encyclopadie

ed., Leipsic, 1866 ;

tmd
der

Ernest

die

in

der

philos,
Renan

Naturtoinsenscfiaften

die

Uber

1SB5

Gutha,

1869,

Philosophie

1834

work
"n

1841

; Der

Vorltinder.

Gh^undlinlen

1847

Die

Hclfferich.

Adolf

Wina^nschaft

auf Hegel
1846

; Lehrbuch

Sinne,

Berlin,

1868.

[Leopold George

for

time

considerable

developed

he

works

as

Knowledge,"
by showing

and

He^el

of

Trendelenburg,
partially, known

Urgt^s that
to

the

S"e

Legacy

Rothe

above,

the

See

evidence

Eberty

1852) and
of

of

writings

Ueber

in the

Philos.

Gut

the

Among

passed

Frauenstadt.
Gabler

to

the

it is

that

outward

Zur

Die

essential
has

York
the

In

evidence

ihrer

but

L.

the

rather
of

the

ethics

the*

to

foundedKuno

George.

Wittenberg,

Good

first work

Man's

mentioned

which

State,
into

order

Tr.]

Verfassung,

In

and

Ulrici

us

are

[Cf. S. Osgood.

seq.

view

conduct

1869."

of

least

at

superior
this

in

that

to

investigated

be

and

tems
sys-

work,

structure

the,

once

Trendelenburg,

und

in the

and

to

which

1, 2, Halle.

division

der

influence

friend, is

exerted

responds

its parts

Rothe

to

agrees

in his

shown

des

him

C.

H.

Versuche

1855).

a^tf

How

also

much
in

Gebiete

dem

Hegel

Naturrechts

des

owed
"

article

to

(see above).

Boeckh

Aug.
the

Next

others

and

on

"\m

as

others) gives

(among

by Schleiermacher.
Weisse,

Bratuscheck

by

works,

other

to

Boeckh

as

So.

it is
too,

(Leipsic,
the
a

stimulus

Platonist,'*

seq.

eminent.

this doctrine

of

upon

(3d ed., Leipsic, 1864),

Theologie

neuesten

Fichte,

I. H

Schopenhauer,

author), Berlin, 1"38

JEsthetische

at

must

the
last

resemblance

reality

thought,

Wells, 1868.

church,

the

" 132, and

cul

to the

Menschen
; Die

Julius

und

die

of

Gottes

modified

Gotten

nach

the

most

Hegelianism,

Letters

(together with

ihrer

GiJschel), ibid.,
Verhdltniss

; Frauenstadt's

be termed

may

he

Schopenhauer.

Pers'onlichkeit

Menschwerdung

Fragen, Dessau, 1^3

Frauenstadt

Originallyholding
doctrine

Nothwendigkeit (with reference

to Strauss, Schaller, and
Theologie loul Philosophie, ib.,1840 ; Ueber
wahre
das
"tadt, 1848

S. W.
.

lectures, Berlin,

(two

most

Freiheit

New

Geschichte

Schleiermacher,

of

A.

that
his

equally justified

opposition

certainty

Nos.

Kirche

above,

influenced

I., 1868, p. 257

the

of

55,

I., 1867

longer

no

works
Vol.

ed., Vol.

expression.

cited

and

followers

and

Rothe,

of

christlichen

reviseti

now

the

Philos.,

der

of

taught

Tr.]

work

with
Rose

und

from

over

an

his teacher

Monatsh.,

independent

who

mostly

agrees

Schleiermacher,

2d

R.

Erdmann."
of

"speciallySchleiermacher
Felix

idea

Schleiermacher,

on

in his

Dr.

of

life for

author

Schwartz,
address

death

the

Christian

Schleiermacher.
Carl

of

the

on

expressed

of the

need

with

Sermon

Anfdnge

Ethik, ibid., 1845-4S;

of which

notions

our

to

nature

Berlin.

he

oppo-site tendencies

are

element

or

In

mU

fUnf

metaphysical

In

the

the

factor

earlier

claimed

was

general

der

Die

city

rightful place

assume

necessities

the

and

it

its

explained.

1844:

native

his

principles

bears

third

his

in

1858.

Philosophie,

der

"reconcile

to
real

namely,
a

alone,

reference

aim

the

Orgc.msmus

development.

knowledge,

be

may

which

1841

2).

p.

Berlin,

Berlin,

In

final

or

George

for

seek

which

on

of

Both,

and

in

his

as

rational

point

Zeitschri/t fur
Die

(1799-1867).

Rothe

Theologische

for

thought

and

(with

in the

of

Theologie,

Wissenschaftslehre.

als

University

Greifswald.

at

Der

Willens,

Methode

Logik

the

and

(see above,

1846
des

U7id

Die

At

it

qualifications

being

Frage

logischen

The

evidence

Seele, Berlin,

1855

Metaphysik,

der

complement

agreement

%vith

Princip

ideal

as

stand-

their

made

and

Ueberweg),

F.

Richard

1837;

thought

Zur

and

be

der

rector),

11.

p.

natiirlichen

menschlicheii

Schule

development,

"the

well

as

fundamental

those

I.,
give

to

der

Hamburg,

Professor

now

announces

being,

and

which

must

of

between

Ulrici,

Fischer,

the

beginning

the

thought

year

admiration.

expresses

of

means

ascertainment

distin'-tion

of

nature

both, by

to

oramon

he

whom

he

metaphysical

and

logical
for

of

Bresl., 1825.

Christ.,

Marburg,

System

1811.

natural

that

empirical,

for

vindicating

The

science."

Science

as

thus

philosophy,

their

of

"Logic

of

Ueber

dialectical

of

received

Schleiermacher,"

also, the

is

He

system

Hegel

and

Wiirde

-phil. Gesellschaft

Vol.

seems

1823,
Meta-

der

office

Hist.

der

System

der

; Die

Berlin, 1854

in the

Privatdocent.

1856

Berlin, 1842;

Berlin,

in

enneadic

an

of Schleiermacher

Berlin, 18137

Psychologie,

der
born

was

1835

Grundwissenschaft,

als

Sage,

und

Berlin.

die

the

above,

Philos.

not.

Berne,

Geschichte^ Leipsic,

der

Schleiermacher,

vnd

De

Moralphilosophie.

neuern

Metaphysik

Mythus

George.

Leop.
Rurksicht

Abh.

the

Ueber

Peipera,

D.

by

System

into

(Breslau, 1868),

Wissenschaft

organischen
der

Philosophte

die

und

in

Orundes

speculation.

1848

induction

mentioned

been

Philosophen,

ed.

Berne, 1848.

einer

Geschichte

has

Determinismus,

und

Pantheisnms,

neueste

Erkenntnisslehre,

Braniss'

by

Berlin, 1824
Breslau,

B.'p

Naturavffassung,

Philosophy

zureichenden

des

Willensfreihett

Romang.

J. P.

Satz

author

the

on

of

History

of

Folgen,

geschichtlich beirachtet,

Gegenwart,

der

occasion

deutnchen

eines
seine

und

Glaubenslehre^

the

(on

dynamische

und

Der

Zelt

Base

das

Philosophies

zur

Schleiermachers

der

Braniss'

entitled

exerted

influence

Zurich,

atomistische

Jakel,

Jos.

by

Leben

im

I., 1857.

Vol.

Breslau,

Recht

Ueber

Btirlin,1854;

Ueber

Ueber

307

GERMANY.

IN

Randbemerkungen

den
;

Verhdliniss

ihrem

in

1830

mit

wissenschxjflliche Aufgabe

Die

ihr

und

Logik

PHILOSOPHY

1867

Leipsic,

Paradoxa^

ibid..

Logiky

der

phyftik, Breslau,

zu

Die

BranisR.

Julius
Orundriss

Geschichte

die

und

; Philosopfiische

Gotha,

OF

STATE

PRESENT

THE

der
on

ia39

Moglichkeit,
;

Stxuilen

Vernunft

zur

Schopenhauer's

letter

from

Wirklichkeit
und

Kritiken

Qffenbarung,
Philosophy,

Dr.
und
zur

Darmas

also

308

THE

by E. 0. Lindner,

works

conversion

Poetry,

Asher,

Schopenhauer's

to

Religion, Morals,

intel.,phyn.,
Die

Tauschinski'rt

its

in

Bahnsen,

from

Beitrilge

Leips., 1867),

Evolntioyiismus
furnish

Schopenhauer

and

1870),

Lauenburg,

and

(Stolp
Bartmann'nchen

occupied

who

Herbart,
found

subsequently quite

works

of

H.

General

Allihn.

T.

Die

Leips., 1852;

nebst

Umkehr

it is the

from

der

Geseh.,

is

Abh.

dem

aus

kritinche

The

Grenzgebiet

(2 vols..
terologie
Charak-

zur

Math,

Hegel.

d.

doctrines

der

Jul.

by

Fragen

Besprechung

(Berl., 1871).

in

removed

set forth

pddagogisclier

i7i

Hip])olyt
principally

far

doctrine

on

Jilicke

based

not

his

Natural

on

Vorunterauc/iung

eine

Principien

schen

Since

Influence

periodicals.

1868)

(Vienna,

metaphyisische

phie.

In

entitled

Vol.

of

Kant

Philos.,

und

Braniss
iiber
various

Pddagog.

Revue

1, of

Beneke

to

point.

The

the

Verhdltniss

later

and

principal authors
list

by Allihn, which
of the

numbers

Beligion

which

the

Zeitschrift

of

the

in the

themes,

Zeitschr

article

an

die

allgeiiieinen

Leipsic, 1861.

fur

is

pi;blished,
from

compared

are

0;d"n"
Philoso-

exacte

Ballauf

by

philosophers

these

auf

und

der

63-92,

pp.

to

Philosophies

Stahl

auf

GrundlehreTi

pedagogical

in

Introduction

an

HegeVschen

der

Moral,
and

and

Archiv,

doctrines

; Die

zur

psychological

on

entitled

part,

Beziehung

1855

Berlin,

periodical,

last-mentioned

first

Einjluss

besonderer

mit

Pddagog.

the

of the

verderbliche

der

mostly

and

in

The

above-cited

the

2d ed.

; Der

Erdmann,

essays,

Herbart,"

in

Preussen,

in

und

das

of

the

to

philosophical thinkers,

among

scholars.

"

Wissenschaft

der

No

IV.,

"From

the

position

of

logicics,Halle, 1850

Geg7ier

Author

Schulblatt,

circle

are

burger

isolated

very

185-3 (anonymously)

Abhandlung

einer
Ballauf

Ludw.

numerous

Antibarhar^is

seiner

Enciderungen

first

following

Logic, Halle,

Formal

Ethik,

Philos.

its

Leipsic, 186(i),and

various

(see below), also, is

eine

(according
bibliographical notices

the

by

Philos. ) the

exacte

F.

in

Lithe

der

131.

"

(ibid., 1856), Letters

Beriicksichtigung

C. Becker's

J.

at

school

Herbartian

the

supplemented

far

for

basis

the

Zwr

and

Schopenhauer"

aus

in

Studien,

removed

Motiv,

u?id

to

Science

1870.

Zurich,

is

Wille

zwlHcheii

tind

Less

literature

articles

Hartmann

v.

besonderer

mit

Charakterologie,

zur

E.

Schopenhauer.

of

ethinche

numerous

Freiheit
of

on

Materialism

on

Leben,

beside

der

philosophy

that

VerhiiU^dHH

Zum

sittlic/ie

(Das

In the
Natural

above

written

has

(Leipsic, 1868),

Wahrheit,

The

mentioned

been

Frauensttidt

Leips., 1869,

der

doctrine.

character

general

Studies

Welt,

Botuchaft

Schopenhauer's

on

have

others,

GERMANY.

IN

PHILOSOPHY

OF

Philosophy

and

moral.

U7id

and

philosophy,

Ethical

Religion (Leipsic, 1868),

die

STATE

PRESENT

the

Herbartian

stand

of contradictions

discovery
of

experience

have

found

however,

on

certain

for

the

insufficient

an

on

the

rest,

on

that

original

beliefs.

our

of

De

innatis

The

in which

which,

is

he

according

which

Ballauf

and

of

Beneke's

principle,

discovered

to

to

eudaemonism,

final

our

claimed

ethical

principle,and
belong

must

be

others,

of Beneke's

elements

from

the

supplementing

thus

may

criticisms

the

him

this

the

only through

completing,

Eleatics

by

to

the

with

regards

di-awn

for

given

it is

is,that

contradictions

experience.

to

erroneoiasly

worth

the

motive

comparison

this

partial agreement

isolation

consequences

estimate

in

belonging

unnatural

underlying

experience

Herbart,

conceptions

in part

rest

of

which

those

assumption

in

involved

correction

urges,

in

and,

the

and

Ballauf

as

are,

theoretical

ments,
judg-

especially
legal

assured

an

order.
Ed.

Bobrik.

Zurich, laSS
Herm.

etal.),
as

here

author

H.

of

G.

Platonic

whose

be

mentioned

an

essay

Brzoska.

zweckmdssige

puris

Logik, Vol. I., Part

der

1829

habitis, Konigsberg,

principiis

pro

System

Aristotelian

and

co-editor

as

studies

(until 1867)

Philosophical

on

Seb.

Carl

BildU7ig

have
of

Propaedeutics,

I,

mentioned

been

the

Zeitschr.

in the

Neue

lens, Halle, 1861.

each

Ueber

Welt,

to

other
die
mit

is

not,

as

des

Rucksicht

Jlir

exacte

to

the

asserted

by

of the

Philos.

die

Frage,

1870

; Ueber

contains

des

; Freie

Vortrdge

Urspriingliche

iiber

Tdeejilehre^

(in

above

fur

osterreich.

Jena.

Allg,

Vol.

I., "" 40, 46,

Gymnasien,

Literaturzeitung,

and

1846,

'*

reals,"

und

ob
die

numerous

wiser

but

Son

are

united

der

the

Universitdt

und

Centralbibltothek

neiisy

stem

fiir

on

each
the

ein

other

zeitl.
Leib

Ueber

Anfang
und

in
of

presence

1867',

Ueber

rdu7nllchen

und

Molecularphysik,

ei7ier

Halle,

zwischen

by Cornehus.

Leipsic, 1855

Sehens

des

with

dependent

Wechselwirkung
essays

of

Magnelismus,

de7n

'Iheorie
.

Naturnnsse7ischaft,
en

auf

editor

Grundziige

which

direct,

i7i der

Seminare

the

ihr^
Litte-

Unterrichts.

Leipsic. 1856

Herbart,

CausalpiHncips
auf

und

latter, ibid., 1864.

the

relation

also

was

Elektrtcitdt

der

vo7i

Elementen.

emfachen

(a prize essay),Halle,

ZeUschr.

Lehre

Additions

Cornelius,

Bedeutung
bes.

aus

Brzoska

Pddagogik

der

Die

pddagogischer

Nothwendigkett

die

Leipsic, 18.33.

Geschichte

und

Cornelius.
Materie

der

(according

TJeber

Einrichtung,

Statistik

ratur,

m?;wj

sive

praktisches

66.

No.

to

; Neues

(unfinished).
Bonitz,

may

the

ideis

Zurich, 1834

jEsthetik,

one

Halle,

molecular

spheres
die

dit

Vorstel-

of

ether);

Entstehung

zugeschrieben

1866
mass,

dtf

werden

Seele, Halle, 1871.

Th"

310

THE

Carl

Ludw.

berg, 1837;
Herm.

1817.

Hcndewerk.

Ilerbart

Kayserlingk.

v.

Herm.

L.

Transactions
Das

Ueber

Adolf

Gust.

Lindner.

1872(71);

Vienna,

Einleitung

seiischaft, 2d

1868

seligkeit, Vienna,
Friedr.

Carl

1855

from

F.

1851

articles

; also
Jos.

H.

und

P.

Aug.
G.

W.

E.

Gust.
Wtsen
H.

De

Steinthal.

Stephan.

K.

V.

Ludw.

Kant,
and

7j('U-

Zur

Logik

2d

3d

ed.,

ed., Vienna,
Wis-

alt inductiver

iiber die

menschliche

Gliick-

ibid., 1871(70).
from

(reprinted

the

Pddagog.

the

die deutsche

loird

Duell,

moral.

Gesellschaft

bearbeitet, ib., 1870.

ibid., 1859.

Begehrungen,

der

1854.

and

1850.

Hannover,
Analyse

Lingen,

seine

der

vo?i

Lehre

pddag

1868.

Berlin,

Menschen,

1853

for

und

Lehre

zur

einer

zu

and

seq.

zur

national,

Widersmn

(ethics), pragmatiach

Philosophie

Beitrdge

by Kern,

sein

the

Knhn,

Scliulmchines

Volksschule

edited

Blatter,
Das

founded
and

Stettin, 1859

Archiv,

Leer, 1847

and

ibid., 1865 ; Grundiilge

des

philosophy,

Aurich

theoreticis, Gcitt.,18;38.

Reihenproduction

der

Herbart's

Scheibert, Langbein,

by

befreundeten

; Wie

quo?, dicuntur

fur

1857.

Vienna,

der

Bildung

die

Zur

synthetischer

Psychol,

subj.

der

Begriffe

Ueberzeugung

T/'.].

bei

und

{Pro-

1859,

Steinthal

verschiedenen

1855

I. :

(Part

has

; Der

by

da^

in

W.

Riicksicht

in

Lazarus

ed.,
die

Introduction

General,
in

Whitney,

D.

2d

auf

Sprache,

der

besonderer

with

engaged

been

Ursprung

mit

Language

[cf. review

iiber

Grundansichlen

ialismus, ibid., 1867.

Mater

des

Denken

speculative

Hegelianism).

to

Romern

und

ibid., 1871

Language),

Since

Berlin,

Griechen

den

Die

ITrilik

und

Psychologie,

und

advance

Leipsic, 1851

Geschichte

zur

Sprachxoissenschaft

der

of

Riier's

1833 ; Das

Brunswick,

Beziehungen,

der

(exhibits

Psychologie,

Logik

Abriss

Science
"

Methode

Beitrdge

De

justi notione

Betrachtungen,

Stoy.

the

North

editorship

the

to
Aiiix.
of the

boni

notione

Fichte, Herbart,

Leipsic,1846

; Die

(Diss, inaug.), Gott., 1844;

Ueber

Verhdltnisa

daa

Wissen

Ueber

Naturrechta

dea

und

Ethik

zur

und

Glauzum

Wissens, Gi5ttingen, 1819

des

Psychologie

Erkldrung

zur

Seelenerschein-

der

(Half Herbartian.)

Encyclopddie,

; Die

1846;

1854.

Methodologie

ibid., 1869-70(1. Logic;

Striimpell.

Herb.

proposuit

quam

Hannover,

Theorie

1824-25.

Gott., 1834
summi

Lehre

the

Cilli,1858,

Sociolwissenschaft,

to

by

Pddagogische

Geiste

Giirz, 1854:

Sjyrachioiss.

Recht, Gottingen,

Berlin,

pddeutik,

Zur

published

Psychologie

Pddagogik

Leipsic, 1862;

Idee, Berlin, 1837

1863

der

Stiedenroth.

E.
ungen,

have

magazine.

hen, skeptische
positiven

the

Ideen,

im

HerbarCs

Lehrbuch

the

April, 1872.

Review,

in

Programme"),

Grammatik,

above-mentioned

Gesetze, Berlin,

ed., 1867;

Gratz, 1861,

der

der

edited

taken

Gymnasien,

praktUche

Bedeutung

zur

Gesch.

and

Come-

und

1868.

Geistes, ibid.,

Psychology

: Lehrbuch

was

been

Hannover.'1850

antinomiis

Ueber

Berlin, 1863-64.

Logik.

und
2d

Methode,

Methode,

convert

to 1854

Randzeichmmgen.

'"School-

Roer.

Berlin, 1858;

De

Die

Resl.

auf

Allgem.

Kantii

Schilling.

des

Steinthal

genetischer

Grundl.

als

Herbarfschen

ethischen

Gefuhle,

Fortbewegung

seiner

1860,

doctr., Gcitt., 1842,

has

place

der

subjects

Padagog.

Czemowitz,
H.

Its

Vorstellungen

der

Urtheile{"

gramm),

in

Die

Reiche.

L.

in

and

nach

1866

Vienna,

1849

Gefuhlsleben,

; Die

1865

ibid..

Analyse

dathetischer

H.

Das

Ostermann.

Preiss.

1857 ; Leibnitz

Erscheinungen

Berlin

genetisclier

afterwards

but

from

mit

eines

pedagogical

ibid., 1864

Olawsky.

L.

Hegelian,

Geddchtniss,

vom

on

Staate,

dem
Ed.

; Ein

herzogl.

den

1857.

Prague,

seine
at

Lazarus

nach

d. Gestllsch.

Geschichtsunterricht

Nahlowsky.

Verwerjlichkeit,

1859

immortalitute

alone.

Beitriige

Lehre

psychologlHchen

Halle, 1847

in

Stiftungafeier

Glilcks,psycholog. Untersuchung

des

Psychol,
animi

an

by Langbein

Miquel.

btographischen

vom

iiber

delivered

Logik

Problem

(1840 seq.), which

Revue

to 1858

W.

Assoc),

Psychologie

empir.

Philosophie,

der

zur

originally

Mager.

der

formalen

1868 ; Das

de

title :

Sprachwissenschaft.

Studium

; Idee^i

Padag.

the

Altona, 1839.

Leb^n,

1845.

Stud.), ibid.,

Piidagogische

Since

der

Herbarti

Lott.

Berlin, 1867.

Lehrbuch

das

in

address

und

Lehrbuch

Vienna,

ed..

an

R.
zur

Prague,

dargestellt,

Scient.

Monographien

in

Sitten,

der

Kiinif^sberg,
with

1853-56,

Quellen

Bohemian

obvia, K"3nigs-

Herbarfa,

meinem

aus

the

T.

autobiography

an

Einladungaschr.

Coburg,

den

Imperial

Seele,

der

Volkerpsychologie

mhnftjilr

Gbtt.

the

Simiestduschungen,

den

of

Leben

nach

wrote

of

et N.

ibid., 1862.

Syntem

dem

He

Progr.

commentatio,

Blatter,

und

Jiegegnisae

und

V.

sacris

Christenthums,

System

Metaphysik,

Logik,

Ursprung

den

generali

GERMANY.

libria

in

dea

doctrine.

Herbartian

HerbarVschen

IN

reperta,

Ideallsmus

Eri/merrmgen

Oder

Pildagogische

priori

Flchte'a

the

sclentia

der

Leibnitzens

Lazarus.

M.

1856-57;

1867

Kvot.

the

(from

von

1849

Coburg,

in

Franz
niua

Leibnitii

liechtfertigung

zur

Gymn.

De

Kern.

Beitrag

PHILOSOPHY

Der

zwischen

abandoned

Philosophen,

eines

Doikicurdlgkeiten

ibid., 1858;

Vergleich

Kayserlingk

Subsequently

ethica

Prlnctpia
Bibel,

die

u.

OF

STATE

PRESENT

De

methodo

II.

philosophica,

Hauptpunkte
qualem

der

1843
und

Litteratur
Die

der

das

Vorschule

in

1833

der

Universttdtastudium,

Mitau,
Mitau,

; Die

1845

; Philos.

phie,
Philoso-

HerbarCs

zti

Padagogik.

Entwurf

1848 ; Geachichte

der
der

der

Pro-

ib., 1871.

beleuchtet, Brunswick,

kritisch
1843

seq.

Darstellung,

; Erlduterungen

Dorpat,

Ethik,

Leips., 1861

gedrdngter

Metaphysik

Schleiermacherus,
;

Pddago'jik,

Psychol,

Konigsberg,

Herbarfschen

proposuit

Brunswick,
Universitat

und

Psychology);

1840;

Philosophen

Logik,
griech.

Mitau

Philoso-

THE

phie,

Leipsic, 1854

Greeks,"

PHILOSOPHY

First

Vortrag
auf
Der

"

I. ;

Logik

der

IN

Division

Section

Divisiou,

; Der

Leips., 1869;

Erziehuugafiuueii,

OF

Orientirung,

Rucksidit

besonderer

mit

tttidien,

und

; Second

Aristotle," ibid., 1861

before

STATE

Uebersicht, Repetition

zur

of the

PRESENT

und

*'

sein

nnd

of

the

Theoretical

the

far

Pdd.

of the

Greek"

Universitdtn-

die

Revue),

Gebi^auch

metaphys.

Philosophy

Philos.

Werth

(from

nein

the

Practical

didaktischer

NaturwissenscJiafte7i

die

Causalitdtsbegriff

of

History

History

31)

GERMANY.

Berlin, 1858;
Naturwisaeti-

i7i der

ecfiqft,Leips., 1871.
F.

G.

1852;

Die

berg,

1848

Die

Taute.

from

Philos.

ReUgio?isphiloHophie

Universal

Wissenscha/ten
Der

as

Die

Tepe.

Outachten

Leipsic, 1851

Idealismua

in the

ihrer

of the

the

Waitz.

Theod.

eth.

Brunswick,

Zeitschr.

f.

ihren

in

"

in the

1803."
Die

Vol.

I., and

Riicksicht

other

Ncue

einandcr

nach

ideas,
is

der

1810.

fourth

of

reference

"^a(V5_l)

Psychologic,

1849

; Allgemeinc

expressed

Rob.

also

so

in

which

Ziller.

der

"Juristical

Herbart's

philos.

Realtsmus

18.58;

they contain,

of

from

practical

Ueber

tions
Transac-

Principien

die

of

other

und

aus

the

"Outlines

among

1846

Gotha,
ibid., 1852

u.

Psychology"

things.

; LehrMich

; Der

TV.]

"

Oct.

(continued

seq

from

translated

Parteien

der
and

Nov.

basis

the

German

of

of

T.

auf

1852, and

on

the

PsychologH

der

Stand

Litt.,Brunswick,

u.

1859

Leipsic,

des

[Volkmann's

and

Wiss.

f.

"

ethischen

der

the

author's

Waitz

by

J.

F.

and

"

and

the

b, are

of

which

the

^I

only
but

are

of

case

Erkld-

to

opposed

is arrested

is

einfacher

Grutidlegung
hypothessis

each

other,

expressed

by

math.

der

the

in

to the

regard

part

-"

so

Vor-

chologic,
Psy-

of a

which

that

there

a+b
"

"

accordingly,

"

two

ihre

und

Bewegung

der

; Zur

Wittstein's

341-358.

pp.

completely

part of 6 which

Hellenen

den

von

1845

eintrcteji,Hannover,

bei

Problems

math.-psychol.

des

ideas,

Principien
Berlin, 1858.

Gymnasium,

Seele

die

; in

of

two

ideas

completely

opposed

to

partially opposed),

complete

Das

Ueber

die

Ansichten,
Kinder,

Zimmermann.
external

Naturgesetz

Gottiiigen),Hannover,

Reliquien.

of

damental
"Fun-

1840.

Pddagogik,

Philos., VII., 1809,

if two

by

Wyneken.
at

philosophischen

theories

these

to

Psychologic,

10, Prague,

33-71.

Hamburg

Monatsschr.

Joachimsthal

and

Friedr.

HerbarCsche

I. :

opposition,

the

Seele,

oder

the
' '

stronger
threshold

may
value

drive

completely
"

for

the

weaker

the

weaker

idea

(6)

is

a.0.618.

(Inaug. Dissert,

Regierung

Part

1865.

Aristotelischen

pp.

Erfurt,

der

Naturvolker,

cxacte

is that,

only

(and

Tuiscon

es.saya

die Rechtn-

auf

Verkehrs,

(The

special

Standpunkte

Vol.

V.,

literature

Logik,

Bi'handlujig

fiir

Zeitschr.

consciousness

Ernst

den

other

Metaphysiker^ Konigsberg,

als

Theoriedea

with

vom

iige der

Series

Verschiedenheit

of the

from

Knt.

Tr.]

Wittstein.

of

Grundz

a-j-b
each

the

Gi-uudirrthUrner

a+b

out

beleuchtet,
in

Leips., 1868.

; Spinoza

Munich,

penal system

Ph., II., 1861,

Allg.

der

welche

arrested,

of

1854, and
Tr.^

"

Principien

Die

Ph.,

ex.

i;M.

dargetlmn,

Uesonderer

mit

Die

ibid., 1848;

[Introductioti to Anthropology,

Programme

in the

remains

Schulweneii^

Gynmasium,

III,, ad

385-424;

pp.

Atheismus,

Psychologic

psychological

Grundlegung

Anthropologic

arrest

be

the

JEsthetik, Vienna,

der

ex.

Hauptlehren

Wehrenpfennig.

itellungcn,

will

IV.,

Staatslehre,

und

Assoc,

f.

of

account

Gerland).

rungsgrilnde,

mutual

of

der

; Die

Scientific
Zeitschr.

Psychologic,

der

in

1856

Halle,

Die

Collingwood, London,
W.

Vol.

in

Hegel,

Abhandlungen,

principles

Gi'undriss

in

the

Waltz.

1853.

by

Emden

UnwiHsenschaftlichkeit

1857,

Pantheismus,

Gehalt

und

Bohem

for

\V.

Gebiete

MSS..

Theologie

specul.

in ihrer

Rechts-

Jurutische

Naturwissenschaft,

August,

(an address), ibid.^

Iwheres

fur

Good.s," Berlin, 1841.

of

Theory

Psychol.,

commended

dem

bis

of the

Progr,

syst. jjhilos. delin., Kiinigsb., 1835

Volkmann.

Imper.

der

Theodor
als

modernen

SchopenJiauer'' s

Ueber

und

Form

Vogt.

H.

Kant

philosophical

the

der

Easter

[Cf. also below. Appendix

Staatslehre

und

theologisirende

1861

genetischer Methode,

J.

Con/erenz

Religious

(an address), Konigs-

Gegensatz

seiii

"

I. :

Christianity," Leipsic,

Theodor

"

; Die

Spinozce

"VVilh. Fridolin

are

of

gegenUber

und

Part

HerbarVs,

"Philosophy

Berlitier

der

in the

18(il.

RechtHwi"s"i.,Heidelberg,

Unterholzner.

D.

philosophy,

of

11. :

Zeitbewegungen

den

Herbart,

Emden,

Rechts-

Tndividualmnus

Essays" develops

Methoden

Philomphie.

der
Part

Verhandlungen

nach

and

Enttcivkelungvon

Thomas.

Spinoza's
Notions

nach

die

Tdeen

gesammte

Stahls, Leipsic,

(J. A.

1840;

Revolutionsprindp

Witsnenschaftlichkeit

periodical

same

Carl

iiber

Siahr^che

die

in

aiufichten

1840;

Die
Die

fur

Zeitschr.

unendhches

Leer

opuscule.

Thilo.

A.

Elbing,

UniversitdtH.%tudien
als

praktisehen

independent
C.

Standpunkte

vom

View,"

1849.

Konigsberg,
G.

of

wid

Spinozinmus

1848 ; Pddagogisches

an

Point

von

Puchta

Leipsic, 1853

Leipsic, 1857

der

Herbart

Schopenhauer,

und

eine

Synthese

1869.
der
;

Darstellung

Ei7ileittmg

Ghrundlegung

zur

in

des
die

Lehre

Rechts

romischen

allgetneine
vom,

zu

Grunde

Pddagogik,

erziehenden

gelegten

rechts-

Leipsic, 1856

; DU

Uiiterricht, Leipsic, 1865

ib., 1871.
Leibtiitz''s

processes,

Monadologie.

Vienna, 1847

German

; Leibniz

und

translation,
Herbart,

with

eine

an

essay

\ergleicJiung

on

L.'s
ihrer

and

Herbart's

Monadologien,

312

THE

Vienna, 1849;
Vienna

PEESENT

article

an

of

Academy

1855 ; Dm

1851

April,

Leibnitz's

on

PHILOSOPinr

Scientifio Character

Bolzano's

on

OF

Cardinal

; on

Genchtchte

^'Esthetik

der

Feier

Oeburtstages, in

the

of

Reports

th"

Spinoza's Ethics,

of Leibnitz, ifjid.,
Lessing, a Study, ibid.,May,
.

Tragische

das

of

Trans,

the
iu

Forerunner

and

philosophischer Wisnenschaft, ibid.,1858;

alu

IWjdhrigen

seines

; Ueber

as

Leibnitz

on

Defects

Logical

Ciisanus

Nicolaus

GERMANY.

phllos.importance,in
Some

on

Conceptualism, ibid.,April, 1854;

Jiechtsprincip bei Leibnitz,Vienna, 1852

IN

und

Sciences,philo8.-hi8t.
Oct., 1849;
acction,

ibid.,Oct., 1850, and

April, 1852;

STATE

the

Imp.

und

Tragodie, ibid.,1866 ;
Denker, ein VortroQ

die

Schiller

als

Bohera.

Sciontif.

Assoc., Series V.,

Philonophische PropddeiUik, Vienna, 1852,3d ed., 1867 (containing Prolegomena,
to Philosophy) ; Philosophie und
Logic, Empirical Psychology, and Introduction
Erfahrung, eine Antr-Ut-^,
zur

Vol.

1859

II., Prague,

rede, Vienna, 1861

^sth.,

under

the

jEsthetik

Allgemeine

title of

common

Formicissenschaft, Vienna, 1865 (goes with

former
being the " historico-critical" and

als

the

the
jEstlietik,

'Oesch.

the

der

latter

the

"systematic" part).
the

Upon
doctrine

and
logical

of

basis

resembling

of

that

metaphysical speculationsakin

Parmenides,

Denken, ib., 1868; Forschung

."ipruchsloseji
1868;
eitier

Kurze

Dnrstellung

doctrine of Hermann

The

Oexvissheit

der

Erk"nntniss

in der

philosophischen

eitier

Kleine

philos. Ui-undeinsicht^ibui.,1869;

to those of Herbart, A. Spir

Wahrheit, Leips.,1867; Andeutungen
zu

Die

ivach

Gh-midzuge

der

in

has

develo))ed

einem

wiiler-

Wirklichkeit,ibid.,

der

Anschauungsweiae, ibid.,1869; Erurt.

Schri/ten,ib.,1870.

Lotze is similar to that of

Herbart,and

still more

the philosophy of Leibnitz,although Lotze

to

so

a
justlyprotests againstbeing
of the co existence
and
the phenomenal
possibility
interaction of the numerous
essences
(monads) by reference to the necessary unity of a
of the world, to the activityof an original,
substantial
essential unity in all real
cause
is
the
One
The
which
has
Infinite,
Lotze,
Power,
things.
given itself,in the whole
says
of spirits,
numberless
of existence.
All monads
accordant modes
world
bat modifications
are

of the Absolute.
real

Metaphysik, Leipsic,1841

Lotze.

; Ueber

IlerbarVs

Logik, Leipsic,1843
Oder

Phyxiologie
;

Mechanism

der

scholars, and
Theology

"

Seele,ibid.,1852

forms

published

forms

in
des

Allg. Physiologie

Leipsic,1857
Streitschriften,
Germany,

Allg. Pathologic

Ontologie,

heit,3 vols.,ibid.,1856-64, Vol.

in

is the form

of finite existence, the form

which

the

gives to itself.

essence

ibid.,1842

Her-

for the

bartian, since he accounts

one

termed

I.,2d

apart

of the

under

the

Fichte's

on

Ideen

"History

of
of

the
the

Vital

the
zur

cd., 1868 seq. ; Oesch.

patronage

part of this series."

article

Mikrokosmvs,

f. Phil., Vol.

Naturwissenschaften,,

XI., Tiib

Lebens, Leipsic, 1851 ;

korperlichen

; cf. Lotze's

als mechanische

Therapie

und

Zeitschr.

1843,

pp.

203-2;54 ;

Psychologie

ology
Force, in Wagner's Dictionary of Physi-

Naturgeschic.hte ujid
JEsthetik

der

Medicinische

GescMchte

in Deutschkmd

der

Mensch-

(History of

tics
.Esthe-

[wTittenby varit'us German

King of Bavaria; Dorner's
"History of Protestant
Sciences

in

Germany"

Munich, 1868.
jTr.J),

bom
Lotze was
May 21,1817,at Bautzen,in Saxony. At the
[Rudolph Hermann
and
he
studied
in
medicine
ments
philosophy,graduated in both departUniversity Leipsic
in 1838, and
qualifiedas a JDocent or private universitylecturer,also in both
phy
departments, in 1839. In 1842 he was appointed professorextraordinarius of philosowhence
in 1844 he foUowed
at Leipsic,
a call to Gottingen, as professorordinanua.
in physiological)
in physical(especially
The
wide range of his information
science,and
the
with metaphysical speculation,
his familiarity
OYm.

philosophical
investigations a discretion
might well be termed skepticism and
"

"

and

lecturer, have

to

secure

him

the

and

discretion

for its foundation

which,
of
brilliancy
a
high eminence
works
his principal
but

his

of his

ledge,
in know-

style as an author
livingGerman

among

is translated from Erdof

followingaccount of some
"
the
of
of
:
Philosophy
Compend
History
had defined sensations
Perhaps the fact that Lotze,in the third part of his Metaphysik.,
in
to
"interferences,"
acts of self-assertion on the part of the soul
as
response

thinkers.
mann's
"

combined

independence

The

''

constituted the prime occasion of his being reckoned

"

as

an

notwithstanding
Herbartian,

in

of many

rslstence

he

which

polemic

constant

the

STATE

PKESENT

THE

OF

PHILOSOPHY

on, in

carried

regarding him,

so

IN

this

book, ag-ainstHerbart, and

after

even

313

GERMANY.

the

publication

in

At last,therefore, in
Ontology.
hriftof his criticism of Herbart's
he
to
Urstes Heft : Reply
Fichte]
expressly requested that he be not

bartian, and

define, with

to

on

toward
time

same

Schelling, and

to

But

Hegel.

of

the

of

physics,

any

and
for

It

doctrines.
to the

not

named

his

realism,

for

with

immovably
the

in this

belief,which
and

of

the

all

Good,

he

Only

akin

as

for

ground

the

on

only

regard, by

turns

of

as

been

much

too

Such

is enabled

of

has

views

result

truly

real

then
of the

which

the

to what

as

the

ontology.

three

of

discussion

is intended

and

ground

or

reason,

its

midst

because

it is that

of

being

things (through

required by

cause,

(accordingto Lotze), the stand-points

and
of

the

of

and

relations

the

in the

idea

With

them

this

in

this

that

as

of

itself,but

in
has

ones

also

being.
and

he

change.
doctrine

successively

are

adaptation)

good

ideal

of action

to the

affirmation

investigationat

end.

to

change

being

essence

of the

of passionless
that

of true

relates

of

province

subsequent
nature

Idea

forms.

fundamental

in

not

true

which

the

haste

this

ideas

possesses

sufiicient

of

stand-point

man's

as

trine,
doc-

philosophy,

beginning
the

became

to the

busy

if

culminate,

in

less

was

bart,
Her-

error

sacredness

with

his

must
it

in

world

no

his

of all his

parts, the first of

principal conceptions resulting from

of

define

being expressed
is

all the
terms

investigation of

an

conceptions

connection

whole

in the

is necessary,

Here

or

which

institutes

into

of, the

three

metaphysics

work,

Lotze,

conformity

that

investigation is divided
being,

In
to

argues,

culture, his

discussed, and

is

last-mentioned

to which

Metaphysik

forgotten,Lotze

in

aesthetic.

to

be

the

Good

beautiful, the

Lotze

Hence,

in his

to say

investigation,he

advances

The

the

of the

belong, according

end.

an

key

that

than

all

that

was

fact

career

the

of

he

that

say

is found
to

losopher
phi-

fundamental

his

as

of the

Idea

that

the

they

namely,

"

the

knowledge

in Lotze's

universe

is the

the

realization,and

to

ideal, ethical, and

and

[goods]
restrict

beatitude

states

demands

means

teleologicalidealism,
.In

Fichte,

Fichte

in the

to

untenableness

scarcely

in which

one

designates

elder

place

worths

quiet

mental

and

his, also, he

ethics

elder

the

takes

of

contrary, the

awaits

is related

world

the

reposeful

which

view

the

not, with

and
world

or

would

of action

that

of

doctrine
for all that

and

that

abandon

service, rather

early epoch

an

indeed

felt

never

to

philosopher

would

shall

We

antipathy.
at

has

his

one

he

this

him

Lotze
Streitschrift

same

the

to

being

rendered

as

he

necessity

any

with

philosophy,

results,then

these

which

mind, and

in his

established

If

etc.

causes,

to

into

upon

perception of

his

drawn

himself

briefly,to

or,

simple beings,

who

beliefs

those

among

as

him

that

Herbart's

of

more

exerted

perceive the complete

to

study of

instructed

was
so

within,
the

it

the

developed

was

same,

to feel

knowledge,

unconquerable

an

him

led

influences

of

of monads,

feels

he

to this

was

in the

with
that

system, by Fichte,

adds,
he

it that

impulse

any

science, and

guided

world

his

nor

plurality of

influence, he
owed

to

been

Her-

an

attitude

himself

completed

as

explains

him

rather

had

into

he

continues,

doctrine

his

who

one

whom

reckon

we

the

as

Leibnitz,

he

preponderating

causality implies always

be

which

than

classed

here

felt

he

cause

confirmed

so

He

the

Zeit-

Strdtschriften

his

correctness, his

own.

first moved

same

to whom

without,

of natural

knowledge

Hegelian

indebted

occasion

his

which

'decisive

most

study of medicine,

The

of the

the

culture

of ideas, and

order

certain

existence

them.

than

art

from

and

him, in this connection, by Weisse,

the

and

poetry

expression of general

characteristic

regard

openness

grfeatcircle of philosophical views,

the

toward

the

At

philosophy.

equal

philosophical stand-points

livelyinclination

Mas

went

to other

reference

and

of

Fichte's

is treated

that

that

alone

be

real.

The

to

point

are

the

ceptions
con-

correspond, respectively

Spinoza (Hegel),of Herbart,

and

of the

phi-

314

THE

losophy

of nature

be

to

difficult

nality.

Here,

forms,

therefore
the

the

but

objective

motion

are

sense)
certain

which

[symbols]
of

here

makes

former

Matter

the

processes

beginning

first

or

affirm

only

that

i. e.^ according
of

nature

in

able

the
to

point
the
act
of
to
On

dualistic

usual

which

by

noticed

to be

the

the

takes

real

contrary,
and

place

formed

by us
respecting that
i.

the

e.
,

Since
the

is known

; it is

which

occupied

to the

with
reason

older

the

critique of

jurisdiction of

ultimate

colors, that

being

the
the
has

(ground)
metaphysics)

reason,

must

but

categories, as
of the
to the

naturally

(whole)
the

not

on

same

of

production of

arrived

the

of

real

mto

other

an

(of
effect

we

the

nal
inter-

an

which

ot

treats

form

of

hand,
as

causm

have

no

we

human
of

been

hence

right
which
trans

the

inquiry

it from

out,
with-

to

the
world

mind.

that

have

part of metaphysics.

reality,it

the

bemg

and

the

coming

realm

begin with

place

part

pal
princi-

The
who

at is that

ether

object

but

relations
causes

that

is itself

of the

be

must

discussed.
of those

affections

precede,
part

one

The

up.

categories,their application

vibrations

to

also,

it the

concurrence

the

organic

possible ;

what

"

potentially in the

knowing

all

mechanically,

its action

it. and

know

we

the

adds

soul

objective is

underlying

of

when

have

we

knowing
the

as

process

only

and

course

categories contained

to

is

proceeds

really (objectively)takes

result

world

the

Lotze, the

is termed

what

from

affirms

into

what
the

which

to the

to

tion
opposi-

Lotze, it is true, scarcely

categories are

objects

Lotze

between

subject

as

of the

the

in

built

be

the

Lotze

oppose

that

demands

Metaphysics,

of the

to

himself

cosmology

part of the

subjective nature

is that

"from

different

third

deduction

distinction

it is known

reality is quite
regard

here

of

question

forms
or

under

nothing

knowledge

no

objectively external

the

the

finallythe

objective, and

last

the

Here

pluralityin cognition.
the

The

introduces

has

will, adds

physical

that

includes

expresses

existing everything

once

ceivable.
con-

abbreviations

remarked

but

he

(in the

mechanism,

be

organic, and

subject

all

transcendental

physical physiology

to this

regard

law.

the

existence

organic

in

convert

to

quality (sensation)?"

from
that

;^

follows

are

also

are

the

Chemism,

he

forms,

produced through

are

it must

that

are

part pure
it

nature

is termed

already,

these
in

are

force

they

Among

so

Here,

Since

of

and

rest

and

connection,

organism

an

the

Mechanism

of

but

physical

to

being,

connection

explained,

disposition

employ.

They

abstracted), spatiality,and

but

appearance,
to

is

matter

; in this

of the mechanical

explicable ;

time

therefore,

transcendental,

part

(in other words)

or

ontology,

illusions,which

are

all

causal

regular

of

includes

between

mechanically

thus

of

right

which

processes

separation
be

has

physicist

all

force

sphere

of

in

intuition, while
and

of,

also

cosmological

visible.

sensibly perceived.

notion

but

the

or

made

be

speculative philosophy

the

teleologicalconnection.

but

found

the

in

distinction

expression

to

can

sensible

the

no

mechanism

be

of

of all mechanical

system

which

phenome-

appears,

connection

conceptions

empirical,

of

ontological forms, and

the

be

By far

two.

against forgetting that

which

(intended), may

not

other
treats

phenomenality,

the

and

intuition, that

sensible

of

the

which

reader

something

ness,
narrow-

concej^tionsjust mentioned

second,

the

which

could

validity of

(empirical), and

forms.

configurations

an

the
is the

which

end

fundamental

(from

forms

pure

reflected

are

only
forms

in its

stand-points consists
of the

reflected

an

Temporality

not

GERMANY.

IN

one

warns

the

without

things

three

part

mathematical,

be

may

in

the

in

(mathematical),
that

he

through

means

appearances,

teleologicalprocess
with

that

so

resort,whatever

corresponding

denies

or

Metdphysik

implies

it appears,

nothing

are

last

than

neglects

Lotze's

appearance,

to whom

in the

part

of these

more

constantly afterwards,

as

phenomenality,
being

of

each

of

permits

either

PHILOSOPHY

OF

defect

of them
and

considered,

most

STATE

the

; and

neither

in that

the

PRESENT

and

which

Just

itself.

is contained

falls under

thought

concauscp,

in

the

as

is
the

accordmg
end

(pur-

so
pose) of the effect,
the
known
and
-ubject

of speculationwould

the absolute.

from

attempted this
however,

be

as

idealism,continues
for the failure

reason

force

or

be deduced

Lotze,of Schellingand

of the

attempt lay in the

Hegel

fact that

can

alone

that

real

any

physicallyimpossible,because

was

purposes,

could

accomplish ; a sufficient and certain reason,

sideration
they so despised mechanism, i. e. , the conof
the
to
interactions
law)
regularity(uniformityaccording

human

in the circumstance

of forces,through which

of divine

the realization

modern

of the immanent

what

315

GEEMANT.

"

The

at than

is found

IN

the knowing
explanation of the harmony between
(theseeing eye and the vibrations of ether) is to be
who
of things and in Him
proposed it,and the highestwork
and
then
would
it be accomplished if
only
accomplished"

perhaps the

aimed

was

more

PHILOSOPHY

existence

be exhibited

everything could

OF

the ultimate

end

in the supreme

iuund

STATE

PRESENT

THE

of the physicallaws

and

is

action
it seemed

connections

that they
possible,

at last asserted

desirable.
idealistically

The

tigation
inves-

of things is repeatedlydeclared.byLotze

side of

philosophical
inquiry. Indeed, in his Streitsckrift
such
to
contrast
with philosophy as
investigation
goes
of his in
its oppositeand, accordingly,to designate as non-philosophicalthose works
himself
the
of
task of treating
the phenomena of body and soul mewhich he had set
chanically,
the subordinate

to constitute

against Fichte

he

even

far

so

as

the physical and

to what
extent
chemical laws
resortingto the hypothesisof a vital force distinct
to explainthe phenofrom the soul,or of a superiorpower,
working in view of ends
mena
he is
of diseased
of healthy and
life. But in this judgment of these works
he
with
For
has
he
exerted
mentions
not only, as
a
just satisfaction,
wrong.
nent
permaally
materiinfluence among
as well have felt themselves
physiologists
; psychologists
works
alluded
aided
The
to are
the work
on
Pathology, the
by these works.
article on Life and Vital Force, his Physiology,and his Medical
Psychology."
' '
seeks to show
In the Pathology Lotze
that the processes observable
in the living
from
of
inanimate
the
not
nature
distinguished
physical processes
body are
by any
in the nature
of operation of the forces at work,
difference
fundamental
and mode
but by the arrangement of the points of attack which
are
presented to these forces,
the shape of the final result depends. In the
which
and upon
here, as universally,
first book the ground is taken
that by the ' vital force ' we
not to understand
a
are
distinct force,but rather
the sum
of the effects of numerous
partialforces,acting
"
He
shows
under given conditions."
and psychologists
how
physiologists
many
links in their chains of ratiocination are
and
how
are
possibilities
yet wanting,
many
from their reasonings,in order to bring them
not excluded
to confess that many
siderations
contaken into account.
have not yet been sufficiently
sence
Perhaps this relative abof dogmatic statement
is the reason
in his investigations
with whom,
why a man
in point of profundity,
the livingphilosophersof Germany but
at least no one
among
of
Weisse [ob. 1866.
in
and
sharpness of discrimination certainlyno one
point
Tr.\
but George can
far
and
who
is
also
so
vie,
superior to both in the brilliancyof his
rhetorical styleand of his oral delivery,has founded
neither
his readers
nor
among
He is perhaps too much
and too little a
his auditors a school.
an
among
academician,
to have a school. "
professor,
or

known

to

us

seeking

determine

to

will suffice

without

"

"

"

In

the

Oeneral

had

who
oppositionto many
has
that
science
now
position,
that all vital phenomena
demonstrate
are
simply
this
that
a
positionis insimple nature
veiy

Physiology^
says Erdmann,

his

works

employed
previous
the point where
it is able
physical and chemical
processes

reached

to
to
of

confirm

Lotze

shows

in

"

their

"

c(*rrect.
'

'

In the

as
Pathology^

well

as

in

the

Lotze
Physiology^

had

repeatedly intimated

316

THE

that

the

PRESENT

and

animal

human

ceiving impulses from

had

been

BTA.TE

organisms
soul

with

is

Like

all the

the

of

works

Lotze,

devoted

In

identity.
of

vital force
with

this

of

ideal

unreal.

as

appears

which

to

of

of

that

they

and

which

all

opinion
If from

hence

which

existence, on

words,

and

we

Hence

constitutes
in this
no

more

indeed,

nor,

wheel

not

that

do

what

is material,
material

of

world

as

of
or

were

able

the
with

the

point
stand-

true

one,

but

numerous

With

materiality.
the

(extension,

rest

satisfactorilyexplained

very

also

we

in mind

bear

that

is

or

the

ideal

an

upon

would
thus

as
or

other,

distinction

of
and

upon

the

of soul
machine

how

the

simply,

process

in

material

the

might

as

easily exert

ponderable elements,

different
esBentially

nature

from

even

that

his

readers

adapted
other

any

elements

of the

Hence

influence

if the

those

parts of

case,

gives

an

is in

another,

other.

than

this

body

is better

above,

body
and

importance

and

separate

consideration

under

of

upon

occasionalistic,but

characterized

posed
sup-

co-ordinate

as

in each

be

symbols

between

principal point

fact is

known

substances,

is not

our
principles,-

interaction

wheel

one

phenomena

relations

psychology

case

the

on

The

the

that

view

spiritual

the

abbreviations

sharp

deduce

physico-psychicalmechanism,

part depends
of

the

from

communicated,
; the

point

could

But

of

existence

only the

existence

chapter.
of

solely for others, the

exist

we

deduce

to

the

that

know

imponderables
of

for

now

as
starting-point,

Lotze,

than

not

his

admits

spiritualisticdoctrine,

spirits,immaterial

of

as

and

philosophy.

second

hoic motion

thorough explanation
or

ing
account-

identity the

matter,

impenetrability,etc.

our

consider

Lotze's

terms

the

If

begin by drawing

first

object

one

be

may

monads

psychical

our

must

assertion

also

we

unwillingly

souls

the

; for

so

in the

to understand

for

less

of

of

been

yet

incomprehensible

cohere,

phenomenon
Lotze

is the

of

certain, viz., matter,

and

name

(to us) ;

themselves

of such

for

and

we

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PHILOSOPHY

OF

upon

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318

flow

of ideas,

tion

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tion
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physiology.'

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PRESENT

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319

GERMANY.

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PHILOSOPHY

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chapters, each

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OF

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as

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race,'

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tional
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Lotze

320

STATE

PRESENT

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faith

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III., p. 576.

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GERMANY.

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sophical
philo-

Aufalitze (Elberfeld, 18(57),

und

absolute

Langenbeck
Untemclaed

ersten

Herbart's
works

vom

but

are

bodies,

"

as

in

law).

force

the
he

terms

Before

and
fortune physique''''

in

and

outward

other

Laplace

moraW'')
^'"fortune

in

to

the

an

had

(who
had

increased

arithmetical
been,

can.

may

Bemouilli,,

relation

possession

results

measure

force

certain

gain (at least within,

increase

cidedly
de-

(but which

time, Daniel

1738), and

single

Fechner

iuow

law"

"Weber's

of

universe,

stimuli, which

respects being like,to

would

to

ing
the%-rt of unlearn-

sense

of the

of
from

combined

the

as

teaches

that, therefore, if the

satisfaction

modes

ceneeption

"soul"

philosopher.

certain

Fechner's

(Acad., Petersburg,
through

the

well

as

Halle,

apprehended

toward

Fechner
Psi/c/iophpsics

of what

is

moved
re-

P^ychoiogie,

different

limiting the

not

physicist

to

itber

A-

far

Glucks, Halle, 1869.

des

it

F.

"

not

Darstellimg,

wins.

two

as

inclines

celestial

regards

der

expressions-

freedom.

ground

assumes

6),

it furnishes'

between

unregulated

Wissenschaft

der

that

1855)..
and

[a

parts

through self-consciousness),is
but

various

and

Methode

are

Frankfort,

such

significance, in

philosophy,

body

author

essence,

two

ibid., 1869; UnternuchU7igen

and

or

into

diversity (1 : 0), or

logarithmic proportion); analogous

31

assthetic

'"''

satisfaction

progression, the

line

Grundzilge

the

his

previous possession, and

(or according to

senses

he

In

sortis

proportion, circumstances
the

finds

philosophy,

how

(Elberfeld, 1869).
Geistige

rigid regularity
of

soul

the

Fechner's

expressions
of

and

Fechner,

the

mensura

the

reader,

attempt

of

Oeschichte

Vortrdge

1])i ^n

"

His

by reference

on

-correctlytermed

his

the

occupation of

of the

him, shows

of

says

to the

{AesthetischeForschungen,
of

Erziehung,

which

in

Theodor

be

one

subject (according, namely,

correctly."

reason

[V^

rests.
iind

rejectsHegelianism, which
to

Zeising

between

or

spaceless or punctual

souls, by
how

within, through the

with

he

convince

noblest

his MikroJcomnus

in Dan

division

reformation

Moral

real

one

of

doctrine

of

Propddeutik

Ad.

Logik, ibid., 1869

uber

Spinozistic-Kantian
of

to

development

der

Cnltur:

Kant,

equality (1:1)

critical

von

appearance

the

means

Orundriss

u/ul

part

of

\/o] and

"

which

ibid., 1869 ; Untemichungen

the

what

less

has

who

results,nevertheless

the

with

ual,
individ-

one

protest against the

no

ends

Any

relation

personal

problems

doctrines

philos.
in

is that

absolute

attempt

Grundlegung

The

and

proportionless expression,

his

that

the

Religion

division,"' the

"golden

between

mean

and

Hartsen,

von

(where

history of

philosophy

als

Lotze

Herbart

so-called

in the

finds

in

is

the

versal
uni-

living-,
personal

in

modest
says,

of

sum

the

(Berlin, 1868).

of

Esthetics

to the

Akin

Zeising

created.

too

Lotze's

Erdmann,

Z"r

Ethik

und

Sltuie

engeren

has

here

that, too, by

especiallyupon

and

HoUenberg's

" 132, Lit.) follows

im

of

the

The

where

to the

mathe-

IV.j

"

Loijik^ Paychologie

and

place, and

history

Lotze

of

of Wilh.

in

place

philosopher."

Vol. II., "347, 11-13.

On

upon

He

fundamental

will, notwithstanding

satisfied.

once

fully-demonstrated

at

operation of

restricted

him

place himself

to

and

[the ninth] Book,

[his object, he

arrive

to

321

GEBJVIANT.

particular,the species to

consider

will

than

system

assuming

without

who,

one

of

truth

of the

reader

were

realityare

true

Book

at

this

personal spirits,which

of

ninth

of the

beginning

it at the

the

of

realm

the

world

the

and

God

end

at

attentively Lotze's Mikrokosmus

read

as

of

the

Lotze

everywhere

as

contents

the

and

ethical requirements

laws

expressed by

is

opmions

IN

the realization

in

that

evident

be

PHILOSOPHY

OF

STATE

PEESEUT

THE

had:

taught.
limits)
of

this
in

progression
arrived

at

by

322

THE

with

Euler,

reference

of

vibrations, while

and

in

Fechner's

Heinrich

Weber,

in

stimulus
of

in
of

the

in

and

stimuli,
the

differences
from
various

intensities

of

sensations

the
when

value

into

enters
of

of

increment

de

sensation

other

the

is

the

by

stimulus

of")

of

disappears
the

to

of
of

sities
inten-

constantly
like

by

tive
rela-

resulting
If

received).
the

upon

same

series.
the

The

of

intensities

i. e.,

stimulus,

the

intensity,

sation
sen-

reached

being

or

from

relative

the

have

growing

consciousness,

sensation

proportional

"

ences
differintensities

in

arithmetical

value

numerous

quotients

logarithms

threshold-

(in lines)

the

it has

the

variations

of

of

series, act

an

of

constant

to

like

by

seq.),
relative

lengths

differences

which

form

as
"

the

threshold

intensity,

of

basis

by Fechner

geometrical

being reached

('' crosses

of
the

quotients

increment

Ernst

559

the

to

law, that

(^. e.,

intensities

unity

the

constant

assumed

form

each

to

to

and

p.

determination

on

(1827)

modification,

comparison

universal

by the

which

as

the

stimuli

stimulus

are

which

decreasing

the

whose

regard

we

intensity,

or

stimulus

sensations

or

affirmed,

now
was

are

1832),

limits, necessarily accompanied

of

of

intensities

other

nnm

LdUe

de

aoc.

341,

p.

slightest perceivable

certain

previous

is

stimuli,

that

within

result

the

sense,

the

the

stimuli,

the

the

to

correspond

intensities

of the

division

the

to

differences

(which

the

in

reference

it

corresponding
la

de

proportional

was

increase,

and

limits,

sensations

are,

the

travaux

the

Fechner

particular that

in

sensations

sensation

of

pressure,

certain
of

magnitude)

same

of

pitch.

within

that,

and

tone

des

GERMANY.

Physidogie (III., 2d Div.,

der

relation

of

sense

musical

thp intensities

of
the

(to

the

through

observations,

Ilandw.

modification
the

pitch in
Recueil

the

original stimulus), having

variations

of

the

IN

Experimentid'physik (I.,

der

Wagner's

stimulus

the

to

weight

and

the

riTILOSOriTY

of

in

Delezenne,

Rud.

that

in

OF

perceptionn

Repertoriam

announced

variation

the

to

bers

had

STATE

PRESENT

by

consciousness.

increase

of

the

The

excitation,

dx

dv

Hence

"

"fundamental

the

formula"

de=K"

is

(where

quantity)

constant

by

integration

(where
take

is

the

fact

that,

wholly unexcited,

never

is assumed

Tq, the

of

value

threshold-

the

denotes

of

"formula

as

procure

consideration

into

nerve

we

the

stimulus)

when

even

obtain,

we

in

all cases,

tends

increment,
stimuli

therefore
Fechner

limit

perhaps
and

the

to

strictly
that

however,

intensity

it is

applicable

is very

and

the

the

of

the

intensive

for

in

the

external
relation

bodily functions

questionable).

as

limits

in

log.

of

the

log
if

But

"

we

the

stimuhis,

external

no

K.

"

tion
excita-

external

however,

alleged by Fechner
a

which,

first

in his

case

immediately

the

r,

of

nervous

of

the

of

case

Fhysi-

to

nervous

that

the

r
siderable
con-

violent

truth.)
is

excitation
law"

"Weber's

relations

means

when

more

very

anti

excitation

connected

no

; Helmholtz

increases

the

and

by

which,

receives

approximation

stimulus,

the

when

of

longer

no

intensity

between

function

in

since

zero,

sensation

the

general

place

but

to

K.

log.

r^

must

only

definite

true

psychical functions

which

formulae

within

that

assumes

we

equal

become

beyond

Fechner's

admits

proportional

to

Is reached,

of K

intensity

proportionality

exact

nearly constant,

remains

moderately,

increases

the
instead

that

but

or

K.

(Helmholtz,

exists

the

de^K

equation
that

Hog. Optik (" 21), shows

there

when

exists

proportion,"

between

therewith

is

tion,
sensa-

the

(which,

PRESENT

THE

Dan

Pechner.

ipsic, 1846;

mid

Bie

Ruck-^icht

mit

Beicegung

Of

essential
to

auf

of

and

Lotze

in the

importance,

cf.

Caspari, in

die

Atomen-

Seelenjrage^ Leipsic,

die

Die

Caspar!,

of philosophical

laws

Ueber

Gut

ilber

Oder

philosophinche

uiid

Otto

hochate

das

Zendavesta

psycho-physische

this

opuscule, confesses

Fechner.

combats

interest

principles of natural

common

1860

Leipsic,

Substrats, Leipsic, 1869.

Hires

positions

physikalische

die

Leipsic, 1863;

Olauberh%

Natnr

die

; Ueber

psychophysik,

der

des

fundamental

to the

his adhesion

Leipsic, 1851

Ueher

Leipsic, 1848;

Pflanzen,

der

323

GEEMANY.

Leipsic, 1836, 2d ed., 1866

Tode,

dem

; Elemente

uiidOriXn.de

Motive

drei

nach

IN

PHILOSOPHY

Seelenleberi

das

Jenseits,

des

ed., 1864

lehre^ Leipsic, 1855, 2d

1861;

Leben

vom

fiber

oder

Ilimmels

des

hige

Buchleiyi

Nanna

OF

STATE

which

have

is the

knowledge,

tion
reduc-

ascertained

been

through

positiveinvestigation.
Joh.

the

on

mechanics

Kraft,

der

niig

etc., eln

of

Optik, Leips., 1867,

acoustics.

[The

contains

Correlation

and

translation

of

Celestial Dynamics,
Menschen-

die

Axioms
All

Physics

of

in

causes

"causes of
which

nature

motion

are

persists. 5. Every
C.

cause,

of

Brunswick,

1869,

of

means

the

the
2d

Analysis^

effect

is

extension

of

1870

edition, London,
universe.

esthetics;

of

Roscher,

K.

of

respecting

Law;

begrijfe

heat,

Tr.]\

"

Hepp,

Heinr.

Gesch.

(Berlin. 1869), and

The

elucidation

J. G.

gogik,

attracted

was

for the

Dressier

also

R'dcksicht

in iiedagogical
the

Theory

compendium

edition

Education

2d.

of

Flemish

theory

by
of

4th
J.

Dittes

of

and

the

outlines

of

Blockhuys,
in

Die

edited

In

by

Ghent,
zwei

as

Dressier,
1859).

ersten

J.

Schuljahre

(O.

R.

by

inquiries

language

the

and

spiritof

Revision

of

the

Grund-

der

iiber

Entioicklang

science,

for

Psychology

1850

Wurst,
; Wurst's

is

B:s

relate

to

pedagogue,

education,

of

Theory

and

the

G.

has

in

Die

1865

Beneke's

is founded

of

B.'s

published

1868.)

Seelenlehre

1847,

Bautzen,
(translated

psychology
as

Dressier

Leipsic,
neue

und

essays

edition

bearbeitet,

Mayence,

applies

Sprachdenklthre

former,

Raue,

Psychologies

death

third

Education,

Lehrer

Praktische

numerous

Beneke's
the

P'ada-

und

Psychologie

besides

also

of

son

der

der

After

and

given by

1854,

Dressier.

1840-46;

System

published

Wel^efi'ir
and

of

Psychologie

der

Bautzen,

Jahrb.).

the

Gottlieb

Gnmdlehren

Dressier

Dressier,

entwickelnder

ibid.,

Die

(Berlin, 1861)

foundation

einfach

Gestaltung

1862;

Pddagog

Psychology

Beneke"'s

of

latter's theory

Orientiri'MgiCber

zur

Berlin

Dressier, 1870.

bodies

Spectrum

successfully.

Naturwissenschaft,

(Berlin, 1864).

Anthropology,

Roscoe,

culturgesch.

is Johann

labored

bessern

einer
als

Diesterweg's
of

ihrer

the

by

has

dasselbe,
O.

celestial

E,

departments

of Beneke

he

zn

the

Rechtsphilos. Betrachtungen
in

various

of

the

science

Netie

to its

Thermochemie,

Ihering, respecting

Kostlin's

Reinh.

Beneke

einBeitrag

gegen

Manual

GrundsUtzen

editions,

education

B.'s

; of

the

cause

From

philosophical

upon
in

point to

the
every

problems.

followers

Materialist?

F.

influence

fl,

1.

3. All

equivalent

der

of

[and

the

on

follows

as

anti-atomist.

nature

Humboldt,

von

is

effect

Grundriss

work,

of

effect

on

ilber

Causal-

zuni

with

departure

an

1862

Todesstrafe

to such

Seelenlehre

Instruction

Physical

methodischen

3d. and

by

of

and

popular exposition

B.'s nach

ed.

chemical

Chr.

Die

of which

journals (particularlyin

third

of

2d

Wilh,

law;

philosophy of

Eijucdrfe

the

representatives

the

die

; Tst Beneke

verschiedejie

aiif

the

18, 1867), Beltrdge

oder

written

politicaleconomy

Hetzel's

related

among

defence

Beiieke

Logik, Leipsic, 1867,

edited

and

by

has

Strafrechts, etc,, Vassali's

H.

nearly

to the

(died May

entitled

Denklehre, ibid., 1852

mit

works

in

to

termed

be

to

controlling

of

criminal

deutschen

very

prominent

most

Dressier

are

or

is

Mayer

object moved.

4. The

6. Every

Ai^leton,

of

latter

expressed

to the

and

Vorlesungeri

the

are

of

point

attack."

Sonnenspectrum,

exert

others

German

des

other

many

philosophical problems

must

and

Ran,

1843)

knowledge

investigations

axioms

the

York

Beziehung
In

is external

of

Naumann

Das

1866.

der

Karsten),

and

Wimdt,
ihre

und

counter-effect.

equal

Alex,

(New
forces,

these

uniting

"point

Berlin,

astronomical

Strafverfa/ire/i (Erlangen, 1869),

das

of

So, also, the

Strafrechts,

des

Cliemie,

Youmans

Wilhelm

{Ho.ndbuch

Gust,

by

Natural

Axiortie

motion

optics

on

edited

Erhalt-

die

NaturkrHfte^

der

L.

Tr.]

"

(of Heilbronn),

Ueber

of

Erlangen,

of

line

E.

by

Causality,

the

or

an

spectral analysis (see Kirchhoff,

the

Heat

cause

straight

by

der

theoiy

respecting

Roman

the

directed,

works

6, 1850),

May

Mayer

Helmholtz,

H.

Physik,

Interaction

of

of

Principle

accompanied

mechanical

the

on

2. Every

of
is

I^Philosophie

The

the

motion.

cause

edited

Forces,

R.

Wechselwirkung

die

comprehensive

Diephysikal.

9xid

1867) ;

der

; J.

York]

Ueber

Naturwissenscluxften,

to

direction

the

J, Karsten

fitand-point

of

in the

of

Equivalent

relation

of

and

Mechanical

der

New

Allg. Encykl.

lecture

Id^,
'Le\\"R\c,

causes

work

operation

the

their

and

the

Conservation

Philos.

der

aus

1854,

of

Helmholtz's

the

on

Thierseele,

taid

Capitel

ein

princip,

and

ix.

vol,

and

Berlin, 1847,

Konigsberg,

as

(Sept. 14, 1769"

Humboldt

von

London

collectively, Stuttgard,

Abhandlung,

Vortrag,

popular-wiss.

physiolog.

1865),

(published

heat

physikalische

eine

Alexander

[English translation,

Stuttgard, 1843-1862

essays

1840 ;

Coblentz,

Phystologie,

Muller,

osmos^

"

to

to its contents

into
the
on

324:

THE

Becker's

various

articles

ed., 1871.
die
''

; Naturlehre

is furnished

1868), and
O. F.

in

Pillion.

childhood

of

work

[on
an

of

sense

most

exist

in

only

criticises

the

for

R.

thing.

of

Ueber

Hoppe,

in

leading

so

but

spirits,or

die

of

period

Leipsic, 185(J;

(Gymnasial

Ge7nuih

that

modifications

The

"]

with

their

in

solution

perception,

to

his

Bedeutung

Zukunft

time

of

Beneke

what

is the

idea
in

knowing

tended,
in-

of

the

Hoppe

that

things

subject ;

to arrive

order

n("t

who

Locke

doctrine,

of

the

is

doctrine

philosoiihical

in the
Begriffsaiialyse,

psychologische7i

der

of

of

fundamental

is necessary

as

is the

determination

exact

in

presented

PhiloHophie, Berlin, 1852),

to the

in

(Jena,

Wissenschajt

Gege7i7JDart U7id

accomplishment

an

is

init

empiricism

der

view

object of knowledge

every

of Bacon

Conflict

the

by

Vortrdge

system-making

manhood.

Philosophy

to

works

ihrem

{ibid, 1834),and

the

its

in

adopts definitively only Berkeley's

abstraction

applying

not

that

characterizes

Empiricism

and

Berkeley,

of

irn 19 Jahrbh.
holds

philosophical conceptions,

questions,
to

ideas

Berkeley

of

Sufficiency

nearly

Strq/e,

urid

{Viertel^ahrsachrift far
Das

independent

the

on

Phllonophie

{ZuldnglichTceitden Empiriii7nus

Hoppe

elucidation

philosophical

approaches

of

"

the

Quarterly

with

founded

empiricism

Gruppe

investigation

for Reinhold

namely,

his

terms

In
the

Ueberweg,

Erziehmig,

F. S(;hmeding,

speculation,

speculative

Philos.

der

{ibid.,1855).
while

An

Tiber

Briefwechnel

Dentachland

empirical enough

on

Leipsic, 1868, 3d
U7iterrichtslehre,

U7ul

Psi/chologie (Leipsic, 1855), PnychologiHche

Vort7'dge (ibid.,18C9).

philosophy,

Atticus,

7'eligioHP. Memchenbild-

iind

moralischen.

der

till 1861.

Kanto-Fichtean

and

der
Fortlage's Sy"itei7i

Antdii^, ein

171

ReligUm

written

1870, etc.).

Pad,,

u.

WUle7"^reiheit, Zurech7iujig

die

; Ueber

Psychological

1859

from

Herodes

(on

Ph.

has

by Borner, Dittes,and

Erzi^himgs-

der
Korodi

Ludwig

Sprac/ie {Berlin, 1831), Wendep7mlt

und
der

BiJrner,

KuiiMehre

U7id

Or^mdriHH

at Cronstadt

empiricism

C.

PhiloHoph.

Gruppe"s

Otto

contribution
author

same

jKidagotjic science
mtlvcJahrb.f.

consciousness

of

; the

1808.

of Beneke's

compound

and

Neugeboren

P7vg7'am7n''\ Duisburg,
A

school

Moralischen

des

was
published
Seele)i.leh7'e)

author,

Antonines,

development

Beneko's

from

doctrincB

of

history

the

Leipsic, 1854
Dittos, Da.9yle""/te"/"67ie,

Heinrich

By

the

of

Kiimmers

Beneke.

chiefly from
Beneke'8

on

and

theory

time

Freiheit,Leipsic, 1S("0 ;

Mtliche

die

to the

on

is derived

GERMANY.

IN

nilLOSOPIIY

founded

are

in the

study

issueil

Friedrich

1855

Plauen,

Ueber

of

writings

have

works

Freiberg, 1857;
mig,

journals devoted
system

educational

to

following

for
the

OF

form

Ptidctgog. liealencyclopiidle

history of

addition

STATE

its didactic

while

Grammatik,

Hergting's

the

PRESENT

at the

Philos.

be

tion
concep-

Monatsh.,

IV., Berlui, 1869.

of the

the midst

In

is found

knowledge

which

doctrines

intimately
the
to these

of

"

and
human

directed

to the

does

and

can

thought

of which

only

whole

these,

in

and

and

time,

world"

the

and

realization

complex

its members

conception

in the

of law

law.

The

interest

through
state

thought,

as

but
priori.^

of
can

in

of
the

of ethical

which

in
and

is the universal

at
animate

of

rules

preserved
follows

from

from

in the

of

the

the

the

intrinsic

individual

in the

his

in the

mature,

Man

elevates

external

power

of the

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extrinsic

ditions
con-

whole

which

the

tical]
[pracof

the

develops

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universality

of

sire
de-

develops his

the

of individuals

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ternal
ex-

is founded

Trendelenburg
law

of

agreement

action, through

developed.

of

of

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thought.

requirements
and

man

of

with

world

counterpart

Legal right guards

imiversal

spheres

external

the

bases.

theory

in necessary

idea

one-sided

is his

self -consciousness,

legal right exists.

different

the

back

well-assured

the

essence

are

gone

criticised

" 115, p. 59),

ad

man

history.

those
be

The

realize

is to

turn, impel

in

state

universality of legal requirements

ends,

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itself d

partly

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burg,
Trendelen-

Adolf

upon

to

man

of

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to

common

(cf. above,

of

task

science,

Trendelenburg

to

categories.

logic),and

instructor,to have

and

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merit

philosophical

single philosophical

natural

philosophy

causes,

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in

province

essential

peculiar

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ethical

the

especially of

is the

thought,

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ethical

sensation, and
nature

final

of

organic theory of the

; the

doctrines

by

world

internal

[the state] ; it is the

ethical

in

reconstruct

to

the

among

motion,

prosecution

It

basis of

common

philosophy, partly

sciences, and

undertaken

have

to

motion,

creative

of

philosophicalinvestigator and

objective reality,space,

to the

history

philosophy.

with

noteworthy

constructive

with

philosophical parties,a

starting-points of philosophical inquiry,

common

and

of

the

positive

Aristotelian,as

most

being

the

connected

doctrines, and
The

in

longer disputed (mostly

no

are

results

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struggles
partly

up

national
to inter-

nation.

The

S26

THE

do

They
but

not

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pliysics.

and

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method

science

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is

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factors,

cal

broader

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(III.

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human

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skeptic, he
into

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problem."

the

what

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termed

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from

phraseology)
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we

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path

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telian
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lead

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find

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sciences

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forms

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presence

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to them

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their

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of

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We

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motion.
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general.

hypothetically

up

experience,
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analyze

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or

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at

simple.

his readers

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fact

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must,

",

metaphjsi

and

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assuming

the

ancients, is only known

original

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reminds

Trendelenburg
able

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being.

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the

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"

in whith

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ject,
in-

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ev*

characterizes

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distinction

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thought

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for

terming

knowledge

termed

are

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thought ?
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thinking

special science

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The

This

being.

cites

of

(IV.).

thought alone, and

knowledge,
of

but

are

The

Hegelian method),

and

it,and

[IV. 2]

of

existence

But

be

to

of

nature

sults
re-

special

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II.) and

the

Trendelenburg

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says,

fact,Trendelenburg

In

proving the

of

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criticises

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universal

precisely formulated

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knowledge

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the

logical and

and

logic

more

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science

considers

logic (in section

successful

of

product
theory of science,

necessary
and

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of

most

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all

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particular thinking

criticism

one

"

exhibiting

which

and

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nature

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The

is meta-

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of

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all

universality,which

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science

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science

sciences

anticipation

universal.

universal

the

conceptions

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all
The

Aristotelian

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ends,

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unitj^,as

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manifested

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that

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element.

objects

instituted.)

less

unity

this

the

GERMANY.

to the

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on

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or

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justifieshis

Herbart's,

the

sciences

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IN

PHILOSOPHY

contemplation

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sucli,which

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(Trendelenburg

Kant's
of

STATE

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definition

simple
as

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treat

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wliich

PKESENT

now

All

of motion

(V.)

processes,
in space.

at

the

world

mechanical,
All

forms

of

things,

chemical, organic,
are

the

result

of

aU

are

motion

activity connected
inconceivable

without

controllingmatter.

with
the

All

rest

in nature

also

extends.
motion

analogous

An

in

of motion
motion

in all conscious

and

of

being,

first

original,non-derivable,
processes

of
may

its further
that

the

but

it is such

that

of

conceptions

that,

the

contrary,

phases of

or

motion

manifestation.
time

and

space,

discussion

of this

and

space

since

products
is

subject

treats

reference

results

contrary,

Kant)

or

be reduced

confirmed

motion

in

being

Ideal

motion

of

thought.
in

in
'

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\a priori and]

'

of

world

It

the

the

of

although these
sensible

its

at

that

"

be

to

priori is only what

to itself

from

pure

this way
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is,through

[in experience]

motion,

shall

we

Trendelenburg

and
also

The

is

derived

seek

exist.

unity

These
in

these

these

from

that

confirm
motion

in

universal
at

are

the

same

eight
points

of

time

and

thought

activity (ideal or
primitive
and

and
lations,
re-

the

under

or

"

to both

within

"

ception
con-

cause
objectively valid, be-

itself in

(or,

of

regions

; for

nal
exter-

deduce

we

them

observations."

in the

view

under

which

forms,

under

which

wider
we

and
pure

experience

all

while

thought

sphere

the

by empirical
real

{vs.

the

consequences

Hence

''

Matter,
cannot

priorinotions, which

is the

It

it confirms

them

structive
con-

notions

In

sense
are

of
pelled
com-

things

must

causality {causa

efficiens),
substance, quantity, quality, measure,
plurality,inherence, reciprocityor interaction
(involving, therefore, force).

the

are

first,working-

categories
of

to

fact that

stant
con-

The

completes experience.

common

from

following
with

motion.

'priori

of

theories

The

motion

fundamental

itself

reveals

deduces

regard things, and

the

The

it involves

(i

[as ideal faculty] yet they pervade

term, physical) categories, or

to

Of

it

objective.
other

the

that

elementary conceptions
which

(motion)

it follows

moved,

conceive

subjectively and

once

[categories]are

intuition

from

ducts
pronal
exter-

mathematical

experience, and
own

conceptions

truths

express

nature

of

between

we

by

are

theories.

to other

of

quirements
re-

to show

space

experience,

of

consciousness).
(self-

observe

of

in

(VI.)

theories.

source

objective reality.

itself

of

to

is the

community

is involved

may

form

motion

perceived
all the

conclusion

being,

criticisms

something

in the

its immediate

subjective

is derivable

and

knowledge,

and

and

source

attempt

every

of the

because

observe

categories,will

founded

being.

the

(VIII.) can
these

motion,

fine,then, ideal

thought

of

act

for

in

and

or

thought
It is also

conception of motion,

space

medium

the

as

principles. Form

of

motion)

and
name

in

or

exhibited

various

meets

next

on

Time

Herbartian
the

positive sciences

motion, although
In

by experience

constructive

universal

and

and

iiriusand
of

substratum

of motion.
are

is

thought

to

the

once

of
to

be

try the

to

to the

extended

by

nature

"only

goes

thought

to
at

are

in

being

only

and

external

is involved

common

can

latter.

measure,

Kantian

actual

(point,line, surface,etc.)
the

the

the

common

accompanied

as

of

is

motion

fulfilled in it.

and

necessary

from

functions,

of motion

to the

motion

on

motion

or

is

everywhere

thought

counterpart

from

examination

is thus

it remains

not

are

flow

is its inner

time, particularly of

(VII. )

section

time

former

; time

But

its

and

the

ideal

the

Trendelenburg

implications.

space

This

Since, then, motion

of

union

the

is the

distinction

Motion, then,

explained."

principle,and

and

consequences

on

and

extends, motion

thought

In

by

such

as

nature

as

simple activity, wliich

principle explaining

conclude

it is

defined

not

exhibited, but

and

itself

manifests

and

Finally,

thought.

of

of

it.

indicated

above

requirement

motion

to show

conception.

and

far

motion.

seeks

Trendelenburg

perception

the

and

constructive

be. termed

acts, as

instances

extent

So

with

identical

327

GERMANY.

IN

The

thought.

to

to that

it is to

in space,

typical

belongs

and

nature,

PHILOSOPHY

counterpoise of motions.

the

is but

OF

STATE

PRESENT

THE

organic

do

not

nature

cover

is the

cause,

the

disclose

whole
new

most
realm

important
of

and

empirical

the
fact

controlling one.
(IX.).

principle,the principle of design

or

The

But

mena
pheno-

final cause,

328

THE

in which
what

the

PRESENT

order

before

was

STATE

of terms

in the

causality the parts precede the

in

the

form

thought;

thought,

of

in

the

^only through

the

finallfi]which

ideal

is

in

therefore

of

the

admitting

for

all

faces.

into itself.
of
"

by

and

and
interior

itself

of force
is the

as

self

the

ends

at

of

end,

the
When

it

of

course

of
and
from

an

development.

ideal

an

negatively
which
it

remaining
and

is

(XII. ).

they
are

universal

are

and

of

will

follow

the

good

real

the

n^an

to

which

all

of the

is

only

It

of man,

nature

in
is

implies

involves

fixed

thought

and

this

"

in

only acquired

"

and

penhauer's
Scho-

ethical

repellent force

points

logical

and

desires

organic

the

in

full

of this

motive

Kant's, Schelling's,and
in the

other

in the

will
the

to

the

to

requirements

as

innate, but

Negation
It

This

representations
response

categories (XIII.), necessity

contrary.

tial)
(par-

many

in

apprehended

of

man

by thought."

becomes

idea

in

them.

control

man,

categories acquire

perceived.

is

as

is not

discussions

modal

the

the

by

freedom

Here

Of

In

of

capable

organic

for its motive, in opi"ositionto the

Such

The

is

The

in response

acting

may

man

implied

never

viduality
indi-

be defined

acting

are

such

principle. Organic

permeated

of

end

incidence
co-

hood
self-

and

must

of

which
The

thought.

have

will.

In

term.

former.
end

The

The

world.

is not

of

simply

judgment,

ontological

ments;
ele-

"

of the
The
substance
(the universal).
by thought
(XIV. -XXIII.), which relate mostly to specificallylogical questions

extended

in the

ends

capable

being, permeated
criticisms

(Vol. ii.,pp.
displayed

the

the

is "desire

ultimate
the

will."

impossibility

sections

involve

it is

impossibility of

the

the

by
is interior

cause

selfhood,

brutes.

capable

spiritualsignificance(XI.).

"

this
"

of

and

affirmation

of

this

by (individual) sensuous
be

must

motives,^ only

of the

theories
realms

will

of

blind

up

is controlled

organism (X.).

an

but

abilityto

sensuous

freedom

the

term

This

of

of

(whole)

The

"The

and

and

respective doctrines

connection,

result

the

acts, when, therefore, it is moved

so

this

above

ethical

and
.

not

of

sense

is unconscious

such

as

is

account

thought

speak, design

which

condition

soul. In

is hence

guided

are

when

except

will.

good

independently
the

we

will

to

so

is indirectly

to

to

aud

necessity

in nature

contrary,

result

the

higher
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the will.

subjects only

are

term,

and

The

thought.

(universal)

ultimate

thought.

we

desires

the

[ca/isn

ends

The

common

That

motion

end

proposes

causes

subject,the

the

higher stage

external

nature."

takes,

on

is

is elevated

is

in

final

and

when,

in the

realm,

latter

The

itself

criticised.

subject

soul

this

by

properly subordinate,

are

The

through

animal

mind

whole,

determines

external

individualizingprinciple of the

same

realization.

motives.
of

impulsion

it is

The

the

principle

outwards,

manifested,

human

seek

once

purely

sense

the

ethical.

(notions) as

this

of

is effectuated

control
our

within

individuality
is

universal, and

to the

ends

of

we

the

of this

and

machine

in the

end

psychical

outside

thinking

In

from

-realizingfinal idea.

nature,

rises

and

condition

the

examined

are

know

we

physical

of the

efficient (physical) causation

discussion

the

As
know

of

of

case

former, being

realized

natural

(final cause) is the

end

organic

with

to itself is

realizes

ends

principle of design,

Spinoza

external

cause

because

of

fundamental

new

connection

In

Kant, Hegel,
final

the

in

itself,so

incompetency

the

Motion,

is involved

being,

the

"

the

precedence

the

being.

mind

only

In

versa.

In

whole.

controlling influence

and

presence

demonstrated

the

itself ideally the

in

reproduce

GERMANY.

finalityimplies

determines

nature,

can

before

in the

motion

realized

But

whole.

latter, thought

vice

effect, and

now

idea,

IN

physical category of (efficient)

causality is reversed,

becoming

cause

nilLOSOPIIY

OF

493-496)

correspondence

"

of

The

the

latter

individual.

of thought

community

forms

essentiallydistinguished
the

summarized

of conflicting theories, is thus

As

from

of

thought

with

other

by

each

in the

realm

the
the

and

being

forms
fact

delenburg
by Tren-

of

that

of being substance

is further

being,

though
al-

the former
issues

from

activityand

in turn

in

the

being
The

agree

when

"

with

of

the

posit
viewed

in

and

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his

To

essence.

and

thought
exhibited

setting forth

as

truth

the
is the

of

postulate

them

their

and

so

''

idea

blind

real

the

is realized
this

unites

they

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is ruled

all

world

sciences

appear

cannot

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unity

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spirit. Hence

understand

to

building
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from

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glory of

work

in

God

and

God

tile
hos-

and

by showing

by

mind

alone,

partial manifestations

as

are

tuting
consti-

as

opposite

comprehended

an

things

idea

is the

up

ing
correspond-

in which

divine

God
of

ground of

firm

their differences

and

but

It

essence

in

in

the

and

the

to

philosophy

idea,

separate

philosophy to
shall

for

the

indirectly forced

the

is divorced
a

"

divine

of design."

organ

"

Design

directing will,becoming

in

the

real.

harmonizes

The

with

the

final

[the

of

the

realism

which

philosophy

in

seeks

equivocal identity of

and

cause], in the

of what

source

subordinate, logically and

as

appears

view, dispenses

and

of

the

philosophy

Where

single whole,

the
and

ideal

such

real

nothing

single law.

things.

creative

its foundation

its realization

development.

conditioned

is

in order

co-operate

one

universe."

foreseeingthought

develop

In

that

becomes

motion,

in which

reality of

mission

them

must

the

the world

nature,

and

point, transcends

mind

of the

ment.
judg-

science, corre

adequately

of

sphere

that

intimate

its

conditioned

express

The

philosophy having

world.

is the

of the

Motion

the

in that

place

to direct

organic

but

all

is without

things.

of the

directions, it

the

end,

things,

thought

no

in the

form

sciences

for

termines
de-

understand

reality,governed by

spirit and

which

thought

we

of

system

Since

expanded

of

steps

the

categories

such

in its most

individual,the particular,and

the

the

sequence
con-

effect.

in which

finite sciences

unconditioned.

it in

sort

expression,

visible,corporeal counterpart

world

this
of

organic philosophy

the

of

of the

is necessary

of

posit

to
the

sense

apprehend

must

we

some

what

sphere

finite

the

of

ceptions,
con-

and

judgment

points

way

world

the

but

thought

conditioned

these

extent
Yet

the

absolute,
in

as

good

infinite.
in

accidental

be

hold

of

and

cause

of

spring

[ Grund]

reason

of

the

same

systems

the

is
from

in

of the

the

for

relation

sense

in the

us

section

or

to which

to what

told

be

life of the

and

given sphere

which

conceptions
cannot

principle gives

flows

judgments

of

objective subject

reproduce

to

the

329

GERMANY.

from

so

relation

demonstration

ultimate

the

able

unconditioned,

The

The

consequence

for, in

the

IN

substance,
with

being

judgment,

of the

are

we

development

spending

of the

nature

and

thing only

in

activity of

it is the

necessity

meet

PHILOSOPHY

from

forth

go

thought corresponds

The

OF

conceptions judgments.

judgment

the

in

activities

from

and

STATE

PRESENT

THE

the

were

fact, to the

only

ideal, and

demonstrate

to

subjective

of

form

otherwise

and

and

to

objective,

idealism."
'

In

Trendelenburg's

ciples of
The

"

ethics

legal and
nature,

not

are

the

its historical development

follows

in his

is
Aristotle),

not

especially illustrated
Ethics," in Vol.

But

in the

the

following

"1.

Kant

has

proved

has

not

it must

his
on

III. of Tr.'s Histor.

with

he

as

in
article

ends

proof that
an

evident

proved
be

impellingforce,he

theses

various

whole

The

than

"

the

in his

Antagonism

Bdtrage

zur

prin-

society is considered.

of ethics

significanceof

loving disciple,the
ethics

to

principle

its idea

degree

ancients

is the
and

idea

the

to which

of human

of

wealth
burg
Trendelen-

(Plato, and

especially

Logical Investigations, and

Kant

between

is

Aristotle

and

Pldlosophie(pp. 171-213).

in

This

cle
arti-

rational

will.

"

is the

the

universal

that

the

formally universal

has

Ethics," the fundamental

relations

The

that

such

of

Basis

II.," 347, 8).

(see Erdmann,

philosophy,
less

his

separated.
in the

man

the

on

in

man

to be
of

nature

Right

and

stated,

are

moral
or

Natural

is

defective, and

not

attempted

that

to prove.

object
it

and

and

must
can

be

of the

motive
can

such,

be

i.

principle.
that

e.
,

His

it possesses

330

THE

"

the

In the

2. Kant

that

the

"

for

is found

rear

that

the

and

passage,

and

good

is found

with

the

pleasure

from

and
virtue,

that

claim

happiness

and

proved

not
He

has

real

not

will.

surrender, but,

not

good will.
be

cannot

regarded
But

nevertheless

the

as

has

to the

does

self-love.

be

Kant

experience.

in

principle which

would

motive

universal

the

in abstracto

will

pure

that

Kant

will ; but

object

no

unites

specificallyuniversal.

good

positive content

the

case

is excluded

pleasure

by

from

but

will is the

empirical motive,

proved by

In

principle,which

formally,

pure

of Aristotle

been

will.

the

no

transition

direction

It has

good

that

the

have

can

contrary, replenishes

"3.
the

that

proved

will

the

In

the

has

pure

provided

if

of Aristotle

direction

GERMANY.

IN

PHILOSOPHY

OF

special (individuallypeculiar),not
"

on

STATE

PRESENT

reward

the

has

reason

of virtue

the

as

Kant

realm

of

proved
in, as

enter

may

in the

motive
not

of actual

praxis.
'

'

the

In

pleasure,
A

subjective

had

he

Critical

in

On

and

his former

of Kant's

position, and
and

arguments

the

at

historical

considerable

point
bitterness,

18G9),

in

18G9), and

The

Critique.

reply by

Fischer

Cf.,

with

2, Halle, 1869

No.

of

Trendelenburg's

doctrines

on

the

in

and

1870.

will

be

reference
modern

from

seen

to the

philosophy

the

Lehre

from

may

of natural

be

termed

science."

"

favorable
the

It is

last

to

and

Part.
of

at

Kant

Gegner.,in

objections

of

IV.,

(Leipsic,

one

the

Zeitschr.

hand, A.

the

to

far

defence

Fischer), and,

Zeit ; Kuno

und

little

and

the

Kuno

of

one

mental
funda-

Anti-Tren-

entitled
on

theory

not

Vols.. Ill,

sein

of fundamental

also

last with

und

in

account

the

was

speciallydevoted

sciences.

Fischer

philosophized

Says

Fortiage,

an

present {Genetische Gesch.

Trendelenburg'
complete

one

interpretation of

Trendelenburg

important

Trendelenburg's

of which
liMscheProp(ldeutik,
be styledin good part a resume

that

till the

his

was

It

controversy,

Raum

von

delenburg
Tren-

und

below, App. III., ad. " 122.)

also

positive

time

Kant's

Kant, Leipsie, 1852, p. 449)

exists,is extremely

above

of the

results

the

System

developed

into

point

pamphlet

ihre

is

at the

his

essentially

Fischer

und

(this article

(See

and

time.

the

that

not

of

on

continued,

this

to

general against

other, C. Grapengiesser, KanVs

Adolf Trendelenburg Jena,

It

of

Trendelenburg's logischeUntersuchungen

Kym,

Philos.^Vol. LIV.,

The
rests

latter,in

to the

reference

space

Thereupon

(2d ed.,
Philosojjhie

neuern

of

a
special article to
Subjectivity of Space and

doctrine

was

to

remarked

could

introducing

space

respect

to suppose

edition

reaffirmed

relating to

as

dispute

Gescli. der

Kuno

delejiburg^iJ
ena,, 1870).
L.

import,

he

of

Philos.

zur

with

number

had

as

remark.

elements.

nature

by

up

j)riorinature

second

this

by Trendelenburg, entitled Kuno

pamphlet
in

objective

Fischer's

which
Fischer

whose

Jena),

manner

Exclusive

non-Kantian

critical

and

in Kant's

in Kuno

and

of

of the

"), m

Trendelenburg,

to

subjective

once

charged

doctrines

in the

Ilistor. Beitrdge

Kuno

the

with

only subjective,and

were

correctness

Sheet

during

Trendelenburg

proved

Fischer,

Proof

Anti-Critical

consequence

of

time

his

Kant's

in

time,

at

iwiari in such

Kuno

III. of

Vol.

Gap

(Professor

and

indeed

term

and

space

objective validity.

devoted

Time

that

had

the

Metaphysics, disputed the

and

subject ("

detail

Kant

intervals

at

on

Fischer

of space

nature

swallowed

results."

own

carried

was

Kuno

understood

proved

have

time

Logic

that

but

he

thereby

this

and

is not

principle which

of its

one

interest

that
LogicalInvestigations

time,

of

the

is found

pleasure

Trendelenburg

proof of

in the

same

makes

of considerable

between

Kant's

and

which

but

dispute

years

of Aristotle

direction

to
s

notice

natural

to such

doctrine,

consequence

doctrine

that

drawn

lies at the

II. {Encycl'ypddieder

Trendelenburg's ideas.

basis

degree
Jos.

theoretisehen
"

Tr.'^

the

stant
con-

historian

of

Philos.

seit

science, as

from
of

der

with

that

it

now

this doctrine

present state

Beck's

Philoso-

Philosophie)may

with

Together

of earlier

others

many

331

GEEMANY.

IN

already mentioned,

philosophical tendencies

the

PHILOSOPHY

OF

STATE

PRESENT

THE

origin

later

or

have

existed.

At

"

institutions

Catholic

most

the

Still,during

iloctrine.

Austria.

specially in

On

ed., Miinster, 1869).

iid

2d

Philofi.

at

attempts

Plato

Recht

and

essays),

1838, etc.), who

Deutinger

Petiicz

Durdik

terms

of

Leibnitz
with

gravitation

also

occupies

positive

the

school

sciences

and

the

Reinhold's

Fries)
Leonh.

(Karl

Kantism

History

idea

of

of

ReinhoUrs

( Gesch.

critical

hence

that
: the

discovery

original
them

with

the

from
Kant's

"

exclusive

"things
Y, in

in

his

itten

to

common

province

ed., 1870), Lange

themselves,"
Ueber

Ueber

den

above, " 122,

seeks

reproduces

object

of his

time. he

author,

forzheim, 1843
antributor

158).

Karl

nebst

utolatrie, ein
; and

the

to the

in

Freiheit

Psychologie,

by

Psychology

the

facts
of

use

of
the

own

results

in

des

the

Philos.

than

for

self -consciousness

schen

anonymously,

Der

edited

his work

1870.

Faith

but,

Question

the

to show
and

not

by

Philosophie,

what
the

truths

Fuchs,

and

and

Wirth."

Knowledge

{Die

is

7r.]
alte

of others.
the

Feuerbach,

very
a

modem

also, by
L.

Of

eine

1-24

pp.

psychology

Stuttgard, 1844

[Von Reichlin-Meldelgg

also

nor

of

in

Cf.

and

Kantian

an

upon
Kant's

Ueber

1870,

observations

Sendschreiben

Reineke

neue

and

more

has

philosopher

other

in distinction

symbols

V.

of
than

placed

be

may

Monatsh.,

although
any

of

(Winter-

energetically

physiological investigations.

by Fichte, Ulrici,
on

limits

combating

the

way

decidedly

Willens, Stuttgart, 1868,

in

Kant

of

the

conception

Labor

contrary, under

the

(Pleidelberg, 1"S7-38) is
our

Philosojjhie, Vienna,

Germar,

influences,

Reichlin-Meldegg,
for

jungheget

der

published

von

the

in

conscious

more

Schiller's

and

tion
justifica-

grounded

are

still

intviition

is of

become

not

of

possible,

(cf. above, " 122, Lit.) ; Liebmann

die

regard

of

is

possible only by

on

while

pretending

die

ZeitscJirift
filr Philosophie,

the investigations of F. H.

Liebmann,

auf

more

which

may
is

"

forms

them

from

author

fundamental

metaphysics

resembles

moral

by

way.

we

his work

In

of the

(in

Ernst

removed

Lange,

objectivedemonstration,

of which

poetry.

Otto

Baron

shows

of

die

what

their

and

ason

fiir

Alexander,

Geheimniss

work

Einleitiing

old

distinguishes

Lange

A.

innate
of

conceptions

"

although
abstraction

conception

F.

cently
re-

or

TV.]

"

far

not

was

of

the

as

has

Berlin, 1870),

reflection."

deduction

no

the

on

[Meyer

erortert,

acceptance

existence

the

science.

the

his

of

this

{ibid.,1861), Philos.

Leipsic, 1840).

that

works

psychological foundation,

avows

of

Aristotle's

on

of

essays.

psychological

of realization

fact, although

in

Math,

special

makes

in

egoism.

Beweis

i. e.,

holds

A^iblick, Stuttgard, 1869

der

Handbook

by experience,

same

Logik,

p.

Kant

but

religion and

on

them

individnellen

of
his

"

show

to

objectiven

den

ideas

ideas

with

founded

rules

philosophical school,

established
the

ime

of any
The

les.

of

ethical

on

followers,

representatives

also

und

1, " 4) position

only through

psychological

and

Vol.

understanding,

of

then

of the

legitimacy

rests

understanding

of the

works

theory

philosophers

Metempsychosis

of

with

impossible

as

and

and

the

working

is

and

by
Jos.

(see below)

already mentioned,

dargestelU

Philosophie,

assiunes

the
the

way

above,

experience,

faculty

period,

(Fechner's) Antcendung

irne

late

the

relegates

one

"

the

Iserlohn, 1866), also

conceptions
of

of criticism

aid

work,

primary

unfolding

Kant,

thur, 18()5,2d
the

the

ethical

the

between

than

of

all

metaphysics

comparatively

induction,

future

invariable

and

until

Kant

'*

Kant's

Lange

basis of

the

; cf

mains,
re-

form

eminent

very

among

Nation,

of

Idea

doctrine

Kantische

die

Mater.,

d.

philosophy.

form

179;2-1865

and

alone.

Newtonian

the

among

writings

souls

Drossbach

M.

part

than

German

Psychologie,

by

in

and

pedagogical

and

critical

Kant's

mrid

the

on

is discovered

son,

Materialism

which

that

of

of

to combine

seeks

Prominent

the

to

{KanVs

R.

1852;

independent

an

Halle, 1869).

niamerous

author

1856),

and

System

zum

posthumous

D.'s

consisting

as

philosophers

men.

Meyer,

philosophical

h priori

"the

has

nominal

addresses

psychology

Reiiihold

Kanfs

judgment,

and

other

Ernst

(cf Apelt,
.

the

of

to show

that

Bona

world
and

in

renewed

been

the

Newtou,

uiid

educated

(Hamburg,

Kant's

on

is made

attempt

with

agreement

woi^k

of

Pichte''s

on

has

philosophy,"

philosophy

circle

from

ibid.,

J. Fesl

M.

see

and

Athanasia,

Giinther.)

regards

among

Jiirgen

Soul

1870), and

zeitfrageri,(Bonn,

in which

and

Body

Kantian

wider

Rousseau,

1837

Philosophie, Schaffhaasen,
edited

works

works

other

( Gncndziige

Oisehinger

Philosophie,

ad

{Leibniz

of

the

on

above-cited

the

and

philosophizing,

GUtUhemche

philosophy

German

numerous

stands

and

dispute concerning

published

in the

of

Leibnitz

The

of

(author

of

(editor

hierarchism

and

der

sporadic

Frohschammer

philosophy,

of

way

deutscfien

Leibnitzian

giant
of

less

were

time

present
Voltaire

on

real

position.

they

the

at

Zoology,

"

the

time

1852 ; Die
der

186G.) (Cf. above,

the

of

etc.,

{Lehrhuch

wanting

not

[see below],

mentioned

be

may

gives

Hagemann

St")ckl

are

attempts

of

development

Welt, Leipsic, 1838), who

der

doctrines

the

similar

for

althougli

of

principle

{A7isicht

There

hand

one

A.

Kleutgen,

the

witness
the

Liebnitzo-WoLfflan

Zustand

Munich,

Kastner,

fundamental

Michael

the

edition, Straubing,

{Der gegeiiicartige

Lorenz

by
The

2d

historical

connection

this

In

P.

institutions,

those

logic, metaphysics,

(1781-1848 : Wisseiv^chaftslehre, Sulzbach,

follows

respects

Phiiosophie,

Christ.

Mart.

the

It.

in

Georg

(including

scholasticism.

as

on

doctrines,

Leipsic, 1869]),Michelis

Ueberzeugung^
of

scholastic

to

philosophy,

materialism

Bolzano

cited.

above

as

of

review

Bernh.

in many

ZImmcrinann,
der

On

others.

and

of

friendly

are

influence

Thomist

the

prevails, particularly
great

PhilosoiJhie

d^r

(see above).

Clemens

combats

acquired
and

Elemeiite

others

eUjenen

der

Kant,

on

in
J.

Aristotelianisra

has

Aristotelian

the

reformation

Frohschammer

[see Das

other
on

F.

18(iO),and

independent

an

Atheiiceum.

the

of

philosophy

So, too,

ed., Jilayence,

Ilerbartianism

years

basis

the
of

ysternatic presentation

modified

scholastically

last

; System

frequent

similar

Strei^rage,

order

Glattben

332

THE

Wl-isrn,

Oder

henntwortet

Ain()n",'nntiiral
Hehnholtz,
trunscendeiital
certain

aesthetic

and

to the

respects,

that

nature,

doctrine

whatever

8t;ientirtc

of

knowledge

of

system
for

possible
is

says,
which

more

Virchow

faith, thus

Vier

natural

of

principle
Efforts

science

mus,

ibid.,1859;

Vonder

is maintained

by

The

going

greatest

interest,

direction

taken

of

after

Liebig

between

delivered

at the

In

the

first

descended

of

still

we

phenomena

founded

been

1870 ; E.

in Die

Outtidee

excited

by

der

the

of

and

the

the

article

on

cal
medi-

on

u?id

trine
(pantheistic)doc-

ed., Zurich, 1870.

Zeit, 2d

materialistic

Alte

MaterialU-

des

Arelated

neuen

following

the

Baltzer,

Fatalisten

neuen

Meyisch, ibid.,1869.

und

second

that

upon

Christian
that

is still

which

controversy,

the

advanced

this

knowledge

in

gap

our

that

"the

opuscule

"

on

from

concludes,

doctrine

world,

of

acts
future

he

and

after
the

claims

death

universe
;

and,

integument.
defended

the

basis

in like
In

the

of

Faith,
1854),

of

judgment
for

the

be

soul,

the
to

which,
of

forms

as

which

he

connection
as
same

Wagner's

urges
and

may

distinction

physiologicalwritings,and

of th3

the

easily

between

the

future

in the

As

is the

of ether

in

transmission

epoch

the

of

and

and

Augsburg

be

faith

"

science

that

of

light

his

after

soon

{Ueber

1857),he

geological periods,
modified

the

order

of

the

moral

from

another
the

with

to

or

the

bodily

new

he
"

portion

sun
a

distinction

Zeitung

ence
exist-

local

future

into

provided
which

is not

and

Souls"

been

the

soul

Allgemeine

soul,

the

of

later

of

the

earliest

practically

(Gottingen,

brain,

the
of

nothing

the

to

"continuation

has

basis

nounces
pro-

all notions

published

Seele

nature

mation
forlested.
unmo-

psychical substance,
a

earlier and
of

Bible

follow

Condition
die

um

cotirse

knowledge
for

of

which

the

activities

natural

nature

Future

transplanting

the

as

at

in articles

sort

the

that

it would

soul," Wagner

Kampf

further,

asserts

return

to
his

answered

physiology

back

goes

that

the

"

psychical

fully destroyed."

existence

to be

supposes
he

quickly
soul

in

maintains

in the

that

individual, permanent

an

reference

also

organic

he

he

respecting

have

men

be

indeed, against

in

sees

by Vogt,

1854).

i^ermanent,

belief

Vogt,
as,

furnished

be

not

of Carl

physiology

substance

place, by which

taken

'

all

accompanying

the

Wagner

belief in

the

leave

immortality,

question

special

with
in

becoming

activities."

thus

may

and

of retribution,

and

effected

manner,

the

have

latter

the

by

man

soul

functions
the

social order
of

'

whether

and

Man

Gottingen,

at

investigation,

phenomena

science

address

an

of

physiologicallyindisputable,

is

probable

of

Creation

this

to

especially,

Vogt

occasion

question

and

declaration

those

premise

human

filled up

the

and

the

the

descent

individual

of

independently
be

creation

the

from

highest

the

of

of

Carl

the

on

scientific

animals,

natural

the

against
idea

the

that
exact

and

the

of

results

substratum

creation

diversity
of

opposition

in earlier

that

Gottingen,

; in this
may

latest

existence

material

are

Knowledge

the

successive

the

the

on

'^agner,

mation
transfor-

the

directly

lead

to

and

Wagner

such

men

only remotely,

is directed

address

should

moral

Olauben,

7ind

be

may

to decide

speculations concerning

Wlfseti

it

independent

brain,

in

especially

and

nature

principally
Rud.

of

of

possibility

peculiarities originating

of the

drinking

and

the

Rud.

demonstrate

standpoint

of

Seelensicbstanz, -printed

U7id

mig

to

the

1854, by

science,

were

between

dimensions,

seeks

from

that

negatively;

standpoint, asserting

eating

author

can,

categorically against

far
sufficiently

in order

the

natural

others,

on

in

Gottingen,

at

that, therefore,

of

of the

wider

assumed

and

and

(Ueber Meusche7i"ichdpf

though

part

philosophy

Feuerbach

previously carried

naturalists

address

nor

; and

functions

earth

has

of

by

been

original pair,

definitely and

of

Oott, Welt,

come

relation

essays

religious movement,

; Die

seq.

in

1-56).

pp.

free

it shall
the

collected

of

this

of

Science

1, and

No.

Seele, Gotha,

und

1850-59, 2d ed., 1859

development

physiognomic

see

races

The

that

1856,

so-called

Leib

mathematician,

naturalism

Soul

this

one

resemble,

of

of

the

affirmatively

since

an

the

iiach

last years,

Moleschott,

and

of

part

from

neither

but

the

having

meeting

Substantiality

the

by
into

Hegelianism

controversy, which,

the

Mensch

MiJlliiiger,the
during

with

that
on

Empirical

VII.,

ho

importance

demands

and

in Virchow's

reprinted

the

which,

social

Virchow

on

essay

Phys.,

uiid

and

the

avoided.

is within

on.

The

and

Der

Arbeit, ibid., 1864

O.

Anat.

in

all

plete
com-

(a prerogative

constant"

psychology

ince
prov-

be

to

which

render, namely,

of

in

that

form

knowledge,

to

But

the

and

to

extent

that

in its immeasurable

problems

especially

of

instant

inconsequence
the

1849,

connected

possible

Akin,

vism
subjecti-

investigatora

"belief,"

opposition

at every

Med., Prankfort-on-the-M.,

wins,

Uhlich,

in

in

"

untouciied

On

himself

written

fullest

Kant's

from

as

of

made

the

on

excluded

investigation,so

testify only

belief

resting

mere

Berlin, 1862, Preface).

Patholog.

4 vols., Nordhausen,

Weltanschauung,

jieue

far

works

and

L.

leaves

without

expressed

the

being

of

sphere

"to

not

absolutely

exact

to

to
of

Kranksein,

Archiv

zur

authors

mentioned

be

he

it cannot

Science,

Abh.

{Gesammelte

here

may

Medical

in

Unity

philosophical

Of

in the

of

principle,

ascribes

and

which

mid

has

faith, Virchow

to

transcendence,

after

Leben

his

"prerogative

the

"

results

spiritual, are

as

empirical investigation.'

of

results

the

and

it down

science, what

from

separated

science

iiber

Reden

natural

ironically, but

half

the

the

be

between

non-materialistic

among
is

here

jjerception.

sensuous

although

investigation
to

of

should

relationship

the

theory

prevailing

now

exact

hypothetically

lays

(juantity"

ot

Priifilno,Zurich, 1856).

nnd

mention

to

criticism,

relegated entirely

be

things

attention

Kantian

principle

comprehension,"

variable

speaks

with

to terms

of

directs

the

limits

the

must

Virchow

scientific

"

and

science
llud.

of

range

Virchovv,

see

the

example,

is the

Kant,

beyond

supplement

to

of

Tact

von

physiologico-psycholoKical

principle

GERMANY.

others, especial

and

Hehnholtz

present

of

lies

philosophical attempts

Tims,

the

Verhdltniss

verkannten

others.

and

IN

PIIILOSOrilY

Apclt, Schleldon,

fundamental

tlie d priori

and
of

iMihide

Rokitansky,

OF

bWier

clem

aus

invcstiKatorK,

of C.

STATE

PRESENT

had
in

also
oppo*

334

THE

characterizes

nics and

1861,

is

lierelche

Im

CogitaiUen-

of

sense,

M., 18()8.

of

Kunis

the

is taken

die

und

Protestants,

an

on

the

Mater

uud

iali^mua,

1853), and

angen,

works
others.

Compare

1856 ; Philos.

krinen, H(.idelberg, 1858;

Karl

of the

1870 ;

M.

Ueber

Wesen

J.

doctrine

with

keit, vom

the

der

mit

in

that,

while

suns), yet through

the

earth

into

etc., the

must

be

sun,

renewed

it

vibrations
but
"

"

to

is itself

in the

persons;

but

in the

associated

from
the

in

of the

it is left

hero

unity

within

the

the
of

sphere

(say, in

Paris, 1865]
eommune).

; this
the

beUeves

the

the

of

this

in

commune

matter

which

to

produce

in

say,

in all
the

does

to be

Luys

of

are
can

fact

depend

and

excluded,
scarcely

as, in the

interval.

of

process

of

sensations
or

of

which

may

the

unity

continuum
be

anywhere

striatum,

which

Tr.], are

punctual
a

tached,
"de-

different

brain."

the

ings,
feel-

ing
"detach-

excited

are

le systemtnervetix

corpus

infinity of

sensations, etc.,

on

life
that

and

sensation

situated

be

the
finite

continmim,

separate

the

of

condition,
in

locality or

[Recherches stir

located,

those

only
mental

and

individuals

J.

fields

in

not

distinct

further,

of

of

(the
of

earth,
pi-occss

projection

The

they

cases

the

sensations

where

same

ones

larger

by

places
the

spaces

this

But

als

Halle, 18(55;

increasing

shares

indeed

Ha-

der

the

same

present

the

Unsierblich-

whole

the

the

unexplained.

from

the

from

latent."

Werner.
atomistic

Unsterblichkeit

into

moon

that

; C.
the

Wahrn.,

than

and
upon

intersection

unity

of other

consciousness,

opticus,

aensorium

muttial

back

further,

*'

are

is left

?)

presuppose

sensations

space

thalamus

although

certainly

it does

of which

consciousness

brain

; for

of consciousness

ordinarily

should

we

and

unintelligible, why

and

unexplained

place [or,as

*ame

to

not

they

thoughts

and

leads

which

theory

Czolbe's

body,

in

of the

ones,

brought

is removed

Czolbe, competent,

to

world-soul,

in

latter
end

conclude,

must

which

period

representations

psj'chical substance, yet

space

within

of

also
limits

the

beyond

originate

of the

(and

the

fact"

"elementary

an

until

the

in the

Schop-

Ergebnisse

sinnl.

rapidly

more

Die

1859, 3d ed.,

individuelle
der

der

%ind

Wort, Jena, 1858;

(althotigh in constantly

solidified

eternally, provided

continue

must

from

We

Objecte

; Sein

is Snell's

personliche

die

den

Entwicklungs-

reconcile

Die

der

Kritik, Hamburg

Leips., 1863
to

above),

Wahrheit

Hannover,

Harnionie

Oder
Die

ones

into
be

must

Die

rialistic
anti-mate-

cited

Berlin, 1858

insight,

in

Drossbach,

1853

die

vermittehides

attempt

Semualis-

Materialismun

der

Culturleben,

The

"

die

Moleschott,

in the

oder

Worte

nnd

des

Man

den

Naturwiss.,

1867.
Max

oiT and

ein

Luzerne,

f7Tglaube,

uiid

gegenwdrtigen

ihren

und

GemiUhes

larger

Gegen

profound

of

neueren

by

and

Daa

lismua

edit., with

second

is shown

Materiallsmun,
in

Catholics,
1855;

Materia

Unwahr/iett

God

Seele,

und

evidence

Olmutz,

bodies

smaller

according

are,

them

detach"

perceptions
'

brain

in

state

only

des

der

is made

dimensions.

renewal

continue

can

Kritik

ed., Brixen,

cooled

become

incandescent

and

change

otherwise

in

2d

themselves

of the

plunging

Leib

the

by

Vogt

JiU.

materialism.

romiac/ier

Materiali-vnu-i

Jind

ilber

Xatu'r,Leipsic, 1858;

der

ever-increasing

of

process

The

and

the

llichter,

Materialinmus,

rnenschlichen

des

bodies

smaller

Ad.

gives

Standpunkte,

Verfassung

G.

to the

K'Ohler-

Materialmnns

{Der

"

Nature,"

istic
material-

Materialismufi,

den

sciences

physical

Biihner, Natfurfornchung

immortality

constantly merging

be

and

space,

human

the

liber

(De?'

Feicerbach,

von

the

in

written

{Die

Fischer

Idealismti~s

des

Materialismus

den

Forderungen

den

atomistischen

must

masses

this

N.

monaduittsch-metaphysischen

turforschung

time),

; A.

Ph.

in

reference

Vogt, Munich,

Woysch

tion
"perfec-

Schopenhauer,

error

Michelis

iiber

and

H.

und

which

work

K.

God

Schellwien,

Menschenseele,

der

belief

of
"

Streit

Zum

Streitfrage

and

K.

Kohlerglaube

Materialismus

Die

Snell,

Ueber

Begriff

Braubach,
Meyer,

been

Friedr.

Schriften

die

knowledge

; Robert

Cornill,

work,

latter

Schleiden,
und

; J. B.

Leipsic, 1863

Meimchen,

des

Folge

1855;

1870

Zettfragen, Bonn,
; A.

auf

works,

of

(Evangelischer Glaube,

Berger

philosopher,

other

have

( Vorles7ingen

Knowledge,"

among

and

the

from

with

and

gegen

him

tendency,

Aufklarung

truth

by

ity,
neutral-

or

edit., Frankfort-on-the-

standpoint

the

between

ibid., 1864), Otto

Otto

HWckaUM

and

3d

Natur^

like

Materialismus, Stuttgard, 1856,

den

race,

the

by

Faith

1856

from

1807)

Tanner

Th.

comprehensive
"

further,

Hetousstnein, Berlin, 1863

complement

human

The

Seele, zur

Streitschrift

Vienna,

Anton

by

besonderer

(on

Lebeiis, Frankfort,

geixtlgen

fnng

the

{Gymas. ProgT.), Zwickau,

IJen-ceit

the

of

Uirici

eine

{Briefe gegen

1870), and

others.

of H.

also

Fabri

age

mlt

(Leib nnd

positive theology,

Fhysioloyie,

Berlin, 1857), and

Urglatibe, Gotha,

iceltlicher

and

and

origin

of

standpoint

U7id

tendency,

mediating position

Leii)sic,185"5)discriminates

the

Friedr.

Weltanschauung,

(hriMlche

religion.

Hegelian

NaturwistienHchaft,

inoderne

the

Er

from

proposed

and

Internation-

designates

welfare."
der

church
or

he

positive aims,

Evangeltum

dsH

the

of belief

human

1855, 3d edit., 1858). Writing

Miinster, 185fi),as

KvlUtrglaube,

and

the

Schaller,

Materialismtix,

by
I8tj4),

of nature

of

that

Organ

Qffeiibarung,Leipsic, 1870) sketches,

V'erniitiftund

his

Jul,

by

Dan

affirms

its

as

Freidenker,

absencf

not

and

morals,

or

work

history

Liiwenthal

by demanding,

NaturnllifmUH, Leipsic,

den

M"niat88chr\ft filr Foracfning

18""8 ; Der

supersonstial," while,

anonymous

{Mensc/t-enseele

Vhn"itent!iAtm

1870).

GencMcMe

wid

Bcrl., 1865;

Dresden,

GERMANY.

IN

{Syxtem

BekenntiUns,

dignity,

(in

of

materialism,

upon

Frohschammer

Lowenthal

ohne

Church,

human
the

outlines

( C/"eber den

Judgments

inm

Free

Winsenschcift, Weimar,

und

ess;iy

of

PHILOSOPHY

Facaltaten^

in the

"belief

Wilhelm

dispute

Frauenstiidt

alls

so-called

in

Karl

materialistic

J.

the

is manifest

standpoint,

of Ed.

lielifnon

tceltlichen

knowledge,

human

glaube

naturalism

OF

Freldenkerbundes, Dresden,

Oder

exclusion

b\it the

STATE

Eine

drei

der

from

disthignished

certain

the

cd,, iftid,,18(}8;

5th

I\rUik
ulen

PEE8ENT

termed

except
spinal,
cerebro-

motorium

STATE

PRESENT

THE

I \'her

ErJcenntnis.% Halle, 18G9.

eentro

the
of

that
80ul

Bonnet,
the

upon

the

organic

bodily

in

the

creation

individual

gel {Der

Mater

attempt
that

is

by

is Ferd.

186H),

of

his
in

Studt,

by \\. H.

Jfaterialismns

und

253-278

natural
in

and

Heidelb., 1863,

1S70).

F.

Alb.

Bedeutung

In

der

ethisches

and

Die

since

the

last

the

few

in the

name

On

basis

the

morphology
ctumisch

cf. E.

Hiickel,

Th^orie
PhilOH.
The

Darioin:'

schen

Nordlingen,

Ree,

Berlin, 1864
Berlin,

; J. H.

eeq.);
mann'8

F.

W.

v.

of

Organismen^

auf

ethics

Die

realistischer

und

the

Scheidemacher,

Menschengeist

und

chieflydirected,

comprehensive

der

the

problem

1869

; W.

Vol.

of

ed., 1870;

with

more

work

ticularly
par-

general

on

Formwissenschaft^

organ.

Development
2d

Stuttgard,

des
und
rend

I. : On

the

Die

Jager,

Braubach,

me-

General

Berli)i,1866 ;

Organisms,

G.

A.

Philosophie

des

Gnmdlage,
the

Priesterthnm

authority ; Eugen

in

Dai-winsche

Religion,

PMlos.

Heinrich

Theorie

Berlin,

1868;

Moral

und

1864

Von

Natarlicke

is

; Der

edited

partly

natilrliche

BiJhmer,

Ueber

die

directed

has

by

various

Weg

Gott, ibid., 1871;

von

Kirchmann

of

Weltansichten,

Beiousstseins

des

Bibliothek,

(Berlin, 1871)

Diihring,

Wissenschoft
1857 ;

solution

the

gegenwdrtigen

ibid., 1857

Die

Die

Wissens,
Berlin,

den

Schopfung,

Hamburg,

Btiigemann,

v.

in

seine

LeSen,I.:

at

attempts

new

Gottesbegriffs

Elhik,

der

V.

with

appeared

Gott

views

own

Herrschaft
on

have
Kritik

Gebiete
;

C.

the

1869.

Wissenschaft

seq.

Zeit, IV.,

Unsere

closely connected

Descendettztheorie,

Berlin, 1868,

Religion,

others,

dem

of

History

'with

der

been

being-

Hackel's

reformirte

General

anonymously)

1864

Natiir^

losophy
phiseiner

connection

matter, although belonging

Ernst

with

Kritik

in

in

1868;

Bonn,

(Leips.

vols., Berlin, 1871.

allg. Grundziige

Dartcin

the

among

criticallyhis

Struhneck's

basing

rests, in particular.

und

Kirchmann,

Aesthetik
and

On

Moral

auf

Erlangen,

eystematically

investigation.

(1814-1856),

Wanderungen

1865:

natural

and

Welt

1863, 2d ed.,

und

to
Origin of Sjiecies^

of force

Charlefi
:

the

relation

Gott, ibid., 1858;

zu

mcahrtiehmung,

cited, this problem

vo7i

immortality."

the

der

of

physical philosophy has

on

investigation"

exact

Ilinne, Materialismus

immortality

Die

systems

new

equal familiarity

A.

Der

Theo-

histor.

far

(Hamburg,

H.

Material-

series, 1867,

geistigen

of

Jahr,

of

work

of

Mat.^

der

G.

Weis, Anti-Materialismus,

Lehre, Neuwied,

185(" (published

Menschen

und

H.

G.

work

zu

Rohmer

defenders

Darwin's

II.

authors,

Friedrich

the

Naturio.

1868;

SchopfungsgescJncMe,

Stellung

following

problems:

Anton

Naturliche

Hire

und
der

Vol.

Organisms,

of

Anatomy

Die

2,

of

doctrine

die

Welt

further

question

in

Morphologie

durch

begrundet

the

the interest

Darwin's

of

Generelle

Ludwig

province of

the

opponents

etc., Cologne,

the

question respecting

the

"

of

combated

Der

to frame

der

Scho-

and

Frauenstiidt,

3faterialisnius

des

ism
material-

specially

Zeitschr.

von

die

Kant

is

Zeit, new

results

evidence

( Gesch.

mention,

may

on

und

gives

science

We

article

A. Naumann,

years

appearance

to

des

E.

M.

in natural

1866).

the

not

ground

(an assertion

HaflPner,

Unsere

in the

Lehre

does

against

; Julius

attempted

und

and
Flil-

O.

the

on

soul

from

turn,
also

in

from

2fensch

Isis, der

of materialism

history

1868;

1.

Materialisnms^

des

indicated
the

the

on

in

latter

Iserlohn,

Gottesbegriff. Leipsic, 1870

In

the

explanation

in

Compare

have

Atonienlehre

1854.

Fliigel

the

derived

doctrine,

Theologle,

die

Stand-

Zelt,

belenchtet, Leipsic,

writer.s

Cassel, 1866

Radenhausen

their

Weltordnung

investigations

philosophy

C.

of

sonal,
per-

{Ziir Seeleixjrage^ Mayence,

Mayer

Gegenwart,

der

of

as

like

of

tuisere

(a point),

recent

to
the

parts

drztlichen

fiir

atom.

"

simple

doctrine

Natur,

und

and

receive

should
der

work
of

Gegemoart^

15, Leipsic, 1868;

Nachteule

sein

Wiener

other

continuation

vom

one

nature

A.

Mayer's

todte

in

most

Altona, 1869.

die

Materialismus

dentsche

Bediirfniss, Brunswick,
German

recent

able

results

the

und

"

as

the

^".priori

Bestrebungen

Christian

ed., 1869), and

Lange's

with

and

12

Der

Gfrundzicge

2d

Lehen

or

18C5).

certain

and

"in

"

Natnrforsc'iung

Among

Erkemitnisslehre^

Flentje, Das

siiirituallife

Die

former

with

theory

during

that

but

men,

of

attaining ''"not,

permanent

centred

are

unextended

the

Munster,

Gedanke,

"

activities

addresses, Frankfort-on-the-M.,

especially against Westhoflf.

3, 1864.

and
his

the

und

the

the

its

similar

attempt

probable,
which,

Naturtcissenschaften

extended

of

theory

be

Nerverisystema,

des

two

as

of

other

possible

der

psychology).

antimaterialistlschen

die

No.

VII.,

the

Herbartian

nuUerialistische
; L.

; Roscnkranz,

logie, Vol.
in which

Die

conceived

dependence

fills from

atom

every
An

man,

spiritually in
render

individual

of each

be

on

in

660

atoms.)

it to

holds

Physiologie

entire

developed

nor

will

of all

atomistiHch-meclumimheii

der

depends
the

arguments

1865

i-"miis, Mayence,

who

is

Bedeutiuig

die

functions

materialistic

the

combines

who

Spiess,

Seeleiithatigkelten^

is to

{SUiff,Kraft

WesthofE

A.
order"

written

Ueber

der

atom

psychology
in

of the

organism,

first

has

1844;

this

true

theory

higher development,

psychical

whether

IH'nliauer, directs

most

of the

the

G.

higher

SiandpunAt

voiii

means

no

made
of

Spiess

all the

that

portion

no

"und

to

Bedlmjtsein

lalismuH

decide

to

which

pp.

God

existence."

concludes

by

descendants
of

korperliche

/ \'!ier das

been

is that

works

interpenetration

mutual

faith

"germ

dar(/estelU, Brunswick,

pinikle

1865)

life

the

theological

has

organs,

earthly

germs,

infinite

with

last-mentioned

of the

(The doctrine
through

space,

combine

to

of the

result

the

infinity of

whole

GERMANY.

IN

PHILOSOPHY

OF

him

Die

Sinne-

im

Wesen,

Unsterblichkeit,
also

developed

(Berlin,

against

von

Dialektik, Berlin, 1865 ; Der

1868

Kirch-

WerOi

33G

THE

rilESENT

'les

ic6"w", Breslaii, 1805;

der

Niil.-Oec.

1870

; J.

Jlennch
Dii

den

u.

Sittetde/ire, Versuc/i

by

Philos.

A.

Hartmann's
will

itself

conscious

functions

the

the

and

existence
from

and
the

Idea
like

alogical

of

the

best

all

possible

of

in

providence,

youth

by

consciousness

historic

is the

it is

humanity
of

In consciousness

only

to

hypothesis

rise

and

the

the

example,
; love

in

this, that

conceptions,

becomes
from

inseparatde

of

physical

purely subjective,in adopting

that

what

allowed

the
the

father,

of

who

Will,

child,

the

child

with

good
the

be

may

only negative,
being-with-self
unmixed
weariness
is to be
to

and

of

the

when
of

struggle

will, in

on

it
the

desire,

despair,

rather

entirely annihilated,
the

primary

basis

the

be

might
Idea

the

in

of

atomistic

of

speak,

to

so

world

of

the

Spirit, according
this

to

than
this

postulates

Hartmann

of

of

the
the

Hartmann's

opposes

but,

sufficient

of

intellect

here

misfortune,

be

averted, yet

cannot

joylessness of

assumptions,
into

:
were

must

system

the
at

namely,

be

from

so

furnish

disconnected
the

from

still

the
an

of

the

all interest.

question

may

be

his
in

question

redemption

Idea

of

itself

if the

But
:

is

(the

ness,
blessed-

would

; but

asked

of

provided

intellectual

occupied

the

brings
unhappy

critical

other

the

bad

necessity
is

be

of

and

this

it is that

why

time

same

themselves,

and

the

of

charms

embrace,

To

self-mirroring

eternal
the

the

is

but

may

we

and

Idea,

redemption

Nirvana.

emancipation

itself,an

if

are

ing
affirm-

generally,

if the

and

his

in

and

world,

the

with

them)

on

solicitude, she provides

maternal

and

method,

disagrees

He

depends

lover's

the

above)
abstract

apprehension,

case), captivated by

escape

for.
the

upon

dialectical

the

mother,

good

in

discursive

of matter,

the

him,

empirical basis, chiefly

an

all that

of

for

longing

mentioned

point

of

fields of

the

becomes

possible.

with

for
vital

f ruitfulness
in

(It explains

the

from

cause

the

cannot
with

the

intuitive

as

since

telluric, and

from

explanation

the

Hegel's trichotomy),

Will
Idea

for

to alleviate

own

to

the

broad

as

represent

"ftid the

Idea

Idea

answers

bliss,if

action

development

to

conclusions

his

make

product

the

; the

is able

she

that

the

is.suing

the

ment
develop-

necessary

being, shining

doctrine, therefore, regards

fancy might
desire

Hartmann's

return

is not

This

"

in

of

consciousness,

things

he

concrete

dynamism

brain

as

painlessness

of
a

in

to

which,

categories (together

and

time,

all

Hegel's (apart from

further,

seeks

of

unity

all-comprehending

immediately
; and

the

and
of

antl

end

problems

religious mysticism.

of

example,

to childhood

degree

show

to

unconscious
for

sleep,

cosmical,

seeks

the

is the

teaches, individitally,

the

manifold

most

that

world

of

The

of

to

is

alogical
induction

by

(Thus,

by

as

world

the

better

direction

Schopenhauer

will

the

know
were

atony.)

the

of

interesting

of

existence)

real

existing

intensification

from

something

as

the

all is

are

the

the

equally

thought

that

we

it

adaptation.

Hartmann

one

from

not

he

exist, the

which

the

under

as

consciousness
"

(which

from

emancipated

rising gradually

Gnostic

to

not

gifts

as,

of

differs

which

sensuous

with

not.

and

be

results

consciousness

possible

solving

It

tributes
atbination
com-

determine

to

"That"

The

the
in

"logical Idea"

to

are

although

which

will

(dass, the

will

of

with

the

the

for

Consequently

nature

cess

humanity.

something

space,

satyr's

severe

rai.sed

with

ought

which

annihilation

which

(as perhaps

of

Idea

consciousness.

expression,

it with

all the

passing through
the

the

doctrine

of

pre

is

and

development

that

form

idea

truth

(phenomenally)

us

the

this

of

use

Idea, approaches
forth

to

appears

condition

the

as

of

greatest

eternal

method,

also, in denying

(a

of

of

preserves

is the

up

the

individual

of

non-volition

doctrine

but

law

virtue

alluring presentiment

psychological material,

and

Schopenhauer,

only

the

inductive

the

the

considers

logical

birth

the

of

spint
of

co-ordinate

system)

Idea.

pain.

Berlin, 1870 ;)*

Schopenhauer
as

things.
the

development,

in

of

"That"

pessimism),

to this
that

Hartmann's

concrete,

the

instead

follows

and

of

former

the

and

of

psychology', aesthetics, and

love:

flash

silvery

consciousness.)

illusion of

chiefly

is.the

of

of

last
the

like

possible

Will

possible degree

nature,

clearing

human

psychology,
of
possibility

of

development
in

and

von

chsays

" 121"),Sdielling'H

Dramxi,

afifertions

conceived

posits

nature

its

by

highest

intensification

and

Unconscious

the

animal

physiology,

union

of

into
means

intensified

the

(biological) developments
the

the

death

by

; the

the

partial interruption

volition

thus

Ancillary

opposition.

is shown

of

his

logical

(doctrine

as

artifice

the

novelty;

back

turning

the

from

exist

in

world

preponderance

it should

be

Will

is

world

necessary

evidence

only universally possible)

but

for

the

only by

of

the

the

of

essence)

both

(cf.Keverai

unconscious

from

it is neither

Schelling
The

the

irrational

that

essence.

of

(optimism),

its

of

therefore
of

that

blind,

E.

II.

Hebler,

resulting

as

chrfHtilche

; K.

lit, to

Uberdas

Oehhnann,

die

seq.
1871

edition,

(see above,

; C.

Oesch.

BaKtiaij, Dir

; W.

und

1808

Erlangen,

subject being

affirms
the

because
antilogical,

giving

endurable

reason

ideal

that

worlds

form

life is rendered

than

He

precedent

"What"

follows

exist

not

the

for

nor

demands
the

1809

Aeslheiik, Leipsic,

ideas.)
will,

he

(the
the

is also

world

should

MuralakUistik

Berlin, 1800, Aphorismen

monism,

functioning

"What"

experience) there

world

of

(after

same

Will;

the

form

and

ideas,
which

one

Die

Melhode

dialektincfie

ibid., 1808

Pnychologie,

Grundlage,

; Krit.

Logik, ibid.,18(;'.":A.

kleiiie

Oettingcn,

von

(idea). (He explains feeling

unconscious

and

legitimate principles,
of

der

reality without

to

prototypal

to

A.

die

Schopenh.,

u.

Si/stems
is

philosophy

to attain

Hegel

eines

representation

and

with
of

Hegel

von

GruiuUiaien

Horvvicz,

Ueber

Mo7iatxhefte\

Philos.

Einheit

als

(07), Die

empirischer

nuf

Berlin, ISWJ

Leip^ic, 1805, 8(1 eiilurgel e"l.,

Unbeioussteti,Berlin, 1809, 3d, considerably enlarged

des

in the

Hartmann

1868

Aesthetik.

vergltichnmlen

Ciithen, 1808;

Ethik

Social-

einer

Philos.

PopuUire

zur

GERMANY.

VolksJolrthHcJutfMehre^

der

Lcmcke,

Logik, I., Paderborn,

Naturwins.,

aln

in

philosophy

Grundleguno

Berlin, 1871; C.

gesammte

ErkentUiiiSHiehre

posit.

of

Genchickte, Berlin, 18G0, Beitrage

der

Hartmann,

KritlHche

Sue,

Die

Hoppe,
in

state

bring
Will

with

ence
refer-

how

can

Platonic
X.

and

Aufsclize (on Copernicus

Hlos.

Bep.

Entwurf

Schmid,

irach,

Die

Grenzen

Wissensclutft

irately in
itz, 1870
cher

Wissens,

des
a

Freiheitsthat, Vienna,

J.

Voltaire,

^/efe^rdie

Scientific

Bohemian

Logik^

Recht

und

ot Enemies

and

18C9

Schiller),Leips.
1863-65

Vienna,

Mbulichkeit, das

; C.

Pjiicht,

1861) ; Ilandbuch
ein

philos.

1868,

Psychologie,

der

Versiich

Theorie

einer

S.

Ziel v.nd

Association, VI., 1, Prague,

Prague,

Grutidlinien

Bergmann,

; Love

and

Grundlage,

pneumatog

der

EinzeUien

1870

Heidelberg,

; TJtilitarianism

world

Shakespeare,

1869; Wilh.Kaulich,

the

; JIandbuch

Des

Friedmann,

Grwidlage,

of

Transactions

in the

in

cmf

Philos.

der

edition, Gratz, 1870

new

Alfred

als

of Arc

; Joan

Systems

eines

of the

conception

modern

the

; Kantiana

Lessingiana

337

GERMANY.

OF

OUTSroE

PHILOSOPHY

auf

natural-

Bewusstseins,

dea

rlin,1870.

systems
" 135. Since the beginningof this century no philosophical
such importance and of so powerful influence as those of the 17th
outside of Germany; still,
the
centuries have
id 18th
up
sprung
tradition has everywhere been
preserved,and philolilosophical
In Enghas, in part, been carried further on.
)phicalinvestigation
Liid and IN'orth America
philosophicalinterest has remained chiefly
in
nifined to investigations
empirical psychology; methodology,
tendencies opposed
and politics.In France
two
philosophical
lorals,
and materialism
which
le sensualism
reigned at the beginning of the
found expressionin the eclectic and spiriOf these the one
mtury.
founded
lalistic school which
was
by Royer-Collardas the discipleof
jid,which w^as further built up by Cousin, who incorporatedinto its"
of German
philosophemes,and in whick
)dy of doctrines a number
The other tendency was
renewed.
tradition was
a theole Cartesian
More
recently,Ilegelianismhas found occasional dis)phicalone.
A
of
doctrine
refuses, in
"positivism,"which
jiplesin France.
aftirmations respectinganything that is not a subject
to make
principle,
but which
of exact
investigation,
yet, for the most
party makes
founded
A modified
wdth materialism,was
cause
common
by Comte.
scholasticism,
mostly Thomism, prevailsin the Catholic seminaries of
and
France, Spain,and Italy. In Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Sweden
Korway, Russia, Poland, and Hungary, the various schools of German
inconsiderable
influence.
not
a
philosophy have exerted successively
In Italy,
the philosophyfavored
trines
by the church is Thomism
; the docof Antonio
Rosmini
and of Yincenzo
Gioberti,in particular,
have also found numerous
and in the last
disciples,
years the Hegelian
doctrine has been defended
by zealous adherents.
"logical idea"
prills of those
will?

Pret,
des

Have
Das

not
neueste

Unbewussten'"

Widerleginig
achen

existasthejt?n"s"
things

world,

philos. Syst.,
L, Gymn.

the,

rib

d.

though
alone,

in Im

Lehre

in

New

the

23

only
as

1871;

Unbewussten

York,

Journal

far

our

Reich, 1871,

neuen

v.

as

non-temporal

knowledge

hypostatized ?

been

Progr., Hameln,

Instinct,

Unconscious,

it be

even

which

subjective abstractions

d. HartmannHch.

Ansichten

losophy of

in the

1871

G.
in

No.
C.
d.

; cf. also

(Of

j"n*M8~of mind,

extends,

Hartmann's

38 ; M.

the

are

subjects

or

philosophy
Ueber

Schneidewin,

Sticbeling, Naturwissensch.
Leiblichk.,
below, App.

of Spec. Philos., January,

nebst

e.

III",^ad

1870',pp.

Icurz.

"

"will"

anda

134.

84-98."

K.

treat
die

neue

geg.
Beleucht.

of

Frh.

du

'"'"Philos.

Philos.

Eine

d. Darwin^

[Ernst Kapp,.
7"'.]

the'

as

possessors

Phi"-

338

PHILOSOPHY

Vol.

In

rV.

of the Hiiitorv of the

comprehensive
France,

the

in

and

in

and

Herbartianism)

by Harris,

franqais

in

the

(compare,

Pevue

des

Steele,Revue

den

On

the

Deux

edit., Lond., 1808;

Hamilton

and

Contemp.

Review,

On

the
in

1805

; Louis

was

in the

others

; hut

19th,
two

in

of

basis

there

pupil

of

nothing

was

points

two

reference

to

the

physiologistsand
banis,

The

Debrit,

of

as

sketch

of

follows

the

XIXe

au

France,

en

francais

19

au

and

to

of

nishes
fur-

On

sophy
philo-

ph.

Philos.);
Vol.

Thcod.

Italic,

en

54, 1809, pp.

of the present

eclectic

the

and

istic
spiritual-

eighteenth century

and

more

latter,in

turn

crowded
a

Lettres

of

author

the

idea

history,

while

in

by

PJdloso-

which

lies at

part (and still

subject Paul

whole

into

out

reaction, which

of

this

contemp.,

Naville, Paris,

contemp.

f. Philos.,

the

DoUfus,

On

of

Hist,

first decennia

more

and

Vltalie
Em.

Si^cle,Paris, 1809,

influence

religion

in the

Britain,

America.

by

La

Zeitschr.

from

these

the

on

XIX.

over

the

naturalism.

Janet,

"

and

Revolution

the

analysis of

by

tlie
au

Charles

in

in

dans

French

Mariano,

theological, and

betrayed

under

school

in

Italie

en

new

on
(sjjecially

(St. Louis, 1807 seq.)

Philos.

into

Lectures

1815,

seit

Great

in

Philosophy,
Englaiid,

1808

London,

philosophy

Doctr.

des

Raphael

in

f. Ph., Vol. 30, Halle, 1857.

latter century

of the

end

is the

phic
philoso-

1843.

Conti's

to

opposition

philosophy

the

was

supplement.

to
ed.

Philosophes

British

Philos.

Philos.

of

(translated

influence

with

reference

of

Condillac

to

Destutt

de

first French

kindly prepared

by Prof.

[The present translation

teenth
beginning of the nine-

the

at

of the

of Condillac.

school

As

sensation

the

organs

sensations.

could
of

divided

into

Condillacism

is

was

ideologists. Physiological

the

(1757-1808)

following

affixed

in

Taine,

the

la

de

France

en

Recent

Jloral

philosophy of the

of the

decade

view, either

mind,

reference

Les

Spiritualisme

Metaphysics

condition

school, extending

form

Le

England,

of

Hist,

1804-05

Gedanke,

sensualistic,the

ideological Condillacism

Cabanis

It was

but

of

Ulrici

Philosophy,

Philosophique

Masson,
of

Zeitschr.

Contemporaine

la Philos.

completely

was

x.,

de

as

Janet,

in

Tubingen,

supplement

in

Warnkiinig,

ed., 1869)

philosophy, at

century,

(with

Taine,

Philosophie

of Specul.

present

rHistoire

and

Cousin, reports

French

from

of the

: Marc

the

arose,

the

State

Journal

Italien

Hegelian

earlier) it assumed

condition

Vhistoire
H.

Sltmitkm

History

Present
The

in

first

pMgues, Faris, 1851, 3d

the

in

the

on

(Berlin,1845, pp.

present

and

sur

7V.] ;

La

David

the

Philos.

Philos.

the

"

part {e.g., in Renan

the

The

see

it.

sensualistic

The

schools.

the

Die

sur

schools

; Lectures

of Speculative

Essai

La

; Paul

Moral

ibid.. Vol.

forms
in

Damiron,

compare
on

of

distinguisliesin the Frencli

three

the

1804,

Bonatelli,

Ihe

PhiloHopIiy

Philos.,ed. by Fichte,

Monatshefte

Journal

Vacherot.

Britain

knowledge

Philos.

Philos.,

it.

Ferri, Essai

Damiron

century

die

Franz

Piiris,1807;
134-158

uber

Etienne

240-201.

Roorda,

La

Ph.

are

Lectures
State

philosophy

Conti,

ed., Florence,

Brief e

Great

Belgium,

cf. T.

Italian

Auguste

the

in

of law

recent

on

; Italian

Strater,

for

Netherlands,

Writers

Paris, 1859

of

Whewell,

viii.,pp.

contributions

the

on

1808, pp. 353-^85.

Collyns Simon,

1808, Vol.

Tr.]

fonnd

be

many,
j^ritain,Ger-

IlUKsia, and

Psychologie

fUr

[4th ed., Brussels,1^32."

75, 1808, pp. 950-977)

Present

; Thomas

Mill)

philosophy

the

; W.

McCosh.

J.

Philos.
the

1848."

neue

Zeitschr.

the

[Also in

century
1828

work,

75,

Vol.

philosophy
1807

ed.,

in

the

Great

Denmark,

Articles

ed., 1807; F. Ravaisson,

latter
Vol.

Mondes,

recent
2d

valuable

the

on

DeuxMorides,

more

1805,

London,

19th

in the

Sl?cle, Paris,

Steele, Paris, 1857, 3d

1808

also

as

Die

in

of Speculative

York,

countries.
in

Philosophte.

Sweden,
View

[New
work.

1848

TV.]

seq."

XIXe

au

his

contained

are

Poland,

1847

various

by Michelet,

exacte

philosophy

XIXe

du

Steele, Paris,

ed.

fur

in

till about

Critical

and

in

Bencke,

labors

Germany

Gedanke,

Louis, 18()7

France

Age, 1848.

than

Zeitschr.

French

on

en

the

the

St.

Works

countries

Hungary,
JIUt.

An

Blakey (London, 1848),will

1800

from

1846, 2d ed.,

London,

the

of

Spain,

GEEMANT.

by Robert

published

Morell,

psychological

of recent

in other

Wirth,

Century,

Tendencies

Philosophical

D.

OF

of Mind,

works

Holland,
J.

Cf.

Nineteenth

27:^350), treats
philosophy

and

America.

of

PMlo/iophy

philosophical

Italy, Belgium

Unitcd^tates

Europe

of the

survey

OUTSroE

be

sensation
two

physics
Meta-

considered
or

with

branches,

the

represented by

Ca-

philosophically

and

Tracy.
who

author

Janet

is from

for
the

the

treated

2d edition

French."

TV

of this

.]

History,

to which

I
methodicallyof

the

made

subject is

sensations,of

of

essays, which

of twelve

up

influence

the

instinct,sympathy, sleep,of
The

'

But

of age,

furnishes

work

temperaments.
spiritis altogether materialistic.

its

is

faculty. Thought

(8vo., Paris, 1824; addressed

He

ideas.

here

Destutt

it is

only

Action
the

link

connecting
the

at
A

willed

being

itself.

beside

(2) Commentaire

1804), and
Reaction

the

against

De

Abbe

Bonald

(1754^1840)

of

philosophy

Bonald

the

three
De

mother, child.
what

the

The

nineteenth

vols.

applied

these

Hence

is to

century.

borrows,

contradictions

against

Cabanis'

1 1 give this
The

I propose

one

The

human

Rapports
classe
name

principal

social

works

nothing
know

only

has

twofold.

been

We

School.

"

so-called
of

There

f
: De
distinguished

are

Bo-

cause,

effect is

; the

ideas.

The

means,

effect.

theology, and

to

was

whole
In

corporeal existence.

minister, subject; in the family

formulas

school,

Revelation, it

innate

no

"

traditionalistic

language.

formula

triadic

God

to

concluded

is to

the

father,
to the

God-man

the

of this

most

author

(2d ed., 1821,

(3 vols., 1796). His

this

moral

were

borne

its

arsenal

inserted in the

all
to

of

two

of

successively

several

against

the

reasoning
is

ployed
em-

certitude, Lamennais
criterion,
namely,

a new

first volumes

others

the

skepticism

published separately

were

in

religieuse
(1817-1827,
arguments

errors

of

destruction

theologicalskepticism

the

destroyed by reference

has

school, which
me

this

and
(classe d:'ideologie)

rinstitut

senses,

opinions,aU

he has

et du

Pyrrhonism

of the

en-ors

After

of

matiere

Vmdifference en

sur

in human

physique

the founder

was

Pascal,from

The

what

to this

appears

Ligislation primitive
fiauvoir

like

reason.

dv
de

know

being would

followingproposition:

his Essai

faculties.

to re-establish

cinqui^me

the

known.

be

not

itself would

reaction

creation

power,

(1782-1854)
In

faculties,the

"

could

man.:}:

our

lie la

This

is motion

means

other, constitute

not
feelingsubject can-

same

by

to
jects.
ob-

(2 [4?" IV.] vols.,Paris,

d'id'ologie

of the

the

by

become

authority of

attempts

The

to

Maistre.

knowledge.

terms

Lamennais

8vo.),he

divine

; the

Mediator.

de

chief

the

is God

Bonald

God-man
Abbe

all

the

is controlled

cause

these
politics

necessityof

was

de

attempting

(Paris,1819).

School.

Joseph

and

was

of which

of
'principle

is the

cosmology

the

Lamennais,

his

gence
intelli-

of external

the

on

(2) the

leading dogma

taught,

In

de

in

existence

Psychological
Theological School,
to be
are
Theological School three principal names

the

nald, the
the

the

us

unf elt

V Espritdes Lois

sur

Sensualistic

with

mieres
pre-

give. According

not

resistance

(1) Les Elermnts

are

causes

pantheism.

absolutely immaterial

an

but

modified

profoundly

Unresisting matter
were

les

sur

cal
physi-

the

being,

world, endowed

could

the not-me.

motions

/distinguish
(1) the
In

teaches

itself.

that

Tracy

that

and

is not

of Condillac

doctrine

quired
ac-

interesting facts.

Lettre

his

of stoic

sensation

and

me

whose

or

of

works

sort

hand,

one

resist

concludes

Tracy

it;s..j. The

will and

motion

without

the

between

time

same

the

felt,on

and

in

the

of

pure

motion

voluntary

own

our

cause

the

exteriority,which

of

notion

Later,

of

favor

in

(1754-1836) modified

(te Tracy

explain the
him,

concludes

will,and

and

soul

The

of

physical,and

told,is simply

are

we

Fauriel), Cabani;

to

of

the existence

admits

moral,

brain.

of the

secretion

The

this

on

tory
physiologicalhis-

of

mine

rich

very

the

upon

specialpoints of view.

certain

under

considered

the moral

His work

the

diseases, diet, climates,

temperament,

sex,

of

man.

successivelyof

treat

influence

the

in

moral

the

physicalto

of the

relations

339

GEEMANY.

OF

OUTSroE

PHILOSOPHY

of

the

Memoires

in 1812.

and
(Eclectic,

Spiritualistic).

exact.
are

: Essai

vols., 8vo).

(Eeuvrea

compUtM

analytique
Recherches
were

sur

les lois naturelles

de

Vordre

philosophiqiies (1818). La

published

in 1818.

social.

La

theorie

du

340

PHILOSOPHY

universal

this basis

On

consent.

OUTSIDE

GEEMANY.

OF

lie seeks

establish

to

the

of

truth

(1)Deism, (2)

Revelation,(3) Catholicism.
de

Joseph
De

Du

Maistre's

Pa^ie(1819-20)is

of Providence
of original

is tempted

sin,he
Hence

punishment,

for war,

his

often

was

of

philosophy, and
riauism.
and

it

into

the

upon

in

only

of

continuity

(1) that

are:

for

the

fact

that

it is

of

Maine

Royer-CoUard,

entirely

principles of

aU

Carte-

de

Biran,

pher,
philoso-

de

Biran

of

metaphysician

is

of

action.

insists, most
and

perception,

distinguished from

being presupposed

sentiment

our

and

as

especially,like
the

upon

i^ost interesting in his works, is

is not
to him, duration
perceived

Duration
of

He

philosophy.

than

statesman

as

is

According

the

of Reid's

translation
Maine

tinge of

spiritualistictradition

been

sensation

What

instead

results solely from

the

school

psychology

eminent

more

Scotch

between

ourselves.

former

the

the

induction.

of duration.

notion

exists

this

of
in

certain

explains the

which

idea

Simonians.

idealistic and

the

renews

France

distinction

causality and

the

Saint

without

not

was

ment
govern-

theological

of expiation and
apology for capital

means

temporal

Jouffroy.

introduced

of

the

it seeks

Royer-Collard (17G3-1845),much
Reid,

but

philosophy, his

He

principal representatives have

Its

Cousin,

that

(3)

of his

by

theology, (3) that

of

nothing

evil

characteristics

The

Psychological School.
independent

Strongly preoccupied

of which

philosophy

upon

by the

religious renovation,

invoked

touched
of the

character

vast

and

cited

Ultramontanism,

treats

in

see

he

which

Inquisition, etc.

for the

dreamed

and

name

to

cruel

the

of modem

the gospel. He

sense

some

affairs.

in human

punishment.

illumiuism

ia

Petershourg (Paris,1821),in

Soirees de St.

in his

the founder

(1753-1821)was

Maiatre

by

the

poses
presup-

of

conception

latter
identity,which
de Royer-Collard
Fragmens

it

objects,

which

succession,
our

analysis of

in

continuous

our

(See

it

principles

his

duratiou

from

results
in

Jouffroy's

works.)
has

(1766-1824),who
the

nineteenth

theories, or rather

been

three

passed through

proclaimed

held

century,

by Cousin

successively three
in

periods

and

one

the

the

French

first

different

cal
philosophiphilosophical

same

development.
Period.

First
Memoire
or

rather

this

that

so

external

Biran
of

vague

proceeds
senses

naotilityof
with

and

to

this

still

his

school

point

out

how

of

Reid.

is

the

Perception

organ.

author

afterwards

Finally

he

to

distinction

this

distinguishes
this

develops

Sensation
of

the

expressed

the

De

which

Tracy

in the

founds
had

not, therefore, transformed

is that

imagination

between
two
of

law

sorts

of

by

Maine

de

of

case

and

habit, "that

the

The

memory.

it weakens-

each

to

Parallel

sensation.

habits, active

mained
re-

produced

activity.

combined

are

by

affection

voluntary

our

of

ideologists become

perception,

only

school

or

perceptions being always proportioned

between

fundamental

is

school

entitled,
member,

of exteriority),he

notion
and

elements

two

is

previously

sensation

the

of

work
still

as

appears

ideological
that

origin of the

result

these

Biran

and

idea

between

varying proportions,

related

the

of the

appearance
de

of the

doctrine

is at the

distinction

Maine

work
member

Developing

perception

in
the

the

in the

causes;

our

In

motion

voluntary

principle

the

signalized by

was

between

already here.

(namely,
on

differences

; but

manifest

period
(1803).

thinking himself

as

Condillao

This

VJiaUtude

sur

and

passive.

sensation

and

"

strengthens perception.
Second

of

Period.

philosophy.

own
a

being

who

In
The

knows

this

second

period

fundamental
himself

cannot

idea
be

Biran

of

this

is

founding

seen

philosophy is,that

assimilated

to

the

developing his

and
the

point of

point of

view

of

thing

view

342

PHILOSOPHY

borrowed

maxim,

false by what

from

in

which,

they deny.

heads

He

Scotch

and

Brown,

and

He

the

against

of

the

immediate

and

Cousin

was

in this

direction,in his

then

influence
the

the

on

the

world

is

ideas

each

culminating

maintaining

sense,

is the

Such

and

rewritten

in the

explained

less

by

his

over

and

extended

lectures

vols.,1866).
Lockers
with

Essay
author's

as

of

from

name

of

and

particularly with
The

philoso

(1815-1820,

and

He

France,

by

his

by

works

1828-30)

of

to

In

to

as

alliance

' '

common

general, the
in

even

cially
espe-

rather

the

authority

hit?

Europe,

curiosity,which

labors

the

Cousin

and

1817,

is

striking personal originality,

Besides, his
reference

of

eloquent,

very

he

philosophy.

philosophy

and

the
on

Cartesian

(course

Scotland.

to

in

and

time

recommended
of

more

minds,

direction.

in every

is

sible
pos-

century,

marked

of

basis

Good

and

considered

Germany
Cousin

of

number

the

as

science.

more

back

he

on

1828

his philosophy in

method

out
with-

simply

nation,
that

From

style of which

pure

conceded

great

and

course

God

is not

such

Infinite and

inseparable ;

ideas.

True, Beautiful,

this time

three

are

the

Creation

was

ideas,which

of

consist

his

reference

with

Middle

to the

Ages, have

chiefly of

Fragmem

exhaustibl
in-

was

the

been
two

PMlosopJi.(5

oj
of Psychology: included in a critical examination
and
Pieces.
in additional
Translated^
Understaiiding^
Notes^ hy G. 8. Henry. 4th improved edition,revised according

[Cousin's Elements
on

Introduction

to the

than

went

greatest service.
of

courses

From

of the

very

of

recast

philosophical originalitythan

history of philosophy,
the

he

the

[1853 ?]),the

religion,and

importance

by his influence

of

in 1845

and

psychological
on

There

the

he

name

to

between

are

The

idea.

an

still farther

all science

God.

development

of

idealism,

the

work

doctrines

bad

word,

one

considerable

German

aesthetics.

on

with

philosophy
In

his

published
part

struggle against

sense."

of

the

recalled

Nevertheless,

whose

and

speculative investigations.

constantly

character

only

and
a

that

distinguish

to

advanced

of all things.

without

tivism
subjec-

is plainly manifested

refers

everywhere

world

manifestation

from

more

with

as

is

Cousin's

in

point

separated himself

of

History

is the

Finite,

met

are

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the Relation

and

Kant

it grasped

theory

sought

departure.

Germany,

he

course

the explanation

incomprehensible

as

this

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subjectivitydisappeared

idealism.

in

much

of

physics
meta-

beheved

This

which

Hume,

of

from

the

to found

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Cousin

point of

at

the notion

spontaneous

All

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with

on

was

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between

arguments

reason.

1828, in

in

seen

the
Infinite,

three

; it is necessary.

great man,

had
In

contain

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These

Finite.

he

when

pure

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as

delivered

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systems

term

reason.

identified.

to absolute

leads

France.

him,

to

ideas

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of the

study

to escape

impersonal

was

act

of

use

intuition,"from

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lectures

in

first to pronounce

fundamental

it

of

De

general

time

same

which

way,

of

four

metaphysics

in order

himself,

psychology

of Hegel, of whom

must, according

which

on

way

made

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reflective,

when

intellectual

by insisting constantly

he

theory of the

the

spontaneous

"

middle

he

But

absolute, with

the

was

merits

prm'i metaphysics

an

discovered

philosophy,of

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middle

all

denying

one

psychology

subjective only

Schelling'stheory of

In

find

been

under

the

the

through
to

was

they affirm,but

had

history of

At

Mysticism.

founding

there

of Locke.

empiricism

immediately

to
effort

that

thought

Kant, proposed

was

attempted

other

of the

arrive

principal

the

psychology.

on

in

and

philosophy, the
and

Hamilton,

to what

founder, notwithstanding
he
reduced
systems, which

veritable

His

own.

German

the

absolute.

reason

the

is

by what

true

are

much

necessarily made

eclecticism, he
of his

philosophy

he

Ideahsm, Sensualism, Skepticism,

systems

Attaching great importance

classij"cation of

gave

recommended

the

he

France,

Gorando.

it

"

GEKMANT.

OF

"

that

Leibnitz,was

previous philosophers,

by

OTJTSroE

the
and

last

Human

New
corrections,

York,

1856.

Cousin's

Lectures

on

the

True^

tht

OTTTSIDE

PHILOSOPHY

tlie

and
lutifid,

j4,

Wight,

W.

[istinguished

He

possessed.
work

applied

the

In

esthetics

he

the

visible

arrived

of the

Abbe

)rk entitled

islated

into

d'un

general,

in

jing
3ing

and

God

but

them,

to

know

from

each

other

There

is besides

which

permits

priorithe
able

to be

in
him

But

that

the

God

at

hence

once

which
is the

power,

of
should

God,
be

of the

termed

word,

one

to be

are

distinguished.

the

God

Father
the

exist

Matter

to

is

be,

there

to

prove

constitutive

he

says,

is not

be

this

created

principle of

limit ; it is the

the

side
realization, out-

substance,

ex

It

possible
it is im-

this

is not

and

matter

principle of

7uhilo.

and

But

universe

or

absolute, the

creation

substance.

it is necessary

is,must

be

eTspov.

ro

to deduce

in the

is the
a

tributes,
at-

distinguished

term

must

nor

of

other.

intelligence,begotten by

beings from

In the

the

is not

attempts

whatever

emanation,
all

but

nothing

; the

which

free act of will.

would

Spirit. Creation

an

extracts

can

from

philosophically true.

intelligible. But

be

triad, is

anything

; it is

emanation

order

Further,

must

It is neither

participation.
that

is

this

ideas.

In

intelligence. Finally

power

love, in

divine

to suppose
necessary

The

; the

of God,

Plato

Lamennais

multiple.

of

forms

of two
one

is

persons

essay,

directly

consideration

nevertheless

are

in three

of power.

attribute

; in

is love.
Son

God

and

one

attributes

the

form

one

fundamental,

principle of distinction,what

to be

being,

of

the

attempted

method

co-existence

which

purely

isolated

object of philosophy

but

be

been

and

with

out

deduced

three

the

his celebrated

should

has

Following

the

be

The

dogma

new

under

met

by

individual

sets

fact

cannot

of

is indistinguishable from
intelligible

union,

adepts.

no

whole

political

to found

philosophie (1841-1846;

dhme

an

Substance, has

or

speaking

more

already
church

the

synthesis which

vast

it remained

which

Without
are

1830

since

which

philosophy, which

new

primordial

Finite,

is the

to be

most

found

value,

God,

fundamental

have

the

the

indemonstrable.

three

that, must

in

posits as

are

so

broken

having

century.

them.

after

perhaps

the

of which

each

and

co-ordination

attempted

have

we

Esquisse

is

he

and

universe

the

philosophy.

which

have

with

psychological school, Lamennais

and

Infinite

the

"

whom

philosopher,

contained

its

of the

that

)posed to

and

Broussais.

Comte.

Auguste

nineteenth

id, notwithstanding

schools,
who

croyaut, attempted

doctrine,
German),

in the

France

and

expressed by

pubhc instruction.

of

socialistic

philosophers

two

and

Lamennais,

de

Paroles

This

",tional.

only

This

(see above).

Lamennais
ime

cite

Lamennais

the

of

living,nor

will

philosophical,we

lilosophicalschools

cipal
prin-

invisible

is the

good

had

his

and

moral

against the philosophy of Cousin,

raised

were

still

are

and

is the

was

latter

psychology

of Cabanis

assthetics

the

that

affirmed

^/-.j

"

exclusively the philosophy

almost
who

he

the

between

beautiful

the

that

precision which

school

by

disciplesof Cousin,

the

distinction

particularly to

conclusion

the

of

in the

York,

Beautiful^

1849.

York,

psychological standpoint,

the

confounded

been

of

and

the

force

great

philosophy,

of ends.

become

had

at

protests

writers

with

which

; in moral

Numerous

from

departed

never

method

the

Philosophy of

celebrated

spiritof

; New

PJdlosopliy,translated

Cousin's

most

psychologicalmethod

He

ibordination

by

establish

to

was

physiology,sciences

the

1853

London,

Modern

introduction, by J. C. Daniel, New

an

his master

from

Wight,

of

etc.

843

GEEMANT.

W.

History

York, 1852,

and

notes

the

of

Jouffroy (1796-1842),

Theodore

never

Course

vols.,New

with

mslated,

by O.

translated

Good,

Cousin's

etc.

OF

bodies

distinction

in

"

The

Dug.

nouveaux,
tion

principal philosophical

Stetoart

to

(1826),

his

Preface

ISIiBtxj 1842), Cours

Ethics, including

works

of
(I la

Jouffroy

fV Esthetique

Critical

Survey

are

Traductiori

(1843), and
of

Moral

his

Preface

il la

des

(mivres

de

Cours

Systems

de

Droit

; translated

Traduction

Reid

des

E-squlsses

(1835), Melanges

naturel

morales

{premiers

de
and

(1835). [Jowflroy'^Ititrodico

by W. H.

Chauning."

Tr.]

34.4

PHTLOSOPHT

realized

God,

fact that
in the

the

externally. Whatever

it is created,
of

world

nonentity

OUTSIDE

; it is

That

limit of spirit. Hence

every

being-.

view

is

of

three

also

divine

it

principle of

the

his philosophy is akin

Comte

Auguste
Auguste

the

is

and

part

There

things, it
to

belongs

all

search

of

are

us.

These

Positivism

all

repudiates

theism.

The

atheist

of atheism.

its end.

is

to it.
within

main,

the

ideas

to two

theology,
In

(1) a

states

historic
the

"

the

the

in the

forms

three

Lamennais
in

of

scale

growing

and

does

more

applied,

this

respect

of

certain

historic

denial

they

conception,(2) a

things]

is

nor

only

by

the

universe

be

may

certain

approaching

universe

explaining

part. Positivism

that

atheism

is

explaining" the
science

of

which

immanence

of

end

two

first raised.

w^ere

pantheism,

and

the

end

neither

accepts

tive
destruc-

these

and

the

istic
social-

of all metaphysics

and

between,

origin

accept

metaphysics

constructive

its

It

the

when

day

transcendence
or

lies

the

parts,

two

of
and

which

with

beginning

the

the

doctrine

socialism, in

contains

what

The

positive sciences

comparison

The

it

watchword

of

in

part

since

and

doctrines,

hypotheses.
Nor

Positivists.

and

all

only

is that

conception

theological, the
of

phenomena

by

the

and

metaphysical,

nature

mind

human

the

reference

causes

by

reduced,

co-ordtuation

in

of

and

anthropomorphitic

realized

observation

fact

modem

and

with

question

becomes

third

experiment

the

connections

which

domain

verification,must
The

sciences.

second
The

complex.

be

of

theory
At

the

place

of

of
this

basis

Positivism

is the

the

plains
ex-

or

period, supernatural
scholastic
is

attempt
himself
and

to

has

which
In
from

capable

strue
con-

ascertaining

leai-ningto

so

it passes

entities,

made

with

metaphysics.
is not

man

by personal

connect

founded

proportion
of

as

domain

the

of

tal
experimen-

science.
classification

requires

Mathematics

Sociology.

state,

causes,

method

Whatever

from

excluded

classification
are

of

the

experimental treatment,

positive science.

Physics, Chemistry, Biology, and

is

first

causes,

the

phenomena,

take

rigorously

conception

of

the

second

contents

state, man

the

the

priori:

This

of

In

abstract, occult

conditions.
must

In

'Supernatural

etc.

interpreted d

the

susceptible

to the

to

In

its antecedent

science, and

metaphysics

is

nature

subjectively.

nature

each

give place

causes

abstractions, and

necessarily through three

passes

positive.

to

voluntary interferences, by prodigies, miracles,

the

is

The

sciences.
The

by

under

complex.

causes.

It is

solution

is the

is the

which

Umit,

point

of nature,

of

questions [relativeto

towards

universe.

in

final

us.

theologian.
is

School

former

for

or

for

Immanence

to the

prominence,

The

conflict between

The

then

empiricism

in

metaphysical

Transcendence

external

first

step

of

as

the point of

physically in

at eveiy

mathematical

Positivism,as

insoluble

one

the

the

of

part.

for

and

man

philosophy

of

once

unknowable

says,

advanced

not

the

founder

in

are

God

matter.

(1) from
view

only

us

of his triplepersonality.

and

simple

of

to

Schelling.

at

constructive

and

the

the

combination

point

view

manifested

to the

stand-point constantly gained

stand-point.

causes

of

product

Saint-Simonism,

form

from

not, nevertheless, a

is revealed

spiritand

once

the

point of

are

is

matter

represents God

concealed,

most

evolution

(1798-1857),

Comte,

scientific

have

the

to that

is at

(2) from

heat,

rich, proceeding always

more

therefore,

of

forms

But

universe

the

spirit,by the very

simply distinction becomes

is

itself,which

.psychologically in

electricity,light,and
the

itself

in

being

the

from

manifested

at first under

being,

As

spirit,and

him

represents

persons,

properties of
and

which

substance,
so

in

resistant.

true

created

only absolutely immaterial

matter,

which

reality incomprehensible

true

GERMANY.

is positive in bodies, is spirit. But

is limited.

objective reality a
a

OF

us

; then
These

are

and

co-ordination
from

to advance
come,

the

in

the

of the

simple

to

turn. Astronomy,

six fundamental

sciences,

is necessary

each of which

the

of

life,and

the

latter

part of physiology.
doctrine of personal
religion and

of

This

part

the

To

works

Cousins
I.-II.

M.

Cousin

82,

1858.

contemporaine

[fomisa

referred
pp.

Deux

des

1868; Mignet,
Among

Janet,

J.

and

the

and
Janet
the

has

ation

the

by

K.

A.

address

The

Damiron

stand-point

Cloud, 1869
has

been
a

of

of

Charles

[Manuel

Bartholomess

especially influenced

Refutation

de

Hegelianiam.
upon

works

et

philosophy,

by

the

la

philosophie,

study

his socialistic

de

of

the

doctrine

investigations

of

The

and

Th.

essais

critique

and
H.

critical
De

Caro,

who

materialisme
at the

ideas

many

Bastiat
influence

philosophy

and
of

others,
117), we

the

to

Kant.

and

et

history

history

Pierre

of

from

German

speculation

is

(who

of

made

mediaeval

his

losophy
phi-

expositor

(theistic)
Plato's

of

religieuse, Paris, 1869.

de

la

morale,

1 vol.,Paris."

Leroux,

philosophy,

others, in political economy,

in

printed

modern

here

; Science

modeme,

upon

(Paris,

Simon

who

has

(Paris, 1840), incorporated (as

derived

German

.science

Jules

of

Pliiloso-

la

mention
eminent

the

part

have
1857,etc.),

to the

may

dephilos.
of

(T.
Paul

trans-

written

Sorbonne
and

has
et

de co?tscte?ice,

Haiar6au

generate, Paris, 1854

Thumanite

(forms
; German

Leipsic, 1866),also

E.

de

writings

vols.,Edinburgh

1866

London,

and

Martin,

history

Essui

an

other

contemporain

philos. critique

de

vols.,Paris, 1844,Manuel

(Paris, 1839),and

philosophical problems.

ie

liberie

Remusat

("" 111

latter

also

from
2

the

field of

and

Saisset,

(see above, "122, Lit.).

delivered

nature,

of

review

comprehensive

in the

Philosophy,
Kant

Paris

(1818-1856),among

of the

(Essai

ancienne,

r eclecticisme

The

la

in the

Cousin, Paris,

Damiron,

extracts

Masson,

published

religieuses,Strasburg, 1855.

Renouvier

de philos.

1856, La
religion naticrelle,

Chr.

above-cited

sciences

two

(Paris, 1867).

also

dans

with

Fichte,

I. H.

studies

materialisme

by

his

for

R6musat.

(Paris,1 869, pp. 253-262). Ravaisson, Thurot,

of ancient

Ze"

Le

lape7isee

et

instinctive

in

in Vol.

Cousin,

V.

de

" 115, Lit.),published

Pascal,

translation

preface by

history

and

to the

Prondhon, 1809-1865)into
from

Laflnalite

on

to the

author

cerveau

philosophique

critique des doctrines

is the
Tiincp.us,

materialism,

English

with

Le

devoir, Paris, 1854, La

Le

; in addition
Histoire

(see above, "115, Lit.),has

Goethe

contributions

philosophy,and

1864

articie

an

Discussions, etc., is

Religious

on

Aenesidhne,

in

de

is frequently

Tr.]

"

critical

especially in

Essay

Pantheism,

Reichlin-Meldegg,

Annuaire

also written

valuable

philos.

(Etudes

of Cousin

Victor

philosophie

Hamilton's
la

Spinoza (see above.

Scepticisme

Paris,

(Varis, 1864),and

cf. Carols

A. Martin's

has

of

of Biichner's

criticism

contemp.,

von

of

Philosophy

Le

La

Kulara-

doctrine

Janet,

(seeabove, " 114, Lit.),eminent

to engage

translator

titles : Modern

Tr.], and

"

published
de philos.

dii bo}iheur

1867);
L.

Clark), 1863.

Bibl.

phie

the

under

author,

T.

Cousin

by

Saisset, the

in
de

P.

philoso-

translations, see

(La philosophie

Philos., especially

cf. further

as, for example, Ravaisson, Haureau,

Others,

incited

were

Emile

J. E. Alaux
the

C'ounin, 5

V.

de

C's, BerUn, 1847), A.

Secr6tan,

Ch.

Vhistoire

Bouillier

fur

Zeitschr.

article

first

V.

La

Bordage,

Fragmeiis

[For English

1859), and

seit 1853

737-754

(I

Phllos.

Nantes,

III.

Lamennaig

On

QSuvres

Paris, 1846-48,

into English, together

Religieuse, Paris, 1859 [translated

Fhilosophie
of

Simon,

philosophy.

in the

[The

belongs

of Cartesianism.

disciples,

(Paris.1861) have

Barante

contemp.], Paris, 1864);

Thatigkeit

Introduction

Cousin

ptipilsof

(Die

Fuchs

Cousin,

Vol. 67, 1867, pp.

philosophie.

de

the

philos.

Cousin, Paris, 1869.

F.

History

Victor

and

picblique, 1850.

: Itistruction

in reviews

Meyer,

Cousin's

on

Mondes,

C'jusin's Corn's

accurate

J. B.

by

to

object.

Of these

1861 ; 0.

and

edition

following complete

Biblioth^qice dephilos.

part of the

276-290,

Philippe (Paris,1858)

A.

in the

C. B.

treat
M.

of his

of Comte.

works

Mfmcle-s, 1860

Deux

den

philosophie moderne^

la

de

Cousin

Of

Tr.]

Revue

published

been

conception
the

to be

bibliographical notices

further

following

the

Royer-Collard,

Of

"

the

Litterature, 1849, V.

342, 343."

pp.

in

pressly
ex-

is

rejects the

certain

a
was

eminent

most

of the

edition

it

Positivism

1839. [Englishtranslation,
positive(Paris,
philosophie
New
York.
Tf.Y)

add

we

VhiHtoire

de

IV.

la philosophie

Revue

repudiated by

at

humanity

the

school,for

period of his life,which

arrived

which

of

worship,

de

Binaut,

have

Cours

phiques, 1847-48,

"ur

been

Janet

by

Strasburg, 1869.

L..

written.

above,

has

Cours

is the

biogr., 1858

E-^mi

de

series:

of

publishing a complete

now

account

above

cf. Blaize

jmios.

form

Martineau, London, 1853, and

Miss

by

is

important

the most

real

philosophy

of his

Littre, who

M.

of

at

had

subjectiveperiod, M. Comte

the

termed

been

It is thus

respecting

original; it

respect

no

my
astrono-

views

of

psychology

that in
add, finally,

may

of

of

science

presupposes

of this

asked

be

the

logic imposes.

character

The

is in

of morals

We

interest.

all the

metaphysics.

doctrine

Its

itself

which

should

metaphysics

possible
societyis im-

impossible without

order

above

bear

possibilityof

the

denies

has

No

classification.

and

method

positivistictheories

the

that

seen

science of

The

one.

is

physics, which

chemistry ; chemistry, again, presupposes

this
History justifies
(?)and mathematics.

3^5

GEICMANY.

following

next

to

^vithout the science

OF

OUTSroE

PHILOSOPHY

bear,

manifested,

in

and

ten
writalso

especially

numerous

in many

did

St.

7"'.])

stances,
in-

respects,

346

OUTSIDE

PHILOSOPHY

Honan

of Ernest

in the

works

ton."

Tr.]

of the

(author

of valuable

also

as

mecliaeval

New

York,

1864),and

living French

other

vised.

in the

lished

Wentminster

Paris, 1866).
La

[On

La

Compare

Mill's

philon. poaiUve,

Hist,

1837), Etude

Precis
In

in the

the

province

has

of

of

doctrines

the

at the

ascendant

of

Bordas-Dumoulin

finl

and

in

sciences,

revoUitio7i

1864

from
and

of

the

Brussels,

Namur
Of

and

and

the

1871."

G.

history

of

Groneman,
various

Since

relative
be

Opzoomer's

bach's

doctrines,

SiJren

with

of

died

of

In

that

separation

Secr6tan

to

methode,

Church,

Norway

in

faith
the

from

of

the

on

to

ou

Mesure

of

the

in

also

1854)

and

emotion
which

by
holds

fast

doctrine

that

Nielsen,

of

to

faith

seeks

for

and

form

of

reconciliation

reconciliation

anticipates the

of

in

Utrecht.

of the

into

two

infinite goal, toward

not

which

which

shall

judged

be

faith

and

religion

holding
he

of

tion
recogni-

between

antagonisms,

the

sphere
to

between

Hegelianism

mark,
Den-

Feuer-

the

claims

man
Ger-

In

modified

been

that

relation

cial
espe-

religious philosophy,
Dutch

should

distinction

of

treat

notice,

have

teach

faith

that

conception
a

they

Wyt-

Paris, 1S66,

adherents.

found

who

this

Daniel

deserve

from

(A.

Brussels,

Hemsterhuis

equally legitimate

Opposing

teaches
and

least

thought,

Hegelian

to the

overcoming
and

has

although

Copenhagen,

in Louvain.

(Elberfekl, 1869)."

Mook

Denmark,

at

of faith.

(of Christiania)

continual

knowledge

in

volition, has

laws

P.

phy
philoso-

general.

w.uvres,

which

translated

been

by

of

thomme,

logic, sestheties, and

recently Hegelianism
influence

corresponds
the

has

"Religion,"

more
an

Rasmus
and

J. Monrad
a

so

produced

Science,"

on

et ses

Church

the

Platonist, taught

others,

in

Opzoomer

W.

of

work

by

and

Roorda

supranatural

to

of international

(Of

vie

sa

(1778-1839),the

Heusde

of C.

"Method

Schellingism,
have

in

Van

of

statistics

is still dominant.

du
letins
Bul-

successor,

(1720-1790) and

Hemsterhuis

the

philosophy

de

pos-

philosophiquea

department

differentes facultes

ancients,

des

teachers

taught

logic,

to

Delboeuf's

the

The

Ghent

question

; articles

respects

moral

and

la

doctrine

has

in the

criminal
des

Huet,

solution

systemes

among

Cartuyvels

of Laurent

Francis

by

philosophy,

his

and

knowledge

M.

representatives

Abbot

Ubagh,

relative

basis

des

in certain

offence

Steele,
pour

sur

scale).

la generation

19.

taught

et

I'in-

celle de

mathematics,

etude

musical

the

veritable

de

et
au

sired
de-

Christian

la

ou

at

Liege, 1865

on

redemption,

who

of

of

Paris

at

1870).

dhme

De

natural

the

toward

la geometrie

in

city

same

19. si^le, Paris,

philosophy
de

others,

Vesprit, Paris, 1864

et

Delbceuf,

siiivis

gave

their

recommended
the

and

investigations

investigations

with

life consists

of

philosophie

Joseph

of

inism^

la

au

the

pupil

nations

la substance

science

of

language,

de

contradiction,

de

of

and

philosophy

on

and

Cartesi

disciple of Bonald, taught

have

also

the

history

(of Copenhagen)

of

Le

to the

of

man,

philos.

relative

work

fall of

de

pupil.

Germany,

Quetelet

on

objectivetruth,
nor

who

of

1852),

and

(who

Brcichner

idea

the

Charles

Kersten,

progress

La

Huet,

entitled
as

in

Philip "William

of the

corresponding

knowledge

philosophy.

to

religievse

(Paris, ia59).

de

by Huet,

1827], E. Grucker, Fran"^ois Ilemsterhxiys,

to the

others,

among

sphere

the

laws

knowledge,

absolute

Kantism

Kierkegaard

subjectivetruth,
the

made

Ubaghs,

are

practice

(Utrecht,

formerly,

as,

worthy
note-

Ileformetl

rnorale

Ghent

la theorie

revolution

senses,

[AnthrojMmetrie,

logical manual,

Schwindt

see

reformation

Huct's

work

retirement

the

civilization,and

the

the
a

Giintherism

Jesuits,

Utrecht, 1867).
works

should

G.

by

and

the

[in Latin, Louvain,

mention

by

Louvain,
like

sociale, 1835

of

published

(1746-1820),of philosophizing

Beside

by

has

In

by

T/-.]). In Holland,

Ottemar

and

1867.

Ghent.

Quetelet, Physique

tenbach

1871

most

by Tiberghien

now

character

the

de

; cf.

La

le pri7icipe

avec

philosophical importance

great

of

scienttflque, prolegomhies,

illusions

on

Leroy,

specially opposed

was

suivi

investigations

in

rapports

ses

however,

which,

1867;

and

at

reason

la

sur

(died 1863),

logique

Academy
of

and

Paris, 1843

Huet,

himself

de

dans

pupil

rhomme,

in

law

; Essai

Brussels

Merten,

"ontologism,"
and

de

Recherche

published

perception (Prolegom5n.es philosophiques

sensuous

consideree

F.

Callier

by

occupied

of

1860

tulats, Liege,

Oscar

has

theory

mouvement

the

"

mr,

Paris,

17. siccle

et

poHiiir,

Vinet,

Paris, 1857),and

revealed

Christianity,"

truth

discours

of the

creation,

VLnstitut,

de

d'un

par

of
of

of

19. siecle, Paris,

au

maintained

1866,

to

the

to

et

16.

Leibniz,

has

defended

been

doctrines

'"renovation

precede

generale,

was

the

couronne

ouvrage

religieuse

doctrine

same

Wyrouboff,

Alexander

(Liege, 1860). Alphons

doctrine
has

dominion

the

Bordas-Dumoulin,

d' introduction

servir

philos.

7V'.]"Among

du

de

Liege, Leroy

centuries

to Bonald's

retaining

under

In

Cartesianism

philosophical

18th

and

opposition

while

unity

des

par

La

time

same

renovation

Philos

ed.,

f" a7i";;ai8e,
Boriieaux,

morale

formerly by Ahrens,

of Brussels.

17th

modernized

(who,

at the

philos.

de

liberte, a

G.

been)

19. si^cle (2d ed..

au

la

de

Krause, represented

the

Liege during

language.

brotherhood

Philos.

University

(died in 1863),maintained,
origin

(Paris, 1853), and

a

have

(or

(2d ed., Paris, 1856), Moralistes

Pascal

wiitten

and

traduc.

6, 1866."

Vol.

are

Essais

things,

Littr6

E.

2d

isr,

originally\)v.

la

Hur

( i'h
Put

Paris,

PoHiUvlHm,

aiid

Curl

Taine

rhumanUf^,

de

Lippincott;

crit.
(jE^".sai

Martineau,

language,

other

among

Pellarin

Revieiv,

Fortnightly

Mill, {Comle

H.

la science,

et

Philadelphia,

by

Harriet

{Bible

York.

26),

philosojjhie.

de

Belgium

are

wrote,

and

Micholet

mekiphynique

Stuart

directed

Miss

Jules

{La

Ch.
jfV*.]),

"

French

in the

18. siMe

au

(see above, " 134),who

and

Vacherot

Review

par

Lewes,

Blaise

sur

franq.

la Utt

de

H.

cf. G.

Comte,

theologian (1797-1847),who
(Paris,

condennee

philosophers, writing

Swiss

B.

1865.
K.Yix\!i,

ior

Review

phiios. posit. cTAuff. Comte

scq.

sur

thinkers, including

[English translation,New

above, Vol. I., "" 2.5 and

Williams),

"

Comte
Littr6 (Paris,18^3), J.
treat
[American editions, Boston, Spencer,

1866

London,

Holt

Of

2d ed., Paris, 1862).

1868

philosophy, see

of Art, English translation.

loHophy

GERMANY,

Jiaua, Parln,

VUi de

on

works

OF

as

combats

damental
funthe

ble
accepta-

be

science

"

always

OUTSIDE

PHILOSOPHY

growing,

and

never

Boethius,

and

the

of

Hoijer

1801).

that

says

Kant

of

philosophy
H"KJer,

under

construing

himself

in

the

title

Metaph.

is

Ueber

Co7i8tructi(m

possible
of
i.

act,

in

in

only

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in

e.,

{ibid.,

mathematics,

con"tme^

matter

infinite

absolute,

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philosophiska

den

diephilos.
is

pure

representative

Om

essay

Principles
in

found

its

had

whose

conctjptions

by

the

construction

all

Kantian

German

3i7

GERMANY.

Benjamin

that

dictum,

starting-point

the

in

published

was

the

in

Schelling

and

Kant's

he

philosophy;

in

not

philosophically

Fichte

1799)
against

argues

Sweden

In

tending.

"

(Stockholm,

coiistructionen

and

is

complete
philosophy

OF

prior

activity,

the

to

lie

monads

inferior

the

represented

by

Russia,

Into

following,

Ka^rji/rjToO

Islands),

Corfu,
has

form,
several

Balmes,
to

128)

Ueberweg

ttjs

1863.

of

whose

Scholasticism,
as

of

follower

is

incorporated

ev

there

Spain

much

lost

its

into

has

doctrine,
the

Tr}

'loi^iw

rigor

and

had

following

Oct.

that

form

into

influence

12,

Appendices.

German

its

by

Tr.]

BngUsh

of

In

Sanz

and

del

Italian

ence.
influ-

an

the

works,
vnh

Senate

of

Ppaika
Ionian

the

with

together

eminent

ir,

Beneke's

oroixeta,

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that

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Hegelianism

-Greek

which,
most

teach

greater

exerted

Modern

Lorinser.

Julio

Spain.

[The
"

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Hegel
Of

to

as

40).

and

particulars

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jrpa/cTiK^?

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doctrines

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I.,
In

sporadically.

way

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died

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tion.
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1869.

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essential

contained

Vol.

Lund).

of

III.,
in

them

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above,
in

method

Monatshefte,

modifying

(see

the

1) adopts

11

p.

numbers

professor

Hungary

made

prevails

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this

former

have

works

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mention

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In

Poland

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upon

since

Philos.

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proceeds

the

journal.

superior,

written

philosophy

deserves

others,

has

in

writes

same

Platonic

Calmar,
in

and

theory,
German

also,

among

'ApixevT]

("

pedagogic

and

psychology

the

the

in

in

construction

Matzner

in

with

who

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(formerly

Borelius

J.

them

which

by

Ed.

essay

contained

are

is

pupils

Bostrom's

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method

whom

Leander's

combining
ideas

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(of

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of

doctrines

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basis

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at

product

Bostrom

Jakob

Christoph
views

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struse
ab-

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representatives
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tion
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bj

350

EIOHAED

sophy
have
It

of

not

been

few

rendered

follows,that
and

thinkers

of

the less real because

none

are

in the service

of the progress of
requiresus to notice eminent

devoted

they

important practicalinterest.
philosophicthought in England

some

sketch

America

have

who

able

HOOKER.

writers

and

thinkers

themselves

exclusivelyto purely speculative

tions
questions,but who notwithstanding have made
important contributo philosophic
thought.
not

Such

appendix and
necessary as an
historyof English philosophy,inasmuch

Ueberweg's

to

author, in
evidence

of the continental

most

of writers

who

in those

discussions

assume
applied to specialquestions,
character.
opposite

CHAPTEK
1

The

first writer

Lord

chap.

Richard

; Rector

His

7th

in

in

Of

and

1662,

Dublin,

of

Laws

Locke.

before

Modem

writer

is for

sagacity

Maurice.

Hooker,

and

philosophyis
philosophy of an

somewhat

earlier

reasons

ingdeserv-

many

Philosophy,

Lond.

etc.
,

1863,

1721

in

edition,

of

Sub-dean

Tutor

Student,

1584

Buckinghamshire,

Polity,

the

Fellow

and

Master

Cathedral

of

of

of

the

Corpus
Temple,

Salisbury

dissenter, 3

life, 1666,

Walton's

with

3 vols.

'20,each

notes, 1845, 1850, 2

other

Lond.,

in

; Rector

editions

1825, 2

1594,

and

sermons

1836

the

tracts,

8vo

; 4 vols.

5th
were

1676,

Lond.,

are,

vols.

editions, Lond.,

Other

vols.

few

by Keble, Oxf.,

Arranged

8vo.

vols.

with

fol. ;

8vo

first 4 books

the

published,

was

eight books,

The

1648.

Oxf., 1793, 1807,

a

Exeter,

near

and

Prebendary

Ecclesiastical

Keble's

without

Heavy-Tree,

died.

8th

and

fol. ; 2d

he

where

6th

by Hanbnry,

extracts

Svo, 1845; do.,

vols.

the

1617, the

In

1595,

Kent,

Lond.,

1705, '19, '23

notes

reach

Drayton-Beauchamp,

at

Wiltshire, 1591

Boscomb,

principal work,

published

of

Rector

of

native

1553-1600, a

College, Oxford,

1597, the

'82.

teach

or

is Richard

philosophical
Denison

in which

Philosophy

notice

we

Cf. Frederic

Hookor,

Bishopsboume,

in

little

V.

Christi

of

English

"

whom

whose

Bacon,

of attention.

1585

I.

than

finds
historians,

philosophical
tendency than that of Empiricism,
writers who
givesonly a partialview of some
represent
in a general
and
overlooks
able
considera
altogether
way,

this direction

"

its

as

other

of any

number

ment
supple-

more

with

common

therefore

and

is the

sketch

1830, with
8vo, 1841

1839, 1845, 2

vola.

8vo.

Hooker
the

is called

Elizabethan

than
the

Government

and

Parliaments.

books
a

to

sort

essence

of
and

of the
In

his

to

writings

defend

supernatural

the

reason.

controverted

ways
His

other

Polity

the

by

author

the
successfully,

it

law

in

general,

in

devotes

spiritual universe,
can

be

known

and

of

by

its

relations

to

civil

man,

discussions

Puritans, in

which

of

vindication

Protestant

and

through

of

rather

theological

purpose

professedly

are

established

philosophical writer

most

and

form

in

writings consist

by the Romanists

the

as

Sovereign
the

philosophicalprinciples involved, and

of the

in which

as

this

concerning
prima pJdlosopliia
activity,to the physical and
to

well

as

are

of England

Church
order

finest

the

of Ecclesiastical

Laws

His

preliminary discussion

societies,and

doctrine

All

period."

philosophical.

"

by Hallam

first two
sets

to the

forth

Divine

ecclesiastical
and

natural

concerning poLats of

there

is recognized

sys-

RICHARD

philosophy which

of

tem

writings of

other

any

and
"

of God

Being

beneficial
is limited

Law

is

his

by

of

law

the

laws

stabilityof
themselves,
the

serve

God

As

natural

and

is

action

which

"

"

two

are

certafn

it."

of

for

men

intellectual

beings
the

sentences

to do.

of the

The
of what

principles of

man.
tures
crea-

apparent

defects

The

only

not

to

revelation.

and

the

but exert

choice
a

tural
na-

settled

the

natural

agents by
and

another

one

intellectual
the

creatures,

actions

fall

the

of any
for

is by the

the

e.

g.

threefold,

are

reflex

love, adoration

The

it."

of

set

Reason

Goodness

between

arbitrary which

them

the
are

actions.

This

investigable by Reason
are

orders

constraining force.

Nature

kind

The

each

requires

shall

be.

authority of

the

Laws
ruler

those

is

kind

comes

of

voluntary

the

only

general.
mother

mandatory,

on,

missive
per-

natural
super-

touching the

tation,
advice, consul-

of government,
teach

either

the

things which

only, without

agreed

not

taught."

less

some

deliberate

some

himself."

have

beings, is
law

most

concerning
rule

in

There

account

so

of God

more,

good

"The

do

needs

to other

is

also."

The

some

is like unto

which

men

goodness of

in relation

by being,

signs.

all

sire
de-

appetite's

move

judgment

work."

on

giveth

commonweal

men.

of

must

intellectual

is

accomplishment

That

sentence

herself

nature

and

their

the

as

not

amiable

as

and

natural

will

in actions
' '

"

is

for human

object

right.

causes

men

intuitive

are

the
'

the

doth

profitable,but

himself, and

of Reason

'

term

learned,

which

laws

Goodness

bles
resem-

principal fountains

two

that inferior

general persuasion
of

which

The

capable of

as

of his Maker

likeness

from

being

their

the

voice

of nature

law

"

we

as

by

provide, that

"

agents.

giveth concerning

is in

Laws

composition

leaves the

of

serve

in

This

from

proceeding

them

God's

of sin.

account

of living in society. All public requirement arises from

manner

' '

and
will's solicitor,

covet

well

is their

Reason

man

admonitory.

or

is done

objects

they

knowledge

and

wish

at all times

that

are

is made

anything

of

of

differeth

felicitytherefore

perpetual

have

Will

only delight

agents is the sentence

The

is

Obedience

in the

desired."

goodness is, if

and

made

is the

discerning goodness"

goodness of

rarity and

he

though

to

moves

of

natural

as

be

but

not

evident

all

Our

which

that

general

which

"Laws

self
to him-

unknown

conspicuously

will.

cannot

"

doth

of

ways

"The

ings,
say-

both

limited

its

it is often

unfallen

law

being

tied

and

choose

cannot

of men,

token

That

the

or

man

"Appetite

evil

as

of
Man

not

are

we

appetite.

Evil

desire,we

actions

reason

and

"

knowledge

are

straitness, wherefore
the

Of

fallen.

desire.

by being apparent."
our

conceived
pre"

in them."

themselves, substituting pride

beings

free

call

we

controller."
but

'

memorable
Law

that

on

good

he

so
efficient,

an

; the

upon

impelled by

being

in

of human

as

the

imitation

of created

he

him

hold

laws

some

beneficence

malediction

another, binding

one

is

are

world."

order

factory
satis-

of God.

laws

progress

"

and

understanding

worship
The

of

agents

unfallen

the

love, adoration, and

their

These

to

in the

of nature.

whole

the

to

though

and
'

for

good.

common
moves

angels, both

related

as

in the

kind, appointing

God

"not

"

of all things receiveth

process

also

but

incident

are

"

effects

powers

stay of the

its

God,

to

show

to

universe

thing

end,

some

him

exists

reason

understanding.

divine

to

things for

is the

than

his clear

are

the

law

and

actions

properties and

to the

mention
of

working,"

to his

Law
His

; this

nature

generationand

all

reason

of these

the working

applicabilityof

of

firmlyheld

more

each

assigning to

correspond
but

him,

unto

properly applied

to

deserves

operations

the

as

the

kind

actions

his

because
infinite,

is

and

time.
Hooker

things besides,"

to all other

will

"

of working

measure

the

and

of

his

of law

definition

;" the

end

to

of

regularity of

of the

conception

to be

definitelyconceived

more

theologian

particular principlesfor which

The

form

is

351

HOOKER.

what

from

is

but

good,

commis-

352

Sm

sion derived

directlyfrom

plicitor implied.
men

bound

were

not

holds

which

councils

is great.

The

good of

comes

of

nature, God
includes

which

hope
The

natural.

are

that
The

so

provided

charity.

But

many

of

the

relative,not absolute.
it supposes

which

whether

which

laws,

the

by

of

the

certain

and

accepted

as

the

with

akin

fail to exert

the

applied

of

to that
and

all

on

principles for

Lord

Sir

John

Bacon.

He

2.

their

and

in its form

of

it does

and

of

many

of his

Hooker

who

in

in

was

with

be

may

fence
de-

are

time,

fairly

sive
comprehenIt coiild

completeness.
these

to the

themselves

explicit and

more

vindicated

largely endowed

was

discussions

subsequent

as

far

and

theology, which,

philosophers

was

scribed
pre-

metaphysical,

discussions

not

ethical

by)providing

adjvidication.
should

Davies, 1570-1G2G,
in

bom

was

it

ecclesiastical,

follow

which

principles

ethics

writers, and

only

systematic

more

The

hand,

inconstant

authorities.

great work,

philosophical system

Bacon

Lord

law.

stant,
con-

simply by being

books

six

ablest

Christian

The

politicalphilosophy, anticipating

"

of the

one

and

pagan

by

Hooker's

other

the

civil and

constituted

politicsand

to

by

powerful influence

of

are

relations

special and

authoritative

in the

Those

On

for

nature,

Scriptures

in those

is constant.

or

in the

man

societies,both

first book

fundamental

comprehensiveness.

in its statements

and

polity

; in

become

established

as

ordained

representatives

are

man

is

known,

light of

conditional.

are

faith,
which

to tradition.
be

to

laws

the

by

vantage
It is great ad-

the

of the

to

alone

were

Again

in the

re-elaborated

were

sense,

sagacity

its

but

needful

The

those

entrusted

exclude

not

Some

and

general

of

condition

these.

Law

every

of

of this

exclude

not

not

were

belong

laws

do

concern

and
to

which

relations

second,

doctrines

acquainted

well

in the

which

always bind,

force.

changing

ecclesiastical

of the

summary

laws

respect

failed

supernatural,on

written

of such

majority, through

against objections

the

waa

is that

primary

are

the force

having

duties

Laws

spiritualor divine.

Man

supplementary.

matter

principles enumerated

The

in

not

of permanent

not

respecting these

is

supernatural,which

though

even

relations,are
laws

The

obedience.

supernatural light does

do

These

nations

which

duty

ex.

to which

duty

some

that

is

consent

descrii)tionof

Christian

that

are

supernatural,

or

third

of nations.

Laws

the

full of

it is

laws

natural

permanent.

are

those

to which

Positive

mutable.

are

and

The

supernatural

laws

the

make

way

Scriptures

But

which

perfect

has

are

else those

and
sensual, intellectual,

to

these

establish

This

governed.

which

between

and

of

of the

those

human.

commerce

Scriptures

completeness

or

politic,i. e. ,

the

of reward

way

the consent

or

is threefold

man

in the

are

mixed

are

DAVIE8.

twofold

of reason,

Law

Concerning

from

or

laws

bodies

between

secondary.

way

the

by

before, /. d., they

so

last

God,

Positive

JOHN

Wiltshire, and

named

be

educated

after

next

at

Queen's

and

before

College, Oxford,

in 1603

Hooker,

Solicitor-General

Chief

Lord
His

Justice
On

poem.

exhibits

the

detail.

The

in two

adds

the

the

2d

and
and

It

extreme
of the

the

student

gives

dawning
For

to understand

the

2d,

Of

Teiiisum:
the

of both

Soul

sense

upon
which

Aristotle
them

by

and

attended

psychology and

of installation.

This

oracle

Man,

and

when
of the

Eeformation

Hooker,
in

more

expounded
the

scholastic

Plato,

it is of

of

time, though

doctors

the

history of philosophy
the

of

appointed

was

first book

better

the

he

ceremony
the

in his

England

transcript of that

ingrafted
good

the
like

Soul,
of

1626

In

before

Human

philosophy

teachings

subtilities

Learning,

suddenly
the

Knowledge

1599.

combines

died

but

Assize,1020-1.

edition, 1602, is Nosce

Human

1st ed.

results

the

psychology

of

Judge

Knowledge

1st,Of

of Classical

enables

England,

title of

which

of the

many

of

Human

Elegies

soul

Ireland, and

current

thereof
the

in

tality
Immor-

doctrine

of

purified from
schools, and
and

the

vival
Re-

great significance,as it

philosophy which

were

current

SIR

of the

the introduction

before

Locke

and

as

of its

no

The
the

without
his

thus

argument

is

There

soul is

it is united

in

is

with

the

pilotin

vessel,nor

voice

through

the

soul

air

*'

are

the

which

spirit of

soul is self-

the

That

tion
versifica-

with

perfection or reflection of the

which

nature

within

sense

and

employ

created,

sense

rules

within

6.

soul

in its

spider

her

pains,

private

bower.

of the

to the

the

or

another,

as

in

the

given
in

man

a
nor

wax,

soul is a
be

can

not

in the

heat

as

4. The

reasons

body

image
nor

"

body.

Satisfactory

is united

web,

sense's

of the humors

7. The

body.

the

use

traduced.

not

contains

greater power

water

as

nor
fire,

as

But

of

liquor is mingled with

one

as

the

of

somewhat

with

maintains

than

temperature

ship, or

soul, a

sits and

than

more

5. The

and

forms,
author

more

literature

garded
re-

fluent

and

skUl

for the

be

may

in all the

current

were

It

concise

in

thought

of Ilobbea

and

"

doth

But

which

hand

one

successful.

power

Which

of subtle

history of

the
the

the

on

uncommonly

conceits

in

2, It is

body.

Descartes

is

in the

positionswhich

The

tent, or

the

353

VIES.

expression

it is remarkable

''

spirit.

from

philosophical discussion

concluding

why

in the

free

means

poetry.

subsistent

3. The

versification

of diction

time, but

it conducts

elevated

by

philosophies of

The

other.

triumph

It is

verse.

the

on

DA

JOHN

the fair and

as

Both

here

in

And
To

cheerful

there

instant

an

the

and

her

morning light
silver

herself

doth

beams

air in all and

transparent

impart,

unite

part.

every

******

doth

So

the

Being
The

soul has
which

senses

not

perceive

and

transmits

the

sensitive

passions
body

; (c) the
to the

imagination
the

or

with

such

intellectual

the

abstraction, and

the
like

sense

of

objects ; (g)
of

which

sensory,

and

compares

soul's

which

admit

objects; (/)

sense

the

"

is nourished

body

porters

or

compounds,

memory

power,

part diffused.

which

common

which

body fill.

which

by

power

or

the

all in

instruments,

(d) fantasy

memory

connected

(h)

outward

soul

all,and

vegetative

(a) the
the

are

piercing

all in

the

capacitiesto

generic

name

knowledge,

When

"

But

she
when

And

*'

rates

by

To

But

her
either
when

A certain

Besides these there

23

she

reason

standeth

When

things and

is the

moves

the

truth

from

ground

hath

found,

to

moving

move

and

wit^

she

lightlydoth

part, she
she

doth

is

incline

opinion'slight;

by principlesdefine

truth,she

hath

capacityfor

true

innate

judgment's sight.'*
ideas

"

forces

regulate

which

ground,'^

fixed,she understanding is."

assent

forms

the

reason,

"

but

do

perceives,retains

tries these

is

(b) the five

acts

(e)
or

the
as

354

HERBERT

LORD

*'

Yet

hath

And

Not

the

of

sparks

being

But

For

soul

what

the

To

these

powers

analysis of

the

added

the

of the
of

Herbert

in

speculative thinking

as

permanent

which

to be

things.
as

of

truth

faculties

This

their
There

of

conception,

conformity
between

of

the
The

the

the

the

by

to

there

thing

of

highest, viz.

De

truth.

which

It is
and

are,

from

which

that

kinds

of

So

far

faculties.

truth

the

to

of

Herbert's

different

are

upon

course

Reid, p. 781 .)

as

things

natural

our

is the

truths

the

T.

distinguished

as

things,we
the

have
of

truth

the

concerns

it is

the

the

provided

he

respect

the

good

of

and

as

The

sane

their

of

truth

and

under

come

is

what

as

ment
agree-

truths, conditional

to every

well

or

with

apprehension

objects that

beautiful

ond,
sec-

conformity

relation

concerned.

common

all individual
the

involves

other

these

fourth, the due

of

of intel-

itself ; the

third, the conditional

; the

{i.e. )

truth

are

with

it

as

; truth

truth

; and

us

thing

faculties

the

conformity

judges of

by

; the
is

truth
and

in

of

object

it is manifested

as

things

appear

appearance

mutual

conception,

the

concerns

apprehended

{notitice)
or
principles which

of which

object

with

and
things as they
All
already named.

on

things, which

of

of appearances

of

of

truth

and

another.

one

truth

of appearance,

conformity

conditions

depends

These

truth

inherent

of truth

conformity

means

is

so

of

this

writer

studying Lord

is such

analogous

object as

first is the

faculties

knowledges
by

man,

the

concerns

conformities

intellect

certain

and

which

conformity

on

of

known

with

of truth

kinds

The

our

are

of

kinds
made

things, truth

of appearance,

which

objects depends

of

conformation

conditional

the

as

upon

Works

without

There

-manifest,and

of all these

truth
truth

four

judgment.

or

things

Hamilton's

To

immortality.

influential

everywhere, pertaining

many

capable

are

supposes

thus

are

as

for its

more

These

memory.

dependence.

harmonious

is in itself ; truth

lect

are

in

The

conception.

intellect.
and

There

mutual

argument

Essay

following

It is

It is self

differences

natural

our

in

intellectual

important influence

of Locke's

the

are

to exist.

true.

These

stand

(Cf. Sir William

polemic

doctrines

ill."

or

the

an

without

not

was

existing things.

as

feigned

are

appears

the

Its chief

and

subjoined

be.

pen,

of

and

Cherbury, 1581-1648, though

England.

understand

can

one

Veritate.

is

soul

philosophy,

upon

another

all men.

excuse

will

see

to will ;

good

practice,good

or

of

one

do

laws

to

all,

at

written

and

wit,

else

thought

to

her

heart

powers

is writ

will,may

to
or

accuse,

every

powers

8. Lord

religion than
No

do

For

severally related

are

"

are

writer

truth

things

common

naught

where

in man's

nature

Prescribing
Which

dowry natural,

light,some

blank

CIIERBURT.

OF

on

perfect

his

vation.*
obser-

called

commonly

true.
The

faculties

are

four

faculty {discursus).
apply
such

without
as

them

only

they

of

his

the derived.

the

to

These

verse.

the

reasoning

tend

The

is

of

but
first

are

universality ; certainty,so

in

common

us

of

the

by nature,

distinguishedby
no

man

can

external

sense,

faculty by

as

the

to

the

excited

the

so

by

that
are

six marks
doubt

Grod

of

has

distinguished
or

them

criteria

without

sive
discur-

and

things, especially

and

the
not

are

senses,

the

apprehend

we

species,

by th^m

and

sense

which

relations

individual,

These

his wisdom.

that

the

notions

notions, though

implanted

image

inner
instinct,
instinct

conservation

common
are

natural

Natural

conveyed by'

imparted

into

the

uni-:

entire

to

us

not

originaland|

priority; independence ;
putting

oflfhis nature

*
necessity,that is,usefulness
Natural

self-evidence.

or

inner

The

have

instinct

includes

sense

with

do

to

sens^ts, of the

evil

good

and

to be

done.

external

The

senses

external

the

on

The

the

by
inquiry

which

external

internal

investigation, and

or

depend

{discursus)give

and

means

Man

is

and

for

all

by

natural

soul.
The

judges

sory,
sen-

in

depends

the

what

ought

It

notions.

objects

nished
objects fur-

to

certain

is

instincts.

natural

respect

on

ulty
fac-

on

of

of what

judgment

and

are

common

depends
it

senses

of

These

specialeffects of external

the

knowledge

common

or

the

faculties.
of

disagreeable, and
the

notions

which

sense,

the

capacities

for

existences, the

respects

especiallytheir

relations,place, time, and

ends.

distinguished from

capacity

the

body

other

direction

miraculum).

reaches

on

that

the
quiddities,the qualities,the quantities,
causes,

the

corresponding internal

jointlywith

faculties

agreeable

and

common

thus

degrees,and

three

conscience, and

is the

means

the
the

on

of

intuitive apprehension
lastly,

under

illud natures
senses

By

those

are

organs

discursive

internal

various

their

in

of the

dependent

are

modifies

which

powers

iunicwn

conscious.

to be

capacity

or

choice

man

in and

present

particular forms
these

permeated by libertyof
communis

is

those

all

the

good and evil,whether

the

preservationof

for the
instinct

355

CULVERWELL.

ATHANIEL

religion.

men

the

are

animals

The

five

by the gift of

not

common

following

(1)

That

there

is

God

pre-eminently by

but

reason,

religionwhich

of natural

notions

(2)

That

he

are

sessed
posto be

ought

virtue
and
of worship ; (4) That
piety are the chief elements
there
is
another
with
and punishments.
That
rewards
(5)
duty ;
life,
repentance
A revelation is possible to individuals.
Lord
Herbert
that a special revecontended
lation

worshipped

(3)

is

made

was

these

That

but

himself,

to

primary principlesor

five

whole

to the

importance

nothing

human

admitted

be

can

notions,

common

therefore

race, and

revealed

as

anything

and

contradicts
of

be

can

revelation

such

no

which

beyond

should

no

made

be

public.
writings of

The

character

and

as

course

of all

accepting

His

of the

views

and

the

in his
and

Old

results

of

Kant

by

to the

which

the

His

adventured.

of

Other

treatise

of

been

ways

and

metaphysical inquiries and

possibility of
the limUs

of pure

of

more

revelation
reason,

which

Europe, IIL

Deistical

"
a

c.

writers, etc.

4. Nathaniel

contemporary

the

of

points
Veritate

De

of

truth

Locke,

and

things

and

similarity

by Herbert's
work.
lordship's
,

1C54,
and

"were

1661

Fellow

It

De

so

are

mon
com-

and

and

and

his treatise

published
also

may

be
the

ed.

as

on

after

Brown,

College, which

conspicuous

of

wide-reaching
Kant

elicited

might

the

be

comments

Cf.
the

Hallam,

principal

ii.

Veritate^as

Oxford, 1669,

of Emmanuel

afterwards

i. and

Letters
,

was

those

the truth

to

more

him

between

the attention

attracted

and

Descartes,CEuvres, ed. Par. viii.,138; 168.

view
of
ii.,Sec. 77, c. iii.,
21-28; also Leland's

Herbert,

in

tions.
applicato

indeed

its relation

profounder

the

of

Culverwell, 1G15-1652, Fellow

of

him

their

kindred

are

is
the

shaping

followed

others

of Gassendi, Op., iii.,

411; also
Lit, of

impulse

gave

significantin

Shaftesbury, Tindal,

and

He

religiousrationalizingwhich

Rationalism.

those

Kant.

of

influence.

permanent
England

in many

Religionwithin
New

anticipate

appearance

has

of his

nature

speculations concerning

researches

in

movement

subsequent speculation.

some

His

without

not

were

great

English Deism,

known

enforced

Herbert
that

to

the

was
"

The

Emmanuel

inferred

from
of

death

1857.

Edin.
the

Coll.,Cambridge,

Light of
the

Nature

occasional

Culverwell

Latitudinarians
,

allusions

was

of most
"

gested
sug-

to his

author, Lond,, 1G52,

originalnursery

Cambridge

was

probably

was

also

student

of those

who

{vide J. Tulloch,

356

THE

Rational

Theolo^

verwell
attack

it

there

out

only

some

hand,

she

knows

there

is

the

first

you

of

exordium
rocked

against
into

infancy ?

Had

you
"

needs
"

subscribe

Sense

ar"d

is the

remain,

of

gate

made

governing

the

himself, who

makes

force
'

its

moral

the

The

of

reception

by its inward
and

far

so

The

"

To

understand

to be

called

despotic policy of
materialistic

The

and

Caetesians

state

influence

the

in

of the

to

evince

to faith

through

oi

in

those

English

of Hobbes

support

writers

which

lent

of
to

in

"

he

light of
light of

to the

of

law

reason

the

revelation, to

to vindicate

and

nize
harmoFaith

reason.

evidence,

but

is

mately
proxi-

is consistent

with

exercise.

took

more

of

his
the

II., and

corrupt

of

morals

Locke's

direction

to the

and

before

England
meaning

politics of
Charles

the

in

the

authority

the

and

Men.

who

owing

was

faith

operation

yt"

to

lawgiver

of

its constant

interpret

scientific

monarchy
ethics

to

the

God,

its outward

God

that

whereas

by

and

obligation

of

will

necessity

the

philosophical opinion
order

to perpetual
eternal

an

of

light

Cambridge

the

principles

essence,

gospel contrary

Its

demands

is

moral

the

but

common

grace.

must

lattices."

respect of

own

undiscoverable

are

It

in

making

relation

mysteries

and

himself
'

his

understanding
and

wanted

you

them, they only

virtue

binding

in natural

est

counsel, for regulating

liberty of

Hooker,

totum

first

it;

nature.

and

its

respect to the

and

to the

restored

necessitarian

wisdom

of

condemns

divine

"

these

from

these

upon

reason

throne

stream

first

they

were

powers,
at

these

as

? in the

that

us

sensitive

is the

that

in the

superseding reason,

The

the

tell

other

ing.
reason-

notions

principles

Never

made
his philosophy the object of general discussion
the
philosopher of Malmesbury," says Warburton, " was

adherents,
"

discerned

opinions, than

system.

these
"

flourishingin

testimony, remotely by

ample justice to

of his

In

of

proper

do

affinities

? and

interpretation of revelation, and

the

should

The

only

in the

Locke, and, indeed,

of Hobbes.

cradle

understanding,

of

that

the

Not

services

truths

the

species in
'

the

and

eye

comes

in the

On

soul's

unrestrained

the

to,'

the

to

not

"irpo\ri\f/"is,

of

upon

if not

asked,

as

such

from

time

the
we

5.

the

Had

dissents

nothing

light as
from

yet

and

soon

you

recourse

had

as

sciences

postulata,some

opening

anchor

is founded

divine

the

esse

infinite

his will.'

to assist

evidence,

reason,

is

'
"

simuV

is founded

situated

law

demands

its doctrines.

'

will.
were

there

that

Faith

reason.

divine
Ideas

all the

that

Culverwell

efiicacyfrom

and

reason,' and

test

'

law.'

holds

the

from

proceed
has

itself.'

bind

cannot

full

the

clear

some

principle of knowing

understanding

which

world,

always

noii

of God's

of knowledge

man

mathematical

willingly assent

meditate

cast

not

morality

depth

whole

has

will

first

noble

some

and

demonstrations

those

that

But

in the

of

the

and

such

knowledge

"

skepticism."
ordinance

all

Cul-

by Herbert's

sources

of

being

granted

has

connate

there
et

of the

the

upon

the

are

as

plainly have

that

with

he

and

these

certainty,

notions

common

at the

you

aroused

doctrine

in

power

being ?

you

this,

to

the
ideas

nihil potest esse

organical dispositions,for

'As

presently

innate

did

or

His

nature

only

you

was

printed

nature.'"

will

being

century, Lond., 1872).

doubtless

alphabetical notions, by putting together of

manner,

urges

and
parte^''^

majus

same

peeped

and

MEN.

17th

the

and

which
aiT-fi/xara,

light, but

with

asleep

of

innate

Culverwell
when

law

rational

no

in

of Reason.

first and

first

very

side

stamped

are

the

CAMBRIDGE

THE

standpoint,

the

There

spell

not

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358

signed to complete
the doctrine
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critical

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worth's

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criticisingthe
criticism.
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erudition

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attention

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powers

Scholastics,

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God,

reality

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of Reason

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1731.

in

controlled

nominalism
the

of Locke.

posthumous,

was

the

independent

and

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existence

Cudworth

writers

of

and

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from

of

thinking.

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higher faculty

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earnestly protests

to the

of

whole,

teleological" a

reservation

limitation

ancient

number

pp.

published by John

was

98.

in his

It is

in the

discrimination

was

solidityof

nor

in

the

and

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his

direct

to the

Letter

simplicity of thought

More, 1614-1687,
and

of his

or

and

the

essential

Distinctions

and

independence

propounded

1654.

is

value

time

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argues

Moral

plastic
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discerned

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Morality

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inorganic phenomena,

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possibilityof

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learning

originality,and

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authority of

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the belief

when

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truth,

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even

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consciousness.

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accepted

hypothesis

in God

power

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organization

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criticises

judges

derivation

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belief in, or

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phenomena

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doctrine

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inorganic phenomena,

living beings,
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as

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constantly brings

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doctrine

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Cudworth

secondary qualities of matter,

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scarcely a single position which

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primarily designed to

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philosophers, the Atheistic

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MEN.

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TIJE

authority of God, the

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diction

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British

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necessitarian

of Newcastle

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to

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His

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wisdom

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could

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him.

ed., enlarged, 1712.

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mysticism, and

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enjoyed

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Letters

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in
be

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Ethicum,
PhilosophicalWritings, 1662, fol.,

; Collected

1671

philosopher

oilers of academic

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Metaphysicum^

for

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retirement,

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1669 ; Enchiridion

he

359

MEN.

amiable

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caused

reputation which

philosophicalhistorian.

preferment
4th

have

Cabala,

merited

of his life in chosen

most

CAMBRIDGE

THE

spiritualpossession,his

of the

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Antidote

against Atheism, with Appendix;

Descartes, Immortality of the Soul,

to

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leading principle of More's

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and

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existence
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true

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of God.

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Benjamin
school

them

Whichcote,
of

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theologicaldoctrine
religiousand
of

times

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1610-1683, and
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men,

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of God

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leadingperson

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some

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passages

Northamptonshire,
Select Discourses

His

followingtreat

divine

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knowledge

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with

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;

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ciples
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lish
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elevation

English literature.

Worthington,
in

to

Camb., 1673, Lond., 1821,

which, together

sympathies

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beliefs

reader.

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eloquence.

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as

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Aristotle's

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John

theological. Whichcote,
a

the
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religiouslife,but

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qommon

as

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remarkable

perusal

well

Ackchurch,

at

number.

wonderful,

was

man

moods,

mathematical

method

for clear

as

is

beauty

born

Lond., 1660,

not

in

recognize

to

of his

many

appendix

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for the

existence

theological writings

and

in

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derived

were

power

relations

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in

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argues

of Godliness

ethical

same

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of elevated

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sentiment, makes

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strain

discourses

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nature

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Provost

after

philosophy

immortality

Mystery

poetical in

its seat

soul, at

pretended revelations

Cambridge,'' 1618-1652,

published

1859.

Camb.,

in

More

against misconceptions

has

at times

Triumphatus

subjective

and

He

it

soul

of the

independent

false and
His

Queen's College,1644,

were

to

"of

Platonic
an

history.

written

propositions,

ala,
speculations concerning the Philosophical Cabthe

the

the

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Clark).

for

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Christian

properly

philosophical works

contends

again

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imaginative

Smith,

FeUow

same

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time.

after

is

felicity.By

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defending

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Piotinus, and

writings are

John

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popular.

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theology

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opinion, that
or

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rules.

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of

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principlesof ethics

extension

entity independent

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he

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great
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aid

reason

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mond

the

ethical

is the

1618-1671,

philosophy
works

position

in thia circle.

and

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were

its relations
are

College

nantly
predomiTutor

and

360

OTHER

In Whichcote's
Dr.

W.

and

The

A.

Tuckney,

1753,

politicaland

exerted

desire

radical

and

influence

powerful

sensual
of

revelation

the

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and

Milton,

''in

matters

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of

testimony
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notice

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literature,and
of

following

of beginning
service

to

"

at

Christian

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as

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; More

the

Baxter

in

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for

of

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vidual
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views

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expressed

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Puritans,
John

theological
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sophical
philo-

the

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deserve

Howe.

by

of

doctrines
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of

the

necessity

Christianity and

be

cannot

Religion

1622, which

phil

religion in English

Infidelity,1655

Fotherby,

ter,
BaxIn

supernatural."

position

Christian

special

Richard

of his time.

evidences

this
of

the

Their

distinctlyrecognized

enouncing

Unreasonableness

the

by physical experiment.

fundamentally

presupposed

Reasons

the

the

John

and

Cherbury.

theological writers

maintaining
in

and

on

most

experience, supplemented

verified

writer

the

to

axioms,

the

of whom

philosophy by denying
of

tions
tradi-

be added

Baxter,

Henry Vane,

from

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class

Platonism.
of

ed
assum-

some

revelation

writers, moderate

two

expressly

procedure

except

Sir

Herbert

all

be

Richard

earliest

treatises.The

to

spiritof

voluminous

most

verities

Religion, 1667

ought, perhaps,

and

operations

vague

into

as

direct

Christianized

English philosophical thinking

His

of the

also

should

former

the

polity,

was

into

men,

of its originalcategories and

the

or

of the

methodical

these

positive authority.

Penn

Glanville, attacked

into

mention

philosophy

To

Of

school

their

all its evidence

all

Cambridge

on

and

in the

History of Philosophy, viz. ,

one

relied

of

method

character

revelation,

was

to the

conformed.

William

Culverwell, already named,

a

1615-1691,
osophy he

and

Joseph

authoritative

et al.

among

of the

authority

be

may

Hooker,

derived

significan
in-

play

to

writers

of

and

to derive

resolved

Gale

all ratiocination

positiverevelation

trustworthy knowledge

and

reason,

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culture, like

diction

skeptics, like
evident

and

superseded

intellectual

the

writes

not

loose

Anglicans

Scriptures,which

akin

were

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school

philosophy,

might

let

Culverwell, already noticed, Richard

Mystics, Quakers,

spiritwhich

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afterwards

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Nathaniel

were

; who

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authority

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type

originallyPuritans

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to the

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Scriptures,

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; Puritans

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"

important

principles called

conscience, i. 6.

write

regarded

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of Laud

published,

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philosophical spirit of
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agitation.

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in the

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possibilityof aj)pealing

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preclude

to

higher authority

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insight into

Works

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that is called

the

I.,and

indirectly occasioned

to his

press,

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eight letters

and

instructive

most

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religiousrevolution

of Charles

sophico-theological treatises.

or

their

additions

found

be

may

opinions of

and

execution

directly and

"

LOCKE.

4 vols.

in the

1660,

BEFORE

Religiom ApJioriama,1703, with

Dr.

conflictingschools
1751, in
" 6.

WRITERS

; The
and

is

no

His
estimated.
over-

Reasons
Reason

incomplete.

against it, 1672

in

respect

the

volume

Of

"'

His

in this

period

Immortality of

Man's

(1675),

Living Temple
to have

known

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work,

as

right reasoning
the
"

John

"

7. Richard

De

ethical

Lond.,

by

considerable
in the

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causes

this

of

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treatise

4to ;

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works, The
is

first that

known

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logical
theo-

more

and

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the

of

way

its author

says,

"was

remarkable

was

Dort, and

for

his

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was

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among
in

as

an

powerful

fluence
in-

published

were

who

divme,

Puritans,

which

of

occur

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,

thence
its

writings

adopted

and

published
references

many

legal and

on

ical
theolog-

Bishop

Locke.

to

Coll.

Magdalen

of

and

for its
writers

which

de Jure

implies

Legibus Natura",

ability,and

Appendix

Introd.

"

Grotius

begins

with

proceeds

it

called

into

Belli et Pacis,

to

I.

"1.

leading purpose,

His

analysisof

derive

by

J.

the
viz.

land
Cumber-

day

of

were

greatest significance
first treatise

own

undoubtedly
treatise
to

from

vindicate

the

man

duties.

he
and

to

of great

differed

causes,
of

nature

special ethical
to

the

notes

being by antagonism

effects
the

Maxwell,

with

their

the

was

1625, was

from

reasons
au

treatise

1744, 4to.
in

is of

because

was

Rector

His

1692, 8vo ; Translated

by Barbeyrac, Amst.

Be

1691.

published Lond., 1672, fol.

was

Introduction

theological treatises,which

treatise

Cambridge,

Peterborough,

etc.,

French

whereas

in his

Transition

Fellow
;

several

he

as

indicates

able

an

In

Grotius,

this, that
and

the

is recommended

and

Golden

His

Tyrrell, Lond.,

ethical

effects,i. e.

things

Spinoza,

memorable,

ever

T.

Philosophy
of

to

TriE

English, with

The

treatise

in

the

less

age."

Hall, Ox.,

Stamford

by

of

of

Cumberland,

to

acquaintance

with

perspicuity

Dr.

current

1632-1718,

1750,

school

of Grotius

of
of

of

or

philosophy,

current

; in

author

History

numerous

service
"

cated
edu-

was

more

principles.

1683, 4to

the

are

Ox., 1628.

both

his

of thinkers.

Calvinism

of the

importance.

Hobbes,

of the

Cumberland."

Dubl.

also

was

that

the

1727, 4to; Abridged

Towers,

J.

Cambridge,

Salvation, 1638, though

I know."

Bisquidtio Philosophica,
etc.,

Francf.

and

opinion

of

state

of his ablest

One
of

Coll..

teach

logician of

circle

All-hallows,

Legibus Naturm

Lub.

that

book

Calvinism

Cumberland,
and

the

loorks, 3 vols.,1765.

RrcnARD

Brampton

of the

"

to

"will

Hale, 1609-1676, Magd.

Matthew

Spirits,"

underlying philosophy

an

acute

able

topics reflects much

of

writings, Redemption Redeemed, 1651,

philosophical and

of it, and

light on

time.

of Trin.

Safe Way

which

any

against

tenets

other

among

1593-1665, Queen's Coll.,Camb.

Goodwin,

Arminian

Sir

notice

Fellow

of

most

but

his

in

English language.

passing

than
the

limited

1659, '73, '88, and

to

in the

against the

protestant
over

the

show

Hales, of Eton, 1584-1656, styled the

John

earnest

of
trine
doc-

and

familiar

his

reading

and

best*reasoner

His

knowledge.

Magdalen,

refutation

Protestants

better

views

relation

already named,

theological works

His

elaborate

an

philosophical, implies
book, the

of

Fellow

etc.

contains

deserve

Religion of

than
Locke

Coll.,and

Chillingworth, 1602-1644,

William

much

leading philosophers of

published

been
writers

other

Four

throws

Nature

his

the

to

agitation.
More, Cudworth,

the

and

writers

ancient

works

of the

philosophical spirit,and

the

with

of all

grounds
in the

Soul, and
Times

Cherbury, contain

religion,in respect

forth

is set

of

Herbert

revealed

to

and

1630-1705, Christ
society of

impregnated

Life

own

of universal

the

in

of his

account

Lord

to

principles of the

his

soul

Howe,

John

reply
natural

of

impliedly
immortality of the

the

1683.

in

last

relation

and

faith to reason,
of

the

the

to

361

CUMBERLAND.

EICHARD

from
reasons

the
The

stitution
con-

title

proposition that

3G2

THE

there

of

laws

are

Hobbes

This

sanction.

dares

of

in order

that had

been

Descartes

or

not

Lord

Herbert,

in

of

of

forces

and

His

of

He

the

agent which

will

will

defines

of the

precept, the

the

nature
law

respecting morality

is

which

attain, and

not

to

they
and

that

which

of the

agent,

of

memory

rules

and

life

called

in

apprehensions
'

"

the

of

The

necessary.
than

they

are

and

the

that

stitution
con-

reveal

the

by

this

its
the

to

of

nature

of

the

only
the

rational

entire

piness
hap-

definition

tains
con-

impression of

and

the

and

higher

nature

the

soul

of

both

of

of

man

the

of

numbers

we

wish

either

do

is

To

modes

or

that

of

that

; and

of

modes
the

to

most

that

it is certain

follows
To

the

that

calculation

various

effects

Human

mind

Nature

belong
judging,

standing
under-

and
things (activities)

the

ascribe

will

we

discovered

Human

Arts.

it

suggests

of

good

and

capable
instead

of

the

skill

higher

Habits

preserve

acts

of

In the

suggests certain

evil

functions

the

Theoretical

both

of numbering.
from

salt to

simple

Passions.

Nature

aversion

of

the

in the

is

ing,
reason-

of all these

practical,consist
and

swine,

the

point

than

It is also certain

or

all

well) proportioned

express

as

capacities.

of action
and

Of

of

sum,

manner

parts

of

happiest

law."

motion

parts

same

are

Reason

memory

is

the

and

to the

supreme

apprehending, comparing,

Sciences

desire

the

the

lence
benevo-

point."

and

conversant.

that

of every

state

"That

curves,

Right

vehem(mce

manner

thiugs

other

greatest

particular circumstances

division

comprehends

respectively
same

of

and

is

whom

to

of

motion

The

given circumstances.

and

and

"

happiest

says,

effect,after

theoretical

propositions,both

Practical,
of

on

thus

addition

person

the

principles

first

disposition

refusing

the

the

good

Nature

The

which

about

choosing

the

innate

certain
will.

methodical

objects

and

of Human

with
and

which

tise
trea-

The

which

necessarily requisite
good

he

all,accommodated
their

produces by

doctrine

English

the

Casuistry, like

nature

receives

affection, etc., etc., are

right line,circle,parabola,

endowed

toward

the

it is

law,

line, or

subtraction, multiplication,

geometry

His

uses

affection

certainly produce

addition,

mind

common

this

good effect (to

benevolence

must

the

of

keep faith,gratitude, natural

effectual

first
on

part of

generalized

; and

therefore

certainly produce

and

the

possible action

by

former

the

forms

all,

power

evidence

produces

power

in their

as

universal

more

benevolence
the

towards

agent

far

as

certainty

The

and

the benevolent,

does

the

by studying

by
He

things."

of

can

obtained.

be

held

as

of Nature

clearness

that

and

Royal Society.

proposition, proposed

and

good,

quired
re-

materialism

Directory^1G73.

sufficient

points out

common

sanction,

rational

and

which

the

can

with

are

Mechanics,

treatises

"A

and

sion
impres-

Cambridge

effects of
:

bold

principles

being

as

the

Platonists.

Laws

Christian

thus

nature

and

the

those

by

mind

first cause,

latter

of nature

they

of
the

upon

particular persons

of every

law

chieflypromote

the

The

discovers

the

by

the

also

Baxter's

by Reason

newly-formed

by

sole

formally on

Mathematical

ideas

the

is memorable

their

positive revelation,

attainable

then

distinguished from

as

impressed

or

to find

Bacon,

treatise

Ethics

Cumberland

laws.

things, from
of

of

in

ot

doctrine

society

argument

much

so

traditionallyreceived

as

Duhitantium^ lOGO, and

nature

observation

or

not

innate

the

to

from

treatise also indicates the

Cartesian

of

method

Nature.

Philosophical

Tajlor's Ductor

from

the

beliefs
The

in the

doctrine

its

supposed

as

and

the

derive

rests

his associates

the

accept

to

and

conceptions

protests, as by
and

does

prefers, according
Constitution

it

of Newton

Experiments

Cumberland

with,

opposition

and

which

English thinking,

upon

which

in

alone

interpret revelation.

and

made

society

treatises

ethical

LOCKE.

by nature,

contrasted

certain

to defend

Hobbes, against

the

first of modern
as

TO

known

made

originatein civil

nature

that

assert

to

laws

is the

communications

of

morality

that these

TRANSITION

in

and

The

more

first

general,

carcass

are

exalted
from

JOHN

which

agree
which

propositions
"

shortest

the

takes

which

by

will

what

both

he

from

insists
an

earnestly

as

power

Like
the

on

he

all

does

which

the

of

of the

man

of

right line, in
in the

is crooked

he

ethics

would

and

social

for

of

the

Locke

Hobbes,

in

to the

himself

Cambridge

disinterested

is

reason

Nature

to Human

the

struct
ob-

what

as

carefully saves

and

among
manner

comparison

well

as

end

it is known

that

justice than

exact

Descartes
the

use

that very

And

are

power."

quickest

highly instructive,

more

are

to this

things

greater ease) what

what

sorts

man's

considered,

so

endowment

Herbert,

opponents

possession by

far

original

an

of both

men

Cumberland
affections

as

of his nature.

original endowment

II.

CHAPTEK

things

are

every

state

inquiries in respect

his

conducting

indefiuiteness

themselves*

ethics

in

of

formed.

of practical reason

effect

it is right.

right (or strait) shows

and

or

(with much

and

spirit.While

regulative

Platonic

the

allowed

in

inductive

the
the

or

For

term

capacity

thence

propositions

dictates

desirable

all

supposes

end

as

definition

the
moat

conclusions

thereto

given

Therefore

end.

to the

Locke

the

The

the

comprehends

True

''

means

the

from

taken

psychology

anticipated

general, in
noetic

from

way

discovered,
"

the

or

truths

Laws.

things."

attaining

conduce

Cumberland's

strait."
that

is

effecting it."

the

end

this

to

way

less

the

out

action

action

such

of

metaphor

An

mathematicians.

nature

shortest

the

right, by

is called

the

point

takes

which

That

called

practical are

are

with

which

Reason

Right

principles or self-evident

first

which

those

f these
tuose

"

to discern

well

-IS

with

is endowed

Man

rottenness."

363

LOCKE

John

"

Locke.

"

His

Critics

and

Defenders.

Ueberweg's careful analysisof Locke's

principaltreatise except the following
generalremarks :
" 8. Locke's Essay on the Human
Understandingintroduced a new
We

have

little to

add

to

epoch into English philosophy. It found speculationin the divided

the prevalenceof a great varietyof
chaotic state which
and partially
different schools had

Each

introduced.

of these schools

was

animated

intensified the
negative theologicalinterest which
its principles
defended.
Locke
held and
were
e.aniestness with which
would
himself, by his trainingand
associations,
naturallyoccupy the
his sympathy with
His education
as a physician,
ground of mediation.
the new
were
physicswhich
coming into notice, and his cool and
to this tendency. The
tolerant temper, all contributed
temper of his
times was
venturous,
cautious rather than adpracticalrather than speculative,
critical and analytic
rather than bold and dogmatic. The
in
Essay on the human
understanding did not attain the form

by

which
e\'en

which

positiveor

we

find

it,till

the rudiment

the

sixth

of the celebrated

subsequentlyobtained

and
psychologists,

This is the

more

edition.

so

such

decided

if we
surprising

an

The

first edition

the Association

chapteron
extensive
influence

consider

contahis

Ideas,

English
English speculation.
Hobbes
distinctly
recog-

currency
over

that

of

not

among

364

Locke's

the law of association and

nizes

firstedition the distinction

critics.

to it

attaches

and

desire

between

great importance. In the

will

of which

"

so

much

of
subsequently made, is not recognized the necessitarianism
llobbes
is broadlyasserted,
and libertyis limited to the power
of acting.
In later editions
determination
of the will
to suspend the
a
power
is accorded.
Of. B. II.,cxxi., " 56. Cf. Locke's Letter to Molyneux^
July 15, 1693, in King's Life of Locke.
It should
als(j that the essay is more
be observed
physical
logicalor metaSir Isaac Newton
in its aims.
than psychological
it
terms
book of ideas,"in a letter of apology to its author.
The criticisms
your
which
they called forth,indicate that its
upon it and the replies
was

"

"

doctrine

of

ideas

If

attention.
well

w^e

chief

the

was

the

compare

feature

which

with

essay

attracted
Port

the

the

public

Royal Logic,then
Locke's
attentively

in

if we
view
England, and especially
of the design of his essay, we
shall be satisfied that he
account
to give a complete outline
of the powers
of
not so much
propose
of human
to analyzethe different forms
as
knowledge into their

known

own

did
man

ultimate

elements.

The

of Locke
all confirm this view.
antagonists
They
criticize and assail his positions
the ground of their supposed inconsistency
on
scientific truths rather
with importanttheological,
or
practical,
than in respect to their psychological
validity.
plete
be incom" 9. A historical sketch of English philosophywould
critics and

'

which

The

first of these

Edward

of the

in

taken

Faith,
a

Locke's

and

Reply

to the

to

elaborate
The

doctrines

which
the

to

to Locke's
his

belief

in

1698,

Letter

which

Locke,

the

denial

of

the

criticisms

to

also

faith

his

and

person,

the

in

to the

and

to

idea

novel

so

or

general

and

notion

inadequate

promote

Locke

answer

which

reply

lished
pubreply Stilling-lieet
issued

Locke

issued

his

his Answer

long and

controversy.

ideas ; to his defective

of

Christian

elaborate

an

in

positions

the

Bishop published

The

to

of the
of

is

Discourse

some

made

this
this

To

primarily

two, viz.,sensation

idea

In

doctrines

Locke
To

June, 1697.

the

familiarly known,

criticized

other

are
by Stillingfleet,

term

definition

personal identity ;
Christian

concluded

is most

critics.

1689-1699.

he

and

September, 1697,

of ideas
of

of innate

unsatisfactory

the

these

Answer,
in

criticised

sources

introduction

definition

undermine

second

of

limits

this

Letter, April, 1697.

Locke's

to Mr.

in

with
To

who

one

Bishop of Worcester, January, 1697.

Locke's

reply

the

Worcester,

Trinity, etc., 1696,

Bishop of Worcester's

the

to Mr.

of the

.inconsistent

as

of

Bishop

of Locke's

notices

some

of time, and

order

Doctrine

Essay,

his Answer

and

in the

tending-to scepticism.

as

letter

also

contain

not

Stillingfleet,1685-1699;

vindication

in

should

most

and

very

his fundamental

general

partialdefinition
of

substance

explanation
obvious

skepticism.

of

; also

of the

tendency
This

S.

reflection.

and

tion,
posiobjects

signification
;
knowledge,
to

his unsatisfactory

grounds

of

our

of his writings to

discussion

was

deemed

366
knowledgfe,such
that

there

truths

who

Locke's

1702."
Essais

obvious

that

he

the

and

their

authority

and

of

ideas,

of

the

we

as

its

in

first,in the

which

such

an

insight

into

learning

in

things

Rev.
critic

John

world,

Discourses

Essay concerning
of John

works

"William

of

ideas

233.

argues

immortality,
John

Soul

that

and

Causes

and

of

mind

third

destroys

way

predicates
he

as

calls
of

knowledge
third, there

instructive
of

class

sons
rea-

the

by

man

the

ideas;

is very

work

other

of knowledge

and

subjects

such

of

following

the

certain,

receives

considerable

with

an

Essay

are

giving

as

critics

it

vol.

theory

absolutely
In

added

the

Cursory
Locke's

Cf.

1691-1710,

decided

very

the

Lond., 1701-04.
are

from

towards

considering

and

men

in

of

was

leaning
ideal

the

itself,and

appendix
Remarks

1 of

vol,
a

upon

comments

Book

in relation
Practical
called

the

on

His

intelligible

or

second

the

to

earnest

an

to Plato.

same

an

the

"

9th, pp. 247-259.

1641-1707, Dean

of

St.

Paul's, etc., in

of

Discourse

his

the

mortality
Im-

spiritof

Digression
1705, etc., chap, ii.,sec. 3;
doctrines
Knoicledge, ip-p. 95-127, attiffeksLocke's
Locke's
9, p.
v.
Lond.,
1794,
C
f.
works,
Stillingfleet.

the

has

Future

and

State,

Inbred

or

soul

therefore

of

the

of

Bemerton

of

Rector

Understanding.

Ideas

in the

Edwards,

Reasonableness
the

first

Human

the

of innate
He

is

Locke, 1794,

Connate

in

mind

Lee's

by

the

flection
Re-

the

he

definition

as

all

Locke

and

In

that

"

for

be

are

disagreement

or

Beatitudes, 1690,

Sherlock,

wncerning

his

which

the

ideas.

maintained

understanding.
tlie

criticizes

cannot

we

Sensation

co-operation

ideas

nating
desig-

simple by

as

moral

things

such

before

spiritof Malebranche,

parts, the

on

the

Ideas,

in

use

Consciousness.

or

he

dispense
on

time.

philosophical work

human

to

positions

in the

in two

book

things

no

are

abstract

Norris, 1657-1711,

of Locke

principal

the
his

without

our

not

comprehends

from

logical application, and

of the

agreement

general

as

fourth

of

treated

it is

certain

appropriate

derived

only Knowing

gained

be

ideas

are

particular propositions

existence

must

things by perceiving
no

of

and

the

ideas

analysis

tendency

propositions ; second, there

simple ideas,

the

has

one

that

book

significationwhich

give knowledge

the

of the

are

that

our

means

In

of

case

all

Locke's

fixedness.

skeptical

also

urges

cannot

to

that

its

no

to have

do

second

the

Lond.,

and

"

tendencies

from

Ideas

them

of

all the

Nouveaux

that

observes

libertynot

Of

revelation.

objects,to

that

Reflection

and

especially objects

as

"

denies

capacities and

term

he

at

of

the

does

and

Chapter

4 books.

In

assails

not

are

each

upon

Locke.

Locke

men

divine

of the

He

Sensation

these

of

sensible

He

that

sense

by Henry

Explication

an

Ideas,

in which

that

was

closely as

as

Innate

on

sense

that

thinking.

powers,

he

and

extension

such.

book

the

importance

novel

because

and

mind

in fact

intellectual

such, in

of individual

objects^ofthe

in the

Notes

or

with

by chapters almost

ence,
Exist,

College, Cambridge,

with

order

same

first book

such

judgments,

to the

images

not

Locke's

are
are

necessity

objects

are

Of

there

in the

Locke

tion
assump-

viz.

one,

truths, etc., etc.

Essay

of Emmanuel

Scepticism ;

only

of all

to Locke's

Understanding,

treats, and

he

follows

there

perceptions
with

which
work

that

"Anti-

Human

is

authoritative

reply

Fellow

was

It is entitled

of Leibnitz.
held

critical

1064, and

Essay concerning

This

original and

most

extended

graduated

particulars of

ever

and

of Tichmarsh.

Kector

the

are

the notion

rejects Locke's

understanding.
contending that there

and

cognition;

or

He

our

notions

simple

beingis,is notion

rational

itself in

thing

many

elaborate

most

Lee, B.D.,
Mr.

peculiarto

is the

are

General
The

is

as

objectivelyviewed

connate

1637-1716,

connate
or

Fellow

or

inbred
of

St.

Christianity the foflowing

Occasions

of

Atheism,

inbred

e.
beliefs,

g.

concerning

its

own

ideas.

John's

College,

wrote

theological treatises

1695 ;

Demonstration

against Locke's
Thoughts

of the

ing
concern-

Existence

and

Locke's

of

Providence

Place

Conyers

the

that

and

Bold

against
towards

mind

is endowed

the

with

outward

gives knowledge

inward.

or

This

from

substance

the

Socinian's

Remarks

(p.368).

of the

Vindication

brief

the

or

169(5

only,

Faith;

Essay

This

conceptions.
the

Unmasked

faith

unreasonableness

vindication

Creed,

with

it obtains

obtained

not

of the

the

funda-

1697.

sensation, by

its more

by

of

Queries to Mr. Bold, 1724

he
tends
conCreation, in which

Visible

faculty higher than

and through which

inwardly 7'eflects,

it

which

of

Christian

wrote

1729, An

in

also

Socinianism

article

one

of the

Articles

iiental

169G

God,

pinion concerning

367

ceitics.

the

of

means

and

important

of

any

abstract

corporeal faculties

is

knowledge

substantial,immediately wrought in itself by

the object to it, antecedent
from
to all notices

of

competency

without.
Malcolm

Fleming,

important
Locke's

endowed

Another
of

with

works

Human.

their

doctrines

spirit as

with

of

the

of

Locke,
"

the

e.

between
the

It

of

our

body
sensation

operations

actions

author

of

in

several

philosophy

limited

and

2d

ed,
and

all the

of

and

simple

secondary

complex

and

sense

ideas

of

notions

and

much

we

quently
conse-

the

by analogy

for

the

the

ideas

failingto distinguish

which

of the

independent

are

which

of the

conceptions

cesses
pro-

theory of

simple apprehension

sensation

ar'e

is it true

and

to

of

tions
opera-

infer

more

antagonistic

the

compounded

we

indirectlyand

of his school

writers

; and

the

also

these

theory of knowledge

respects,

of

spiritual representatives

spirits,how

Browne's
some

from

ideas

their

only

operations

; that

have

we

objectsonly

all,but

at

; these

to which

also, in
and

ideas

no

from

Spirit ?
is

ideas of sensible

material

created

those

the

only

and

The

mind

knows

them

of external
for

simple ideas
ideas.

knowledge

Locke
This
of

objects supernatural,

knowledge

is enhanced

analogy."
does

by
of

an

of

much

so

as

An

It would

external
Reason
as

on

know

not

object

about

its creatures

are

mind

; but

above

all,

from

objects concerning
and

we

know

appealed

by

natural

we

it is

illation,

being

is not

excludes

true, that
no

can

and

the
or

it

ideas

communications

are

its

or

reflex

employed

operations,

employed.

agreement

analogies only,

to in revealed

or

which

This

the

have

by

is

judgment,
direct

they

existence

which

of

Browne's

either
when

own

notions.

perception
which

so

its

or

complex

our

in
reflection,

operations

self-consciousness

far

which

is

its

is inference

consisting in

definition

of

idea

know

not

immediate

an

objects.

idea

some

knowledge by

have

its

primary

highest operation

our

upon
of

only

ideas

The

and

sound.

it not

were

the

was

distinguished

the
when
distinguishingbetween
conception of things human,
they are
when
and
and
transferred
terial
immato things spiritual
immediate,
they are

empty

the

of

matter

Understanding. Lond., 1728;

by Analogy with Things Natural

have

simple perceptions

the

semblance

by

on

of

Locke

intellect and

and

ideas.

possibilitythat

of

want

an

the

infinite

the

all these

direct

and

and

criticizes

between

of the pure

which

understanding

rightly between

an

correctness

(died in 1735), Provost

He

is most

have

we
spirit,

with

is true

and

he

g.

intellect ;

by

this

uncreated

he

we

borrowed

terms

"

If

which

That

pure

substances

analogous.
of

of

spirit of

material

are

connected

designate
existence

the

Browne

Peter

was

of the Human
Supernatural conceived

of Browne

operations, while
of

the

questions

of

1733.

Lond.,

The

Critical Examination

Essence,and

Limits

and

he

Bishop of Cork.

for

works

two

and

TilingsDivine

Locke

subsequently

; the

New

which

thought.
of

antagonist

TJie Procedure

1729

in

essay,

of

power

Trinity College, and

are:

'

the

able

very

theological

in 1751

published

Locke's

Mr.

respecting Substance,Spirit and

views

be

can

passage

Flemyng,

or

in

employed
definition

disagreement
be

shown

we

pre-eminently of
which

from

analogical
God.

368

DEFENDERS

doctrines

The

Locke,

but

Browne

was

Toland's

of

faith

which
of

doctrines

of

Enquiry

into

London,

1821.

Cf. H.

Browne,

King

dissented

Edmund

of

L.

from

to his

notes

divine

who

somewhat

was

and

Commonwealth,
died

and

Mayne's

he

the

in

1750, aged

is

asserts,
the

alone

The

Essay
theme.

has

is

have

the

limits
Cf,

xv.

Edward

An

Coplestone.

As

discipleof

into

Inquiry

from

of

spiritof

Peter

the

of

Ideas

Browne,

of

son

Carlisle,

the

Locke.

who

son

Zachary

Zachary Mayne,
in the

theological opinions

is

time

was

of

the

physician,

which

the

author

intellectual.
the

nor

imagination

The

nearly

as

This

man.

doctrine

of

this

ideas,

view

the

intellectual,but

are

added, viz.,the

be

must

describes

Against

cerning
con-

1727.

capacities as

of Locke's

consequence
to be

Dissertations

Consciousness,

on

intellectual

same

sense

power

entitled.Two

Essay

its author

by

subsequently

that

this

and

known

held

of

understanding,

the

honor

higher

by

treat

of

and

schools

self-

of

Reid

and

to

this

cussion
dis-

of

students

by

to

attempt

contribution

important
in

first

consciousness
in

developed

first and

the

as

functions

the

been

better

been

not

An

probably

opinion

is claimed

surprising

"

dissents

the

an

the

distinctly recognizes

they

as

It

Hamilton.

1821, in

conceptions.

or

consciousness
It

with

of neither

notions

gain

also

73.

immediate

higher

in

perception

sense

acts

such

on

consciousness

of

the

that

we

this

iv.

De

tions,
addi-

King

respecting

appendix,

11, 1794, leaving

have

and

he

was

the

refute

brutes

direct

acts

them

to make

is to

1781.

Religious Thought.

anonymous,

Imagination,

of

treatise

ed., with

by Whately,

notes

by Browne,

published

his

Nov.

Exeter,

that

time,

contends

which

of

his

makes

author

for

at

dissertations

in

opinion,
which

that

and

of the

universal

also

He

only philosophical work,

Sense

design

died

the

; 2d

College, Cambridge, Bishop

wrote

notorious

Northampton

at

who

Locke,

of th*;
Dublin.

of Locke.

John's

conspicuous attention.

deserves

Mayne

of

critics

the

author

to

Archbishop

of

1731, 4to

Whately,

of

in which

1734,

Space, Time, etc.," Cambridge,

Among

doctrines

Derry, 1691

with

of

reply

body of defenders

Predestination, by

Limits

The

the

R.

and

King's Essay,

on

advanced

Necessity

Mansel,

Oxford,

Logic, by

D.D., 1703-1787, St.

Law,

in addition

Cf. El.

wrote

Trinity College,

the

was

he

Leibnitz,1738, 1758,

to those

similar

God.

Doctrines

the

1709

1697

with

Law,

and

Bayle

Predestination,

taught

are

knowledge

our

King

to those

active

of

Bishop

Edmund

English by
to

an

In

directly connected

JDublin, 1703.

in

answers

on

sermon

with

sympathy

less

or

of

1702-1704;
; with

in

was

relations

speculative theology.

upon

faith.

Christian

King, 1650-1729

William

etc., 1732
published

He

in their

merely
influence

remoter

of the

more

Archbishop

OngineMali,

and

LOCKE.

not

important,

defender

were

was

1702

Tuam,

near

their

Tracts.

who

these

Among

are

of

earnest

an

Deistical

Christian

Browne

because

OF

English

philosophy.

"
with

10. Defenders

of

much

acuteness

spiritand

of the

learned
In

1738.

These

to the

the

repliesto
of open

Bold,

dissent

Rector

distinguished
He

infidelity,and

and

Bishop

for

of
his

published several

from

; also

Browne

reflected

against

the

or

and

several

other

mistakes

in his

and

of

of

Locke's

of

limits

vindication

of

for

wrote

giving
tions
objecstanding."
under-

Locke, Lend.,

of

the

times

seemed

one

two

generations.

or

as

to mark

and

Dorsetshire, 1687-1736,

theological
were

and

human

of Mr.

of

Locke,

Shapwicke,

behalf,which

Kent,

charge

the

sentiment

general

criticism

Vicar

in defence
tracts

the

peculiar views

unfavorable

in

from

second
the

of Shoreham

Locke

procedure, extent,

Steeple

zeal

of Mr.

vindication

dialogues, Lond., 173G

six

termination

of the

author

Perronet, Vicar

Vincent

"

"

points of objection raised

Samuel
was

skepticism

to

encouragement

Locke.

and

trines.
philosophical doc-

collected

in

volume

in

DEFENDERS

1706.

The

which

titles follow
added

are

with

some

and
of Christianity

Reflections

Edwards'

John

; to

vindication,

its

of

Reasonableness

the

on

Jesus

of Christ

Knowledge

True

Reasonableness

the

Mr.

on

369

LOCKE.

of the

discourse

on

passages

Animadversions

some

short

OF

Christianity,etc.,1697.
A

reply

Mr.

to

Observations

brief reflections

Edwards'
the

on

Animadversions

on

on

late

short

discourse, etc., 1697.

book

entitled,The

of

Reasonableness

Christianity,etc., 1698.
considerations

Some

published against Mr.

A

Discourse

The

that

necessary

two

points objected

inferences

ideas,

from

certainty ; (2.)
endowed

The

letters

which

called

held

the

the

John

of

demonstration

been

cerning
con-

for

impossible

the

also

thinking

matter

not
can-

substance

Norris's

John

to

Theory of

in his

soul

that

making

knowledge

to

way

to assert

us

agreement
dis-

or

to the

opposition

to think.

immortality of

of the

(1.)his doctrine
agreement

Christian

or

Psychologia^and

immateriality

letters

considers, are

ideas^in

rational

capacity

necessary

Broughton's

the

it is

the

of

way

only

that

with

Creator

two

with

perception of the

the

the

Bold

Mr.

in

the

to be

doctrine

concerning

critical reply to

which

consists

Locke's

by

in Locke

was

have

1699.

Body

same

which

thinking substance, 1705.

of

knowledge

maxims,

of the

Resurrection

to

argnments

Understanding,

of Human

Essay

immateriality

of

certainty

and

principal objections

the

the

the

be

Locke's

concerning

of

or

the

on

the

Ideal

are

attempted
Part

World.

2nd.
Catherine

Mrs.
Locke.

Her

Cockburn,

works

of Mr.

Defence

Locke

provides for

Divine

law

with

Dr.

she

occasioned

Christian
a

1743

of Mr.

Part
were

the

sory

on

of

the
the

1747,

she

Essay

principlesand
published by

Mr.

published

Sharp, 1693-1758,
of moral

Locke

on

the

the

about

to

Dr.

time,

but

in

the

of

translation

Place

of

and

the

with

in the
a

are

Part

between

the

of the

the

the

M.

author'

King's Origin of^

prefixed some
the

cur--

Reality

notion

and.;

stance.
of sub-

reasonings of Dr.

in vindication

herself

same

till 1751.

Gay,

Dr. Watts'

works,

Locke's

I. ; also-

concerning the^

existence,
on

on

passages;

of Mr.

Mr.

Archbishop

Northumberland, etc., on

agrees

Dr.

the

published

principlesand

In

the

writing^,

to

of the

writings of the late Dr. Samuel

preface.

correspondence

which

Resurrection

to which

obligations of virtue,

contained

of

in

controversy

Spirits,and

upon

letter

Holdsworth,

not

necessary

other

her

vindication

the

concerning

concerning

and

nature

voluminous

Archdeacon

of

Legation of Moses,

published Remarks
the

writers

Law's

controversies
Extension

body,

same

that
"

under

University of Oxford,

the

obligation; particularlyRev.

moral

are-

lowing
fol-

contends

herself

and

published

etc., etc.

same

some

(Bp.) Warburton,
a

of the

controversy

Divine

reasonings

distinctions.

24

the

upon

and

she

before

injurious imputations

preliminary

on

Space,

Rutherforth's

also

the

author

thoughts
In

are

from

remarks

the

Infinityof

Resurrection

published
dissertation

Evil, and

the

preached

critic

Cockburn

Mrs.

man.

1726

In

this theory.

the

are

distinctions

these

in this defence

and

chieflyconsidered,

are

virtue

views,

sermon

prepared

of moral

of

constitution

ethical

The

distinctions.

authority of

his

II., were

foundation
of

Locke

principles

vindication

body.

concerning

Mr.

concern

by

moral

them

among

of

They

Understanding, 1702, chieflyagainst,

of Human

and

in the
in her

prominent

poetical;but

permanence

Clarke

Easter-Monday,

"

the

earnestly defends

Holdsworth,
that

and

defender

zealous

volumes, Lond., 17.j1.

in 2

published

Locke's

manifested

as

Samuel

ethics

on

"

and

Essay
against his theory of

objections waged

another

Trotter,1679-1749, was

collected

were

theological,moral, dramatic,
A

bom

of

and
nature

and

Cockburn

Mrs.

Rev.

trary
con-

Clarke

Dr.

Thomas

faundation.^

370

THE

11,

"

New

Ttte

PnYSics.

philosophy of Locke
formation

the

of the

of Sir

called, was

it in

conducted

these

both

upon

so

metaphysics

or

taken

direction
Sir

the

furthering the

in
who

involved

it

philosophy

speculation

of

courses

vols.,fol.,1744,
works

Theol.

Sir
of

scholium

Locke's

:sphere for

the

under

meetings

Treatises

Stubbe,

most
"

possibilityand
Wilkins
Ars

"

Vulgo

writers,
See

Works
A

of

of the

to

be

Philosophical
contribution

that the

It is entitled

of

The

two

progress

able

very

II.

who

to

to

give

of

of

have

should

The

fact

inquiry

theologians

and

deviation

appropriate

an

provide,

of

one

of

cannot

for

and

of

itself

phers
philoso-

critic

'

'An

assailant

devoted

second

philosophical language,

Grammar

Lingua

et
or

the
as

and

Aberdeen,

Philosophy by
New

George

to

Deaf

of

Green,
was

Philosophy,

just account

not

in which

of

that

it is

"

had

'

'

One

then

to
and

of Universal

general

and

the

Character.

Man's

Tutor, Oxford,

of the

one

of Clare

"

lish
Eng-

mutes.

1834.

Hall, Camb., 1712,

without

is shown

science

earliest

to deaf

Edinburgh,

effected

of

Lond., 1661.

language

at

Aristotelian

1627-1687, author

Dumb

earliest,or

teaching

Robert

in

philosophica.

4to, reprinted

Philosophy

Dalgamo,
and

the

the

or

also,

Character

Real

Real

are

says

part treats

language

parts

History of
1607

the

of

Stewart

toward

Essay

the

Duties

Royal Society, by Henry

English philosophy

the

in

and

Knowledge,

the

and

foremost

Rochester

Natural
on

the

Principles

to

any

tion,
Dura-

and

3,

sec.

author

of

of which

commemorated

us

form

the

subsequent

range

was

the

was

also wrote

Principles of Natural

present systems

P.

also. Attacks

Universalis

of the

in

by Dr. S. Clarke

to

the

and

most

Religion

to

discussion.

physicists.

wider

Clarke

indebted

of

The

was

recognition
failed

lected
Col-

physics.

abridged, 1725,

of Reason

the

Sceptia Scientifica Dugald

been

George Dalgamo

singular

indicates

true,

improving

Didascolocophus,

deserves

on

the

three

Character

also

that

eminent

Chester,

(Lond., 1688),

to have

said

He

these

of

his

remaining

the

wrote

1680, 8vo.

was

characteristics

Signorum,
Dalgamo

spicuous
con-

Newton.

entirely in

and

metaphysics

to

analysis had

Prel. Diss.

the

Bishop Wilkins

etc.

was

Isaac

not

elaborate

an

properly, the

Royal Society,
for

Of

Philosophical Language

Philosophy,

devoted

original productions of which

and

relation

Cf. I. Sprat, 1636-1713, Bishop

Glanvil

acute

and

and

'priori argument

an

Samuel

Dr.

by

in the

metaphysics.

Dusert.

mind

was

Principia,1713, respecting Space

more

of

Glanvil, 1636-1680

by Joseph

of

the

resulted

1031-1676.
and

last he

contribution

Locke's

Bishop

Society of London

physics

who

of

either psychology
Still,their influence

Phil, works

the

were

singular, yet

Stewart,

Religion,1675.

Royal

boast.

Cf. D.

school.

which

"of Natural
th"^

to it

Wilkins, 1614-1672,

John

human

1715, 3 vols., 8vo.

speculative philosophy asserted

impulse given

of his

him

into

or

influence

to the

that

questioned

be

method,

vols., 8vo

the

of the

'priori truth, for which

largely owing

been

coveries
diswas

made

largelyin theology

very

by

To

It is

school.

principles and
a

Sir

nor

inconsiderable

the

Boyle,

complete triumph,

not

chief

edition

second

of his

philosophers

from

discussed

subsequently expanded

was

beginnings,

vols., 4to, 1772.

Causes.

Final

to the

which
the

of

also

Newton's, 1042-1727,

Isaac

lloV^ert

separate attention.

or

was

epit. 1699,

important topics in philosophy

doctrine

of

it

as

to

theories

physical

resources

Sir

splendid

philosophy,"

of the

the

led

Locke.

by

works,

the

to its

object of special

an

neither

that

which

in the

new

many
and

in its first

departments

many

"the

powers

that

Boyle, 1637-1691, published

Robert

3vols.,4to.
and

study

new

which
or

noticed

Enj^land,

culminated

protest against
of the

in

movement

mechanical"

successful

the

10(53,and

in
"

The

worthy of notice, however,

is

It

sympathy

Newton.

merely

not

with

already been

has

circumstance

Royal Society

Isaac

Descartes, but
itself.

was

The

"

in

riTYSTCS.

NEW

the
and

opposition.
insufficiency
the

necessity

is of

there

Camb.

of nature.

the

of the

mental

that

there

and

maintains
nor

the

in the

plenum

circle.

died

He

at

His

1730.

us

with

length

the

Speculations

of mind

that

respecting

of

and

knowledge

possibleto

the
and
He

Newton,

etc.,

square

Philosophy.

Nature

the

and

matter

knowledge
as

it is

Greeniaii

the

real

Cartesian

modems,

to prove

called

was

the

certainty

of the

sense

offers

He

philosophy

the

are

metaphysics
and

etc.

and

true

a
"

present systems

in the

vacuum

of Descartes.

sense

"

The

faculties,etc.

is neither

III.

CHAPTEE

"

discusses

authority

to furnish

order

Lond., 1872.

and

author

Newtonian,
the

principles in

new

some

371

SPECULATIONS.

PSYCHOLOGICAL

the

of

Soul.

"

12.

of
were

revolution
activity
consequent upon the political
1688, and the influence of Locke's Essay,as also of the uqw
sics,
phyvestigati
inof directions taken by philosophical
manifest in the variety
One of the most
conspicuousof these directions was towards

Discussions

materialism.
and
and

were

and

controversies

immortalityof the soul began in

prosecutedduring the greater part

materialism
in

and

freedom

The

assumed

several distinct and

variety of forms, and

almost

the

respect

againstthe

the

ture
na-

century

eighteenth. I'his
its positions
were
urged

of

the

of argument.

reinforced

were

to

seventeenth

incompatible lines

materialists of the school of Ilobbes

taken by Locke
l)ythe position

in

The

in their confidence

fundamental

doctrine

of Descartes

of the soul
Locke
that there
assertiug
regardto the essence
should be endowed
that matter
with tlie
inherent impossibility
no
was
axiom
that the essence
of
power ^of thinking,as against Descartes'
to Descartes
philosophycommon
spiritis thought. The mechanical
and
favored
their reasoningsin some
Newton
degree. The opponents
of Christianity
revelation of immortality by supernatural
as
a
in

"

attestations

Many

contended

that the future

of the so-called Free

The

existence

of

Thinkers, or Deists,were

the

soul

avowed

was

possible.
im-

rialists.
Mate"

chapterin Bishop Butler's Analogy, Of a Future Life

indicates the occasion for an argument againstMaterialism,and enables
the reader to infer what were
the current
arguments urged in its support.
On the other hand, some
ardent believers in Christianity
aggerate
sought to exits importanceby contending that the soul is not naturally
mortal,
imbut that its future existence is simply a gift of God, which
is
both imparted and
announced
ments.
by supernaturalagenciesand instruwriters who wrote
Among the many
directlyand incidentally
be named
as
conspicuous,viz.^William
upon this subject three may
and Andrew
Baxter.
Coward, Henry Dodwell
"

372

PSYOHOLOGIOAL

13.

"
Wadham

Edihias

College,

in Oxford.

Psycalethea^
of

human

body,

to be

philosophy,

reason,

dies

man

every

Replies

John

replied, as

are

given

14.

to

dynasty.

new

and

of

the soul.

the

and

to

since

than

between

who

materialists

Dr. Samuel

Edmund

Clarke

the

incapable

Soul

God,

to

is

soul

is

1G64-1712, John
of

some

himself

by

Second

Coward

which

Thoughts

Commons,

the

by

and

his

and

the

commox

thus

the

Deists
as

being

of

views
and

by

tures
Scrip-

with

the

giving this

principles of Locke's

Dodwell,

and

others

Layton

on

in the

entered

the

warm

very

largely into
Some

testimony

of

soul, and

attacked
ciently
suffi-

Norris,
ensued.

which

the

and

Bold

Samuel

tween
be-

controversy

of the

ed
insist-

Deists

self-evident

so

soul.

the

John

took

Others

Revelation.

oth(;r,

extreme

already

discussions

very

of the

and

and

Whitby, D.D.,

of Christianity.
essence

of

was

side,

one

philoro-

less

from

discussion, which

the

in the

the

on

grace

immortality

necessary

Mills, Daniel

the

of

It"

ized
immortal-

but

formally taught

to be

Christians, dissented

and

Henry

very

the

its union

power

of sacramental

dogmas

complicated

confirmed

none

the

interpreted by

natural

in the

have

certain

the defenders

and

involved

the

direction

new

from

reward, by

to

or

the

special topic

gave

proving

spirit,conceived

other, participated
this

ernment,
govon

already sufficientlyactive.

Discourse

that

church

Bishops."

the

and

which

giance
alle-

Churchman,

and

topics,prominently

treatise

of

oath

principle naturally mortal,

the

the

chronology

many

of

Professor

Camden

was

non-juring High

on

punishment

and

to

so-called

and

as

ancient

become

proved

when

Coward

on

English
of

that

was,

again.

1691, by refusing

Epistolary

Chishull, Thomas

on

Immortality

had

immaterialists, Deists

Dodwell,

discussions

The

An

authority

William

Joseph Pitts,

of

in

published

hand, and

one

the

and

mixed.

on

of

Coll.,Dublin,

opinions

which

"

body,

and
denied

of

he

the

supposed,
the

on

countenance

doctrines

the

; to

to

principles

treatise

to life

the

House

topics of

apostles,but only

was

theology

he,

But

be

the

distinction

give

works,

known

many

1706

that

pleasure

well

extreme

spirit. Wherein

Testament,
and

on

position, viz.

the

baptismal

immortality

phy

the

Nichols,

others

the

to

principal works

of the

; Trin.

subject,

first Fathers

actually by

The

the

this post

was

his

In

this

on

his

He

for

notorious

title indicates

New

of

Coward's

order

lost

writer

various

discussion

divine

of

the

1688, but

Oxford,

immortality
the

of

William

and

united

substance

consonant

doctrine

Dr.

as

titles

-1641-1711

the

and

to

The

Two

in

voluminous

The

etc.

not

Dodwell

Henry

in

History

invention,

Asheton, D.D.,

under

burned

were

and

of

Soul, demonstrating

spiritualimmortal

and

Hall

the pseudonym

Human

the

concerning
to be

writers,

replies.
below.

was

Hart

at

under

in 1704.

hangman,

"

William

Turner,
to other

Essay,

several

by

issued

the prerogative to be raised

has

but

physician, educated

publication

religion,"etc.,

or

also

antagonists

was

"

first

heathenish

plain

beast

His

Thoughts
soul, as believed

written

were

Broughton,

Grand

as

1056-1725

"

Second

"

human

of

Coward

notion

the
a

William

SPECULATIONS.

to

as

the opposite

extreme, denying immortality altogether.

15.

his life

spent
by

Later

his

in the

in Aberdeen

born

was

as

elaborate
the

wherein

date

are

with

the

its

of the

London,

active

on

educated

was

the

Enquiry into

is evinced

from

the discussion.

resumed

Baxter

1750,

city and

an

soul

at

is

He

continent.

of the

the

Nature

the

principles of

He

University, and

the

chiefly known
Soul,

Human

Reason

and

losophy."
Phi-

1737.
is

following : (1.) Inertia

possessingthe

died

"

of the

first edition

and

in that

treatise,entitled

Immateriality
2d edition.

The

1686,

private tutor

Andrew

eighteenth century
about

power

unknown.
is

an

The
essential

which

points

which

property

spiritmanifests.

Baxter

of matter

and

seeks
is

lish
to estab-

inconsistent

(2.) All the effects ascrib-

374

SPECULATIONS.

PSYCHOLOGICAL

Chlshull.

Edmund

of

Charge

Dodweira

Mr,

against

maintained

Heresy,

Epistolary Discourse.

late

1706.

Lond.,

Samuel

Clarke,

Letter

particularly answered,
John

Turner.

Epistolary
Human

Souls

Thomas
Mr.

Daniell
intituled

Souls

preface.
mention
"

in

it, if

there

from

Locke's

on

his

if the

For

be

nmst

Letter

to Mr.

idea

matter

foreign

motion."

and

The
its

being immaterial,

late

entitled

Book,

An

Lond,,

Dodwell,

p,

superadded

before

E,

from

1707.

Lond,,

Scriptures,etc, in

the

contained

Dodwell,

Mr.

Manuscript,

of

the

is

of

such

no
can

In

book

found

to be

Mr.

about

evidently

different

"Now,

kind

from

the

soul's

from

of dissolution

principles

no

able
honor-

against

it follows

quite

has

makes

remark

emerge,

times:

the

tory
recommenda-

Norris

faculty

and

is immaterial

which

With

Mr,

following

nobler

doctrine

work

the

thought
of

be

must

: that

course

if there

S. E,

by

to this

especially

anything

following represents
of

of

preface

thinking,

thinking

crfi)ableof

follows

immortality

Of the

107, commending
without

sentence

Latin

1707,

complete

being

S,

by

proved

1707.

Opinions

and

from

Translated

power

that

concession

are

1707.

A,

be

and

asserted

Oxford,

etc,

London,

etc,

Immortal.

of

Discourse

Epistolary

Dodwell's

Mr.

Manuscript,

Latin

Soul

Assertions

some

Collier, M.

Jeremy

the

of

Epistolary Discourse,
Reflections

Naturally

By

of

View

Short

from

Translated

Immortality

Epistolary Discourse,

Human

in

Souls,

Human

to

Natural

Dodwell's

An

matter

The

his

1706.

Immortal,

Naturally

Whitby,

Locke

done

Lond,,

Milles.

to

answer

Justice

Discourse,

In

Arguments

1700.

Lond.,

etc,

the

all

wherein

Dodwell,

Mr.

to

in It."
John

by

Mr.

Norris.

Bemg

John

Norris,

him.

John

John

Pitts.

Epistolary
John

William

Of

Bragge.
Baxter,

wherein

the

Lond.,

17.52.

9,"

that

Martyr

of

set

Soul

the

Scriptures,

etc.

With

Tryphon,

of

an

Man,

In

to

answer

Souls,

light

clear

as

they

against

Heresie

tality,
Immor-

relate

to

Mr.

Mr,

Dodwell's

1708,

Lond,,

Martyr,

etc.

of

1708.

of

Charge

Author

the

1708,

London,

of Justin

Human

of

Vindication

Mr.

Dodwell

Lond,, 1708.

Fathers,

the

Rewards

Eternal

the

and

true

Soul.

ChishuU's

to

concerns

Spirit,

Holy

London,

etc,

in

Testimonies

some

of

is, The

of the

Mr,

on

Tract,

Account

Just

Scrutiny;

An

or,

State

An

of

Punishments

or

into

Enquiry

Serious

all

hear

that

the

Notions

the

Modern

the

Body,

of

the

Soul.

Enquiry

only

as

First

Part

into

in its

Soul,

the

Death

after

Scripture,

from

proved

of

than

Nature

; in

book

etc.

of

Soul

its

An

is

Enquiry

particularly

1, The

1757.

Substances,

(by

Book

A,

into

the

Nature

Nature

1740.

of

of the

Lond.,

considered.
the

Soul

Faculties.
and

1738.

Lond,,

etc.

Lond.,

etc,

Origin^ Properties, and

the

on

1735.

Immateriality

Scriptural Inquiries into

Lond.,

Remarks

some

Spiritual Beings,

to

intituled

Wherein,

Thinking

1734,

Lond.,

: with

Soul, wherein

Human

1750,

Lond.,

Lond.,

Soul.

Human

Existence,

Human
and

Spirit

of the

Nature

the

1745,

London,

etc,

Essays.

Four
and

Matter

on

Machine,

of the

Beings,

into

Objections, etc.

Souls

1725.

Lond,,
Soul,

Enquiry

Immateriality

Separate

Philosophical

Rational

Human

some

of the

the

(A. Baxter)

More

from

Nature

of Man,

of the

concerning

the

Soul
of the

Inquiries chiefly relating

Some

M.D.

Nature

Dissertation

Into

the

the

cleared

are

Thoughts

Author

into

Soul

Human

1707

1707,

Lond.,

Confuted,

of the

Existence

from

its Distinction

and

Deism

concerning
into

Enquiry

of the

J. Robinson,

Soul,

of Modern

to the

there

Enquiry

to the

of the

The

Essay

Enquiry

of Leicester,

Man

considered

Brief

Perronet.

Letter

Holy

with

Martyr

1708,

Discourse,

Preternatural

Principles

Appendix

Windle,

the

1711.

Free

Jackson,

William

Justin

St.

Immortality

Immortality

which

barrister.

down

Colliber,

Vincent

late

Immortality

First

An

laid

entitled

An

the

An

Baxter)

of

the

i,

Justin

of

Answer

The

Hampton,

Andrew

John

Scripture

M,D,

The

Robert

Samuel

Lond,,

from

1708.

Philosophy.

Principles

Norris.

Epistolary

the

Immortality

Clark's

Mr,
The

Witty,

Benjamin

the

Dialogue

1707,

Lond.,

etc,

demonstrated

later.

or

and

the

Animadversions

to

Reply

Pitts.

Benj, Bayly.
John

clearly

concerning

Dodwell's

of the

Coward,

1706,

Souls

SoOelaa, 2 Tim.

xapi5

Mr.

testimonies

Lond.,

etc,

Reason,

of

concerning

Dodwell,

Henry

John

Some

of

Part

in

Question

Joseph

that

'H

Pitts,

Discourse,
or

passage

Dodwell

to Mr,

Defence

Human

Mr.

to

Epistolary Discourse,

of the

of

Occasioned

Soul,

1709,

Vindication

unhappy

Lond.,

Letter

ChishuU,

Edmund
Dodwell's

famous

Letter

Joseph
A

Defence

the

1708,

Lond,,

Mortality

Lond,,

or

etc,

Gospel,

of

of

consisting

from

against

Natural

Explication

an

Appendix

one

Preliminary

A
The

of

Immortality

Natural

the

concerning

Discourse.

Epistolary

Dodwell.

Henry

Discourse

Philosophical

A
late

Dodwell's

Human

Soul,'

1741.
is demonstrated,

Lond,,

Constitution

1750,

of Mankind,

Sykes,

Fleming.

Caleb
Dr.

Law,

of

Survey

Pet-er

Peckard.

Observations

Caleb

Fleming.

Observations

Peckard's

Peter
An

Principle

immortal

of the

Defence

Broughton.

naturally

Coward,

Dr.

3.

Dr.

Clarke,

Mr.

Dr.

Baxter,

Lend., 1759.

etc.

that

against

Survey,

Free

and

of

the

Mortalist.

Occasioned

by

Mr.

the

In

to

two

1759.

Lond.,

etc.

Agency

of

Soul.

Answer

Lond., 17f)0.

etc.

Thomas
and

Survey,

Scheme

Immateriality

the

demonstrating

towards

Essay

Pamphlets,

Fleming's

Conscious

Fleming's

Mr.

on

Souls, by

375

DEISM,

1758.

Lond.,

Mr.

on

of the

Defence

after

Search

the

others.

and

Peckard,

Mr.

ENGLISH

AND

PHILOSOPHY

in

received

commonly
against

Man,

Doctrine

Objections

the

of

of the

Soul,

Human
Modern

some

as

an

Writers,

immaterial

Bristol,

etc.

1766.
A

against Popish

Warning
in

Immortality

CIIAPTEE

Doctrines

lY.

"

; or.

Observations

the

on

Rev.

Thos.

Mr.

Broughton's

Defence

of

an

1767.

Lond.,

etc.

Man,

Philosophy

in

Connection

the

with

Deistical

Controversy.

philosophyof

" 17. The

or
more
English Deists was
defenders
and the philosophical

so-called

the

by the school of Locke ;

of Christianity
natnrallyadapted their arguments
less affected

which

To

to the

guments
ar-

employed.

were

certain

of defence

extent, both

attack

defence

and

tried

and

tested the

philosophy,as they developed its defects and weaknesses, and

its strength to resist and
the argumanifested
as
reply. Inasmuch
ments
of the assailants of Christianity
the
were
largelyphilosophical,

new

same

true

was

of

Herbert

of the

arguments

of its defenders.

Cherbury representedeach

the influence of neither

was

set aside

his

own

Ilobbes

and

Lord

philosophicaltenets

by the Essay on

the Human

standing.
Under-

tianity
philosophicalassailants of ChrisJohn Toland, Antony Ashley Cooper
subsequent to Locke, are
third Earl of Shaftesbury,Matthew^
Tindal, Antony Collins,Thomas
and David
Hume.
Morgan, Bernard de Maude ville,
Among the philosophical
defenders
of Christianity
Samuel
we
name
Clarke, D.D.,
J(.)hn Brown, George Berkeley,Joseph Butler,and George Campbell.
of sermons
The
courses
preached at the Lectures instituted by Sir
Robert Boyle, particularly
the earlier courses,
from
1691
to
1732,
3 vols, folio,
Lond., 1739, contain profound discussions of philosophical
and give the reader an insightinto the speculative
Bubjects,
activityof
the English mind
at this period. John
Ray, 1627-1704, published in

Conspicuous

1691,

"

The

w4sdom

among

of God

the

manifested

in the works

of

Creation,"one

of the first attempts in the

truths

of I^atural

fested
mani-

language formally to illustrate the

Religion by examples of design or final cause, as

in nature.

John

Leland, 1691-1766.

ICf.
Titers,
etc.,etc.

Yiew

London, 1754-56,3 vols.

of

principalDeistical
PhilipSkelton,Deism Rethe

376

PHILOSOPHICAL

vealod:

London,
vols.,

Deisnms,
London

assailants

S.

A.

1841.

New

and

which

only g-uide,is

safe

It is worth

of "the

new

the

concerning
A

of the

Essay

King's

sermon

Brown

are

the

certain

"

what

being,
for

he

Human

of

moral

of

in

been

wills

want

contends

punishments

the

1093

after

In

Christian

upon

with

Toland

published

fissay

an

Freethinking,

on

Necessity,

1715.

Scheme

of Literal

It is

reply

Archbishop

to

principles of

able

an

as

Bishop

of

discussion

the

Peter

grounds

attracted

ruder

he

his

less

by

Locke.
for

contends

and

reason

and

and

the

to

acceptance

ability,in

Richard

Bentley

he

that

spiritnot

assailed

this

The

author

it when

who

it

denies

pounded
ex-

is

subject

with

clocks

an

absolute

to

in

power

in

contends

intelligent and

an

of

Liberty,

signifies "a

necessity, he

senses," in contrast
are

time, and

completely developed doctrine

affirms

man,

intelligence

in its

great attention

and

(2.) When

necessity, meaning
by

time.

the

sanctioned
but

Reason

acuteness

great

Liberty

part

of

Lir)simsis.

pleases."

sensation

that

in

his

society.

miscellaneous

the
his

Christianity"
Deists.

and

designed

the relation

with

skill the

word,

or

views
His

the impossibility of Liberty ;

In

attack

associated

and

for
ble
sensi-

watches,

physical

or

necessity.

3. He

ceived,
re-

mysterious.

the

Discourse

philosophical

theology of

current

name

is determined

mechanical

of

Religion, 1724.

was

the

discusses

of PJdleutheros

had

is called

which

be

of God.

great dialectical

as

Rehgion

Revelation,

of the

meaning

to do

Liberty

Christian

theological doctrine.

Enquiry concerning
which

in

in which

Freethinking

on

the

with

man

to this

to much

Hobbes,

occasion

1707.

Human

of the

Reasons

of Reason

use

knowledge

our

under

The

to be

plains
ex-

nal
exter-

being-the

reason,

claim

not

He

both

cannot

reason

King's Coll.,Cambridge,

and

Theology, Lond.,

in

and

interpretation of

treatise

to

spirit being

some

has,

man

Moreover

immediate

with

Eton

Predestination,

on

of

favorable

the

on

Discourse

The
and

Grounds

applied

limits

which

to reason,

mystery."

the

considered, etc., 1727.

Prophecy
The

called

understood.

Philosophical Inquiry concerning

Discourse

Gospels contrary

be

contradictory

the

was

mysterious,"

thinking."

of Reason

use

in the

properly

of information

be

resented

Collins, 1676-1729

Antony
1713.

of

way

Christianity not

of all, Christianity does

Toland

noticing that

"

nothing
can

means

cannot

Last

by Stillingfleet. Locke

Locke

and

guide.

is

"

Chbistianity.

1696,

statements

they

reason

there

the

that

asserts

if above

and

in

Englisclien
Thought."

History of Keh'gious
L, 1870; XL, 1871.

of

doctrine

and

reason

internal, and

and

that

Christian

no

province of

the

as

that

'

'

dos

Historyof Free

Hunt,

Lond., vol.

published

show,

to

was

John

assailants

1669-1722:

it; and

above

nor

Critical

1863.

Philosophical

desig-nof

"

Farrar,

Thought in England," etc.

JohnToland,*

G. Lecliler: Geschiclito

1749.

York,

ciieistianity.

of

death,

1697,

Dr.

John

works
the

published

was

Faith.

under

in

Gockbum

arguments

of

In

Oracles

1794,

published

six, viz.

imperfection

Blount, 1654-1693,

Charles
"

an

of

Reason

Charles

Enquiry

of

foundation

sole
are

the

3. from

title of
1693.

the

are

."

Leslie

into

of

papers
treatise

published
Nature,

and

rewards

experience;
and

Liberty

with

Locke's

the

morality,

1. From

by
on

Short

the

other
the

perfection of

writers,
"

and

Necessity,and

and

2. from

lished
pub-

were

Reasonableness

Easy

of
ivith

Method

Evidence

of

the

assailants

PHILOSOPHICAL

'*^cessity
; 4.

from

rewards

of

"e

Six

the

and

unjust

useless

the

4. also

2. and

of any

use

; 3.

377

CHRISTIANITY.

; 5. from

prescience
of

nature

if

the nature

men

are

agents, punishments

necessary

is useless

Julius

of

and

morality.

reasoning-,entreaties,blan^e, and

remedies

physical

C. the murder

groundless;

are

the

1. That

useless

are

Divine

6. from

answered, viz.

objections are
are

of the

consideration

punishments

of

5. the

could

Ceesar

praise are
of

reproaches
possibly

not

have

science
con-

been

avoided.
The

Enquiry

treatises
and

the

in the

system

and

which

of nature
with

in

2d

thie

the

divines
,

A. C,

Ashley
with

Platonism,
chieflyto

his

On

received

in

of

friend

with

all

Samuel

Locke,

certain

and

nobleness

his real

were

published

168G

1703, in

"

in

defence

This

Necessity."

Phillips Gretton,

opinions

Remarks

of

answered

Human

Two

on

of hiis

vindication
was

Defence

of reward

useless

by

Liberty,

Pamphlets,

as

beautiful

and

things, or

work

with

the

Shaftesbury
Hobbes.

Moral
The

sense

Hutcheson,

of

by

and

demonstrations

for

goodness
of

be

may
of

the

religionto morality,

the

or

is

objects

our

of

of

natural

right

from

derived

of

wrong."

to

that

revelation

consideration
defined

He

and

the

sublime

The

Inquiry

than

nature

of

in decided

Cherbury,

Ethical

Progress of

important

Lord

such
the

are,

collection

demoralizing.
sense

and

Mackintosh's

writings
a

ideas

of

that

influence

noble

innate

moreover

therefore

and

original and

in the
is

wrong

said

nobleness

when

urged

influences

with

existence

consists

right

His

which

of Herbert

manner

He

any

James

position.

doctrine

elegant

an

his

cerning
con-

Philosophy^

perhaps

any

ceding
pre-

"

times.

contends

an

the

the

mercenary,

moral

Sir

to

as

affections

our

intimations
of modern

be

must

Virtue,-according
more

it,in

mischievous,

but

social

life ; also. Letters, by

held

required.

not

was

He

from

argued

conformity of

in

contains

periods

of his

his

Times, 1711-23,

and

taught
owed

and

exactness,

or

popular diction, and

punishment

or

"a

Shaftesbury, 1671-1713,

Matters, Opinions,

revelation

only

not

of

Earl

University, 1716.

at the

supernatpral

third

at different

opposition to Locke,

good.

and

Jackson,

Dr.

and

of Men,

Man

Young

"

Christian

Chandler, Dr.

to what

as

Clarke, Collins

special philosophic depth

no

published

tracts

'

Samuel

Liberty

viz.,John

Cooper,

ornate

Characteristics

virtue

differ

have

to

the

Esq., 1730.

Antony

was

here.

boldness,

and

Critics

notice
as

ical
philosoph-

characteristic,

upon

intimate

an

shortest
most

Edward

Bishop
been

the

skill and

great

Collins

regarded,

of
had

logicalvigor

of Dr.

1720, and

ed.

require

not

with

Revelation.

death
''

those

Collins

of

criticisms
do

the

of the

one

Necessity,by

language, covering

ablest, the

the

Prophecy

on

of Lessing.

us

of

and

are

and

acumen

treatise

Anglican

these

Christian

the

1729, after

Inquiry,
two
in

for

disposed of
Though

one

therefore

Ashley Sykes.

reminds

to

respect

In

attacks

writings

Among

Arthur

distinguished

"was

The

his

were

thirty-fiveanswers.
Clarke,

point.
it is

briefest

in the

objectionsare

English language,

for Philosophical

argument

support

and

and
exegetical chiefly,

were

formidable

So

The

conciseness

influential.

most

the

in its

import.

with

stated

are

answers

to exhaust

considerations

comprehensive

most

said

be

may

presentingall the

stated

have

to
of

of disinterested

prevalence
reflex

without

are

In

sense.

originated

virtue

the

eloquent

reference

affections

of love

to

for
these

the

in man,

general

phrase, the moral

and

able.

Even

against
private

over

he

doctrines

as

anticipates
sense.

the

relation

His

of

Christianity,is beautifully and

truly expressed.
Matthew
which

1657-1733, published, 1732, Christianityas Old

general attention,and deserves a special interest from

Tindal,

attracted

as

the

the

Creation,

circumstance

378
"

PHILOSOPHICAL

that

it

Analogy

this

was

designed

was

sulKcient, and
it is
a

that

duties

this

by

only

test

Bernard

2d

of

part, 1728

the

ethical

distinction

work

legitimate,

to all.

The

restraints

made

taught
of

any

respect

this very

general

attention

fact which

of

force

contrary

may

The
in

him

we

to cause,

apply
or

the

should

men

should

observed

and

when

of Bishop

but

in

of his

some

known

1714.

the

philosophy
1723.

Enlarged,

Hume

had

in

We

Religion

most

effects
are

and

ville
Mande-

us

case

utter

than

is

In

other

it is

credit

experience

testimony
than
tion
destruc-

to

words,
is

that

contrary
e.

cording
ac,

It

miracle.

any

at

gree
de-

it is not

rational, i.

the

to

aroused

mutual

It

in

Dialogues

no

falsehood.

to

following

miraculous

suitable

right, according
to

that

more

there

Therefore

appeal

to

Miracles

is,
be

inferior."
or

tory
his-

his

and

of
''

assurance

an

in the

stimulated

the

add

we

Essay

would

are

in

principles of his
all ;

almost

elaborate

to

skeptical spirit. The

every

shade

argument

designer,

we

with

which

we

are

of

opinion and
is to this

offered

universe

transcend

only justifiedin reasoning

like those

distinctions

public good,

Miracles,

The

rather

to

is

experience

prevailingassociations.

or

represent

and

Of

that

the

no

the priest

and

ethical

the

to

is

its place

by giving indulgence

the

Its doctrine

deceived

any

in

magistrate

of Ueberweg

performed.

be

the

title

There

benefit.

Each

the

by

chiefly of importance

is

testimony

; and

be

public

that

Essay,

explanation of the origin of the

designed

causes

is best

counter-theories

text

testimony

reject any

ablest

the

deducting

after

indeed

by experience.
have

occasion

simple usurpation.

Hobbes,

criticism.

establish

Natural

on

to the

from

historic

an

Dort, Holland,

promoted

special notice.

active

only customary

; but

of

necessary
is

Hume's

philosophy of causation, etc.

dialogxies do

argument
when

to

sense

vices

aroused

To

fact

is best

superior only gives

miracle

Dialogues

the

the

questioned whether

with

being

it

deserve

to

that

experience,

fundamental

moral

systems

ethical,is indicated

passions by

of

that

130-4.

pp.

remains

that

he

contended

private

like

miracle, unless

experience

to

and

which

experience
be

in

philosopher.

it endeavors

arguments,

to

cf

and

are

upon

provoked

and

of

makes

that

subjects,

Benefits,

is in

Hobbes

While

Religion,

to establish

is sufficient

to

desires

community

able

Natural

concerning

He

Christian

springs of action.

or

general welfare

human

restraint

profounder inquiries.
" 18. David Hume,

the

the

English speculation, because

to

which

rule,

; 1737-38.

various

called

vice

impulses

theory of Mandeville,

The

independent

an

argues

native

Public

be

may

is called

and

on

the

by

that

cept
ac-

i)erfectionby

in 1737.

and

Moses

was

by

Vices

theory

unnatural.

and

work

Private

or,

of

on

and

to

nature.

the immediate

was

1G70-1733,

The

of

and

Jewish

work

prolificauthor

moral

and

are

M.D.,

law

religion,

The

Legation

What

the

between

factitious

system

the

Philosopher

of

human

by creating

Moral

complete

obligation

any

achieve

to

Butler's

of positive as ilistinguished from

man

the

if his

theory,

natural

which

The

Divine

religion
and

is

parts, 1732-1795.

; both

of his notorious

are

good

This

was

Bees;

of

inadmissible.

indecent.

notoriously

Fable

The

He

England.

in

inculcation

wanting.

Mandeville,

de

are

On

aim,

one

republication of

every

is

f oimd

are

Treatise

Warburton's

is The

only

of

test

positive duties

of

revelation

works

be

singlework, Bishop

natural

is unnecessary,

have

the

with

that

says

The

nature.

other

to any

revelation

religionmust

therefore

the

resident

All

human

to

Tindal

reply."

CHRISTIANITY.

OF

than

more

Morgan, d. 174J3,published

excellence

tried

as

is inconsistent

Christianitycan
Thomas

which,

to

consequently

impossible.

life according

moral

book

ASSAILANTS

to

reasoning

any

altogether
either

familiar,to

the

conclusion

produce

personages
of

method

effect, that
effect

from
limits
when

effects

or

scribed
prewe

de-

DEFENDERS

PHILOSOPHICAL

signs which

us

in

in

that

Natural

form

It is

all of

at

of

some

hostilityto the
a

form

of

P.

S.

counted

in

favor

of

which

is

it cannot

; but
Hume

had

Whatever

19.

Samuel

called

to be

Physics

copious notes,
of

those

the

concerning
Truth

and

composed

as

not

rant
war-

cannot,

attributes.

It

propounded

in

Certainty
series

Religion,to

and

Liberty
A

and

the

Velocityand
these

F.R^S.,

Force

treatises

system

of

and
i)rinciples

the

discourse

priori demonstration,
(1) Something has

which

in

existed

sometimes

have

answers,
Human

the

had,

doctrines

are

the

from

the

1717.

and

the

Attributes

the

Mr.

upon
A
to

Leibnitz

ing
concern-

Book

discussed

considered
and

titled
en-

Mr.

to

proportion

freely

distinct

sophy
Philo-

letter
the

by

Soul,

Natural

1728.

prominently

following

of

401.

particulars was

by Locke, cf.

-Being

relating
less

or

instituted

Clarke,

Remarks

No.

originally

was

learned

to Dr.

for

Religion and

Lecture

principles of

Cambridge

ed
append-

Discourse

were,

treatise

late

received

he

substituted

Immortality

the

Trans.,

1697,

and

Liberty, 1717.

more

in many

in

tor
Rec-

produced

the

Natural

the

at

controversy

PhU.

he

twenty

text

This

etc.

1704-5

between

from

Letters

concerning

comprehends

age

the

relatingto the

inculcated

concerning

plied
ap-

Coll.,Camb.,

Philosophy

about

passed

Doctor's

which

in
to

Dodwell

in Motion.

method

upon

eighteenth century,

of

Obligations of

preached

by

the

taught

Revelation,

added

theological

the

favors

when

been

principlesof Descartes,

the

; the

1716,

occasioned

philosophy

kind

subjectsmay

1675, Caius

At

theologicalapplications of philosophical principlesare

is taught

has

the

translation,published

God

which

and

the

in Bodies

of

School.

contributions

Mr.

to

are

Philosophical Enquiry

Benjamin Hoadly,

and

Papers

with

of

these

on

Norwich,

doctrines

of

of

which

discussion

any

its

Christianity,

His

on

this

His

letter

Necessity,

writings

op

in

Christian

1715

of

results
directions

impression left

the

speculation of

Christianity

his

died, 1729.

the

years

of

and

To

Attributes
of

in this

with

religion,and

the

opposite

Hume

by

offered

relations.

Physics

of sermons,

Boyle.
in the

1709

Newton.

and

against

of

truths

the

two

reconciled

and

bom

was

refuted

Isaac

Being

two

Clarke

Dr.

skeptical arguments
and

in

Hamilton,
are

philosophical.

Cambridge.

at

A Collection

etc., 1706.

of

results

"

of Rohault's

which

Sir

Robert

Hon.

his

adopted

Clarke

Clarke, D. D.,

translation

in

text-book

and

Defenders

James, Westminster,

St.

improved

In

of his

or

(notably by Sir William

confidence

merits

Samuel

In

we

Bolingbroke," 1678-1737,

other

Philosophical

of

Moreover,

the

nor

sense

be

no

Viscount

John,

they scarcely deserve

and

being,

Hume

common

thc.philosophical assailants

among

of

of

spiritualbeings

or

St.

Henry

tut unreasonably.

the

such

the

and

warrants

does

being.

processes

of

critics

dialogue

that

mind,

super-sensual

to

the

processes

this construction

the unbiassed

the

of

which

experience

spiritof hostilityto philosophy itself, by representing

The

somewhat

them

manner,

uncreated

the

experience

no

like

129, 444, 457, 489), whether

equally probable

as

thought.

an

effects,the designers

have

In

conception

neither
justifies

Raid, pp.

in

analysis

"

We

and

infinite

an

and

causes

infinite.

an

definite

any

questioned by

rather

not

iinite to

philosophy

spiritof

other
words, the
uniformly Unite.

379

CHRISTIANITY.

Religion.

cf. Hamilton's
in

are

from

conceiving

would,

we

follows

In

experience

proceeding
us

if

similar.

are

of

designs

OF

and
;

the

yet there

ent
independ-

p. 370.

of

Theses

God

he

attempts

an

eternity. This is true, whether

eternity is

or

is not

380

SAMUEL

conceivable.

(2) This

to conceive
be

would

involve

space

and

being

is
of

is

omnipresent
This

is not

and

created

of

things.
choice

and

causes

the

reaches

to all

in the

who

(11)

He

He

is

with
moral

of

infinite

God's

the

proved

liberty,and

the

is

with

the

(8) He

one.

the

belongs

final
with

from

evidence

to

of matter.
and

being endued

finitely
in-

final

by Spinoza's argument
infinite

thought

or

These

imperfection
free spiritual

and

all these

upon
the

This

power.

natural

matter

from

eternal

the

is also

property

the

has

creating

truth.

He

beauty, oider,

from

as

same

in

be

cannot

refuted

not

The

(6)

intelligence that

and

priori,and

and

finitions
de-

di'posteriori^
from

(as against Hobbes

originatingmotion
:

the

well

as

of

power

goodness, justice

natural

truth

concerning the

and

certainty

distinctions.
make

things

These

it fit that

separately from

them,

which

enforce

this

the

failed

to

state

of

be

existence

Inasmuch

by

his

in the
for

discern

they

as

any

of

works

points).
(12)

God.

attributes

moral

are

sistent
con-

of

necessity of the grounds

of

do

of

not, there

successful

"

who
as

all

or

this

The

and

with

Christian

to

Natural

asmuch
In-

Religion

has

future

Though
it ?

to

reformers

and

sin,they
should

men

is the

Revelation

attention

vice

necessity that

the

be

must

Though

revelation.

tendencies

the

advantage
dis-

should

vice

punish

they give their

special

or

Creator

complete.

be

may

of

punishments.
to

existence, there

by its conformity to the truths of

attested

and

virtue

adjustment

resisted

the

of

with

accordance

advantage

that

rewards

by

in

foreseen

any

reward

things, would
of

act

religion
views

relations

necessary

fit,however,

and
to

dispense

to

is

and

natural

Clarke's

contains

should

creator

of human

is need
have

eternal

Creator,
It

that
of

for this service.

commissioned

also

The

things

in order

not

so

the

actions.

tendency

have

been

obligations of

Revelation

the

and

creatures

such

present condition

occasionally appeared

properly

as

unalterable

positive commands,

have

divinely

follows

command

men

this

and

Christian

original tendency

effectual

might

both

eternal

of the
are

follow

may

fitness

as

is

The

demonstrable,

are

necessarily but

intelligent agent

(10)

of

self -existent

set it forth.

eternal.

from

contradiction

includes

is

demonstrable

from

It is

God.

is

(7) He

quality

creation.
of

infinitelywise

discourse

the

moral

men

the

first,he

preceding,

sarily
neces-

mode

forma, signify nothing except

demonstrated
and

or

of this

essence

adequately

not

part

This

is it

obligation.

The
and

of

the

involving
It

acts.

be

being

of

not

capable

are

must

from

activities

things

who

being

beings

the

distinct

be

Nor

attributes, however,

and

or

in infinite

modes.

are

motion.

should

must

non-existent

believe

to

it is impossible

Being

being

us

these

or

mera

his

things, and

self- existent

this follows

does

but
'priori^

"x

is further

This

finiteness
in

necessity

in

which

world

attributes.

easilyproved

This

of

things

and

intelligenceis

(9)
;

of

oblige

substance

actus,

(5) Many

essence

think.

cannot

libertyand

g.

perfection

Such

beings.

cause

of

degrees

Matter

e.

such

its matter

material

space

Purus

nature

in his

variety

it would

of

(3) This

beings.

to suppose

in

The

(4)

Infinite

attributes.
in the

either

world,

independent Being, for

dependent

substance

writer,

Schoolmen,

his

intelligent.

for

of this

involved

are

of

Spinoza,the

to

incomprehensible.
the

perfection of
G.

without

that, according

substance

I.

time

the material

be

substance

one

and

immutable

an

succession

SCHOOL.

III8

necessarilyexistent,because

infinite

true

the

eternal

AND

contrjuliction,chielly because

cannot

something-is

an

-existent,i".e.

self

CLARKE

only

one

be

which

its external

and

evidences.

Appended

to

this

volume

Gloucestershire, relating
the

thereto.

answers

student

in

The

to

are

the

several

argument

gentleman

dissenting academy

in

from

letters to
for

the

Dr.

Being

Clarke
and

Gloucestershire

Tewkesbury,

afterwards

from

was

God, with

Joseph Butler,
Bishop

of

of

gentleman
of

Attributes

then

Durham,

and

882

SAMUEL

Mr.

Rev.
virtue

the

distinct
it

moral

controverted

its

of

Clarke,

of his
On

was

follows

as

Translator

Defence

Third
Remarks

Existence
fruitful

and

and

on

the

Human

Dr. Watts,

Logic,
Watts

his

The

instructive

exhibition
middle

in the
William

of the

for

the

this treatise

had

been

in

of

the

title of

The

Space
Mr.

; with

Isaac

To

which

of

Space Examined,

John

last

in

sold.

it makes

Some

added,

are

1734,

In

in hia

the

of

edition, 1783)

of

also

on

same

his

sophical
Philo-

tions
Opera-

of

of

Essay

in

etc.

Treatise

-used

of the

on

Mind.

important

some

of

direction

wise

the

Essay

Ontology,

Improvement

Locke's

and

Locke's

Mr.

much

Place

tion
Produc-

the

Body,

brief scheme

published
title

and

Ontology

the

Remarks

subjoined
the

He

for many

was

of

results

an

est
inter-

guished
distin-

theological
delivered

were

subsequently,

These

in 1794.

Kippis,
and

methods

of

Divinity, which

1768, and

in

head

at the

years

Ethics, and

death

his

Andrew

Philip Doddridge, 1702-1751,

is

Watts,

Pneumatology,

Rev.
the

is

some

Clarke's

Notion

A., Camb.,

phlets,
pam-

Being and

etc.

of

the

England.

lectures

with

many

present

philosophical inquiry

and

very

tion
instruc-

century.

1722,

may

Religion

Ethics

virtue

of

Nature

main

and

to consist

considered

be

almost

It is in the

principal topics in
is that

of
late

two

reply

some

maintenance

the

1659-1724,

published,

copies

upon

of

Wollaston.
He

Clarke.
10.000

Clarke's

on

authors, by

to

to

Defence,

(1st

Coll.,

anonymous,

in Vindication
answer

Resurrection

with

under

published after

pupils, were

references

Magdalen
was

Ideas, Perpetual Consciousness,

divine,

and

known

theologian.

and

Boylean

etc.

edition

the
:

which

To

with

Lectures

2d

Innate

Body,

writer

much

connected

preacher
academy.

the

of

Master

treatises

to

M.

Clarke,

the

in

Creation,

Dr. Clarke's

to

of

three

wrote

1719, for

Fellow

Notions

Demonstration,

Animals

and

Samuel

did

Eternal

Second

proved

doctrines

school

treatise, which

Clarke's

By Joseph Clarke,

the

well

speculative thinking

Intimately

in

Demonstration

other, A

Departing Soul,

of Plants

from

Clarke's

of Dr.

published

with

Supplement

Sarum,

Law

Jackson

of God

Rossington, 1710,

sermons

first

special

Subjects, viz..Space, Substance, Body, Spirit, the

ia Union

particulars, and

to

etc.

1G74-1748, hymn

dissents

in

God,
Watts

Understanding.

with

; the

Exceptions

Spirits,the

of

of

is also

ing
contend-

Clarke's

of the

of

Joseph Clarke,

Dr.

Clarke's

Various

on

Operation

and

of

Isaac

Soul

Motion

Samuel

Unity

Essays
of the

of

Examination

Jackson's

Dr.

year

Defence

Possibility of

of Dr.

Mr.

on

divine

It

John

Unity

ness,
happi-

of

Time,

Dr.

reasserted

of
Notions
Space Examined
King's Origin of Evil.
Being an

one,

the

on

arid

By

of

King's Essay,

to

aroused

Rector

title of the

desire

theory.

notes

[S.j Clarke's

Farther

considerations

The

etc., Lond., 1788

God,

was,

which

was

and

Evil.

the

of

Clarke.

formation

the

Existence

Clarke, d. 1759, Dean

Clarke, besides
of

in

of

to the

Utilitarian

attack

Samuel

Origin

Archbishop

of

second

the

Dr.

treatises.

two

entitled, the
Attributes

John

and

Dr.

of

The

1703,

principleof
assertion

an

respect to Space and

This

Jackson

John

etc.

theory

impulses

In

in

entitled

Coll.,Camb.,

1729.

Cause

replied in

Camb.

Clarke

existence.

treatise

Time,

Jesus

brother.

the

Samuel
real

ethical

the

whatever.

fundamental

containing

as

asHonation

Attributes, etc., Loud., 1734,

and

Wigton's Hospital,

Lecture,

in

of

of

power

judgments

proper

any

respect to Space and

in defence

the

the

of all active

development

the

of Dr.

doctrines

1G8()-17()3,entered
of

SCHOOL.

ethics

against

as

relations

of

of all

also

as

Nature

the

for

way

has

defence
his

from

of

of

history

Cumberland

recognition

the

neither

that

in

the

prepared

in the

important

Richard

standards,

the

is

recognition

significantfor

HTS

AND

Sidney College,Cambridge, concerning the

principles of

more

to

of

Gay,

morality,

or

CLARKE

in

Delineated,
rather

than

Theology.

The

popular

Natural

as

acting according

disciple of
of

which,
a

Samuel

1788,

in

tise
scientific trea-

characteristic

to the

truth.

of

Exam-,

AND

BROWN

inatlons
S.

of

this

Colliber,2
of Moral

Goodness

1712-1771, St.
the

on

and

Clarke

; or, A

Hutcheson's

to

answer

Essay

published by Thomas

were

John's

I^ature

of Natural

treatises,also

Daniel

John

John

Taylor, 1694-1761,

another

Defenders

"

These

(3.)

three

are

On

(1.)On

Revealed

and

Christianity was
its acuteness

it deserves

George Berkeley,
for

his

specialapplication which
his

necessarilyinvolves
Aiciphron,
America,

or

the

of

God,

of

symbols

known

to

system

matter,

which

as

R.

In

man.

he

its

the

and

selfish in

the

gives

material

from

had

topic, originallypublished

its

in

1709,

Warburton.
;

cal
philosophi-

of Virtue
to Happiness,
Shaftesbury, that

of

For

spirit.

Virtue

to

of

one

relation

of

belief

the

attendant
written

its

abilityand
has

Deity

for

the

skepticism

and

of

existence

sojourn of

and

makes

this he

for the

old,

years

him

by

being and
sensible

The
of

one

his
in

years

his

istence
exas

butes
attri-

avails himself

the

is

In

two

forth

set
his

concerning
23

matter

logicalconsequent.

Theory of Vision.

in the

already

also

philosophical argument

the

was

he
but

of the

the

his

is conceived

judgments

he

which

matter,

in

and

during

extended

which

when

notice

in the refutation

that

an

brief

the

theory

length

at

of

Motives

only

attacks

non-existence

universe

natural

our

the

direct

the possibilityof
illustrating

explained

the

is the

question of

necessary

language through

or

through

history of English Ethics.

contends

I.,he

the

also. Estimate
went

suggestion

(2.) On

Essays

and

Philosopher, 1732,

in which

illustrations derived

of

at the

Truth;

deserves

of this

He

time.

Newport,

near

only

made

Atheism

London, 1757, which

these

vexed

in the

not

of

of

much

theory
he

Minute

buted
contri-

times, particularly in the

edition, 1764

5th

written

were

Test

in its motives

p. 88 ;

"

insinuations

attention

cf

theologian,

Coll.,Cambridge, published Essays

1751.

Times,

second

the

well-known

free-thinking of

as

The

discusses

mercenary

phy,
Philoso-

theological

many

its appearance.

Ridicule

against the implied

as

received

after

Religion.

importance,

able

Moral

Christianity.

St. John's

the

Characteristics

the

on

of

Principles

first year

Essays

for

prolificand

of

the

the

tutes
; also,Insti-

Principles of
known

well

of

doctrines

Cumberland

theology.

to

of

editions

of

or

the

combats

Bp.

productions of their

activity and

Shaftesbury's Characteristics,
London,
and

of

those

1638-1726,

Brown, D.D., 1715-1766,

Manners

he

in which

George TurnbuU,

Whitby,

philosophical

of

on

The

by

Virtue,
Rutherford,
Divinity, etc., published, 1744, Lond., An

defends

expounds
Lond., 1754-56.

Law,

Other

seven

also

tion
Founda-

Ideas

our

Rutherforth, D.D.,

Virtue,

and

application of philosophy

21.

of

Obligations

Original of

the

Thomas

etc.

Prof,

and

into

Inquiry

Inquiry,

and

1840,

Lond.,

"

Clarke,

Coll.,Camb., published, in 1728, The

John's

Further

Coll., Camb.,

Wollaston

to the

John

Bott, 1725,

vols.,17,'U-35.

Balguy, 1686-1748, St.

John

in

treatise

383

BERKELEY.

of

the

qualities of
Essay
the

on

most

this
portant
im-

contributions
most

important

to the analysis of sense-perception in the English language, and

cation
Vindihe published A
In 1733
reviving Idealism in Great Britain.

as

of the Theory of Vision.

Fm(?7i,London, 1842;
the received
of vision

theory of
by Berkeley

for the still more

In 1710

between

he

exact

also

T.

vision.
gave

Cf.
K.

Samuel

Abhot^^

London,
color

and

Bailey, Review
Sight and Touch:

1864.

Hylas

careful

analysis of the later philosophers

Philonous.

In

An
attetnpt to disprove
analysis of the processes

plausibilityto his Idealism, and

published The Principlesof Human

and

The

of Berkeley's Theory of

these

two

Knowledge,
treatises he

to refute

attempted

who

and

in 1713

exhibits

the

opened
Three

his

way

him.

Dialogues

ideal

system,

384
teaches

which

that ideas

these

realities exist only

ideas

or

is the

Sermons

Three

in

reader

1735,propounds
the

along

reaches

the

place

of

Tlie

is

posing
sup-

What

that

the

He

bom

1713

he

He

was

Philosophy
of the

followed

of

We

that

perceive

the

22.

God

Joseph

philosophy.
carries

the

till he

his style give him

of Arthur

After

his

high

Collier,who

he

Collier set forth

absolute

and

external,

the

Logos

the

as

things having

senses

by

He

of the

external
it is

by

the

God

Father

our

to

our

arguments

in inextricable

in him.

by

given

nine

does

sensible

dictions.
contra-

original principle of

being

expressed
res%)ective,

God

the

is,as

involved

their

the

on

demonstrate

is

that

to

not

seem

speculations.

to be

world

this

world

his

proposition

of

sophers
Philo-

Edward

treatises

it is made

to

London
,

part depend

but

proceeds

external

all

in

must

D. D.

whose

over

the

analysis of what

by them,
of the

Logos, etc..

rather

Specimen

Tracts, by English

the

In

Non-Existence

published

Parr,

Berkeley,

in 1711.

died

of the

he

"

rector, 1G80, and

who

Samuel

influence

any

world

to be

this

"

of

emphasizes

Bemerton,

Metaphysical

on

those

subsequently

of

Sarum,

by

Treatise

sensible

existence

Butler, 1692-1752, was

in

Tewkesbury,

preacher

at

Stanhope;

Bristol ; 1750,

bishop

the

Rolls

; in

1736,

Sermons,

Analogy, contain

with

the

In

Analogy
an

At

of the

1726

Essay

elementfi

he

of
on

bom

at

afterwards

of

of Durham.

of God.
The

and

Chapel

"clerk

1736,

Clarke, criticisingsome

Attributes

Chapel

all

terial
ma-

is to be
and

tinguished
disSon

the

Testament.

academy

Samuel

of

exerted

world

created

works

as

and

he

"

argues

all created

New

1718-172G

or

it.

Edited

unlike

to have

world

fact

in

other
and

of

Demonstration

1730

II. of
,

are

ordinary conception

The

in the

him

I.

Nos.

Century.

of Collier

perceiving

and
the

in

disease,and

name

was

Norris,

In

World.
as

1732, Logohgy,

by

he

Universalis, etc.,being

External

sensible

percipient.

senses

neighbor of John

near

an

also

exists,but

act

by

Querist,published

theological speculation

transparency

where

Magn:i,

republished

known

reject

world

in

involve

Berkeley's analysis, the vigor of

Berkeley suggests the

of

Langford

arguments

been

the

ed
publish-

in 1735

The

suggestive topics

and

of

acuteness

was

remedy

he

notice.

Eighteenth

1837;

The

as

philosophical

The

premises, and

published Clavis

Lumley,

of

scale

Idealism

at

Impossibility of

True

tar- water

1785

of

are

higher mathematics

Christianity. This

ingenious and

of

Infinite.

additioifel

was

1733.

few

merits

In

to

Berkeley published

which
Resistance,

politicalphilosophy.

to show

is taken

or

1712

In

No7i-

and

provided by

seems,

English philosophers.

some

died

The

the

Theological

deserves

and

doctrines

not

the

assumed

from

among

The

ton

and

they signify.

ideas

of God.

ideas

of those

what

or

ideas.

of these

Obedience

of Passive
was

ascending
of

idea

reasoning

"

or

of which

higher knowledge

another

one

the only realities ; that

are

our

significationin these

upholder

Favor

the

Siris, 1744, begins with

that

to

these

that

"

truly as
as
Tract, entitled,A Defence of Freethinking in Mathematics.

second

own

relations

design

mysteries

not

relations

history of ethical

the

Anali/st,the

perceived

are

simply the manifested

is

Jn

significancein
The

have

their

BUTLER.

perceived,and

is

they

as

permanent

universe

material

the

or

far

permanent

any

God

that

some

whatever

are
so

realities only respects

of
possibility

be,

AND

COLLIER

as

in London
the

also, 1722-1733, rector

he

to

published fifteen

Religion
the

of his

to

Nature

Ethical

the
of
and

the

addressed
in

arguments

first at

his

series

of

Demonstration

sermons

Constitution

Virtue,

preached
and
Diss.

at

Haugh-

1738, bishop of

Queen;
a

senting
Dis-

College, Oxford

at Oriel

commoner

closet"

nineteen

studied

He

Wantage.

Course

letters
of
at

to

the

Being

the
of

Dr.

Rolls

Nature.

2, Appendix

Religious philosophy. These

to

the
doc-

BISHOP

trines

practicalrather

are

propositions in opposition
Man

1.

is

individual
which

its very

by

other

the

and

"

heart.

6.

Virtue,
but

benevolence,

life

or

compassion for, others,

there

is

sudden

this is excessive
injury ; when
Man
is capable of love
to God,
which

etc.

good

The

of

Analogy

and

advertisement
in the

into

Religion.
Moral

of

in, or
who

against

us

8.

resentment.

gratitude,

reverence,

moral

solely of

of

person

infinite

; also

intended

of

Government

following topics

presumption against
of what

is to be

contain

for

The

in

liable

proof

of

personal
this

the

other
to the

from

to the

of

the

The

Analogy
the

Analogy,

In

The

Doctrine

the

Our

of

want

of

of

the

second

The

part

supposed

incapacity to judge
that

Analogy
scheme

is

it must

imperfectly

universality and

particular evidence
of Nature

to

argument

in both.

which

The

last.

The

Christianity.

Christianity as
The

Life.

the

incomprehensibleness

credibilityfrom

Mediator.

Revelation.

of

Butler

form

minds,

Analogy
2f"

claims
has

of

been

in which
and

and

Ethical
is

Tliis is not

single writer.
compact

the

upon

English language

to many

between

appended

is

for

Religion, being

criticizes the

posed
sup-

Christianity.
the

clusion
con-

A dissertation

doctrines

on

of Locke*

point.

influence

The
wherever

of

application of

the

parts, and

identity is

objections.

to

It

of Revealed

and
implying Trial, Difficulties,

miraculous.

as

Future

Improvement.

importance
the

constitution.

or

considered

second

us

these

on

Author.

same

the
:

lead

founded

are

the

in the
ties
difficul-

same

this should

particularly by

The

scheme

The

appointment
the

and

Discipline

revelation, and

Objections against arguing

of both

as

Revelation,

things appearing
deficiency in

of Probation

treated

expected

comprehended.

State

which

treated, viz.

are

and

as

directed

was

the

nature, and

Religion, and

Punishments,

Moral

Nature

find

we

from

proceed

of Natural

and

considered
are

of

Scriptures

influencing Practice.

as

God,

the

following topics
A

is,that

operations
both

probably

first treats

God.

considered

in the

of

Course

positions he brieflydescribes

doctrine

leading

against

Rewards

by
of

as

find

and

whose

time,

Its

that

first the

of God

Necessity

His

towards

Constitution

the

we

The

Government

Danger

any

of

affections

the

those

defend

to

deliberate

it is called

of

others

to

against

provided

natural

of interest

to resentment
is

several

naturally exercise

arguments

parts.

the

In

which

infer

to

two

Government

as

^.

Butler's

of

all

reject

to

but
difficulties,
divided

upon

"e.,of the

introduction.

Scriptures

only

The

which

duties

sentiment

natural

tendency

misdirected

or

to

Eeligion

Free-thinkers

against the

the

natural

is

is

endowment,

consist

not

as

excellence.

moral

not

there

from

4. Virtue

perception

the

an

still further

complex
"a

; also

is

conscience,

enforcingthe

does

reason,

or

ourselves

resentment^

would

man

nature

he

particular differs

as

and

to

7. As

interpreted

understanding"

to

of

approbation.
is

duties

our

justice.
so

Butler

injure us, called by

according

also

respects

the

truly as

as

defines

5. Conscience

action.

of

sentiment

gratitude, and

and

truth,

"a

both

"including"

he

well-argued
free-thinkers.

possessed

in this

of reflex

is thus

nature

principles of

certain

of

is

and

other

and

social

authority

idea

the very

in

implied

This

action.

nature, when

to

activityaccording
supremacy

is

is

authority, and

with

of

springs

obligation which

that

positive

are

susceptibilities.3. Man

and

is endowed

nature

impulses

but

2. Man

affections.

in his relations

beuig

form,

Hobbes, Mandeville, Shaftesbury,

to

of disinterested

capable

in

speculative

than

385

BUTLER.

he

to the

spoken

and

cautious

studied

the

probably

reflections

read

revealed
as

his

bean

doctrines

which

had
he

communication

text-book

powerful
that

surpasses

which

spirit in

reverent

and

and

and

originalityof

presented

independent thought
extensively

read,

to the

owing
has

Religious philosophy has

and

in all the

so

been

of

much
gested
sug-

mediates
of

Truth.

seminaries

386

ASSOOIATIONAL

THE

of higher
victions

have

learning,and

of the

exerted

have

also

efficient

in

it has

1776,

Lond.
,

1710-1

also

in

of Marischal

79G,

Dissertation

the

studied,

or

and

Analogy

theology

Sermons

ethical

element,

many

principal of the

College, Aberdeen,

in

Miracles

on

reply

and

German.

editions; besides

several

French, Dutch,

into

The

philosophy.

Christian

into

read

generally

needed.

greatly

translated

; also

less

though

ethical

upon

strengthen the religiouscon"

shape and

to

Sermons,

introducing

Campbell, D.D.,

1750, published

editions

The

influence

pervading

been

George
same

largelyserved

English people.

sometimes

which

has

PSTCITOLOGT.

Hume,

to

Edin., 17(52,many

Also
able

Philosophy

and

of

toric,
Rhe-

well-known

logical
theo-

treatises.
The

Dissertation

Hume

in

from

respect

It

testimony.

necessarily involved

extensively controverted.
the

Scottish

school.

They
the

In

descriptions of evidence,
the

taking

ness,

advanced

Locke

by

among
attracted

and

attention

commanded

y.

CIIAPTEE,

The

23.

"

and

reasoning

have

and

with

been

current

uniformly

have

Campbell

acute-

have

extensively

been

of

of

various

great

which

its rules

less

or

the

discusses

Syllogism,
and

more

philosophers

the

by

author

arguments

been

The

"

Association

Association

or

Psychology.

Associational

Psychology is

al

losophi
type of phi-

early took a definite form in England.

snccessive
writers
by Avhom it was
developed in the last centory
Ilobbes,Locke, 4th ? edition of the Essay,cf. p. 363 ; Rev. Mr. Gay,
and
Darwin
Erasmus
Hartley, Joseph Priestley,
p. 382 ; David

The
are

cf.

Abraham

Hartley, 1705-1757,

physician
8vo,

he

Newark

at

1791,

son,

of

Rector

in

Essay

with

and

and

of

College, Cambridge

Jesus

In

his

Duties,

Again,

his

Expectations.

from

the

German

with

additions, by Dr.

Additions,

Riigen.

2 vols.

1749, Lond.

Bath.

Frame,

Notes

Poseritz,Island

with
of

other

the

the

following

Latin, with

David

Generatione,

In

his

his

Man,

on

of

fellow

London

of H.

Priestley, 1801, 3 vols. Bvo.

Joseph

Parr,

and

Priory, St. Edmunds,

republished by

Pistorius,

scholar

was

published Observations

was

An

very

Tucker.

David

A.

the
of the

of all knowledge

grounds

have

accepted

Rhetoric

of

the

by

evidence

the

and

respect.

thinkingwhicli

It

those

philosophers,

doctrines

experience
into

positions

doctrine

to this form

Scottish

The

and

of

especiallythe

the

writers.

these

unlike

not

are

positions adverse

English

of

Some

from

examination

an

Philosophy

and

philosophical positions taken

the

of the evidence

relative force

principles of belief.

the

and

controverted

Miracles

on

to the

works,
collection

same

title

"

how

each

Evil

the

world.

which

Truth,

title

An

the

To

all

etc.

Written

from

the

is also
the

Edward

of

on

God's
use

of

part
the

some

and
young

the
an

an

Man's

by

press

Essay,

Appetites

on

from

gentlemen

Samuel
phers
Philoso-

1837.

anonymous

account

Idearum

et
Dr.

by English

Tracts

Human

remarks

Sensu, Motu
the

Lumley,

republished

Origin

added

are

for

title,Metaphysical

Association,with

which

obligation
for

into

prepared

was

London,

Tracts

Enquiry

arises

deduces

of

de

Conjecturse Qusedam

auctore,

under

eighteenth century.

showing
into

the

Hartley

of
the

the

and

Entrance

Independent

certain
at the

Abstract

with

the

Affections,
of Moral

Scheme,
Relations,

Universities.

LiU'

DAVID

ooln, 1747."

This

was

the

name

know

did not

published anonymously,
of

1855) pertinently inquires whether

of the

the author

dissertation

of Evil,1733, and
The
there

which

system

within

are

that
of

the

and

Principia

Mr,

Gay preliminary

The

two

King

to

of the

substance
and

That

to the

vibrations

of

and

mind

the

pain

and

are

ether

an

active

within

to the

congruous

this

leave

of

the

over

power

c, by association

B,

that

excite

one

any

can

association.

such

miniature

complex
ideas

In

be

may

the

cases

as

Some

of

of the

any

are

explained
of

structure

the action

two

forms

and

associations.

in

the

like

of the

meaning

pertaining

of

ideas

to

passions

pleasure

and

and

assent

this

A,

the

of

can

Z",c, f/,etc.
by

ones

into

excited

dullary
me-

to themselves

excite

complex
run

in the

mbratiundes^ a, b, c, d,

vibrations

affections

simply

are

sensations

the

or

of

action

in the

the

ideas, or
of

The

the

the

by

of

means

correspondent

attendant

on

direct

complex
of

action

by

the

ideas

the

special
of

in

the

senses

external

respiration and

way.

explained by

by

assent

of

varieties
involved

motions

are

tendency

voluntary, is explained by

and

phenomena

same

explained

are

with

automatic

of words

use

whether

association

and

for

the

associated

pain with
is

Memory
and

formity,
uni-

another, get such

one

as

into

run

involuntary

accounted

are

words

involving the

The

with

vibrations

agencies,and

The

organs.

heart

of

these

by

manner

several

of vibrations, and

second

gated
propa-

the

phenomena

corresponding

one,

vibrations

of vibrations

Propositions also, and

means

excited,

also those
of sleep.
images of themselves,which

or

over

complex

motion, in the
action

joint

The

are

occasion

partly by
The

tion
sensa-

ideas

"

Muscular
the

the

sensory

objects.

any

power

miniature

of

brain

are

and

substance.

associated

ideas

Simple

simple

vibrations.
vivid

as

b, c, d.

vibrations

vibratiuncles

get such

medullary

which

and

Rev.

second.

another.

one

white

by

Optics

of

Essay

by being repeated beget

corresponding ideas, ", 6, c, that

Any vibrations. A,

the

vibrations, and

vibrations

respectively. Any sensations,A, b, c, by being

of association

instrument

nerves

substance

vestiges, types

Sensory

the

medullary

doctrine

with
The

"

material

on

theory.

from
the

instrument

impressed

as

disposition to diminutive

is the

in his

is action

connected

immediate

of the

powers

of sensation.

substance

is the

objects

by being repeated

simple ideas

up

nerves,

Origin

his thoughts to the

follows

Gay,

the

positions : that

passages

and
first,

directed

as

three

sophy,
Philo-

Mr.

on

resulted

there

the

naturally

summed
and

of

Dr. Parr
and

modest

King,

which

first. Certain

Evil

are

of

includes

medullary particles. These

^partlyby

continuity
Sensations

is

brain

; external

sustained

pleasure

of

infinitesimal

and

established

vibrations

Translation

occasion

Origin of

brain, spinal marrow

motion.

presented

of

the

the

been

brain, that

the

on

the

was

on

being independently

Hartley's doctrine

are

Newton

Sir Isaac

of the

dependent

have

treatise

Even

(Locke's Writings

rssearches

in this

substance

last is

Law's

to the

Hartley

the

republished in 1758.
Tagart

it could
to

Hartley developed

vibrations

in the soul, and

attached

incited

which

and

Edward

author.

the

387

HARTLEY.

inveterate
is rational

associated

to action

explained by the

several

laws.

associations, and
or

with

with

similar

practical; the
sensations

either

an

; and

idea

associations

or

by
first

the
sation.
sen-

of ideas of

ideas.
the

associative

power

concerning past

sensations

ideas.
Brutes

2. The
construe

inferior to men,

are

1. Their

brains
matter

them.

are

of

iox

fivereasons

"

relativelysmaller.
the

brain

is less refined

and

less fitted to receive

miniatures

and

388

JOSEPH

3.

have

They

4. Their
5.
The

the

words.

no

constructive

The

which

towards

products of manifold
of his

other

of

summed

his

in

up

often,riveted

and

nature, the
'

words

own

have

and

the

claim

the

appellation of original and

with

compared

life

which

reasonings
all

of

natural

reasoning,

well

as

But

kind.

I have

is the

affection,

as

Hartley clearly distinguished the

He
on

the

also

vividness

association

is

of

the

He

repeated.

the

The

by Hartley.
of

nature

always

in the

sciences
but

The

mechanism

the

in

same

Hartley

are

of the

interest

of

the

the

principle,and
himself

avails

In

second

the

part

mind

his
of

plain particular phenomena

of

used

in

the

by

with

of

that

forms

in

which

they

become

sociation.
as-

any
complex
de-

ple
princi-

or

pated
antici-

not

the

comparative

and

H.

Spencer^

Hartley.

by giving

Antony

of

with

was

and

of vibrations

doctrine

so

theory of

his

words,

that

papers

or

Bain

to themselves

part of his treatise

method,

special

and

moral

twofold, depending

which

writers, as

intuitive

with

distinction

any

physiology

later

; in other
in

cases

psychology

principlescommon

almost

of

associational

of
to

instincts

and

frequency

to find

so

"

is

complex,

difficult

be

theoretical

human

become

discoveries

recent

svccessive

the

like

in these

associations

be

may

speaking,

compared

association.

and

of

ideas

as

the

largely

of

of

way

show

all the

nature

common

axioms

when

to

associated, and

it would

of

more

more

concludes

author

the

forms

recent

more

result

strength

that

Indeed,

endeavored

mere

ideas

shows

phrase,

synchronous

the

feelings or

by association.
of

that

noticed

usual

and

author

to appear

like

stances
circum-

early,repeated

so

the

and

; also

the

are

sense,
the

these

to

popular

dispositions;

to the

man

formed

moral
and

of

with

in

factitious

of

doctrine
are

all,as,

to

also different.

are

so-called

respect

connection

dispositionsevidently

compound

comprehensive

happen

propositions eternally true, according

the

in

Indeed,

close

men.

objects

the nature

associations

so

of

of

phenomena

Some

'

and

when

of

man,

events

external

development.

human

strong,

so

those

associations,arising from

existence

phenomena

the

and

God,

from

receive

they

from

different

are

powers

impressions

affections

PKIESTJ.IA'.

his doctrine

the

Collins, except

and

of

will, which

associations

to

ia
that
t!x-

voluntary action.

his

treatise

Hai:i}leydiscusses

Dr.

and

ethical

theological

questions.
It is to be

noticed

from

derived

that

against

materialist,and

his

Dr.

the

Hartley

contends

materialistic

theory of

24.

Hartley's

and

successor

of

Reid's

Beattie's

Inquiry

Essay
In
In

this

1775

Association

the
which

he

labors

Dr.

Truth,

on

work
he

the

the

Human

and

Dr.

doctrine

of

Joseph

Publicist.

and

Mind

on

Oswald's
of

of

Ideas,

to

show

w4th

that

Appeal

Intuitive

or

to

was

Hartley

in

and
an

sarily
neces-

the

D., 1733-1804,

LL.

published

Examination

an

Principles of Common
to Common

Sense

Original Beliefs
the

subjects
like

in

behalf

is attacked

Mind

Human

Sense,

which

on

the
it

himself.

to the

doctrines

of

of
and

Dr.
ligion.
Reticized.
cri-

principle of
discusses, in
In

Spirit (2d edition, 1782)

appendix

accepting

he

materialist

Matter

Priestley,

1774

of the

Essays relating to

Harttey

Philosophical Necessity, being

Priestley followed

In
the

published Hartley's Theory

Disquisitions relating

published
Doctrin-e

into

supposed

were

to be

Priestley.

disciple was

Theologian, Philosopher, Physicist

Dr.

which

vibrations.

Joseph

"

considered

earnestly against being

conclusions

1777

; also

he
the

Disquisitions.
Vibrations, the Associa-

390

AND

TUOKEK

PALEY.
/

idea

""

is

contraction

immediate

of

consequence

is,it

that

when

caumtion

Ideas

in nature

highly
there

fibrous

larger

ideas

ideas

received

in which

of

bodies,

call

differ

that

identity is known

act

by

He

27.

We

and

of

and

The

Tucker

Human

irritation

given

as

ideas.

differ

Ideas

in

this,

memory

If

of

If

or

spond.
corre-

the

re-excite

we

in

those
excite

we

by
excite

we

differ

they
*'

when

which

abstracted

figure,solidity,etc.,of

the

of

existence."

our

and

of ideas

trains

catenated

or

which

re-excite

we

conscious

or

succeeded

and

by

in which

ideas

consciousness

is

our

"Our
muscular

the

of

school
of

"I

influential
have

they

Reid

often

the

1763

work
"

than

found

in
with

with

the

under

in

the

his

edge
Free-will, Foreknowl-

Himself;
of

author

after

America.

and

England
''

the

nym),
pseudo-

(a

published

Self," etc., etc., by

or

abridged by

was

in

of

Quest

Search

were

title of

the

also, "Man

Mind,

parts

Hartley,

College, Oxford.

Merton

6-9

republished

been

same,

and

of

school

Edward

Pursued," by

"An

Defence

or,

Cuthbert

Comment,
Essay

the

on

(William Hazlitt), 1807.

of

make
with

But

association.

of

this
that

reasoning, have
philosophers

in this writer

Associationalists

the

and

Hartley

more

he
In

singlelaw.
of

and
practical il'ustrations,

closeness

irritation.,

Paley.

Tucker, 1705-1774, of

Human

phenomena

with

and

the

to the
which

of action

modes

William

and

Nature

has
of

with

application

less

work

connected

gives

different

four

has

published 1768,

Action

wide

they

manner

constitute

judgment."

are

habits

Light of

Fragment,"

of

Principles of

him

in

perception ; consequently,

sensorium

the

notice, in connection

were

entire

Individuality
The
whole
Gent., 1763.

but

other

than

abstract

are

received

by

the

We

sensorium

to

published excerpts
Fate,

he

"

parts 1-5

the

method

"

Tucker

omit

by the

which

author

which

preceded

pains, etc.,

acquired

like

imagination

were

distinguishing.

and

In

complex

more

and

it is called

writings of Abraham

known

death, 1778.

of

each

association.

not

may

the

is best

The

'

aaao-

imagination.

re-excite

comparing."
the

are

from

operation of

these

Abraham

name

When

is termed

connection

alone.

complex

memory

they

are

difference

of

that

derived

which

spiritor principle of animation

smA
sensation.,
volition,

"

of

it is called

our

sure
plea-

or

"

motions.
The

the

are

constitute

ideas,and

it is called

pain
is termed

connection
the

in

that

variously applied.

never

less

are

Ideas

is that

Reasoning

of

that

which

principal pleasures

our

and

'

they

they correspond
ideas

'

the

motions

"

those

ideas

in

order

ideas

determine

we

All

order

those

tribes

If

the

other

are

pain.

many

ideas

in

in any

Perceptions
or

ideaa ; those

of reflection.

recalled

idea, and

the

sense

action*

reciprocally introduce

companies

or

companies

simple.

are

ideas

no

in tribes

smaller

or

of

catenation.^''

us

compounded

are

that

or

by

that

the

sensorial

constitute

organ

to

is

contractions

motions

sensorial

and

or

Association

succeed

of the

attention

our

of sense,

organ

fibrous

contractions

and

objects

fibres,which

the

the action

includes

it."

other

it is termed

abstracted

pleasure

of the

when

in

are

motion

succeed

received

excited

external

accompanies

or

fibrous

are

configurationof

or

Perception

of

traces

progressive

two

the

succeeds

ciatioii ;

*'

impact

contractions

fibrous

are

the
both

expresses

motion

or

of sense,"

organ

his

than

of

want
him

his

would

original thinking

agrees

in

exactness

and

writ

the

follow

diffuseness

popular

merits

not

fact, he

His

Hartley,

made

does

by

of

prominence
them

style and
and

statement
with

the

perabundance
su-

of

masses,

justify. Paley
observations

in the

nearly

more

says

upon

of

the

WILLIAM

others

this

as

kind

sympathized
He
of

it

the

as

attention

ultimate

by the

William

Carlisle, 1780;

to

the

which

teaches
the

of

Moral

and

the

"

necessity of

Oeneral
the

emotion,

But

Although
not

escape

Vol.

etc.
,

in

1829.
the

he

in

will

obliged

God

utile

the

Philosophy,
has

Paley's Theory

for

the

rules

careful

is

are

instincts
Pleasures
than

of

and

God

to

keep

the

differ

only

continuance

"Virtue
of

he

is

of

another."

private

answers,

action,

immediate

guishes
distin-

enforces

and

the

everlasting

discussing utility he
of

the

in

aake

"

without

authority.

no

command

word
In

consequences
for

have

the

my

rule.

judgments
for

another.

from

Land,

the

circumstances.

alone

the

required

of

moral

no

"the

as

science

Law

to

for

by Alex.

Notes

accounted

be

Preb.

death; published

the

bend

quality

stands

his

of

Jeremy

half

the
the

consequences,

1789.

by

etc., etc.,
with

many

the

divine

disinterested

any

and

intention

Moral

Pearson,

Remarks

99,

Latham
; and

Francis
and

many

Wainwright,
by

most

divergencies

from

in

Powers.
on

Dymond's
Adam

morals,

on

Stewart

Dugald

1834.

Sermon

1830

for

and

Infidelity.

Rev.

nor

text-book

Conf

Active

Cambridge,

Dwight,

Bentham,

the

Dissertation, 1832.

of

Morals,"

the

century

Edward

Modern

on

T.

indicating

protests.
of

action,

systematic.

and

earnest

Prelim.

defended

instinct

an

for

and

voluntary

rigid

Philosophy

University

been

as

but

was

Sermon

1836.

and

will

Philosophy,

Hall,

of

the

general

The

treatise

Mackintosh,

Paley

school

posite
op-

edged
acknowl-

philosophy

Such

could

motive, resulting

of

and

moral

pain.

higher

am

will

anything

in

hand,

later

is

criticism

of

all

over

violent

WTiy

it."

there

uniformity

itself,but

to

recognizes pity

frequent

Studies

the

accepted

an

deserve

and

moral

Honor,

because

sense

with

is not

' '

the

II. ; and

Moral

Dr.

is

of

of

Law

pleasure
one

defines

reasons

the

such

obedience

provide

Paley's

1800.

by

long

to

till

Dissert,

; with

He

the

viz.

were,

ideas

Rules.

Paley

Robert

school,

were

so

and
ent
pres-

stances.
circum-

Fellow, 17GG;

outh, 1795

arm

1785

1859.

moral

no

particular

Principles of Moral

Morals,

the

remote.

not

though

duty.

our

kind;

the

does

of

long

was
as

jects
sub-

on

universities

so

learning, and

We

Bishop

Moreover,

of

motive,

Jwnestum

Paley

may

tastes

was

Christ's, Camb.

at

duty and

sense.

question,

between

for

is

Obligation

is the

of

Whately,

bring

in

the

to

answer

happiness

sway

associational

his

and

all

justify

thinking

sentiments

political science,

Philosophy,

if there

and

mankind

to

hapjjiness."
In

There

excess

intensity, not

doing good

1763

Rector

their

men

would

is

of

quarter

the

Philosophy

of

and

of

analysis,

years,

English
first

in

undisputed

style

moral

the

explain

schools

ethical

grad.

Richd.

moral

Instinct

Happiness

adherent

Political

and

ordinary standards,

uniform^

theory

in

Political

by

Scriptures.
are

the

and

Annot.

which

an

to

higher

authority

Archd.,1782;

supplement

and

and

form

last

philosophical

Moral

1743-1805;

Paley,

Bain, 1853;

the

the

than

say

historian.

Principles of Moral

science

his

Universities

in the

and

especially

to

nearly 50

the

of

not

almost

the

for

of

tendency
for

with

England

the

in

not

other,

any

representatives of

quarter

was

the

But

metaphysical.

text-book

last

eminent

not

was

in

in

i, and

Englis'ame

Paley

with

best

in

coupled

Philosophy
the

the

during

Although

century.
he

of

one

than

hand
when

remark,
Moral

among

English Church

in

taken

This

by Paley's

Tucker

taking
of

the

held

was

in

lie has

together."

put

which
us

that

subjects

several

391

PALET.

Wayland,
others.
in

of the

"

did

Elements,
Gisbcrne,

the

Essays

Sedgwick,

it

Theory
on

Morality,

Discourse
Elements
On

of

the

Vindication

Utilitarians

special doctrines.

on

of
other

of
of the

CHAPTER
Hutciieson

Francis

The

v."
Adam

Oswald.

" 27.

Scottish

The

"

William

Sir

Civis, with

James

Beattie.

of

edition

an

in

University of Glasgow,

the

at

of

Ilutcheson.

of
He

Puifendorf, de Officio Hominis

Hutcheson, 1694-1747, born

educated

James

Reid.

before

lirst well-known

The

comments

is Francis

and

Glasgow, immediately

in

1720

about

published

Thomas

Smith,

Metaphysics began, in the judgment

Gerschom
Carmichael, Professor

with

Hamilton,*

Philosophy

Moral

of

School

School.

Scottish

of

writer
the

north

school

Ireland

of

licentiate of

this

et

and

and
divinity,

In 1729
elected
he was
popular teacher in Dublin.
Professor
of Moral
Philosophy in the University of Glasgow. His
An
works
ideas of Beauty,
are:
Inquiry into the originalof our
An
Lond., 1725.
Essay on the Passions and Affections, Lond., 1728.
System of Moral Philosophy,
Metaphysicae Synopsis,etc., etc., 1742.
a

years

many

Life, etc., Glasgow, 1755.

with

is best

Hutcheson

designated
in
who

As
the

bodily

mind

called

with

furnished

the

by

tions, causes,
the

Sense

of

ideas
to
are

agreeable

approved
The

by

that

quae

same

omnia

is

"

of

idea

of

soul,

those

quality,

contrary

hended
appre-

from

actor

are

the

quality

some

the

from

unconcerned

persons

arise

object,

moral

sense

as

in which

his

in

suppose

virtuous

Hamilton's

dissent

to

the

Locke,

habitudinis

Reid,

p.

or

loss

or

tical
pracor

agreeable
dis-

redound
which

actions
which

are

actions.
so-cailed

Reid,

and

used

the

etc.

Vide

Met.

inter

to

nobler

us

to

actions

the

of

quce

30.

give

of the

all the

with

Inquiry,

addition

amiable

benevolent

precursor

it in his

of T.

In
to

receive

advantage

e.

called

principles, proper

and

characteristic

or

from

aut

Life

of

Hutcheson

connect

suggerunt^ rationis

minds

our

objects

ideas, knowledge,

disinterestedly

are

employs

our

intention, i.

considered

in his

actions

innate

opinion

any

quality

is benevolent

being

Reid

of

of

idea
called

also

are

directly imparted.

any

"determination
to

is

furnish

that

presuppose

of perception

knowledge

any

but

for

properly

are

they

because

to direct

sense

not

which

Reid

from

capacity

These

Harmony.

powers

and

perceptions,"
is

there

so

superior

universal

doctrines

justify

perspecta

The

sense

anticipated

import

of

toward

even

senses,

the

does

only

called

not

of

sense

moral

moral

which
he

we

them.

to the

the

actor,

secondary

actions,antecedent

metaphysical

school, and

in the

but

from

ourselves

does

have

moral

of

idea

an

love

distinctions

moral

special capacity

evil,our

each,

to

These

usefulness

Society,

proposition,

that

appropriate ''sensitive

idea

and

senses.

pleasure

the

This

pleasures.

and

Moral

the

proper

for the

external

or

''

towards

their

us

reflex

also

the

because

senses,

of
denotes

goodness

action."

ideas

another

and

senses,

give

simple

and

Beauty,

internal

doctrine

"

senses

the

of the

approbation

dislike

Virtue, 1772.

on

consequence

Moral

the

by

the

as

procures

and

aversion

tendency.

the

or

sense.

which

advantage

no

excites

its natural

means

"

moral

actions

receive

which

the

as

by his assertion

known

directly by

apprehended

Letters

res

the

are

term

Scottish
stance
circum-

suggestion

Syn. P.

I.

c.

1,

notiointercedit^

ADAM

His

vrm.

Essay

of Reid.

that

with

the

rest

on

and

the

we

is re;ison,

and

not

the

of Moral

Sense, Sec.

acknowledged
Sir W.

Dr.

by

sensation,"

4.

Price.
WorK:s

Hamilton,

of these

merit

Review,

ch.

sensible

' '

But

Reid, p. 124, n.

since

it also

These

the

sensations

Vide

also

latter

therefore

of

Essay

for distinction

imagines

originalityof

1.

ed.

panied
accom-

that

it

ideas^or primary qualities.''''

relative

56,

p.

is

as

is

Extension, figure, motion

none

concomitant

and

idea,

senses."
"

decided

as

sensation

accompanying

i. " 3.

c.

etc.

these

The

of

I.

is

Every
''

either

Phil.,B.

discovers

ideas

Mor,

which

is not

called

of

of

12.

"

c.

ideas

our

reflection."

or

sensations

ideas

sense,

origin of

duration

yet

properly

more

I.,note.

Sec.

and

consciousness

to be

call concomitant

may

also

duration,

than

touch,

Passions,

lUus.

of

of the

account

Origin, etc.,etc., II.

the

of internal

therefore

seem

sight

Locke's

on

idea

ideas

accompanies
or

from

dissent

393

SMITH.

Phil.

Hutcheson

are

Essays I. ch. III.

Royer Collard,CEuvres

de

Reid,

Cf.
Tom.

ill.p. 430.
Hutcheson
P. I.
or

of

senses

term, though

that

is menti

his

not

P. II.

c.

of Locke

in his doctrines

i.

as

well

as
,

Moral

and

in that

not

qualities.

He

rejected by Locke,
of

grounds

on

of axioms.

in his doctrine

contends
certain

that

ideas

experience, but

by

of the

in

Met.

secondary
holds

innate,and

are

independent

an

of

sense

proper

power,

congenitainteUigendima.

Adam

28.

independence

; Met.

Beauty

them

accept

we

which

shows

iii. of Consciousness

c.

reflex

the

also

Smith, 1723-1790, was

born

Kirkaldy,Scotland ;
at the Universityof Glasgow, 17.^7-40,and at
Iklliol College,
Professor of
Oxford, 1740-1747." Lecturer at Edinburgh, 1748-57.
Logic in the Universityof Glasgow, 1751-2, and Professor of Moral
Travelled
the continent,1764-1766.
posed
Comon
Philosophy,1752-1763.
"
his
Wealth
of Nations
at Kirkaldy, 1766-78.
Kesided
at
Commissioner
1776-78.
of
Customs
at Edinburgh,1776-1790.
London,
In 1787, Rector of the Universityof Glasgow.
at

studied

"

Adam

and

Smith

is best

corrections

corrections, 1784, and

of Moral
and

affluence

the

by

elaborate

diction.

David
with

particulars
"

had

also
"

reason

in
a

that

in

this

properly

pleasing
in which

this

or

and
the

an

of Smith

man

is

experiences

affirmed

of

the

is

voluntary element.

with

that

virtue
the

which

us

the

He

ment
senti-

assign

to

the doctrine

Hume

had
and
even

sentiments

to approve

many

and

not

earnestness

and

agreed
so

others.

reason

did

vice, merit

of

had

for

of

w^ho

understanding,
leads

of its somewhat

Morals,

actions.
and

Philosophy,

of Hume.

regard

great

and

Theory

phenomena,

affiliates in

functions

personal qualities, as
That

he

of virtuous

operations of
or

whom

the

emphasized

spirit of paradox,

theory

Hutcheson,

upon

characteristic

displeasing corporeal

there

He

elegance

disinterested

between

advance

important

The

ethical

Principles of
with

additions

to Ethical

the

of the

Additions

America.

its analyses of

the

Hobbes,

and

contribution

offshoot

an

capable of

special office.

the

is

concerning

differing from

fundamental

in

in

with

edition,

England

important

ingenuity

Enquiry

that

Third
in

1776.

Nations," Lond.,

interesting illustrations,and

in ethical

making

distinct

its

his

discriminated

his most

theory

holding

utility is

as

in

"

insisted,almost
are

in

Hume,

Hutcheson

of

of

editions, 1784.

consummate

The

Wealth

subsequent editions

1 792, was

by

"

by his

second

many

Sentiments,

is characterized

and

known

to first and

or

also

demerit,
of
or

any
acts

disapprove

394

ADAM

excellences

moral

The

doctrine

elaborate

an

Propriety,

The

theory.
ethical

into

resolved

and

Sympathy

the

in

parts of
with

sympathize

to

man

with

expanded
the

to

and

the

definition

The

of

sense

Disapprobation,are

the

Essay,

the

real

All

these

are

supposed

or

feelings of another,

the

into

especially to

than

science.

of Approbation

first three

sympathize

To

of moral

material

sense

in the

is devoted

subjective, rather

are

the

are

accepted by Smith,

was

principle, and

Sentiments

which

and

discussion

fellow-men.

of his

timeuts

Moral

of

which

Demerit,

of

suggested,

all-comprehensive

Theory

original capacity

an

Enquiry^

the

in

had

Hume

and

experiences

and

topics

prominent

REID.

Benevolence

calls

which

sympathy,

of Merit

THOMAS

Nature.

objective conceptions

the

the

he

fundamental

of those

analyses
of

of

established

then

defects

of Human

Treatm

in the

and

AND

SMITH

sen-,

in the

view
,

thize
to

to be

judge

we

the

between

there

is

those

who

demerit

and

benefited,

are

made

being
indirect

and

endeavor

and
no

originate

more

than

could

he

morality
law

are

of

opinion

Other

motives

benefited
to the

when

the

promote

from

this
It

to

originate

actions
of

unlike

need

i.

His

theory

the

principle which

be

added
in

e.

in

the

that

of

of

those

the

of

aid

our

of

and

moral

behavior,

own

in us."

Man
in

The

could

society,
of

rules

opinions of society.

supposed

law

of

supposed approbation

mirror.

pound,
com-

agent,

duty, except

of

these

the

is

sentiments

spectators of

law

the

by,

in

come

and

right

four

wrong,

the

or

Smith

or

assumptions
of

the

in

entire

to

the
a

any

has

conduct

of

act

been

and,

of

which

behavior

to derive

appear

able
agree-

last

all,

tends
a

beauty

machine."

well-contrived

Hume

in

ance
attaching great import-

operation

of

association

with

agrees

force
en-

acter
char-

of any

approve

generally

society,they

ascribe

we

his

system

and

modify

: first,we
sympathize
gratitude of those who have

that

sympathies
of

we

to

sources

the

observe

two

individual

When

into

forming parts of

which

subsequently
"

from
enter

impliedly recognizing

is formative

with

sentiment

light produce

the

sympathy.

these
as

that

in its fundamental

with

the

in this

derived

are

by which

happiness

custom,

secondary

agent ; secondly^

such

and

gratitude

The

Our

recipient.

philosophical

actions; thirdly^we

utilitynot

hardly

the

his

consider

we

affections

affections

sentiments

sympathy

our

we

rules

the

is sometimes

Essay, B. II.,c. xxviii., " 10.

sentiments

general

have

benevolent

these

supposed

the

without

of the

by

the

constituted

calls

are

which

sentiments

the

been

which

feel

'

feelings

our

sympathy

injured.

are

with

it would

and

Locke

or

the

In

the

ourselves

face

own

reputation.

or

action, our

or

with

his

This

who

with
who

conception of

the

from,

what

elements

the

to

with

coincide

They

of

derived

oil

suppose

effect

apply

nor

judge

all

We

what

imagine

to

'

'

general.

of

gratitude

disapprobation depend

fellow-men

our

sympathy

the

those

sympathy

our

direct

with

in

with

elevate

feliow-men, we

our

sublime.

entirely sympa-

we

affections.

of those

by

conflict.

resentment

of

up

sympathy

approbation
of

the

these

from

arise

and

entertained

which

sympathy

our

which

with

alternately lower

morally

actions

objectives of

the

are

Merit

an

motive, in

double

actions

must

we

the

and

of

those

to be

suppose

classes

two

As

proper.

we

morally beautiful

of the

divided

approve

which

All

them.

morally

of those

tone

feeling

who

is to

Smith,

of Adam

certain

sense

of

structure

brings

him

moral

our

as

supreme.
to this

back

judgments

as

and

emotions.

"

29. Thomas
; Student

Aberdeen,

Reid, D.D.,1710-1796,
and

in 1737

was

native

subsequently Librarian of
Pastor of IS'ew Macliar,1752

of

Scotland
Straclian,

Marischal
; Professor

College,
of

King's

THOMAS

395

REID.

Aberdeen,in 1763; Professor of Moral Philosophyin

College,
of Adam
of Glasgow,as successor
Smith,from which
University

the
he

retired in 1787.
Dr. Eeid

aroused to philosophical
Kant
as
effectually
activity,
somewhat
of Berkeleyand Hume.
was
later,
by the speculations
and carried to their logical
tic
Both had assumed
conclusions the scholasof
doctrine of Representative
or
Perception,
by means
perception
far as it was
intermediate ideas,
so
sanctioned by Locke,and Locke's
detinition of Knowledge, as the agreement of two ideas with one
idea with its object.
or an
another,
Berkeleyhad shown that these assumptionsinvolved the reduction
of matter

was

to

the

and
ideas,

in
existing
permanently
Ilume

the finitemind.
self is no
seriesof

than

more

the divine

had

had

as

bundle

impressions.
reducingmatter

Besides

Hume

universe of matter

mind, and

to a universe

of

ideas,
discerned by
occasionally

concluded
that the mind
logically
and its phenomena are but
ideas,

of

to sensations and

resolved the connections

between

mind

or

both into

ita

to ideas,
spirit
custom

or

jective
sub-

by association.
experience.Custom he had explained
He
had also formallycalled in questionthe uawersalityof the
and
relation of causation by making it dependentsolely
on
experience,
habits of

its necessity
d lyriori.
lie had challenged
the customary
impliedly
methods of reasoning
to the existence and attributes of God
from the evidences of designin the universe.
He had also formally
the trustworthiness of all philosophical
called in question
speculations
as the
whatever,by arguments in support of philosophical
skepticism
could accept. Singularly
which reason
onlypossible
position
enough,
he had used positive
the
trustworthiness
of the
against
arguments
Christian miracles and the credibility
of the Christian history,
which

had denied

founded on the very doctrine of causation which he had resolved

were
into customary associations,
and on the experience
which his philosophical
would
skepticism

lieid

was

compel him to distrust.

first aroused by these apparently
conclusions
legitimate

from the received

from which

to
philosophy

derived.

reconsider the fundamental

principles

they
and inferences of Berkeleyand
Againstthe specialprinciples
the pronouncedskepticism
of Hume, he protested
Hume, and against
in the name
of Common
Sense.
Many of the arguments of both he
to a criticalrevision.
His conception
of common-sense
subjected

were

396

KEID.

THOMAS

conceived, and his criticisms were

inconsistently
Common-sense
and varied success.
appliedwith unequal acuteness
of knowledge
and appealedto as the power
time conceived
at one
was
of ordinarydevelopment
and employed by a man
it is possessed
in o;eneral,
as
treated as the Faculty
and opportunities. At another it was
the Liijhtof Nature^ etc.,etc.
of Principles,
the Source
of Reason
or
and

indefinite

was

"

Perception was
and

world

at

its

relations,on

was

resolved

another

it

this

language

the

matter

the

as

the power
the external
to know
of the bodilysenses
of some
; at

as

occasion

capacity to suggest (followingin

Ilutcheson)an existingworld of
Reid's analyof these sensations.
sis

the

into

Berkeley and

of

of

cause

defined

time

one

some

all

or

of the processes of sensation is,however, sometimes

very acute, and
Mind -is a valuable contribution to this
his Enquiry into the Human
vexed

much

and

of

theories

modern

and

ancient

of the

contradictions

consiste
ingroundlessness,

the

exposed
successfully

He

subject.

is active in
perception. He C(jntended that the mind
representative
is an act of judgment.
sense-perceptionthat every act of sense-perception
In his later writings,
he attempted a more
statement
accurate
its
in
of common
of the nature
functions
philosophical
sense, and
lation,
specu"

Biiffier in his Premieres

as

not

had

him, and

before

done

for
sense
a capacity
philosophers making common
dations
originaland intuitive judgments which may be used as the founof deductive
reasoning. These firstprincipleshe divided into

few other

Yerites

certain

"

contingent and necessary truths. He cited twelve

and divided the latter into grammatical,logical,
examples of the first,
mathematical, sesthetical,
ethical, and metaphysical. Of the last
the

classes of

two

he

three

made

He

the

"

that

also asserted

freedom

the

of the individual
1748

In

he

published

Common

Sense.

The
Prof.

Essays

the

on

Powers, separately,
*

This

treatise

origin

of

our

primary

our

unjust

of

8vo.

Powers

Essay

was

translated

Beattie

insinuations

and

as

has

Inquiry
;

and

1850.) 1853,

into

To

English

; with
which

1818, ed.
8vo

ed.

and

been

8vo

published
into

Enquiry

an

is

to Lord

Mind,

prefixed,

the

1865, Lond.,
Essays

8vo

Sketches

other

1821,

of the

the

of Moral

plagiarism,

of

Powers
;

; 1853,

8vo

1813, 8vo.
Essays

Intellectual

on

of
In

papers.

Active

the

on

and

title, "

Man

on

Man.

17fi9,8vo;
8vo.

Lond.

by

Active

the

Active

First

1785,

(Abridged

Powers,
and

Truths
relative

Philosophers
concealment

ematics
math-

of

principles of

the

on

Kames'

and

cr., 8vo.

1781, under

sentiments

detection

Hutcheson

published, Lond., 176;3,8vo

; 1819, ed.

in

by

Mind

Human

1788, 4to, Essays

in

and

Man,

application

the

Appendix

an

Matter

Quantity, etc., Lond.,1843, 8vo.

on

things.

Logic,

The

into

sponsibility
re-

intuition.

by

the

combated

Inquiry

the consequent

published separately, 1827, Lond., 8vo

were

Mass.,

with

Reid,
these

Powers

he
an

concerning

1804, Glasgow, 1817, 8vo

Intellectual

of

in which

Aristotle's

3 vols.

opinions explained

notions

of Doctors

How

1790,

Cambridge,

J. Walker,

the

Intellectual

ed.

of

discerned

are

published

Priestley's Opinions

Dublin,

; 1801

8vo

1T85, 4th ed.

the

on

in

together

two

8vo, he

causation,and design.

of the will and

soul

Quantity,

on

Analysis

an

of

Ed.n., 4to, Essays

The

1773,

In

Examination

also, an

Essay

an

1763, Lond.

In

to morals.

of

principleof inherence,

to

tude
ingrati-

and

Oswald."
of the

translator

are,

may

be learned

from

Hamilton's

Works

of

Reid,

pp.

778-9.

398
of

THOMAS

the

body from

suggested by
of the

most

to

the head

suggestion^under

in

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the

color

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vision

the

proceeds
kinds

of

of

worthy

necessity

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notice

to the

that

inductive
In

brief

original

to

to

similar

the

second

between
in

here

being

and

confidence

viz.

testimony of

the

Dr. Reid

account

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be

and

of

service

at the

editii

of the

substance
in them

time

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sources

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inherence

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as

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subjected

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ilton,
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1785,

twenty

definitions

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brieflystated

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of substance

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identity

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author

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operations

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Abstraction
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Chapter VII.

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realityof

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men,

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Lord

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to

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to

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relation

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chapter XVI., asserting that

soul,

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of the

the

sensations

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criticism

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substance,

axioms

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brain

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399

KEID.

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chapter

equivocal
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400

Abstraction,Reid treats firstof General Words, in

extension and comprehension and the relation of the

Of

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natural

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word,

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Berkeley

operates, is

it

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first

things

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and

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is of

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3.

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represents
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nature

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except

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the

Realists,Reid

the Nominalists,
Essay VI., Reid's doctrine is summed
distinct from
simple apprehension.
specifically

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Hume,

real

no

by

Of

nature.

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discussed

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of

notices

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universals

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and

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formed

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of

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simple by blending

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one

general conceptions

the

that

observes

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words,

contrasted.

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that
general conceptions, and shows
and
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species of things.

discusses

next

In

REID.

THOMAS

probability,

probably

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metaphysical

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perceive belong

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chapter

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401

KEID.

THOMAS

of the

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Essay IV.
and

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demonstrative,
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to those

second,

of Reason
of

act
causes

are

is

Hume

the

reasoning

power.

and

effects

derived

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from

custom,

Taste, Essay Vltl. Reid's

doctrine

internal

The

capacity

and

beauty.

34.

The

Power

in

Locke

we

in

has

power
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our

consists

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and

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animal

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novelty,

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gran-

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act

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and

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voluntary.

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be

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manent.
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testimony,

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three

are

in their
:

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affections,
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grateful,the pitiful,the respectful, the

the

domestic,

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social

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object

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Resolution

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of

power.

Nothing

We

contends

and

concern

and

is not

criticizingLocke's

After

appropriate

from

within

an

than

the

commence

like

power,

power

Power

it,Reid

powers

is

It must

object.

in

The
will

not

reasonings

our

length.

at

of Man

Powers

denies.

understanding

of nature.
The

Hume

it inheres.

belief

of

that

with

sensibilityare

illustrated

conception of

contrary.

no

our

this

are

Active

assert

and

which

the

on

The

may

contends

subject
and

Essays

of the

one

displeased, coupled

or

affect

of these

Each

general.

defined, but

be

pleased

to be

qualitiesin objects which

"

are

are

trust
skeptical dis-

of the sensitive

acts

the

and

which

principles is

that

asserting

is that, like

an

in

and

The

belief in first

the

error

truths

are

of oiir nature.

cogitative part
Of

is in

there

of demonstration.

but

Reasoning,

to

probable

probable,

are

morality

in

as

morality capable

only apply

can

far

which

truths

to

So

and

judgment

to

limited

being

necessary.
far

intuitive,so

or

necessary

first

is allied

which

Reasoning,

become

malevolent

there
affections,

passions when

subjective tendency

to

the

are

excessively excited.

excitement

of certain

of

principles.

The

regard

Rational
for

grounded
26

on

our

the

Principles of action
good

upon

the

possession of

an

are

whole,

such
and

original power

as

imply judgment.

regard
of

the

to

duty.

There

The

mind, which,

are

last of
wa

call

two
these

the

is

Moral

402

EEID

Faculty, by which

attendant

Conscience

intended
; it is

man

libertyof

The

is used

law

3,

opposed

as

in

used

more

material

and

of

The

of

best

another

gratitude,

to

the

S.

Beattie.

liberty.

obligation from
every

man
are

power,

when

applied

prefer

to

both

to

External

These
well

as

Associated

much

positions

of

ought
to

for
towards

class

for

to

to be

of

in

which

praise

or

ought

to

follow

the

act

towards

to

submission
should

tuitions
in-

God

to

secondary

be

yield to compassion

An

Moral

different

against temptation.

and

act

moral

deserving

Justice

the

not

the

things

We

acts.

should

are

God

On

That

object

should

morally good.
and

of

contingent

some

ought

of mercy.

Hume.

against

are

"

We

generosity

beneficence

morally good

the

We

such

no

God.

punishment.
be

good.

are, unmerited

Unmerited

for

son
rea-

event

an

has

of

first are,

Veneration

us.

Man

B, to the

performing

only.

that

of sin.

general.
and

choice

urged. A,

foreknowledge

The

fact

sufficient

imply
C.

fortifyourselves
less

be

author

cannot

himself

by the agent
as

in

blame

of piety to works

acts

believed

be

virtues.

greater

justice.

to

the

of

as

must

impossible

virtue

it is

foreknowledge

reason

is made

well

as

We

act

third

the

that

for the
The

(3)

deliberate

Liberty

the

proved that

arguments

the

to

man.

But

is necessary

is bom

him

Of

this

praise, others

What

man

wish

all.

must

The

and

to

be

can

freely.

it would

hurtful

to

comparison

naturally approved

as

relate,A,

duty.

to

No

and

arrangements.

P.

God

our

ought

we

miserable.

approbation

necessity

the

to

to learn

obligatory on

to

of

neither.

should

we

for

approbation

nature.

are

to

It supposes

moral

active

The
act

we

because

granted

it is not

Morals

it

Against

foreseen.

but

culpable for omitting

are,

as

judgment

scheme

C,

means

of

man,

that

is essential

(3)

be

necessity.

deserves
are

second

It would

be

merit

Men

the

B.

It should

virtue.

involuntary

blame.

peculiar

because
and

unless

motives,

convinced

; and

event

every

Principles of

conduct

human

is

power.

of

2,

ambiguously

impossible, because, (1) there

is

for

of

(3) Liberty

action

the

upon

first

br inches

used

deliberatelychosen.

human

impossible

hand,

The

it.

are

cause.

every

involve

is

events

body

particular determination.

naturally

is

and

because

not

the

First

of the will.

effect,action

are

influence

to

are

determination

without

liberty,

other

We

plans that

existence

every

occur

does

compels

(1)

are

of

liberty of

may

cause

It

of such

is conceivable

and

hence

and

proved by the

responsibility implies

for

are

meaning,

one

o:^motives

execution

that

use

possesses

Liberty

of moral
and

words

want

of
This

defined.

as

The

than

is not

existence

the

necessity

to

Necessity

is the

the

approbation and

intellectual

an

determinations

1, of confinement

senses:

discern

moral

spiritualagents.

Necessity
fact

or

and

the

over

Reason.

it.

that he

knows

is

in three

and

wrong,

feelings of

active

an

power

the

maturity by gradual growth.

into

agent is

moral

rigfht and
are

; it is both

guide

SCHOOL.

as

which

upon
comes

judgment
2^'""ttcti(yal

some

Liberty

as

niS

distingnish actions

we

Principles of Morals,

disapprobation.

AND

approbation

its obligations

and

results

artificial

of
is

of

act

an

feeling.

with

writings
attention

Reid's

and

name

of

both

as

against

influence
rather

popular

were

the

religious

and

Oswald

James

were

than

and

philosophical, but

James

they

philosophical skepticism

of

tracted
atthe

times.
James

clergyman
published

Oswald.
in
An

D.D.,

1727.

born

was

Removed

Appeal

to

to

Common

in

Dunnet,

Methven,
Sense

in

Scotland,
in

where

he

Perthshire,1750.

behalf

of

Religion

"

2d

was

established
1793.

Died

in

ed.

1768,

as

He

and

also

Professor

of

theological works.

some

James
Moral

Beattie, LL.D.,

Philosophy

and

1735-1803.

Logic.

Marisch.

1 770, published

Coll., Aberdeen,

Esaay

on

Truth,

1760,

which

was

immensely

four

popular,going through
I., and 1793, Vol.
The

Essay

Reid

Mind

the

on

1723-1791,

capacities was
in

1758,

ideas

our

and

treatises,and
Universal

and

Harris'

1751, '71, '75,1806.

works

collected

Dr.

wald's
Os-

Harris.

James

in

of

He

in

Dr.

of

he

doing

so

reflection.

and

rialism
Mate-

Priestley on

nificant.
respect sigLord

Coll.,Oxford,

the

decided

most

Queen,

dissent

published
guage
Lan-

in 1801, 2

from

expressed

editions

several

passed through
published

were

is

pressed
ex-

stood
under-

was

is in every

1778, and

Secretary

published,

it

as

sensation

with

of these

in which

Morals,

Locke,

from

Richard

in each

and

Philosophical Inquiry concerning

treatise

This

Locke.

and

Shaftesbury,Wad.

also

the

in which

Grammar,
of

; or,

Truth,

obligation, and

correspondence

Treasury,

Human

influence.

position

of Lord

nephew
the

1750, Hermes

in

axioms

fundamental

A
of

Lord

and

Difficulties

published

was

the

metaphysician,

in

sociated
as-

into

derived

are

His

Kant,

the

in

were

expressed their decided

commanding

fundamental

fails

1774."

who

Price

and

on

Lond.

writers

Richard

It

Oswald

and

Inquiry

Essay

Religion.

abilityand

the

all

and

Reid's

Dr.

theory of moral

Philosophical Necessity

Admiralty

several

the

Reid

Harris,1709-1780.

James

of the

from

time, viz., that

anticipates

and

of

English

two

intuitional

positive dissent

at that

this he

in behalf

Principal Questions

or

Science,

asperity of

some

Faculty.

Beattie

Sense, Dr. Beattie's

distinguished

of the

intellectual

his

la

man

Review

A
the

reviews

of

of

with

to say

Moral

theologian, publicist,and

was

of Moral

1790, Elements

Both

statement.

Examination

notice

to

of

defence

the

principles of Locke, viz.

the

from

dissent

"

Sense

omit

not

In

not
great spirit,

and

Common

to Common

should

Price, D. D.

of

403

SCHOOL.

five years.

with

chieflyto

Priestley's

Principles

Appeal
We

in

SCOTTISH

same.

of discrimination

accuracy
with

the

written

was

It is directed

criticism.

highest

Truth

pn

in

editions

II. of

Vol.

THE

OP

OTHERS

vols. 4to

"

1803,

5 vols. 8vo.
We

should

wholly

not

and

College, Aberdeen,
of

Science

With
who

Burnet

vols.

may
the

translated

himself

be

works

with

an

.Burnet, Lord

Holland

examination
"found

4to, which
connected

only

also

of
here

YI."
THOMAS

STEWART,

35. DuGALD

The

successor
successor

Stewart,

to

his

to

Adam

June

Prof.

Kw-ay

on

Edinburgh,

the

or

the

Philosophy,

reader.

Platonist,"1758-1835,

philosophers

painfully for

so

son

SIR

AND

BROWN,

of Rev.

Ferguson ;

in

1810

MACKINTOSH.

Stewart, Professor
November

born

of Moral

of

22, 1753

Glasgow, 1771-2

father,1785, also Professor

*

JAMES

Matthew

at

Continued,

; elected

Philosophy as

relinquishedactive

duties ;

11, 1828.

Adam
the

other

"

School,

Scottish

Mathematics, Universityof Edinburgh,

educated
of Edinburgh, also
at University

there

Metaphysics

Newton's

Isaac

Taylor,
and

Plato

Ancient

his readers.

and

DUGALD

died

Sir
and

1714-1799, King's

Monboddo,

published

Thomas

and

of Aristotle

CHAPTER

"

in

Groningen,

Universals,

Edin., 1779-99,

James

overlook

Ferguson,

History

1769.

of

History

Civil
of

1724-1816.

Professor

Society, Edinburgh,
the

Roman

Eepublic,

Moral

Philosophy

17(57" several

1783,

in

editions.

Edinburgh,
Institutes

17(i4 ;
of

Moral

Author

of An

Philosophy,

404

DTJGALD

Diigald
analysisand
but

Stewart

followed

Reid

his aceuraulation

far

him

STEWART.

closelyin

very

of the discriminated

in the

his

methods

facts of

of

experience,

of his

reach

exactness
beyond
cal
philosophiand
method.
He
illustrated his opinionsfrom a very
principles
in the eminent
wide
of
not
sense
reading, which, if it was
range
careful and comprehensive,and never
learned ^nd profound,was
failed
forth in an elaborate and elegantdiction. In his lectures he
to set them
is said to have been
eminently attractive and eloquent. These lectures
attracted
pupils from the Continent and America, and excited
many
enthusiastic interest
in philosophical
and did much
an
investigations,
to awaken
nobler ideals and a more
and ethical faith in the
spiritual
went

young
by the

influence

influence
we

of his tinie.

men

may

of

Stewart's

the
was

one

of

times, his
flnest of

Reid

reaction

elements

and

that the

Lord

would

have

Cockburn

descended

to

us

the

school

of

Cousin

largelyfurnished by
:
Dugald Stewart
"

Had

orators.

by

Jouffroy. Indeed,

and

were

in France

furthered

so-called eclectic

greatest of didactic

memory
the old

awakened

was

Prevost

influences which

philosophers. Says

the

which

Royer-Collardwas

upon

writingsupon

confidentlyassert

upon the
Scottish

rests

of

The

and

he
as

lived

that

of

in
one

ancient

of

the

quired
eloquent sages.
Flourishing in an age which reall the dignityof morals
of physithe tendencies
to counteract
cal
pursuits and political
convulsions,he has exalted the character ctf
his country and generation. No
ceased
pupil of his ever
intelligent
ing
feelto respect philosophyor
false tojbis principleswithout
was
ever
the
crime
aggravated by the recollection of the moralitywhich
Stewart
taught him."
Prof. Yeitch
Scottish philosophersMr.
"Among
says of him:
Stewart
On
stands pre-eminently out
as
a
psychologicalobserver.
be regarded
can
questions properly metaphysical he has left little which
his own.
The field within
which
he labored was
as
essentially
that of the phenomena of the mind, intellectual,
moral, and sesthetical,as these appear under the modifications imposed on them by the
of human
and
life education
general circumstances
society. In
careful, delicate,and originalobservations
within
this sphere he has
been
seldom
equalled."
Stewart's
contributions
and various,
abundant
to psychology are
the
and they give
principalcharm and value to his writings. The value
of his contributions
and
is less obvious,from
of this description
extent
frethe circumstance
that his psychologicalwritings appear
more
"

406

DUGALD

STEWABT.

clopediaBritannica,also separately,Edin. 1821, Bost. 1822; in 1828, The Philosophy of

Powers
Active and Moral
of Man, 2 vols.,8vo, Edin., Bost., 1828, 2 vols, in French,'

the

by Dr. L. Simon, 1834,

The

collected

11th

in

works

with

The

and

appeared

Baconian

the

to

service

in

is limited

to

eminent

the

and

of

only

memory

is

to

the

there

that

of the

to the

three

discusses
to

often

of

laws

Stewart
goes

recognized by Hume,

explain, by

the
of

means

mind

has

Memory
The

of association
and

second

Fundamental

Laws
or

able

and

acute

Inductive

or

conditions

as

those
The

of

both

treat

of

in

these

as

upon

but

with

differences

of common
the ambiguity
sense,
great variety of distinct processes

only by popular writers, but by

and

and

the

greater

exactness

between

several

consequent

which
most

are

of

the

ablest

infelicityof

then

He
ceeds
pro-

of wit, rhyming,
of

proves

influence

the

morality.

Reason

expressed
and

of the

and

and

The

himself

does, of

the

of
pounder
ex-

confined

not

are

Evidence,
he

the

to

practical illustration.

of statement
classes

general

Chapter V.

Hume

of taste, and

Stewart

views

its real

equivalent

discussion

indiscriminately

careful

belief of

phenomena

Dedux3tive

The

knowledge.

tains
main-

the

of

we

Stewart

nature

principal topics :

discussions

by

and
association,

fuhiess

great

tomatic
au-

that

Stewart

In

to

become

possible relation.

every
of

extended

three

ses
analy-

relations

and

associations

spite of himself, treating as

of all scientific

essential

rest

an

losophers
phialmost

the

employed

conceptionalist.

its trains

its

should

Reid, finding in
our

d with

treats

In

Logic.

Reid,

adds

and

momentary

treated

that

Belief, Reasoning

metaphysician

the

and

Elements

of Human

elements
same

are

of the

but
over

is

speculative conclusions, judgments

upon

imagination
volume

the

prevalent association,the

poetical fancy, invention,dreaming,

of habits

notices

tion
Percep-

is advanced

formation

of the

of

be

among

with

phantasy, and

or

without

beyond

of the

is stated

actions

Conception

is himself

relative

External

acquainted

doctrine

the

ideas^ and

far

but
association,

which

power

him

by

is

altogether satisfactory. Attention

power

treats

*'

doctrine

own

voluntary

time.

object

an

called

Ideas, Stewart

relations

the

at

mind

prevailed

being explained,

representative
such

schools.

of

of the

object

be

can

are

ancient

Association

one

ogy
apol-

an

inquiries must

have

to be

as

and
association,

Abstraction, Stewart

which

conceptions,
the

never

Under

existence.

of

the

accepts

possibilitythat

law

which

reader

without

experience

the

object of

he

and

of

the

being necessarily

reflective examination

umes
vol-

much

inductive

or

called

be

of

charge

treatment

His

the

these

general, from

experimental

all inductive

errors

errors.

to suppose

The

than

more

these

implies that

familiar

no

of

As

philosophy during
in

properly

of matter

yet

to

the

upon

the

the

of spirit. His

laws

seems

discussed.

are

to

designate

ideas

and

explained by

attend

the

comments

Stewart

to be

fundamental

and

philosophy

knowledge

our

works)" published
important psychological

disquisitions.

might

while
attributes,

are

explanation

which

Held,

is assumed

can

few

single page,

so-called

studying
a

vols.

Collected

psychology

It

mind.

human

that

principles which

and

processes

the

contends

to their

limited

and

of

psychological studies, from

Stewart

metaphysical.

within

of

10

another, they also furnish

one

application of

the

vindicates

phenomena

Hamilton,

most

Introduction, Vol. I., discusses

philosophical and

for

from

remote

respect to the progress

and

IV.
,

ablest metaphysical

his

extent

Stewart's

contain

somewhat

in

stand-point,

method

large

The

lifetime.

Stewart's

"

information

instructive

only

to

at intervals

vols.,1829, also 1831.

Sir Willam

by

1,2, 3 (II. III.

Vols.

Mind,

respectively in 1792, 1814, 1827"

observations,

Edin.

of the Human

Elements

memoir

and

additions

1854-58,

preparation.

works, Cambridge, Mass., in

Complete

to be

the
are

in

nicety

the
perimental
Exan

iwiorl

general

of discrimination.

so-called principles

appellation, and

huddled

philosophers,under

together,
the

the
not

designations

DUGALD

of

and

reason

the

volume

disguised

the

confidence

in

and

minute

he
forms

of

language
The

examples.

he

of the

the

upon

several

of

the faculties

g 37,

far

by

the

Darwin

defects

that the

applications made

the

logical. The

second

of
fourth

he

treats

of the

to matters

of taste

significationsof

of taste
; 4.

of
of

contains

of

The
a

of

exact,
various

and

will,with

treatises

the

defect

in the
that

matter,

is

one

and

Europe,

Part

Active

than

of the

place

with

treats

great

showing

of Berkeley and

Stewart

he

introduces

of

treats

the

from
relative

essays

[faculty or habit]

the

with

connected

the

fifth he

to be furnished
four

fluence
in-

In

in the

; and

his

actual

encyclopedists.

; 3. On

of

entirelylegitimate

Tooke

and

1816,
proper.

Mind

knowledge,

Darwin

the

first elements

follow

illustrations

that

to

natural

aesthethic

and

Ethical

and

II,,1821

treat

first

theory of
He

theology.
his

in

the

emotions

by

of

of

his

Stewart's

own.

is very

The

incomplete and

faculty

the

views

refined

more

questions

and

are

more

there

discoursing

It abounds

since

moral

are

It is characterised

rather

works.

Political Philosophy

the

because

emotions.

Stewart,

published in 1828,
follows

is

analysis

of metaphysical

of the

defending

"

Man,

greater consideration

writings

attractive

most

of

Powers

emotions, Stewart's

deserves

the

in

defining

Part

of

and

habits

topics,although

these

English language

I.,1815"

Moral

valuable

power.

treatise

The

Progress of Metaphysical,
in

and

the

philosophy

of the

Idealism

explains the

philosophical discussions

is universal

opinions of others

of whom

in

Hartley, Bentham,
I.

II. contains

principle

last

contributions
all

to

tation,
Imi-

between

and

the

were

third

sublime

intellectual

respect
the

the

; 2. On

analysis of the

closely upon
learned.

few

of the

some

his critical

and

Alison,

associative

Philosophy

very

and

and

the

in

essays

psychological

of the
Reid

Price

Burke,

"38.

These

many

certain

of

the culture

On

Part

words.

language

the

Home

supposed by

the beautiful

1. On

taste.

operation

materialism

for

argument

Part

Hume

illuminati

French

the

concrete

afterwards

to

of

origin

Hartley, Priestley and

of

theories

In

of matter.
the

upon

respect

Philosophy

the

by

philosophy

to

this essay

In

world.

lastic
scho-

with

them

1810, 4to,

equal abilityof

with

losopher
phi-

stated

in the

curious

theories

and

he

blind,

in

the

theory by Berkeley

affections

the

discusses

of

when

comparison

very

first essay,

account

material

in

for the

what

exemplified

as

of Stewart

physiological
The

of

their

of Sympathetic

; also

and

errors

vindicates

Locke's

of the

authority

Locke's

the etymological

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prevalent

Law

or

he

in

himself
of

to
not

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out

disquisitionupon

with

deaf

had

metaphysical

concern

sexes

contributions

the

treats

essay

of the mathematical

view

in

of his

existence

belief in the

the

criticises

(the elder), and

abilityof

line

of

treats

he

critical

our

born

For

character

the

animals,

investigationsproperly philosophical.

among

of

intellectual

lower

the

them

metaphysics

to

Principle

poet, and

important

most

which

among

Priestley, and

and

consists

Mitchell, a boy

Dissertation

Preliminary

the mind,

of

He

principles on
follow

illustration

Philosophical Essays, oiiginallypublished

The

1818, 8vo, are

The

James

concerning

Appendix

those

and

man

in it is not

of general culture

men

the

the

upon

of

the

he

of

preferred

Elements

varieties

metaphysician, the mathematician,

did

nor

by

and

cases,

thought,

defect

opinions.

in the

and

subtleties

He

terminology.

to

courage

of his

generalizations.
the

styled

principles to special
volume

serious

characteristically cautious

was

broad

he

little acuteness, making

no

One

made,

readily apprehended

to be

third

the

system,

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and

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its relations

general, and
and

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abstract

of his

application

which

applications.

refined

too

not

consistent

refinement

afraid

was

into

up

ramified
excessive

considered

in

them

had

with

on

philosophy.

to

Stewart

distinctions

the

to build

proposed

into

overlooked

or

all commented

are

contribution

valuable

be

these

reasoning,

407

STEWART.

in

unequal.

of

the

interesting

Dissertation

the Revival

so

by

on

the

of Letters

The

portion

408

THOMAS

of

school
is

is that

thoroughly elaborated

most

metaphysicians

chieflyinstructive

The

Lectures

of the

Smith.
Active
and

general,
of

man

His
on

deserves

follows

as

Immortality, 1814

Stewart, 1813, 4to;

1815,

8vo

Lines

of the

Laws

of Cerebral

"

Letter

Vision,

Feam,

Essay
of

the

then

with

First

the

on

cf.

Dngald

from

critical

the

The

Britain.

in 1855
the

pupils.
of

and

in

earlier

MS.

of Adam

Philosophy
in

the

fill two

They

school

in London
his

of

for

life

their

of the

original

of

of

General

Review,

and

years,
to

Feb.,

On

An

Essay

Primary

Terms,
1822

written.

be

Berkeley, Reid,

and

Vision,

1817

; First

; Rationale

of

'32.

Kirkniabreck, Scotland, 1778.

at

Medicine, Edinbnrgh. M.D.,

Stewart

philosophers in

some

remains

Faith, 1815;

Objects

1830,

born

Scottish

other

Principles

Monthly

supplements,

of

the

Consciousness, 1811, 4to;

Philosophy

Stewart

1820, 8vo,
with

Human

on

the

resident

An

Brown, M.D.,

Law,

of

and

originality, though

the

first time

text-books

as

philosophy

of

critics of Great

of his

Mind

used

and

on

and

import

tish
Scot-

the

on

Kant's

America.

particular,

Review

and

of discussion

Human

extensively
and

John

"

Essay

Mind,

Professor

in

Professor

to

Human

of

An

39. Thomas

Student

been

modes

of the

of

printed

were

of those

notes

and

topics

Britain

named

acuteness

are

; A

have

Stewart

to be

much

works

of

critic

"

the

They

the

Philosophy

in Great

forms

abridged
S.

Powers

Moral

and

P.

of the

Elements

reach

published for the

were

Hamilton.

general

in

follow

The

the

remarks

notice

philosophers

ablest

f com

His

His

valuable.

inadequately

Economy

additions

with

Leibnitz.

and

and

of the

one

by Sir William

author,

and

volumes

Political

on

Works

Collected
notes

how

appreciated by

philosophy was

Locke

on

acute

are

it shows

as

BROWN.

in Moral

1803.

ciate
Asso-

Philosophy,1810.

Died

1820.

He

as
distinguished

was

age of 18 he
of E.
the Zoonomia

At
on

an

the

author

in other

publishedan
Darwin,"

poeticalcompositions. In
public An Inquiry into the Relation

and

departments

able
at

different

life various

1804,

the

of Cause

1806.

3d,

with

additions, 1818.

After

his

or
criticism,

than
"

vations
Obser-

periodsof

Edinburgh,he
and

gave
Effect.
2d

death. Lectures

losophy
phi-

on

his
to

ed.,
the

Mind.
Philosophy of the Human
1820, 4 vols. 8vo, Edinburgh.
of the Life and Writingsof Thomas
Compare Accounts
Brown, M.D.,
David
Welch, Edinburgh, 1825.
by
Dr. Brown
and subtle analysisand
was
distinguishedfor acute
eloquentexposition. Ilis Inquiry,"etc.,was his most elaborate work,
and
is written
in an
eloquent but sober diction. His Lectures were
delivered to
publishedafter his death, in the form in which they were
his classes.
miscellaneous
and
They were
designed for a somewhat
cal
susceptibleaudience, which was ready to respond to brilliant rhetoriexhibitions.
for a luxuriant
Being composed by a writer distinguished
imagination no less than for philosophicalacuteness, it is not
surprisingthat their diction should be diffuse and ornate, and that
"

409

BROWN.

THOMAS

theyabound in original
passages of splendiddeclamation as well as
in copious
writers. The effectof these lectures
extracts from eminent
fluence
during the lifetime of their author was very decided,and the inof subsequentspeculation
of some
trines
of the docupon the course
which he set forth so impressively
has been most
manifest.
Brown retains the doctrine insisted on by Reid and Stewart,
that there
certain original
intuitions which in a system of knowledge take
are
the placeof unproved firstprinciples.
Such are the belief in causation
and
tiieirresistible
of identity"
of the self,
or soul. He
tends
confeeling
that the Scottish philosophers
extended far too widelythe number
of their first principles,
and he followed the example of Stewart,
of resolving
beliefs
into frequentand inseparable
associations many
which had been considered as original
of analysis.
and incapable
He
the doctrine of consciousness which had been accepted
rejects
by Reid
"

and

Stewart,and

followed

in this was

by Hamilton,at

least in

part. He

the
contemplates

phenomena of the soul as succes^nve

states,which he
and by introducing
this appellation
he
as
feelings,
usually
designates
set aside the distinction between
practically
knowledgeand belief on
the

one

hand, and
which

had

sensation
been

and emotion

on

The

the other.

by Berkeleyand Reid
as well
prioriaffirmation,

used

in

term

gestion,
sug-

metaphysical
special
as
meaning
ordinary
of
limits
first
in
calls
he
what he
to the last
sense
association,
simple
then
and
it
include
to
so as
stiggestion,
enlarges as relativesuggestion,
all the processes in which comparisonor judgmentis involved,
and thus
in a way of his own, for the suggestioni. e., the relative sitgprovides,
gestio7i,
of being,
self,
space, and time. But comparison and all the
forms of relative suggestion
^i\\\feelijigs
of likeness and unlikeness,
are
is acute
Brown's analysis
of the processes of sense-perception
etc.,etc.
and subtle ; and he attaches great importanceto the musmdar
se?ise,
but also for its supnot only for the special
sensations which it gives,
posed
in
of
and
the
the
relationsof
significance generation
externality of
extension. His views of the generation
of the relations
or
origination
of space by the means
of relations of time,and of externality
the
as
jointproductsof the muscular sensations and causalityi.e., of uni-

of d

in the

"

"

f(^rm succession
have been
In

"

are

not

unlike

reproducedin part by

those of the school of

John

Stuart Mill.

he agrees with Hume, that the relation

respectto causation,

itself is resolved into invariable

resolution of

Herbart,and

our

but
succession,

resists

his
entirely

belief in itsuniversal presence into customary

asso-

410

BROWN.

THOMAS

ciations,contending that the belief

first truth

of

Stewart

the

and

has

the Associational

by J. Mill, J. S. Mill,Alexander

sented

iis(!

Brown's

of

potent in the

been

Psychology rein-aHerbert
Spencer.
"

and

Bain,

liberal

more

influence

the

conclusions

and

of

consolidation

; and

power

of his methods

terminologyand
formation

associative

intuitive belief.

or

he makes

analysesof psychological
phenomena,

In his
than

is

'^an
as
philosophy is characterized by Sir J. Mackintosh
revolt
He openly disputed the
againstthe authorityof Beid."
open
merit
of Beid as to his supposed exposure
and refutation of the ideal
and importance of
theories of sense-perception
; he limited the number
the principlesof common
the sphere of
greatlyextended
sense, and
in evolvingapparentlysimple and indecomposableproducts
association,
In these particulars,
elements
from manifold
of experience and feeling.
cf. Hamilton's
his teachingsand influence differ from those of Beid
Discussions,etc., IL, Philosophy of Perception,also Edinhurgh Ile-

Brown's

"

view^ Yol. 53, No.

40.

"

The

examination

of

the

' '

as

theory

that

circumstances

similar

change."
to which

Among

the

consequent

by

of

is

an

senses

3 discusses
the

first

antecedence

is the
from

the

Mr.

Hume's

the

belief in

named,

of

next

of

as

succession

This
of

of
belief

the

our

belief

causation

events

is not

the

his

the

or

He

relation.

of

two

notices

general theory

inquires why frequent experiences

special connection

any

events

as

cause

seem

and

of

the

axiom

first

4
the

relation

arises.

To

ence
experithat

"

one

it

does

nor

which

presses
ex-

i-s devoted
relation

of

to be necessary

effect.

stances.
circum-

the

occur

Part

physical forces.

noticed.
antecedent

relation

after

reasoning,
other

connection

of these

belief

of

result

of
next

of the

only

desires

diverse

is

the

does

in

Brown

Language

of certain

that

mental.

or

nothing

latent

belief

the

of

with

bond

many

by

delusion

the

reveal

contending
two

are

in

classes

diverse.

as

presence

to fail to

reason
sufficient

of this
to

the

in which

author

the

certainty concerning

theory

impressions.

imperfect

as

power

for

two

time

followed

of

substances
the

Parts

any

prevailing

sources

speak of

we

of

name

the

that

when

conception

so

of

at

bodily

and

an

is defined

the

all

are

into

volitions,and

to the

regard

to

events

to

discussion

cause

existing

permanent

asserts

illusion,as

these

treats

circumstances,

another.

special theory
He

the

priari axiom

independent
Hume's

first

which

considering

by

into

2d

the

always, immediately

attached

been

into

and

limited

was

is divided

which

and

be

them

tempted

are

The

are

and

of

cause

has

author

the

will

edition

Effect,in

definition

Part

we

third
and

applied, whether

is,in fact,only

power

and

to resolve

The

effect.

Our

Part

Experience

to

led

increases
and

cause

proceed

is

relation.

circumstances.

event

always,
is

The

in its modified

appears

edition, 1804,

1806, entered

second,

change,

any

justifies this

qualities,although

exercise

of

been

deliberation.

metaphors

between
The

precedes

Effect

first

of Cause

Relation

appellation

upon

their
its

has

volitions

respect to this
from

applications.

its

of the

and

The

The

Hume.

latter, special importance

the

analyzing

theory

Brown
the

of Cause

in 1818.

and

immediately

similar

events

Relation

edition
of

Import

which

the

third

the

Real

the

into

in the

into

correct

1st,On

Inquiry

form

completed

103.

this

ideas

to

of
to

ground

question

THOMAS

replies that they

he

the

by effecting

Brown

with
Hume

with

and

argument

treatise

proceeds

he

answers

the

only

know

it is the
and

blessed

the

the

do

is

Hume's
in

right

He

miraculous

is

with

an

entirely

both

events,

idea

ascribing

concludes

sistent
con-

of which

of

of

phenomenon

equivalent

as

its

knows

implicitly held

is

of

which

nature

identity
truths, or
to

and

will, he

by

The
These

subtle

smell,
a

of

mental

which

several

any

to

is

external

be

to

found

sensation

nothing

further

in

only,
"

is

The

"by

that

irresistible

identity.

This

connection

After

spring from

the

intellectual

which

are

at the

neither

minds
states

commonly

externalitynor

of

our

of
he

first
votes
de-

criticising

understanding
affections

activity.

over

the

and

and

sensation, with
extension.

perience
ex-

This

in mental

16

and

termed

extended

more

utmost,

law

the
i.e.^
affections,

internal

the

of

powers

the

subject.

Lecture

dividual
in-

applied,

doctrine

the

sciousness
con-

direct

belief

considering

active

of

which

by

power

"

complex

the

of consciousness

previous English psychology.

any
or

treats

analyze

we

whatever

states

special analysis,

he

as

as

and

those

also include

call

self

this

into

one

the

our

which

to

imply

and

the

of mind

we

its

spirit

by

Stewart.

of

of

mind,

this

that

and

phenomena.

those

is

there
name

ator
Cre-

By

what

mind,

ject
ob-

the

of

distinctlyemphasized.

again subdivides

subjects

gives
but

not

and

12

yet

the

multiplied, the

observes,

Lecture

of the

Reid

intellectual

into
and

agents
he

affections
he

than

cause,

generally,

division

external

sensations

of

intuition

affections

external

power

the

against objections, and

proposes

internal

that

conviction

received, viz.,the

commonly

occasioned
The

of

In

denies

does
of

author

we

the

to

But
once

phenomena

of matter

series of states

explicitly by

the

the

phenomena

indivisible.

this

the

class

difference, in that

and

again

with

us

is

to

and

remembrance

classification

the

that

or

the

either

which

and

this

i.e.^we

"

singular paradox."

phenomena

analyze

whole

be,"

may

the

impresses

truths

itself

state

defended

is

is in

mental

only after

comes

that

any

there

Locke

by

is to

; but

states,

own

the

at

with

is extended

we

10,

Lecture

ascribe

to the

states

momentary
mind

In

business

"

this

possible, and

To

consciousness."

investigation is

mind, though simple,

tures
lecthen

in relation

but

of memory

of

mystery

mind.

relative

only

nothing

momentary

endowment

He

possible capacitiesof

know

we
our

noble

becomes

we

mind

mind

is

knowledge
and

contemplated

preliminary

to the

applicable

in intellectual

of matter.

matter

the

our
essence

several

physical inquiry.

to

are

; of the

the

the

thought

Our

of

phenomena

all

nature

our

subject.

permanent

But

devotes

psychological
he

physician,and

He

matter

Dr. Brown's

contain

was

methods

which
the

Mind

appropriate

formed

have

or

mind

phenomena

constitution

mind.

of the

possible ;

to

of the

and

solves

is

Brown

same

essence

"

us

of thought

the

of either

observer."

the

Dr.

methods

mind

individual

faculty philosophy

the

Of

Of

'

the

far

how
:

'

same

has

we

of

feelings that form

or

relation

physiology

phenomena

nothing.

states

the

on

inquire

to

question
know

with

own

is not

contends.

of causation

doctrine

of the

Philosophy

lecture-room.

consideration

the

to

more

his

separation.

belief

accepting

Reid

Dr.

possibilityof

the

Hume

as

intuitive principle.

an

that

and

the

on

in the

analyses, as given

as

to

show

to

in God

Lectures

41. The

writing

as

connection

notes,

behef

that

antecedence

invariable

this

to

in

errs

; while

this

all

is the

denies.

"

''

of

viz. , that

Reid

Dr.

that

show

to

another,

to

contends

effect

to

us

from

events

Hume

contributes

idea

one

which

enable

to

occurrence

from

separate the

to

us

occurrence,

necessary

this customary

seeks

enable

to

customary

belief,is only

belief in this necessary

the

that

transition

ready

Next, Dr.
of power,

; and

Avhich

in

way

only

necessary

of the

only explanation
But

are

circumstances

snperfiuous

411

BROWN.

tions.
emo-

sensations.

apparently
He
the

The

begins
tion
suggessame

la

412

THOMAS

of

true

muscular

not

in

against
from

itself

mind

of time

Ideal

of the

confutation

originallyheld

as

27-8

devoted

are

that

the

contends

is to be
The

and

is

the

(1) of

are

often

of

are

of

the

longer

present, (4) more

less

or

9 do.

body,

with

of

Faculties

the

such

previous
mind,

as

Objects

the

To

of successful

form
is but

the

when

these

The

subjects

To

as

same

next

intellectual

with

of

of

process

of
a

the

The

usually

feelings '^by that

states

or

the

of

they
and

exercise
he

of the

They
mind

of

and

seemingly
ence,
differ-

or

explains

judgment,

and

prefers the appellations

that

overlooks

he

setting

up

the

is

what

investigation. Reasoning

series

of relative

particulars to
generals

provide for

with

in the

coexisting

from
from

as

less

supposed

resemblance

invariable,comprehend

effects.

called
of

are

or

changes
certain

are

as

Place
which

ings
original feel-

material, and

criticises

reason

truly

as

with

which

of

ary.
second-

of

mixture, (6) variable

Nominalist

is but

and

lively,(3) more

Habit.

relation

of universal

We

the

and

are

tion
sugges-

relation

any

position,resemblance,

the

he

of

nearness

reduced

are

to

suggestion."

circumstances

from

Conceptualist, though

process

and

nine, as
less

which

The

method

occupation

internal

of its
of

Relative

feeling

the

are

the
classification,

related.

causes

nies
de-

in any

classes,primary

by objects

those

as

Imagination,

relations

the

conceded.

less pure

excited

discerned,

are

exclusive

the

class

as

system

Brown

relative

emotion, 8 do.

charges against

succession, when

relations

The

causality.
The

of

the

mutually

relations

there

or

syllogisticmethod

to others

the

all referable

are

and

Contrast,

simple suggestion

and

judgments.

are

mutual

Relations

recognize
is the

of

these

temporary

be himself

The

proof

succession

which

Of

compehension.

Relationist,and

or

of resemblance.

relation

of

with

belong

professes to

Brown

Notionist

of

which

"

holds,

respect

continuance, (2) more

possibilityof general notions,

Reasoning.

which

recent, (5) more

and

proportion, degree,
the

those

Suggestionare

both

tions.
sensa-

suj^posed

(Cf. Hamilton's

Vision,in

of two

Resemblance,

really co-existent

are

mental.

other

Reid's

ignorance

have

we

are

Conception, Memory,

as

to the

Discussions, II.) Lectures

to

usually

as

objects, when

are

habits.

feelings of Relatioe

The

successive.

of two

do.

103.

ascribed

resort

and

26, 7,"

sure
pres-

ing
object differ-

an

abandoned.

simple suggestion

simple laws.

or

muscular

with

been

of

cause

without

or

analyzed by

the

mind. Brown

to association

shorter

existence

of

apparently inseparable connection

the

of

those

laws

with

order

necessarilysuggests extension

and

of

three, viz.

original constitution, 7

with

it had

different

is

him

to those

purely subjective,did

Lectures

"

charges

simple suggestion

secondary

action

the

modify

laws

laws

into

of association.

process

equivalent

The

The

internal

perception

primary

Time.

he
that

Feelings

states
"

them.
The

the

susceptibilities

on

between

the

Intellectual

Simple suggestion
occurs

Extension

sensations

visual

explained by

Internal

generic

two

of

he limits

experiences,but
as

arm,

suggest the

considers

in which

ignorance

that

the

experiences of

analysis of the

an

world

its affections

groups

Such

stretching

external.

analysis he

system

experience

relations,but
two

to

he

tactual

critique. JiJd. Review, vol. 52, No.

of this

refutation

the extended

regarded

order.

would

successive

this

with

and

of

act

this

i.e.,as

with

be

time)
{i.e.,

in the

i.e.,to the

"

connection

In

would

these

causal

"

to the

ascribes,not

resistingobject, and

the

relations

he

conceived

be

and

of this sense,

extension.

even

different

might

effects

and

But

sense.

occur

belief of the external

of resistance

experience

The

and

of resistance

classes

of the

The

taste.

analyzing the phenomena

In

only.

the two

they

and

hearing

touch

to

BROWN.

to

suggestions,

particulars,

particulars.

all that
all the

relative

certain

of

we

usually

judgments
suggestions,

abstraction.

mind

are

peculiar vividness

the emotions.
of

These

feeling which

differ

every

one

from

the

under-

414:

characteristic

universal

is the
the

foundation

may

judge
The

of

of

name

virtue, and

that the

in all

not

tendency

the

cases

suggests that

Mackintosh

James

Sir

Spital Sermon,
Tracts

which

to

of the

to

criterion

is

happiness
which

by

inimitable

added

are

Notes"

history of ethics.

in the

critical interest

and

Metaphysical

press

of human

we

particular actions.

of

speculative

some

Hamilton.

excellence, although

its

D.D., 1747-1825, whose

the

william

era

Dr. Parr

of

Philosophers

by English

the

Samuel

Parr,

1804, 4to"
also

last

of

is

for

prepared

which

Century,

published in 1837.

were

CIIAPTER

YII.
SIR

"

HAMILTON.

WILLIAM

Sir William

43.

Glasgow
History

and

Oxford.

Called

Published

in 1856.

JAMES

FREDERICK

1821

Bar

to the

Further

Still

Hamilton, Bart.,born

Edinburgh,

in

Philosophy

Scottish

"

Modified.

I'ERRIER.

Glasgow, 1788.

at

Professor

1813.

Ed. at

of Universal

of

Died
Logic and Metaphysics,1836.
Edinburgh Review on Philosophy,viz. :

"

Essays in

Philosophy of the Unconditioned, October, 1829, vol. 50.

On
the Philosophy of Perception,October, 1830, vol. 53.
On
Logic,
On
56.
the'
Deaf
October
vol.
recent
and
Treatises,
1832,
English
Dumb, July,1835, vol. 61 ; On Idealism,Arthur Collier,April,1839,
On

the

vol.

^'^^

notes

and

been

As

Articles

appendixes,1852,

translated

2d

W.

Peisse ; also into Italian

discussions was
republished in

by

Turnbull, D.D., Kew

etc.,atta(;hed

to the

Philosophyof
In 1846

"

Thomas

York,
works

Sir William

London

his

of

of
and

St.

after

Hamilton's

Prof.

introduction

edited

York,

by
and

Pobert

the notes,

volume. The

; 3d

1853

these

ed. 1855.

Prof.
N.

been

also

on

in

Metaphysics

L.

of

and

Logic

Oxford, since
in

were

Dean

Glasgow,London,

Boston, 1859-60.
edited

for

The
viz.:
schools,
The Logic,
Bowen, Cambridge, 1861.

abridged and

Francis

and

"

1854, he began to edit the

volumes
(editionnot complete at

eleven

H.

till after his death

Mansel,
by
John Yeitch, since Professor

have

Henry

in

finished

Also,

1853.

Rev.

Edinburgh, 1859-60,
works

not

Lectures

his death

Metaphysics,
by
by

from

selection

the discussions

; New

Hamilton

critical introduction

Wight

have

essays

"

his papers,

Paul's,and

These

From

and

Diigald Stewart

death).

edited

America, with

these

with

Edinburgh Hamilton
published the works of
and supplenotes
Peid, D.D., fully collected,with abundant
mentary

part from

works

by S. Lo Gatto.

Peid, O. W.

dissertations^-edition
in

of

Many
biographicaland

1855.

of

Education, collected

ed. 1853.

French, with

into

and

Literature

on

Day, Cincinnati,

1863.

An

"

Outline

of

Sir

I
lliam's

Cf. Memoir

of Sir William

Metaphysicsin
of

Professor

Sir William

"

Logic and

Sons, 1869.

Hamilton

conspicuousfigurein

is the most
the

His

present century.

that of

of his countrymen

attention

of

Universityof Edinburghe. By John Yeitch, M.A.,

in the University of Glasgow.
Logic and Phetoric

efticient than

more

prepared by

Hamilton, Bart.,Professor

EnglishPhilosophy within

been

students,was

the

Blackwood

William

of

for

Philosophy: a text-book
Clark Murray, Boston, 1870.

Prof. J.

415

HAMILTOI^.

WILLIAM

SrR

other

any

to

fresh

interest

in

history

influence

in

person

the

arousing the
profoundest

the

problems of philosophy,and in the careful study of its erudition

the most
learned student of his time.
history. He was confessedly
the works of the Aristotelian
writer had so completelymastered
of the schoolmen

the

thinkers.

the

His

successors.

and

Xo
mentators,
com-

erudition

was

and doctrines of past

principles
of the past in the
philosophies

of the present, and

the discussions

lightof

their

of
dry accumulation
He
uniformly studied

than

more

and

has

with

saw

clear and

hensive
compre-

insightthe relations of the one to the other. The dissertations

amples
appended to his edition of the collected works of Peid are eminent exof his comprehensiveand sagaciouslearning. He
also an
was
critic. The critical reviews,publishedas discussions,
acute
etc.,as well
the foot-notes upon Reid, are examples of his critical sagacity. But
as
he was
pre-eminentlya logician,delightingin the forms of the
of all logical
doctrines.
He was
and in the history
also interested
syllogism
in psychological
observations and in metaphysicalanalysis,
and
pre-eminentlyable in both.
" 44.
the

In

introduced

Logic,Hamilton

design

of which

of propositions. This

involved
and

perfected by Hamilton,

was

treatises
1847

; also

Also, An
FeUow

on

Formal

of the

the

Necessary

1846, Professor

Btatement

in

answer

Augustus
to

an

of

; also
De

assertion

in reply.

See

articles in

The

author

Morgan,

Atheneum

By

etc.
,

Sir William

by
for

of Formal

"

to

which

1847, also

Cambridge,

Cambridge,

1854.

William

Thomson,
Archbishop of

now

Analytic.

Logic, etc.,published

Hamilton,
Hamilton

in

subsequent

inany

and

T. Spencer Bayne's New

made

in

Queen's College, Oxford"

(Sir William's) originalityin this respect

own

London
etc.

cate,
Predi-

conversion

of logicalnotation, which

Analysis of Logic

etc.

of Thought,

Laws

Provost

Tutor, afterwards

necessity of the

noticed

or

Mathematical

of Thought,

Laws

York, 1842-1849-1853, etc.,etc.

In

introduced

been

the

scheme

entirelynew

an

has

George Boole,

Logic.

Investigation of

Outline
and

altogether with

dispense

to

was

change

he called the Quantification of the

what

in

to

respect

published

Conteinp. Review

for

his

letter

April,

1873.
In

Psychology, Hamilton

follows

in general the method

and

the terminology of Reid,

416

SIR

He

inconsistencies

and

of the

phenomena
of

the phenomena

is defined

were

divided

the

phenomena

Faculties

and

Reid

with

the

and

and

it

that

Hamilton

mind,

as

pertain

of

matter,

woul

"

and

phenomena,
By

Externa]

non-ego

under

feeling and
the

By

are

contained
class

in space,

third

are

Of
of

the

under

have

we

exhaustive

with

Ed.

Cf.

to what

this

the so-called
is

there

His
less

erudition

No.

103

"

most

the

of

not

and

arranged
on

and

that,

sentient

and

far

as

it

it consists

percipient

of

the

as

the

and

ganism"by
or-

as

terial.
ma-

of

relations

qualities

the first
the

proper,

and

shape, mobility

or

space
The

place.

include

and

pressure,

the

butes
attri-

or

occupying

as

immovable.

The

The

doctrine

representative knowledge.
of criticism

has

of

held

been
and
of

and

refutation

with

confess
and

that

usually

perceived,

it

is

his

teaches

that

perceived

relations,giving

matter

as

has

been

matter

only

Discussions, App. I. B.

in

Phil,

Being,

ton.
of Hamil-

critics

language

21-26.

Lectures

their

includes

him

Discussions, etc.

also

Metaphysics,

it also

by

classification.

comprehensive

on

ilton.
Ham-

by

collected

were

Perception,

phenomena

"whether

See

other.

exists

sensations

or

viz..

animated

secondary;

matter

resistance

to each

an

and
of

of the

or

respectively us

organism

classes

these

elements,

ratio

soul

of

these

in terminology.

world,

two

phenomena

and

of

of

this

and

if not

another

followers, interpreters,and

the

is

explicit

knowledge
to which

inverse

an

three

subtle

only, or

mind.

in

also Irectures

principles of Kant,

so

nomena
phe-

us.
a

in

friendly interpreters must

by the

These

most

Our

external

one

proper

Philosophy

C, Appendix,

among

in the

relativelymovable

theory

Art.

opinion

differs

office of self-

spirit.

thought,

consists

apprehend

category

in

in

with

the

first,we

this

is, whether

and

coordinate

Faculty into

of the

the

are

specialsubject

Qualities of matter

difference

influenced

unknown,

Non-ego

them

which

under

it

mediate,

Brown,

self.
"

affections

into

sensations

the

affections.

not

The
of

denies
or

ego

secundo-primary,

the

in which

of Reid, Dissertation

Works
As

Review,

forms

with

The

being percepts

is the

Representative Perception

the

energize

and

direct, and

and

Self.

Perception

proper

the

By

produce

to

various

of

with

compressible elastic, and

powers

this Non-ego

The

to

the

and

size
involving divisibility,

contained

gravity, cohesion,

phenomena

of

special

the

second

proper.

ness
Conscious-

and

acts

own

of will

Conservative,

of consciousness

the

contrasted

are

coexist

primary,

of its

agrees

phenomena

subdivided

are

the

proper,

are

the

perception

These

sensations

being

second

of

matter, viz.,the

being percepts
and

objects

organism.
of

Time

External

certain

Knowledge,
those

Regulative,

Self -consciousness.

or

of

second, of general relations

direct

The

of

aware

of

included

divides the Presentative

to agree

which

which

some

reality
being
language of Reid, Stewart, and Bro\\Ti,by

seem

proper,

the

faculty

phenomena.

in the

Space.

and

knowledge,
the

third

of

Perception

first,we

material

form

the

and

self-consciousness, he

apprehend

we

Kant's

occasioned

phenomena
which

it is immediate

no

however

of

its

to

would

Hamilton

is

consciousness

suggested,"

Perception

and

Sensation

any

is limited

"

1 be

He

term

direct

by Kant.

life,and

Presentative,the

Hamilton

there

Perception

the

uses

have

we

into the

But

forms

the

thinking subject

apprehension

the

under

apprehends

Although
terms

to the

is limited

into

Conation,

Elaborative,

that

powers.

Internal

and

Perception

consciousness

the

memory.

holding

intellectual

other

External

in

of

potential knowledge,

not

Stewart,

him

by

divided

the recognition by the

as

implies contrast, judgment

from

he

of his

periods

works.

and

Representative,

it is actual

such,

in his

opinion

cognitive

the Reprodiictive, the

As

in different

soul

Feeling,

The

desire.

of

largely influenced

points, very

some

him, however, varied

over

apparent
The

in respect t6

however,

was,

influence

HAMILTON.

WILLIAM

more

is in

or

itself

its relations
of

Percep-

WILLIAM

SIR

The

faculty, for the

is exerted

resuscitative

or

called

are

historical

research

31-32.

Lees.

is the

of

laws

and

this

power

limited

to the

capacity
the

on

Of

the

that

sense

of

is

and

required

giving

of

kinds

two

respect
the

to the

into

involves

the

parts

extension

from

or

It may

be

Hamilton

of either

the

Reid

"

of
and

the

sense

lations.
re-

the

It

Thought.

Reasoning

is

is
or

involving

the

Concept.

against

Nominalists,

the

Realists

such

may

double

in

comparison,

The

extension.

which

and

respectively Deduction

purely logical. That

be in the

whole

the

from

only

two
to the

Induction.
which

Induction

is ordinarily so

which

In
and

Elaborative

total conception and

It is either

two

Berkeley.

as

the

to

proper

as

superinduced,

compared.
and

is

begins

similarity,

last

is

product
himself

moderate

Relativity. By

faculty of

"a

as

To

of

as

learned

most

essential

characteristics

an

characters

all

We

calledi

proximate
It is
the

of

cause

designated by
in

absolute

of

the

the

in

the

of

this

the

therefore

moreover

mind

can

conceive

are

Appendix

two

conceive
an

term,

to

by
the-

one

of

works

of

Incomprehensibility,

Evidence
"

the

the

to

and

devotes

Hamilton

comparative

as

others

among

names,

use

but

energy,

original cognitions are

positive knowledge
cannot

definite

Philosophy,

Universality and
that

various

of
justification

authority

It is called

pr^V?r^
principlesor relations.

of his dissertations

this last it appears

limited.
conditionally
27

The

partialwith

are

calls

is the

sense.

Simplicity,Necessity,and
The

the

whole,

cognitions."

common

The

A.

of

of

abstract, the

the

ranks

comprehension
he

not

appellation common

the ablest

is made

faculty of

illogical.

necessary

vindication

which

is

of Relations, the

Faculty

Faculty

cognitive faculties,
but,

the

faculty by courtesy,

source

with

parts to

is what

which

only
hazarding
ate
activity of the appropri-

this, classification

and

Hamilton

product

related

line

of

in

treats

the
the

comprehension.

and

the

and

upon

collective

comparison

Regulative Faculty
of

the

mutually

recognizes

he rejects as
The

the

in the

all

special

that

the

or

dintegration,
reone

ity
of similar-

under

dignity of

the

recall

existence,of discrimination, of

of

attributes;

and

this

Hamilton

by

Faculty,

comprehension.

or

wholes

and

parts

of

enters

Judgment
line of

extension

Conceptualists

extreme

faculty,it

like

notions,

nature

called

judgment

and

Met.
of

law

to

function

thought-power,

sense-percept the

special

Representative

The

creative

he
siniple,

and

pure
of

Discursive

several

of

relations, viz.,of

is

Faculty
the

of the

what

to

relations

is treated

the

combination,

under

D***

tend

certain

redintegration.

Imagination,

and

another

Hamilton

state

not,

condition.

as

same

of

law

interfusion

representation

Comparison,

collection

as

mental

generic faculty, bub

the

selection

comparison, involving

and

of

the

by
third

the

do

principle,viz.,the

or

sciousness,
con-

such

reproductive

D**'and

Reid, Note

single law

The

own,

of

out

soul's energy,

of memory.

Dissertations,adds

representative power,

to every

organ

Faculty

as

presence

Elaborative

The

covered

of

as

its

modifications

These

subjected by

are

"Works

of

parts
iu the

Hamilton,

usually recognized

dependent
remark

which

to

laws

to

of the

thought suggests

one

These

reduced

not

as

which

by

of

laws

activityis

Its

modifications

Hamilton

by

governed by

differingenergy.

physiological organ

or

power

are

asserts,is

sense-perceptions.

laws

clearly defined

modification

with

law

contrast
is not

the

Philosophy.

Scoto-Oxonian

retention, is treated

latent

criticism.

All these

To

with

scientific

according
another.

it, as

association.

and

he

to other

physical

any

faculty

the

that

explain

of

8G6.

Dissertation,3,, II., p.

Reid,

Cf. Burton

faculty

individuals

to

i"ertainto

however,

the

analogous

assumed

be

must

be

may

of

Works

59-97.

pp.
or

reason

different

by

and
as

faculty,

Conservative

special

8-85,

vol. 27,
Zeitschrift,

Cf. Fichte

and

Lectures

Metaphysics,

tion.

417

HAMILTON.

and

Certainty.
and

Non-contradiction

only the limited

and

whole

an

absolute

nor

the

ah;-

418

Bolute

part

neither

between

mean

two

possible,and
but

intrinsic

involving
time,

and

space,

existence

are

The

apart.

of

and

degree

and
the

are

and

but

as

of things

they

substance

Extrinsic

likewise

are

conceived

law

concerned

are

those

be

can

is not

absolutely inconceivable

are

space

origin of

the

to

"posteriori

of

special application

are

quality

relations

of

ceivable.
relativelycon-

conceivable

relatively to

conceive

anything

of

phenomenon

apprehended
existing at

conceived
and

causes

capacity

of

the

some

effort

sense

"When

that

and

philosophy of

by

can

has

erudition,

the

For

been

than

; also

founding

English-speaking people which

and

disciples

of

adherents

Longueville Mansel, 1830-1871, Fell.

in Magdalen,
1859; 18(57, Prof, of

1856;

asserts

Art.

principles of

slow

a
system.
truth, have

to

forget.
conspicuous

most

knowledge.

He

Mansel's

insists

in contradistinction

Hamilton's

in its universal
and

of

Dean

History; 18GS,

system

Miscellaneous

immediate

an

on

from

explanation of
applicability.

judgment

to be

the

He

Kant
the

knowledge
of

nature

the

makes

of

the

unit

and

of

ego,
also

ultimate
of

knowledge

the

and
test

the

or

of

to be

presentative knowledge

of

conditioned
of

elements
an
are

act

kinds

altogether

each

belief

our

in
in

the
a

of judgment.

both

of

stance,
spiritual sub-

dissents

grounds

and

Logica

lower

the

of

Limits

Papers, 1873.

and

and

other

the

of the

St.

Kant,

Strictures,

Prolegomena

Mansel

causation

possible combination

presentativeobject. He makes
that thought knowledge
contends

from

Hamilton.

and

Essays

in the

exhibited

are

Maurice's

of

; Examination

sharply distinguishes Thought

He

Metaphysics.

Lecture, 1858

taste

to
to

the

V.
,

in, and

currency

be

us

Coll.,Oxford, 1842; Wayn-

St. John's

Conditioned, 1866.

etc., 1859 ; Philosophy of the

The

IV.

Appendix,

devotion

by

Cousin

in which

Edited
Aldrich's Logic, 1849; Prolegomena
; Philosophy
Metaphysics, for Encyc. Brit.,1857, published separately in 1860;

Bampton

Hamilton's

of

interest

will

that

denying

; also

Hamilton

Eccles.

all these

Logica, 1S51

Religious Thought,

from

that

his

they

but

Hamilton

V.

giving

or

Being

necessarily

affirm

No.

exciting an

school

to

cannot

such

must

explanation

spirit, and

flete Prof,

Paul's;

in

We

commencement,

far from

am

nature

our

that

that

App.

fuller

efficient

more

in

absolute

Lectures, 89-40

Met.

criticism, catholic

acute

to the

*^ 45. Among

us

power

or

positive

or

Will.

Free-

Rev., Oct., 1829, Discussions

Ed.

see

Met.

known,

be

God, and

and

can

sarily
neces-

reciprocally cause

believe

can

autonomies

the

above

believed."

be

to

researches

brought blessmgs

Henry

Infinite

influence

we

an
act, i.e..,

H. Calderwood,

Mr.

to

Conditioned,

for, Philosophical
vast

rise

especiallycriticized

Hamilton's

His

the

free

God

in

but

it

but

being

powerlessness of
and

to

Whenever

same

of

exercise

Tinne, Space, Freedom,

letter

ought

the

Schelling are

VI.

In

Being,

is

(I

as

is unable

time.

The

times

the

of

belief

our

of

We

it.

conceive

to

are.

deny

is, must,

and

to believe

compelled

are

attend

of

conceive

in

not

constraint

the

self-existent

or

different

at

of

"

explained

mind

non-existent,

as

form.

another

relation

is true

same

cannot

Similarly,we

exists.

it

The

forms

two

this

conceived

be

is

The

"

and

of existence

under

time

under

but

uncaused

an

in

believe

nature,

our

otherwise.

think
conceive

we

We

forms

the

causation

follows:

as

in respect

criticized

and

proposed

are

Subsequently

fact,it cannot

another

existing

as

effect.

of

as

in it

conditioned

the

under

except

as

conceived

be

of

law

is

special analysis. Eight theories

belief

our

Lee. o9, 40.

Met.

the

to

of

and

relation

this

4 (i 'priori.

and

Hamilton

subjected by

is

Causation

is

and

in time

which

is the

another.

one

in

three

These

degree.

Things

relations

thinkable

neither

but

another,

one

of

relations

the

as

of

Relativity

necessary.

as

conditioned

The

part.

neither

unconditioned,

intrinsic

The

extrinsic.

or

far

So

infinite

an

nor

assumed

be

must

whole

both

extremes,
one

of thought.

law

yet

infinite

an

MANSEL.

LONGIJEVILLE

HENRY

limited

to

cept
con-

single
He
con-

I
ditioned, i.d, to finite objects. When
know

by

contradiction

fall into

we

compelled, but

the

This

knowledge.

and

capacitiesof

any

derived

standard

drawn

are

the time

when

between

those

to limit
human

In

they

belief

and

accepted
that

with

and

these

who

philosophical and

ethical

difficulties which

written

to these

Lectures.

revealed

of

solid and

found

are

Prominent

in the

the

by

any

ogy
theol-

Religious

attention

at

discussion

The

adherents

tenable

only

first

basis

relief

from

for
the

plies
Scriptures. Vigorous rethe following : What
are

these

among

of

active

rejectedtheir teachings.
the

the

principlesto
Limits

occasion

positive

latter

general

very

only
Theology, and also

and

were

the

been

his

in the

excited
title,

principlesfurnish
a

may

it
wj

Infinite and

measure

test the

not

confidence

this

of the

cannot

we

know

activityto which

attributes

As

we

cannot

we

only

can

the limits of

applicationsof

abundant

have

of

bring under

so

These

those

exercise

an

well.

as

to the unconditioned

unconditioned

negative. We

natural

define them,

Theism

rational

in

attributes

or

is

cannot

so-called

Lectures,with
and
delivered,

were

who

the

The

language.

we

morality.

detail

Bampton

contend

of Mansel

of his moral

from

The

Thought.

which

only of

not

ours

out

of

apply them

to

attempt

we

thought

products

is true

it is true

Absolute, but
by

both

by positive thinking,but only by that which

negative thinking," which negative thinking is

"

axe

of

419

CALDERWOOD.

HENRY

is Revelation
bridge,
? CamCambridge, 1859 ; Sequel to the inquiry. What
which
Mansel
1860 ; to
of Maurice's
Strictures,
replied in the Examination
already noticed; by Rev. C. P. Chretien, A Letter to the Rev. F. D. Maurice, etc.,
Stuart
etc.;by Prof Gold win Smith, in Rational
Religion, etc.,1861 ; by John
Mill,

is Revelation

of

Examination
Mansel

by

Natural, 1862
Spencer,

are

; Defence

First

compelled

of

to form

conditioned

doomed

assume

the
to

the

other

if for no
especiallysignificant,
lifetime
of Hamilton, and
received
are

in the

title

second

edition is

to

answer

Cambridge
repliesto Hamilton's

the

Sir William

and

London,

letter.

In

peculiarpositionsof Hamilton's
to Mansel.

His

Hamilton

1861.
this

In

review

doctrines

the

first

Cousin, by Henry

Treatise

in

Infinite, with

the

greatly enlarged, aud

Infinite

because

reason,

brief notice

M.

and

Hamilton

Philosophy of

Being, in

by

bert
Her-

name

these

those

of

necessity

which

shall be

on

Man's

appendix

respecting the

to

published

were

lished
subsequently pubThis
letter
(d).

edition

of

special

Calderwood's

reference

Calderwood,

Mansel.

Dr.

the

Calderwood

V.

under

By
this

controverts

Rev.

to

the

following

the

Henry

as

Infinite
wood.
Calder-

edition, Calderwood
every

one

Infinite,including those

standpoint is that of positive Theism

the

Edinburgh,

of

Knowledge

and

Univ.
,

letter

published

was

Phil.

of Mor.

they

Metaphysics, Appendix

on

Philosophy of

title.The

theories of Sir William

The

although

set aside

all,we

compelled by the
and
and
Infinite,

are

Absolute

an

same,

be

publication of

the

of

occasion

on

treatise,with
1854.

to the Lectures

Appendix

written

was

ich

w.

in

we

of

Henry Calderwood, since Prof,

of

those
criticisms,

these

of

notions

subsequently evolved.
Among

that

maintains

who

Last

therefore

and

Truth, 1866.

thinking to

definite

some

only approximative

of Edin.

to

John

Fundamental

Principles,etc.

of finite and

necessities

also

Philosophy, etc.,1864, Chapter VIL.

of the

James

the

Hamilton's

The

Conditioned,
1866 ; by
Philosophy
Young, Reason
by Henry Calderwood, Philosophy of the Infinite,1854, 2d ed. 1861 ;
McGosh, Intuitions of the IVIind,
1860; also.The Supernatural in relation to

replied

Faith

and

Sir William
in

necessary

of

the

liar
pecu-

condition

of

knowledge of the finite,and therefore in all which it involves as possible human

knowledge ; Faith, in Calderwood's theory, being not opposed to knowledge. In this
Stuart
from the positionstaken by John
respect his positionis clearlydistinguishable
the

MiU

and

Herbert

Spencer.

4:20

JAMES

Frederick

46. James

"

FEEDEEIOK

FERRIER.

180S-18G4
in Edinburgh;University
Ferrier,
; born
Baliol Coll.,
Oxford,1825-1831
; Professor of

of

Edinburgh and
Civil History,Edin.,1842 ; Prof, of Moral
Philosophyand Political
various articles in Blackwood's
Economy, St. Andrews, 1845, contributed
duction
Magazine : e.g.^ in 1838-9 a series under the titleof An Introto the Philosophy of Consciousness
;" in 1847, Reid and The
Sense.
In 1854, he published Institutes of
Philosophy of Common
Metaphysics,The Theory of Knowing and Being,2d ed. 1856, which
viz. :
An
Examination
of Professor Ferrier's
provoked sharp replies,
An
Examv"
Theory of Knowing and Being," by Kev. John Cairns.
of Professor Ferrier's Theory of Knownation
of Cairns' Examination
The
Scottish Philosophy,a
ing and Being," by Rev. J. Smith.
and
Scottish Philosophy,
Vindication
Reply," by Rev. J. Cairns.
"

''

"

"

"

the

After

the author's death

Greek

Philosophy

on

in

detail,but
the

of

'

'

did

he

Ego
and

necessarily entering
the

Uot

of

portions.
is

one

world

either

truly exists,is
world

has

one

along
real

is

Remains,

no

with

and

he

his
he

unfolding

Remains

some

is

with

or

"

may

of

which

any

I., p. 397.

The

that
me

as

than

whole

as

material

world

be

known.

But

be

known,

is

the

only

But

there

exists.
neither
is

one

which

entity out

liarity
pecu-

of
a

its

the

ter,
matsary
neces-

separate

truly

exists

material

only
along with

Therefore
is it

in

thorized
au-

present

as

the

material

and

involving

conceive

and

only

intelligence also

more

distinctive

neither

can

of

of

deduction

The

ysis
anal-

provided for

perpetually present, and

as

Therefore,

existence.

the
"

the

knowing

recognizes itself

we

both

possibly

of

facts, but

and

points

expounder

an

of consciousness

which

possibly

known.

absolute

so

matter,

may

also

and

of the

also

of

or

acts,

only

philosophy.
fact

the

in many

starting-pointin

"theory

tbe

to

respect

it,of absorbing

viewed

was

observation

reasoned

products,

up

nonentity

Vol,

language

be

must

no

idealist),for there

made

own

from

that

witli

merely

not

sense,

indeed,

to the

its

all its

actually

intelligence is and

common

peculiarity,as

was

' '

calls

begins

actually is

either

he

himself

conception

Ferrier's

In

which
which

as

the

These

Magazine, and

conceptions of philosophy

into

me^ except

James

Grant, Bart.,

polemic attitude

consciousness,

itself and

of

is conscious

which

of

seem,

that

he

is that

system

constituent

of

he

what

conclusions, or
of his

1866.

critical and

school

It would

fact

confine

not

2 vols.

Blackwood's

its fundamental

fundamental

of the

statement

and

the

insisted

he

But

that

first

and

phenomena

psychology.

or

from

Alexander

of

Philosophy of Consciousness, and

the

to

the

of

respect

A.

by Sir

Lectures

"

explanatorypapers.

psychology.

into

philosophy

of Reid

philosophy

current

from

took

47. Ferrier

being

and

controversial

were

Edited

articles
philosophical

other

published,viz.
PhilosophicalRemains

other

Introduction

the

of

other

"

and

Lushington,M.

E. L.

LL.D., and
consist

his Remains

Ferrier,"etc.,etc.

Frederick

of

New," by Prof. Ferrier.

and

Old

world
the

which
which

mere

nonentity (I am

terial
mano

ligence."
of relation to intel-

422

A8800IATIONAL

accepted by

Sir

James

PSYCHOLOGY.

Mackintosh, 1765-1832,

fying
modilai-gely
Dissertation
ethical judgments and
emotions.
our
exhibitinga
of
Ethical
of
the
view
etc.
Progress
general
Philosophy,
Encyc. Brit,
of these writers,however, was
1 830.
and publishedseparately
By none
made
the sole explanation of psychical
the principleof association
was

as

'

phenomena.

It

was

reserved

for James

decided, if,possible,than

it

Mill

this in

to reassert

form

propounded by Hartley,strip})ed,howexer, of the materialistic adjuncts which Hartley attached

followed by his son, John Stuart Mill,who accepted the
lie was
to it.
and
devotion, although with
system of his father with filial fondness
and
often threaten its integrity
concessions
which
and concriticisms,
sistency.
more

Alexander

large accession

Bain

has

was

also illustrated

it in the

main, with

of

and some
phenomena pm-ely physiological,
independeni
suggestions. George Grote, the illustrious historian in the fields
of generaland philosophical
has criticized the philosophies
of
history,
Plato
and Aristotle from
the same
George Ilemy
point of view.
Lewes
General
of
has written
a
History
Philosophy from the same
is shared by all
standpoint,in the metaphysicalspiritof Comte, which
the Associationalists.
that psychicalstates are developed
The doctrine
of this school
association prepared some
by inveterate and inseparable,
to accept the more
general doctiine of the evolution of speciesin the
sphere of animal and vegetablelife,which was suggested by Lamarck
and
subsequentlyrevived by the author of The Vestigesof the Natural
from
the Kebular
History of Creation,on grounds of analogy drawn
Hypothesison the one hand, and the supposed successful experimentsof
the other,and
has
on
pj'oducingorganicgerms from inorganicmatter
win,
reinforced by the observations
been
and
speculationsof Charles Darand the undecided
of llichard
and doubtful
Huxley the
allegiance
physiologist.The doctrine of the Correlation of Forces has been used
direction.
as
Representing
furnisbingdecisive analogiesin the same
all these tendencies
and doctrines,
Herbert
Spencer lias aimed to widen
versal
the psychological
of the Associational
psychologyinto a uniprinciples
doctrine
of Evolution, whi(^h
should
not
only provide for the
also
but should
evolution of all forms of Being, material and spiritual,
of philosophy
principles
provide for the evolution of the fundamental

itself.
One

characteristic

notice,viz.,that
German

it has

systems,

and

of the revived

Associational

sensiblyfelt the
has

in

influence

consequence

been

school is
of the

new

modified

deservingof
Scottish and

in

important

JAMES

its new

by
particulars

423

MILL.

Under

expounders.

the

of new
cussions
dispressure
of old questions,its adNocates have extended
the range of their
and made
concessions
which, in the opinion of their antagoinquiries
nists,
fatal to the

and exclusiveness of their own

theories.
consistency
of its various
In the hands
expounders the Associational psychology
of its fundamental
has, in the opinion of its critics,changed some
sitions,
pohas
and
constantlywidened the range of its inquiries.ISTo two
writers teach the same
doctrines,although they all agree in the spirit
attitude
with which
and
they approach the problems of philosophy,
relation to ethics and theology.
and hold a common
These views have been earnestly
controverted
by many writers,the
all of whom
known
to
of
most
or
are
a
larger or smaller number
are

readers.
"'49.
of

for

Edinburgh

himself

Examiner

India

the

for

the

in 1821

of

the

Mr.

Essays

Mill

the

was

influential
His

Mind,

Alexander
Stuart

1829

Andrew

those

"

faculty
As

of

son,

India

Stuart

and

of the

and

the

ena
Phenom2d

become

additional

of the

doctrines

men.

of

the

critical,by

and

with

so

able

Phenomena

illustrative

George Grote,

East

politician.

has

other

many

of

1819,

the

ed., {anon.), 1835,

publicist and

in

cal
of Politi-

; Elements

Analysis

1st

as

notes

devoted

of

sociology, which

Analysis

with

1869,

sity
Univer-

and

Examiner

1818

in

Mill,

the

was

profession

Chief

lifetime

sensations

our

idea, the

vividness

notes

John

by

the

others
it were,

which

idea.

suggested

and

out

of

spring

of
the

Hartley
ordinary

attend

as

As

we

to

and
five

ization.
disorgansensation

to

designate

the

use

ideation

The

antecedent

The

are

of

often

so

exist

along
to form

conjoined
it,seem

to

one

idea, which

example,

one

sensation

whenever
run

into

one
one

idea,however

not

be

to

when

another

on

is made
.

in the
"

guishable.
distin-

wheel,

exists

in

or

are

tion
associa-

the

and

color, white.

uniform

the

association

an

repeated
as

ideas

our

respectively painted,

are

of

that

with

For

analogous.
colors

strength
are

in

so

suggesting,

either

be

may

combination

close

colors, but

seven

ideas

order,
the

is called

of

causes

two

such

prismatic

seven

been

many

in

successive

or

preceding

When

up

sensation

not

appears

immediately

such

use

may

we

so

are

gone.

The

idea.

two

cases

have

are

synchronous

of the two.

is

parts of which

rapidly, it

Ideas, also,

in the

either

in either

strong, the
Some

sensations

sensations,

always an
frequency of repetition.

"

seven

the

there
and

alimentary canal,

the

after
of

these

Of

feeling.

of
the

ideas.

consequent

and

is very

revolve

for

of

of

remains

occur

is called

succeeding

kind

general faculty

capacity

or

largely a compound

are

muscles,

what

are

Mill

are

the

present themselves

as

in his

philosophy

Findlater,

Sensations

Hume.

designate the

the

1831,

at the

India, appointed,

Mackintosh,

on

John

edition,

new

of James

doctrines

Ideas

the

In

party in politicsand

his

to

British

etc.,etc., 1828

Fragment

clerical

of

of British

Educated

Mill.

classes

an

History

Liberal

contribution

Bain,

The

of

the

represented by

as

principal

Human

of

founder

Company,

Government,

on

the

History

great influence

exerted

He

his

India

Mind, 1829

Human

1870.

East

Scotland.

Montrose,
abandoned

but

writing

Published

Correspondence.

Economy

in

bom

ministry,

After

literature.

to

Second

ed.

Mill, 1773-1836,

James

to

to
.

mind

coalesce,

realitycomplex,

424

JAMES

to be

appears
the

less

no

have

by

the

to

son

solution

is

Consciousness
that

is

abstract

an

''

term

"

reared."

for

Black

sensations.
called

connotation,

no

have
of

by

up

resolved

into

In the

To

that

two

of

the

the

unlike, we

ideas, and

names,

Antecedent
that

mean

and

long series,

sensation, but
order

is much

were,

in

one

particleof
the

line

of

"there

is

m'der

same

than

the

repetitions of
particular sensation

order

the

What

then

; 2,

existences

lief
Be-

in

and
is

of ratiocination

is true

same

the

us

is the
same

that

and

similarities

are

the

By

is the

in

cession
suc-

.s^/7"^,

of

thing;

same

terms

is true

same

sensation

slightly unlike

very

relative

The

sical
metaphy-

sensations

two

two

pairs.

the

to have

as

to have

as

of his

elements

same

ent,
differ-

ideas.

In

having the sensations,having

but

which

p.

sensations

the

sensation

one

precedes B

idea, and

of space.

successive

The
order

possible direction.

particlesof
of

an

occurred, the

relations
The

sensation
as

the

matter

be

particlesin

so

last

being

of

is

all.

Take

on, is received

in

certain

order

I
^

it

as

single

to

aggregate

with
respect to
particle, next
"As
after
position of the particle.^''

sight, a particular sensation

synchronous

aggregated
this

we

through

on

centre

is also called the

so

the

is in every

Every

respect to the

touch, and

suggested

successive.

let other
"

When

is

involves

the

and

particular
of

in

synchronous

centre,

first with

particle. This

idea

applied

sensation

order

possible radiii

every

to

the

self,or

past

my

belief

The

whatsoever

thus

are

as

complex

as

nothing

of

i.e., real

gives

in

believed

elements"

two

idea

sensation

be

cause
including
substance, and in personal identity"

is the

sensations

term

for them."

synchronous

matter

the

slight difference."

the

biit
direction,

but

name

present

the

in
the

involves

is remembered.

differences

distinguishing

It must

what

is to have

alike

are

consequent
is

more

certain order

other

when

two

are

as

the

representing

all.

propositions

author

different

are

these

with

ideas, such

in events,

sensation

associated

of

"

in

the

have

we

marks

making

beliefin

consequence,

Terms

sensations
that

This

inseparable association.

that

similarity being nothing

the

know

undoubtedly

applying these

and

idea

an

is not

self, and

ciently
suffi-

only, and

dropped, i.e.,when

is

idea

the

and

abstraction, the

sensations

are

clusters

sensation, or

of

truth

Under

is

structure

\Aa,ckness, bread^/i,etc.

have

1. Belief

; e.^.,

in the

Relative

on

know

like,and

by

implies

kind

Belief

form

some

chapter

; to
"for

and

calling up

last

the

antecedence

theory.
know

to

But

; 3.

testimony

effect,i.e.,of

connotation

as

capable of

familiar

idea

an

ideas

the

connotes

experienced by myself.

of every

Belief

is belief?

of

clusters

the

up

as

name

association

rendered

intellectual

our

definite
in-

an

the

or

name,

each

but

"

callingup

the

are

we

of

regard

called

which

whole

only

principle of

that

as

they suggest certain

and

etc.

ness,

the

But
or

self.

remembered

add

word

also know

conception.

same

to ideas

call up

may
Mill

by

'"

present required."

self,i.e.,the remembering

present

in

sensation,

idea

an

idea.

an

witnessed

been
my

such

suggest

we

implies

Memory
called

notes

is

term

idea

must

we

at
when

horse, respectively ; when

man,

notes

also

they

when

connotatioe

as

notative

as

ia
to

confidence

do not

the

conception

"

general

basis, the

illustration

distinguishes terms

author

its

resemblance,

the

This

is claimed
such

we

"

1 feel expresses

ideas

The

feel

We

states.

classification, and

which,

on

Similarity, or

understood

states.

in

which

apjjliedwith

been

casually recognized by

is

mighty operation

and

by association."

of ideas

has

that

conscious

sensations

both

mainly concerned

is

which

all mental

for

be

to

compounded."

philosophical problems.

many

for collective

Resemblance

which

that

and

applied to

number
idea.

the

so

it is

inseparable association"

Mill, and

generic term

feel ; for to feel

we

Consciousness
is

of

"

of

of which

of those

one

any

doctrine

originated by James

been

his

simple than

of the

announcement

MILL.

of smell,

give to the

it in
has
every
tain
ceror
com-

JAMES

bined
the

ideas of them

same

muscular
the

them

line.

name

For

real, tactual

But

Relations

of

a"t, etc.,etc. ;
The

of the

terms

the

are

and

A line is

etc."

"In

portionmore

thus

explained:

object or

the

"

successions

effect.
and

cular
mus-

the
continuing
bulk

or

of

so

"

cause

know
explained : "We
lengthened,as number

then, by which we
continuallyassociated
carried,the association

idea.

to the idea

and

cause

of the

Why,

objector

the

the

And

cause.

association

of other

' '

irresistible. This is what

call the necemiry

idea

tension."
is,abstract,ex-

and
fortuitous,

are

as

got my

The qualities
of an
object are the
? In fact,they are convertible
qualities
the object is the qualities. But then what

call the

we

idea of

The

with
of

idea of

the

increase

of

preceding
portion more

infinite

know

we

continual

by

the

one

portion

longer
additions,
a

line, the

length,and
is

extension, and

what

to

equally close
what

some

idea

and

people

adhering by indissoluble association

is the idea
of " infinitely
directions,
"infinitelyextended," with the connotation

in any

increase

of every

infinite line,but

no

is increased

conceive

is

it is

also

into the different sensations of touch

the process,

soever

have

ticular
par-

idea of

is there beside the

of the

is thus

of

extent

resolved

qualityare

antecedent.

longer.

one

which

the object,
are
qualities
and
? Why, sensations,
qualities
with the association

as

combined

direction ?" physicallines if

every

usuallyknown

are

like ; in

motion.

object. What

Infinite space
a

lines in

the

lines if mathematical, that

the

sensations

and

order,I give to
idea of a line,
I

got my
but

the

sensations,and

experiencein tracinga line,in stopping or

plane, which is made
up of lines ; so of mass

is the association

what

and
fire,

name

we

of

relations of

whole

last

quantityare

so

certain

classes" successions

These

resistance

or

I have

; mathematical

resistance which

pressure

in

is extension

of two

are

constant.

apple,the

name

repetitionsof particular tactual

when

what

extension

Successions
are

rose, the

name

received
sensations,

of extension.

which

the

after certain

manner,

425

MILL.

more,

in all

or

extended," and the idea of

dropped, is the idea of Infinite Space."
The
Of motion
the followingexplanation:
have
ideas of the sensations
we
on
of which
he calls it [thehand] moved
account
are
easilyraised,easilyform themselves
with
the object.Hand."
into combination, and
"When
easilyassociate themselves
he [one] has become
familiar with the applicationof moved, as a connotative
term,
to drop the connotation
to various objects,it is easy in this as in other cases
; and then
' '

he has the abstract

motion^

the future : an aversion,the idea

pleasurablesensation is contemplated
is called hope. When
the state of consciousness
as
future, but not certainly,
a
ful
painthe state of consciousness is
sensation is contemplated as future, but not certainly,
called fear."
be contemplated as past and
The causes
can
of sensations
future,as
of our
of a cause
The
idea
the
sensations
themselves.
as
truly
pleasures enters as a
main
(1) The mere
ingredientinto three states of consciousness, viz. :
contemplation
A

of

desire is the idea of

pain associated

with

pleasure associated

future.

the

"

When

with

"

of it
of

as

an

to

The

cause,

act of

ours

obey

this

moral

is connected

past

or

as

the

future, which

motive, which

[or pain] which

certain
comes

acts

"

from

which

the Ap"'FECTION
is called

with

association

(3) A

ness
readi-

the pleasureto ourselves [or pain] which

associating
the

ideas of

being praised by

such

acts.

others

reach the idea of praiseand

we
secondary association,

; (2) The

the Motive

is called the Disposition."

'sentimentsbegin with
with

is called

of the cause,

cause

To

this

we

add

the

ure
pleas-

[or dispraise]. Finally,by

blameworthiness.

These

last,

426

JEEEMY

in their nature
and

the

and

dread

of

Voluntary
preceded by
said

is associated

; in others
as

with

cause

as

fully analyzed,

nothing

to

of

modem
of

and

Political

Utilitarian

Morals

and

formed

Morality,
Greatest

in

his

MSS.

of

praise

instances

some

the

action

is

accurate

language,

our

associjitions,

over

certain

interestingideas,

strength by association."
Bentham,

1747,
and

the

founder

acknowledged

Sir John

by

more

power

Jeremy

1780,

in

in which

in

"or,

bom

principle,* originated with

Happiness

posthumous

are

cases

power

was

the

was

published

was

from

arranged

as

and

all

into

Mill

He

in Ethics.

Legislation

of

love

Actions

"The

the

than

more

Legal Reform,

Rchool

end;

an

effect."

as

originatingin interestmg sensations, and

with
James
" 50. Intimately connected
advocate

In

ideas.

by

means

pleasure

means

the

for.

accounted

thus

are

willed,it is desired

to be

when

mind

sensations

mere

MILL.

blame."

posthumous
of

S.

"to

strikinglyanalogous

origin,are

states

J.

AND

BENTIIAM

and

1832.

died

Deontology,

and

system

Science

The

made

was

so-called

His

the

or

1834.

in

Bowring,

Bentham,

distinguished

of the

of

phrase, the

the

foundation

of his system.
defines

Bentham
the

prevent

The

community..
action

an

four

opinion

the

and

the act, the

actions

; and

whose

Probiiy

next,

in

the

he

happiness,

disapprobation

is

the

general view,

Prudence

on

approval of

again, sympdthy

or,

of the

Stuart

and

We8t7mnster

of

of

the

of

individual.

duties

coincide

and

There

of

or

art

of

one's

others, in

to

consider
to

action,

with

utility.

close

personal

directing men's

happiness,

of

discharge

of one's

to

Amity,

is

Ethics

to increase

in

1832,

applied
work

on

duties
the

part of

the

himself.

to

forms

two

of

it.

free, only

the

"

The

Province

principlesof

is esteemed

as

principles of justiceand

Mill,bom

and
publicist

to

so

far

as

these

terms

are

law.

The
the

is surest

desire

voluntary and

as

the

developed
science.

the

is the

discharge

studying

of

is

next

and

usually the

rightly : physical^
political^
moral^ i.e. , public

of Religion.

actions

; chief examiner

of the

act

happiness,

party

ascetism, or

are

greatest possible quantity

the

it and

literature

John

51.

as

1823

the

is in view.

compulsion

of that

English

"

in

Austin, 1790-1859, published

maxims
all

of

distinguishes

in which
and

to

men

Dictates

the

production
interest

Bentham

John

and

approbation

taken

Beneficenceare

and

to

to diminish

tendency

of .Reputation;

forbearing to diminish
opposed

its

stimulate

that

is Love

to the

those

of

principles supposable

unreasoning

Good-will,

or

in order

affections

other

the

actions
to promote
consideration, which

under

party

should
as
we
religious. In estimating actions
right or wrong
the conHckmsness.
Of motives
circumstances, the intention,and

Benewlence,
Next

the

two

sanctions
"

of

account

on

antipathy^ or
are

utilityas the tendency of

misery,

1800"1873,

one

of

Jurisprudence

Bentham
of the

to the

mined,"
Deter-

definitions

profoundest treatises

law.

son

of James

guished
Mill,distin-

leader; clerk in tlie India House,

political
East India correspondence,
1856 ; jointeditor

Beview^

1835-1840

copious contributor

to many

and philosophical
journalsof articles on political
topics. Published
System of Logic,liatiocinative and Inductive,being a Connected View
of the principles
of Evidence
and the methods
of Scientilic Investiga"
"

J.

S. Mill

utilitariau"

asserts

into

use.

that

he

has

reason

Utilitarianism,

for

believing

chap. II., note.

himself

to be

the

first person

who

brought

the

word

STUAET

JOHN

tion.

2 vols.

1846,

1 vol. 8vo.

Eighth edition (1873),First American

edition,
Unsettled
Questions of Political
Essays on some
of their
Principlesof Political Economy, with some
Social Philosophy,1848.
2 vols. 8vo.
Am.
ed., 2
Considerations
Essay on Liberty,1859.
on
Kepre-

8vo, 1843.

Economy, 1844.
Applicationsto
vols. 8vo, 1848.

Government.

sentative

427

MILL.

2d

ed.,

An

1861.

Examination

of

Sir

Hamilton's

Philosophy and of the principalPhilosophical

1865.
3d ed.,1867.
Am.
Questions discussed in his writings,
ed., 2
1865.
The Subjection of Woman.
2d ed.,1869.
Utilitarianand Positivism.
2d ed.,1867.
bi,1863.
Am.
Auguste Comte
ed.,
William

Iols.,
167.
I

collection

"59, and
and
a

additional

volume

The

works

of

by

in

papers,
other

papers,

with

the

tract

volumes, 1864,
Boston, 1867.

J. S. Mill

which

Discussions

and

America

republished in

few

fourth

of Dissertations

is known

as

was

published

on

Utilitarianism

to which

was

in

added

philosopher are

the

of Sir William
Ilamilton's
System of Logic ; the Examination
and
James
comments
Philosophy,and his Editorial corrections
on
Mill's Analysisof the Human
Mind.
The psychological
foundation
on
Mill modified
which
he builds is the system of James
of
that
Dr.
by
He
Thomas
Brown.
that
he neither accepts
however,
carefullyinsists,
inculcates any
physics
nor
system of meta})hysics. But the system of metahe
which
that of Iloljbes,
usually applies is substantially
does
He
not
Hume, and Comte.
rigidlyadhere, however, either to
the psychology or
the ])hil()sophy
which
and control
his
characterize
conclusions.
He differs from his father in holding the act of belief to
than
be something more
an
inseparableassociation oi one object with
another
(cf.James Mill's Analysis,2d ed., chap, xi.,note) ; that causation
is a term
it is indispensable
should
in our
which
we
use
analysis
of the conceptionsof matter
and mind
that certain axioms
are
; and
o*f mathematical
the necessary
and physicalsciences,but
foundations
themselves
the productsof induction
are
(cf.Logic,j^"a,"."?iy/i).
After

I0112:and

laborious

analvsis, he reaches

the conclusion

that

of sensation,"and
possibility
that
mind
is resolved
into a series of feelingswitli a background of
tion
that in adhering to this definiof feeling." He concedes
possibilities
that the mind, or
reduced
to the alternative of believing
we
are
of
ego, is something different from any series of feelingsor possibilities
them, or of acceptingthe paradox that something which, ex h(/j:)ot/iesi
matter

must

"

"

be

dehned

"

as

permanent

428

JOHN'

is but

series of

STUART

feelingscan

be

MILL.

of itself as

aware

of the

the belief in the real existence

to

that

it cannot

the

by
it is in

accordingto laws, is

another

one

therefore

; it has

me

"

world

of

the world

"

that

consideration

an

In

world, he
be

only

can

spect
recedes
con-

fied
justi-

succeeding
possiblesensations,
in other beings as

much

as

existence

Sir W.

of

(cf Exam,

external

and
philosophically,

proved

be

series."

outside

Hamilton's

me

it is

an

ternal
ex-

Philosophy,
Chaps.11,

12,13.)
"
on

The

51.

of

philosophical student

the

treats

of

science

; and

the

the

of

history

Induction,

Fourth,

of Locke's

Book

in the

treatise

illustration

with

acquaintance

Third

the

In

which

book,

physical

with

ranks

Induction,

elaborate

most

Induction.

familiar

Third

The

physics.

in

of

of

is the

Logic

methods

himself

avails

author

of

System
and

theory

the

of

the

methods,

modern

ies
discover-

indispensable

to

every

operations subsidiary

on

for

Essay

is

English language

these

its

masterly

to

of

treatment

Language.
The

Book,

First

of

intimations

closely

the

Things

Denoted

of

his

Feeling

sensation

distinction

belief

; the

that

as

and
is

there

idea

are

ception,

pe;

of such

cause

i.

which

sensations

hidden

it is the

e.

they give
of

cause

and

us

the

five heads

recipient of

each

fact into
what

groups
the

which

the

and

of

order

the

have

The

is

in the

but

the

minds

second,

must

assert

it is

of the

author

them.

on
or

the

in

unphilosophical
and

bodies

The

to

recognize

states

the

latter.

between

unlikenesses

one

of these

Causation
is

on

is

five, viz.

and

respect to the functions

first that
or

are

which

logicalvalue

states

of

states

of

involve

which

is

this

mate,
ulti-

analysis,

of consciousness.

them,

(4)

that

The

or

all

of the

their

successions
of

sciousness.
con-

possible propositions

coexistence,

is deductive.

(2)

with

states

subsequently explained by Mill, as

Reasoning,

part of

no

into

of

result

feelings

Existence,

some

upon

is undetermined,

mind,

excite

which

Import of Propositions, he concludes

deny

Second

(3)

or

the

simply

are

is

they

unlikeness

or

As

(1) Feelings

"

likenesses

causation, resemblance.
Book

categories :

liSeness

sensations.

is

unknown

consciousness, or
the

no

sensations,

There

doubt

is

know

it is the

resolvable

No

of

states

of

kind

of

matter

object."

experienced by

are

peculiar

experience

coexistences, the
Chapter V.,

four

which

two

that

these

grounded
'*

thought

we

concerned,
"

is not

peculiar.

similar

two

are

other

imply
are

is

attributes

of

dental
transcen-

or

first,all

that

on
,

of consciousness

higher

the

follows

There

state

casional
oc-

states

or

thought"
Mill.

of

matter

as
are

some

relation

the

analysis is a

following
which

jointly with

they
of

far

so

resemblance

to the

relation
last

qualities,although

In

of

whether

but

feeling,subsequent

(5) Quantity

and

object

and

occurrence

the

Of

he

Chapter III.

(1) Feelings

to the

Of

caveat,

Names,

James

belonging
mental.

(4) Relations

enters

Relations

consciousness,

we

sensations.

expressive of

names

consciousness."

third

of

his

; in

being properly

states

(3) Attributes, which,

them.

as

same

by

the

Analysis

sensation

sensations.

our

theory of generalization

II. of

Chapter

Mill's

under

and

metaphysics; (2) Substances, bodily

the

In

generic, including sensation, emotion,

sensation

between

author's

the

also, notwithstanding

of James

all these

groups

contrasted

being

and

concept,

doctrines

the
he

by Names,
is

Propositions, gives

the

metaphysical system.

and

terminology

consciousness.
and

and

Names

on

and
classification,

and

sequence,

uniform
The

tecedence.
an-

sions
conclu-

syllogismare

thus

430

ALEXANDER

pleasures and

the

But

creatiires."

admits

theory
fear

feelings

are

the

whatever
"

Him."
and
This

we

The

internal

like

of

the

affection

feeling

external

of

and

feelings

for

them,

or

is the

rian
utilita-

of

love

and

it

of

awe

when

and

disposition
to

the

ested
disinter-

of conscience."

essence

subject

and

universe, along

from

secondary growth

the

as

the

mind, which,

our

fellow-

The

of favor

hope
of

in

to

character

the

as

our
"

acquired.

Ruler

and

origin,

unity with

are

the

duty,

its transference

manner,

they

from

or

idea

pure

in

to be

if

morality,

to

or

is

duty

the

itself with

recognition of

the

of

sanction

is, however,
In

and

of sympathy

have

connecting

sentiment

sanctions

fellow-creatures,

our

may

desire

the

less natural

no

external

of displeasure from

with

"

pains of others," or
moral

BAIN.

the

the

are

cumstances.
cir-

feelings,
of

products

association.
The

It illustrates

Hamilton,

the

For
instructive

Cf.
Mr.

and

of the
Mill's

J. S. Mill's
D.D.

of

Edition

Stuart

sophica,
B.D.,

Notes

or

Theol

An

Examination

By

published

The

Senses

the

Will,

Four

Phases

Stuart

the

the

to

of

These

treatises

Hartley
and

analyses of

analysis of
of

are

elaborate

an

James

and

all the

Mill, with

the

modern

consists

in its
but

himself

of the

it.

concedes

for

of
upon

and

sense

that

ideas
of

and

for

the
the

association
materialistic

alone.

He

analogies.

not

Grote.

Grote,

York, 1872.

of

he
an

Tliough

Aberdeen,
; The

Science, a
New
York, 2

1870, N. Y.

phenomena
much

the

deny

the

the

discrimination

avowed

by

and

in

the

existence
does

intellectual

professedly

eries
discov-

skill

great

not

the theory

on

of

organization,nor

not

tions
Emo-

Moral

does

of

peculiarity
experiences

Though

to

Philo-

John

late

New

with

cerebral

psychical experiences

in

Patrick

Exploratio

the

makes

them

applies
of

Freedom

on

I., by John

ed. 1864

mental

perception.

independently

man

explanation

power

all rest

in

He

capacity

in the

of

phenomena

spiritualprinciple

positively affirm

Physiology, and

Mr.

Willing,addressed

and

Bain

difference,that

of

McCosh,

James

Universityof

of the

re-treatment
this

Alexander,

anity,
Socrates, Aristotle, Christi-

Mental

also

Stuart

Philosophy, by
in

Edin., 1871.

of

P.

by

Bost., 1869.

Morals:

phy
Philoso-

John

Examination

Compendium of Psychology and Ethics,Lond., 1868

vols. Logic,Deductive
and Inductive, 2 parts,Lond.

of

and

N"o. 1; also

also. The

Chapter

Freedom

Intellect,
1854, 2d
;

An

Philosophy, by

Blackie.

ed. 1865

2d

of

trines.
doc-

own

valuable

of Mr.

Science, Part

Utilitarian

and

those

his

Patrick

Hamilton's

and

3 ;

Truth,

Notes

Intellectual

Bain, Professor

Alexander

52.

Mill's

of the

John

reasons

the most

by

Fundamental

G. Hazard.

Rowland

1870.

Camb.,

of

some

two
and

1866,
i?"?".,

Inquirer.

an

Causation

on

Modem

on

of

Freedom,

of Sir William

Letters

Notes

to Moral

Mr.

on

Examination

Two

Utilitarianism.

and

to
of

one

as

Smith, A7n.

B.

H.

defence

Mill, etc., etc., by

Rough

etc., etc.

"

positions

own

fatal

are

regarded

Philosophies, by

being

of his

M. A.

1865.

Camb.,

which

be

Relation

in

Two

Causation,

Alexander,

John

of the

Philosophy

Moral
Third

Mill's

English Philosophy.

to

etc.,by

Causation

Battle

The

it may

reasons

contributions

of

certain

for

important

His Critics,by Francis

Bowen,
Ibid.,1869, Nos. 2 and
An
Examination
Conditioned, etc., by H. L. Mansel.

Doctrine

M.A.

P.

other

is

Philosophy

important concessions

Mill, Examination,

Mill

the

these
of recent

of

weakness

and

strength
contains

and

Hamilton's

of Sir William

examination

and
in

of

fact

larity,
simiavails

Materialist, his
avowal

he

functions

planations
ex-

exclusively an

HERBERT

he accepts
Associationalist,
in

from

solution

no

We

very

is

exist in

minds

our

sensible

other

energies

world

to

and

The

other

any

law

or

power

is

organs

nothing

intellect and

The

"

but

It is

of

Belief
is the

from

absence

the

'

Belief

'

space

allied

of

with

is the

effects

reference

things

the

"

energies

in external

the

and

material

independent

an

and

external

to

the

of

be

can

human

world

are

proper

body, and

own

tactile
of

the

our

mental

material

our

causes

to

foundation

consciousness

and

is

visible and

reality is

nothing different
the

conduct

up

the

'

'

or

and

particular

anticipation of
our

various

own

mental

'

gives

state

termed

is Intellectual

Association."

for

related

'

whole

'

walk

"

mind

(3) The

third

fields,
active

my

"

Belief, while
the

need

the

upon

fact.

activity or

to

the

we
Intelligence,

an

When

the

of

and

by assigning certain

feelings,operating

self

import

Feelings, Actions

classification

and

Self.

in my
of

the

accounted

machinery,
'

portions

(1) The

from

threefold
be

can

active

an

two

"

involving the
"

will."
source

(2) The
dation
foun-

or

Feelings."
Bain,

to
ask

or

is

such

authority."

human

beings

with

disapprobation

mind

undistinguishable from

virtuous

punishment,
moral

self -approbation

and

punishment

and

wishes

within.

living in

moral

is identified

conscience

or

society

training

The

or

up,

in

reasons

under

placed

with
are

which

reward

our

or

by

tion
educa-

association
accompany

given

action

an

are

panied
disciplineaccom-

greatly neglected,

3. Whenever

grows

sentiment.

are

is omitted

conduct.
there

to motion

impulses

is free.

Remorse

of the

all the

for

term

power

dispositions or

2. When

security for

sentiment

moral

experience

and

collective

whether

corresponding

fact that

'

in its essential

by punishment.
an

of

in

except

of

of

force

motive, founded

of these

government

"

to make

certain

feelings,is

actions, to the
"1.

notion

and

unless,indeed,

as

peculiarity of the

transferred

world

existence

the

feelingsof

own.

pain,

else

It is absurd

under

; the

movements

sense

Self

and

analyzed

Belief

The

'

long

Will, according

action.

our

or

so

sequence

source

of

The

external

Solidity,extension

of

shape

'

pleasure

Belief is thus

second

anything

; the

"

certain

individual

But

to

assume

there

'

the

incomplete.

not

discussing

given antecedent,

collective

sensibilities

mind

movements."

Intelligenceof
be

in the

activities of

given effect
"

of

impressions.

and

sensations

mean

"

of

state

contradiction."

material

of the

means

incapable

are

act

of the

possible knowledge

no

Knowledge

thing.
the

is

There

minds.

is

propounds

431

'

naan.
' '

and

SPENCER.

reference

to

there

is associated

it,a

state

of

"

Spencer,born 1820, began life as an essayistand

of conbnt of late has given himself
to the work
writer for journals,
structing
first
Social
General
a
publislied
System of Philosophy. lie
In 1855, Principles
of PsyEdition 1865.
Statics,Lond., 1850; Am.
chology
edition,enlarged and rewritten,vol. I.,in parts, 1869; Am.
Scientific and
70-71-72
Speculative,First
; Yol. II.,1873 ; Essays
with a different
Series 1857 ; Second
Series, 1863
published in America
" 53. Herbert

"

arrangement,

as

Illustrations

of

Universal

Progress,1864

Essays,Moral, Political and Esthetic,

; also in
Education
Moral
and Physical. " The
: Intellectual,
1865

which

in 1860

he

announced

his intention

America, 1861,
losophy,"
System of Phito complete,in-

432

SPENCER.

HERBERT

of
(1.)First Principles; (2.)Principles
Biology ; (3.)Principlesof Psychology ; (4.)Principlesof Sociology;
publishedin the prosecution
(5.)Principlesof Morality. The works
of this plan are : I. First Principlesof a New
System of Philosophy,
tlie following
subjects:

eludes

New

and

parts, 1860-61-62,

in

Lond., issued

York

1864

; 2d

written
ed.,re-

II. Principles of Biology,

York, 1872.
2 vols.,issued in parts ; New
York, Yol. L, 1866 ; Yol. IL, 1867.
Yol. I., New
III. Principlesof Psychology (rewritten),
York, 1872;
Yol.

of A.

Though

its

to

to be

the

is not
truth

of

which

Baer,

heterogeneity,

truth

this

and

of

product
the

varied

that

belief

law

subjective forms

this

and
of

we

is

being

required

were

nothing

to

the

are

more

till

The

spoken
he

and

self-evident

than

an

order

the

as

in

permanent
that

besides.

sometimes
our

mind

thus:

is

used, viz.,that

in

because

the

simply
as

though

belief in it

it,because

persistence

are

reasons

as

parently
apthan

more

answered

know

can

we

because

he

thought

are

clause.

area

that

and

Sometimes

sensations, and

of

solidated
con-

slowly-

constantly persistent,

or

forces, sometimes

matter

their

they

language

products of
sometimes

relation,and
of

other

replies sometimes

phenomena,

nothing

forms

"

Sometimes

of

ing
science, includ-

objective reality is

have

they

sometimes

and

question

such

organized and

the

to
hold

now

in it is itself

of

whether

it receives

bequeathed

they practically became

was

sh?-pe

universal,is not,

as

belief

from

which

homogeneity

because

the

who

other.

which

axioms

arisen

individuals

tion
associa-

definite

from

change

perpetually recurring

are,

manifest

same,

phenomena,

direct

are

mind

into

conclusions

necessary

all have

antecedent

correspondence

supposes

of

they

is
the

but
to the

indicated,

put

Moreover,

other

These

by reality.

and

matter

conceptions

are

whether

"

of

one

types

relations

of the

as

the

dimly

was

principle only

all the

consciousness

mean

life ; i.e.

to what

series

of

as

experience.'

thought

states

is what

common

As

of

which

experience.
'

of

independent

as

accepted

all

and

many

from

first

of all

development,

is

transition

conceives

he

existence
well

all,as

Association
the

very

space.

of

of

of the

of evolution, although assumed

from

organizations,

nervous

exist

is

itself,
and

activities

organic development

law

as

in time

the

Goethe,

which

This
It

experiences
developed

all

verification

the

explanation

; hence

and

it is from

self-evident.

however,
ample

apply
to the

self
him-

limited

not

law, of which

broader

of

doctrine

is the

has

he

psychology,

embry "logical inquiries

Wolff

by

indirectlyresulted."

They

of

his system to that

Spencer's system

the

of any.

development

Harvey's

the

"

"

have

of all and

knowledge

whole

to

spiritual,of

or

of

associational

sought

special example,

clearly indicated
Von

the

has

material

to the

necessary

characteristic

accepting

but

of being, whether

The

the

but
principles,

association

by

and

starting-point

evolution.

more

he

which

Classification

Comte.

The

"

Spencer publishedThe
explainsthe relations of

1864

In

IL, 1873.
Sciences,in

the

; New

part, 1867

in

were

the

two

bundles

though
this

sciousness
con-

or

causality

relation

growth

were

of

separable
in-

associations.
The

persistence

of

force

applied indiscriminately
is assumed

to

be

to

is assumed
the

necessarily the

to be

universal

persistence of phenomenal
same,

and

to the

unknown

and

necessary

axiom,

force, of which
and

unknowable

the

but

it is

quantum

being

or

HERBERT

foTce

is behind

which
from

and

the

By
the

each

of

this

''the

inasmuch

certain

but

gradual

the

causal

form

by

fading
idea

ever

of

known

and

causal

last

at

religious

in the

ever

of

(unless by retrogression) take

finite

continue

knowable,

but

name

as

sentiment

its

its

be
this

object
again

never

can

for

less
to

with

for

have

to

Humanity,

and
not

itself

occupy

come

stance
sub-

conceived

known

posited

it

which
the

agents,
less

as

which

imd^r
away,

causal

to

religious
like

to be

coming

that

"

fm^ms

agent

evolution

the

Unknowable,

Infinite

the

aboriginal

nothing

fade

may

conceived

causal

must

the
in

tion
concep-

implies

state

be

to

the

with

Beginning

course

in

when

phenomena."

things

agents

the

which

ishes,
van-

"

its ultimate

to

which,

continue

of

conception

this

differs

dividual
in-

ual
individ-

Likewise,

by

source,

while

things;

universal

sentiment

Having

the

to

all

ever

causal

to

single

of

loss

are

"

and

concrete

of

to

is

philosophy

conceived"

it becomes

reduction

in

source

be

developed

attributes

will

is permanent.

is

of

system

cause.

conceivable,

as

of

unknown

progressing

agent.

contemplation

sentiment

agencies,

the

of

regarded

source

the

coming

all ; the

at

universal

of

of

sciousness
con-

phenomenal,

concomitant

being

secondary
and

of

all distinctness

our

being, manifested

unknown

known

imperfectly
;

to

their

consciousness

the

different

unthinkable

of

action

of
is

anthropomorphic

be

endless

be

formulating

to

cannot

groups

and

consciousness

one

consciousness

the

knowable

The

which

reached,

phenomena;

religious

the

"

conscious

are

all

"

of

of

object
been

is

independent

of all those

thought

consciousness

The

men

in

universal, ceases

as

the
"

all

cause

is impossible,

which

entity

the

"

must

formulated

principles

there

coalesce,

groups

providential

of

distinguished."

regarded

has

the

immanent

in

away

was

from

of

first
,

agency

assimulated

universality

as

absorption

being

these

which

Science

one

theology

there
this

relations

necessaiy

i.e.

universal, unknowable,

idea

its

causal

the

scientific

concerning
but

differently.

metaphysics,
of

assume

development,

believe,

science.

to

both
or

is evident

something

or

necessary

they

philosophy itself, or

of

universal

As

soon

know

we

the

of

as

As

theological

the

that

growth

agencies.

distinctness.
and

seem

being

religion

men

to

formulate

as

of

that

and

of

them

terms

are

in

one

evolution

must

force, in

is such

which

revealed

conceptions
requires

consciousness

at

are

But

of

law

the

rule, it would

same

nature

"

in

generation

equally impossible,
and

the

under

there

generalizations

consciousness

of

That

being hostile,

variation

unformulated

of

the

all-pervading force.

because,
and

phenomena.

of

far from

'permanent,

change

all

result

religion,so
a

"

the

433

SPENCER.

object

of

templation.
con-

"

Ethical

and

truths

corresponding

producing

have

accumulation,

responding

right

to

and

in

all

us

certain

conduct

wrong

for

accounted

'

of

past generations

faculties
which

of

have

utility,
been

transmission

and

human

intuition

moral

race,

certain

"

in

basis

apparent

no

of
have

experiences

The
the

by continued

which,

modifications,

nervous

become

thus

are

through

consolidated

and

organized

sentiments

the

emotions
individual,

experiences of utility."*
*

The

system

his active

energies

physiolo"?ical
system

of

Possibly

author.

of

first

38

Spencer

it has
for

not
many

organization

criticism, and

is still under

yet

years,
which

principles which

completely

been

it is not
he

may

is

inconceivable

accustomed

perhaps

that
to

displace tliose which

call
he

not

may

Should

developed.

new

Spencer

and

taught

been

continue

associations

himself,
has

have

hitherta

devote

take

may

perhaps

fully expounded
to

be

to

possession

evolved

by

its

philosophy

into

of

that

another

484

EECENT

CnAPTEK

IX.

Influence

"

Eecent
54.

Works

of

The

of the
Latin

translation

from

the iirst. In

General

and

of the
1796

end

the

the

of the

Learned.

In

1798

Dr.

the

Critical

"

several elaborate

wrote

articles

on

the

furnished

lunatic

Doctrine, The
Stewart

Word

bestows

Dissertation,Parts
In

1S36

the

of the

Bounds
In 1844

few

and

occasional

1 and

2, 1815

of the New

History,The

Word

criticisms

Kant's

and

on

"

Science
cendental
Trans-

or

Testament
of Man.

into

Dugald

philosophyin

liis

1821.

J. W.

of The
outline

of God,

Divarication

by some

in the Encyclopedi
Philosoj^hy

published the followingworks

Man, Principlesof the Kantesian

Philosophy, Essay on
Philosophy,1824;

an

of the Edinburgh

Londinensis, and
of

ation
consider-

ments
publishedEle-

number

esteemed

the Kantian

to

Brown

second

accessible

published a
cerning
Principlescon-

Willich

Thomas

The

and

Kant's

F. M.

A.

knowledge

been

Deity, submitted

Philosophy. Dr.
in the
article on the Philosophy of Kant
Thomas
Review, 1803.
Wirgman
of

had

prepared

of Professor
the

World, and

to the

eighteenthcentury.

Eeason

F. A. Nitszch

Philosophy.

Schools.

all

of the

Pure

of

IntroductoryYiew

Man,

of

German

iirst introduced

were

Critic
Dr.

Later

the

Writers

and

writingsof Kant
about
English ])eo])le

"

WRITERS.

BRITISn

lation
Semple, Advocate, published in Edinburgh a transof
with
an
Ethics,
Introduction,giving an
Metaphysic
in 1838, Religion within
Critic of Pure
Reason
; and

of Pure
F.

Reason.

Haywood, Esq., published Analysis of Kant's Critic of

Pure Reason, etc., etc.
Pn^f. J. P. Maliaffy has published (incompleteas yet)Kant's Critical
Philosophy for English Readers.
Lond., 1871-2-3.
The
late Samuel
cient
Taylor Coleridge,1772-1834, exerted a very effiin attractingthe attention
influence
of the English public to
the modern
German
and their authors.
In 1798 he went
speculations
he studied
to Germany
the Philosophyof Kant.
to reside,where
In
1817 he published Biographia Literaria,in which
are
some
tary
fragmenthe
exhibit
of
to
some
phases
attempts
philosophy taught by
1825
In
he
Aids
to
Schelling.
Reflection,in the text and
published
of which
he uttered many
notes
earnest
protests againstthe current
the
philosophy in England, and insisted on the distinction between
Reason
and the Understanding, more,
of Jacobi
however, in the sense
of
Kant.
than
In nearly all his prose writingshe took an
attitude of

BRITISH

RECENT

435

WRITERS.

towards the philosophical

writers of his time,and
contemptuous hostility
in
aroused a belief
and a longingfor what were
supposed to be the proand

founder

as-

of the

elevated views

more

well

as

days of Elizabeth

was

the

by

The

in all branches

translations from

Walter

backward

of James.

and

intensely
glowing,interest
fostered

of the great German

directed the attention

Scott and others

the

Englishwriters
slowlyawakening,but
to

of German

German

of speculation,

masters

which
literature,

and
literature,

criticisms

on

Thomas

by
pre-eminently
Carlyle,
by
Thomas
De
the
in
residence
Ly tton,
Quincey
Germany,
for study,of an increasing
number
of English youth,and the gradual
awakening of the English people to the conviction that in many of
of science and literature they were
the most
importantdej^artments
outstrippedby the Germans
preparedthe minds of many to' listen
with attention and respect to the teachings
of German
philosophers.
same

"

E. Bulwer

"

"

As

consequence,

many

of the works

translated into
of
those

Englishwith more
have
Englishphilosophers

Germans

Hamilton

school

has

be inclined

which

forced

been

to content

have

and
itself,

discussed

been

which

the Kantian

to look

Kant

and

they

writers

the

Sir AVilliain
Dean

Mansel

the Associational

limits within

which

it would

recognizethe profounderquestions

by the Germans,

have

been

ber
largenum-

very

Jacobi.
Even

have

the M^orks of all

general attention.

over

to

familiar with

become

attracted

Fichte

and
; and

success

pointsa literalfollower of Kant.

thought into
and

have

less

or

greatlyinfluenced by

was

in many

was

who

of Kant

The

entered.

is discernible

very

and

the wider

influence

of

range

of

Coleridge

frequentlyin the selection

Mill and Herbert

Spencer.
topicsby
Kantian
J, D. Morell,originally
intuitionalist of the Scottish or
an
school, has adopted in part the profounder and more
metaphysical
and

of

treatment

Associationalism
in

"

An

Method:'

John

of

the

J. F.

German

Introduction

Stuart

to

Herbart, which

Mental

Philosophy

have
on

been

pounded
ex-

the Inductive

Loud., 1862.

philosophyof the late Victor Cousin and his disciples

has also exerted an importantinfluence upon Englishspeculation.
The
Scottish school had originally
exerted a powerful influence upon
the
tures
had begun to take in the lecdirection which French
new
speculation
admirer and pupil of Dugald
of Royer Collard, who was
an
Stewart.
Maine
de Biran,though more
independent in his speculahad contributed an additional impulseto the emancipationfrom
l^^ions,
^^Hietraditions of Condillac,which was initiated by Collard. Monsieur
The

Eclectic

4:36

EECENT

Provost, of

P.

Stewart, and

Geneva,

followed

friend

was

him

very
translated
subsequently
Joiiffroy
Icc^tures of Cousin

thinkers

in

and

to

of

consequence

last

the

within

have

The

55.

the

Christian

in

Leibnitz
from

aid

greater

of

range

and

Review,

our

greatly

also

the

following

Isaac

Will

Taylor

great

Whately, D.D.

freedom

College-

infused

The

his

I have

to find

deri-ved

besides

Treatise.

in

Chalmers
his

but

Theology,

into liis

thoroughness.
'

says,

of

was

was

Kant.

critical

the

eloquence

philosophical inquiries which

Ferrier, and

in the

character

chiefly in

the

Lond.,

Reasoning

tic
Eclecof

department

1823

Essay Introductory

the

editions

; many

to Edwards

to Christian

the

on

Doctrine.

etc., Lond., 1859.

Theology,

limits

and

of

Prof,

New

and

philosophical spirit,and

reach

at Kil-

Theology,

'

able

of Abstract
in

genuine

abilitythe

in

Natural

on

of

1787-1863.

in his

Philosophy

essay

as

on

wards
Ed-

applied

to

which
in

Logic, P.;

did
the

also

of Dublin.

than

more

universities

^d

Introductory Lessons

Rev., No.
on

of Oriel Coll.,Oxford, Prof,

Fellow

and

Student

of Pol. Econ. ; Archbishop

;

in

ment
move-

1828;

Andrews,

been

Thought,

1836

new

Theology.

Richard

logic

of

writers

Pastor

Theology

he

or

works,

many

Logic
a

the

since the

Bridgewater

articles

many

published

abilitythe

Among

Butler

I have

interest

Application

by

Of

to

nental
conti-

Economy.

Philosophy

Elements

Y., 1858.

anim^^ted

with

"

Life, Lond.,
the

N.

was

discussed

Christian

-On

of Mind,

of

Lectures

by Hamilton,

among

or

at St.

scientific

than

to that

religion :

of Another

of the

World

of

less

of St. Andrews.

Prof,

Political

Pref.

in his

in Scotland

; Un.

authors.

Butler

Bp.

more

Philosophy

and

of the

critical articles

the

not

; elected

independent

coherent

or

promoted

Physical Theory
Freedom

and

if

genuine phi'osophical spirit,and

authorship."

extant

philosophical history

of

of

views

influence

the

with

Treatise,

the

Taylor, 1787-1865, published

Isaac

The

Moral

favorite

his

were

the

with

spirit of

contributed

boldness

rekindled

show

notice

in 1843

Philosophy,

the

vigorous

means

; Prof, of

animated

was

theological teachings

and

lent its aid to that of

leadingwriters.
public attention

less

or

resigned

Moral

Evidences,

and

all the

Philosophy, Bridgewater

Chalmers

no

critical

from

influences,
many,

discuss

followingdeserve

Edinburgh,

at

Published,

by

The

Hamilton,
part,provoked Ilann'l-

in

had,

combined

years,

more

in 1824

Glasgow

at

whole

Reid.

admiration

of Cousin

Chalmers, D.D., LL.D., 1780-1847

Thomas

Theology

Butler

of

treatises,
essays,

twenty

attracted

began,

Dr.

all the works

influence

these

principlesof

distinctive

many,

pliilosophy.Theodore

English writers

philosophy.

"

Dngald

closelyin liis

philosophy in arousing the attention of separate

Great Britain to look beyond their traditionary
ties,
authorispeculations.
enlargethe sphere of their own

most, of the present

wdio

of

German

new

As

coiicsix indent

liad extorted

The

ton's first critical essay.

the

and

Unconditioned

of the

his doctrine

while

Locke

upon

WRITERS.

BRITISH

any
and

book

Published

Elements

of

of its

to revive

and

day

(Cf

elsewhere.

57.)

Easy

Morals, 1860

Lessons

; do.

on

Sir

Logic, 1826,

"William

make

tions
edi-

numerous

practical the

Hamilton's

study

Lectures

on

in

Mind,

Reasoning,
1859

; Bacon's

1843;

many

editions.

Essays, with

Anno-

438

RECENT

College, Oxford

of

Bp.

Disciple of Hamilton.

BRITISH

Gloucester

An

Bristol,1861

and

Outline

of

WRITERS.

the

Necessary

of

Archbp.

Laws

of

York, 1862.
A

Thought.

Treatise

of

of Philosophical Inquiry.
Limits
1809,
Lond., 1843.
in the University College,London
Augustus de Morgan, 1806, Prof, of Mathematics
University. Formal
Logic, n. e. 1853, a work of great acuteness.
Pure

Applied Logic.

and

Henry

Calderwood,
of

Philosophy
Hamilton.

Infinite.

Sir William

Professor

; with

Infinite

the

edition

Treatise

Dr.

the

to

of

Knowledge
1801.

Mansel.

in

Philosophy

Moral

greatly enlarged

Man's

on

and

Hamilton

of

Special Reference

second

Edin., 1854;

of the
to

1830.

b.

Theories

under

of

the

Handbook

of

Sir William

title,Philo-ophy

Infinite

the

The

Edinburgh.

Being,

Moral

in

answer

Philosophy.

1872.
Alexander
in

1850.

Philosophy.
of

Works
in his

Cairns, D.D.
Ferrier's

Vindicated.
James

McCosh,

sical

and

of

New

Moral,

ed.

Laws

of Mill

of

Edinburgh.
1858.

System.

Fraser

Essays
Life

and

strongly Berkeleian

is

1850

and

reviews
Associational

able

The

ingenious

and

Hutchinson

Hegelian Philosophy

have

Sir William

of the

History
As

of

of

the

Study

JohnGrote,

Mr.

on

John

Philosophy,
Grote

are

Prof.

Notes

discussions

Hamilton,

on

edited

claims

new

Dr.

able

published

Kant

the

on

also

hand,

one

introduced

have

to

has

the

against

papers
in America

ous
to vari-

contributed

in

Positive

and
under

volumes,

two

; the

volumes

two

philosophical,

are

of Locke.

W.

against the charge

of

ardent

Dublin

devotee
He

mind.

the

and

has

Philosophy

"

McGee

Co., 1857,

empiricism.

confident

published

Mor.

and

of

expounder

The

of

Secret

the

Hegel

and
Matter; London, 1805,
A Handbook
Perception, 1865.
translated

to Professor

Phil., Un.

Huxley's Essay

of

Camb.,

Intellectual

Mill, and

by Joseph

Dr.

B.

on

W.

Philosophy

on

the

Whewell.

Mayer, Camb.,

singularlycomprehensive,

Part

and
ciusudXdj,

An

in Relation

Exploratio

I.,Camb.,

1805,

Phi-

contains

Ferrier, Sir William

Examination

1870.

Physical

the

1872.

of

of Prof.

doctrines

on

Materialism

Law,
1855, d. 1800,

Science,
the

annotated, 1807,

and

improved edition,Lond., 1872.

Lectures

Modern

of

Schwegler,

Albert

in Relation

new

Natural,

Logic, 1870.

and

He

to the

in Relation

of Formal

Hamilton

and

special subjects, and

Stuart

with

Origin, Principle, Form,

of Medicine.

B.D.,

losophica: Rough
critical

1809

Creation,

Philosophy, being

Mill's

Supernatural
of

of Locke

being

Regards Protoplasm,

J. S,

College, Manchester,

that

the

Philosophy, by

Life, Edinb.

to

in

in

Theological, Boston, 1866, '68

and

English

Hamilton,

Ends

Government,

Logic.

been

defence

the

Divine

the

Special

Mr.

other.

Intellectualism

Hegelian System

vols.

ed.

Philosophy

Queen's College,Belfast

of

Text-book

brilliant

Stirlingis
to

of

in Owen's

These

and

The

the

on

Essays Philosophical

able

the

Examination

Scottish

Inductively Investigated, 1860

Mind

critic

Formal

into

Method

Forms

the

Thought

periodicalsmany

E. Webb.

Thomas

being

The

in

Metaphysics

The

Examination

published comprising chiefly those

very

edition.

1850.

and

Professor

school.

title of

1809.

of

Spencer

additions

and

Logic

Typical

An

avowed

Martineau,

James

Ency. Brit.,8th
Being.

and

Truth, 1800.

Herbert

and

of

Intuitions

of Discursive

is the

important

James

Basis

and

Professor

the

Knowing

Jersey,

Fundamental

The

some

in

Kant

Professor

of

Mx3Cosh

Dr.

on

of

edition, 1866,

revised

1802.

2d

in Univ.

Met.

History

1872,

4 vols.

Article

Dickie, 1850.

Defence

in

Philosophy

Theory

D.D.,

College

George

the

Logic and

1850, etc.,etc.

President

and

Rational

Bp. George Berkeley,

of Professor

and

of

philosophical sympathies.

John

Phj

Professor

C. Fraser.

The

truth-loving.

of

the

writings of

itarian
Utilfessor
Pro-

RECENT

J. P. Mahaffy.

Commentary

on

iii.

Categories, vol.
Young,
Evil

Prolegomena
An

The

Good;

Future

Christ

Mystery.

Critical

Schematism

Metaphysic, Lond.,

1856,

of

the

1871-2.

and

2d

L. Mansel

1860,

and

1.

Critical,Lond., 1872.
History, London, 1855; New York,

of

Lond.

of H.

Criticism

Deduction

Essay, Metaphysical

published

Reason,

The

to any

The

Religious Thought," Lond.,

of

Limits

Kant's

LL.D.,

of

Philosophy for English Readers, vol. !.,p.

Idealism:

and

Province

The

Critical

439

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Graham.

William

John
1856.

Kant's
Kant's

BRITISH

The

Am.

and

ed., New

Bampton

Creator

and

the

York, 1858.

Lecture

"On

Creation

the

; How

lated.
Re-

Lond., 1870.
Mr.

Ramsay,

Duty, 1848.

Psychology, 1857.
Part

II.,Lond.,

Sir

Henry

The

works

and

Value

Reason, 1862.

of

which

Happiness

Analysis
In

and

and

Theory

Part

an

Human
the

tions,
Emo-

is contained

Syllogism.
and

have

of

part second

the

Ingenious

Psychological Inquiries,etc.

Principles of

Independent.

I.,2d

edition, Lond., 1855.

1862.

Holland.
of

Human

Philosophy, 1853.

Nature

and

Principles of

Sciences, 1847.

Mental

the

philosophicalquestions
theology.

the

the

to

Instinct

C. Brodie.

B.

of

into

Inquiry

to

into

Enquiry

Introduction

Particular

Sir

relation

Classification

1848.
a

great ability those

fundamental

and

George

with

discusses

Young

immediate

Chapters
these

both

Mental

on

writers

are

2d

Physiology.

valuable

edition, Lond., 1858.

contributions

from

the

Physiological

standpoint.
Hughes

Fraser

fearless

critic

A, S. Farrar.

on

b. 1787.

John

these

E.

treatises

Dove,

Prof.

The

Baden

Christian

of Vision, 1841.

Philosophy of the Human

Christian

b. 1828.

1st

Theism,

Theism,

gion.
Reli-

First

Mind.

Theory

of

Series,1855,

2d

Burnett

Burnett

Prize

Essay,

Prize

Essay.

Lond.,

1855

Lond.,

; New

An

Smart.

Frederick

Hist, in

Unity

The

Ethics

Denison

Rewritten

on

Scepticism,

Laws

of

Thought,
Morals.

Sematology, 1844.

of

of

Beginnings

and

1805-1872.

following divisions:
2. Philosophy
Sixth

published

as

to
a

Twelfth

whole

of

the

under

the

1843.

Sematology,
of

1844.

Metaphysics,

Way

Lond.,

1855.
Professor

Camb.,

First

Century.

to

School

1. Systems

"

Lond.,

Formerly

Phil., Un.

Mor.

1854.

Lond.

etc.

Sequel
New

Lond.,

Language.

Prof.

edition, Lond,, 1857.

vols.,1841.

of Christian

Maurice,

the

the

2d

Lond., 1857-8.

Philosophy

Christ, 1850.

and

Dissertation

of Nature.

and

of Aristotle.

King's College;
the

of Worlds

of Morals.

Thought

Philosophy under
of

Faith, being

Philosophy

Outlines

on

Philosophy from

Christian

The

Metaphysics, 1844.
Essay

the

Investigation of

Smith.

Spalding.

H,

philosophical questions,

many

of

Logic

Grant.

Boole.

of

discuss

Powell.

Alexander

Samuel

Time

to the

Edin., 1856.

etc.

Alexander

1853.

the

on

Thompson.
York, 1855.

Pantheism,

B.

1848.

London,

1855.

Both

out

Letters

Tulloch, D.D.,

York,

G.

in Reference

Thought

of Berkeley's Theory

Review

Anchor

; New

Sir

Second.

and

Series, 1858.

Robert

P.

First

disciplesof Comte.

1868.

Reasoning, 1852.

1855

Philosophy, Parts

English

some

Bailey,

Second

Exact

Critical History of Free

London,
Samuel

Halle.

Six

1866,
of

of

Eng.

Published

Philosophy

Centuries, 1853.

4. Philosophy

title Ancient

and

of

the

Modern

Lit. and

Mod,

History of

Anterior

to

the

3. Mediseval
Present

Day.

Philosophy,

440

RECENT

3 vols.

1871.

What

is Revelation

Casuistry,delivered

on

Twenty-one
William

Evil, 1802.

illustration
W.

These

and

in the

works

University

Opinions, 1857.

are

of

Ethics

the

on

L. Mansel.

H.

The

Cambridge,

of

the

Social

ity.
Moral-

18C9.

School

Gravenhurst

Conscience.

18G8.

Cambridge,

of

Paley, 1839.

Thoughts

; or.

Good

on

eminently thoughtful in sentiment

and

Theory of History,Chance, Law,

Will,with

'

beautiful

for

diction.

Adam.

reference

of

of

University

Discourse

Conflict

The

; or,

in the

delivered

1871.

Smith,

Thorndale
and

Lectures

to Dr.

etc.,a Letter

Lectures

WRITERS.

BRITISH

An

to the

Inquiry

the

into

Positive

Principles of the

E. V. Neale.

The

of

Analogy

Philosophy. Lond., Allen,

and

Thought

Nature

special

1803.

Investigated.

Lond., Williams,

18G3.
D.

Rowland.

G.

H.

the

of Morals.

Foundation

The

from

Chapter
The

Thomas.

R. Lowndes.

of

History
the

An

of

History
to the

Introduction

vols.,1847.

Thales

Science,

the

by
of

Philosophy

1 vol. rewritten

Comte.

to

vols.,8vo.

Smith, 1864.

London,

Material

of the

Confirmation

from

Philosophy

1864.

Lond., Murray,

Biographical History of Philosophy.

1857, enlarged.
Aristole

of Nature

Laws

Lewes.

Spiritual. Lond., Ellis,1864.

Primary Beliefs.

Lond.
,

WiUiams,

1865.
T.

The

Hughes.

Ideal
and

Berkeley, Idealism,
Masson.

D.

British
Mill

Lend., 1863.

Immaterialism.
and

Mill

versus

of Hamilton's

The

Wilson.

F.
W.

Lond.,

each

World

; or, Universal
Fichte

see

Bd.
J. S.

in

chapter
the

1864.

volume

Hefte.

with

Mill's Doctrine

Nimmo,

this

Phil. Monats-H.
of

J. Stuart

External

Philosophy, beginning
with

Mill's

Three

Logic.

6.

and

amination
Ex-

Parts.

of

Philosophy
on

the

Causation, by

the

Analysis

of

the

Process

1865.

Lond., Longmans,

Lectures

Butler.

A.

and

Mr.

replies on

Discussion

reconciled

Freedom

Moral

Travis.

H.

56 ;

and

1865.

Criticisms.
of

the

and

on

1868.

and

of Self-determination.

55

Thorough

Logic

1866

Simpkins,

Lond.,

Elements

Thoughts

1865.

etc., etc.
of

Free

World.

with

Review,

criticisms

Real

Examination

Freedom,

and

For

Bd.

Zeitschrift,etc.

Ulrici's

Hamilton

Nature

The

Coilyns Symon.

T.

Moral

to

An

Carlyle.

in Relation

of Causation

the

Lond., Hamilton,

Philosophy

and

and

Berkeley

Metaphysics.

Recent

P. P. Alexander.

of

Theory

etc.,
Classification,

History

of Ancient

Lond.,

etc.

Pitman,
2 vols.

Philosophy.

1866.
Mac-

Lond.
,

millan, 1866.

Notes

The

Milroy.

The

J. Venn.
John

Hunt.

Argyll.
M.

J. G.

Use

Fleming.
of Students.

1856.

Lond.,

Scoto-Oxonian

and
and

Theories

Lond., Hamilton,
of

Lond.

Morals.

1866.

1869.

Hamilton.

Philosophy.

1866.

1867.

Strahan, 1867.

Lond.,

Theory,

with

Replies

to

Objectors,

Inquisitio Philosophica. being

Lond.,

Essays

Chapman,
on

some

an

London,

Examination

1809.

of the

Tendencies

of the

Day.

1866.
of Moral

Manual

Lond.
,

Lond.,

British

Lond., Macmillan,

etc.

of Law.

Reign

edition.

Kant

Faith

Lond., Longmans,
W.

The

New

Smith.

Analytical Essay.

Lond., Gardner,

Chance, etc.,

Pantheism.

on

The

Bolton.

Principles of

of the

of

of.

Duke

on

An

certain

1868.

Logic

1867.

Critical

Conscience.

Essay

The

W.

P.

Chapman,

and

Expository
Edmonston,

andEdin.,
W.

Philosophy of Ethics.

The

S. S. Laurie.
1866.

Philosophy,

Murray, 1867.

wath

Vocabulary

Republished, enlarged,etc.,by

Quotations
of

and

References,

Philosophy, Mental

C. P. Krauth.

Phil.,1860.

and

for the

Moral

BRITISH

RECENT

of

Manual

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on

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Kesearch.

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of

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II.

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and

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and

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Force

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Part

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to

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ed., Lond.,

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S. S.

W.

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Plato

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of

Rotation

the

other

and

Aristotle,edited

and

Earth,

Aristotle's

by A.

and

Bates

Comment
3

Socrates.

of

Companions

G.

vols.,
2

C. Robertson.

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S. A.

C.

Time

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G.

and

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Space.

2 vols.,Lond., Longmans,

Enquiry.

The

Napier.

of Nature

Book

of the

Examination

T.S.Barrett.

1872.

Ibid.

of Science.

An

and
_?)rim

Book

the

of Practice

Theory

an

cal
Ethi-

into

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of Man.

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Argument.

Inquiry

The

1870.

the

of

Nature

Causation.

losophy
Phi-

Ibid.
,

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and

Comte,

On

as

J. Lorimer.

H.
T.

H.

S. Monck.

1863.

Body

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J. Tyndall.
B. Jowett.

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Mind,
of

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etc.

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Addresses

as

Vision.

and

Parallel

to

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Reviews.

Lord

Bacon

the

dence
Principles of Jurispru-

1872.

Lond.,

N.

between

1872.

An
Inquiry
Edin., Clark, 1872.

and

and

Origin

Lay Sermons,
etc., etc.

of Law

Nature.

Space

Huxley.

Philosophy, including

Philosophers.

by

Maudsley.
H.

Inductive

Institutes

The

determined

as

W.

the

Inductive

Y., 1863.

Man's

1871.
Place

Y., 1871.

N.

in

Nature.

N. Y.,

More

Criticisms

on

English, with

Analyses.

win,
Dar-

Y., 1872.

Fragments
Plato's

of

N.

Science.

Dialogues,

Translated

Y., 1871.
into

vols,,

1871.

Charles

The

Darwin.

to
JRelation

Rowland.
in Kant's

Sex.
An

Origin of Species,

Murray,

Essay intended

Groundwork

1859.

The

Descent

of Man,

and

Selection

1871.

of the

to

Interpret

Metaphysics

and

Develop Unsolved

of Ethics.

Ethical

Lond., Longmans,

Ques1871.

442
Four

J. S. Blackie.

Phases

of Morals

into

Researches
2
L.

Early History

B. Tyler.

the

The

W.

Jurisprudence.
C

Morel.

J. H.

and

ture.
Cul-

Churchill,1871.

Lond.,

Life, etc.

Life

Theories

and

considered

Lond., Macmillan,
An

Conscience.

and

in Aid

Essay

with

Reference

to

Principles of Cenerai

1871.

of

1871.

Lond., Longmans,
a

Grammar

of

Assent.

3d. ed.

Lond.
,

Bums,

Co., 1870.

J. Allanson

The

Picton.

Mystery

CIIAPTEH

"

Mythology, Philosophy, Religion,Art,

of

of Law,

Authority

Newman.

"

Gates

Culture.

Elements

Markley.

Primitive

1871.

Ibid.

Religious Thought.

anism.
Utilitari-

1871.

of

Mystery

ed.,Lond., 1870.

2d

Mankind.

of

Development

vols.,Lond., Murray,

Beale.

and
Christianity,
Socrates,Aristotle,

1871.

Lend., Edmonston,
E.

America.

in

PHILOSOPHY

56.

X.

Philosophy

chieflyas

and
Politics,

formed

first more

America,

American

less free from

or

and

other

Philosophy

"

Essays.

Lond.,

1873.

America.

in

in

in

England, has been prosecuted

its specialrelations to Morals,

be

remembered, however, that the

as

applied science, and

Theology. It should

an

spiritwhich

in

of Matter

culture

civilization

and

ecclesiastical and

scholastic

was

from

the

and
traditions,

itself in every form of independent

spiritwoidd naturallymanifest
Kot a few of the influential minds
jjhilosophical
investigation.
of decided
the earlyplanters
of the American
colonies were
men
among
familiar with the abstract
were
philosophyof
tastes,who
speculative
their times, and
were
prepared to apply it with boldness to every
that this

of
descripti(ui
more

human

cultivated

of this vocation.

faiths and

its studious

The

institutions.

men

circumstances

became

which

As

the

country became

and

more

led

some

more

conscious

of the colonies to

political
independence also compelled the leaders of opinion to
of political
and
tlie fundamental
ethical
fall back
principles
upon
science for guidance and inspiration.The ecclesiastical and religious
favorable
associations
of the majority of the people were
originally
to the development of a philosophical
theology. It is not surprising,
therefore,that religiouszeal has been associated with a pronounced
and has to a considerable
extent
for metaphysicalspeculation,
taste
The
stimulated
and
fostered such
a taste.
logicalhabit of the people
has insensibly
inevitable conclusions
in following data
to their
assert

led the thinkers

science, and

duty

of

to

and
believe

scholars of America

to

cherish

taste

for pure

in tlie

the

its

re-

acknowledging

of reachingthe truth,and
possibility
As a necessary
authorityas supreme.

JONATHAN

studies have attracted

suit,speculative
of the educated
to

of

of

some

men

the attention

of the country, and

its most

its literature.

443

EDWARDS.

eminent

While

of honorable

in

interest

speculativestudies,both

studies

America,

her mother

as

was

on

pure

scholars of
the

and

applied.
followed

the

it

few

of

show

can

of its scholai-s

While
lead

warmly

most

writers

many

achievements,

sympathized

aspects of

tion
special fascina-

of

boast

not

largenumber

specialdepartments

to

the part of

natural, has

country, she has

and

cannot

pre-eminent philosophicalabilityor
record

ha\'e lent

writers

America

of

in

of

all these

England,
ing
chang-

with the

the
outrun
cases
some
philosophyat home,
in
readiness
follow
the processes and to approto
a
England
priate
results of speculation
the Continent.
on
and

Jonathan

" 57. Jonathan

Edwards

is the

has

in

Edwards.

and perhaps the greatest,name

first,

in American

Born
in Windsor, Conn. ; A.B.,
philosophy. 1703-1758.
Yale College,1720 ; Tutor, 1724 ; Pastor, Northampton, Mass., 1726
;
also Stockbridge,
1753
of
'New
Mass.,
Jersey,
; President,College
N.
Princeton, J.,1757.
Edwards

physical
distinguishedfor the earlydevelopment of his metaand for the freedom, even
tastes and ability,
to audacity,with
he attempted to adjustthe Calvin ist theologyto the principles
which
and conclusions
of a reasoned
he not
philosophy. As a consequence
and independent school of Calvinistic theology,
only established a new
which
has
been
the
known
New
as
England or the Edwardian
Theology,but contributed very largelyto the development of speculative
of
the
and
confidence
in
tastes,
speculativeinquiriesamong

scholars of

was

America.

The

influence

this

of

considerable

school

has

not

been

'

m-

theologyand philosophyin Great Britain,where the

from
the first appearhas been
name
familiarlyknown
ance
of his Treatise on
of
Edwards
Stewart
the Will.
:
Dugald
says
There
is one
has
America
of
whom
to boast,who,
metaphysician
does
|in logicalacuteness
not
and
yield to any disputant
subtility,
bred in the universities of Europe." (Diss.,part ii.,
pulse
sec.
7.) The imfurnished
and
direction to the speculationsof Edwards
were
he was
thirteen years old,
He mastered
Locke's Essay when
by Locke.
feels when
it with a keener delightthan
a miser
jstudying
gathering
student
a
|,uphandf uls of silver and gold." But he was not exclusively
upon
of Edwards

"

"

444

JONATHAN

EDWARDS.

might be inferred from his secluded situation and limited

opportunities,lie was a zealous reader of most of the writers accessil^lc
familiar with the course
of speculain tlie English language,and was
tion
in the mother
country, readingthe writers of all schools with ecjual
ardor,and ne\er
abandoning the confident belief that whatever is true
in }"hilobe both
and reasonable
true
be shown
to
in theologycould
and
at once
a scholastic
a
was
mystic; a scholastic
sopliy. Edwards
the sustained
in the subtletyof his analysisand
ings,
vigorof his reasonhis
sensitive
derness
tenof
the
emotive
and
a
delicacy
mystic in
of his
and
the idealistic elevation
imaginative creations,
his Christian faith into the beatific
which
at times almost
transfigured
of

Locke,

as

vision.

philosophicalspeculations

The

58.

"
his

works

(1.)

of

Dwight's Life

Berkeley
the

the

on

Careful

is

supposed

(3.)
which

Will

hand,

Boston, 1788.

Virtue.

vols.

the

Edward

complete

Hickman.

10 vols.,vol. i.,containing
edition

Worcester

"
The
in

of

design
a

letter

to

to the

letter

the

author
John

same,

against

freedom

of the

objection
contrary

Calvinistic

made

Taylor,
of

such

the
:

and

Fr.

Calvinists

Against

determination

is

and

it

the

contrary
of True

Nature

which

God

the

created

Edwards,

by Tryon

D.D.

S. Austin,
ix., x., Edin., 1847 ;

vols,

; and

York, 1880; by S.

New

York, 1844;

"

test
that

vols..New

E.

Dwight,
1855,

York,

this

conceived

also

of

the

strictest

Calvinistic
"

of mankind.

Tumbull
as

Isaac

these

It

(Moral
and

position Edwards

more

bring

exist

in the

as

great objections

late

of

topics [the misconceptions

of

such

particularly that

and

moral

God's

designed

as

Dr.

as

Philosophy),

reply

and

the

contended

disposition of

the

that

absurd,

heart,

government
to

and
and

the

great
are

cal
philosophi-

the

philosophical
the

that

the

and

by,
Clarke, Dr. Whit-

Samuel

Philip Doddridge,

unphilosophical, self-contradictory,and

vice,as they

is avowed
in another

the

reasoning

was

1748, and

fully explained

early

as

notions

writers,

Watts

to

reputation chieflyrests.

Edwards'

250-1, and

pp.

endeavoring

the

which

on

was

by leading Arminian

determined.

of virtue

work

divinity from

sense

common

is the

writing

49G-9,

pp.

....

John

Will

in

viz.

to the

New

for

edited

E. Williams

Dr.

etc.

End

to

the

of

Doctrine

Christian

Arguments

of
and

Reward

Worcester, Mass., 1809, Dr.

are

vols.,imp. 8vo,

Erskine, Life,

will] to

assumptions
cessions

the

on

Rev.

outcries

memoir,

the

Boston,
Freedom

that

Vice,

concerning

York, 1853,

by
2

and

Produced,

works

of

Great

The

of
under

hazarded

reprinted.

Treatise

The

59.

(4.)

topics treated

Affections.

and

Virtue

Notes

conclusions

than

Notion

Agency,

concerning

New

Lond., 1817, 8 vols., edited

Lond., 1834, by

Modern

(5.) Dissertation

its Fruits.

(6.) Charity
principal editions of

World.
The

of its Truth

Also, Dissertation
and

the

Moral

to

1758.

Boston,

etc., etc.

Answered,

into

S. E.

to

These

of the
The

were

Boston, 1854.

Blame.

variety

discussed.

of

Inquiry

essential

be

the

to

are

Appendix

works.

more
Spinoza,
(2.) Treatise on the Religious

; Evidences

Defended

Original Sin

Strict

to

and

Praise

Punishment,

and

of Edwards'

following of

the

in

in the

Science,

respect

they

those

and

of logical necessity.

pressure

1746.

which

found

be

may

Natural

in

sixteen,

ability with

one

On

i. of Dwight's edition

of

boy

of Edwards

and

Mind,

Vol.

for

speculative

the

and

the

Edwards,

simply wonderful

are

On

Notes

will

of

doctrine
that
are

is

the

con-'

self*
self-

essence

manifested

in

"

446

JONATHAN

in

Willing",addressed

John

to

Edwards'

treatise has

to adhere

professed

Will.

the

Self

the

He

"

1841.

and

New

Theological Essays.
Lectures

Henry
60.

Ethical

The

Virtue, a
1746; Sermons
Hutcheson

Hume

it should

distinguishes between

the

first to

can

and

inference

energies

inasmuch

beings,

God

that

He

as

distinguishes between

is

one's

to
at

and

prior to

is

that

anything
disinterested

self,with

As
with
and

in

love

we

sense

inasmuch

there

is

This

moral

which

the

as

in

of

make
it

but

Sentiment,
are

make

depends

but

not

it

or

or

spiritualbenevolence.

of that

Haven

New

of Edwards

abundantly

W.

1786-1858.

Princeton

Taylor,
1858.

Necessity,etc.

etc.
,

be

they

being

in

love

of

and

the

second

in its
love

which

because

had

Hutcheson,
its object.

general, as

Complacence,making
limited, and
specific,
and

Being
object.

himself
in

He

than

quantity

being.
same

as

inclinations
and

"

is

he

distinction

for

He
ing
lov-

of

appetites

the second, which

This

also

its

all created

of

is the

natural

no

proportion

being of inclinations
and

as

provides

better

the

supposes

the

appetites ; "

these

he

necessarily religious,inasmuch

finite

"

first
of

qualifiesit objectively

self-love,viz.,the first,which

love

illustrates

aspect.
one

with

fitness

of

from

arise

change,
of

as

what

Reason.

The

elevated
which

Indeed, it

he

Universal

are

the

definition

the

or

of

Nature

Religious Affections,

and

Being,

the

on

the

the

accepts

should,

but

; giving

the nature

are

Inquiry respecting

composing

Benevolence,

or

promotes

ourselves

the

the
was

from

moral

objected

from

they spring

coexist

or

does
with

the

natural
the

hallowed

by

not

of

and
of

It is not
and

unselfish
the

imply

absence

love

being,

the

love

virtuoxis

of these

soul,
Moral

wholly

special
of

all,

ill desert.

against Hutcheson's

its affections.

instinctive

to, and

good

of

good

universe

the
of

sense

the

subjective constitution

excites

is excellent
may

love is attended

ourselves, virtuous
whatever

separate

we

capable of

they

and

1829-1839.

and

on

In

private interest."

or

merely

in

peal
Ap-

an

Agency

were

Treatise

Treatise

embrace

necessarily virtuous, unless

spiritualsense

he

should

object

propriety

is founded

in General, i.e.,unless
moral

his

selfishness

on

his

conceivable

the

not

; and

pleasing, and

its unfitness

sense"does

would

Sanse,

in every

of

sense

of

or

to

by

Moral

views

York,

his

in

quantity of Being

gratifying

respect

great length, and

vols.,New

given

not

senses

in

ure

Benevolence

private character,

plea

any

of

only might,

grateful

the

New

Nathanael

are

infinite,and

two

Cf.

Universal

on

does

to the

is

dom
Free-

; Examination

Edwards'

and

P.

into

Determined
to

Henry

of the

Haven,
Spectator.
TheologicalReview ; reprinted as

While

virtue

true

not

Will

is

have

Chancellor

Inquiry

Applied

Fitch, 1847

will

is Love

love

which

genuine
its

and

Contingent Volition.

necessarily virtuous,

that

provides

be

selection

him.

be fixed

and

the

Will

its Fruits, 1852.

and

the

generic

be

He

work, 1788

before

He

"

God.

Edwards

subjectively viewed

by insistingthat

the

"

1857.

of

Charity

Edwards'

of

who

these

among

York,

spiritof Collins,Liberty

in the

McMillan.

views

on

virtue

relative.

of

of

or,

1840-1847.

York,

posthumous

and

that

virtue

Lee

writers

some

ChrisUan

Princeton

Government

Parry "

True

etc.

Boston

etc.

1773-18G7, published An

Day

Quarterly

published,

Carleton

Philadelphia

"

Moral

the

on

New

the

Will

of the

doctrine

iu the

counter-papers

of

(-f the

2d edition.

in the

criticised

; The

by

of

Doctrine

Day, D.D.,

Power

The

Review

Doctrine

; The

Un.

Phil,

published

Jeremiah

1838.

Noyes.

discussed
in

Appendix,

an

Conspicuous

system.

Intel.

York, 1839

New

-determining

the Will.

Also,

and

Consciousness, 1840

Responsibility,1841.

on

CRITICS.

to criticism

subjected

been

Calvinistic

of Mor.

University of Michigan.

Herrick

Mill,with

Stuart

also

to the

D.D., Prof,

Tappan,
of

HIS

1869.

Shepard.

to

AND

EDWiHlDS

of

God.

tions
affec-

Being
The

affections

affections.

JONATHAN

'

'

The

of

kind

which
manner

not

Boul for

foundation

but

gives
The

up

Christian

tastes

and

school

of

the

Some

virtue

habits,by
earnest

the

Newport,

to

perish

of

in

carried

of

of

Asa

sense

only

these

creates

the

the

'

'

distinction

unable

of

are

acts

of

new

of

the

new,

will,but

of

the

same

principles,

strong desire

have

They

trained

pronounced

to

and

ethical

influence,

powerful

tive
speculaand

built

within

and

earnestness,

otherwise

the

on

the

express

educated,

still further

I.,

Great

truly

by Nathanael
of

"

is not
to

has

state

as

Natural

between

he

lacks

the

the

heart

position
dis-

or

it

as

counter-doctrine
taste

of the

Moral

spiritual

or

soul.

The

sertion
as-

Smalley into

by

Inability,according

faculties which

him

qualify

do this,he

to

spiritual

Spirit of God

that

disposition

the

that

the

sharpened

was

that

taught

exercises

and

natural

all the

of

who

held

faculty

new

does

special exercise

forth

called

willing

spiritual excellence

efficiencyof

Emmons

again

be

must

for

Emmons,

direct

Samuel

and

Mass.,

being

spiritualfaculty, and

the

of

Barrington,
that

applied

to one-sided

dV

interpreted by

as

foundation

Bome

and

developed

consequences

benevolent

doctrine

The

extreme

inasmucli

that

heart

The

obey these

disposition
premises
or

to

All

actions

must

to

repentance

sinful,and

or

men

repent

and

believe

Every

must

faith,or

he

cannot

1718-1771,

any

be

sinful
acts

of

be

derived

is essential
from

is

to

to

obey

morally

is

be

disposition

naturally able,
to

offensive

the

kind, should

to

that

God,
be

do

not

and

but
volve
in-

them.

perform

conclusion

and

moral

truly obeyed

of his which

required
the

to the

such

cannot

man

all actions
; therefore,

Sandeman,

unregenerate

proceed

not

unchanged.

commands
be

Robert

do

which

commands

disposition remains

or

to

right disposition or regenerate heart

action.

every

of natural

exhortations

that

natural

the

States

legitimate

R.

in

exercises

referred

fallen

; but

taught
of

these

So

is

of

nature

exercise

upon

by

benevolence,

that

God.

modified

The

already

morally unable,
From

particular

holy.

to be

this

of

exercised

not

were

their

Newport,

to the

essentiallydefective.

while

the

of Edwards.

United

men

above
to

faculty, but

foundation

the

God

Edwards
excellence

principle

new

faculty

new

and

spiritualsense

new

in

should

religiouszeal

among

certainty provided by

in his

man

will

way

which

Burton, 1752-1836, Pastor, Thetford, Vt., who

the foundation required by Edwards
for the
was

which

the

of their

extreme,

glory

exercises.

that

this
laid

kind

new

have

the

disinterested

at

natural

new

force

to the

pertains only
is

So

for any

new,

or

is not

followers
of

people

either

Pastor

facultyalready existing,was
excellence

'

all dictated

They

the

among

the

Edwards,

advance

to

old

some

definition

holiness.

or

the

doctrine

was

consist

not

the

God,

Church.

Hopkins, 1721-1803,
at

in

acts

tions.
Affec-

"

of

Spirit

faculty, but

new

sense

were

principles enumerated

The

extremes.

new

only

metaphysicians

Christian

of

the

by

foundation

soul,for

the

God

philosophical

portion of

followers

the

of

epeculative,

considerable

without

by

i"nd

to

practical and

very

of

nature

Edwards

faculty of understanding.

this

just characterized

treatises

Edwards
of

mind

soul.'

new

same

attends

Spirit

The

approba-

are,

the mind, differing in nature

of the

last

the truly virtuous

i.e.^

"

in the
of

these

the

spiritualprinciple.'

new

no

character
both

in the
'

will.'

three

of

part

laid

of

but

of the

that

heart

Religious

is not

faculties

of exercises

kind

new

holy disposition of
faculty

This

faculty of understanding,

the

sensation

or

distinguished from

is laid in nature, either

of the

of exercise

kind

new

which

foundation

that

or

perception

new

be

wrought

are

4:47

OTHERS.

disposition,' What

on

previously possessed.

any
'

is

is

which

from

or

affections

of all,such

First

should

the

great length in his Treatise

at

AND

conscience

heart

inclination,the

the

answers

result

of the

approbation

of

ion

EDWARDS

all the

that

withheld.

all
In

448

JONATHAN

opposition
and

moral

the

have

Dr.

Sandeman,

to

Hopkins

natural, they should

not

disposition ;
selves,they should be exhorted
new

feature

nent

of the

EDWAKD8.

but

contended

they

as

to attend

so-called

the

on

attain

to

of grace.
the

or

is

men

simply

holiness,that

true

unable

means

divinity

Hopkinsian

exercise

to

morally

are

of
inability

the

that,as

exhorted

be

This
of

form

is. to

this

of tin

was

proim-

Calvinism

named

Hop/dmiaidsm.
In

treatise

the

Edwards

contends

progenitor
this

entitled
that

is

simply
is

subject

the

The

Doctrine

oneness

or

of

identity

established

oneness

the

by

Defended, etc., etc., 1758,

posterity of

the

divine

Adam

constitution.

for its philosophical

remarkable

more

of Original Sin

with

His

ingenuity and

their

argument

on

pertinacity than

for its convincing power.

He

fold

contends
in its

The

conclusion

appear

for

that

the

he

no

between

the

mankind

; and

imputes it

to

the

therefore

; and

apostasy

of

it is

but

them,

"

shall

propriety

trulyand

the

whole

and

union

properly theirs,and

impossible
as

union

properly availing
of

in

the

universe

posterity

of

that

to

that

part

any

G-od

because

ground God

that

so

real

theirs,merely
on

it may

apostasy,
of

system

is not

apostasy

first

of Adam's

hearts

the

and

by virtue

(truly

reality of

and

of

of the

sin ;

the

constitution.

observed

been
absurd

an

theAr
mankind

Author

consent

sin

be

sin of

divine

the

has

the

of

all

full

of

of

world

what

From

muni-

identity or unity is

of

result

it must

become

the

the

the

partake

to

the

is

that

by

owing

of

virtue

by

truly

established
is

is,it

follows

as

propriety,

establishment

system

it

to conclude

branches

consequence)

whose

first

and

root

is

ground

sure

of

race

that

philosophical grounds,

whatever

reaches

this, in reality and

to such
to

that

but

which
is

there

thing

great length,on

at

import,

imputes

it to them."
The
were

but

of

Fall

the

by

first

our

occasioned

not

left

Moreover, by
of

creation

withdrawment

which

the

by

law

habitual

he

of his sin, but

by

which

to

sin

the

The

by

the

been

In

operative
of

If

this
this

author
the

connection

moral

in

the

quality,
ences
influ-

or

This

They

they

would

will

liave

posterity, but

does

on

the
count
ac-

compel them

not
the

through

prevented

sisted
con-

of the

sovereign constitution

The

sin

nature

condemned

not

himself

with

one

his

to

are

their progenitor

withdrawment

the

imputed

personal sin.

own

Treatise

the

on

only disposes things

God

inconsistent

Will,

in such

with

divine

the

viz.

manner

human

their

withdrawment

sinning, had

these

perfections,is explained!
that

the

that

be

the

End

in

Creation,

cause

Being is?

Divine
sin will

certainly

it is not

liberty,then

of this certainty, and

should

in that

sistent
inconsense

of sin.

with

on

God's

the essay

on

Last

the Nature

the

happiness

God,

two

ends

it is the

-is not
them.

to

inherit from

Adam

from

resulted

it certain

incompatibility between

as

race

present.

is not

libertythat

or

originaltransgression.

evil,in consistency with

certainty

treatise

inasmuch

his

of Adam

which,

sinful

impulses

supernatural

posterity of

is constituted

makes

and

of sin, but

author

with
the

posterity of Adam

existence

ensue.

be

sin

of their

account

on

princ'ples enounced

the

not

The

sin is transmitted

evil

positive

any

of the

nature

corrupt

principlesor impulses.

the

descent,

superior spiritualinfluences

influences

lower

possessed after

actually, although it

of the

the

dispositionto sin,which

disposition to

of

infusion

or

of the

continuance

higher spiritual or
to

sway

higher spiritualinfluences.
habitual

the

of natural

which

nature

that

of

exclusive
a

the

Parents, and
the

as

these

object of the benevolent

posthumous

of Virtue, Edwards
of

coincide

created
in

one.

beings
The

work, published in,.

contends
and

the

creation, as

love of the Creator, cannot

but

that there

happy

declare

is

no.

glory of

declarative

and

his

holy,

glory.

THE

DISCIPLES

The

61. We

"

have

of

conspicuous

most

these,

Edwards, D.D., 1745-1801.

Union

of

most

already

referred

adopted

His

it.

New

the
a

the

Liberty

had

done

De
is

Jonathan

of

on

of

Theory

the

the

by

Cf.

A.

Horace

The

the

Bushnell.

other

volume. The
Vicarious

out

as

have

and

Timothy

was

published

Discourses

and
Treatises, by
Boston, 1859.

1745-1840.

Cf. Collected

Weeks.

ed
republish-

been

York, 1806.

New

Rev.

of

West, John

Philosophy

24mo,

V.

Dr. Dwight
which

Smalley,

from
mediated

many

between

familiar

culture

he

and

other

with

6 vols.

etc.

and
with

he

he

was,

thoughts

Nathanael

1842.

principles
The

of

his

29

rational

the

degree

some

familiar

became

others
own.

in

which

prominent

more

Dwight,

Greenfield, Ct.,

4 vols.

vols.,and

schools

far
than
The

at

for

any

text-books

them

Scottish

and

of

as

had

least,by

the

Berkeley, Butler,
held
in the

so

large

teachings

for clearness

special subtlety
which

and

and

he

of

this

of thought.

He

in the

of

was.

18th

tury,
cen-

ment
stateThe^

Campbell.
As

method

analysis or

employed

the

way

theological system

Dwight.
and

cussed
disand

in

George

place
of Dr.

He

reached.

of reasoning and

modes

sented
dis-

literarytastes

ethical English divines

and

He

disciples,and':

philosophers, and

decided

distinctions

anthority

an

theology.
of his

some

among

man

shadowy

distinguished

more

to him
and

in

writer

and

presenting

Essay,

of

profoundness

in instruction

were

Mark

Paley'sMor. and Pol. Philosophy.

were
popularized,if not ameliorated,by
metaphysics, which

Logic, Locke's
Edwardian

Emmons,

Timothy
at

theological nomenclature,

and
and

frivolous

referred

philosophy

leading English

scholastic

with

of

adopted by

were

opposing

popular style. Being

many

however,
of

which

which

He

Edwards.

questions

most

ethical elements
made

were

discipleof

of the

works
in

influenced,to

which

of Edwards

Duncan's

the

less familiar

was

extremes

free from

philosophical and
thinker

main,

of the conclusions

opinions

or

Collected*

Smalley, 1734-1820.

John

Works, Boston, 1853.

Memoirs,

Ct., 1719"

Cf

works.

Stephen West, 1736-1819.

final upon

studiously avoided

kept himself
more

and

the

with

their

Hopkins^

pastor in Bethlehem,

of Edwards,

Collected

Works

in the

was,

sophical
Philo-

1 imp. 8vo, 1818-'19, '22,'23, '24, '27,'28,'40, '46.

and

decisive

was

and

Samuel

Dwight.

1752-1817; A.B., Yale Coll., 1769; Tutor, 1771-1777; Pastor

1783-1795; Pres., 1795-1817.
Theology Explained and Defended,
6

Eeviewed,

for 1866.

school

Edwardian

Religion Delineated, 1750,

vols.
Boston, 1850.
Hopkins, 1721-1803.

Samuel

Princeton

and

contemporary

True

and

Sacrifice,etc.

of the

leaders

Works,

the

of
The

is called

what

carefully wrought

Joseph Bellamy, Stephen

are

Joseph Bellamy

also

and

those

to

applied.
of

of

grounds

treatises

Atonement

Griffin,Burge,

Theol. Rev.

distinguished

Emmons,

He

The

Am.

and

Theology
Nathanael

1790.

in

Park,

Smalley, Maxcy, Emmons,

Englander

was

laid far

general

on

and

tion
Disserta-

he

the

on

He

"

Edwards

8vo,

in his

treatise

been

and

President

1842,

West,

development

has

sermons

late

principles similar

carefully defined

which

whose

less

elaborate

an

known

Atonement,

that
Dr.

to

the

Jonathan

son

D.D.,

father,except

certainty, and

are

Among

his

was

Andover,

Will, in reply

of God, in which

writers

the

Edwards.

volumes.

his

the
mere

best

of

Edwards,

Two

are
Satlsfactione^

called,is

followers

Edwards,
New

of

Edwards.

government

he

as

England

the

philosophical power,

Atonement, 1785,

moral

philosophical system by
by

the

on

treatise

Edwards,

Younger

to

the

of Grotius, in his

of

some

logical and

Tryon

Edwards.

philosophical principles of

on

sermons

specialjustice in

to

449

EDWARDS.

op

Cf. the works

his father

than

stress

greater

for

College, etc., by
of the

Disciples

referred

already

OF

and

Dr..

460

AMERICAN

have

Dwight,

conspicuous
Eleazer

PHILOSOPHY

been

still further
whom

among

T. Fitch, Charles

These

writers

Edwards

in
of

Authority

the

deviated

to the

Moral

largely

the

nomenclature

and

modern

requirements of philosophy

less

or

of

of

and

God,

Holiness
the

psychological and
of

and

of

ethical

results

of the

and

to

Edwards.

of

of

Nature
of

and

and

Christ,

conforming

completely

more

school

Tayl-'.

doctrines

the

Work

elements,

new

W,

the

Sin,

Atonement

theological discussions

the

from

and

writers,

Park.

A.

pronouncedly

Nature

other

Nathanael

Edwards

and

and

pupils

Beecher,

Hopkins,

more

Government

introducing more
method

Stuart, Lyman

Will,the

EDWARDS.

of his

by several

G. Finney, Mark

have

respect

modified
Moses

were

TO

SUBSEQUENT

the

to

and

grammatical

torical
his-

exegesis.

Philosophy

"

63.

of the

Jonathan

18th

here

on

century,

and

through

admirer

discipleswere

mind

in

occasioned

the

1752

In

Ethica^ relating to

; and

the

but

York,

known

now

Yale

author

Life

Columbia

as

College, and

Samuel

was

was

the

and

acquaintance
printed

was

written

During

terminology

clearness

John

and
is

Also

more

the
and

Essay

First

in

than

Mind

The

Stratford,

residence

with

the

on

of

that

is anonymous,

these

of
is

It is

Johnson

the

(See

his

Philoaophka
The

in

work

and

the

the

with!;

positivelytheistic,but
as

is

spiritof

the

precise

more

are

not

made

Will.

conceived

known

was

in

tutor

Elementa

The

distinctions

what

been

in New

Conn., till 1754.

Newport,

Freedom

writers.

toward

College

by Dr. E. E. Beardsley,

at

style, and

the

standing
Under-

or

work

of the

President

written

newly

elevation

Norris, except

exact

treatise,which

the

1753.

Johnson, 169(5-1772,had

Berkeley's

especial theological bias, except

no

Dr.

College.

before

years

great

Malebranche

Lond.

impress

Philadelphia, Ble-

in

printed,

adopted the principles of his philosophy.

two

with

independent

an

his

Island, and

Johnson, D.D.,

Bishop

Rhode

hopeful

things relating to

or

Behavior.

Moral

by Chandler, 1805, Lond., 1824.

yet published.)

of

Franklin

Episcopal missionary

an

and

production

Benjamin

only philosophicalthinkers

Platonizing Berkeley left

tolerant

PhilosopJdca^
containing chieflyNoetica^

menta

the

not

The

England.

speculative

passing notice.

his

and
in New

even

'there
ardent

one

deserves

Edwards

Subsequent

Hutchinsonian'.

theory.
In

on

In

63.

"
other

The
of

and

Virtue

of

reach

and

College, published
It

Obligation.

special philosophical ability,and

no

respect

subtilty

of

designed

was

originalityof

no

it falls

thought

a
a

as

tion
concep-

immeasurably

people
Lord

war

upon

Somers'

Crisis," were

thoughtful
the

the

nature

Tracts, and
in

cheap

serviceable

Rights of Man,"
new

not

of the

independence

description, and
could

reprinted

cases

the

be

other

and
and

economical

than

was

colonies

serious,

and

read

had

and

similar

editions.

political pamphlets
organized

the

Locke

"Common

Paine's
in

to the

attention

the

war,

which

had

of the

principles of politicalphilosophy, through the

of

European

American
discussions

and
in

and

Sense,"

excitement

ceded
pre-

philosophical

Government

on

anyf

American

the

best

upon

freely circulated,and

treatisi-s,were

Thomas

discussions

ethical,for
the

toi

unfavorable

was

speculation

earnestly

obligations of government.

other

to

The

science.

philosophical

published subsequently

government

American

especially unfriendly

was

questions of politicaland
war

were

treatises

,'
for

every

than
this

with

Moral

Edwards.

culture

the

of

Foundation

displays

style.

or

below

of Yale

Clapp, D.D., 1703-1767, President

the

but

text-book,

"*'

Thomas

1765,

brief essay

the

some

"The

hour.

The

reputation.

After

people
which

was

occupied

attended

the

AMERICAN

formation

of their

James

Federal

own

Jefferson

and

character

and

typical American

was

The

he

the

Deistical

in

for

America

were

forced

The

awakening

also

involved

of
their

to read

of

for

was

important

most

direction
now

began

took

the

in

and

later

years

and

of

cultivated

and

chemistry
everywhere
in

with

The

Boston

since

original contributions
with

studies
free

zeal.
the

which

and

faith

Christian

century,

present
Hume

Human

the

the

youth

to the

in literature.

of

letters.

theological

and

all,New
The

new

known

be

to

influences

new

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increased

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of

politicaltastes

spirit,had

in

pre-eminence
Last

and

of letters.

culture
that

legal
taken

vicinity

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thought

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independent

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at

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to

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of

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friends

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maintained.
to

related

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enthusiastic

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of

while

began

have

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inquiry.

Philadelphia

for

was

of

quarter

exclusively theological and

positive impulse

and

generation.

the

instruction

physics.
and

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the

on

much

did

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France

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in

and

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in

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discussion

Essay

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and

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geology,

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more

defenders

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than

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literary

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frugal

the

times

American

stimulated

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rude

nor

excited

and

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last
Its

named

exemplified

the

activity of the

century,

by

on

spirit.

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necessary
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taste

movement

politicalrelations

He

physicist,but

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period.

eminent

an

and

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furnished

were

Hamilton

in its

deserves

eminently

so

direct

18th

the

French

chiefly occupied

but

and

excite

that

was

theology,

or

of

which

Franklin

other

theoretical

Franklin, 1706-1790,

Benjamin

educated,

the

on

of the

and

Washington

eminently

was

as

451

EDWARDS.

TO

Federalist

in the

Jay

of

his associates

politicalphilosophers

wisdom

Constitution, such

John

and

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opposing-parties, that

two

SUBSEQUENT

PHILOSOPHY

from

fostered

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has

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originality.

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few

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prompt

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in

principles

new

are

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when

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has

generally

so

for

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consequences

country

no

but

Britain

philosophy

to

thinkers

European

widely diffused, and

not

War

1770-1800,

of

surpassed G-reat

philosophy

were

American

in

works

important

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speculative thought,

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Scottish

original
in

often

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new

of

contributions

America

the

political union,
to

the

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England

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favored
some

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peared
ap-

American

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452

AMERICAN

tlie favorite

came

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of

text-books

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spiritof
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PHILOSOPHY

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not

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ethical

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Thomas

as

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Levi

Univer.sity, 1801-1827.*
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broken

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terest

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out

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as

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of

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Unitarian

the

Ecclesiastical

History

questions involved
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questions
D.D.,
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Taylor,

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characterized

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papers

did

that

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hesitate

ethical

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distinctive

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His

1829-39.

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Neio

Atwater, D.D., 1859.

of N.

W.

School,

Coll.,1872.

1858.

T.

Spectator,Sermons
Goodrich,

A.
in

the

conciliatoryand
Will, etc.

* Professor

1784-1822.
were

; An

the
of

published

1823, after

of

author
Moral

his

stimulated

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the

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briefest

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retained

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treatise

1810.

of

on

Dr.

School

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iin-

larger

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God,

product

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Reply, 1828.
Day,

logic,

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of the

1818.

hia

Divinity
Christian

Chauncey

1773-1867,

Examination
Power

Review^ by

Fitch, Qu.

T,

and

vols., 1859.

Prof. N. Porter.)

Anniversary

of

Princeton

; in

Jeremiah

Some

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Spectator^ 10 vols.. New

Eleazer

While

theological creed,

Englander, 1860, by

-determining

lectures

introduce

to

was

he

Martin

Edwards

Taylor,

His

susceptible of great

ChrUtian

President

these

principles of

the

so-called
his

nature

of

Nathanael

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were

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discussion

of

while

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ical
philosoph-

logical \igor.

with

chusetts.
MassaA

virtue, and

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Government

in New

had

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of

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of

substance

B. N.

Sin, 1826.

Spec.

irv-

Pag-es from

philosophicallycharacterized

apologetic spiritdefending

was

The

and

own

Moral

with

Inquiry respecting the

Professor

Hedge
was

Qii. Chris.

of

Editor

Nature

God.

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Associated

the

on

His

Prof.

Answered

Yale

was

active

litterateurs

of

Calvinism

Quarterly

the

on

as

in Harvard

Coll., 1822-1858.

Yale

in the

be

See

Englander^ 1859, by

(Reviewed

edition

more

was

nature

controversy

theology,

might

Lectures

Prof. L. H.

also Memorial

which

examination

acumen,

and

Christian

Butler.

of

sympathized

Theology

in

See

excited

Ellis,D.D., 1859.

Theol.,

Calvinist

system

own

Leibnitz, and

E.

in this

of

all who
a

into

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theologicalcontroversy

active

an

fearless

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was

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elements

truths.

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by boldness,

he

avow

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and

Geo.

philosophical theories.

in their

provements
infusion

to

theological and

abridged
Logic and Metaphysics

government

Prof,

disciplesand

all his

Theology, contended
he

the

among

1786-1858,

Haven,

on

the

on

general attention.

colleges.

Edwards,

of the

thorough

necessary

Foremost

philosophy.

the

author.

treatise

theologians
among
Presbyterian Church, by Z. Crocker, 1838.

moral

tlie

what
some-

reprinted, and, bulky

the

freedom

the

the

his

was

excite

and

in

general

friendly to Locke,

and

England, by Bp. George Burgess, D.D.J

the

were

principles of

essential

and

Truth

Britain,

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of the

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of

of

"

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1767-1843, Prof,

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EDWARDS.

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454:

AMERICAN

method

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co-editor

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Religion,

1839

and
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of

translations

from

Cousin

in

spirit,but

philosophical
division

of

and

philosophy.

disciples,of

whom

Theodore

essayists.
and

Discourse

in

Matters

on

Britain.

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philosophy

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collected

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and
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Mor.

Int.

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Lectures

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Stewart's

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deny
of

who

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lation
reve-

history.
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widespread
suggested
1794,

Prof.

delivered,

Religion,
Notes, for

Moral

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men

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1863-65, in 14

philosophy

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on

country

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Powers,

associates
critics

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volume,

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Essays, highly

England,

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edited

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President

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York

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study

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Boston,

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celebrated

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and

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Discourse

with

in

because

James

Lowell

Reid's

clergyman

in

of most

began by denying

thorough

writers
name

his

Eipley,

Fuller,

accomplished

1841,

in

it

controversy.

numerous

as

editions

many

interest

1838-1853,

course

selection

we

known

by

and

Margaret

imaginative

1842

in

works

promises

able

Among

publish,

not

published

We

remains,

and

Unitarian

George

were

some

contributions

spiritualreason.

scholarlike

Religion, which,

required,

was

D.D.

published

published,

Unitarians

for the

University,

and

to

his

then

vols.,

the

well

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through

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comprehensive

future.

the

number

the

among

and

14

to

Supernatural Revelation,

character

profound

awakened
in

passed

authoritative

Ripley,

the

temporary

Channing,

Norton,

of the

Christianity, and

edition

H.

Emerson

is true

Pertaining

productions, have

W.

rather

Parker, 1812-1860,

Permanent

gave

caught

was

of

traditions

philosophy

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same

mind,

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scholarship,

exact

Cyclopaedia, published

Jouflroy.

large

teachings

more

occasioned

George

belonging

The

his

the

Literature, 1838-42,

Standard

Foreign

his

independence

the

to

body,

1780-1842,
of

movements

Dial, later, literary editor

the

; Letters

distinct

Ellery Channing,

and

of

1808;

b.

American

the

became

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spirit of

the

Parker.
of

Unitarians

respect

revolt

of

adherents

editor

associate

subsequently

in

some

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Emerson,

the

reading

against

Theodore

and

controverted

the

training or

The

theology.

the

amc.ng

Ralph

Freeman

and

open

B. Dod

Albert

self-assertingspiritual philosophy,

wider

of

additions, etc., 1845; also

and

William

was

assertions

revolt

Epitome

leading philosophers
country,
had
been
philosophy of Locke
accepted

his

and

lofty

of

men

philosophy

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in

conscience.

and

young

Professor

also, An

'

after

country,

confident

most

reason

of

number

body

the

with

French,

editions,and

writers.

lb!39 ;

this

the

and

representative spirit

continental

Alexander

and

England

in this

in

the

great energy.

Priestley,

believer

to

the

W,

severely speculative

not

earnest

an

in

But

and

controlling

was

led

and

form.

who, though

with

body,

Belsham

from

several

through

went

Philosophical Essays,

James

Review

Unitarian

been

their

Professor

essays.

in the

In

Use

Moral

published

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EDWARDS.

TO

toward

movement

History of Philosophy, translated

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many

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SUBSEQUENT

philosophy.

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impulse

afterwards

Henry

of Locke's

and

strength

gave

nilLOSOrHY

and

but
has

College

Powers,

with

etc.
name,

Philosophy

also, Francis
in Harvard

Bowen,

University; who

LL.D.,
has

b.

1811, Prof,

published Essays

of
on

Nat.

Religion

and

Mor.

Speculative Philosophy,

AMERICAN

to the

Logic,

on

Laws

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Science

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Frothingham.

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1802,

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tendency

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of

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works

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to

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of

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few, however,

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people

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lectured

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has

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predominance

writings

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revived.

absorbing

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the

school.

Orestes

esteemed.

Fiske

and

or

only

Theophilus

title of BrowmorCs

read

were

J. W.

and

his

Absolute

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James,

direction

recently

speculations, rather

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writings

interest

John

as

philosophical

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speculative assumptions

doctrines

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truth.

doctrine

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of

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Hegelian School,

name

Boston

criticism.
been

highly

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extensively read.

the

under

Hamilton

has

the

intermitted, and

was

has

; and

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of

Views

publish

anticipated from

been

however,

the

and

William

1869, published

of

should

series

Church,

everywhere

enterprises. J.

partialityfor

to

philosophical

Sir

are

material

Spencer's

Romish

Philosophy

have

might

of

Treatise

in

Henry

Philosophy, in the

on

years,

of

Associational

which

Ethical

exhaustive

great ability,valuable

periodical

in

for many

began

successively produced

were

The

and

Swedenborg.
just described, we

he

to the

articles

of

Principles

Swedenborg.

written, with

own

This

abounded

the

1886, published New

in

of his

disciple.

Review,

The

an

and

also, Philosophy
Volume
Boston, 1864.

contributed

after

years

his adhesion

and

was

Metaphysical

able

name,

spirit of

spirit

first

articles

We

movement

and,

Two

1844, after

in the
the

the

have

who

Examiner

then

Reid

with

Church.

in

Ontology,

decidedly

contained

A,

and

less

Esq.,

of

Coll.,who,

Logic after

L.

upon

b.

of

System

Sampson

ChristUin

Divinity School, Harvard

by Gabler,

In connection
son,

the

and

Parsons,

Religion, Bost.,

; also

of Pure

Thought

published,

Application
1849

455

EDWARDS.

Thought ; comprising both the Aristotelic and HamilLogical Terms, etc.,etc., Camb., 1864 ; also,Dugald Stewart's
ments
Ele1854.
Charles
Philosophy of the Human
Carroll
Also,
Mind,
Everett,

Professor

now

the

on

TO

of

Analysis

tonian

SUBSEQUENT

Lectures
of

Evidences

the

or

Lowell

and

Bost., 1842;
Science

PHILOSOPHY

Civil

War,

who

accept

philosophical truths

the
after
the

their

on

philosophical merits.
Among
named,

the

in addition

Laurens

P.

ui

Union

1858.

1853.

Creator

York,

and

have

attracted

already noticed,
of

subsequently
Published

tlie

1798

born

New

; or, Man

Immortal

Humanity

Professor
New

Auburn,

York,
in the

attention

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may

"

York,

1854.

Reason

of

1848;

Psychology, Auburn,

Knowledge

; or, the

Pastor;

in

less

or

more

following
;

Theology

Rational

Empirical Psychology.
Creation

and

1 872.

who

D.D., LL.D.,

College.

Schenectady,
New

to those

Hickok,

Hudson, Ohio,
Phil,

in America

writers

Philosophy

in

and

of

Rational

of

Tried, Fallen,

God

later,

Moral

Science,

Cosmology,
His

and

Work.

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ton,
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1872.
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Hickok

Philosophy.

has
He

terminology and

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writes

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the classification of
erable

school

of

with

with

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and

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occasional

subtilty and

classification

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has

of many

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of Kant

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perseveringly

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He

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"

Supernaturalist.

456

AMERICAN

Mark

Hopkins, D.D., LL.D.,

College, Massachusetts,

besides

in

Boston, 1846.
Law,

with
is

Miscellaneous

Appendix,

of

lieid and

independent

and

sincere

of

love

Moral

on

written

G.

which

Th.

thinking

1860.

3d

and

as

is

singularly

has

and

starting-point {vide Preface

with

contrast

Hopkins

writing,

as

Appendix

described

in

Jouffroy,

Love

ed, 1871,

This

be

may

Moral

on

and

Love,

replies.

President

McCosh.
of

of

York,

with

of

that

ethical

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altering

exhibited

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Lectures

to

,of which,

some

in, and

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able

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in

papers

works

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our

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of

President

1702, Preacher,

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distinctive

school, with

1851,

Oberlin, Ohio,

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from

deviations

some

Systematic Theology, newed.,

on

Professor

and

in which

and

Edwards,

his speculative and

are

H.

Moral

in

and

lively interest

fully developed.
Fairchild, D.D., President

system

works, chap. 0.

his

States.

somewhat

lectures

list of

See
in all

America,

has

United

James

York,

Christianity.

Lectures

Law

New

theory,

and
Dr.

Lowell

; or, The

McCosh,

author's

the

in his methods

Finney, D.D.,

founded

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in

author

in the
Charles

ethical

Dr.

by

by

D.D., LL.D.

McCosh,

been
the

has

in

series

Practical,

Edwards

defended

individual

Published,

of

Science).

James
have

and

strictures

exhibiting

truth

2d

Lectures,

of Jonathan

Price, as

Evidences

the

on

Reviews, 1847.

and

Essays

containing

of that

Lectures

Philosophy,

Lowell

as
iiistructive,

very

combination

Lowell

etc.

Science, Theoretical

Moral

an

that

Sdcra,

Boston, 1802.

Science.
a

Bib.

Moral
; M.D., 1828; Professor
18:30-86; President, 18:J6-1872.

1802

born

etc., Williams
papers

EDWARDS.

TO

SUBSEQUENT

PHILOSOPHY

; or, 'The

Philosophy

of

Oberlin

of

Science

in

College, published

Obligation,

which

in

he

1860, New

follows

Finney

closely.
Asa

D.D., Professor

Mahan,

Intellectual

Philosophy,

An

of the

Analysis

given
to

and

lOmo,

N.

Henry

Ohio

Day,

The

Bascom,

Prof.

Bascom

H.

Sir

of
of

Science

Logic

their

of

; or.
ology,
The-

Natural
He

enterprise.

speculation,especiallyin

1808;

born

Professor

has

relations

the

is

York,

Lowell

vigorous

pp.

in various

viii.,148

He

Krug, 1848,
of

; Elements

; The

Science

York,

1860,

of Esthetics.

journals.

has

also

and

published

The

ciples
Printures
Lec-

Religion;

Treatises

papers

in the

Bib.

Sac.

and

other

independent

critic.

He

is in

some

sense

various

and

280

pp.

1871, Science, Philosophy,

Institute.

; also

Economy

1863, 12mo,

Hamilton,

Coll., 1840-1858;

Res.

Philosophy from

College, published. New

in Williams

also. New

West.

; Fundamental

articles

Seelye, D.D., LL.D.,

Philosophy

Hickok's

P. A.

in

philosophy

Chadboume,

Epitome
and

York,

1872,

Powers

in

both

1825, Professor

York, 1856,
; also

thetics
Es-

on

cals.
periodia

pupil

various

of

Intellectual

Translation

critical

papers,

of

Dr.

Philosophy
A.

in

Schwegler's

following,

general,

in

nomenclature.

M.D., LL.D.,

Instinct

Man,

born

New

President, 1872, pubUshed

Higher

of modem

William

also

College, published,
of

History

and

The

Science

Hickok.

Julius

New

before

Political

Amherst

Dr.

Professor

and

Dr.

The

of great activity and

2o7; Logical Praxis, 1872,

pp.

Psychology;

delivered

of

Will.

the

York, 1857,

New

D.D.,

1872, pp. xviii.,434;

of

on

thinker

phases

of

Logic

Logic, 1867, 12mo,

John

is

College, 1858-1864

Female

50 ;

pp.

to all

of College at Oberlin, published System

Treatise

Tneology.

Professor
President

President

Mahan

Dr.

attention

earnest

Ethics

1845.

of Thought.

Laws

Boston, 1867.

and

Its

Professor

Lectures
Office

Lowell

on

in the

Lectures.

of Natural

History

Natural

Theology,

Animal

Kingdom

New

and

College,

in Williams

York,

1867

its Relation

also.

to

the

AMERICAN

Joseph Haven,

PHILOSOPHY

Professor

leg'e,Massachusetts,
in

has

been

Theoretical

and

Samuel
a

used

Gerhart, D.D.,

D.D.,

Col-

also, Moral

popular

very

Philosophy, including

also. Studies

in

Philosophy

of the

Scottish

President
4th

of

school.

Marshall

College, published

ed.

1799, published,1842, Psychology;

or, Elements

Philosophy.

President

of

Introduction

Franklin

the

to

Dexter

D'

Wilson,

Marshall

and

of

Study

D., LL.D.,

1856,

An

Treatise

Elementary
and

Thought
Samuel

and

delphia,
College, published, Phila-

Philosophy, with

Outline

an

Treatise

Tyler, LL.D.,
and

1862.

Sir

on

Dr.

Tyler

Albert

of

the Moral

the

is always acute

which

3d

the

friend

Divine
New

and

with

ed.,

New

in

York,

the

on

Wilson's

Professor

Discourse

also. The

York;

Psychology
is

logic

very

of

Manifested

York, 1854.

Baconian

of

Progress

losophy,
Phi-

Philosophy in

Hamilton.
of

Professor, University
as

the

on

in Princeton
; 2d ed., 1868; also,Critical Articles
and
October, 1859 ; God
Revelation, January,

correspondent

and

Glory,

the

in the

and

or,
of

Government

Will, 1846.

the

on

Theodicy;

Virginia,

Constitution

of Edwards

Examination

of

of

doctrines

D.

Whedon,

of
D

in Louisiana.

Court

Supreme

Laws

of

Association

of Punishment.

Intent

the

Daniel

in

Lectures

Bledsoe"

vigorous.

considered
True

New

Hamilton,

Carleton, Judge

are

Human.

1809, advocate, published

born

Bledsoe, LL.D.,

World.

Henry

and

of Logic, etc., in Hobart

University, published

Logic; also,Ithaca, 1871,

on

William

was

Tajdor

Vindication

Cornell

Philadelphia, 1858

Future,

Remew

181G, Professor

born

exact.

Baltimore, 1844;
Past

in

Action, Comparative

comprehensive

and

eclectic follower

bom

College, 1850, subsequently

and

text-book

also

D.D., 1806-1841,

Free

the

in Amlierst

Philosophy

Logic.
William

of

as

and

Ranch,

of Mental

1858, An
on

critical

Schmucker,

System

Moral

in

Theolog-y

Psychology, including Anthropology,

S.

E. V.

and

457

EDWARDS.

1871.

Augustus

in 1840

New

is

Intellectual

Ethics,1859,

Andover,

Haven

Professor
Frederick

of

Practical

Theology,

of

extensively

very

and

of

TO

Chicago Theological Seminary, published

Philosophy, including the Intellect, Sensibilities,and Will,

Mental

1858, Boston,

which

Professor

D.D.,

SUBSEQUENT

Ideas,

Liberty

the

Meaning

Brief

Philadelphia,1857.

and

and

Necessity,

of

the

word

clear, in the

in

Will,
manner

Collins.

Antony

1808.

D., bom

of the

Freedom

The

Will,etc. (already referred

to, 1864.
On

Philosophy,

Moral

D.D.,

of

President

besides

the

writers

already named,

College, 1722-1794.

Princeton

we

Lectures

add

John

on

Moral

Witherspoon,.
Philosophy.

Edin., 1812.
Samuel
Lectures

on

Political

Jasper Adams,
of Moral

of

James

Adams,
Christian

R.
use.

J. W.

French,

S.T.P.,

the

Eclectic

College

successor

of

1812,

2 vols.

of

Witherspoon,

Charleston, S. C,

also

published

published Elements

1837.

Presbyter
a

well-written

Treatise

Prot.

upon

treatise,
Moral

Episc.

Moral

not

Church

in

Philosophy

and

Wisconsin.
Practice.

The

ments
Ele1850.

Phil.
,

severely scientific.

Philosophy, prepared

for

literary institutions

and

Y., 1849.

D.D., Professor

1865, 3d edition. Practical

Richard

Trenton,

York,

New

Science,

Boyd.
N.

of

President

interesting and

general

D.D, LL.D.,

Philosophy.

Philosophy.

William

An

Smith,

Stanhope

Hildreth, LL.D.

Ethics,

of Ethics, U.
for the

Theory

Use

S. Mil.

Academy.

of the Students

of Morals.

Bost., 1844.

at the

Published, N. Y.,

MilitaryAcademy.

458

Nash.

Simon

Archibald

Morality and

Metcalf

David

An

of

J.

Boston,

1860.

of Moral

James

T.

Noah

and

S.

Psychology.
James

Natural

and

H.

Hamilton,

an

Inductive

logy

and

the

is the

Martyn
We

Job

G.

the

and

cause,

creative

The

Mor.

Phil,

etc., at Yale

Intellect, with
of

Elements

in

the

this

work

there

Man

1864, New
First

Cause

addressed

already

to the

ceased

never

is

1865, A

Brief

midst

of

our

and

original.

; and

York,
; in

Infinite

Outline

and

The

Text-book

the

author

Vulgar

Science

of the

of the

elaborate

whose

the

of

Manhood

of

Theoretic

the

sion,
Confu-

of

the

in

connection

and

senses

treatise

Centre

Analysis of

an

that

teaches,

action

an

of

Perversions

Nomenclature

Indefinite

physical

influence

to haunt

the

physician.
Meta-

the

brain.

entitled. Auto-

isthe

"Will and

Man,

the

whose

Godhood

pletion
Comof

God,

of
its

the

of

1869, Bost.,

with

Space.

of

cares

an

Pan-Idea

Mind
Two

Mr.

in

Willing

Letters
an

on

Appendix

Hazard's

active

Present

the

other

the

writingsare

treatise
Rowland

business, published,

papers

and

of

Every Being

Causation

spirit
ever
What-

gifted men.

; and

Constitution

; or,

on

its

elaborate

an

the

Island.

animate

wrote

that

seem

of Rhode
to

in 1847,

republished, with

Mill, with
All

It would

shores
ceased

never

engrossing

subsequently

Stuart

Berkeley.

died

ology
form. Physi-

completed

Norris, entitled. The

Connection

Freedom

in

Materialism, etc., etc.

beautiful

who

State,
John

of

has

speculative tendency

to John

Notions

Science, and

Wesleyan University.

distinguished from

Instinct, as

1836, Language
of

Introduction

of Nature.

and

the

Boston,

College, 1846an

Intellectual

Scholastic

the

and

Vindication

spiritof Malebranche
in

in

College, published

Human

of Illinois

of Mental

of the

Hazard,

in

In

Justice

Prospects

The

D.D., published, Bost., 1873,

adverted

Durt'ee, Chief

Prov.,

; Prof.

Rectify

intellect

the

and

had

also,Teacher.

edition,1863; also,in 1856,

Thinking by Rejecting altogether

vols.,8vo.

System

Soul

have

in the

Waterville

published,

to
of

Authorship

idealist
be

10th

Paine, M.D., LL.D., published, N. Y., 1872,

of the

of the

1786-1869,

Personality;

Divine

elsewhere

of Man.

Arrangement,

of

action

of

1871,

Science

Method

1865, 2
D.

In

the

Unmeaning

every

utility.
Y., 18G6.

N.

Y., 1871.

N.

Purpose

and

mental.
Govern-

and

1862.

1811

b.

Intellect, intended

the

Ethics.

gation,
Obli-

Study

D.D., President

Rush, M.D.

Human

Philosophy

ed.

1868, published

versus

Munsell,

to the

Philosophy.

Soul.

the

of Moral

of benevolent

theory

in Boston

Pastor

President

D.D.,

In

of Nature

Oliver

with

8th

in Intellectual

Psychology

Sciences

CoUege.

of Intellectual

Porter, D.D., LL.D.,

1871; Pres.,

the

neatness

Extent

Legal, Theological,

Christian

1800-1864.

an

Philosophy.

1871.

bemg

Maintains

WiUiams

in

Champlin,

Text-book

1860,

answer.

Elements

Published, 1851,

the

and

question

Winslow, D.D.

Elements

on

its

Alden, D.D., Prof,

Hubbard

of Sin ;

and

for

Introduction

and

Nature, Foundation,

the

ton,
Prince-

in

Theology

remarkable

text-book,
Y., 1852.

Branches, including the

in

in

N.

brief

all

Science

Written

of Holiness

involving
Moral

Science,

into

1859.

of Didactic

Professor

Nature

the

EDWARDS.

TO

Columbus, Ohio,

(Posthumous.)
Inquiry

in

of Moral

Outlines

comprehensiveness.

and

State.

the

D.D., 1772-1851.

Alexander,

1812-1851.

SUBSEQUENT

PHILOSOPHY

AMERICAN

and
Existence

the
that

Freedom
of

Future
writer
Wills
in

ing,
Will-

Matter

and

;
a

eminently fresh,acute,

AMERICAN

Wharton,

Francis

liemew

Quarterly

and

of God.

System

and

remarkable

series

ability,which

of

ited
spir-

dist
Metho-

the

to

republished 1856,

were

papers.

Among

other

many

Nature

and

Y., 1860.

N.

459

EDWARDS.

A
Scepticism, 1859
Wallace, 1817-1852, contributed

B.

of

other

speculative cast, published

one

TO

"

b. 1804.

Bushnell,

Horace

Theism

Horace

articles

literarycriticisms

with

SUBSEQUENT

LL.D.

D.D.,
Comte.

against

essays

riJiLUSOPlIY

the

This

is

interestingessays

Supernatural, as
important

an

and

discourses

of

together constituting

contribution

ethical

to

and

theological speculation.
Taylor, published, N. Y., 1851, Indications

George

of

Evidences

B.

Henry
1850-54

topics

of

of

Prof,

Syst.

Theol.

speculative philosophy
H.

Lyman
Political

Revieio and

Economy,
Am.

the

co-editor,and
Charles

1822, published

the

was

Review,

and

contributed

he

James

Henry

discussions

Thornwell,
Prof,

edition

Edwards

of his
A.

Manual

of

1798,

and

of

for

Natural

able

critical

New

in

York,

articles

on

periodicals,particularlyto
the

editor.

united,

he

Prof,

Priacetoti

the

to

has

of Logic

been

and

still is

Logic.

in Theol.

editor.

since

articles

many
now

the

Sem.
in the

Princeton,

at

Princeton

Also, A

of

System

N.

J.,

RevieLO, of
Theology.

philosophical discussions.
d.

D.D., LL.D.,
in

1863, Prof,

Columbia,
and

of Ethics

published
which

Ethics,

of

andPres.
able

many

and

important
in

republished

are

S. Car.

mous
posthu-

in 6 vols.

works,

speculative topics has

many

Elementary

the

Philosophy

Sem.,

been

Professor

40 years

Moral

TheoL

Philosophical Papers

Theology

since

and

Philosophy, and

which,

Park, D.D., LL.D.,

Amher.st, 1834-36

The

or.

Union

and

contributed

both

Philosophical Theology

on

Creator;

Mental

in

long
of

of

3 vols.,1871, '72, '78,including many

University,and

has

Prof,
has

b.

Ethical

founder,

has

which

D.D., LL.D.,

various

Hist,

LL.D.,

published, 1867,

also

of

encyclopaedias

Princeton,

Theol.

Hodge,

he

D.D.,

Atwater,

; Prof,

Eccles.
;

to

of
jReoieio,
llteological

Amerioa/i

which

b. 1815

Smith, D.D., LL.D.,

; since

in

of

Cause.

College, 1847-50; Prof,

Amherst

and

Final

",

Prof,

contributed

Prof,

1808;

b.

in Theol.

Sem.
articles

critical

of

Mental

and

to

the

Moral

besides

Andover,

at

Bib.

Philosophy

giving

Repositoryand

lectures

at
on

Blhlio-

the

theca Sdcra.

Tayler
1838,

1849

and

Atheos,

Lewis.

with

Francis

LL.D.,

in Union

Critical

and

Students

The

State.

of

1847,

as

at

Law.

Part

II.

and

connected

Natural

of

University
in

papers,

many

New

York,

Plato

1845,

Ethics

I. Ethics

and

Legal

General

contra

Political

the

and
Politics,with
Boston, 1839, 12mo.

Constitution

Hermeneutics,

in Law

Essays
of

the

and

Boston, 1838-39,

Proper.

vols., 12mo.

and

Law

chiefly for

Ethics, designed

I., Book

Construction

Phila., 1853,

with

the

in

besides

Part
.

Political

Enlarged edition.

Authorities.

Government.

Greek

Political

repub. Lond., 1839).

and

Interpretation

and
Self

of
.

II.

of

Largely speculative.

etc.

Manual

Lieber, LL.D.

Colleges

1802, Prof,

College, published,

Notes,

Book

(2d ed

b.

Remarks
On

Society.

Political.

vols., 8vo.
or

ples
Princidents
Prece-

on

Civil Liberty and

Property

on

of

use

New

and

Labour

York, 1841,

16mo.
E. Mulford.
the United

The

New

States.

B. F. Cocker,

published,

and

his

York,
Prof.

D.

Y,
and

1870,

and

Mental

Christianity and

The

Order

and

Political Life

in

1870, 8vo.

Moral

Reflective

Apostles.

Civil

of

Foundations

The

Philosophy in

N.

Spontaneous
Christ

Nation

Thought

volume

treats

Greek
in

the

Philosophy;

Greece

and

abundantly

the
of

Univer.sityof
or. The
Positive

modern

gan,
Michi-

Relation

Teaching

tween
beof

speculation, and

'

460

AMERICAN

with

much

PHILOSOPHY

vigor.

The

series,

second

Modern

and

Christianity

on

EDWARDS.

TO

SUBSEQUENT

is

Thought,

not

yet

published.
The

contributions

numerous.

be

named

The

burg

The

Review^

entirely

North
The

lieeiero,

Review,

periodicals

to

the

Among

to

Spectator,

Presbyterian

discussions

of

for

The

The

kind

papers

Christian

Methodist

Review,

this

Harris

German

in

commenced

was

aided

and

by
French

corps

of

Philosophy.

18G7,
able

in

St.

associates

Louis,

and

of

and

the

contributors,

been

very

description

may

Brownsoii'a

terly
QuarThe

Beview,

others.

Journal
under

this

Quarterly

"

which

of

Examiner^

The

have

subjects

speculative

Christian

Review,

Theohgial

Southern

also

The

Review^
Christian

Quarterly

on

papers

distinguished

most

American

American

devoted

and

journals

ton
PrinceMercers-

Review,
A

single

Speculative

is

journal

Philosophy
"

editorship
largely

of

William

familiar

T.
with

463

ITALIAN

sophicalrevolution
sustained
alluded

by
To

Regions.
directed

the

historyof
ers

Padova,
But

early begun, and which was

now
widely spread throughoutthe Peninsula,
so

the

of St. Paul's Descent

to the Infernal
earlypoem
the same
(objectof intellectual emancipation were
the
religiousand social movements, which distinguished

the twelfth

Giovanni

as

had

societies

secret

in

to

which

PHILOSOPHT.

and

da

Ubertino

thirteenth

Gerardo

Parma,

di

headed
centuries,
di

by such PeformDonnino, Marsigliodi

San

Casale,Yaldo, and Fra Dolcino.

of

freedom

in

philosophyas well as in political

science,Dante
(1265-1321) stands preeminent in the historyof his
a
philosophicaltheory of the
country. He w^as the first to construct
of
the
State
from
the Church
in his De Monarchia, in which
separation
he advocated
the independence of the civil power
from all ecclesiastical
control ; he also opposed the Papal power
in immortal
strains in
the Divina
Commedia
; and, under the popular symbols of the age,
far beyond the limits,to
strove
to
enlarge the idea of Christianity
which
confined
it was
Petrarch
by the Scholastics.
(1304:-74)
boldly
as

attacked
as

"

with

the

promoter

Scholasticism

impious Babylon

his friend

MSS.,

and
an

in every

Boccaccio

labored

form, denounced

w^hich

devoted

has

enthusiasm

for Classic

lost all shame

himself

throughout his

the Church

to

the

and

of Pome
all

of
publication

truth,"
ancient

his contempolife to excite among

raries
His
De
Literature.
works
Vera

tSapientia;De Ilemediis Utriusque FortmioB ; De Vita Bolitaria ;

De
Contemjptu Mimdi, blending Platonic ideas with the doctrines of
Cicero and Seneca, were
the first philosophicalprotest against the
ature
metaphysicalsul)tiltiesof his age. Thus the fathers of Italian literalso

were

the

fathers

of

the

revolution

which

gave

birth

to

modern

philosophy.
and the introductio
The study of the original
waitingsof Plato and Aristotle,
of an independent exegesisof the ancient philosophers,
soon
decided
ment
produced a still more
oppositionto Scholasticism ; a movescholars in Italybefore,and after
aided by the arrival of Greek
the Platothe fall of Constantinople. Prominent
these,were
among
totelians
Pletho
and Cardinal Bessarion,and the Arisnists Georgius Gemistus
selves
Gaza
Theodorus
and Georgiusof Trebizond, who placed themPlatorevival in Italy. While
of the philosophical
at the head
nism
became
predominant in Tuscany under the patronage of Cosimo
de' Medici, the influence of MarsiglioFicino,and the Platonic Academy
founded

by

the

former

in

Florence, Aristotelianism

extended

to

the

ITALIAN

463

PHILOSOPHY.

of Northern

Universities

Bologna,takingtwo

to those of
Italyand particularly
distinct forms, accordingto the sources

the

of Aristotle
interpretation

the

great commentary

of

derived.

was

Averroes,

and

The

Padua
from

Averroists

and
which

followed

the

the Alexandrians,
or
Hellenists,
in his Greek
or
original,
chief
whom
Alexander
of Aphrodisias. The
was
commentators,
among
Averroistic
Scdiool,mainly composed of physicists
and naturalists,
was

sought the

the

decided

most

spiritof the

in the
Stagirite

of the Scholastic

opponent

in

system

its relation

to

theohjgy. Indeed, medicine, Arabic philosophy,Averroism, astrology,

and infidelity,
terms.
earlyin the Middle Ages liad become
synonymous
Pietro

d'

Abano, who

century, and
School

who

may

flourished
be

at

considered

the
as

beginning

of

the founder

the

fourteenth

of the Averroistic

in

of the first who

Italy,was one
asserted,under astrological
with the
forms, that religionhad oidy a relative value in accordance
intellectual development of the people. He was
arrested by the order
of the Inquisition
was
passed upon him ;
; but he died before sentence
his body was
his
transmitted
to posterityas
burnt, and
memory
connected

with

infernal

machinations.

In

1324

Cecco

d'

Ascoli, a

Universityof Bologna and a friend of Petrarch,was

condemned
all his books on astrology,
and to listen every Sunday
to burn
Later
to the sermons
preached in the church of the Dominicans.
in one
of the many
burnt
he was
at the stake,and his pictureappears
Infernos
painted on the walls of the Italian churches
by Orcagna.
professorin

The

the

eternityof

matter

and

the

unity of human

intellect

were

the

two

negationof
and of the immortalityof the soul
creation,of permanent personality
of the writers
its principalcharacteristics.
became
Although some
of this School endeavored
its do(5trines with the dogmas
to reconcile
of its philosophy,
of the Church, others accepted the consequences
tion
and
and
the destrucboldly asserted the eternityof the universe
Urbano
of personality
Fra
di Bologna, Paolo of Yenat death.
others, were
Fedele, and
ice,Nicola da Foligno, Cassandra
many
of the
great pi-inciples

Averroistic

doctrine ; hence

the

YerNicoletto
the second may be mentioned
the first; among
all Pietro
Pomponacci (1462nias,Tommaso
Cajetano and above
among

1530),with
Scholastic
Hitherto

the followers

of Averroism

began
philosophy.

the
upon
philosophyassumed

commentaries

period

whom

new

in

had

the

development

confined

their

of

Anti-

teaching to
philosopher; but with Pomponacci
great Arabian
character
and
a more
independent
positive

464

ITALIAN

and
while

he adhered
he

was

on

mind

intellect after death

Pomponacci
openly denied
was

due

to

with

same

were

of

contemporary
in his earnest

the

Alexandrians

thought. Indeed,

ticism,
oppositionto Scholasin

question of the immortalityof

the

certain
the

specific

soul,which

of the age, while the Averroists asserted that the

and in time lost its individuality,
returned
to God
Alexandrians

the

all future

the

that miracles

Averroists

follower

agitatedthe

of

livingorgan
to the

Thus

doctrines.
so

the

became

PHILOSOPHT.

causes

but

existence.

which

and
illusions,

rejected that compromise, and

He held that the origin of man
produced other things in nature ;
that the rise and

the

decadence

It is true that
religiondepended on the influence of the stars.
the oppositionof philosophy and faith, and
he insisted on
thought
former
in
the
and
that what was
true
might be false in the latter,
into which
dle
vice versa
philosophersof the Midmany
j a subterfuge,
forced
Ages w^ere
by the dangers,to which they were
exposed.
Pomponacci was the author of many works, one of which, De hnmiorin public. His most
burnt
celebrated disciples
talitate Animce, was
Ercole
Porta, and Grattarolo.
w^ere
Gonzaga, Paolo Giovio, Simone
His opponents were
Achillini,Nifo, Castellani and
Gaspare Conreconcile Christianity
to
strove
Averroists,who
tarini,all moderate
in which
wdth natural
philosophy; an effort,
joined by
they were
Pendasio
Cremonini.
the
and
Hellenists,
Zimara, Zabarella,
Among
i^eonico
in part the opinions of Pomponacci, was
who
maintained
Thomeo
(1456-1531),a physician,and professorin the Universityof
of the
Padua, who, on account
vivacity of his polemic against
of his doctrines, and
the
Scholasticism, the Hippocratic character
of Hellenic
be considered
the founder
as
beauty of his style,may
To the same
in the Age of the Renaissance.
criticism and naturalism
class of writers,
although neither pure Hellenists nor Averroists,belong
Pico della Mirandola
Giovanni
(1463-94)and Cardano (1501-76),who
ed
strove
to substitute in placeof Scholasticism
philosophic
systems founddoctrines
and partlyon Platonic ideas,or on
partlyon Christianity,
who
from the Cabala
and astrology
derived
; Cesalpino (1509-1603),
constructed
a
pantheistic
philosophyon Averroistic ideas,and Vanini
burnt
was
(1585-1619), who for advocating a system of naturalism
Other writers
at the stake.
opposed contemporary philosophy chiefly
for the barbarous
form, in which it was
expressed,such as Lorenzo
Yives.
Barbaro, Nizolio,and Ludovico
Yalla, Poliziano,
due
to
effectual oppositionto Scholasticism
But
was
a
more
of

ITALIAN

of

introduction

the

which

-1519), the
who,

to the

go

"

the

within

says,

discoveries

mathematiciau
of

the compass

which

have

been

made

scientific
da

tigations,
inves-

Yinci

(1452

and

the

philosopher,

few

pages

anticipated

in

leo
science,from Galigeologists."Nizolio,Aconzio, Erizzo,Moceni-

contemporary

Piccolomini

Alessandro

and

into
experimental method
first inaugurated by Leonardo

the poet,
artist,

all the

almost

the

was

Ilallara

as

465

PHILOSOPHY.

continued

the

of da

work

Yinci

in

of the
application

the

on
experimental method in philosophy.
insisting
This application
was
partiallyat least attempted by Telesio (1508-88),
and by Patrizi (1529-76),who
by strivingto
opposed Schohisticism
Giordano
Bruno
nature.
create
on
a philosophyfounded
(1548-1600)
reconstruction
the philosophical
and Nature
of Mind
boldly undertook
the universality
of substance; while
the basis of the unity and
on
Tommaso
perience
Oampanella (1568-1639) established his philosophyon ex-

"

Naturae

Telesiana
w^as

this

promote

associations

learned

chean

To

consciousness.

and

"

; the

scientific

movement

Academia

Secretorum
everywhere arose
instituted
at
was
Naples by G. B. Porta in 1560 ; the
established
was
by. Telesio in the same
city; the Lynfounded
in Eome
Frederick
Cesi in 1609,.
by Prince

and

the

Academia

the

opposition to

del

Cimento

in

Scholasticism

Florence

extended

to

(1469-1527) established

the

in

the

Meantime

1637.

field of

polities^,
poli*in
four
which
less
than
centuries
destined
in
the
to triumph
was
cy,
of Italian
establishment
unity on the ruins of papal sovereignty,
found
a policywhich
a
powerful impulse in the religiousrevolution
in.
effectual aid
(1452-98), a still more
attempted by Savonarola
the invention
of the art of printing,
and a pledge of its final triumpk
where

Machiavelli

of the 16th

in the great Reformation

century.

principlesof that

In vain the

sacerdotal

the

philosophersand reformers, and

burnt them
to drown
at the stake ; in vain it strove
philosophical
liberty
in blood.
the
and reappeared in
The oppositionincreased
writingsof :
Guicciardini
the historian (1482-1560),and of Paolo Sarpi(1552-1623),,
the bold defender
of the Bepublic of Yenice
ments
against the encroachof the Papal See, the philosopher and the naturalist,
to whom,
discoveries in science
The
attributed.
are
politicalwritings
many
caste

of
the

persecutedand imprisoned

Donato

Giannoti, of

last part

of

the

Paolo

sixteenth

emancipation of society from

the period which
had
opened

Paruta, and
century, which
the
with

Giovanni
were

Bottero,
devoted

authority of th^ Church,

the aspirations
of Dante

to

in

the^

close
and

466

ITALIAN

Petrarch, and
Bruno

the

exposition of the doctrines

is referred

reader

further:

Ueberweg's

to

Geistder

Tiedemann,

Philos. ;

even

Philos. ;

W.

G.

Dante,

della

Rbinovamento

A.

see

F.

of the Italian

Dante

Ozanam,
1854

; N.

V.

Italian

the

on

Philalethes

Philosopho,1863,

the

On

opposition
2"

1852,

the

the

of

et

Arabian

four

or

d'Abano

Medicorum

of which

and

Vernias

defended

the

Frap-

Dante,

Gommedia,

Karl

Maria

written

works

Witte, and
Bonifas, De

T.

see

Barlow,

C.

1865

valuable

Petrmqiie, 1864.

de

Averroes

Renan's

di

H.

York,

Petrarch,

di

et

Averroisrtie,

Siena, Marsiglio
Vernias

Padua,

and

and

talitate Animm

be

may

radical

fundamental

belonged

in the

of

witnesses

as

sities
Universions
discus-

this

School

Gommenta

Urbano

eight

hundred

their

Bologna
of

book

inians

August

di

Bazilieri,Nicola

MSS.

de

in

to the

of

Phihsophice,,

Forli, Tommaso

devotion

on

Paris,

preface

totitis

Tiberio
di

da
the

on

with

Summa

of

of

the

Vio

ries
libraof

ideas

the
.

Cassandra

Fedele,

in the

learned

of

University

lady of Venice,

Padua,

and

in

defended

obtained

the

degree

classed

antithesis

Alexandrian

; De

naturaUum

; Fra

left voluminous

have

the

and

library

of Averroes

(fl.1436),

Sofia, Giacomo

others

among

Averroists, as far

the

religion and

between

principle of Averroism,

to the

1501

of

presence

di

Santa

national

Venice, 1492,

Tiene

to

et
Qucpstiones

work

; Gaetano

in the

lectures

belonging

the

and

in

published

philosophy.

Pomponacci
of

in

of the

of

differentlarum Philosopliorum

(d. 1429),the author

many

theses

lecturers

extant

are

was

Bologna,

naturalized

became

soon

introduced

were

first translations

the

appeared

Gonciliator

of

of Averroes

philosopher.

of

it

of Averroes

absorbing subject of

commentary

doctrines

Venice, 1488, 1496,

the Hellenist

series of Averroistic

af doctor

in

the

(fl.in 1328), whose

di Venezia

doctrines

Nicoletto

Arabian

De

and

New

Philosophiemorale

principal

d'Abano

voluminous

Paolo

Fava,

of Venice,

and

the

Nicola

Cajetano,

he

der

sophy
philo-

; G,

of the Divina

Blanc, Goschel,

cf

the

author

Gonduno

published

were

Foligno, Ugo

the

la

They

and

The

the

Pietro

PJiysicoAuditu

Nicoletto

neu-

Siecle,
1845,

Dante, 1854

1827;

Study

On

the

std testo del Poema

Poet,

and

Sicily, where

Ferrara,

di

Aristotle, De

1480

di

Gommedia,
to the

Saxony).

century

and

(d. 1315),

wrote

great

of

centuries.

(fl.1334),who

against

Dlvina

della

philosopher.
and

Giovanni

Aristotle, Averroes,

who

Gommedia

Foscolo, Discorso

Ugo

Scholasticism

to

Spain

Bologna,

three

Pietro

some

twelfth

the

from

of the

Padua,

for

of

end

Peninsula

commentary

were

13^

La

Maggiolo, De

Petrarch

See

der

Ritter,GeHchichte

H.

PhilosopJdeCatholiqueau

Tommaseo,

John

and

volume.

Biihle,Oesch.

Partie, ch. III. 3.

Towards
into

of

this

On

of Dante, Boston, 1872,

King

JohnG.

nostra

by Schlosser, Kopish, Wegele,

poet

of

tempo, 1860.

Philosopher, Patriot

Shadoic

(the present

Petrarca

et la

analitico

as

Rossetti, A

Francesca

firw al

PhilosopJdcalGontribntions

Dante

Botta,

the Renaissance, the

19-31

and

PhilosopJde;

der

Secolo 16"

dal

Rossetti, Commento

and
Historical,
Gritical,

1864

Giordano

FilosofiadiTennemann^ by G. D. Roraagnosi andB.

antica Italiana ; B. Spaventa, Caraitere
Filosofia

deUa

porti, Sulla Filosofiadi Dante, 1855

G.

philosophersof

5-14

pp.

GescMcMe

Tennemann,

by Boissard, Load.

1825;

of

martyrdom

SpeculativenPJdlosophie
;

FilosofiaItaliana

della

of
transl.

the

by

statements,

Supplementi alia Storia

Poll ; T, Mamiani,

scUuppo

crowned

now

Lucilio Vanini.

and

For

was

PHILOSOPHY.

School.

the

He

Fata; De Liber oArhitrio

effectuum admirandorum

unity

was

the

; De

as

in the

believed

philosophy ; he, however,

of

the

author

intellect,and
of several

Prmdestinatione

camis,

he

in this

works

; De

De

respect
Immor-

Providentia

scilicet de Incantationibu^.

tence
exis-

rejected

Dei;

Alessan-

ITALIAN

rlro Achillini

was

celebrated, than
lini's works

another

was

Anima

which

Nhphum
De

on

Porta

In

1513
not

the

thirteenth

its

following

1377,

Quod

of

and

students.

Marc-

strove

Averrois,

di Feltre

and

Antonio

several

translations

new

Abramo

Mantino,

ZabareUa, from
found

1564

to

Averroism

with

of Averroism
his master.

His

di

Padua

Pomponacci

by
e

to the

de

in

lectures

men.
trary
con-

philosophy
the

nihil

in

as

1371,
who
the

were

scitur

plus

to

early

as

and

these

Among

to

clergy

archbishop of Paris,

of

Gian

and

ter
prop-

preserved

of

Fiorentino, 1868

of

Burana

Cremonini
and

new

library of
; P.

Studi

by Luigi Ferri, published

the

was

B.

of

Padua,

doctrines

Scuola
Podesta

to

hist representative

Venice,

Archivio

Oddo,

strove

the

to the
in

and

Giacomo

Pendasio

Storici suUa

in

Marco

University

Marc

by

time
Mean-

others.

(1553-1631),

Pomponacci

Tomi-

correct

more

Verona,

tendencies
St.

creed.

century.

; Federico

trines
doc-

in dicta

Bemandino

and

at the

in his lectures
Piccolomini

orthodox

an

Averroes,

Bagolini

Francesco

among

to the

contradictionum

of

taken

favor

adhering

sixteenth

the

to have
find

to

Palamede,

works

Cesare

in the

seemed

of

standard

Giulio

G-. B.

forms

new

ideas

continued

Solutiones

Cf. Pietro Pomponacci,

Francesco

la Scienza

the

Averroes

Italy,gave
are

of

Francesco

Alexandrianism,

the

in his

beginning

labors

Balmes,

in Giovanni

twenty-four larg^ volumes.

e

the

1589,followed

opponent

an

in

of

Church,

philosophers who,

Monselice,

editions

new

due

di

those

long

with

(d. 1553)

Posi

others

and

complete, appeared,

Giacobbe

of the

propositions.

and

age,

them

blend

to

soul

in all

Averroism

Indeed,

Tempier,

Church,

however,

Zimara

Antonio

the

the

were,

human

falsa sunt in lege Christiana, sicut et in aliis.

sunt phihsophi tantum.
Quod sapientesmundi

of
of

mind

There

Averroes,

them

Aristotelis et

blend

distinct

addiscere.

condemnation

the

Rerum

fiat,1551.

identical

prohibited

theologici
suntfundati infabuUs. Quod

es

philosophical

of

and

by Stephen
in

Be

opinions, although

and

doctrines

ponacci
Pom-

pupils, and

tolens

enjoined professors

to the

his

that

and

one

those

five years.

hostile

condemned

the

teachers

more

than

of

mains

taught

that

in his
of

Speciehusintelligihilihus.

vel

is

they might allude,

embodied

impedit

the

It

his De.

doctrines

several

de

who

soul

affirmed

true.

longer
become

was

sermon

Notwithstanding

Among

had

it

lex Christiana

hold

who

the

Bisputatio,1551

honus

those,
the

(1473-1546)
wrote

Contarini

Gaspare

Anima,

homo

that

asserted

X.

his

by

Mente

both

condemned

to which

Be

his

; An

Bolore

theologiam. Quod fabulce and

scire

Quod

Be

course

was

he

confute

to

defended

Humana

Be

of

who

doctrines
for

strove

(d. 1555) in

philosophers

principles to be
:

He

philosophically

century

in

again

tano

the

all heretical

caused

soul.

author

those

were

study philosophy

and

and

also

faith,

to

the

the

Leo

their

contra
Defemorium
Metaphysicarum Disputationum.

BUiLcidcirimn

others

they

having- been

Agostino

publish

to

Immortalitate^Cardinal

several

Council

Lateran

immortal,

Pomponacci

more

Achil-

continued

Nifo

pope

ArdmcB

Principiis,1561;

It condemned

refute

the

of

record

no

philosophers.

where

1520.

request

left

adversaries

two

of

Porta

Simon
also

was

Natwralium

of

the

has

two

Bologna,

about

the

those

by

author

and

mortality

particularly by

was

Apologia de

in

death,

; at

to

the

Animm,

the

of their

of Padua

1509

In

themselves

Pomponacci

also

School
held

Venice, 1508.

in

occasion

was

in his

ImmortaUtate

S.

of

gave

Nifo

Marta

I. A.

public

occurrence

opponent

the

discussions

established

Padua,

till the

disputations

opponents, and

of the

published

were

to leave

obliged

of Ms

one

that

467

PHILOSOPHY.

di

Bologna

; and

Storico

of

form

and

P.

Italia.no,

1871.
Hellenic
of the

Aristotelianism, not
human

intellect.

The

L.

less than
same

Averroism,
object

Valla,Poliziano

Humanists, represented by
of Florence,
through the Academy

and

the

and

L.

Vives,

translations

the

step toward

greatly promoted

was

and

and

by
the

the

by

the

tion
emancipaSchool

Platonic

works

of

of

revival

Marsiglio

468

ITALIAN

cf. Tirabosclii's

Ficino;
Studiams
1802

; Kenan's

Von

Alfred

Florence

of Manuel

researches

and

name

and

the

at the

was

head

of

Prominent

of the

Leo

XV.

in Gennadim

the

AUatius

andPletho^

in

de

littsrature

Aristotelismus

the

The

V., already
of

the

Enea

Silvio

origin of

; in Boivin's
des

heW

and

tbft

at

between

described

QuereUe

the

ture
fea-

which

controversy
is

See

literature.

degli Angeli

FAcademie

bers
mem-

characteristic

so

the

Papal

associations,those

Platonismusin

und

the

hy

its

the

name

Renaissance

Bizant.
de

to

under

among

referred

celebrated.

Script.

advent

Pope

Nicholas

the

be

these

of

Age

the

of classical

were

Convent

most

the Italian

and

time

study

formed

Camaldolese

of the

(Memoires

also

Of

for

under

which

Italic et hi

illustrated

became

revival

may

time.

Spirito,were

Leo

by

Siede

that

the

II., known

revival

the

at

Aristotelians

Georgii'sDiatriba
du

Italy of

of

dello

and

this

of

Italien,1869

with

contained

and

age,

that

promoted

Popes
and

afterwards

revival

IV., Pius

To

Florence,

Convent

Platonists

the

des

Poggio, Filelfo,Aretino, Valla,

as

the

literary associations

and

in

meetings

who

X.

literarylife

Augustine

and

popes

bodies

Academical

saphes

the

for

V., Eugene

and

Piccolomini,

the

movement

Martin

mentioned,

their

the

of

The

in

I. Zeller's

commenced

Constance, 1414-18,

humanists

Qeschichte

Wlssenschaften,1797--

promoted

was

who

Sarzana,
of

learned

most

among

di

Council

it

scholars,such

many

Tommaso
The

V.

of

several

of

1;j9G ; and

in

der

18f)0 ;

1872

Review, July

Heeren's

ItenaiHsance

der

liome

revival,properly speaking,

writings

Nicholas

Oultur
JStadt

der

Edinburgh

Chrysoloras

the

Traversari,Vegio,
of

the

and

Italiana

Wiederaufleben

Die

Qeschichte

Humanist

The

seit dem

Burckhardt's

Reumont's

1809;

Humanists.

della Letteratura

Literatur

; I.

c.

op.

von

Renaissance

Storia

dassischen

der

PHILOSOPHY.

Da

in

Philo^.

des

vol. II.),
Inscriptions,

Qriechischen

der

Kirche^

by W.

Gass, 1844.

The

Tribus

De

Pico

Giovanni

dirigentis hominem
physical, and

in

De

book

dorff, 1858.
in

Varieiate.
He

He

is also

the

author

Siber's

the

several

quinque.1and

tiai'um

and

System

works

on

Barbaro

in

which

wocote

he
on

ones

His

which

proposed

and

the Deeds

to describe

Themistius,and

on

Dialectics,moral,

in

Rome.

His

libri

phew,
ne-

of

the

ten

; De

xx.

refuted

were

in his

in

published

were

doctrines

De

Vero

Angelo Poliziano, poet

Sayings

books

third

degree.

by Scaligero

Apologia. Cf. Rixner's

und

engeren

1819-26).

umes
vol-

Ilermn

Sinne

Andrea

in

and

{Leben und
Cesalpino

is

medicine, Peripatetica^um Qucestlonum

and

Problems

on

public

solving equations

undll.Jahrh.,

and
Disputationes.,

Animorum

Twelve

Com-

Philosophy;Regulm

Subtilitate

De

by himself

physiology

et Uno

Theses

Physiologicim weiteren
16.

De

De

in defence
of the
doctrines,and wrote
Pico wn
Mirandola^ by Georg Drey-

are

for

Immortalitat?.
Precibus

Mosaic

in

Investigatio Peripatetica.

Thucydides.

Ente

hundred

works,

many

defended
der

the Questionsand
of Epictectus,

menon^

John

des

principal

Physiker im

Dcemonum

and the
of IIij)poc7'ates,

same

De

on

defended

he

autobiography.

an

libri sex. DialecticcB

Herodotus,

Nine

for his Formula

Qeschichte

beruhmter
of

author

libri

the

wrote

the

and
eoBotericce,

Beitrdge

Meinungen

of

zur

held

De

wrote

Stagiritmparva

Animorum

Natura

treatise

and
spirituali^

Cardano
1668

is celebrated

his Exercitationes

De

Rdatimrum

De

Mirandola

della

Of. Das

Girolamo
in

Pico,

et Uno.

quarto

Moribus

Aristotdis

Inventione

sciences, which

Francesco

Ente

Nominum

or
Ileptaplon.^

pugna

mathematical

Giovanni

Divinatione

de

De

^tatum

against Judiciary Astrology

Thoraeo, the Hellenist

Dialogi

VehicuUs

1580.

Essentia^

of L.

1530.

Animorum

Luctu

pescendo

the works

are

natwalia,

vacant

qucB
De

following

Lorenzo

Bono.

and

He

Valla
translated

wrote

Elegan-

also the

philosopher, translated

the

Iliad.
ual
Man-

of Aphrodisias^the Apfwnsms
also
Parepistoof Xenophon ; he wrote

of Alexander
the

tree

the Aristotelian

of human
doctrine

knowledge.
of the

Ermolao

soul ; Ludovico

470

ITALIAN

tis Salernitani

divina

PHILOSOPHY.

adinventimie

adperfectam CosmimetricB praxim^ 1586 ; Jord.

Lampade
LuUiana, 1587 ; De Progressu el
1587
rationes articulorum
Logicorum^
; Acrotismus^ sen
2yhysbCoruin
adversus
AristotiUcos,
1587; Oratio Valedictoria VitembergceJvabita^
1588; De SjjecieScrutinio
rum
et Lampade
combinatoria
et Sexagiuta
Raymondi LulUi^ 1588 ; Centum
prope

Bruni

1586

insomnium^
Lam^nule venatoria

Articuli

; De

combinatoria

adversiis

1588 ; Oratio consohnjus tempestatisMathematicos

atque Philo8oj)Jio8,
PrincipisJulii Brunsvicensium
Ducis^ 1589 ; De Imaginum^ ISignoIdearxvm
et Mensura, 1591 ; De Monade,
Gompositione,1591 ; De TripliceMinimo
et Figura^ 1591 ; De rerum
1591
Imaginibus,
(unpublished and lost); Libro ddle

latoria liabita in obitu

et

Tiim

Numero

arti Uberali,1591
(unpublished)
Mnemonidis^ 1591 ; De MidtipUci Mundi

Liber
triginta Statiiarum, 1591 ; Templum
Vita,1591 (unpublished and lost); De Naturm
PrincipiisVeri {id.) / De Asti'dogia {id.) ; De Magia physica ; De
di congiurazioni ; Summa
terminmmm
metaphysicorujn,-pMhl. 1609;

sette

gestihus {id.) ; De

Physbca ;

Libretto

Cf.
Artificimn perorandi, publ. 1612.
Princlp der Dinge, by Schelling, 1802.
translation

of

tar's and

et

de Jordano
Jordan, Disquisitio

Bruni
D.

matliematicis

Geschichte

zur

der

tholmes, Jordano

in

John

Bruno,

et

Giordano

Inquisition

of

demonstrata

hoc

partes quatum;
a

kind

of

ratione

ca

; A.

1854

; S.

Centofanti,

Mamiani,

the

Preuss.

op.

an

and

essay

cit. ; also

Jahrb., 1866;

Mater

discovered

proceedings

in the

works

principal

of
of

archives

are

as

follows

Ch.

Bar-

Bruni

Vita

Berti, F^Ya

Domenico
trial

before

the

city.

UniverscB

da id

1868
PhilosopJiy,

Bruno's
that

or

Nicholaus

und

Debs, Jordani

; A.

Steph,

Bruno, 1788;

Wissens, 1867;

des

Flillebom, BeitragQ

Bruno

ialismus,1866;

the

Studiis

Jord.

Lewes, History of

Gott, 1866

von

natura, hominum,

rerum

part of

forms

seu
PJiilosopldcB

the

partes

arbitratu,
Philosophimejnlogistic(B
moribus, etc. His Gititas 8olis,

latter

the

to

published
Sigwart,

Magia,

et

JVIlle. Louise

Archivio

in the

Th.

libri

Gentilesim/o

Monarchia

quatuor

Filosojiadi

T.

Hispani-

several

sophical
philo-

Campanella,

Italiano,1866 ; Spaventa
'politisclien

seine

und

Ferrari,

; De

1620

Campanella's works, Turin,

Storico

Colet, CEavres
G.

of

Campanella

and

libris jyropi'iis
et recta

Galilceo ; De

edition

new

De

work.

Baldachini, Vita

Cf.

Italian.

qui propria

eos

Realis

Realis
Philosophice

Encyclopedic nouvelle,

Leroux,

1 ;

Giordano

Blutzeuge

George Henry
des

Introduction

Ancona,

; Rix-

illastres ; C.

des
Lebensgeschichte

Clemens,

I.

contains

quatuor

in Latin

D.

and

Pierre

in

the

to

Waddington

Christiani,De

F.

Atheismus

poems

1840

Guil.

Syntagma, 1642 ; De Sensu rerum

triwnphatus ; Apologiapro

studendi

Disputationum

de

est

Utopian romance,

retinendo

non

disputationesdistincta,adversiis
sunt, 1591 ;
natura, pJdlosophati

octo

duce

sensata

gottUche

juxta propi'iadogmata, partes tres,1638; Philosophiasensibus

Berum

et in

autem

non

which

Campanella's

Metaphysicarum

F.

Tractat

Venice, recently

Tommaso

Nolano

Geschichte

Bruno, 1868,

und

T, Mamiani

Florenzi

Cisalpinische Blatter, Tom.

1846-47

Scripta,1844; Lange,

M,

of

Vliistoire des hommes

Scartazzini, Ein

A.

Sigwart, Spinoza'sneuentdeckter
di

Marchioness

servir

Philosoph..,
1706;

Cicsa,1847;

von

Bruno

Bruno

natiirliche

das

introduction

PMh^ophiiB, 1744. I. G. Biihle, Commentdtio

Xerwplione Colofonioprimo ejus autlurre iis(pj"

Kindervater, Beitrdgezur

Giordano

Lessman,

the

Ilistoria

inde
Progressu Pantheismi
Spinozam ; Niceron, Mtmoirespour

ad

the

uher

oder

Also

Schelling's dialogue by

Siber's op. cit. Briickerii

Ortu

de

Bruno

choisies de
Cor

so

Ideen,

Campanella,

in

IS^^

sugli Scrittori poUtici

Italiani,1863.
L.
randis

Vanini

is the

author

of

Amphitheatrum

j^ternoi

Natures, ReginceDemque rnortalium, arcanis,1616

Magicum

; De

Fuhrmarm,

Contemnenda

Leben

und

Gloria

Apologiapro

Cluirakter
Schicksale,

und

Providentice,1615 ; De admiVera Sapientia; Physico; De

Mosaica

Meinungen

et Christiana
des L.

lege. Cf.

Vanini, 1800,

W.

D.

Emile

ITALIAN

Vanini, sa

L.

Waisse,
doa

Scieuces

the

defence

Toulose.

de

Arpe, Bayle,
Cf

of Vanini.

La

also

and

Extrait

Voltaire

des

Vie et lea Sentiments

the

and

fullest

Ranke's

Kritik

zur

Pasquale

St.

Kf

is that

in.

Florence,
Le

La

Storia di Firenze

di T. Lido

Legazioni;

Considat
inedite

Opere

noti, P.

di

Fr.

Paruta,

reggimento

totius

Villari,1868.
has

been

debba

catalogue
The

la

Fiorentina

1605;

Paolo

delta

The
Galilei

afterwards
Court

of

held

of

the

Creator,he

the

cf

G.

R.

and

the

are

1858

Mohl,

von

Machiavelli

on

D.

; of G.

his time.

works

La

G.

The

1490

;
in

principal

This

Its

has

works

Nicolo

di

1534.

to

unpublished

Canestrini.

Cf. Ranke's

valuable

MacldaveUi

of G.

; cf. Storia

La

many

Paolo

the

native

of

di

that

Trattato

Sarpi by

Stato,

author

circa il

work

which

also,Opinione

works,

of which

Bianchi-Giovini,

A.

deUa

1589
.

quale
Pas-

by

; Delia

coma

full

1846.
publica
Re-

vifa

politica,1579.
BepublicaVeneziana^

PHncipi.

Eighteenth Centuries.
at

last with

Galileo

Pisa,and the chief of the School,which

with
the

Leonardo

da

Universities

Yinci.

At

of Pisa

and

an

earlyage

Padua, and

philosopherat the
of inductive
founder
is the true
philosophy.
great objectof science,the autograph book of
nor
it cannot
be read by authority,
by any pro-

office of mathematician

the

was

of

Tridentino,

other

the

O. Savonarola

English

Gian-

Sarpi, D.

Bepublica di Venezia, 1540

Bagione

Cittd^and

and

and

Paolo

Italiana,by

Paolo

di

Hkto the

Canestrini

Savonarola

Paruta, Perfezione

P.

G.

moralis,and

durante

Princes, Popes,
cit. ; Thiers'

op.

Savonarola,

quam

French,

DeUa

with

Preface by

philosophy in Italy rose

He

Ouicciardini

delta Letteratura

Stoi^ia del Concilio

are

of

Bottero,

begun
professorin

held

his

of
of

the

Storia

Firenze, 1543

Giannoti

modern

as

from

Discorso

al

naturalis

wrote

Seoenteenth

the

works, 1703.

Ferrari, op. cit.

OpuscoU

Tuscany.

Regardingnature

of

Biograjladi Frd

in the

century before had

was

edition

editorship

Latin, German,

(1564-1641),a

Galileo

For

grandezza deUe

of

sun

1514

Fioi-entine

Macaulay's Essay

Republica Veneziana, 1680, and

and

The

An

Avertissement

"

Sarpi

into

politici,1600

Cause

Storie

dal
tenuta
corriapondenzaufficiale
Carteggio,or his correspondence

Bottero,

principal writings

Discorsi

Le

of his

intorno

tarn
pldlosopliim

found

be

may

partly by
in

e civili; I Discorsi politici

politici
; II Trattato
e sulla riforma del sua
Republica Fiorentina
governo ;

delta cittd di

translated

governarsi

the

Statesmen

Empire

G.

il governo

vols. 8vo. is the

Principe^written

d' Italia,
extending

Guicciardini,1857, and

and

Compendium

of

and
P

de

et

il

and

Guidici, 1855, vol. 3.

Emiliano

; I Bicordi
della

; Scelta dalla

Cardinals, Ambassadors,
toire du

under

Consklerazioni

Gostituzione

sulla

DisGord

edition

Storia

Pisa, 1819, in 10 vols.

prima Deea

ei

sue

is La

of

contains

le dioerse

Florentine

the

in

Cuicciardini

Icently appeared
tpwrt la

11

Livio,and

Durand,

in Florence

Staatsicissenschaften,
by

der

by

Florence,1813, in

writings,

di T.

undertake

David

Essays ; G. Ferrari in his Corao sugliSc7ittoi'i politiciItaliani,

1853.
See
also the life
Mancini, Delia Dottrina
politicadel Machiavelli,

published

kblication

his

works

1841.

recently published

1834
OesoJiiohtshcreiber,

neuerer

of Francesco

bst editioD

Of

V Academi"

de

their

Historical

Machiavelli

rork

been

Deche

OesGhiohte

Cf.

his Critical and

and

Gr. Barbera.

partly by

celebrated.

most

has

of

of

L. Vanini

de

Vanini,

that

works,

edition

new

1583, / DisGorsisulle

in

published

best.

and

Lemmonier

of Machiavelli's

editions

all the

Of

L.

Philosophiquesde

memoires

in several

(Eavres

Rousselot

and

1717,

doctrine,et samort;

sa

me,

47 1

PHILOSOPHY.

and

472

ITALIAN

but only by
j)riori,

ces8

calculation.

and

While,

PHILOSOPHY.

of

means

observation,experiment,measure

his

aid

he invented
the
investigations,
proportionalcompass, the thermoscope, the
to

hydrostaticbalance, the
from
tics
mathemacompound microscope and the telescope,he borrowed
the formulas, the analyses,the transformation
and development
of his discoveries.
celestial
to terrestrial and
Applying this method
mechanics,he made important discoveries in every branch of physical
ing
science,and placed the heliocentric system on a scientific basis. Havarrested by the
thus given the death-blovr to Scholasticism,
he was
for(;ed publiclyto recant, and
under
its surto remain
veillance
Inquisition,
for the rest of his life. Speaking of the comparative merit
of

Galileo

Bacon, Sir David

and

of nature

lived,the student
of

works

Galileo

Brewster

would

have

"

says

found

Had

in the

Bacon

never

writings and

the

oillythe principlesof inductive philosophy,but

also its practicalapplicationto the noblest efforts oi invention
and
discovery." The eminent scientist Biot,while assertingthe- uselessness
of the Baconian
method, insists upon the permanent validityof that of
not

Trouessart

Galileo; and

Galileo

pupils.

declares

founded

that

School

in

science

honored

by

we

all his

are

the

of

names

Torricelli,
Viviani, Castelli,Borelli,Cavalieri,Malpighi,Spallanzani,
ing
Morgan i,Galvani, Yolta and other eminent scientific men, w^ho, followhis method
took the lead in the scientific prctgress of
successively,
due
in science,that the Italian mind
this activity
to
Europe. It was
enabled
and ecclesiastical
to resist the oppressiveinfluence of the political
was
and
servitude,under w^hich Italylabored in the seventeenth
eighteenthcenturies ; and it was through the example of Galileo,that
became
so
physicalscience never
predominant,as to exclude the study
of philosophy. Throughout his works he loses no occasion to insist on
efiicient and
between

the divine

the

Cause, whose
the

vidence
which
at
were

the

beyond

originof
which

same

denies

omnipotent and

lightand

time

heat

limit

no

there

causes,
allwise
he

the universe

it matures

only objectof

; and

infinite difference

which

while
intelligence
; and
of
the legitimatepower

know^s

all second

embraces

diffuses

the

the human

the world

the

on

rationalism,w^hich
that

asserts

First

and

and

which
scepticism,

rejectspure
He

final causes,

must

creative

well

as

he

cates
depre-

reason,

he

for human

professesfaith
as

exists

knowledge.
exist a
necessarily

energy

alone

can

in that Divine

its atoms,

like the

plain
ex-

Pro"
sun

through all our planetarysystem, while

if that
wheat
as
as
a grain of
perfectly,

its action.

ITALIAN

editorship

the

under

life of

the

contains

and

Galileo, 1776
Fabioni
1805

; L.

in which

des

Mathematiques,
T.

in his Examen

Lord

de

Libri, Histoire

lt(dia nei Secoli 1Q"

rini,Galileo

porains, 1861

in

1867,

Revue

the

der

und

Trecentesirno

Nel

1868

(Edinburgh

; E.

de

in

reply

etc.

de

Galileo's

fol.

his

Progres

his

des
the

in

ad

la

de

Physique, 1810

Michaud

; A.

of

Sciences

in the Atti

Sir

Indactive

Histoire

the

David

deW

Academia

Inquisition,1863

des
ScJiriften

Natalizio

; J.

in his

in his

du

Historiques;
Monde

Galileo

L.

GathoUque

de

la

Chr.

Pisa, 1864

Inquisition
"

Process

; Case

G.

in the

Journal

J.

G., 1870

Gain., Paris, 1870.

System
Lond., 1641.

of the

Th.
World

Henry
"

was

; Abbe

Martin, Galilee
translated

Fon-

1866

Galileo ;

Life of

FilosofiaPositiva
; Galileo and
Oct.

et les Droits

English by

Selmi,

di Galileo,

"

specially

Reviein,Nov.

Thomas

et
des

his Condemnation,

1865

de la

inedits^

Geschichte

Castelna,u, Vie, Travaux,

of the

Les

1860,
Proces,

Science,\^Q%.
Salusbury,

philosophy of history,
the philosophersof modern
times.
(1668-1744) stands foremost among
in Naples, and earlydevoted
lie was
himself to the study of law,
born
philosophy,philologyand history. Living in an age when the philosophy
of Descartes
had become
he attacked the psycho'
popular in Italy,
Giovaiiiii Battista

Yico,

as

the founder

into

zur

scientifique,

d/jcuments

Jagemann,

Dublin
Galileo,

Savants, 1858

des

nuovi

Gontem-

Travaux,

ses

des

Ma-,

Rallaye, Galilee,la Science

; P. Feliciani
des

M.

Beitrdge

in his

Mission
et

d'apres

Galilei,1784; Driakwater,

di Galileo in

1852

M.

Bertrand,

Decouvertes

the

della Fisi-ca in

Pontificladei

Galilee,sa

Brewster,

Sciences,1837;

Rom, published

Proces,sa Condamnation,

Sciences

Barbier

Naturelles, 1841

alciini avanzamenti

Galilee,sa Vie,ses

Panhappe,

Revue

Wohlwill, Her

to Biot

' '

Montucla, Histoire

Review, 1830), Life of Newton, 1855, and

moderne, 1865; Trouessart,

;

; C,

V Astronomie

de

continuation
des

Italic, 1841

en

Galilei und

the

of

work

the

contemporary

Review,
of
(Lond.), Jan.
British
consultation; The Martyrdom of GadUeo, North

of

in

fioruerunt, 1778-

et xviii.

repandus, 1820;
Historiqueslespliis

History of the

Rezzi,

Reumont,

Rambler

worthy

de

Salfi, in

Intorno

Boncompagni,

I'Epinois,Galilee,son

VEglise, 1867,
Lebens

inserted

Diderot

in Toscana, 1780,
Scienzejisiche

Cuvier, Histoire

G.

in

Filosofiadi

della

Saggio

by Gherardini,

Phihsophique

; M.

Rossi

V.

/icy elopedie de

Italiana, 1826-3()

Mathematiques

Galileo and

Madden,

Proces, 1865

son

de

Henry

V Astronamie

de

Vie et

; A.

delle

in

Galileo,1797; Bailly, Histoire

17% 1846; Whewell,

1851

; G.

Geschichte,1853; Ph. Chasles, Galileo Galilei,saVie, sonProcesetses

Italienischen

sa

; B.

quiSa^culisxvii.

des Dictionnaires

1834;

V Inquisizione,
1850; D.

Lincei,Dicembre,

dateurs

was

de PE

Biographie unioei'selle,
published by

in

Galileo

and
of Co])erniGus

Lives

Galileo,1778, which

Libes, Histoire

Sciences

Martyrs of Science,1846

Supplement

written

edition

biographers and

his

1647
letterati,

and

di

This

Frisi, JShgio di Galileo,1775, which

; P.

della Letteratura

Ginguene,
des

di nomini

edizione

Galilei,
prima

1842-56.

Among

of literature

Life of Galileo,1829

Brougham,

pupil

in the

Galileo

critiqueet complement

litteraire d' Italic

M.

1799

Viviani.

degliaggrandimenti

letterario

Galileo

Biot, Article

di Galileo

Opere

edition, 16 vols.,

complete

Palatini,Firenze,

history

di

Tiraboschi,Storia

M.

; Le

excellentium

life of

the

Gommercio

; G.

moderne

Vita

doctrina

published

he

Nelli, Vita

in

Teatro

inserted

Tozzetti, iu\i\9,JSotme

; T.

by

in his

Brenna,

Vita} Italorum

his

in his

and

; J. Andres

Alembert

D.

written

published

Viroruin, 1643-48

into French

translated

Manoscritti

GhUini

Illiistrium

Pinacotheca

his
was

been

Alberi

Eugenio

GalUeo,

mentioned

be

critics may

of Prof.

sugliautentici

condutta

completa,

liave recently

Galileo

of

works

The

473

PHILOSOPHY.

474:

ITALIAN

exclusive

PHILOSOPHY.

of

philosophicinvestigation,
and
maiiitaiiied the validityof common
upheld the importance
sense,
Ratioiie,
His writings,Be
studies.
of historic and philological
Sa^ieritia,
1710, and
Stvdiorum, 1708, De Antiquissima Italorum,

logicalmethod

Jus

the

as

process

Ufiiversale^
1720, containinghis De

Una

et

Universi

Juris

Pririr

and De
Constantia
FhiFldlosojpliim
to liis Drincipii di Scienza
Niiova^
a sort of introduction
of
of
the
he
his
civilization.
in
which
1722,
theory
history
develops'
twice
he
this
Of
re-written,
published two editions,one in 1730,
work,
in 174:4.
In his introductorywritingshe discusses the
and another
question of method, particularlyas applied to moral and juridical
science, and strives to evolve a metajDliysical
theory from the analysis
of the roots of the Latin language and from the generalstudyof philology,
all the facts of historical experiwhich, accordingto him, embraces
ence.
in a relation of causalitybetween
Knowledge consists essentially
the knowing principleand
the knowable
the mind
can
; since
that,which it can produce through its own
only know
activity;that is
to say, the mind
can
only know those data of experience,which it can

his De

cipioet Fme,
form
lolo(ji(B^

'convert

into

truth

effect;it

nor

process of reason.
lies the principleof all

by

according to Yico,
method,

Constantia

This

conversion,in which,

science,neither the logical

psychothe geometrical process introduced
by Descartes,

only be produced by a method

truth, authority and reason, philology and

in which

certainty
and
philosophy become
united
and
the necessary principles
of
harmonized, so as to embrace
well as the contingent productions of human
nature
as
activity.To
into truth,to find a principle
be converted
establish a fact which
may
which
has its basis in experienceand common
sense, yet is in harmony
with \!i\Qeternal order of the universe,is the problem of metaphysics..
This fact or this principle,
accordingto Yico, is to be found in God alone,
in himself
the only true
Ens," who, being an infinite cause, contains
all facts and all intelligence.Thus
Divine
Providence, actingin no
mysterious w^ay, but through the spontaneous development of human
is the basis of all history,
w^iich reveals itself in the evolution
activity,
of language,mythology, religion,
law and government.
Whether
we
account, which pointsout a state of
accept the Mosaic
of the Fall,or admit
condition
a primitive
degradationas a consequence
of barbarism, it is certain that at a remote
race
was
period the human
in a condition
that of the brutes.
far above
not
Gigantic in stature,
their bodies covered with hair,men
roamed
through the forests which
can

can

"

ITALIAN

covered

the

475

PHILOSOPHY.

earth,without

family,language,laws, or gods. Yet within

the principles
of humanity, sympathy,
'lem, though latent,there were
nary
sociability,
pudor, honor and liberty,
which, called forth by extraordifrom animalityto the hrst condition
events, graduallyraised them
f human
beings. This awakening was caused by terrific phenomena
of nature, which, stimulatingthe mind
to
consciousness,brought a
under
the influence of a supernatural
portionof mankind
power, and
induced
caverns

the

of

nmnber

and

to

individuals,male
the formation

commence

dynamic process

of

civilization

was

the

and

female, to

of families.

take

refuge in

From

certain

this

point

laws, which

subject
all history. Prominent
to

development of
among
belief of all people
these laws is that vvhich has produced the universal
in the great principlesof religion,
marriage and burial,which from
This law manifests itself
the ivw^frnderahumanitatis.
the firstbecame
have

presidedover

which
is divided into three different
progress of civilization,
the human.
The
divine
age is the
ages, the divine, the heroic,and
first stage of civilization,
when
the chief of the family is king and
in all the

the delegateof heaven.

his subordinates
It is
as
ruling over
priest,
the age of the originof language,rude and concrete
; the age of sacred
or
hieroglyphic characters ; of right identified with the will of the
gods, and of a jurisprudence identified with theology, the age of
divination,mythology, auspices and oracles. The heroic age
idolatry,
which
has its birth when
that portionof mankind
had remained
in a
savage condition,seeks refugefrom the violence of their companions,
still more
ready
degraded than themselves,in the homes of those families aland at the feet of the altars erected on
the heights.
established,
"

The

new-comers

are

admitted

into the

condition

on

of becoming

offspiingof
the gods, and heroes by rightof birth and power.
Thus
the primitive
families
the rulers of the community, enjoyingrightswhich
are
are
the
such as the solemnity of marriage,
accorded
not
to slaves
session
posof land, etc.
of slaves increases ; they
Gradually the number
after long
of their masters, who
become
restless under the domination
of their rights.
to
some
struggleare finallyconstrained
grant them
Hence
the origin of agrarianlaws, patronages, serfs,patricians,
sals,
vasand plebeians,
cratic
the rise of cities,
and with them
subjectto aristoMeantime
of its primitive
language,losing some
government.
rudeness,becomes
imaginativeand mythologic ; its characters become
fantastic and universal;
law is no longer from the gods,but from
more
servants

of theij- defenders, who

family

"

now

claim

to

be

the

476
the

uf

PHILOSOPHT.

ITALIAN

tion
heroes,thoughstill identified with force ; and the duel and retaliatake place of sacerdotal justice. In this period the predominance!
imaginationis bo great, that general types become
represented hy

pi'oper names,
genius of
of ancient

and

accepted

Egyptians finds

Cireece

historical characters.

as

tive
the inven-

in Ilermes,the
personification

Hercules, and

in

Tims

its

poetry

in Homer.,

heroism

So Romulus

periods of civilization
kings of ancient Rome, in whom
have been personified,
descend
historical characters.
to posterity
as
With
the gradualdevelopment of democracy the human
age apj)ears ;
and
and with it aristocratic or democratic
modern
republics
monarchies,
less on the equalityof the people. Language beestablished more
or
comes
and more
and prose and poetry more
natural
and
more
positive,
loses a great part of its "iythological
ter,
characmore
philosophic; religion
and
tends to morality and
refinement.
Civil and
to
political
equalityis extended, natural rightis considered superiorto civil legality,
and privaterightbecomes
from public. In the perdistinguished
fection
of democratic
is
there
to
one
only
ty,
exception equaligovernments
the other

and

and

that

But

is wealth.

wealth

is the

of

cause

corruption in those

possess it,and of envy and passion in those who desire it. Hence
of power, discords,insurrections,and
abuse
which
civil wars,
from
monarcihy often arises as a guarantee of public order.
Monarchy
who

failing,the country which is rent by corruption and anarchy will

fall by conquest, or, in the absence
of conquest, it will relapse
finally
into a state of barbarism
equal to that which preceded the divine age,
with the only difference that the first was
of nature, the
a barbarism
will

second

the
beastly,

be

other

through
in
the

This

in

an

perfidiousand

theory

the

that

series of

indefinite
the

"

Corsi

by

Yico

the

dark, the

heroic, and

the

middle

human

ages,
ages

given people, that is to

right,from authorityto

reason,

and

and

one

after

is ferocious

long period of

rise,thus

fall and
''

Ricorsi," w^hich

volving
repress
ex-

society.

history of Rome,
tures
mankind, whose principal feathe

of all nations.
fall of the Roman
modern

same

empire, when

times, the

Civilization

the

Thus

divine,

therefore

brutal
from
progress
selfishness to
and from

their

and

of civilization,passing

of human

from

reappear.

say,

"

conditions

dynamic

evolved

was

Only

base.

again begin the course

stages, liable again to

its different

static and

reflection ; the

typical historyof
are
repeated .n the histories
manifests
itself again after the

making
law

is

will that nation

decadence

of

barbarism

in

force

the
a

to

is
justice,

478

ITALIAN

pies of Vico
ddV

corao

and

origin

the

delV

the

delle Cose

of

different
in

reason

in

science

of

is always

Vico,

of

the

la

Scienza
dwells

works

Vico

tains
the

that

the

Coi'si and

1834, adopted
his doctrine
as

of the

And

authority
della

(in

to

of the

and

to the

of

support

Carmignani,
attributes

Einnovamento

to

their

in

him

to

Critica

of his

doctrines

Storia

di

the

una

deW

Zocchi,
and

in

Studi

his

Bel

G.B.

Metodo

Vico, 1855
sopra

and

principles of

reconciliation
the doctrines

principal systems
of modem
of

Vico,

have

his

doctrine
della

which

with

he

by
and

the

macy
supre-

the

law

wider

in

of motion

in

of

reality.

brilig his

to

his

the

and

mass,

phenomenical

endeavored

historical

and

Formola

logica

reality in its ideal

history,and

in

necting
con-

in his

either

his

Cristo,18G9

Sistema

Bel

of

to

parative
com-

La

Vico and

; G.

Hegeliano,

adopted

critical

of

some

examination.

fundamental

the

More

recently

positiva in Italia,1871, having

Filosofia

ancient

strives

di

analysis

Spaventa. Fiorentino, Vera, Bertini,

; B.

to

in

complete

department

Vita

Bella

E. Amari,

and

Principii di

philosophy, rejects them

positivism
from

the

spontaneity

Centofanti,

Galasso,

; A.

1868

Vico,

of

fusing

of

social
orders.
F.
psychologic, and
delta
del
1851,
Filosofia
Dintto^
Progressi

Fornari,

others

Vico, or subjected
Siciliani,in his Sid Rinnovamento
all the

works

Filosofiasecondo

his

; Vito

del

in
gether
to-

expressed by Vico,

as

the

philosophy of jurisprudence,

T. Rossi, 1865

Storico

Conti, Franchi, Mazzarella

in

Carlo,

in

that

historical

philosophical

to the

relation

legislation. A. De
d''Italia

dei

true

of

historical

Cattaneo,

wider

delle legislazioni
comparate, 1857, gives

Scienza

having

of

edition

an

antica Ttnliana^
Filosofia

considering
philosophical idea

the

the

cosmic,

the

Origini e

origin

S.

of

Machiavelli,Gra-

determined

from

in

Vico
to

force,

various

this

Saggio

critici,
1843, main-:
Wiiova, in which, although

truth

evolved

as

theories, while

experience

with

that

doctrines

gave

independently of

atom

every

immovable,

the

C.

become

into

cal
criti-

in his

succeeded

della

continuity of

of

he

orbit

may

fact

of

conversion

their

principle

one

in his

in his

P.

limited,and

Filosofiadella Storia, 1845, follows

from

the

Studi

in

Scienza

in

his

Vico

from

holds

civilization.

certain

is not

have

Gioberti

of

acterizes
char-

and

Osservazioni

Tonti

undertook

in which

'

mental
rejects his funda-

Vico,

F. Predari

in the

of

in his

Luigi

between

growth

former

of Vico

doctrines

Tommas'^o,

limits

identity, and

Romagnosi

that

Vico,

Etiohgia, the

of self-interest

N.

delta

imagination and
of

and
civilization,

science

apparent

indivisible,indefinite,and

under

1867,

orbit

ages

volume,

supremacy

the

T. Mamiani,

genesis,in ascending

Mente

is

principle inherent

the

by Grotius.
within

senses,

D.

existing

one

thi

Catalda

spontaneous

philosophicalexposition

of the

and

human

people.

PoUtecnico)^holds

progress

unity,

of

Lm-

on

Necessitd

of the

the

another

relations

to

Natura

his principles he

philosophers.

the

criterium

the

Rosmini

so

the

relation

Bicorsi,this

the

on

belonging

idea

of

from

makes

in

defined

of time.

progress

of

some

published only

of history is fixed

course

of the

he

doctrine

as

G.

examines'

works,

juristsand

mind

idea

the

other

original

ages

of causalities,

Vico

civil government.

Telosojiaand

of

in his

of

critical analysis of the historical

divine, heroic,and

derivation

1835, but

reason,

three

accepts
spontaneity of the growth

Italia,1862

the

of the

the

the

in his Sulla

Vico,

Niiova.

he

while

of

Machiavelli's
of

that

latter

other

Vico's

analysis of
his

of

development

particularly on

in

as

1817, gives

to the

Nuova^ 1835,

and

vina. Herder,
Vice's

the

result

and

sopra

the

JVuova, 1821, and

point of view, and

idea

society and

introduces

He

by

age

the
finalities,

Soienza

sidla

well

as

critics

history,corresponding
last

doctrines

Soienza

the

civilizations.

the

TJgo

adopted

delle Stoi^ie wnane,

Foscolo

scepticism.

Letteratura

language
eminent

most

Synthesis,as expressed
of

system of historical

della
Uffizio

nature

of

Janelli,one
Hcienza

falls into

and

Origine e

PHILOSOPHY.

idealism

develop

can

not

contends

all,and
only

only

be

effected

historical

that

mined
exa-

the

through

philosophy,

!)ut

logicaland

Condderaziord

Vico,1826
"iggi

suUa

Prmcvpii

Diritto,1855

Universo

Vico

G.B.

Merletta's

In

in his

Vico, 1869

; F.

in

; Goschel

the

C. E. Muller, the

and

interpreted

his

Introduction

Theorie

Oalileo

Colangelo's

delle dottruie

Vico,1826

del

; P. Jola's

de la

the

found

minor

Principesde

la

1831
PhilosopJde,

sur

de

in

his

Fine

Unico

interpreters in F. K. Savigny

in his

of the

translator

Germanic

in the

In

Scienza

Nuova,

Museum,

1857

M.

France,

Michelet

has

de VHistoire,
1827 ; Ballanche,
Pliilosoplde
in his Orphee, 1830 ; V. Cousin, in his

; the

Stuart

in Foreign Beview, Lond., vol.

Italians,''''

et

de

Ferron,

; F.

rent,
Lau-

1870; Barthlomess,
dela Pldhsoplde

PJdlosophie
Moderne, 1842 ; and A.
etla PhilosopJde
Positive, 1861.

de la

Comte

Mill

v., p. 380

; H.

Conscience,1870

in the

Vice's

in his Histoire

vi. ; F. BouUier

System of Logic.Cf

Savants, 1867

xviii.

vol.

Cf.Littre, A.
John

des

Science

his

genercde
Bouchez,

of la Science

author

anonymous

Journal

in his Manuel

St. MIL

Introduction

in his

; Lerminier,

Melanges PJdhsopJdques,1834

Humanite,

vol.
Pldlosopldques,

Renouvier,

in his

deW

della Divinazione

uso

nella Storia,1868;
Filosofia

works, 1854.

VHistoire,1844

de

English philosophers,
Vico

delV

Jacob}^ in his
IlegeVsFldlosopliy
of History ;
the Museum
der Alterthumswissenschaft,
1807 ;

in

Jouffroy,

in his letter to John

principlesof

G,

of Vico's

VHistoire

; C.

Principioe

Unicd

necessitd

and
PalingenesieSociale,

des Sciences

Cartesienne, 1854

BeW

B. " ontonvCs. La

Vico

to

A. Wolff

d la Science

Etudes

Dictionnaire

Among

di O. B.

Dante,
are

alia

Vico,1844 ; Adam
Franck, in the
du Progres,1869 ; Vacherot, in

NouveUepar
in his

preface

in his

la

Droit, 1829

du

in his Introduction

Comte

Vico

Sapienza antichissima
degliItaliani,1869; G. De Luca's
deW
G. B. Vico,
1870 ; C. Cantoni's
Aquinate e del Vic"o,

translator

VHistoire

VHistoire

in his

Niiova

NiehuJir,1816 ; G, Weber, the

Zerstreute
Blatter,1837 ; Cauer

doctrines

Prolegomenes

in his

; E. Gans

Orelli in his Vico and

1822

of

Sommario

Oesare's

De

; C. Giani's

philosophy of

the

Germany
1842

iXher

Vantoni
G.

una

Ititorm

diVico,1857;
la

Saggio ontologicosidle dottrine

Niebuhr,

; G.

Sciema

of

author

philosophy

Fagnani's Della

; E.

N'uova

Scicnza

dalla
testificata

867.

di

Gospettodel Secolo 19% 1852

B. Vico al

1821

Nuova,

the

on

del Diritto,1841 ; Delia Valle's

Filosofia
Sciema
della Storia,1844; G. Rocco's
ElogioStorico di G. B. Vico,1844;
ai Frimi'piidelle Umane
1851 ; C. Marini's
G.
Societd,
Reggio's Introduzione

D, D'Ondes

J.

criticism

; P. S. Mancini's

Vico,1841

sul

delV

Sclenza

suUa

; S. Gallotti's

Studio

of

works

the

Siciliani is also

metaphysical doctrine.

Other

Vigo, 1865.

479

PHILOSOPHT.

ITALIAN

New
;

to the

given attention

has
"

Science

and

Ancient

historical

Wisdomof

Fm^eign Quarterly Review, xxxiv.,

289.

The

revohition
philosophic

extended

Italyand
and
logism (or Idealism),

soon

to

Malebranche

followers

the

Among

1684), who

the

friend

Arnauld

1691

; Paolo

Locke

method

1749.

and

Constantino

in

in

forms

of

France,
Psycho-

"

French

Malebranche,

who

Descartes

itself in the two

the

of the

Doria,

his

Grimaldi,

Difesa
who

to

blend

philosopher; Michelangelo
and

in

the

author

of

Tommaso

were

Universm

the

Fardella

Comelio
doctrines

(b.

(d.

of Te-

1650),

the

PhilosopJdm Systema,

of
Metafisica,
1732, opposed the doctrines
Discussioni
Teologichee FilosoficJiCy
Istoriche,

della
his

of
philosophy against the attacks of the Aristotelians
methodice
and
Fortunato
da
author
Mentis
the
of
Brescia,
tractata.,
PJdlosoplda
;
the opponents of Aristotle may
S. Basso, PhilosophioB
also be mentioned
Among

1725, vindicated
his age

with

Sensnalism, representedby Descartes and

side,and by Locke and Condillac on the other.

one

of

manifested

began

Psychologism of Descartes
Progymnasmata Physica, 1633, tried

his

in

lesio with
of

the

on

which

the

Cartesian

480

ITALIAN

Naturalis

Aristotelem,libri 12,

admrsm

school

of Descartes

1802),

who

of

held
the

Locke,

Ontologism

of

the following relate

contre

Locke

Defense

I'examen

V education

de

Discours

principiid(Ma

Ente

delV

materialistic
Mm'ole.

di

of men;

Psychology
V.

di

Nature

; P.

V,

and

sulla

ascended

to the

also

was

by M.

regarded

of

reason;

Ego

di Dio ;

C.

in his

Infinite

principle of

the

as

by Pasqualigo

iMiceli,

the

in his Elernentl
the

who

inequality

founded

Be

treatise
Orazi

Degli

Melodo

in his

versale
uni-

Latin
work,
unity of the

the

on

his

NiJalo, 1758;

Protohgia^ a

morality

Theses

witii

the principle of knowledge

cui non
intelligentim,
Jiominem^ 1746, sought

(xninem

work

on

Solis

in his

who

Rousseau

his

and

Miceli, wlio
idealism

"Christianityagainst

of the

(1750-1815),author

Pini

confatazimie"!" i
JMigifme : Tommasu

Draghetti,

Torelli,in

G.

ddli

Gioanni's

defended

i "

"i"

siar/uliers
;

VeterniUi

; Vincenzo

Di

cUmoiil

Vorigine

combats

writers; Carli,who

the

from

Metaphysica,1672, and

va.

in V.

numerous

la theoi'ie et la pratique

Christian

Condillac, established

on

grandezza

transcendental

as

Terralavoro

French

science; Tellino,who

of the

idea

may

principles of knowledge

all

Giovenale,

of all

source

found

be

della

Sovrana
reconcile

to

strove

other

ac
inextinguibileilluminans
indeficiens

the

Mente

Palmieri,who-

evolved

and

; E.

established

he

(1718-

the

Sensualism

et

crnitro

Esame

alio Studio

La

of

system

as

Saggio

his

author

in his work

being

la nature

matematica

philosophical confutation

instinct

1788
filosofare,

in which

Divine

moral
in

Chiavacci

of

idea

to

(rcrdil
the

opposed

sur

"

nella grandezza ;

Introduzione

and

of Freret

who,
Falletti,

on

Malebranche

consider ato

whose

1741, attempted
the

P.

Dimostrazione

Reale,18G4;

doctrines

T. V.
on

Urto

and

mind,

belong

Pantheism

eighteenth century

the J^leaticdoctrines,and

divine

writers
Cardinal

Vhomme

Vice,

of the

beginning

the

du

FilosofiaWolfiana ;
of

in the

following

Malebranche

Anti-Emile^ or, Reflexionssur

principlesde liomseau ; Traite des

les

contre

Rossi, contemporary

ovxero

Locke

Assoluto
infinito

; DeW

materia

in the

sentiment

philosophiquessur

The

with

of Spinoza. Among
his
de Vdme
philosophical subjects : LHrnmaterialite

to

Mr.

de

ideas

Wolff, and

du

1621.

affinities

of

vision

works

idees contre

their

through
to the

PHILOSOPHY.

succedit

lumen

nox,

in divine

tion
illumina-

de Infinito,
Pliilosopliicm
1660,

aU

knowledge

principle which

DisputationesMetaphysical,1616,
in SuUa
Legge di Con-

in

by R, G. Boschovich

tinuitd,1750.
While

the

professed
1592

; De

preceding

characterized

were

disciplesof

themselves

Intellectu

Agente,

1667

Novissima

1657

in his

; A. Maso.

lium, 1630, in
lotti,in
which

his

G. A.

he

Ceva,

verses,

Severino,
ancient
atomistic

who

in his

mechanics

his

monuments.

philosophy

expressed
as

G.

in his

Magneno

Democntus

Aristotelis ;

Annulis
G.

anii-

Polizzo, in

and

Ambrosini,

of

Philosophia,

his
in

Metlwdus

his

; A. Rocco, in
independent of scholastic influence

1688
PhilosophiaPeripatetica,
more

of

1637

on

; G.

scientific

principles; L.
author

Grandi,

Diacresi, in

which

Gassendi, Descartes,
to

investigate nature

preceded

Gassendi

and
revivisccns,

in

Anima-

great work, De Motu

his

he

in

De

and

the

restoration

in

trines
doc-

written

Copernicus

Restauratione

Maga-

Logic

the

work

through
the

of

refuted

Philosophia Noto-Antiqua, 1726, a

confutation

G.

Iliimance,

Aninice

Serbelloni,in

; G.

established

were

Pansofia,1650, strove
in his

; S.

scientist,in

eminent

Scholasticism, 1695,
as

Pietate

Philosophia,1673

As Empiricists

the
Borelli,

animal

intended
in

famigliari against Atheism,

opposed

of P.
Latin

which

De

Philosophia,1679; G.
Philosophicum,1653

1633.
filosofiche,

Lettere

accusato

Ortu

reconditis ; De

antiquorum

Theatrum

; S.

be mentioned

J. Liceto, in his De

ing
follow-

the

tendency,

Platonic

1703 ;
PhilosophiaExpiervmentalis,
Morandi, in his Cursus Phihsophici,

Spinola,in his
inventiva,1625 ; G. B. De Benedetti,
may

by

; A. Andrioli, in his

Novissima

his Esercitazioni

Lucernis

Atheismi

PhUosophicm Disputationes,1673

F. Langhi, inYix^

Aristotle

De

1627.

Aristotele

quis ; Apologiapro
his

writers

; M.

in

A.

study of
of

the

PhUosaphia

ITALIAN

EpicurecB^1648

D"m.

found

Leibnitz

of

the

body,

treated

were

1716

P.

D.

L'unione

delV

anima

1775

1728;
Gogitandi,

1755

JJomo

TJoino,1791

deW

the

union

Principiidel

Universa

ex

Nova

anima

of Wolff

and

of

alV

ddle

anima

the

; P.

si

soul

with

dei

bruti,1750;
Cartesium,

contra

bestie,1706

age

be

may

C.

Vitale,

; G. P.

Monti,
ndfeto, 1703.

infonde V anima

mentioned

The

influence
the

through

PMlosopliia,1741

Recta

De

3, and

of De

of the

; A. Sanctis, BeUe

Philosophiam, 1718

ad

1788
Riflessione,

of

member

the

Order

Spedalieri,Dd

DelV
; F. Longano,
ternAmati, EtUca
ex

; I. M.
; C.

Baldinotti, Tentaminum

philosophy

Bonnet,

in

the

philosophy

of
The

of

as

Parma

philosophical
writers,

also

Forze

to

text-books

written

named,

G. C. Bini, iMtere

tri,Lezioni
P.

di analisi
Delle

Scienze, 1804

the

been
The

ddle

powerful

in Latin

in

P.

philosophy

of

may

the

to

ten

and

to

in

mentioned,

writings of

doctrine,

at the

years

result.
both

Italian

besides.

; Pavesi, Elementa

and

the

colleges of

this

the

all, the

above

S. Storcheneau,

Sensualism

t-he

on

philosophical

the

and

universities
for

di

Soave

the

Court
The-

German;
Schools,

already

Logices,Metii-

Barkovich, Saggio sulle passioni; C. Rezzonico, Sidla

De

Tomaso,

Idee, 1807

Abba,

of

contributed

be

of

Italy

Soave,
Logica,

all moulded

Tracy, and,

resided

1746
Metafisiche,

; T. V.

Instituzioni

Lomonaco,

1810; Cestari,
m/)raliinfluenze,
; I.

the

Make

propagation

; F.

; M.

by

Instituzioni

translations
De

into

Francesco

text-book

impulse

prince, greatly

the

of

author

Condillac,who

Teologichee

1778

18 %

of

of this

Moralis, 1793

Secdo

Schedoni,

ddle

to

representatives
Phil.

the

long

predominant

Bourbon

added

the

et
physices,

Understanding''''
by

Italy.

gave

chieflyintroduced

was

; G.V.

Ragione poetica, 1704,

philosophical works,

have

Northern

became

Among

FHosofia dd

and

other

Instituzioni

Condillac

senses

greatly

the

on

Somaschi,

personal influence
tutor

France

Rousseau, Helvetius, ,Holbach,

of

the

of

Essay

of many

Colleges of

works

Peninsula.

the

and

His

D'Alembert,

philosophical

of

La

Bomani, 1700, and

School
"

Locke's

1810,

of Locke.

instruction

Origine Juris

of

vizi

passionie

; N.

Hximanm
Mentis Institutione,1787 ; G. Tettoni,
Capocasale, Cursus Philosojjhicvs,
1792; I. Bian-

; G.

Sensualistic

translation

Metafisicae Morale,

seu

Zanotti, philosophical works, 1763

naturale, 1771

author

fell

Martini, Logica

De

of Italy, and of Ddle

chi,Meditazioni; L. A. Muratori, the author of the Annals
and
Delia
Forza
della Fantasia,
Tntendvmento,1745,
LaFilosojiaMorcde, 1735
the

was

Condillac.

and

deW

Gravina,

the

in Libra

Fassoni,

anima

the

T. Cattaneo.

bestie,1766

delle

of Locke

Introductio

M.

; F.

lAbri

Diritto

philosophy

demonstrata

pore concinnata,1721 ; P. Verri, philosophical works, 1788

Metaphysicorum^

poraries
contem-

eighteenth century, Empiricism

remained
independent,but it soon

; G. Boccalossi, Sidla

naturale, 1764

his

Fuginelli, Principia Meta/physicmgeometricamethodopertvaetata,

A.

intdletto ; C. Fromond,

Diritti

Trevisani

intorno

deW

of the doctrines

Visconti, Theses

; A.

The

in

Monades,

the

first it

At

of

1768
epistolare,

; P. Papi, 8uW

of

beginning

of

B.

brutorum

Vessenza

early Empiricists of that

the

Among

of

Corte, Sul tempo in cui

; B.

the influence

under

sensitiva

anima

sopra

greatlyextended.

works

Sistema

Barbini, Nuovo

col corpo,

doctrine
attention

1733.

of aniinald,and

soul

Pino,

the

With

the

in

in Dissertazione

Trattato

brutorum, 1742

Anima

deW

the

to

as

the
the

Iiistitutioiies PliilosopJiim
Wolfianm, 1754, and

of

by GT. Cadonici

Sbaragli, Entelechia,sew

J. H.

Newtomanismo,

in his

interpreted

was

in

Algarotti called

F,

and

author

delle bestie; L.

anima

Ars

Newtcn

questions

Meanwhile

8uW

of

in the

exponent

an

doctrine

Vive,1678,

works

to the

Ciassi anticipated Leibnitz

; Gr. M.

alle Forze

Intorno

his

481

PHILOSOPHY.

Elementa

Logices et

di

1804 ; I. ValdaaMetafisica,
della sensibilitd,
1809

Analisi

Tentativo

della

rigenerazions
1829, Ddle Cognizioni
Metaphysices,.
secondo

482

ITALIAN

PniLOSOPHT.
"

1833,and

umane^

Moralis.

PhlhmpJim
his Del

Lettere

Fllomato

On

Bdlo, 1815 ; M.

the

to construct

the

De

first may

distincUone

in Deo

entium

tutiones, 1741 ; P.

mentioned

be

A.

et in

Leti, Nihil

Sole

sub

^Esthetics, in

FilosofiadeUe Scienze^1800
P.

Borrelli,under

tendencies,some

the basis

Premoli, De

creaturis, 17G9

Triennmm

Semery,

Peripateticaadvcrsus

phm

Pasio,Elemmta

; and
establish

the

; P.
of

name

of

writers

ored
endeav-

Revelation, while others

of Eclecticism.

kind

idee,and

to

Princijnidelta Ge/iealogiadel Pensiero,1817.

in his

philosophyon

sought refugein
Among

le

these materialistic

counteract

kivlla

in his

di comporre

inodo

Lallebasque, Psychology,

To

Cicognara sought

basis

same

Cesarotti,Philology,

Costa, Rhetoric, in his Dd

primitwe, 1835

svlle credenze

Novum,

De

Dd, 1754 ; G. B. Riccioli,

Sicco, Logicceet Metnph. Insti-

1708
PJiiloaopkicum,

et recemiares

veteres
and

existentia
; F. M.

unico

prmsertim

; G.

PJdlosopJios,
1748;

naturalium

rerum

Ferrari, Philoso-

A.

and

G.

forrmiliprincipio,seu

de

the
second
class
Among
Spiritu Materiali,1718.
Ceva,
were
already mentioned;
Maria
C. Agnesi, Propositioned
Pliilosophicm,
1738; E. Corsini, Institutiones PMosophicoe
ac
Matematicce, 1731 ; G. Gorini, Antropologia, 1758 ; Luini, Meditazione
Fihsofica,
sulla Filosofia
1778; 0. I. Ansaldi,Riflessioni
Morale, 1738, De iraditione p^'incdpiorum

legisnaturalis, 1743,

VindicicB

and

1754

Maupertuisiarm,

; G.

Scarella, Elementa

B.

et Teologice
Ijogicce,
Ontologim,Psycologice
naturalis,1702 ; and above all,Antonio Genovesi (1712-1709) in his Elementa
Artis Logico-Critic.ce,
Metaphysices,1703 ; Elementorwn

; Meditazioni

science
Commerdo

delivered

friend

to

of

ancient

delle

the

Pene^
of

1704

penal
; DeUa

1820-30

of the

work

"

law

in

Storia

which,
delV

who,

Indole

in

any

other,

has

d'ogni Filosofiadi A.

dvUe
the

the

della Letteratura
Storia

; DelV

Italiana,di

della Letteratura

dltalle^ par

P.

Origine

L.

State, and

boldly

of Dei

Delitti

to

Italiana

di G.

Cromaziano

radical

1855.

Cf. also

Poll, 1834.
ti

il Diritto

On

Pemle

"

Supplementi aUa
Genovesi

nel Secolo 18", di A.

continuee

; Storia

Italiana, di G. Maffei, 1853

continuata

par

F.

da

S. Ticozzi

(Appiano

Lombardi,

1827;

Salfi,1834; Storia

form
re-

Tiraboschi,
Buona-

d'ogni Filosofianei Secoli 15", 10*^,17*^,by the

Progresso d'ogni Letteratura, by G. Andres
; /

G. B. Comiani

Italiana

Ginguene

di

Regno

fede), 1782-84; Delia RisPi.urazione

writer, 1785-89

thi

and

U?iioe7'sale,

del

author

contributed

della Letteratura

same

philosophic interpretation

over

Beccaria,

his

School

1750,

StoiHa

his

Storia

Church

the

1754, by

in

this

moneta,

by

di

politicaleconomy,

To

in

moral

ov

in his Leziani

and
on

city.

his

Diceosina

Naples,

deHa

elements

Cesare

than

Storia

Cf.

Europe.
e

Trattato

legendary

; and

more

of

Bianchini,who,

; F.

latter

lectures

that

in

usurpations of

the

in evidence

his

University

of

P. Giannone,

independence

the

author

its

sperimentale;

contains

resided

hie,1770

de

monuments

Napoli, 1724, put

in
who

Galiani, the

J.

di Fisiea

work

established

Florentine

separate history from

strove

asserted

chair

le Commerce

Dialogues sur

Elementi

which
Civile,

wealthy

referred

Metafisiche
; Logica pei Oiovanetti;

Filosofiche
;

the

Interi, a

1097,

Scienze

di Emnomia

from

be

may

ddle

Imtituzioni

1759;

same

Secoli

C. Ugoni, 1850

Histoire

litteraire

della Letteratura

Italiana,di P. Emiliani Giudici,

d
i
Filosofia Tennemann, by Romagnosi and

della Letteratura

Storia

cf. Oenovesi

deUa

by S. Racciopi,1871, and

on

Beccaria

Beccaria

by 0. Cantu, 1803.

Contemporary Philosophy.
The

predominance

of French

philosophy,in

the

eighteenthand

in

ITALIAN

483

PHILOSOPHY.

earlypart of the nineteenth century, made the ideas of the French

advanced
the more
and
sensualists popular among
encyclopaedists
of natural science,of jurisprudence
thinkers of Italy. The progress
pendence,
indecontributed
and political
to foster the habit of mental
economy
ture
while the national spirit
which
had penetratedItalian literafrom
the age of Dante, became
more
powerful than ever, especially
through the writingsof Vittorio Alfieri,who, in his Misogallo,earnestly
dies
thought,and in his trageopposed the prevailinginfluence of French
his
excite
strove
to
noble
and
to
independent deeds
countrymen
by the dramatic
representationof ancient
patriotism. This spirit
afterwards
was
kept alive by the poetry of Ugo Foscolo and Giacomo
Leopardi,the satires of Farini and Giusti, the political
writings of
and Azeglio,the tragedies
Mazzini, the histoi-ical novels of Guerrazzi
of Manzoni
and Niccolini, Und
the historical works of Carlo Troya,
Carlo Botta,5nd Cesare Balbo.
But no department of mental
.Colletta,
the

activitycontributed

so

of the national

the -advance

powerfullyto

timent
sen-

which, embodying the aspirationsof the people,

j)hilosophy,
scientific basis and a rational direction.
In its
aimed
to give them
a
development it passed through the same
phases as in France, England,
and
of the country, yet keeping
Germany, adjustingitself to the wants
the whole
The
Italian contemporary
an
on
independent character.
philosophymay be divided as follows : 1. Empiricism. 2. Criticism.
as

3.

Idealism.

4.

5. Absolute

OntoWism.

1. Empikicism.

Of

this School

the first rej^resentative.

He
to the

of

cause

of

was

Napoleon
for

his

born

Under

and
pointedhistoriographer
fall of

Melchiorre
in

Gioja (1767-1829)

Piacenza, and

the

he retired from

CisalpineRepublic

of

director

national

office ; and

statistics.

twice

is

early devoted

libertyand national independence. With

Italyhe entered public life,and advocated

Napoleon in
Republican government.

advent

Ileo-elianism.

or

7. Positivism.

6. Scholasticism.

himself

Idealism

suffered

he

was

With

the
a

ap
the

ment
imprison-

liberal views.

Accepting the doctrines of Locke and

and
to apply them
to the social
economic
Condillac, Gioja strove
sciences in the defence of human
and the promotion of wealth,
rights,
the people. In his Elemeiiti
and happiness among
di Filosofia^
1818,
he defines
its
may

the nature

of external

instruments,its rules,and
be

The

extended.

lies in the science

of

the

observation,and describes
other

foundation

which
Statistics,

its methods

through which its sphere

of all science,according to him,
suppliesthe phenomena of scienmeans

4S4

ITALIAN

PHILOSOPHY.

classifies them, and

titic investigation,

brings them

Thus

Statistic embraces

nature

mind,

nates

in

ends

philosophyand
of

resources

and

vice.

in which

and

and

man

to
politics,

in

under

which

generallaws.
society; it origi-

it reveals

the

nomic
eco-

nations,wealth, poverty, education,ignorance,virtue,

process he follows
he reduces all economic

Filosofiadelta Statistioa,
1826,
political
phenomena to certain

in his

This

and

the bases
categories,
productiveforces in society. lie

of social

fundamental

follows

science,and

the

Merito

in his Del

the

method

same

of

criteria

defining

in

delle

Ricomj)ense^1818 ;
fixingits constituent elements, he verifies them in the historyof nations,
the different degrees of their
traces
and by their presence or absence
ple
A follower of Condillac
in psychology,Gioja is the discicivilization.
the

of social merit

nature

method, and of Bentham

in his

of Bacon

the

constitutes

good
springsfrom

part

excels other

life,indeed
animals.

his greatest motives

Civile

Teoriob

delta Statisttca
1822

gta,

; and

them

in the

Penale

eyes

it exerts

del Divorzio

Galateo.

Nuovo

by Eomagnosi, 1829, Discorso su

en
V Ilistoire dela Philosojphie
sur
Louis

illusion

fame,
true

general
self-

even

play a gre^^t
that

and
w^ealth,

man

power,

compensation

statesman

other

no

also
people. Gioja wrote
e
Indole^ Estensione
Yantagqi

the

on

Prospetto deUe

; Nuovo

virtue

itself finds its best

of

The

these faculties

he loves

Virtue

to action.

11

duty,right,and

only through

Through

influence

the

than

value

it is

religionhas

and
lihision,

111

of

source

in his morals

utility.Imaginationand

sacrilice

in human

Scienze

Economiche

; Ideolo-

Elogio Storico di
Gioja, by Falco, 1866,
Of.

Italie

Dix-Neuvieme

au

M.

Gioja,
Essai

and

Siede^hj

Ferri,1869.

marks
a
Romagnosi (1761-1835),the eminent jurist,
born
in Piacenza,
was
in the empiric philosophy. He
Btep in advance
of Napoleon in Lombardy, and held a professorship
supported the government

Domenico

Gian

of
w^as

tried

doctrines

Suprema
%ulV Arte

for
are

In
he
1818
jurisprudencein Parma, Pisa, and Milan.
treason
againstAustria, and acquitted. His psychologic

contained

logica,1832

general tenets
but

delV

Economia

transformed

of

Che

his

in

Cosa

; Bottrine

Condillac,he rejectsthp.

sense,

the

ideas

and

logical,to which
ideal syntheses.

He

and

as
totalities,

well

he

attributes

that

notion

recognizesin

It is this
as

; La

Sapere,1828 ; Yedute fondamentali

he admits the
delta Bagione. While

Umano

sensations.

Sana, 1827

la Mente

the

the

mind

formation

facultywhich

all relations which

our

ideas
a

are

specific

of universal

ences
perceivesdifferform

the

chain

of

4:86

ITAXIAN

losophyis

the science

PHILOSOPHY.

of

thought in its relation to knowledge and to

action ; hence it is theoretical or practical. The former
embraces, 1.
Pure Logic,which
occupiesitself with thought,that is,with the form
of knowledge which
is independent of experience. 2. Ideologyand
Psychology,the science of thought and of its causes, and, 3. Mixed
Logic,which considers empuic thoughts,the matter of knowledge, and
unites the principles
of pure reason
with the data given by sensations.
Practical philosophy,
or
Ethics,considers thought in relation to the
will,the motives and rules of its actions. To tliis Natural Theology is
added, which
the

from

the conditional

evolves

from

and

relative the absolute.

also be

divided

into

Philosophyfrom another point of view

its objectis the
as
subjectiveand objective,

the relations which

itself,
or

it to the external

unite

problem of philosophyis found

of

the unconditional

knowledge.

Rejectingthe

solution

questionof
it given by Locke

in the

of

dillac,he accepts the distinction of Kant

matter, the pure

The

world.

damental
fun-

reality

and

form

the

between

the

may

mind

and

Conthe

in human
thought ; but he
empiric elements
insists that by making the former
the product of the mind, the philosopher
it a merely subjective
of Konigsberg rendered
function,made
for the Scepticism
and paved the way
knowledge entirelysubjective,
of Hume.
Eealism
in knowledge can
only be obtained fi'om the
consciousness
of the
: 1st,the immediate
assumption of two principles
stantialit
The consciousness
of the subof sensation.
J^(/o
; Sd, the objectivity
of our
the modifications
of the Ego is inseparablefrom
time sensation,either internal or external,is
sensibility
; at the same
n(jt merely a inodifictation of our
existence, but is essentially
objective;
it affects the

and

the

subject and

communication

contains

the

itself and

with

object.

the

external

Our

mind

world

is thus in direct

through a

arbitrary,as Reid

tion
rela-

supposed,but essential,
necessary,
sentiment
of
This relation is expressedin the immediate
and direct.
the foundation
thus becomes
the metaphysicalunity of the Ego, which
of the Ego, and of
of knowledge. From
the primitiveconsciousness
the non-Ego, the mind
aided
rises to distinct ideas through reflection,
tinguishi
by analysisand synthesis the analysisprecedingthe synthesis by disthe sensation
both from the Ego, and the object which
duced
proit. Thus
idea is essentially
an
an
analyticproduct,although
it may
in relation to the substantial unityof
be considered
as
synthetic,
the Ego in which
it is formed.
Although all knowledge of realityis developed from the consciouswhich

is not

"

"

ITALIAN

487

PHILOSOPHY.

of

in the mind
which,
experience,there is a previous element
renders that development possible.This element
is subjective,
that is,
it is given by the mind
itself in its own
and consists in the
activity,
immediate
perceptionof the identityof our ideas,from which arises
which
forms
the basis of
metaphysical evidence or logicalnecessity,
all philosophical
reasoningand scientific certainty. Thus every judgment
based on
tity,
logicalnecessity
proceeds from the principleof idenin its negative form
which
the principle
becomes
of contradiction.
It is therefore
no
analytical
synthetic; indeed
judgment d
held as such
were
priori is admissible,and those which
by Kant
all be
reduced
to
analyticalones, in which the attribute is
may
contained
in the subject,
and
which
therefore are based on
identity.
ideas are
General
all the product of comparison and abstraction ; none
of them
are
innate,although they are all natural,that is to say, the
product of mental activity.Thus from the perception of bodies the
mind
the ideas of plurality,
evolves
extension, and solidity
; from
these the idea of matter
those of substance,
through further analysis,
; and
time
and space.
They are all analytical,subjective
causality,
and objective; analytic
because
derived through analysis
from identity,
of the mind
out of its own
subjectivebecause elaborated by the activity
in the objective
and objectivebecause contained
consciousness,
tions
percepof sensibility.
in psychology, Galuppi maintains
A
the
unity, the
spiritualist
the
and
simplicity,the indivisibility
immortality of the human
ness

soul, which

he

considers

as

substantial

modified

force, developing

into

stances,
surroundingcircumfrom
the consciousness
of the Ego and of the no7i-Egorising
the
and universal principles.Remaining, however, within
to abstract
mind
above
bonds of empiricism,though he placesthe human
nature,
attain
to the knowledge of its own
yet he also holds that it cannot
the originof the
of matter, nor
understand
essence, or of the essence
universe,and the processes of its development. In 'Ethics he rejects
which
founds moralityon the instinct
both the doctrine of Ilelvetius,
its essence
derive
of pleasure,
and that of Wolff and Homagnosi, who
modern
natural longing for perfection. First among
from our
sophers
philoof
the absolute obligation
he established with Kant
of Italy,
moral law, and its pre-eminenceabove self-interest and self-perfection.
various

faculties

Happiness is
nor
obligation,

as

it becomes

motive
the

source

to

our

by

diverse

actions ; it is

of virtue.

Absolute

not

the

essence

of

moral

or
practical
imperatives,

4^9

ITALIAN

judgments d priori,sikjIias
moral

law ;

which

contains

they

at the foundation

your duty," are

the very nature

originatefrom

of

between

he

and
of

the

relative

from

that of

reach

the

to

that is,
the
identity,

also the

in this

and
causality,

the

sense

idea is

:
subjective

in the

idea of God

the

cvjii-

from

it is

developed
But

other.

objective. Theism

is

we

the

very

alone

of evil ;

existence

fact that

exist between

which

all the relations

understand

cannot

reason

as

realitythrough the principleof

goodness of God with the

is imperfect,from
reconciliation,
however, which

human

own

and
infinite,

the infinite

reconcile

our

by risingfrom

is included

one

infinite

of

existence

will,both

the finite to the

This

absolute.

the

the idea

obtain

may

unconditional,from

the

to

we

of

from

reward,

a
chologica
psyits
has
for
existence
the
religion
object

fact. Natural

moral

God, of whom

ditional

the freedom

demonstrates

virtue

merits

"

consciousness

of

practicalreason,

also the

"

and

Do

principleof the final harmony

Virtue
happiness expressedin the moral axiom
vice punishment."
From
this principleas well as

and

can

"

PHILOSOPHY.

all

beings. God is incomprehensible,creation is a mystery, miracles

cation.
and revealed
are
a possibility,
religionis an important aid to our eduCf. L. Ferri,op. c^'z?.,
and R. Mariano, La Philosophie CoidemThe
following are the works of Galuppi :
poraine en Italie,1868.
Saggio Filosoficosulla Critica della Conoscema^ 1819-82; Letter e
FUosofiche sulle Vicende della Filosofia intorno ai Prineipii della
ConosGema

; Lezioni

1820-27

di

; Consider

sofiadella Volontd, 1832-40

dentale

P.

sid Razionalismo

following-writers

The
"

Tamburini,

may

Introduzione

sulla,
; Cerini

turm, 1815

; B. Poli, Saggio

d'un

Corso di

be

partly to Empiricism,

referred

alio Studio

PHmi

and

dei

in the

Commentari

1828
Logico-Metafisiche,

; M.

Moi'ali,1818; C.
fisico
di Filosofia,
1830.
A.

; A.

1815;

Devincenzi,

di

Zelli, Elementi

umania
;

di

Sidle

Gategorie di Kant,

Bellura, La

D.

1830
Metafisica,
G.

Coscienza,1829

diPsicdogiaEm'pirica

who

1831
; E.

on

del
; G.

French

the

Logico-Meta;

cuore

Accordino,

Alberi, Del NesciUle,

natura

wmana

analitico della

sociewU^

facoltddi

Bruschelli, Prelectiones

Fagnani,

Saggio

Cousinismo

Lusverti, Instituzioni

G.

Passeri, DeUa
Esame

wrote

Bini, Lezimii

Filosofiadella mentee

perfezione,1822; G. Scaramuzza,

Bonfadini,

MetwphisiccB^1831.

Idee, 1814;

Xa-

Ceresa, Prificipiie

Ricci, in his

; G.

Brescia, 1828-31;

delle

Gatti, Prineipii di Ideologia,1827.

DeW

tire, 1823

di

eneo

Pezzi, Lezioni

Elementi
1824

delV At

Gigli,Analisi

Juris

1827
naturalistic
modernifilosofi

1833
Filosofia^

di

Elementi

; A.

Elementi

Zantedeschi,

la Scuola

1825

Famiglia,

Umaiia
F.

(Antologiadi Firenze, 1826), Rivato, Ricobelli,and

Eclecticism

trascen-

partly to Criticism

and

FilosofiaMorale, 1821; Mementa

della

delV
Perfettibilitd

Filosofico
sopra

Filosofia
;

; 7^176'-

sulV Ldealismo

azioni

losofia,
Fi-

assoluto,1841.

eMediciiia^1817;
LeggigeneralidiFilosofia
1832

di

fino a Kant^ 1827; Elementi

L^ogicae di Metafisica,1832-36

Cartesio

Umanada

Storia

naturak

sen-

LogicodeUa

ITALIAN

}t"ma

1833.

umana,

deir IntelUgenza^ 1836

Filosofia

; Esame

Critica ddla

deUa

Ragione

Critica delta

Critica,

Ddla

Mancini, Elementi

S.

; P.

anima, 1852

Pura

di

applied

was

at Liritto

1851;

delta conoscenza,

Esthetics

to

Cattara-Lettieri,

di Filo-

Tedeschi, Etemeriti

Mazzarella, Critica

B.

Kant, 1822;

Empiricism

1867,

; A.

Traduzione

M.

Principii di

ddla

Scieiiza,1860;

delta

by

di

Rosrrdni,1843;

A.

Mantovani,

La

1830;

mm'ate
Filosofia

; V.

1836
Filosofia,

di

1847

Teoi'ia

fitosofici^
1846;

detle facottd delV

\J}imostrazio?ie anatitica

^fia,1832

Pensieri

Longo,

razionale, 1862; A.

; Litroduzione

1 860

sulV intuizione,
JHaloghl fitosofici

alia

; Pizzo-

Jesuit, In-

Ragione Pura

Idee di

del Nuovo
Saggio sulV Origlae deUe
; Critica
delta conoscenza
realtd
sulla
umana^
Grazia, Saggio

De

Domowski,

Filosofia del Sentimento,

discussione

L.

1843-49

Kant,
V.

La

Testa,

A.

la
Filosofia,
1831

degliAntichi,
Filosofia

Filosofia^1832; G.

delta

PMlosophiccB^ 1841;

atitutiones

progrediscono la

cui

in

Ocheda, Delia

De

Studio

alio

ito, Introdnzione

relazioni

intime

Libertd^ 1863

la

igione e

BeUe

489

PHILOSOPHY.

his

in

Delfico

Estetica,1827;
1818; Talia,
Visconti,
at linguaggio grammaticale
intomo
Riflessioni
ideotogiche
1830 ; G.
G.
dei popoli colti ;
Zuccala, Principii estetici,
Venanzio,
Caltofilia,
L.
G.
Longhi, CaUografia, 1830; and
Pasquali,
1835; P. Lichtenthal, Estetica;
Ricerche

Nitove

Saggi

sul

di
the

from

De

in

Pamphilis
and

writers

Pedagogy

his

on

1834

umana,

Manuale

historical

Rivotuzioni

1820;

C.

be

may

di

Botta

his

in

1830
speciedi fottia,

di utile

various

di

the

Among
Pasetti

mentioned

in

Opere Pedagogiche,

Raffaele,

Fontana,

suicida, 1835.

unitd

sua

be

may

S.
A.

monomania

nelta

struct
con-

ctassifi-

nuova

una

idea.

to

1832.
insegnam.ento,

doctrines

Edueazione;

his

Stoi'ia d''Italia,continued

the

Among

named

sulta Storia
in

delsuo

Ammaestrame7ito

Manuale

educational

f Edueazione

per

works

F.

Aporti,

le Scuote

from

that

P.

Ouerra

delta

of

CoUetta
deW

followed

who

in his Studi

in lal^Storia

Verri

di Sicilia ;

Storia

per

historians

F. Rossi

d''Italia,
1808; Pietro

Considerazioni

undertook

Saggio di

delta

in the

1833; P. Asinfantiti,
Sordi-Muti
fisicointettettuale e morale
; Bazutti, Sullo stato
S. De
B.
FanG.
Renzi, SutV indole dei Ciechi,1829; and

Pazzia, 1830.

criticism

Scibile

1814.
fisico-moral",

di

dei

Sordi-Muti, lb28

tonetti,Delta

his

in his

them-

separate

beauty

who

of Delte diverse

author

empirical

Parravicini

Edueazione

di

sarotti,Istruzione
del

followed

who

by

Scibile considerato

ddlo

in his Ddlo

Boneschi, Precetti

L.

the

of

essence

writers

istinto,1834, Trattato

Qeografia

Edueazione

suW

Saggio

1826;

his

Rossetti

D.

fine,1830;

the

L. Ferrarese

as

is also

all' originedeW

intorno

Lichtenthal, however,

followed

were

sciences, such
He

and

strive to find

and

Empiricism

Scienze,1828.

detle

Ricerche
G.

of

genealogy

Zuccala

empirical School,

principles of

same

cazione

and

Estetica, 1827.

Instituzioni

selVes
The

Bdb,

Betto,1835,

sul

Ermes

di

1835
Storici,

Mitano, 1798
in his

Storia

the
; Carlo
; K.

doctrines
Denina
di

del

of

in his

Gregorio

in

di

Regno
Napoti^
Indipendenza Americana, 1809; and

Guicciardini, 1824

Palmieri

in

his

Cantu

in

his

Saggio
Storia
1847 ; C.
Regno
Sicilia,
Storia
Also
in his E Italia
Universale, 1847; and
degtiItatiani,1856.
by Micali
avanti
il Dominio
de' Romani, 1810; A. Mazzoldi
in his Detle Ongini Italiche,
1840;
in
his
1872
in his Filosofia
Lamperdi
degliEtruscM,
Filosofi,a
degtiantichi
; Berchetti
in his Storia delta Filosofia
popoli,1812 ; D. Sacchi
Oreca, 1820; G. R. Roggero in his
ddta
Storia
Fihsofia da Cartesio a Kant, 1868; Ragnisco, Storia detle Categorie da
Talete ad Ilegd,1871; F. Sclopis, Storia ddla
LegistazioneItatiana; C. Farini, Stati
Romani, 1850 ; and G. La Farina, Storia d' Italia dal 1 815 at 1848.
Storico

Politico sulla

3. Idealism,"

Costituzione

Whatever

may

of Galuppi,and
investigations

; N.

di

del

be the
the

vahie

seeming

of

the

'^-ealism"

psychological
by which his

490

ITALIAN

PHILOSOPHY.

theoryis characterized,his doctrine,founded as it was on the subjective

could
with experience,
not
activityof the mind in connection
supply
foundation
for
science
therefore
left
it
the
an
objective
problem of
;
establish
the
unsolved.
To
of
human
knowledge
objectivity
thought
task
which
Antonio
on
an
independentand absolute principlewas the
of
Idealism
in Italy,
Kosmini
the founder
modern
(1797-1855),
proposed
in Rovereto
in the Italian Tyrol,and
born
lie was
to himself.
received
his education
of Padua.
In 1821 he entered
at the University
and
institute of
the priesthood,
at a later period founded
a religious
whose
members
devote themselves
of youth
to the education
charity,
the ecclesiastical ministry. In 1848
he was
and
charged by King
duce
Charles Albert with a mission to Rome, the objectof which
to inwas
Pius IX. to jointhe Italian Confederation,and to allow the citizens
in the War
of National Independence.
of the Roman
States to participate
of the
His efforts at first promised success
made
a member
; he was
invited to the honors of the Cardinalate.
Papal Cabinet and was even
But the influence of the reactionary
having become
party in the Church
he
from
the liberal path on which
predominant,the Pope withdrew
had entered, Rosmini's
proposal was
rejected,and the ambassador
in disgrace. He
at Stresa
himself dismissed
returned to his retreat
himself to the work of
the Lago Maggiore,where he again devoted
on
for which he had so long labored.
the restoration of philosophy,
Pliiloso]3hy,
accordingto Rosmim, is the science of the ultimate rea^
it is the basis of all sciences
sons
; the product of highestreflection,
and
in the universal sphere of the knowable, embracing ideality,
reality
under which
the three forms
Being*manifests itself. Hence
morality,
sciences : 1st,the Sciences of
there are
three classes of philosophical
"such as Ideologyand Logic;
is the object,
intuition,of which ideality
the objectof which is reality,
as
given in
2d, the Sciences of perception,
the sensibility,
such as Psychology and Cosmology ; 3d, the Sciences of
whose
object is not immediately perceived,but is found
reason,
through the inferences of reason, such as Ontology and Deontology;
tions
the former consideringBeing in itself and in its three intrinsic relaof which morality is the
Being in its ideal perfection,
; the latter.
the
highestcomplement. Ideologyis the firstscience ; it investigates
of ideas,and with Logic establishes
the nature, and the validity
origin,
the method, and the objectof philosophic
investigation.
the principle,
His

the
and Logicalworks, containing
Ideologic

of his system, and

the germ

fundamental

of all his doctrines,are

Idee,1830Saggio sulV Originedelle

as

11 liimiovamento

follows
ddla

principle
:

Nuovo

Filosqfia

ITALIAN

491

PHILOSOPHY.

polemicalwork directed againstMamiani

; Introalia Filosojia,
duzione
1850, and La Logica^ 1853.
Having reduced the problem of knowledge to the intellectual perception
of reality,
Eosmini
examines
and rejectsthe solutions
given
the
of
times.
and
modern
He however
principalphilosophers ancient
by
views
the
of
of
the essence
Kant
that perception,
and
on
accepts
placesit in a syntheticjudgment a priori,the subjectof which is given
and the attribute by our
mind ; the one being furnished
by our sensibility,
by experience,the other having a transcendental
origin. But against
he contends, that this transcendental
element
is one
and
Kant
ive,
objectand
it
is
evolved
the
of the
not
not
by
plural
subjective
activity
;
united to it,it has an absolute,objective
mind, but althoughessentially
and independent existence.
This element, the objectiveform of the
all Kantian
forms
be reduced, is Being in its
mind, to which
may
which
tions,
contains no real or ideal determina{V Essere ideale),
ideality
but is ideal activity
the
itself,
deprivedof all modes and outlines,
native
of all things,
to the mind, the lightof
potentialintelligibility
of all intelligence,
the principleof all objectivity,
reason, the source
and
of all knowledge. Essentially
and
the foundation
simple, one
in

Italia^1836,

identical

for all minds,

the idea of

from

being

universal,necessary,

immutable

of all mental

acts ; it

is the condition

or
reflection,
abstraction,

consciousness

; it has

and

eternal,

originate
divine origin;

cannot

of God, permanently communicated

to
intelligence
of pure ideality.All transcendental
the human
mind
under the form
contradiction,substance, causality,
ideas, logicalprinciples,
identity,
within
contained
the very idea of the Absolute, are
it,and
potentially
distinct through the process of reflection.
become
It is only through the synthesisof sensibility
and ideality,
that
man
intellectually
perceivesthe existence of realities. To tliink is
of realityis to judge that it
to judge, says Rosmini, and
to think
is actuallyexistent.
To this judgment sensibility
gives the matter
the
form
the subject,mind
the attribute,
or
or
by applying to the
indeed

former

it is the

the

very

attribute of

existence

; while

the substantial

unity of

our

affords the basis on which

that
intelligent,
is subjective,
which
that is
synthesisis accomplished. Thus reality,
connected
with sensibility,
becomes
to
objectively
say, is essentially
of
its
known
affirmation
the
existence.
Thus
through
idealityalone
is knowable
while reality
is perceived
se ;
actingon our sensibility
per
only through ideality. Through the facultyof universalizingj
se-

nature,

at

once

sentient and

'

492

ITALIAN

PHILOSOPHY.

the
the intelligibility,
or
or
paratingthe possibility,
terms

forms

the

have

universal

the infinite

ideas,which

certainty. Xow

truth

same

is

as

so
intelligence,

of truth.
of existence
is

objectsso perceived,the mind

but specific
determinations
of

thus

the truth of

is true, when

the
our

are

the

ideality.

Logic establishes
knowledge

of

meaning)

same

(these

essence

is

N'o

error

affirmed

possibleas
So

our

knowledge and the foundation

qualityof knowledge ; that is to

which

that

we

existence,and
mind,
in

the

to its modes

as

in its very

possibleon

is

know

exists.

say,

Truth

is the

existence

of its
our

is,accordingly,

form

of

structure, is in the possession

this

of
act
very
; for that idea

subject;for
denying it.
has

no

mode,

the

idea

No
or

lusion
de-

mination.
deter-

logicalprinciplesare free from

in themselves
considered
error
possibilities,
; for they represent mere
and
be said of the
\vithout relation to other things. The
same
may
primitivejudgment, in which the existence of realityis afilrmed.
Confiningourselves to the simple affirmation of' the actual existence of
the objectas it is given in sensibility,
cannot
we
beginswhen
err; error
than we
tions
undertake
to affirm more
we
perceive,or when we assert relado not
exist.
ideas which
between
Error, therefore,is always
in the reflex,
voluntary,although not always a free act ; it may occur
On
these principles,
in the direct or primitiveknowledge.
but never
Rosmini
and Berkeley as to the validity
rejectsthe doctrine of Hume
of our
knowledge.
and ontological
Kosmini's
ideas are
concosmological,
psychological,
inhis Psicologia,184:6-50,
tamed
Antrojjologia,
1838, Teodicea, 1828,
and Teosqfia,'185d.
soul in its essence,
Psychology conside"'s the human
(Sentimento
sensibility
development, and destiny. A fundamental
substantial and primitive,
at once
corporealand spiritual,
fondainentale),
is a force
of which
acting in space, the
having tw^o terms, one
of the soul.
It is active and
other ideality
constitutes the essence
itself,
passive; it is united with internal and external extension, and its body
It
and of extra-subjectivity.
has double relation to it,of subjectivity
guished
distinand by this qualityit is essentially
is one, simple and spiritual,
animals.
from the souls of mere
Having for its aim and end
it will last as long as this intuition ;
of all things,
the potential
ideality
will perish
of extension
it is therefore
immortal, although its term
all

specificideas

and

of the body. Life consists in fundamental

disorganization
the
in which
the result of that double hypostaticrelation,
sensibility,
with

the

494

ITALIAN

Creator,because
be confounded
with

God

is not

it is necessarily
limited
with

the Infinite and

it in its ideal

tlie Divine

Rosmini

Nature.
in its

type, which

Thus

with

that

evil

limited,and
necessarily
Perfect

wisdom

in

flows from

its ideal

essence

is

in its action

In

his

Teodicea,
stand

not

Providence.

omnipotent
necessary

is identified

the v^ery bosom

of
is God
; but it

of evil does

existence

and

such it cannot

as

Absolute, although it

is essentially
finite.

the

allwise

an

the

creation

show

and finite ; and

indeed

which
realization,

strives to

contradiction

PHILOSOPHY.

in

Man

is

of his limitation.

consequence

follow immutable
necessarily
in antagonism
laws, which in their intrinsic development w^ill come
with
partialforces,and produce discords in the universal harmony.
Such are the laws
of the maximum
good to be obtained through the
minimiun
of action ; "
the exclusion
of all superfluities
the
;
all
of
the universal
graduation
thingsand their mutual dependence ;
law. of development ;
the existence of extremes
and their mutual
finally,"the unity and the celerityof the divine
antagonism ;
must

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

action," which
of the

problem

numberless

create

to its

only
mind

presidesover
of
possibility

better

from

As

object.
golden coins,so

that which

government

worlds,but each

own

draw

the

world

has

of

the

no

meaning

of them

will

box

full of

the Creator

can

always

only

be

God

best

golden coins
draw

The

universe.

from

may

in relation
we

his

can
own

is best.

Deontology considers

archetypesof perfectionin all spheres,

and the means
through which they may be realized. Moral science,
of its principalbranches.
including the philosophy of right,is one
This is treated by Rosmini
in the followingworks : / Priiicipii
delta
/Scien^a 3foraIe,18Sl; Storia Oom/parativae CriticadeiSistejniJforali,
1887; Antropologia, 18SS ; Trattato della Coscienza Morale, 184:4: ;
The
del Diritto,1841-43
essence
F'dosofia
; Opuscoli Morali, 1841.
of moralityconsists in the relation of the will to the intrinsic order of
moral principle
being,as it reveals itself to our mind ; hence the supreme
is expressedin the formula:
being as you
"Recognize practically
it ;
know
and love to the degree of worth
Adapt your reverence
or,
of the being,and act accordingly." The
idea of being giving us the
standard of this recognition,
impliesthe first moral law, Avhich is thus
the ;primum noUim,
identified with
the first truth,the very light of
"

reason.

relation

"

Hence
of

distinct from

the

moral

the

will

good

to

the
utility,

ideal

consistingin the
objective,
essentially
necessity. Thus morality is essentially

is

former

being the

cause,

the

latter the

effect ;

ITALIAN

Eudemonology,the

495

PIIILOSOPHT.

science

of

happiness,cannot be confonnded
it is only a corollary.The
relative
worth
of
dth Ethics,of which
in the Infinite ;
beings arises from the degree of their participation
whose
is allied with an
mind
infinite ideality,
infihas an
hence man,
It is through this union, not through the moral
aiite worth.
autonomy
that
is
Kant
and
of the will,as
not a thing;
man
a person
maintained,
this
that
id it is for
reason
actions,to be morally good, must have for
therefore founded
leirobjectan intelligent
are
being. Moral categories
and virtue,which
of intelligence
is but the realizan the gradations
duties towards
ourselves are
derived
from
ion of intelligence.The
which
commands
the respect and love of humanity,
le Imperative,
the standard,by which
estimate
the faculties and the
and we
are
we
of our
wants
neiglibors.Rights are found in the facultyof acting
Man
has an
accordingto our will,so far as protectedby moral law.
inalienable rightto truth,virtue,and happiness,and his rightto liberty
his very personality.Domestic
and projDcrty is founded
on
society is
and
the basis of all civil organization,
the authorityof the State is
of right,
limited
of the inodalittj
and never
to the regulation
can
place
Indeed
itself againstrightsgiven by nature.
its principalobject is
in almost
all his doctrines,
the protectionof those rights. Liberal
Kosmini's
the rightsof the Church
ideas on
betray a confusion of
fore
thereindeed with humanity ; they are
Catholicism
with Christianity,
that in his Le
It is true
extravagant as they are indefensible.
Cinque Piaghe delta Chiesa,1848,he strove to introduce into the CJiurch
of
it less antagonistic
such reforms, as would
have made
to the spirit
Christianity.In that work he urged the necessityof abolishingthe
the standard
of a dead language in the religious
services,of raising
use
of clerical education,of emancipating the Episcopate from
political
the election
and feudal pretensions,
ambitions
and, above all,of intrusting
is required by the
the clergy,
of bishops to the people and
as
in the Index
His book was
of the Church.
placed at once
very nature
in his
Expurgatorius. Rosmini applied also his philosophyto politics
jnce

delta Potitica^ 1839;

Filosqfia

and

to

pedagogic science

in his Prin-

is also the author

of
He
cipio Siqyremo delta Metodotogia, 1857.
EsjposizioneCritica delta Fitosofiadi Aristotete,1858, V. Gioherti
umes
it PanteismOy 1848, Opuscoti Fitosofici,
e
1828, and of several volof correspondence.
A complete

posthumous

edition

works

are

of Rosmini's
now

in

course

works

has been

published in Milan

of publication in Turin, under

and

in Turin.

His

the editorship of his

4:96

ITALIAN

Storia

universale

di

into

introduced

Bt'sume

Paoli.

disciple,F.

of

text-books

miniano,

work

Lombardy,

on

the

Difesa

delle Bottrine

School

belong

A.

author

of

educational

1855;

of several
who

gives

; G.
; D.

Plato
of

; J. B.

generale,1859
1841

Umane,

; B.

work,
; G.

doctrines

mini's

Pagatini,

in his

fonde armonie
Saggio sopra

; and

in his

in

Bel

BeW

Bella

della

Natura

and

Elementi

by

in

published

on

Rosmini

3d

series,tomes

des

Boctrines

1856
1844.

1840

in

with

the

di

several

brother

of

lator
trans-

Logica^18G0,
Le

his

StrePeda-

Bella

; and

Garelli, in

; V.

his

Saggio di Logica

; and

Sistema

of

Gonoscenze

ddle

Organisnw poetico
colleague of

and

statesman

Scienza

of

in

SindiBelV

traces

In-

; V. Villa, in his Kant

1861

of Ros-

tafluence

the

la Vita, 1868

Platone, 1863

; and

P.

sidle pro-

; Considerazioni

of

and

Cicerone

della

1859

decree

and

Order

of

Church,
of

Rosmini's

the

P.

divinity

the

in

PMlos.

the

; Father

Revue

of

des Beux

of

University
"

by

defended

Fantozzi, G.

G.

also

B.

Turin,

Leydel,

(Bonnetty,

Bartholmess,

Lockhard,

original sin,

ably

was

Chretienne

Philosophim

umim

further,

see

Index, July, 1860

He

violently attacked

been

Jesuits, it

System,
de

in

by
of

author

sciences.

nature

Bertolozzi,

series, I., p. 71

1855
in

of the

Italian

is the

ethical

the

on

into

Corte

Seneca

Jj. A.

Coscienza,having

; Annales

; 4th

2 vols.,Paris,
Religieuses,
Ferrari

Prof.

of Rosmini

the

On

See.

1851,

G.

to

Catholic

X., XVIII., XX.

Ferri, op. cit.,and

and

doctrine

collegiate doctor

that

the

Rosmini.

logical,metaphysical,

belonging
the

of

notes

The

Trattato

his

writers

Zeitschnft f. PMlosopMe,
Paris),

secondo

the

of
same

Bonghi,

Caluso, published in 1815, translated

of T.

by L. Gastaldi,

Archbishop

now

bears

la
Ilegelianismo,

delle Idee

theologians of

and

Goethe,1865;

the

Naturale, 1861; Saggio Cosmologlcosvllo Spazio,1802 ; and

Filosofia
To
this classification may
be referred
e il Rosmini, 1857.

ecclesiastical

Pagani,
and

Publica,

his

concinnata, 1851.

eminent

Rosmini,

Fihsqfia^
author

Tommaseo,

the

; R.

1854

1808

1857
Filosofia,

Minghetti,

di

Rosmini

Bruno,

his

schools

S. Tommaso

expressed

was

several

di

di

M.

Filosofia,
1853, embracing
also
Anthologia ex M. T.

Studiosorum
it

Elementi

di

published

G.

di

the

BialoffostdV

Compendio

with

against

To

Cavour,

Fondamento, Progresso, e

Economia

Allievo, in

of

held

Bo8-

Mosmini, 1838; A.

Filosqficodi

author

un

to

Sino7iimi,and

G.

their

publish

composition ; N,
dei

in

to

the

in his

1841
PliiloH"ypldques^

Vita

8ul Fausto

m\ns.

Principes de PMlosopMe,
Corte,

his

1855.

critici ;

Biograjiadi A.

in

Rosmini^

Principii di Metodica,

of La

popolare Italiana,1866

whose

Cavour,

art

Studi

and

also

of

Dizionario

Aristotle, and

Peyretti,

Monti,

to

is

Sjjosi,
who,

philosophical discussions

; V. Imbriani,

della Poetica

and

Berti, the author

1869

Rosmini,

as

of

the

Fragments

in his

name,

Morale, 1852
Filosofia

^lla

P.

JHosoJici,1840;

di

del Sistema

Esposizione

his

A, Rayneri, in his Primi

siane^1854

Les

Studi

works

gogia^ 1859

in

Mente

di

Elementi

Pestalozza

Promessi

of the

principles

exposition

an

author

Estetico^the

of that

statesman

the

Dizionario

the

the

La

Rofimini^1853, and

extended
whose

Pestalozza,

of G.

advanced

occasion

doctrines

Rosminianism.

Rosminian

works,

Rosmini.
the

di

Manzoni,

venzione, applied
the

of

exposition

best

A.

Rosraini

Lettere

had

Gioberti

Gioberti

his

writings of

the

to

which

gave

early

was

labors

the

of

in his

third,

the

in the

philosophical faculty

doctrines

the

objections

Meanwhile

Rosmini.

owing

contain

1847,

the

w^ork, which

this

was

philosophy

in the

professors

; while

philosophy

to refute

It

chief

the

found

be

may

Piedmont, through

first embodied

two

moral

1841, undertook

voluminous

and

philosophy.

that

of

mental

The

His

part.

of

Colleges

Tarditi,then

M.

University of Turin.

at the

by himself,

its documentary
and

Universities

Sciolla, P. Corte, and

system, written

his

Cantil, in

C.

the

of

PIIIL080PHT.

in
ed.

Annales,

same

Hist,

critique

Life of Rosmini, Lond.,

Mondes,

March

and

May,

ITALIAN

The

4. Ontologism."

497

PHILOSOPHY.

OntologicSchool

placesthe

Primiim

^'

philothe
simple
sophiciiin not
reality,
the
of all things as well as
clause
principleof all knowledge. This
doctrine,held by St. Augustine and St. Bonaventura, and revived by
in the seventeenth
Malebranche
a
developed under
century, was
Gioberti
form
new
by Yincenzo
(1801-1852). He w^as born in
his education
the
at
Turin, received
Universityof that city,and
tionary
a
as
a
priest. Arrested
sympathizerwith the revoluearlybecame
"

in

of

schemes
AYliile

France

in

ideal

existence,but

Mazzini, he

and

Belgium

1847,
in

and

Italyand
and

the Parliament
a

to

to

Paris

cause.

entered

ambassador,

Unable

to

at

once

in the Cabinet

rulingspirit.After
as

to

attach

himself

to

the

in

1833.

w^ork

of

hope

governments

have

triumphed. In 1848
into public life,
acceptinga
of Piedmont, where
he soon

to

the battle of

iii the

the

of constitutional

subsequent establishment

Peninsula, his ideas seemed

the

returned
in

the

endeavored

devoted

exile

to

clergyto this cause.

Morale
Civile degliItaliani^
In his Primato
e
1843, he urged upon
the necessityof placing itself at the head
of the liberal
the papacy
and becoming the champion of Italian nationality
and the
movement,
In his Prolegomeni^ 1845, and
II
of European civilization.
centre
Gesuita
Moderno^ 1846, he labored to crush the oppositionwith which
his view^s were
received
by the reactionaryparty of the Church, and
exposed the dangers of its policy. With the accession of Pius IX. in
Italian

and
regeneration,

condemned

was

he

in Absolute

of

Novara,

in

1849,

obtainingaid

he

was

he
seat

came
besent

for the national

and
accomplish his mission, he resigned his office,
city a voluntaryexile,he again devoted himself to

remaining in that
philosophicalstudies.
in the followingwork?:
The
philosophy of Gioberti is embodied
alio Studio- della
Teoria
La
del Sopranaturale^1838 ; Introduzione
1842 ; Trattato
del Buono,
del
Filosqfia,1840 ; Trattato
Bello^
1841-44.
A.
di
ing
accord1841 ; Errori
Rosmin%
Filosofici
Philosophy,
ceased
to exist; the last genuine philoto him, has long since
sophers
were
By substituting
Leibnitz,Malebranche, and Yico.
psychologic
Descartes
and principles,
for the ontologicmethod
rendered
all genuine philosophicdevelopment impossible; he did in regard to
did in regard to religion,
what
Luther
by substituting
vate
pripliilosophy
the
of
Church.
for
the
Sensualism,subjectivauthority
ism,
judgment
and
the
f
ruits
atheism
of the
materialism
are
legitimate
scepticism,
with these errors
is the objectof
To do away
doctrine of Descartes.

498

ITALIAN

philosophy. Rosmini's

tnie
on

Pnn.OSOPHY.

psychologicprocess,

and
abstraction,
combat.

thus

Through

fact

of

\ie

must

can

therefore

invert

in the

principles

falls into

the
ideality

consciousness

not

theory cannot attain it; for it is founded

of knowledge a pui'e
assumes
as
a principle
the

mind

it ascend

very
cannot
to

in the

reach

universal

the process, and

but
subject,

which

errors

look

object.

it proposes

nor
reality,

and

the

necessary ideas.
for method
and

both
The

from

to

objectis

the idea

in its absolute
of

reaUty,immanently present to the mind under the form

syntheticjudgment, which comprehends in itself all being and

knowledge.
This

judgment, as

in the

ideal

it is

formula

finds
produced through reflection,
Mis

its expression

existentias

ences
{Being creates existof Ontology and of Philosophy. Through
:) the supreme principle
the intuition of this principle,
is in possession
mind
of the real
at once
and the ideal ; for the first member
of the formula
{Ens) contains the
and
object,Being the absolute idea as well as the absolute substance
gent
of contincause
givesthe organicmultiplicity
; the second {Existences)
ereat

"

substances

Act)
;and

and

causes

and

expresses the relation

the unconditional
and

the

from

the

ideal

existences

relative ideas ; the third

existingbetween

the absolute

conditional,and
Absolute.

(The

But

and

Creative
the relative,

production of real
although this intuition

the

of

to the mind, it is in itself not yet an act

intelligence
jof knowledge ; as long as it is not reproduced by the mind, it remains
in a latent or germinal condition.
It is only by a reflex judgment that
of intuition ; coming to the consciousness
of its
aftirm the contents
we
tions.
become
elements, we
acquainted with their mutual
bearing and relareflection,
This reproductiontherefore is made
through ontological
by w^hich the mind, so to say, reflects itself upon the object,and
through which alone it is capable of acquiringthe knowledge of that
is expressedin the intuition.
Thus the ontologiideal organism,which
cal
stands
in
method
is the only true philosophical
tion
opposiprocess, and
is founded
to the psychologicalmethod, w^hich
on
psychological
its attention,
turns
not
reflection,
through w^hich the mind
uj)on the
object,but upon itself. But to direct its reflection upon the objectof
the mind
needs
the stimulus
of language,through which
its intuition,
and limit the object for its comprehension. Hence
determine
it may
of a first divine revelation,
which
the necessity
by language supplies
that relation which
of our
constitutes
the instrument
and
reflection,

gives the power

necessarilyexists

between

the

idea

and
itself,

the idea

as

it manifests

ITALIAN

itself to

mind.

our

For
to the

in reference

although the
human

49 S

PHILOSOPHY.

idea in itself is

it has

mind

sides

two

one

the

"

ble,
indivisi-

and
one

which

is

incomprehensible thus being antithetic towai'ds

between
each
other, and giving rise to all the apparent antinomies
which
is
and Religion- The
Science
faculty of superintelligence,
the
intelligible,

other

in all iinite

inherent

"

minds,

consists

in the

sense

reveals to the

which

comprehension of the idea. It is

positiveknowledge of
through revelation that the mind acquiressome
of the idea, although always limited and clouded
the superintelligibility
it"

mind

in

as
limitations,

own

to

the

mystery.

Science,being the reproductionof the ideal formula, must

be

into

divided

two

therefore

and
branches, correspondingto the intelligibility

of the idea ; the one

the Rational
superintelligibility
constituting
the last being superiorto the
Sciences,the other the Super-rational,
their more
from
extensive
former
comprehension of the idea through
The genesisof sciences from the ideal formula
is
positiverevelation.
follows :
the subjectof the formula,givesOntology and
or
as
Eiis,^''
science
which
shall coma
prise
Theology. The copula (Great)demands
the
relation
double
Eiis and
between
Existences^in both an
ascending and a descending method ; the descending process (from
the science of time and space, or Mathematics
Being to Existences)originates
of the
to Being) the science
; the ascending (from Existences
true, the good, and the beautiful,that is.Logic,Ethics,and Esthetics.
The
predicate {Existences)gives rise to the spiritualand material
the

"

''

sciences

the

on

physicalScience
follow
As

the

side

one

Psychology and

in its various

branches.

Cosmology,on
The

the

other,

super-naturalsciences

division.

same

of
validity

to the

first member

the
its

knowledge arisingfrom

this

formula,
"

its

absolute

realityand necessity. The

intuitive judgment in which
this reality
and necessity
are
pronounced,
in the human
do not originate
viz.,'''Ens is^^ and ''Ens is necessary^''
in its primiwhile the mind
mind, but are contained in the idea itself,
tive
intuition
listens
them
its
them
in
to
only
repeating
succeeding
reflex judgments. So
that the
of
those
validity
judgments is not
affected by the subjectivity
of the mind.
Thus
is it with the fundamental
ideas of necessity,
and
existence
possibility,
; the first being
expresses

own

"

the

of the

relation

necessary

to

the

necessity. To

Ens

to

itself,the

second

the

relation

of the

to
existing,and the third the relation of possibility
these ideas correspondthree great realities ; to the first,

600

ITALIAN

the Absolute

tilde,pure

; to tlie second,infinite

God
reality,
and

time

the

universe

; to the

space

pure
and

or

continuous

third,actual and
Time

its contents.

and

magiii-

discrete magnitude,

ideas,at

are

space

and

contingent. As pure and

be conceived
as
a circular expansion growing out
necessary, they may
of a singlecentre
and extending to the infinite ; by this centre, Ens
(Being)is symbolized. As contingentand empirical,
they may be represented
from
circumference
and
which
the
centre
a
by
projects
develops
in successive
this
in
have
the
degrees;
projectivedevelopment we
finite reality,
but one
and necessary,
multipleand contingentin itself,
if considered
as
existingin the central point from which it emerges.
For existences
have a necessary
relation to the Ens, and it is only ivi
that relation that it is possibleto know
them.
The
word
e?'very
istences implies their derivation
from
the Absolute
reality;but the
of that derivation
be
reached
nature
cannot
through reasoning; U
once

and

PHILOSOPHY.

pure

manifests

empirical,necessary

itself in the

By consideringthe two
relation of its copula,they

extreme

act.

falls into

Pantheism.

knowledge

the

the sensible

creative

out

of the

and philosophyat
identified,

become

Thus

in the

of the formula

terms

contingentexistences.
of perceptioninto their
becomes
and
intelligible,

once

is the

only basis of our

It is by bringing the phenomenal
relations to creative activity
that

creative

of

elements

it is revealed

in which
intuition,

act

the individualizations

of the idea

into our
minds.
And
ideas are
as
our
own
brought in the concrete
formed
in witnessingthe creative act, it follows that that they
bb
may
considered
as
copiesof the divine idea,created and limited,yet stamp^
ed with the character of a divine origin.
are

Thus

the ideal formula

transformed
and

"

the

of creative
descend

considered

into these other

in relation to the universe

formulas

"

the

which
to the one,"
multiplereturns
development,viz.,the one, by virtue
"

from

Ens, the other,by which

ment, w^hich is

accomplishedin

the efiicient and

iho, final

cause

they return

the

creates

one

becomes

multiple,"
two
cycles

express the
of which
Existences
to

it,
"

double

move

of the Ens itself,

the very bosom
at once
of the universe.
The first cycle,however,

is

divine,while the second is divine and human, because in

entirely
it human
are
turn
brought into play. In the Garden of Eden the repowers
of the mind
to its Creator
was
perfect; reason
predominant over
tion;
passion,man's reflection was in perfect accord with the organicintuibut

into

the

Fall altered that order, and

oppositionwith

the formula.

Hence

man

the

put himself
errors

of

more

ancient

or

less

Theo-

502

ITALIAN

PHILOSOPHY.

with an imaginativeelement,
intelligible
element
in the sublime
the
one
but while
predominates over
other,in the beautiful the harmony of the two is preserved. Yet the
ideas are subjectto the cyclesalreadynoticed in the development
two

art.

creates

the

Beautiful," and

"the Beautiful

historyof art the sublime precedes

the oldest forms of
are
beautiful ; the temple and the epic poem
of the idea gives rise to the marvellous,
The superintelligibility
In the

to the Sublime."

returns

the

Sublime

"The

of the formula;

of the

union

])()tliconsist in the

which, expressing itself

in

language, poetry, painting, and music,

The iirst arts restingon the organic;
of ^Esthetics.
element
becomes
an
of formula, it follows that only in orthodoxy can
the full
structure
less that
realization of beauty be found ; heterodoxy,altering
more
or
introduces

structure,
well

an

into that of

intrinsic

disorder

into the field of

^Esthetics,

science,morality,and

religion.
preparing other works, in
whiTjli his ideas seem
to have undergone considerable
fect
change. Imperand fragmentary as they were
in
1856left,they were
published
of
his
friend G. Massari, and
ing
bear the follow57 under the editorship
titles: La
Protologia ; La Filosojia delta Rwelazione
; La
lian
lUforma deVxi Chiesa. A tendency to rationalism blended with Hegein those
transcendentalism
w^orks,although ostensibly
appears
of the first philosophy. The idea here
founded
the ideal formula
on
as

as

time

Grioberti at the

death

was

thought, which

absolute

the

becomes

of his

creates

its very

by

act

ing;
of think-

is thought developed;
is thought undeveloped, as reason
sensibility
the incomprehensible is but thought undeveloped,
and even
becomes
which
through development. Language as the
intelligible
of reflexion plays still a conspicuous part in the woof of
instrument
the absolute thought,as wrought out in creation,but it has become
a
of supernaturalrevelation it is said,that it
natural product: and even
be

may

considered

through the

natural,as

creative

of Nature

and

act

of

the

continuous.

progress

which

rest

in

creates.

In

idea,but

become

the

trine ; the

Sorites,the
The

or
Categories,

on

thought

and

as

it is received

into the mind.

It is

that absolute

Mind,

logicalform

soon

its union

ment
thought appears in the developdevelopment which
proceeds under the
and
is inexhaustible,
principleof which
of this Sorites are propositions
members

fundamental
with

the

ideas

mind,

Absolute, the Categoriesare

and
one

multiple through the creative

first express the oppositionbetween

produced l^ythe
the

and
act.
two

lute
abso-

things which

it

indivisible in the
These

are

dual

contrary terms,

503

PHILOSOPHT.

ITALIAN

The absolute
oppositionsof the former.
Category,out of which all others
thought is the concrete and supreme
is
receive existence
through its creative activity;an existence which
The organic structure
developed,accordingto a dialectic movement.
the relations between
of
which
euibraces
the terms
of the Categories,
their couples,is moulded
each dual one, and the relations between
on
while

the last reconcile

the

formula.

Pantheism

ideal

the

and

tliesis of God

Bruno

the

consist

in the confusion

different modes

of existence

''

it may

linuted

or

contracted

God."

in the

of the
infinite reality

second

; for the

its finitude, it

fact which

is

be reduced

to

Finite

in

substantial

of the finite and

syiithe

which

belong to them.
world
is potentially

actuallyand potentially
; the
Nicolas
of Cusa
and
Giordano
actuallyfinite. With
is "a potential
God"
properly be said, that the universe

infinite, but

one

not

is infinite, both

God

or

the universe, but

of the

and
infinite,

does

Hence, God

and
first,

and

the universe

in the infinite

are

of
potentiality

As to
exists in God.
of the universe
potentiality
is given as a term
of the creative act ; it is a primitive
therefore cannot
acts, which
presupposed by all mental
other Categoriesand
thus to the unity of the Absolute.

realities,
however, have

double

relation to the

Absolute, which

by the rnetexis and the mimesis ; through the former

they are phenomenal copies of the divine ideas, and through the
latter they participate
in the divine
of their
the condition
essence,
is determined

existence.

change in Gioberti's metaphysical ideas manifests itself in his

Catholic philosophyrests no longer
thoughts in relation to the Church.
ity
the universalbut on
the authorityof an ecclesiastical organization,
on
and
tion.
continuityof human
thought,in the historyof mental evoluReligion is no longer superiorto philosophy; but it is philosophy
itself,
enveloped in myths and symbols,so as to bring it to the
of the common
intelligence
people. All religionsare effects of the
creative act, having different degrees of moral
value.
Christianity,
The

however,

is the

Man-Idea, in
its inner

complement

which

of

all

the realization

religiousforms,

of the moral

and

Christ

is the

type fullycorresponds

Mysteriesand miracles are facts,which cannot

be considered
as
complete ; their value consists in their relation to the
future,as phenomena which contain the doctrines of Palingenesis.No
Church
live which
does not follow the laws of ideal development;
can
the universe
it should cease
would
ject
even
to be subperish,the moment
modifications
in his political
to change. The
introduced
doctrine,
to

excellence.

504

ITALIAN

himself

he

PHILOSOPHY.

death,in his liinnovamento

year before his

Civile d' Italia,1851, wl^prethe papacy no

published a

but
support of Italian regeneration,

work, by far the

his

of all

longerappears

greatest obstacle.

its

as

the natural

as

In this

"

voluminous

productions,he gave
Italian patriots;placing the national cause
to
a
new
programme
under
the hegemony of the king of Piedmont, he urged his countrymen
that throne, the only hope of the Peninsula.
to rally around
This progrannne,
carried out
has brought the Italian
to the letter,
States under
national government, and finally
Rome
made
the
one
of
the
nation.
with
No
the
has
capital
statesman,
exceptionof Cavour,
exerted
for
time
ever
a
so
great influence on the affairs of Italyas
Gioberti ; his name
is preserved in honor among
his countrymen
for
the purity of his patriotism,
the loftiness of his aspirations,
and the
his
of
and
the permanent
rather than for the solidity
liberality
views,
value of his philosophy. On
the political
relations of Gioberti
to
Cavour, cf. Life, Character,and
Policy of Count Cavour, by Y.
Botta,New York, 1862.
best

As a philosopher,Gioberti
followingwriters doubtless

Bell
a

Armonia

Universale^1850

Jesuit, La

Elementi

di

VEasere

Sdenza

Uno

uomo

Di

Formula
della

succeed

not

suW

d'

in

Sdenza

To

the

Idee di

formula

ideal

In

Diritto

Corso

di

genesi

whose

exposition

able

in

1864,

in

; La

Filosofiadopo Kant

razionale,1868 ;
1807.
Leibfiizio,

Sistema

Mora
della

Turbigllo,LHmpero
On

Miceli,

del-

the

of

bearing

and

; and

Psico-

1862

Fede,

in

their

1859;

; B.

A.

ilmale, 1865

C. B.

Bertini,

Conti, Storia

; J.

Baldacchini,

Labranca,

con-

name.

Puccinotti,

Trattato
A.

Lezioni

di

Storica

Filosofia

Sdentifica,1856 ;
ddle Filosofiedi Locke

Mariano,

Smyth,

sullo

Mangeri,

Enddopedia

undi Analisi

Gioberti, cf. L. Ferri, and

his

Christian

op.

voted
de-

FilosofiaQreca

La

Corleo, Filosofiauniversale,1863;

I.

Lavarino,

and

; IK.

Ontologico,1866

Logica^ 1870;

1856
"c?irift
f. Philosop/iie,

; Dio

della Medidna

found
doctrine

the

Review

antoritd

deW

proprietd,1858

Gioberti, belong G. M.

of

independent

Storia

Fihsofici,
1864;

Filosofiae

1863

Gioberti

of America,

States

published

was

frima di Socrate, 1869 ; S.

della Filosofia,
1864 ; Eoidenza, Amore
Scettidsmo

Romano,

Dio, 1840-45

con

di

Diritto

del

1861
QuestioneBeligiosa,
della Stoiia
Centofanti, Delia Filosofia

Fornari,

; G,

; Necessitd

naturale, 1852

salla

the United

della Vita, 1850

Filosofia

Scritti Stoiici

"

V Apologia del

Ontological School, although

una

Vito

Sistema,1865; N. Garzilli, Saggio sui

1850 ; B. De Acproblemi importanti della Filosofia,
di Filosofia
1850 ; Elementi
fondam.entale,1836 ;
universale^

Ideohgia, 1858,

the

works

ideale coi

interpreter in Dr. O. A. Brownson,

tamed

his

iKirola^ 1857-62

della

arte

the

larje School, although

suoi

p.

Filosofia
morale,1851 ; Corso di
1856
legge,
; Saggio sulla natura

Trattato

forming

rappoi'ticolla Natura
Prima,
Gioanni, Principiidella Filosqfia
interno

di

della

in

inspirations from

their

; Lezioni

Eeale,1864:; Mkeli

quisto, Bistema

deW

Filosopt; V.

rapportidella
Corso

did

derived

cit. ;

in

Seydel

S.
e

Zeit-

Lond.,
MetapJiysicians,

1851.

Prominent

among

the

Ontologistsis

Terenzio

Mamiani;

poet,

ITALIAN

and

statesman,
he

philosopher.He

was

born

joinedthe revohitionarymovement
condemned

and

to

505

PHILOSOPHT.

of the

He

exile.

Pesaro,1T99 ;
Romagnas, but

in

took

his residence

np

in 1831
was

in

rested
ar-

Paris,

'here for fifteen years he was

^nrsnits. In 1846 he returned

and
engaged in literary
philosophical
and gave his support to the
to Italy,
When
the Pope abandoned
liberal reforms
inauguratedby Pius IX.
of the Constituent
Rome, Mamiani, as a member
Assembly, opposed
the proclamation of the Republic,as contrary to the interest of the
the restoration of the papal power by the aid of
With
national cause.

France

in

1840, he retired

to

Piedmont,

wliere

he

elected

was

member

sity
appointed professorof philosophyin the Universtanch
He was
of Turin.
a
supporter of the policy of Cavour,
the offices of minister
administration
he held successively
under whose

of

Parliament

of Public

Instruction

and

of the Senate

is member
the

and

that of minister

and

Universityof Home.
In the
early part

of

professorof

to

the

Greece.

At

present he

philosophyof historyin

his

philosophicalcareer, represented by
delV antica FilosofiaItaliana. 1834, Mamiani,
his Del Rinnovamento
of Empiricism founded
held the doctrine
on
tions,
psychologicalinvestigatained
He mainin which
he strove to combine
experiencewith reason.
that the principal
questionof philosophywas that of method ; and
It was
this mein experienceand nature.
that this could only be found
thod
the philosophersof the Renaissance, and
which
prevailedamong
science
for its great achievements, particularly
is indebted
to which
This publication
through the teachingsand the example of Galileo.
of

called forth the work

conti'overted

some

alone

of ligature and

of this,and

Dialoghi

Mind.

in his works

di Sciema

could

Mamiani

Discorso

Prima^

not

sulV

1846,

he

etc.,in which

tried to show

statements, and

of Mamiani's

experimentalmethod
science

Posmini, II limnovamento,

that

reconstruct
philosophically

himself

Ontologiae
endeavored

sul

the
the

convinced

became

soon

he

Metodo, 1841, and

to find

cal
philosophi-

writingsappears for the firsttime

of the
his doctrine
immediate
on
perception,as the only foundation
knowledge of reality.The last phase of his doctrine is contained in
into two
1865.
It is divided
his work
Confessionidi im Metcifisico,
parts.Ontology and Cosmology. In the firsthe considers the Absolute,
ideas,natural theology,and the creative act ; in the second, the finite,
the co-ordination of nature's means,
its relation to the Infinite,
life,
basis in

and
finality,

common

progress

sense.

In these

in the universe.

506

ITALIAN

His

fundamental

PHILOSOPHY.

doctrines

are

follows

as

The

knowledge of

the

the ideal is effected

through two faculties essentially

distinct,
although both actingin the subjectiveunity of the mind
j^erception
The first does not consist in a syntheticjudgment
intellection.
and
d priori, as Rosmini
and Gioberti held after Kant, but in a direct
real and

"

and

immediate

of the

relation

mind

finite

to

Galuppi maintained, although they overlooked

Intellection
these have
said

be

to

real

most

consists

possess

Ideas

being.

of

faculty,when
through perception. Thus
through the intermedium
similar
the

far

so

process

occurs

objectgiven in

of sensation.

But

in

mind

the

divine

identical
of

all

with

the
realit}^,

mind

A)ite realissirno

"

ideal

its

representations,but
; it remains

essence

on

it

may

"

the

"

not

its surface.

in

while

ideas

our

they

are

real

are

therefore

objects in

the

reaches
medium

representativeemblems,

mere

the
intelligibility,

absolute

things; they are

as

does

perception,through which the mind

but through the
not in essence,
sensibility,

the

and,

intellectual

are

of

reach

to

as

to ideas ;

symbols of the Absolute

causality; and they are
supplied by the
the mind
apprehends their realizations
attains to Absolute
our
intelligence
reality

intellective

penetrate

Absolute
to the

relation

indeed

relation

its

realityin

intrinsic

an

with

and

its intellectual character.

in the relation of the mind

essential connection

an

Ileid
as
realities,

themselves

they are
the reason
possibility,

foundation

of all finite

realities,

final

perfection;they are indeed the

of the world, manifesting themselves
efhcient and final causes
under
the triple
Hence
relation of the true, the good, and the beautiful.
our
of the divine
and
determinations
ideas,as representations
causality,
immutable
and
minations
are
representations,and deteressentiallyobjective
their

of
founded

and

attributes

common

on

the

very

It follows

truth.

eternal

of

nature

that

the

existence

primitiveintuition,which

of

God

includes

is

the

of truth,and that its demonstration

is
d jJi^iori
substantiality
the principle of identity. It
from
simple process of deduction

eternal
a

follows

however

not

which

they

the

in

finite

have
tative
in

from
reality,

necessary
character.

reference
It is

itself its relation

external

are

receive

to Absolute

only through

both

perception,and

truth,to which

Ideas

of

mind.

eternal

it is therefore

intelligible
realityin

God

an

corresponds;

an

human

contains

ideal relation

also that every

to

finite

to Infinite

innate

their

independent

they originate

determinations, and

realitythrough their
reflection that the mind

contained
reality,
contained
reality,

represent
discovers

in internal
in the ideas.

and

ITALIAN

is the

Creation
tends

result

communicate

to

idea

the

of

by

ultimate

and

of

good, which
a

This

infinite

an

of

necessity
God
plies
infinitely
good imward
greatest good, as its outis brought
manifestation

the

on

end.

and

power,

of

idea

creation,founded

infinite

an

infinite

the

itself ; the

manifestation
forth

of

507

PHILOSOPHY.

wisdom,

the

under

of
the very nature
finality.From
cosmic
and its opposition to the mfinite,
arises the immense
tlie finite,
be properly represented as a
the universe
Hence
cannot
divei'sity.
spheres,
sphere ; it is rather to be regarded as a system of numberless
in
various
and
that
sal
univerdirections,
forming
moving concentrically
harmony, which is the highestexpressionof the infinite good. As
it follows that there is
the cosmic
diversityis equal to its possibility,
of the laws

forms

idea

only one

the

of

idea

world

better

is in the act of

which

Evil is inherent

in

universe

itself,
although in

universe
The

of

causalityand

the

divine

creates
causality

the

prearranges
influence of that
of monads

or

of

character

co-ordination

it diminishes,as the finite more

in

the

ether

tlie order

one

the

more

with the

of this

end,

gence
whole, the divine intelli-

produces the whole under the

intelligence.T\iq finitei^ an aggregate
traction
atbrought together by their mutual

whole, while

communication

nature

arises

those, which

between

the diverse

have

ones,

and

of all.
the

in

Cosmic

System, with

Nature

mind.

connection

of chemical

preparatory
that wise

and

In the achievement

and determines

are

of the

progressiveunion

between
a participation
similarity,

arises

life,and

the

in

generationand development.

of creation.

causalityand
a

as

verse,
impossible; because the idea of the unideveloping,contains alreadyall possibilities.

forces,which

thus

Hence

end

well

as

is

in the finite ; but

lies the ultimate

mind

divine

continuous

and in this
approaches the infinite,
other

the

to

co-ordination

reveals

its

great divisions of

itself first in

the

stellar

ture,
na-

order,

with

and
in
light,heat, and electricity,
In the elaboration
of the syncompounds.
theses

the
of

final ones,

Divine

Art

is revealed

in

produced by the union and

genous
separation,the action and reaction of homogeneous, as well as heteroit is only in life that finality
forces.
But
appears, for life
alone contains
of receivingthe communication
the possibility
of good,
is the essence
which
and the objectof creation.
Life is the development
through a suitable organizationof the individual,in reference to
its participation
in the good. At its lowest degree it is nothing but a
chemical
compound, enclosed in a cellular envelope and capable of
means

which

the
is

508

highestpoint it is an intellectual and voli,

and to this end co-ortends to an absolute object,
dinates
Between
its
the
niea^s
two
there
at
extremes
disposal.
of
each
in
developing accordance with
degrees activity,
mark
the princiVegetation,animality,and spirituality
pal

reproducing itself ;
which
tional activity
all the
arc

its

PHILOSOPnY.

TALIAN

numberless
end.

own

at

its

degrees in the scale of life. In these three manifestations life is a

who
the
specificforce. Btichner and other Scientists,
give to matter
of producing life,deny the existence of this specific
force,and
power
attribute

it to

development.
the negation of
of
power
confounds
artificial

the

natural

experience, and

the

in contradiction

with

for

life,and

character

the

with

varieties

accidental
with

of

fixedness

itself within

producing
means

to

necessary

form, and

the
It

nature.

own

transformations,and

It is contrary to all historical

processes.

fact of the

constant

of hybrids; it stands
sterility
bearing of the two laws of the gle
strug-

itself in the

which
selection,

natural

and

of its

limits

substantial

will restrict rather

development, and keep

boundaries, rather than expand them

the

the elements

not

theoryof the genesisof speciesinvolves

objectiverealityof the idea or specificessence,

substantial

in itself has

So Darwin's

its

containinfy

which

cause,

the

limits of

than

species within

into

new

forms

widen

their

and

own

modes

of

existence.

generalend of creation begins

value of being the
with plants; here the livingforce has the specific
its
rather it is the laboratoryin which
for
animal
life,or
organ
into animality,which
has
elements
are
prepared; it passes over
and
real relation of
relative,as
a
"finality,"although limited
it enjoys participation
and
its senses
are
instincts,through which
in the divine
alone, whose life is partly the growth
good. Man
for he alone
of vegetation and
animality,is an absolute finality,
The

of life in

order

relation to the

the

Absolute.

The

infinite.
in

verified

This
the
in

organicand
measured

bearingof

of

law

founded
necessary,
divine goodness,and

or

he

life,through which

has

indefinite

it is in

as

the

of

embraces

all the

of

creation,in

the

the

finite with

the

universe,is still more

But

order

rent
appa-

that it may

be
development
its applicationmust
comprehend humanity as an
history,
unit ; it would
fail if appliedto isolated nations,
spiritual

of

by
this

an

invariable

law, mankind

mankind.

type,
must

as

be

Yico

in

and

universal

is

object

very

with

accordance

in

act

progress

progressiveunion

the

law, which

and

know

can

insisted.

regarded in

To

see

the

the multitude

full
of its

510

ITALIAN

PHILOSOPHY.

of Greek
and Latin literature,
he returned
Switzerland,as professor
to
Paris, and was
appointed professorof philosophy in several

Collegesconnected with the Universityof France. In 1860 he returned

he was
where
made
to Italy,
at once
professorof philosophyin the
of
Milan.
In
1861
he wa^ transferred to the University
Royal Academy
of Naples,where he still holds the professorship
of the historyof philosophy
and
the philosophyof history. His works are devoted to the
and applicationof the Hegelian philosophy,and are
intei'pretation
almost all written in French.
They are as follows:
"

Probleme

de la Certitude

Essais

phigues,1862

VHegelianisme

et la

1861
Philosophies

1864
PJiiloHophie
Hegelienne.,

de

PhUoso-

Melanges
d, la

; Introduction

;
Philo"ophie
d' Hegel; PM1858, 2d ed., 1864; Logique (^ Hegel ; PhilosopMe de la Nature
d'llegel^
hsopMe de V Espritd' Hegel; PhilosopMe de la Religiond' Hegel ; Platonis AriHtotdis et
Doctrina
Hegeliide medio termino
Experimental Science^
; Inquiry into SpecidaMve and

Lond.,

1856, Lezioni

(epoca

Socratioa),ed

Ibera

Chiesa

from

the

also

in

State

by

but

Filosojiadella Storia ; Prolusioni alia Storia

della Storia ; II Prohlema
delV Assoluto;
Filosojia

Stato, in
Cavour

London.

to students

and

Moleschott.

refutes
His

confutes

the

have

is Rosenkranz
See

1860.

Among

also

other

it in

with

Trinity

to the

of Emile

Hegelians

in

being, thought,

and

the

In

eminent

V.,

B.

and

in his

in the

Revue

Italy may

be

mentioned
the

to show

which
and

being

of

theories

ing
becomBiichner
he

Empiricism.
whom

among

Logischen

Mondes, 15 December,

Bertrando
of

connection

delenburg
Tren-

Science

der
WissenscJiaft

des Deux

Hegel's

Introduction

motion

Hegelians,

by

rendering

Experimental

German

1,

thus
his

He

Church

expounds

representatives of

other

and

Saisset

Gioberti,1863, aimed

and

materialistic

SpecidatiDe and

Locke,

Vol.
Qedanke^''''

and

la

Church

politicalgrounds.

Hegelian Trinity of being, not

into

Inquiry

of

the

of the Christian

form,
intelligible

more

Filosofia

ddla

11 Gavaiir

of

separation

Hegelian terminology.

Eclecticism

Bacon,

article

the

only interprets

not

highly praised by

Der

"'

an

di
Filosojia

his

of

philosophical and

on

Vera

expresses

rejects the

of

been
in

Idee.

in his

In

doctrines

labors

works

familiar

French

doctrine

History of Religion and

to substitute

proposed
also

and

not

d' Hegel he
d la.'PhilosopJiie

; he

his

the

opposed

the

In

develops it

which
is

English

into

Bretschneider,
it accessible

libero

held

translated

philosophy,

stdla

alia

the

Spaventa, who,
of this

doctrines

of Introduzione

alle Lezioni

with
the ideas of Hegel. He is also the author
1867 ; Saggidi Criticajilosojica,p)oliticaerfMgios
diFUosofia^1862, PrincipiidiFilosofia,
The
Marchioness
colla Filosojia
relazione
1867 ; Filosojia
sua
di Kant
Italiana,1800.
e

philosopher

Marianne
Bruno
later

Florenzi-

Waddington

Lectures

and

on

works, however,

the
she

at

was

first

discipleof Schelling, whose

Philosophy of Religion she

adopted

the

fundamental

translated

ideas

and

the

into

dialogue 0%
In

Italian.

terminology

of

her

Hegel.

edi Logica^
Filosofemidi Cosmologia e di Ontohgia, 1863 ; Saggi di Psicologia
1867 ; DelV immordello Spirito^
1864 ; Saggio sulla Natura, 1866 ; Saggio suUa
Filosojia
Here
longs
be1850.
Socialismo
sid
Comunismo,
tnlitd ddV anima
1868
e
umana,
; Rijlessioni
Storici
a
nd
Pietro
of
also Fr. Fiorentino, the author
Studj
Pomponacci" Telesio^
She

wrote

and
Positivism
al Secolo 16".
He
also wrote
on
Bologna e d" Padova
Im
phic
PhilosoMariano
Rafaelle
wrote
1867
di
(Rivista
Bologna.)
Italy
Contempornine en Italie,1868; Lasalle e il suo Eradito, 1865; B Risorgimento
Storia di Hegel, 1866 ; II ProUema
Italiano secondo i prindpii della FilosojiadeUa

sulla

Scuola

Platonism

di

in

ITALIAN

in Italia^1873.
Religioso
of the Hegelian

to the

physiologist ;

and

naturalist

Among

doctrine

and

Vitto, Camerini,

those

applied

to political,juridical and

and

6. Scholasticism.

devoted

have

themselves

of science

to the

application

be mentioned

may

C. De

Sanctis, Marselli, Delzio, Salvetti, Stanislao

who

Trani,

who

special branches
De-

511

PHILOSOPHY.

it

particrdarly to literary and

sesthetical

Meis,

Gatti, M.
cism,
criti-

historical

sciences.

The

philosophical
sophy
developmentof Italian philois
in the nineteenth
its
national
by
distinguished
character,
century
it
the
has
the
decided
reconstruction
of
and
impulse
given to
Italy,on
An
this
the basis of independence and liberty.
exceptionto
general
tendency is to be found in the writers who, laboringin the interests of
the

"

Church, have striven

domination

re-establish

to

national

over

Scholasticism,and
Giovachino

thought.

with

it

Ventura

dotal
sacer-

(1792-

He was
born
in
1861) is the principalrepresentativeof this School.
of the Order
of the Theatins.
He
Palermo, and earlybecame
a member
was

Superior-Generalof

elected

soon

the

in

government

of the

O'Connell,in
of Vienna

of the

in

in
Tuileries,

of

his funeral

1848, and

Order, and held

Church.

prominent supporters of the reforms

eulogy on

the

was

oration

Pius

delivered

sermons

he

IX.

the victims

on

continued

to

high position

of the

one

inauguratedby

in his

Paris, 1857-58,
popular rights.

lie

of

in the

show

most

In his
the

volution
re-

Chapel

himself

In his

champion
works, howphilosophical
maintained
the
idea of Scholasticism,
fundamental
constantly
over,
of the Church
above
and human
reason
conscience,
placingthe authority
indeed
above
all sovereignty. Holding that philosophy was
but
a
warm

he

from

deduction
truth

lay in

that

sensations,and
mind

; but

revelation,he

authority.

in the

that

It is true, he

no

from

value

if

revelation.

ultimate
ideas

criterion

of

originatein

left

by them in the
iii language,which
not incorporated
Philosophy reached its culminating
nothing is left to philosophersbut
are

Aquinas, and
of that writer.
is the
Ventura
to study,and
to expound the doctrines
author
of the followingworks
De
Methodo
:
Philosophandi^ 1S2S \
De la Vrcde et de la Fausse
et les
Philosophie,1852 ; La Tradition
et
Semipelagiensde la Philosophie,1854 ; La Raison Philosojphiqice
1861.
1854.
Le
Pere
La Philosophie Chretienne,
Vatholique,
Of.
La
Lievue
in
Ventura
des Deux
et la Philosophie,
par Chs. de Pemusat
point

in

St. Thomas

the

says, that

subsequent images which

ideas have

is itself derived

asserted

Mondes, Fevrier, 1853

Broglie,1853.
Oct. 1855

; and

See

also

Annales

also,LJtudes Morales
on

de

et Litteraires

Ventura, Prownso7t\s

par

A. de

Quarterly Review,
Philosophic Chretienne, Paris,Nov. 1861.

612

ITALIAN

To

the

PHILOSOPHY.

School

belongs M. Liberatore,a Jesuit,the author of

Listltutiones
1851 ; Sagjio sulla ConosGenzri
I)itelletPhllosophlc(JB,
1855 ; Ethica et Jus Naturoe^ 1858.
tiuile^
Compendium Loglcceet MeLiberatore
taphysicm,1868.
rejectsthe vision of God, as well as the
doctrine of pure tradition,
of knowledge, and holds that
the principle
as
human

same

reason,

aided

by the

and

senses

of

can
abstraction,

certaintyin the order of nature.

and
But above
there is the authorityof the Church, the
nature
man
only infallible guide in philosophy as well as in theology. To the
School maybe referred Sanseverino, author of Philosophia Christiana
same
originateideas,and

antlqua

c}im

Scuole

attain

et

truth

the power

and

co'mparata^ 1862; C. de Crescenzio

nova

who

wrote

dei
Capozza, author of Sulla Filosofia,
delta Chiesa e in ispeeialitd
Padri
di San
Toinm,aso
in ope Dottori
a
posizionealia Filosofiamoderna^ 1868 ; also P. Tapparellid' x\zeglio,
di

Jesuit,brother of
Critico

; F.

1866
Filosofia,

the statesman

of the

same

the author

name,

of Esame

Governi

Paj^presentatividelle Societd Moderne, 1854,

Naturale
and Soggio teorico delDirltto
fondato sulV esperiema, 1855.
La
Civiltd Cattolioa,a monthly Review,
and philiterary,
political,
losophi
in
of
is
the
this
sect.
Eome,
published
principal organ
in 1850, and
since
its origin it has been
It was
established
chiefly
of the Jesuits,such as Libej-aedited by writers belonging to the Order
The fundamental
idea of
tore, Perrone, Azeglio,Bresciani,and Curci.
in all questions
this Periodical
is the insufficiency
of human
reason
which refer to religion,
and politics.
philosophy,morality,jurisprudence,
Euro})eancivilization is the result of Catholicism, and it is only in
Catholicism
find a basis for their developthat man
and societycan
ment.
and
Protestantism, libertyof conscience
are
thought
only
of infidelity
and revolution,and it is only by subjectingitself
sources
to the authorityof the Church, that the human
mind
re-establish
can
dei

its natural
made

relations with

Italyone, having

Church,

is anti-Catholic

the sanction

God
been
and

of Pius

and

The

man.

carried

revolution

against the

out

anti-Christian.

These

which

of the

interests

doctrines

has

have

ceived
re-

in his

Syllabus,1864, condemned
science and
Moral
the followingpropositions
monstrous
as
:
errors
losophy
Phiphilosophyare independent of the authorityof the Church ;
"
The princibe treated without
ples
regard to revelation ;
may
IX., who

"

"

"

"

"

and

need, and

the

method

the

which
religion,

of the Scholastics

of science
progress
he in his conscience

"

may

are
"

not

Every
think

in accordance
one

may

true

"

with

embrace
"

the

that

Protestantism

ITALIAN

in which
Christianity,

of

lis a form
'as if he

the

in

were

Catholic

513

PHILOSOPHY.

man

may

Church

"

"

pleaseGod, equallyas well

Common
schools ought to

exempted from the authorityof the Church."

proclaimed as religiouserrors, received
propositions,
be

the

fiiationfrom

Church

dogmatic definition
iofgeiuiineCatholicism

in

the Council

of

the

These

other

and

formal

condem-

Vatican, 1870, through

of

the logicalconsequence
papal infallibility,
and the highestsynthesis
of Scholasticism.
7. Positivism, or rationalistic naturalism, as implying the negation
A
[of all metaphysicalscience,is representedby Giuseppe Ferrari.
of Romagnosi, he earlyvisited Paris,
Lombard
by birth, and a disciple
of France, as associate
with the University
connected
where
he became
of Strasbourg,
in the University
held a professorship
lie afterwards
doctor,
of his radical opinwhich he was
obligedto resignon account
ions.
In 1859 he returned
to Italy,
enteredParliament, and was appointed
in
and
of
Turin,
Milan,
philosophy
successively
professor
in the
of reason
Florence.
Admitting as insoluble the antinomies
of
of Kant, Ferrari holds that experienceis the only foundation
sense
truth.
There
two
are
speciesof contradiction into which the mind
arise from
former
faults
and the critical. The
the positive
may fall,
tual
and may
of reasoning,
disappearthrough a verification of the intellecthe

The
process.
be avoided.
cannot
reference

to

latter
Kant

are

the results

of

fatal law

of the

these contradictions

reduced

God, the world, and

man

; but

in fact

mind,

and

ing
to the ideas hav-

they

are

less
number-

they manifest themselves in our ideas

versality
Their uniorder.
and actions,
in both the theoretical and the practical
is the law of mind
and nature.
Ilegelwith an effort of genius
attempted to reduce them to a rational unity; but he succeeded only
the
His failure shows
in giving us
a
philosophyof contradictions.
of the labors of
of metaphysicalscience,and the futility
impossibility
Nature and Logic. Between
metaphysiciansto find a relation between
;

they are

the two

there

in

is

us

no

and out

of

us

relation ; the former

is founded

on

the law

of

trast
con-

there is an
essential
change,the latter on identity
; hence
renders it impossibleto represent
them, which
oppositionbetween
itself
with mental
ideality.Indeed the mind
realityin accordance
that in realityan
is subject to the law
of opposition,
absolute
so
^The
effort
in the logicalorder is an
impossibility.
identityeven
therefore to reduce
and
mind
vitably
ineto scientific unity must
nature
into positive
result in transforming the critical antimonies
and thus in making error
a
necessity.The mind is neitlier
ones,
and

33

514

ITALIAN

equal

superiornor

to

that

; it is its child ; and

nature

it

PH1L080PITT.

co-ordinate

it is

only

in submission

its

its
thoughts,determine
knowledge, and find a basis for speculation.Phenomenalism, therein the ever-changrevealed
are
fore,with all the oppositionswhich
ing
of nature, is the object as well as
the limit of our
movement
such as the relations of qualityand
intelligence.The ideal relations,
to

nature

substance,of effect
which

relate to the

and

can

of

cause,

of

laws

supreme

which
oppositions

finite and
and

nature

in the

and
infinite,

all

thought,are

universe,and

in all

others

so

many

predominate
analyses;
conditions
of
and
the
our
they
inexplicable
know^ledge,
able
insuperlimits of all science.
An
impenetrable mystery envelopesthem,
and the mind
neither
it folHence
lows
can
explain nor reconcile them.
that no
absolute truth exists in the human
mind, and that philosophy
is only so far true as it does not overstep the limits of a phenomenal
the
of
which
is
and
cause
an
experience,
everlasting
movement,
its law a perpetualopposition.
Led
reconstruction
by tliese ideas,Ferrari attempts a philosophical
the
of
on
political
development of nations,founded
exclusively
rience
expeand induction.
He
establishes
therefore a general and uniform
prising
type of this development, and divides it into four periods,each comabout
thirtyyears. The first period is an epoch of jprejyaraour

the

are

tion, in which

ideas

new

manifested,

are

and

the

of

germs
This

future

is followed
depositedin the soul of the people.
their
in w^hicli those germs, having reached
by the period of exjplosion^
into political
maturity,burst forth in explicitideas,and are transformed
and

events

action.

the

phasisof

is made

return

and

law^s

reaction

to the ancient

doctrines

of

next

appears,

by wiiich

the

form

regime, and

revolution

are

new

of

temporary
civilization

momentarily suppressed.

In

this

the
finds itself in a kind of oscillation between
body politic
old and
the new,
seeking its equilibrium. Finally, the last j)eriod
ing
through a solution^and it ends with ingraftcom])letesthe movement
the new
of the people,and in the character of
ideas in the minds

phase

the

the

government.

Thus

in

France, Louis

XIY.

represents the

first

period,the revolution the second, the last years of Napoleon and the
kingdoms of Louis XYIIL, Charles X., and Louis Philippe the third,
of 1848, is interrupted by
while
the fourth begins in the revolution
is the
Ferrari
with its fall.
the second
empire, and recommences
G. D, Eomagdi G. B. Vico, 1837 ; Za Mentedi
author of La Mente
la Politique
1839 ; Idees sur
nasi,1835 ; De VErreur
; Vico e Vltalie,

ITALIAN

de Platon

d^Aristote

et

Vllistoire

Philoso;phiede

toire des Revolutions

He

naturalist.

Universityof
he

attempts

under

new

Kant,

he

18th

the

forms.

knowledge,

reality,which

trutli

in

itself.

real,but

the

ideal.

In

mind

is

from

borrows

of

idea
.

his

as

the

II

his

in

from

Feuerbach,

humanity

religion. In

and

basis

Review, La

the

is

priest,

rationalist

and

reach

only

doctrine

of

philosophersof
the limits

is

no

of

There

our

is

no

substance,

no

indefinite,and

Sentimento^ 1854,

makes
to

the

conditions.

this is

even

Franchi

rests

this the

originof all mental

his La
Peligione del
del Poj"olo, 1856, he

religionin

Razionalismo
Comte

and

other

objectof a
liagione^which he
and

of

are

; there

the

old Scholasticism

French

phenomena

Del

book

psychology on sensation,and
faculties.
Applying these ideas
19", 1853,

became
a

of

exponents

from

can

his

Secolo

himself

its exclusive

space

his

by F. Bonavino)

negative part

its

infinite

The

1851.

the

as

the

and

and

time

other

not

and

all

positiveideas

Nature

century.

Ilis-

sugli Scrittori

youth he

avowed

la

philosophy of historyin the

work, La Filosofiadelle Souole Italiane,
of the philosophiesof Rosmini, Gioberti,

In his

his

derives

In his

de

de V^Jtat ;

di Lezioni

j)luHieassumed

professorof

rejectsthem
Admitting

and

la liaison

; Corso

position,and

criticism

de

this School.

now

Pavia.

Mamiani,

and

is

de

iiom

this

renounced

soon

1852,

(a

les Limites

Princij^eet

Filosofiadella Pivoluzione^

of
representative

another

d'ltalie,1858

Franchi

Ausoiiio

le

sur

Ilistoire

Italiani, 1862-63

Politici

but

Essai

515

PHILOSOPHY.

the

the
positivists,
genuine rationalistic

established

in

1854,

and
important questionsof philosophy,religion,
ing
Socialism,yet maintainshowing a decided tendency towards
politics,
a proper
regard for the rightsof property and the institution of
he

the

discussed

family.

the most

He

Moderna,
1871.
his

is also the

author

of

1863, and

the

of Lezioni
work

Circulation

physiology,Salvator

de

la

the

Vie, 1866, and

professorin

Storia

Teorioa

Sulla

Jacques Moleschott, professor in

I^a

sidla

del

sofia
della Filo-

Giudizio^

University of Turin,

other

numerous

works

in
on

Universityof Naples,,
of the Naturalismo
author
Moderno, 1866, and other eminent
iologists
physthat all knowledge is essentially
and
scientists,contend
all questions relatingto the Aband that therefore
solute
relative and finite,
insoluble ; hence
and the Infinite are
they assert that the province
of
science.

philosophy

Tommasi,

must

be

confined

the

within

the

limits

of

natural

516

ITALIAN

To

School,

this

may

his

in

exclusive

sciences,

di

Saggi

the

bruschini,

Edmatore,

deW

of

other

Storia

which

is

delV

valuable

insists

Raftaele

by

Lam-

Istruzione,

works

La

1849,

education

on

on

philosophical

to

urged

view,

la,
Savonaro-

di

1868,

method

Educazione

and

La

of

point

Politica,

historical
of

DelV

of

author

author

Critica,

the

adoption

the

method,

the

Storia,
of

different

entirely

an

Yillari,

application

Guida

from

Pasquale

who

1858,
the

although

referred

be

rniLOSOPHT.

cf

his
.

in

Positiva

Filosofia

La

the

of

Gioventu
of

progress
illustrate

The

1868

1870

Lecito
nei

1871

B.

1871

Siciliani,
G.

A.

di

Seientifico,

LetUre

M.

La
Scienza

Panizza,
odErmanno

T.

G.

Filosofia

II

1871

Positivismo
L.

F.

Storia

Positiva

Vero

Uomo

1871.

il

il Positivismo

la

1869

Italia,
K.

1872.

V Astro

Vniverso,

ed

Pensiero

in

Positiva,

Filosofico,
Hdmholtz,

Filosofia,

del
V

la

Positiva,

Picerca

Filosofia

nella

Prima,

la

Filosofia

delta
Morale

il

Antropologia,

Coco-Zanghi,
La

dolo,

Fisiche,

dell^i
ossia

"

Secchi,

A.

Newton

and

Teoria

Dan

Italy:

Forze

Filosofia,

1870;

Pinnovamento

Sul

Saggio
1872

La

aspects,
in

1870

rotazione,

nella

Angiulli,

Barzellotti,

Lanciano,
divid'iw^

1871

Philosophy

the

to

different

Lnduzionedelle
di

Pedagogia,
devoted

paper

Pirroniane,

Pozzolini,

Rivohizione

delta

under

Positive

of

Martinozzoli,

A.

Materialisms,

ul

moderni,

tem^i

La

Bianco,

apjplicati

1870

weekly

writers,

universate

Legge

naturale,

Ecimmia,
P.

1864

Princijpii

Lstituzioni

atte

La

Barbera,

Filosofia

following

contemporary

VnitddetteForzeEisiche,

1868,

history

Lntroduzione

Bissolati,

June,

Florence,

education.

the

secondo

esaminata

V Ln-

518

ADDENDA.

Nioomachean

lar the

Staatslehre

Die

"

Francesco
the

Filelfo

the

at

des

instance

in addition

from

of

Thomas

Pius

(Pope

from

(the

and

JJe

his

scholastic

whose

translations

took

mind

him

regards

with

Georg

him

and

mends,
recom-

greatly

as

^neas

was

Voigt

Moer-

Uifiputati"num usu

barbarism,

he

works

like

of

In

made.
the

Of

14G4;

died

II.,

had

of

Cicero.

these

ture
conjec-

brought by

unintelligenttranslations, which

combats

text

Oncken's

to

manuscript

'

and

Aquinas,

17-34) he

VaiTO

79"

p.

Constantinople),into Latin, and

to Aristotle

particular

Piccolomini

(the latter,according

grossly literal,tasteless,

(ed. by Feuerlin, Nuremberg,

in

PoUtica

the

Arist.^Leips., 1870,

1429

in

place of the

becke,

Ethics and

has

rupted),
cor-

Sylvius

written, Berlin,

1856-G8)."

"

To
J. H.

110

:"

Be

Stuss,

Luthero

eclectico, Gotha, 1730 ; Luther'n

pMlosopho

PMlos.

Theophilos, Hannover,

von

1870.
On

Molanchthon

dietiste

"

To
Cf

111

M.

Articles

in

Toulan,

World,

; Abbe

Ettide

Additional

B.\y

references

Theologumena
B.'s

Lehre,

Leben

Franz

Vie

Vanini

Jacob

on

Galileo

Die

Schmeisser,

m".d

1871.
Jlediciti

Martyrs

4th

of Science,

; DuUin

d^.s

1869.

Galilee, Paris, 18(56 ; Emil

Parchappe,

Max

; Emil

[Sir D. Brewster,

Paris, 1870."

G.

de

cotidamne

Boehme

Rev.

Wohl-

Lont^.,

ed..

1865 ;

Oct.

Rev.

Tr.]
le 9 Fevrier

"l Toulouse

et execute

von

607-725

pp.

in

; Adolf

und

Irrthumer,

Baader

treats

following

1619

J.

B.

; Franz
Vol.

III.,

coitpabia

comme

Wittenberg,

1684;

Vorlesungen

iiber

357-436;

pp.

Vorl.

Erldut.

u.

philos. Weltanschaming

Die

iiebst

einem

Works,

ed.

Alchymisten,

die

u.

Baader,

von

Carriere,

; Moritz

XIII.

Calov, Anti-Bohnmis,

1685

Works,

Complete

Harless,

von

: Abr.

Nuremberg,

Baader's

ibid.. Vol.

by Hamberger,

ed.

the

are

Morgenrotlie,

der

Philosopheme,

tend

Reformationszelt,
GichteVs

Ji/.'s Fw-

Cardinal

Tubingen,

Dissert.), Berlin,

8, N. York, 1869, pp. 321-:339, 433-453

Vol.

Lucilio

sur

of

treat

(Inaug.

Der

Scharpff,

15. Jahrh.,

des

Berlin, 18^39

dargestellt

G., Berlin, 1870.

Castelnau,

Francisci, Gegenstrahl

ilber J.

Richter,

Strasburg, 1869.

dPatheisme,

Erasmus

; Arthur

seq.

F. A.

Philos.

u.

Benken,

und

others,
G.

des

Reich

Kirche,

Philos.

seiner

among

Catholic

1864

MoHdes,

in

1841.

Stifter, Treves,

dessert

Leben

sein
mit

Inquisittonsiyrocess

d. deux

und

Reformator

Paracelsus,

following authors,

Tiie

Cues

als

Zusammenfiang

im

will, Der

J.

Hospital
Cxisa

von

Lessing,

B.

1859.

Das

Nicolaus

Paracelsus

Philos., II. 2, Giitt.,1801, p. 478

d. n.

:--

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Bischof

Gesch.

Buhle,

see

philos. Unterricht, Leipsic, 1870.

den

um

der

iiber

Anhang

J. G.

Berlin, 1870.

of

St.

in the

Martm,

vol.

12th

of

Complete

his

by

Osten-Sacken,

von

Leipsic, 1860.
The

1868),
L.

Fiirster, "of

B.

also

Frederick).

On

Frederick

More,

18(58).

pp.

181-191

(on

More

pp.

(503-621,

the

F.

"

113

Pensees
;

J. H.

1-26

1870.

Works.

"

Grotius''

M.

on

letter

Am.

seq.

N.

1869, pp.

York.

Life

York).

Sir

on

Th,

(on Southey's

193-211

pp.

(New

Ilutben

1"39

by

essays

Vortr

gemeinverst.

M.,
Sir

(French
North

in

Sir

by

James

transl.,

Am.
N.

M.),

Th.

1-34, 268-299,

More,

of

political

Sammlung

London,

More,

Tliomas

to Ulric

Rev., 21,

Ch.

p. 633

Sir

(Berlin,

translation, by

1869.

Giambelli, Turin,

C.

by

Life of

Rev., 11, 1829,

Westm.

World, V.,

Catholic

Broere, Hugo

To

pp.

work

Walter,

with

minor

two

of the

series

Eberhard

Alfred

Rev.,

ed..

Rev., 30, 1859

Brit.
Univ.

Dubl.

5th

8, 1818,

1867,

Mag.,

Maclcintosh,

in Mackintosh's

2'r.]
RUckkehr

z.

katholischen

Glauben

(transl.from

the

Dutch

by

L.

Clarus;

ed.

by

Schulte), Treves, 1871.

X.

1870

in

Reformation),

Miscellaneous
C.

the
Jos.

with

together

third

in the

Macchiavelli,

[Translation of Erasmus'

; articles
and

W.

see

Anti-Macchiavelli,

Great's

Twesten,

by

(together

Griizmacher

W.

W.

annotated

and

translated

newly

been

(Berlin, 1870), by

Bibl.

the

Karl

Berlin, 1868, and

Thomas

Tours,

Hist.-pol.

Cf. further

Abhandl.,

u.

in the

has

Macchiavelli

of

Principe

and

; P.

de
V.

:"
Newton

Bacon's

et
Leben

Stapfer, Quails sapientice

[A. B. Finch,

Philosophers

Kepler,

Bacon,

Kirchmann,

On

the

Inductive

(aj\address),Lond., 1872;

Euler
und

antique

la

mr

MiiUer,

The

in

the

la

morale,

Parallel

Philos.

Fr.

between

of Bacon,

recueillies

Blbliothek,

Philos.

qualis interpres

laudator,

Philos., including
Max

relig. et

Schriften,

B.

Lord

par
Vol.

exstiterit
Bacon

in Chips from

1870,

(Thesis), Paris,
and

Tours,

Emery,
32, Berlin,

Germ.

A.

Comte

as

Workshop,

519

ADDENDA.

Liebig, Bacon

Vol. III. ; Baron

; Sir

257-267

and

Qu. Eev., 29,

Math.

"

Bacon

the

duty,

the

as

Justice, from

Chief

presented
all of

him

to

and

he

that

the

by

such

gifts was

reckoned

the

of the

hist,

Lettres

ined.

with

de

[A

1870.
of

himself

guilty

received

he

been

altogether true),

only

of them

into

The

fairlybe

; for

abuse
of

rule

(Addition

giving

reception

guilt may

prevalent

absolute

the

only

not

just

also

right, but

36, account

to p.

the

(on

Review

Zeuge

Gedanken,

Pascal,
;

(reprint

vsdll be

Wight,

Historical
article

A.M.,

New

Introductory

the

[Malebranche,
II., Lond.,

Monthly

1854,

Rel. Mag.,

Essay

of

Notes

Exam,
pp.

Pascal,

Vinet,

the

Letters,

of

his

1856."

all the

Opinioji

Blampignon

Tr.]

of

well

The

by

Rev.

North

and
Letters,'
translated

by

Commentators,
of God, by
on

John

Wilh.

literary
of

Oijuscules

New

L.

Notice.

Pascal,

Bl.

Booth]

York, 1861.

Locke,

M., Paris, 1861

of

W.

0.

by
"

works

of

new

lation
Trans-

Life of

Pascal

A
a

of Pa.scal

the

Edited

from

translated

Wight, A.M.

and

O.

by

W,
the

with

Tr.]

in liis Philos.

also,

by

ein

Schwartz,

Life, Writings,

Pascals

Bibliographical

Mary

and

Pascal,

F.

on

Pascal.

Preceded

entitled

Bl.
C.

of works

references

Blaise

McCrie.

Review,
a

Ecklin,

ed., 1856;

2d

[Various translations
Letters

and

Articles

Tr.]

further

Thomas

British

four

of rightly

"

Paris, 1848,

Provincial

Stras-

the

of Europe),

Literature

1862 ; Theophil

as

in

1850.

Edinburgh,

French,

Hallam's

Paris, 1870 ;
(Thesis),

Method

the

on

nach

1, Berlin, 1869,

IV.

published

was

Discourse

377-402"

Pascal,

as

Walker,

cogito

ed.). Tr.]

(Am.

pp.

Villemain),

from

Thoughts,

414-4.58.

Boston,

of the

The

from

1-30

pp.

sur

these,

Notes,

and
number

fr. the

(review

ed., Leips., 1865.

2d

of

transl.

Strasburg,

Etudes

Briefe,

account

1870.

69-89

Rev., Ill, 1870,

de

(translated

1860;

atid

an

A.

un/1

second

exception

Notices,

Am.

Introduction

York,

Sciences,

following publications

in the

Critical

[with

French

in the

of

Discoveries),

N.

An

English.

with
an

in

les pensees

sur

Fragmente

found

the

in

56, 1843, pp.

by

R.

Ernst,
:

Menschen,

im

Spinoza

et

; W.

sententia

medecin,

comme

Malebranche
Wm.

Paris, 1870

Monatsh.,

et

Millet, Descartes,

Cartesii

KDrper

und

Philos.

Louis,

St.

IV.,

Writi?igs of D.), 95, 1852,

Basel, 1870;

into

made

been

truth

in the

Desc,

dans

of Descartes,
Vol.

Geist

physiologiste

comme

passions

De

Knoodt,

von

Cartesius,

considere
des

Philos.,

Review,

Baijle,

Etudes

Verhdltniss

und

Meditations

seeking

and

Wahrheit,

der

The

\m.

Pierre

Lorriaux,

Pascals

and

North

Genius

[E. Sheldon,
Th.

of

of Specul.

Reason

in the

Descartes

la theorie

de

; P.

[into

translated

J.

"

humain,

Vesprit

de

general

philos. writings

the

been

Bibliothek, Berlin, 1870.

Philos.

Das

have

Animce)

Passiones

(Bohemia), 1869

Volkmer,

All of

Paris, 1868.

Bude,

de

a7id

le mouvement

dans

Desc.

Germain,

translation

in the

Skizze, Leipa
F.

E.

par

Philos.,

Buss, Montesquieu

crit.

Journal

the

conducting

E.

St.

Expos,

Carrau,

numbers

VoL

by

Essex,

that

individual
the

official

of

applicants for

doubted).

be

may
his

his

bill of indictment

the

to

expectation

the

that

time,

introd.

Princip.

role

Denken,

und

1-38 ; Bertrand

Ludovic

burg,

dune

(Dissert.),Breslau, 1845;

.mm,

have

truth

from

confessed

to have

appears

was

Earl

accepting gifts,as Lord

affirming, however,

of which

commentaries,

1637, sa 23hil.,son
Leben

sein

Cartesius, Breslau, 1869;

Ed.

April, 1621,

and

great and

negotiations with

Chancellor,

contemporaries of the accused."

precedees

accompanied

depuis

Descartes,

on

in

answer

this

It
the

against

Bacon

through

consideration

(Discotirs, Meditations,
and

German]

pp.

as

not

was

"114:"

Descartes

ergo

into

in

33:3-374,

pp.

politicalambition

exaggerated.

course

wholly removed,

not

of

character

Lord

led

Bacon's

1852, X..

Everett,

Philos.,

life.)

Descartes,

son

takes

conduct

average

To

of

the

in

common

; E.

his

and

Haven,

New

his written

(and

to be

(a statement

so

judgment

of Bacon's

himself

palliated,though

as

moral

decided

been

Bacon

into treasonable

Bacon's

in

Works

Miscell.

Bledsoe,

accusation

entered

points mentioned,

allowed

partisan judgment

bring

Lords

his

power

been

the

latter had

of

the
His

often

justified. In

be

House

had

cases

never

the

; but

parties to actions,and,

twenty-eight

the

giftsafter the

the

the

licenses, cannot

and

patents

of

Crown,

R.

Englander,

greater.

have

to

in

Tr.]

against Elizabeth.

Scotland

of

still

VIII., 1863, pp. 237-249

Magazine,

Locke,

mid

New

157-182."

were

B.

300-^337; A.

love for science

him

of the

of

in

; articles

charges against him

attorney

James

king

22-52

previous patron, after that

his

on

in

Genius

Ki, 1823, pp.

Rev.,

real

in Macmillaji's

Philosopher,

Philos.

1862, 71, pp.

York,

filled with

; still the

one

pure

The

Am.

ostentation

of

love

North

New

was

Natural

York, 1847, pp.

N.

Examiner,

Chr.

and

in

of Bacon,

Character

Mackintosh,

James

Aiinales

Works,
de

ed.

Phil.

by

St.

John,

Chrit., 1S69;

620

ADDENDA.

To
"

the second

this idea

by

note

proof of

The

"

in

us

but

Descartes

does

of

the world,

the

us

not

his

is of

existence,

and

which
object (jens)

idea

; for that

existence

identify idea

so

in the

found

be

can

with

has

or

adds, in the third edition, the following;

Prof. Ueberweg

existence

is identified

is thereby in

us,

p. 50

on

God's

of

God,

idea

the

undeniable

course

think

in

idea

oar

thought

obvious

and

being ; he understands

we

such, only when

as

of God, when

enough

by God, the

of

but

God,

creator

this idea

noc

itself."

"

To
The

most

is given
liche

115

Werke,

der

van

transl,

les

Spinoza's

and

complete

Ant.

by

d'aiyr^s

:"

by

travaux

relig. christianm, Amst.,

orighie

the

and

Cousin,

C.

the

Des

Pappo

Spin,

Jewish

denomination

and

cause

folds

of

and

conceives

animation

of

things,

soul

extension

God,

finds

from

that

is

only

not

the

denial

; the

Zofnat

of the
in

expressed

esteemed

such

as

thinking
Mor.

Entw.
M.
in

mil

Joel, Sp:s

tYieZeitschriftfur

Breslau, 1871

fassung
S.

; Heinr.

B.

v.

pp.
N.

1^2

Spinoza

on

(by

Y., 1863,

1872."

To

D.
pp.

P.

in

Sp.

in
in

Ramseur,

s.

M.D.,

ubrigen

L'ldee

de

Dieu

Attributen

z.

Vol.
B.

Volkelt,

69, 1855,
de

Gott,

u.

pp.

dargestellt

u.

Sp.

(Am.

Biogr.

Study),

Lehre

1871

1869;

cf.

ter,
Wal-

Auf-

d.

1871
1872

above,

p.

57).

Spinoza's,

Vol.

74,

Leips.,

TV.]

the note

beginning

near

the bottom

of page

66, Ueberweg

adds

that

(71).

York, 1869,

III., New

Syst.

Sp.

; R.

Examiner,

Christian
im

Berlin.

ZeU,

Medicine,

dieu7izdh-

der

).Nuremberg,

Dissert.

edit., Boston,

genet.

IV.-VI.,

Beriicksichtigung

d. neueren.

Individualismus

in

Paris, 1870

Gluckseligkeit,''''

dessen

und

Inaug.

of Psycholog.

und

Genesis

Zur

besond.

Naturforschung
237-252

Joel,

beiirtheilt,Neuwied,

m.

(Erlangen

Journal

Spinoza,

Pantheismus

M.

Descartes.)

desselben

bestehen

Worin

Bratushek,

any

extended

Spinozana,

Bohmer,

Menschen

dem

in d. Lehre

Trendelenburg
Philos.

E.

Ed.

extent

of

Spinosa,

dans

highly

was

slight

of

Tfactaten

in

tonic
Neo-Pla-

critic,who

psychology

dualistic

was

Cabala

Numerous

exiremely

an

variety

which
the

S.ninoza's identification

VII., 193-214;

'"'"von

to

den

u.

Fraysse,

Monatsh.,

Criticisms,

and

on

to the

Ethik

57, 1870, pp. 240-277;

und

Verhdltniss

Review,

Joh.

der

biblical

the

only
of

source

of

sources

of

is appropriate

working,

Cracow,' 1862-63.

probably

of that

germ

ever-

partial

denial

light, which

consequence,

Gnostic

and

Esra,

Ibn

by

the

ilb. d. Zweckbegriff

Erdmunn

Essays

that

Albert

Tractais,

ihren

zu

logically correct

quellen gepruft, Breslau, 1870;

kurzen

Ansicht

Fischer,

Westm.

313-337.

nach

? in Philos.

Substanz

der

[Matthew Arnold, Spinoza,

Articles

Sp.

also
have

the

Jehovah,

Neo-Platonic

but

the

contains

which

name

systematic,

Spinoza's opposition

Philos.

series. Vol.

new

bei

the

jiid. Geheimlehre,

der

to doubt

aiif seine

Kratz, Sp.

bei K.

derselben

Lowenhardt,

E.

Tractat

Philos.,

Verhdltniss

Ueberd.

the

resemblances

room

der

Ber'ticksicJitigung d.

besonderer

is

out

Sp.'s, Berlin, 1870 ; E.

Svbstanz

der

wiU

Gebirol,

Ibn

in

sought

Sp.'s System

Blogr.

e.

scarcely

is to be
v.

theol.-pol.

ligen Attribute
mii

B.

points

alone

of

infinite

of the

doctrine

universal

cabalistic

the

the

in which

to that
of the

doctrine

the

conflicting with

cabalistic

concentration,

first

also

by cabalists, as
indeed

in the

to which

human

Still,these
is

There

substance

Brasch,

darg.

only by

not

of

and

Beleuchtung

krit.

by Spinoza.

genetic significance.
and

of the
; Misses

und

of connection

effect

such,

as

Cabala

reproduced

were

the

One

freedom

the

Darst.

Paaneach,
ideas

the

enunciated

other
a-i

relation

to the

doctrine

; the

God

in the

by Spinoza,

analogous

manner

to

him
and

compared

is

"

859-367.

pp.

by

to Maimonides

God

to

in

related

as

attributes, while

of the

point

God

Paris, 1852.

1869,

by cabalists, as

universe

the

Victor

"

th.-pul.de Sp.,

found

was

unknown

conceived

is hence

already

been

of

et

Caiie-

Spinozism,

traile

crit. du

doctrine

Spinoza's

naturali

Prague, 1869.

Philos., VIII.,

ex.

Jena, 1674).

cultu

philos. cartesienne,

de
Examen

is considered

; God

relation

the

f.

for

De

with

together

denomination

[accidents]of

doctrine

through

in

and

itself,and

had

stones,

nevertheless

Infinite

contained

not

things,

garment

Spinoza's

Zeitschr.

support

pantheism

to

Fragments
Liebrich,

Infinite, En-Soph,

affections

or

of

even

of the

issues

to the
modes

immortality
in

of all

essence

the

the

in

of

vet-it.

architectus, Leeiiwarden,

relig. Fragen,

zu

Spinozisme

{De

examinatun,
Ethics,

Spinozinmi

Verhdltniss

the

of

and

departure

the

le

et

early opponents

vonBlyenburg

hcmen

and

Spinoza

on

Spinoza's Sdmmt-

the

Among

veritatis

verus

of works

Janet, Spinoza

1721), combated,

Wilhelm

"

in

Kabbala,

d.

as

( Cartesius

Goethe's

1868.

and

1871.

naturalUUiH),

theol.-pol.

S2oinozisme,

et die

of

Tract,

Regius

Vienna,

leading directly

garment

Spinoza

God

to the

Bayer,

; Paul

Paris, 1867.

{Oratio contr'a

detectus, Weimar,
Jos.

"

7c.

point

of

philosophers,

immanent

Sp.

the

Berlin, 1872

moTides,

{Tract, theol.-polit.ad

Joh.

cartesianisme

Misses,

Misses,

to

former.

Maimonides,

und

Strasb., 1869.~l8.

(According
cabalistic

du

rapports

Rubin,

of the

1680.

Spinoza's works

Bibliografle, s'Grravenhage,

of Jena

opposition

(Spi?iozismus
of the

source

Musiiua

in

deux

des

Rappolt,

1674), and

Cartesian, wrote,

V.

sianism, as

Revue

of

editions

Spinoza,

Schaarschmidt,

and
the

moralitati.% Rotterdam,

1713),

Sal.

in

the various

Benedictus

mentioned

be

may

of

account
in

Kirchmann

v.

recens,

doctrine

Lambert,

exact

Linde,

it does

not

521

ADDENDA.

the

upon

appear,

principlesof Spinoza, why

attributes

not,

are

well

as

in

modes,

as

substance.
first

the

Tp

of

substance,

to

personality

he

does

ideal, such

'

of the

theism

is

of

else

and

not
of

abuse

and

of

by

note

printed
which

entium,

Spinoza's

beings,

the

at

the

Ens,
shall

hypostatizing
being which

of

Spinoza,

its

be.

not

all

divine

being (any
at the

immutability,

and

and

the

idea

the

object of

the

become

and

; but
does

is not

not

ing
is,accordthis

is what

arrive

the

thoughts,
speak
and

reverence

really

by

really existing gods)

can

of

of my

changes

substance

e?is

essence,

active

most

it is

great

Neo-Platonists,

which

Ens,

an

of

the

Herder,

in all the

is in all

which

thought

real

the

of

in

says,

of their

urges

Spinoza

knowledge

God,

"

them)."

Herder

cause

abstraction

than

more

constitute

not

I am,

abstraction

this

his

that,

most

subjective

substan

(II.,251-256), that

is the

the

as

that

am

merely

existence,

bodies, do

""

they regard

Undoubtedly

by hypostatizing
real

from

rather

the

Hegelian dialectic,
were

tory
his-

in

(e.g.

different

ourselves

for

the

the

by

only formally

and

as

of

confusions

is shown
atheism

NacMasse

and

atheism

What

the

to

world,

chiefly in view

with

avow

and

explained

treated

words

of

Spinozistic use
be

dialectic

that

to

the

of this

phenomena

conceives

I shall

is in all concrete

of

conscious

says

all

which

Fichte's

momenta

Spinoza,

The

it may

and

about

of

order

historically.

Herdefs

form

we

abstractions, arrived

of

is in

which

in

eternal

the

as

doctrine

either

honesty

following paragraph

Aus

the

partly
Spinoza himself.

and

the

to himself

that

of

knowledge

he

be

reallyis ;

it nevertheless

of

as

whom

who

intention

the

Herder's

such

the

then

poetic invention,

the

in accordance

persons,

opponents

God,

that

enlarged by

eternally operative

of

manifestation
to

the

conception,

view

divine

and

in Diintzer

is

abstract

an

is

71

page

'TTpooTov rpevSosof

the

all

on

three

the

as

and

over

Trinity

personal being

of

Spinoza's times,

pitifulstrife

of the

doctrine

to

permissible,if the

pantheisticallyto something

misapplication of

such

after the

utterly heterogeneous

odious, although

exerted

singular assertion,

with

tiallyidentical

as

the

of

represents
be

to

and

duty

of

applied

goodness,

only

that

by penal laws,

from

arise

Spinozism

accompanied

God

as

of

intolerance

association

sentiment

and

notion

misleading and

is

of the

and

interpretation of the

letter

such

some

of

idea

'/jod '

exists

and

exist, it is

being
the

admit

protected dogmas

German

The

no

to

If there

wisdom,

power,

such

so

it

as

gests
sug-

Spinozistic definition

natural

all,to apply

at

God,

which

language,

term

anything

theological questions except

in view

custom

thought
of

if

But

the

more

perfection.

absolute

religiousterms

which

power

of

'

crime

moral

all to

much

of

use

to

religiousconsciousness

should

case

of

be

changed

be

to

with

treat

to

least

and

the

as

application

to the

repugnant

no

The

misleading

idea

in

; but

it would

were

atheism,

excused, partly
'

'

for it in science

substitute
or

exist

svibstance

justified.

doctrine

{ens)

"

is added

personal being, such

not

world,

is

existence, an

as

word

following
'

being

truth, freedom,

as

creator

the

the

personal being,

as

of the

meaning

'

concrete
God

but

67

p.

term

Either

him, exists,or
anything

on

the

of

idea

the
substance.

note

to

their

The
.

sion
exten-

itself,be

of intellectual

love."

To

"

Geo.

V.

die

Lockii
PMlos.

Benoit,

DavHtellung

inter

in

et

Kantii

in

B.'s

placita

Critical

Hist., Philos.,

der

and

Erkenntnisslehre,

Lockeschen

1869 ; Frietlr.

Herbst,

intercedat,

Momenten

interessantesten

scendentalintH,

Essays

:~

(Prize Essay), Berne,

derselhen
quae

116

Ensayn,

Locke

Rostock,

und

1869 ; T.

(Dissert.), Lemberg,
Boston,

1842,

TJieol.,Vol. II., Lond.,

pp.

verglichen

Kant,

Ziemba,

mit

Locke

Vaughan,

1849, pp. 59-120:

D.

Leibnits''schen

der

1809

; Max.
u.

[Francis Bowen,

1870.

1--32 ; II.

Stettin,

Locke

Stewart, on

Kissel,
Warke

s.

Locke
and

his

Locke's

Kritik

De

nach
and

ratione

fur

den
the

Tran-

Critics, in
Account

V.'s

of the

622

ADDENDA.

Sources
the
Am.

TTnowledffe, in

P/illon.

1859,

209-222

pp.

Works.

On

James

2jeitschr.

E.

Berkeleian

ThouyJU

On

articles

Thinker

in

Phtlon.), Am.

and

Oeniua

various
in

ibid.,

Sat.

Lord

of

the

Bacon

lir.

Jourruil

Mr.

and

Influence

Locke

on

on

in NortJi

liev., 12, 1849

of Education,

Rev., 23, 1867,

73-75

pp.

Locke,

6.

( jMcke

in M.'s

the

preceding,

Idealiamua

B.''8

Vol.

Berkeley

in

S.'s

hia

and

Works,

[T.

40, 1872,

No.

III.,

in

Philoa.,

ibid.,

; F.

Collyns Simon,

Sendschrelben

1870;

in

brief

Ueber

The

pp.

27, 28;

G.

aa

Miacel-

the

(Progr.),

Charles

George

P(ierce),

87-113; Dr.

1869,

in

Simon,

rejoinder,ibid,, 1871;

of

Esaaya, Boston, 1842,

pp.

particular

Loui.s.

B.'^a Idealiamua

Worka
S.

St.

an

(Progr.), ibid., 1871;

Green,

Crit.

U.'s

Frederichs,

H.

1855,

V., Edinb.,

Uebervvcg,

Kanta

u.

T.

of Specul. Philoa., III., 4,

375-;J76;

subject, ibid., 1871

same

Academy,

periodicals,by
Jounuil

pp.

to

answer

the

on

B.

of

Newton

On

F.

Chr.

Philoa.

R.

in

D.D.

in North

same,

264-309

pp.

Teape,

Berkeley,

the

on

McCosh,

in

Leben

und

19,

B., 1872;

; D.

Stewart,

Preab.

Qu.

Jan.

cf.

in Br.

1870

further,

Clarke

on

Ev.

TV.]

Imperial

Smith, Thilo,

Philoa.

zur

Rev., 1864."

of the

A.

on

u.

9, No.

Vol.

Religion

der

memoirs

and

Philoa.,

exacte

For.

and
the

(from

Leibnitz

Theorie, Leips., 1870.

Verhdltniaa

daa

Durdik,

; J.

achen

Zeitachr.f.

the

iiber

McCosh

Dr.

Lehre, Vienna,

249-336) ;

pp.

in

Krltik.

uebst

1845

Jena,

Galilei-Newton''

der

Moralisten,

engliachen

Sh({fteabury,

Freiburg

Clarke'a

S.

Mensch/ieit,

der

Principien

die

Die

Gesch.

der

Ueber

dea

WiaaenacMfl,

zur

Zimmermann,

Sciences, phil.-hist.class. Vol.

cited

Epochen

Thilo,

A.

Die

[G. Spicker,

R.

Die

Apelt,

1869 ; C. Neumann,

Shaftesbury:

Philos.

d.

E.

Halle,

ii, 1871.

Acad,

in the

of

article

above.

To

motion.

expression

the

it

using

expression

Anima,

ments

of

'

in

Aristotle

primary

does

teach

not

The

distinction

predecessors

The

namely,

what

belongs
'

sense

back

runs

by

things

(however

turally)
unna-

to Aristotle

qualities,which

in this

to

Locke

distinction

terms
Demo-

were

maintained, as against the coimter-argu-

be

must

"

Kant."

and

Berkeley, Hume,

the

erroneous

of

mode

adds

secondary sense,' and

to denote

distinction

that

as

he

86)

nothing

secondary

The

by things.

us

pp.

in
'

sense

in the

attributes

85 and

involve

'attributes

subjective ; Locke's

Descartes.

R. Zimmermann,
1869; C. H. Plath,
Stnatsmann

und

Lelbnitz^a
X.'s

Philoa.

2, 1858,

Vol.

Monthly,

L.

Saisset,

386-411

et

1856,

Edinburgh,
W.

Ch.

daprH

Hegel

Kluge,

H.

Weissenborn,

On

Moses

de
de
A.

;^56."

pp.

Chriatian

Menschenthum

York,

dea

1849

nouv.

Leibn.

doc),

C. Eraser,

Leibnitz

and
The

et

pp.

cf

Life

zwblf

von

Edinb.

; two

1-36 (by A. E. Kroeger),

Revue

dea

Vol.

Philoa.

and

327-367

pp.

series, 1866,

30, new

of Leibnitz,

in

F.'s

N.

in the

Brit.

Rev.,

Atlantic
articles),
Deux

pp.

(Ch. Aubertin,

deutach-

Gottea,

84, 1846,

Biran

of Maine

Patriot,

ala
meiat

Daaeln

daa

Vol.

Review,

Zeit, Hanover,

a.

Leibn.

anonymen

fur

Beweiae

n.

W.

G.

de

92, 1871,

Vol.

L.\s

French

Bosauet),

Wolff,

der

Arnold

Philosoph,
dea

E.

W.

La

Easaya

Mondes,

961-996

(by

philoa.
in

de

Vol.
Em.
L.

et

Philoaophy,

Bodek,

in

his

Breslau, 1831.
Tachirnhaua,

von

edition

18. ^cnd

19. Jahrh.,

Leips., 1869,

M.

Memlelsaohn,

Berl., 1871.

durch

in

Leibn.

Grote,

Pfleiderer,
Verf.

ala

Brennecke,

(transl. from

Revieio, 108, 1869,

R6musat,

Ludwig

TV.]
von

C. Hebler,

[Articleson

Lebenaheachreibting

Mendelssohn

Nat.-Litt.

N.

Am.

North

(by

contemporaine).

la science

9,

Review,

Edmund

Leibnitz

Ad.

ib.,1870;

V., 1870, pp. 42-63.

(Whig)

31, 1861, pp.

nachgewieaen,

1847

Vienna,

Berlin, 1869;

Leipsic, 1870 (69) ;

Bildungatritger,

Monatah.,

5. 1846, Am.

Monadologie,

Miaaionagedanken,

politischen Flugachriften

ieutsch.

in the

(above,

would

for

expression

is excited

; but

which

sense

of heat

doctrine

"117:"

To

F.

in

expression

what

merely

are

secondary qualities

attributes

the

III., 1)

secondary,
and

'

Locke's

to
"

shorter

as

to denote

critus

on

alludes

edition,

"

interpreted

in themselves, and

{De

third

note

be

can

by regarding
the

the

in

Ueberweg,

und

Philoa.

L.'s

on

Articles

7V.]

Neicton,

u.

120-137.

Rev., 50, 1829, pp. 1-31, N.

Ilaumer).

von

(Dissert.),Gottiiigen, 1871.

The

Ideaham

1873."

the

of Matter,

phdnomenale

Der

Philoaophy

the

On

Simon's

Rev., 1871." F. Bowen,

On

of Karl

Nature
the

Ulrici

and

(Fraser's edit.), in
Am.

Ed.

G-ernian

the

compare

the

on

H.

and

1870,

Phllos.),

(/:.'"Character

120-137, and

pp.

century/, ib., pp.

99, 1854

Mackintosh,

f. Philoa., 18U9;

Hoppe

Berhn,

from

doctrine

Doctrine

3o()-344; la

pp.

Hev.,

V., Edinb., 1855,

IHlh

the

Tr.]

"

Berkeley's

Berkeley's

WoHa,
in

Intellect.

{Hint, of

Ed.

(translated

Sir

Moralist).

laneoua

61-128

pp.

Sydenham),

and

Stewart's
France

in

prevulUng

Jiev., 29, 1829,

Locke

(on

of ITitman

Synt. of

Leasing- Studien, Berne, 1862 ; Philos.

and

of

M.'s

also

Eisenach,

Phadon

Adler,

and
Die

1866.

Jeruaalem,,

Veraohnung

Aufsdtze, Leips., 1869, p. 79

seq.

von

; L.

in

the

Bibl.

der

Gott, Religion

CrousI6, Leasing

523

ADDENDA.
^

goitt fmnoais

el, le

22d

the

161-186."

pp.

981-1024;

the

the

basis

common

with
of

humanity

of

beings,

who

doubts

much

"

little

as

from

who

he

in

The

truths'

'eternal

uninfluenced
of

by its
To

the

the

paragraph

founder

of

His

purpose,

as

but

also

G.

he himself

not

was

all

is the

cause

and

rest

the

ou

di Gian

Bdttista

MhUothecario

by

Battista

Antonio

the

to

of the
God

historical

has

the

desires

such,

either

members

unity,
To

but

freedom

the

paragraph

knowledge
and

with

made

being

s
(Pestalozzi'

W.

"

118

in the

Morley's

good
civil

"

of

whole

the

fecting
per-

earnestly,

learned

the

and

never

divine
of

source

Vico

so

standing,
under-

the

bility
possi-

all truth

in the

miist

philosophy

p. 120

is added

to

nature,

He
of

bats
com-

history,

life of single nations, and

[Claque

naziomile

1871,

seek

certain

Cf

del

article
.

Tr.]

"

"

The

constrain

to

does

inedlte
cura

per

Jerusalem

; the

spring

to

orazioiii

Naples, 1869.

justly attempt

seek

relation

as

nations.

or

His

hihUotheca

regarded

races

of nations.

Mendelssohn's

or

of

lives

race."

actions

be

may

in his

only

not

della

power,

not

on

its

wise

by

state,
citizens

provisions

religiouscommunion,
should

character,

exercise

not

constraint

prejudice civil equality;the

"

Joh.

spirit, the

development
and

what
at

as

were

Heinrich

of her

demands
of

has

been

as

its

over

ideal

true

is not

(1745-1827),

Pestalozzi

1869

pupil

at

as

progress

to

from

Tiibingen and

what

'

laws

Pestalozzi

him
was

activity,the
to

higher

the

to
'

was

which

uninterrupted

spontaneous

already acquired by

practically,

giving

principle

same

organic products.

that, by
the

His
the

to

of

purpose

form.

subject

following

consequences

published

philanthropic
natural

more

its nature

incitement

from

arrived

founds
as

the

guide
all

possible,

learner

be

results,these

previously established.

Stuttgard, 1819-20, and

ed,

by L.

Frederic,

Faris,

seq.)"
,

:"

[G. Dunoiresterre,
1870.

end

as

reality. Thus

in the

sentiments

should

is in

Seyffarth,Brandenburg,
To

of

arm

teaching

nature

perception,

works

is the

; it should, however,

which

noble

and

constant

to advance

results

and

human

on

in the

sees

system of popular schools, developed theoretically and

manner

universally

nature

ending

training

of

organism

points
standing
notwith-

of belief."

of the

of

methods

origin in

method.

of M.

ideas

sentiment

the

by

their

discorso preliminare.

un

of certain

existence

and

Lessing, Paris, 1872.

sur

HeidelhergerJahrhacher.,Dec,

from

religious differences

profound

and

and

(Zeller

Leibnitz, only

the

have

may

psychology

human

compel actions,cannot

to

directly or

the reformer
in

in the

sentiments

the

Con

fundamental

thought

those

produce

which

are

right
in

unanimity

of the

progress

Oalasso.

the

who

P.

unhistorical,

like

toward

mind

adds

manifested

spirit

gradual

"He

their

of

Lessing,

development

Etiule

of their

da un
codice Ms.
Vico, _29i^/;fo"caie

following

which
to

of

especially

tending

as

78-121

343-ya3.

pp.

of

; D.

Y., 1867,

N.

pp.

"enlighteners,"

Lessing-^he

as

Vico, Ueberweg

as

hostile

Reichlin-Meldegg,

von

The

to

idea

and

individual

of

divine

however, only distinguishes periods of development

not

18T0,

Spinozist.

73, 1868,

supernaturalism,'"

that

things

Leibnitz,

The

for

82,

Exam.,

Vol.

contemporary

latter,

Transactions

(to p. 113).

human

being

as

of

the

affirms, is to consider

to the

apologist

individual,

to

Christ.

Zeitschrift, XII.,

Spinozist.") Fontanes,

will

"

but

will.

the

mo?ides.

demonstrates

philosophy of history and

in relation

Cartesianism

of the

in

the

Weise, Stuttgard, 1864

der

deux

an

also

Philolog, in

als

Nathan

view

individuality

divine

truth

on

the

termed

divine

was

regards

have, according

the

rational

be

nature

who

immortality

the

by

things, while

he

doctrine,
he

of

right

be

cannot

Hist.

of the

and

but

of

plan,

the

des

superficiality of

orthodoxy;

to the

regard
he

Lessing

religion

aspects

defends

Spinoza, yet

that

of

universal

divine,

prove

the

Lessing
Z.'s

Eevue

Sybers

of

of

certain

in

Spinozism

agreed
history

criticism

judgment

in

in the

von

view

Lessing's

decided

Lessing's

"'to

attempt

of

exclusively polemical

Theolog,

als

Ueber

Fischer,

[F. Tiffany, Lessing,

Cherbuliez, Lessing,

Zeller, Lessing

futility of

the

shows
out

Dietsch,

; Kuno

Weise, Berlin, 1864.

der
Victor

TV.]

Ed.

1864

Philologers, Leips.,

Natimn

L:s

Strauss,

Paris, 1863

Allemaffne,

en

of

Ecunion

Voltaire

Voltaire, Lond.,

et

la

1872."

socirte

TV.]

fran^aise

au

XVIIIm^

si^cle ;

Voltaire

et

524

ADDENDA.

K. Schneider, Rousseau
ttnd Pestaloxzi,
der
Brombcrg, 1866 ; Alb. Christensen, Studien
Uber

Eiirjlxiss avf

hoh.

die

from

Lebeti,

the

avf deutschem
und
franz'os. Boden, 2 lectures,
RouHneau, Plensburg, 1869 ; Ferd. Werry, J. J. R.'s
Beuiachlands
(Progr,), Miihlhausen
the lluhr, 1869; Theod!
on
R.'s
Imp. Acad., Vienna, 1870; L. Moreau, J. J. R. et le si^cle philosophique
J. J.

Vogt,'

Schulen

Reports

Idealismus

of

the

'

Paris, 1870.
F.

ll6thor6, Condillac
with

On

"

den

119

cf. John

et le

den

rationalisme,
in the

senmtiofis,

in the

Morley

of Hume's

Fortiuyluiy

Paris, 1864

Philon.

Review,

; Ed.

Johnson,

Condillac

on

in

nection
con-

Blbl., Berlin, 1870.

XIII., 1870, pp.

16-40, 129-151.

philos. works, Lond., 1870.

Lars
Albert
Sjfiholm, Det Mstorisca
sammankanget
F.
Kriticism, Upsala, 1869; W.
Schultze, Hume
Kayit
und
uber
Caxisalbegriff (Inaug. Dissert.),Rostock, 1870.
Philos.
\Uben und
Hume's
David
dargestelU
Dr.
von
JiJdl (PrizeArticles
in Blackwoods
Essay), Halle, 1872.
on
Hume
Mag., Vol. 46, 1839 (on //.'" ^rf/MHume'ts

Skepticism

57, 1854
107-141

(by

John

To

Hunt)."

the

brief

(above,
says

Pres.

Engla7ider,l.,^evfI{"\en,l^'iZ
(on H., Voltait^e, and

J.

Walker,

(Cucheval-Clavigny,

Rev.

We

134),

from

perceptions,

but

inhere

material

-H., sa

vie

Philos.

Works),

ecrits). Am.

et ses

relative to Hume's

Dr.

Revue

Presb.

Rousseau),

Deux

des

Rev.,

of anything

perceptions

in

in

Mondes,

Chr.

miner,
Exa-

VI., 1856,

series,I., 1869, pp.

new

something

is

need

realitythey
immaterial

or

perceptions

we

have

regarded

as

substance

pp.

644-568

The

is

of

for the

question

be

of substance

following:

substance

necessary

cannot

the

knowledge

no

substrate.

no

in regard to the notion

edition

but

hence

doctrine

in his third

adds

Ueberweg

ideas

clear

('inhesion')

in

Hume's

on

Tr.]

no

different

quite

Inherence

D.

statement

p.

have

Kant's

och

Miracles),Ivew

against

ment

(by

Vempirisme

ou

of tlie lyaiie

:"

edition

New

Fr.

transl.

Condorcet,

To

mellan

his

"Hume

something
substance.

subsistence

whether

answered,

of

our

perceptions

because

it has

no

sense."
intelligible

"

To

120

:"

Substantial

contributions

the

to

works

cited

121

Blackwood's

in

with

die

in

Swedenborg,
to

To

any

Hume's

especially

to the

appreciation of

Schule, Berlin, 1870.

Cf.

also

the

J. H.

by

Kroeger,

Herrn

des

Jena, 1871.
Savants,

des

with

Metaphysic,

for English

J.

Tr.]

"

Critical

Readers,

H.

von

On

Kant

P.

New

been

edition

published

in the

is contained

Appendices,
London:

in

Vol.

Kant

Kant's
III.

"

V.

d. r.

modernen

Janet,
of

1872.

Longmans,

Kr.

des

Paul

April,

Bibliothek,

K.'s

translation

Days
article

accompanied

Philos.

von

cf. further

[An English

Mahaffy, A.M.,

Haven,

and

Bekampfung

Eine

Last

Essays;

New

Englander,
second

Swedenborg

and

299-313.

[The

Biograph.

Vertheidigung

utid

Kirchmann.

and

Notes

J.

by

have

Erkldrung

1870, pp.

May.

the

1805.

May,

in hin

Hartenstein's

Kirchmann,

von

in

Kant,

from

reprinted

and

Feb.

Quincey,

De

et

gomena
Prole-

of

Kant's

Tr.\

"122:"
8

Lectures
A.

G.

Vortrage,

Spaventa.

"Vern.

future

E.

Monatsschrift,

[Cf. C. Grapcngiesser,

Erkldrvngen

Journal

A.

Kant,

remarks

seq.

Philosophie.

der

in the

Writings, by

Kritik

1868

of

works

critical

and

Philosophy

Cousin?

Philos.

and

Kant,

romantische

p. 133 seq.

21, 1827,

Cycfopcedia ;

Am.

sogenaniiten

Realismus

Critical

New

Heimann,

: L.

Die

Haym,

iV. Berl.

in the

Vol.

Magazine,

principal

explanatory

wider

B.

in
The

Tr.]

Berlin

life,articles

Kant's

on

literature

and

1872."

since

philosophy

R.

by

:"

Cf. further

of Kant,

made

above, " 108.

"

To

of

history

Schelling, Schleiermacher, etc., are

on

Kanfs

Henderson,
Jena,

Lafilosofla

1869."
di

Philosophy,

Alfonso

Kant,

Leibnizianismen

Skepticism

och

Testa,

1863."

{Akad. Afhandl.),
Kanfs

Kriticism

French,

the

of the

C. Fortlage treats

Turin, I860."

(Inaug. Dissert.), Gottingen,

af

from

translated

1870.

London.

Vine.

Delia

Critica

Thomas

Lilla,

Upsala.

della

ragion

Davies,

On

Kant

Rosmini,

1869;

the

Sjiiholm, Det

(Ak.. Afh), Upsala,

1869.

with

Sketch

pura

Chief

of

philosophy

Kantian

di

Princ.

Turin,
historiska

Kant's
in

Kant,
in

1869.

Kant's

one

Life

Lugano,
Kritik

Klingberg,

sammanfMnget

and

of his

six

1841

d. r.
Kant's
7nellan

526

ADDENDA/

Eaaaya,

Critical

IS^iO,
61-101
pp.

222-233

of

the

in the

case

perception

the

colors, etc.

as

in the
the

through

of

-observation,

"Space,

Kant,

says

represent

such

belonging

to

perceived

of

prioi'icharacter
of

ground
of space

'

our

; that

(so perceive,

in

that

on

do

of

to

Kant

the

as

not

them,

equivalent of

non-spatial being,
Addition

to

note

on

only

in the

to

at the

of

as

or

of

be

not

we

these

to the

law

things have

of intuition."

adds

following

we

in

'

as

with
and

p.

170:

"The

of

be

these

But

us,

are

not

order

homogeneous

the

of

things

it to

things

in the

things

same

pendently
inde-

nor

hdng justifiedin

not

our

right

as

that

this

qualification

the

were

with

they

no

Kantian

trine
doc-

intuition

in

of

nature

the

implying
from

to Kant's

could

not

in space

not

of

of

three

sions
dimen-

nent
causalityimmaof

things-

to such

dimensions,

alternative

is left

which

characterizes

that

the

three

subject

three

time,

space,

doctrine
be

by

spatialityis

of gravitation from

law

according

; but

whole

form

objective

to

that

to assert

mere

the law

subject

which, however,
they

and

things

the

qualification

ascribing

before

the

admitting
the

ceived
per-

cannot

justified,on
'

purely subjective,i. e. resulting merely

"

all the
be

they

qualification

not

the

proof [of the

could

from

hence

not

it

is incorrectly assumed
qualification,'

is innate, not

of existence."

docs

qualification

no

even

are

things-in-themselves. But

form

the

"

justifiedin

are

of causality, etc. ; hence

an

kind

element

and

inabilityto say

or

"

really existing,
things-in-themselves,

time, subject

derived
in

mystical

represents

note,

priori.

'

affecting

and

indulge

things-in-themselves

senses,

relative

Space

Phenomena

yet

is to

qualifications can

that

time

same

the

it
,

perceive

perception

right to deny

the

perceiving subject

in-themselves
if

and

of
the

for nothing, since

for the

e.

in

prove

the possibilityof deducing

on

of space.

of space,

that

as

categories] rests

dimensions

law,

but

tion
idealiza-

reality), to

knowledge

they belong,

Ueberweg

and
poste7'io7'i

pri/)Tiis unsound.

of

relative

nor

intuition, we

absolute

an

certainty

deduction

remain, after abstracting

to which

most

of this

qualificationor attribute
of the

and

as

as

it is

as

nor
things-in-themselves,

other, i.

ascribing spatialityto thmgs-in-themselves, our

belongs

the

accounts

door

any

absolute

affection

hence

them,

the

would

things

perceive

the

through

namely

basis

indeed

the

axioms,

character), this

of

each

to

which

at

sensible

the

of

165, above, Ueberweg

p.

'

which,

far

so

ascribe

with

(which

opens

this," adds

would

space,

case

vibrations

so, in

To

which

in the

true

as

ethereal

more

truth

deduced

space

in ascribing
priori iijtuition,

themselvf^s),we
way,

the

But

"

on

neither

of

"

primi.'"

and

; for

existence

the

even

subjectiveconditions

attribute

no

relation

in their

perception

is

sense

space

themselves

things

before

on

represents

things

of

conditions

be

paragraph

second

the

of

or

(and

exact

assertory

some

this is at least

It is true
and

[the point, etc.], hypothetical

which

an

experience depends

struction
operations (perception, abstraction, con-

absolutely

to

"

"

freedom.

conception of

To

in

play, which

mythological

Kant's

have

only

can

1857,

Haven,

following

purely subjective).

(intuition) of

notion

our

Qu. Rev., 84,

New

XV.,

of tip.PhiloH., VI., 1872,

the

sounds

of space

are

that

assertions,relative

non-demonstrative
from

of

Journ.

adds

but

as

abstractions
the

of

assumption

'

air

mathematical

our

comparison

priori origin of
self

the

intuition

of ultimate

means

the

principles, and
a

of

vibrations

of

sura

in

which

on

experience),

sounds, colors, etc.,

that

exists

by

'

conditions

no

of the

For.
2.'5.'i-280,

Enfflander,

Kritik,

above, Ueberweg

demonstrable
which

has

(a corpse

Neio

C{/clop."Tr.]

p. 162

on

subjective, psychical

are

precede experience
of

Am.

Kant's

of

Interpret,

New

Appleton's

Rev., I., 180.3,pp.

Edinh.

49, 18;J9, 44-68,

Rev.,

Laurie,

S.

in

articles

Am.

ending

first note

there

that

in

Kant,

; art.

the

To

S.

Philos.);

83-65;

pp.

North

Ed.),

(Am.

K.

{The

1843,

Boston,

49-58

pp.

but

to

in

assume

the

space

627

ADDENDA.

Note

needed,

to

p.

for

the

very

shaping

time)

123

"

To

A.

Lehren

In

be

only
but

other

by

in the

the

that

sense

and

the

categories

Reason.,the
thought

and

be

removed

in

good

ethically correct
of

aspect

be demanded
the

' '

the
The

end

such

and

and

and

not

we

may

That

their

payment

parasite or
beggar

of
he

in

as

be

trampled

on.

as

rational

with

is the

what

"

who

The

it ;

that

duty

of

may
a

no

is added

for

worm

In

the

plea

only

the

ultra

justly

cannot

God's

an

cal
practi-

principle :

one

of

tions
contradic-

existence

is

"

founded
of

sublimity

Let

of

not

others

the

furnishing

moral

his

moral

full

and

difference

in

reduced

to
cannot

beggary

respecting one's neighbor, says

Kant,

on

security
be

not

degree

fawning

complain

duty

his

trample

dispense with,
with

himself

medigeval
on

insignificanceof

without

can

from

by Kant

the

the

law)

debts,

distinction

its

are

thing, except
of

of

forms

other

These

the

any

and
Pure

feeling of

be

Crlt.

the

in addition.

conscious

you

not

individual

by demanding

out

of

time, space,

the

as

postulate of

the

moral

which

same

you

makes

the

incur

favors

no

and

of

conception
to

tions
distinc-

law."

moral

being,

consciousness

resenting

; he

man

for

of

of absence

sense

argumentation

following (which

the

comparison

frugal,in order
a

of the

the

weU

absolutely impossible

following paragraph

accept

or
flatterer,

; be

is

the

especiallyin

knowledge

to transcend

it carried

Kant's

to

responsibilitypresupposes

in

conviction

which

only by phenomena,

only practical validity,if

has

of

of Freedom

produce effects,it is

phehoraena.

philosophy is characterized, in

himself

viewed

faith

Bender,

phenomena,

not

yet, according

of

; W.

Tr.]

external,and

totality,as

only forms

oppose

of

zu

terpret
in-

to

of Ethics,''''

546-571

Postulate

upon,

the

over

that

argumentation

requirements

rights, without

your

for

when

moral

supposed

intellectual

which

the

of

Oet-

von

intended

Metaphysics
pp.

can

acted

implies
are

principle

an

The

nature, notwithstanding the

worth,

the

noumenon

substantiality; and

that

The

Alex,

Essay

39-70."

world

the

imply

intuition,are

faith

123

yet

"

1864,

dijudicavit, Leips.,

ReligionHlehre Kant's

An

regulated by the

of

moral

to esteem

man

which

Turnkunst,

d.

non

the

of

freedom

not

Immortality

rigid conception

"

Kantian

morals, by
of

of

it does

; but

of

and

f.

nee

36, 1857,

to be

internal

determined

be

one

of Kant's

of the

unity, plurality,and

case,

of any

result

At

the

Jahrb.

Rowland,

Paris,

in

as

able

of

praxis,

J.

adds

consciousness

by the plea

ohUgatur.

nemo

for the

time, and

as

philos.

der

Groundicork
de

ego

be

not

supremacy

noumena.,

forms

if the

The

causality

the

urged

posse

to

categories

would
were

of

But

it should

Postulate

applicable

"

influence

thing-in-itselfan

of worth

The

is

1870;

"postulates," Ueberweg

may

N.
expos,

Verh.

Otto,

Eev.

in

Kloss'

Ztschr.f. Philos., vol. 61, Halle, 1872, pp.

the

of

praxis

relations

causation.

categories. But

1862.
K., (Thesis Parisiensis,)

1864;

Kant's

Kant,

de

noumena.

sense

in

sententiam

senserit

in

Questions

morale

perceive why

to

fllio divino

de

discrimine

influence.

causal

La

in

as

ego

freedom,

unity

Ethical

Kant's

on

the

impossible

as

space

ilber Leibesubungen,

Vft., (Progr.,) Nordhausen,

reinen

der

[E. Vacherot,

note

for

claims

appear

by the
well

of intuition

one.

Kant

pratique

recti

de

Beligionsbegriff,

elaboration
that

forms

two

be

to

seems

the

sensation, by

"

furnish

Philosoph

develo]} unsolved

K:s

in

given

PJlichtbegriff (address),Dorpat,

Kritik

1871.

London,
Veber

Kaiit's
der

and

can

Der

Mastier, Quid

Ueber

tingen,

special 'schematism'

its,further

it for

Kalich, Cantii, Schellingii, Fichtii

Karl

4870.

material

it would

needed,

must

"No

:"

Wassmansdorf,

C.
X., 4.

den.

and

can

reasons,

same

of the

prepares

is

schematism

"Schemata:"

on

(space and
if such

the

171,

is

afterwards
is involved

"

worthy
un-

if
in

5S8

ADDENDA.

the

ethical maxim
to his

means

for the

benefit

one's

as

its

of the
the

own

expressed

as

The

the

duty,
for

which
the

by

men

of

mere

springs

from

neglect of

masters

"

The
of

124

subject,Kant

introduces

soul the

pleasure

kno%ving

be

the

least

of

the

in

existence
so

from
But

in

to

"

the

of

alone
to

of the

{vitium) ;
the

Ethical
in such

and

latter,

discipline

morality,

ing
combatto become

joyful in

sensuous

it to

look

upon

the

awakes

yet he

without

province
to the

results

idea

of

the

and

mere

the

of

same

As

in theoretical

not

recognize

them

hand,

the

perception,and practicalinterest

ing
followthat

dravring,in
declares

color

intensifies by its

truth,

denies

and
the

phy,
practical philoso-

ascending gradation

dualisticallyfrom

between

"

metre, rhythm,

and
an

desire

conception of

possess.

from

and

perception of the

correct

other

the

the

widely
'faculty of

in the

Kant

which

so

ful
beauti-

agreeable,as

(e. g. of color

say

never

(p. 190) the

of the

only awakens

to

is very

Kant's

beautiful
or

rather

the

that

which

finds
But

out
art, with-

be

we

good,

in

regard

desiring to

right with

intellectual,but separates

from

the

charm,

he

does

as

strictlyspeaking

quiet satisfaction,

we

desire

desire.

and

same

metre.

aesthetics, Kant

it

"

of merely not

mere

could

himself, with

us

beautiful

the

until

feelings
between

the

though

even'

Mendelssohn

addition, which

attention,
rhyme

of

in

agreeable and

With

unessential
our

contemplated
It is not

distinguish
the

and

with

possession of

the

in nature

It appears

use.

to

that

is

satisfaction.

our

cognition

the

on
correctly distinguishes,

which

it is

beautiful

seq., cited

however,

soul, which

already

294

to include

to me,

189) :

p.

percipient
had

It is usual

and

of the

the

'

desire

possession, and

the

the

Mendelssohn

which

seems

beautiful.'

sensation, from

an

It

definition

(above,

its effect upon

our

rigid separation

art.

Kant's

original,on

by

satisfaction

in

not

put

between

The

the

be

poetry

in the

Kant

omission

omission

morally valiant

faculty of

latter.

the

far beyond

distinction

poetry, and
of

feelings.

is vice

claim.

danger

of the

pleasure and

between

attractiveness

rhyme

the

man,

; it consists

effect,to

contemplate

connecting link

is added

picture

We

and

extends

Kant's

sensuous

certain

Morgenstunden (Works, II.,p.

the

the

in the

pleases

from

under

to

painting) is impracticable in
in

but

the

in der ^stJietik^ p. 114)

enjoyment

disinterestedness

which

to

beautiful

of this

ourselves,to possess,

to

distinguishedfrom

note

M.'s

it be

desire

ourselves

to

take

to

the

beautiful,that

the

though
the

edition

in his

desire,with

of

from

in relation

On

by

have

being qualitativelydisinterested

as

says

desire.

from
motion

far removed

'

but

them

us

duty,

be

man

of

adopting

This

cannot

as

to

cases

of

feelings

respect

as

renders

in the 3d

characteristic

SteUung

particular mark

approval

therefore

desiring lies approving,

and

removed

have,

in

duty

immoral.

for

every

permits

more

away

has

{peccatmn)

injured ;

benevolence, which

obligation

fault

us,

of

and

asceticism

characterizes

displeasure

that it pleases, even

to

is

law

enables

cognitive faculty

and

far

Love

monastic

as

Mendelssohn

by Kannegiesser, Die
of

is

man

beautiful

in the

attention.

in the

by

added,

this definition,vs^hich

called

maxim

as

himself

freedom."

is

note

satisfaction

In

the

throw

is the

not

are

of him

use

another

:"

following

our

no

moral

which

and

aims

external

no

of love

the

of recovered

these

as

be

by making
that

loving one's neighbor

as

others.

to

another

demand

obligation to respect

secured

them,

over

as

can

former

the

far

conceived

duties
the

of

duty

good

propensities

consciousness

To

be

of what

is not

natural

should

one

others,in

must

of the

['gymnastic']

degrade

; for there

deprived

are

should
no

The

domg

commanded

omission

one

that

of

maxim,

no
or

former.

aims

consequence

morally

' '

that

ends,

own

'

each

disinterested

[desire]; the

other.
faction,'
satisformer

529

ADDENDA.

is connected

object itself

the

to

our

This basis is found

with.

life.

individual

Kant, consistently with

basis, which

in the

125

"

To

Schmidt,

among

others,

Am.

Adolf

Rede

Philos.

Q.'s

und

der

Mensckkeit,

edited,with

NationallU.

des

'

Vol.

I.

Articles

104-138

(by

in

1859

VI., Hartford,

the

independent

H.

of

German

the

For.

20, 1825,

A. Rev., Vol.

N.

(transl.from

annotations, by

and

23-25, Leipsic, 1869.

Quarterly

Karl

Rev.^

Raumer),

v.

Theol.

Theologian,

as

Cf.,

[De Quin-

Neuzeit, Berlin, 1870.

der

Hillebrand) ;

Karl

introduction

18. Jahr., Vols.

numanitdtsbestrebungen

die

Writers,

of Education,

236, July, 1872, pp.

Thos.

und

der
of

Portions

in

Jacobi's

Jacobi
and

Jacobi

126

[New
Fichte

and

Rev., Lond.,

edition

in the

The

Kiinst

Herder,"
edited

C.

Ifachlass,

ed.

H.

Ueber

in Vols.

Philos.
I. and

1869.

and

also

ed.

Diintzer

by

of Fichte's

Christian

Friedr.

1868

of Hamxinri's

V.

(Vol.

Works,

translated

July, 1866

C.

(by

W.

by
D.

London

Smith,

in

Mills),and

B.

p. 209

term

from

differs

in the

In regard to the

its like in

one

of

case

"ironical"

one

" 126, p. 212, Ueberweg adds,

faction,and that the exaltation,by

in the

goal of

the

progressing labor
sinks

all

"

To
Vol.

127

at

61, 1872,

pp.

der

Dr.

105-124.

H.

B.

Leben

between

Schriften\

und

Triibner, 1871.
National

Articlfea

Quarterly

on

Review,

(=
the

virtue

one
a

mark

mentioned

edition,that

of which

mark

it

),

and
the

the last

in
"

it makes

knows

no

of that

paragraph

positive satisr

which

of the constantly renewed

previr

was

the result

play,is not

or

part

is called

(=

(x )

ponding
corres-

is in

of difference."

other

object of sport

an

in

The

"A

follows:

as

) ; such

"

beginning:

of

getic,
ener-

negation, which,

abyss of the absolute."

the

Von

cited
Smith

des

den
in
in

by

the

gottlichen

Southern

Werke

Richter

A.

in

Schelling's philosophy,
Nichts,
Dingen,

" 134, pp. 294, 296.

8chelling''a nachgelassene

34

On

absoluten

ihre

nebst

Briefen

die

Feb., 1857,

Bedeutung

filr

Vol.

von

[Works

by

F. H.

and

Chr.

in

the

New

Theologie^in

III., 1821-1854, were-

Sch.''8 Lehre

Kapp

and

1846.
Am.

Alexis
Articles

Cyclopcedia

Deutscha

Zeitschr.

Oder

das

1803 ; also

Jacobi, Hamburg,

Theologie, Berhn,

die

Vol.

60, 1872, pp. 239-263, and

further, F. Kcippen,

compare,

drei

und

1803-1820, and

years

Ztschr.f. Philos.,

Leips., 1811.

Schelling

Qu. Review,
U7id

the

Briefen, covering

in

[Cf. articles

Tr.]

"

Philosophie

are

third

but
intellect,

Schilling's Leben,

Leipsic, 1870.

work,

Bchelling

Correspondence

:"

II. of Aus

Jacobi's

of the

in
particularity

published

Game

endeavor

earnest

mark

relation,in

procedure of genius,

of

ously

Auserle-

Tr,]

ground,

or

the

=:

every

"

the

his

II., pp. 248-322,and

Vol.

Nachla-ss,

the middle
of the page,
above, near
logical principle,"
etc., is amplified by Ueberweg
its opposite
Non-A, and conversely; every opposite

reason

in

Jacobi, Leips., 1846,

Max

in Zferrfer's

in

Leips., 1825-27;

Roth,

von

Biese,

Sch.''s vom

Zoppritz, Leips., 1869.

Rud.

Selected

Exami7ier,

sentence,

like

Works

his

Franz

Ansichten

der

(Progr.),Halle,
of

III.

Introduction), ed. by

Gildemeister, Gotha,

by

Beziehung

die

154-169.

1864, pp.

Monatsbl.,

Kantischen

zur

Jacobi,

und

Prot.

Sommer,

life in the

published byH.
by

Gelzer's

found

are

of his

Goethe

Albin

304-346.]

Theologie, 1864, pp.

deutsche

f.

:"

York, 1870."

New

zwischen

Jacobi's

"

To

and

Hamann,

in Aus

1869.
der

sketch

Jahrh.

salsidee,in

correspondence

(with

Briefioechsel

between

Schick

Bedeutung

geistigeu

Briefwechsel

sener

ScMller\s

(Progr.),Putbus,

Schiller

uber

etc., in

Wizenmann,

Ueber

Ueberweg,

Wesen

by

of

mode

terms

away

gestheticaUy

the

adequate

incorrectly

do

to

Tr.]

F.

the

only

Kant

(what

deutscheji

der

Herder

Kohut,

De

No.

[Auberlen,

and

but

independent,

Gesch.

der

Bibliothek

Journal

Rev.,

Philos.

zur

in the

in

Herder,

37,1846, Am.

also

perceived object,and

of the

of

objective

an

:"

Tcleen

Herder's
Julian

1872."

has

satisfaction

subjectivism, vainly seeks

narrow

essence

relations

to the

relation

no

')

beauty

N.

his

has

disinterested

But

essence

is not
anything
satisfying form
phenomenal expression of this

cey,

and

image of the objectalone,

the

with

Schmidt
on

on

Schelling

; A.

Planck,

fur

chriati^

'

'

530

ADDENDA.

1858

Wisaenachoft, VIII., March, 1857; also Erlangon,

Theol., 18G0.

ache

MythoUxjie

der

2, 1862;
Linde

Der

into

his Btogrnph,

H.

series,II., 1807,

new

quite

"

To

128

has

377-;J97.

Philos.,1856; Hamberger,
of Baader

To

has

the

education

lessons

into

method

'

and

definingthe

129

Berlin, 1845,

Kym,

in the

Journal

KanVs

Hist.

E.

in the

note

from

of any
the

as

Krit.

such

aims

to do

that

the

'

IV.

f.

German

Bevieio,

])hilo8ophy is

above.]

to

deutsche

in

Theol., 1860;

R.

the

T/ied.,

ZeitHchr.f.

Roscnkranz,

"F.

The

Froebel, who

principles

of instruction

system

the

on

of

ideas

of relations
not

A
'

's

pearl of

formalistic

welfare, by

gives

as

men,

the

Froebel

legal right and

among

of

part

Friedr,

between

mean

the

to

by object-

Schliephake,
6, 1870, pp. 487-509.

seeks

of the

Christ.

there

V.

d. r.

aus

also

Exam.,

the

to every

voluntary activity."

immoral)

thing

absolute

s.

latter

it may
no

with

without

notes, by

Bibl., Vol. 30, Berlin, 1870, together

tind

IlegeVache

die
ifi

Berlin,

314-368.

Fr.

articles

1870.

as

ihrer

in

with

Erinnernng

translations

Hegel

be

on

may

(by E. Saisset, Leibnitz

80, 1866 (by C, C, Everett, on

read

in

Hegel)

Rev.

et

Stirling'sSecret

by the

sense

of this

something

expression,

wholly foreign

itself be

while

regarded

'thing-in-itselfin

as

to it

distinction

; it is

condition

reason

and

from

the

thinking,

latter

of

"The

only

in

tradistinction
con-

tinguished
necessarily dis-

only independent
knowledge,
by

reason

as,

on

knowing

the

'Absolute,' yet

individual

aspect, because

being God's

(by E.

absolutely unknowable,

or

teleologicallyconditioned

from
the perceiving
in this
thing-in-itself

spirithas its reality,our

is

31, 1801

exist

it is not

of consciousness

genetically it

Hegel
Mondes,

deux

of H.)."Tr.'\

indeed

can

M.

Philos,

upon

following addition:

subject, although

individual

des

Vol,

and

30, 1860

in the

articles

and

the

1870.

culturgesch.

die

Hegel,

an

from

von

Begriffs-

die

Tubingen,
Ueber

Feuerlein,

[Further

fur

Bedeutung

Ed,

V., 5. Aug.,

Monatshefte,

Bezlehung,

Emil
Ziir

Harms,

Philos.

nat.

u.

Philos., Zurich, 1849.

der

in the

Loglk

philos., polit.

Werken,

Other

Gesch.

die

Phlloso}}hle,

merely existing outside

the

published separately,

was

Philos.

auf

JI.''schen

publ. separately.

thinking,

in distinction

away

works,

in the

Vol,

Kantian

the

is

his

239, 240, above, is enlarged

pp.

the

of

printed

KiJstlin,Hegel

Philos., 1872.

something

hand,

If

mind.

later

Erdmann,

on

which

Anwendung
der

Karl

VI.

Vol.

ihrer

in

particular cognitive act,

other

Baader

representation

Th.

Monatsh.

newly

Umbildung

145-161,

from

only

of

[a separate opuscule], ibid., 1870.

Beaussire),Vol.

on

in

been

Zeltschr., 1870, pp.

pp.

in
thing-in-itself,'

but

Cf.

arrangement

Gedanken

of Specul.

91, 1871 (by

The
'

the

imitative

by

cofifusion

Rosenlcranz

1869,

Monatsh., VII., 1871,

and

dor

Coleridge,

referred

application of Pestalozzi's

the

Krause.

an

has

nothw.

eine

Biedermann,

Scherer),

such

and

Schasler, Hegel, poptilllre

Vol,

works

disciplesTJeberweg adds

his

by

Philos.

On

deutsche

f.

Dialektik

HegeTs

Ueber

wissenschaft, Prague,

the

the

No,

van

Fortnightly

Schelling's

among

T.

student

in the

RellgionsphlloBoph, In Jahrh.

Jahrb.

in

philosophy of law,

contained

(Erliiuterungen) by

Hegel's,

as

S,

A.

:"

Encyclopadie,

G.

chriatl.

appropriate sphere of independent (but

Hegel's

1870.

from

in- the

as

JRosenkranz,

A, L.

of

account
from

by developing

and

materialistic

former

his

Hartmann,

Ueberweg's

1862,

Kant,

deut.

Philo8'\

Forschun/jen^

18(53,pp. 40-105.

contra,

per

upon

f.

Sch.^n

of Speculative Philos., St, Louis, Vo), 2, 1868.]

Journal

instruction

impulses

is Krause's

separation '

"

of

education,

Krauseanism

To

Coleridge,

liealencyclopddie."

and

children,

system

of

individual

On

Coleridge

and

supplemented

Baader,

und

Krause

on

als

in Herzog's

Hegel, in the

of

learner, received

in

Steffens

H.

Schelling

from

paragraph

earliest

Bed.

be

f. enfjl.deutHche

Kritiken,

u.

Hambert^er,

Revelation," Amsterdam,

that

It may

greatly distinguished himself

so

notes

Quincei/

obvious

II., 1802;

:"

[On Steffens, further:

Sick,
1871, pp. 023-(339; cf. Hamberger,
D^erence

of

Studien

Schelling.

on

Vol.

VierteljahrHHchr.

TJieol.

in

Sch.''iiPotenzenlehre, in the Jahrh.

Dorner,

Geclnnke,

Deutscfie

De

is

It

Der

Philosophy

compared

written,

scarcely satisfactory.

and

meagre

be

may

pp.

"

Schelling's

Stirling

the

-in

Qffenbarumj,

der

Dutch

Literaria,

J.

philosophy,

Philos.

Sch:s

translated

Offenbaruiig,

der

and

Eggel,

in

Neu-SchelUngianiHmus^

is

there

subject.

Hegel

it is in individuals
in

us,

which

can

531

ADDENDA.

conceived

illybe
_Qight

be

true

knowledge,

of

individual

any
for

ultimate

which

we

Kant's

the goal.

of

relation

the

himself

and

conceived

be

complete
only

that

not

be

they

with

which

with
'

transcendental

for

the

To

the

from

paragraph
241): "Yet

exposed

which

limits

ideally exhausted

the

:) "Nature,

results
in the

that

sense

ground

or

of

more

the

in the

not, however,

the

reason

Kant

by Hegel

to

; that

and

other

edge
knowl-

identity,

not

(totality)of (material
; in that

unknown

case, it

to us,
The

but

science

and

being.

Between

and

the

other

so-called
animal

is

one

seen

"

After

system

first truth

in the

issuing of

inner

of

from

the

lower

ture,
na-

be

which

which

it

by the other,

but

constitutes

the

water, and

from

(a theory adopted

natural

thinking

of

cannot

from

which

plants

is

philosophers),

of

men

nature

one

animals

numerous

idea, which

ular
partic-

degrees, of

and

organizations

of the

chronolo^-icallylater,"

of the

idea

causation

impotence

an

naturally produced

confidently by

more

is

particular in

as

is the

from

development

this

is most

viewed

(after " subjectivity,"

made

; the

; in

which

the

nebulous

his

(in distinction

of nature

is to be

from

The

be

thought

are

causation

sphere

that

follows

one

highly developed

hypothetically by
declared

the
sense

of nature.

of

identity

adequate conceptions]."

from

cognition by

of human

'

foreign influences

Hegel,

says

necessarily issues

one

in

[expressed

an

external

philosophy

to

for

critique of the reason,' furnishes

absolutely negative result, is rendered

'

of the

in the

and

longer

destroys

and
'

ether

theory, Hegel

of science

no

followingadditions

and

places

were

of air and

"

system

removes

scientificall

right mean."

the

accident

to external

sets

1. 19, p. 241

Nature

on

their

within) have
is

seek

must

'

system

of

form

objects

these

we

the

the

Hegelian

means

of

goal

to
and

knowled"-e

the

Hegel

science

agreement

between

and

no

of Goethe's

if the

exact

an

subsist

the

axiom

extremes

fact, even

than

more

under

Kant,
his

10, p.

in

of

of

explain

not

explanation.

an

way

things

(individual,subjective) knowledge.

our

impossible by Hegel through

1.

whUe

can

"

goal

of vibrations

adoption

things-in-themselves

identical

were

to the

respect

the

that

true

of knowledge,
with

word

of this

final

it does

investigations in the

reached, nothing

as

sense

the

external

rhythm

relation
his

such

spiritual)objects of knowledge

and
would

to undertake

sabjectiveforms,

false objectificationof

in the

him

the

indeed, by

possibilityof entering upon

the

between

trichotomic

perception,

of the

true

this

gradual approximation

anticipates

though

even

certainly not

of

way

But

Hegel's Phanomenologie by

from

; and

yet

the

objective reahty,

to

thin^.

it is

original chasm

doctrine

out

sound

impossible for

it

rendered

it sets

all

the

following

problems.

more

perception

of color

sensations

to

the

HegeFs

to think

; for although

this defect

in

reason

to follow"

perpetuates

resolves
no

the

obliged

consciousness

dialectic ; it knows

with

goal of knowledge,

are

doctrine

who

one

every

identical

as

of the

speculation

must

renounce."

To

130

"

:"

Schleiermaoher"'s
with

Sittenlehre^
Sigwart,
macher'sfilr
Domer.

and

Znrjyfiilos.
Gust.

Baur,

Quiibicker,

Monologe

Ueber
die

Plato''s

Bibl.

der

ScAl.
Ueber

als

Prediger

Repos.^ V,, VI.

267-327

d.

Zeit

von

und

der

in

the

Deutschlands

qf Study

Lond.,

1827

of Theology,

Bibl, Berlin.

in Vol.

pi^ychologm-fi^n

JaJvrh.

Erniedrigung

Erhehung.,

translated

by

Wilh.

reply. Ibid,, p. 499).

und
ein

58

Beitrag

(new

Farrar,

the

Philos.

Schleier-

znr

Trinity,

transl.

Bender,

series), 1870-71.

Leipsic, 1871.
Krlt.

by C. Thirlwall, Lond.,

and

his

Theologie., ed. by Liebner,

and

Schelling

transl,

18PS, and

1870.

Vorans-tetzrinffen,

f. deut^che

Grnndanitickt,

On

XXIV.,

f. Philoa., Vols. 57

Lu/ce,

on

Philoa.

(cf. Dorner's

Zeitschr.

erkenntnlssikenreiische

by Dodson,

Outlines

of the

Kirchmann,

8251-864

and
the

[Schleiermacher's Easa?/

transl.
;

in

VT.
v.

Okm^yeyislehre.,

Scfileiermacher''s, in

Schleiermachefs

Dialogues,

pp.

J. H.

by

Erlennt?ii.sslehre

seiner

others, Vol. II., 1857,

Gotteslehre

t'dtsphilos..,
Berlin, 1871.
to

criticisms

Bedeutnng

die,

Orundbegr\ffe

in Vol.

reproduced

are

and

commentary

by

R.

d. Identi-

182.5 ; Introd.
Moses

Edinb., 1850 ; ScJileiermacher

Stuart,
and

532

ADDENDA.

Wette, by George Ripley, !n Letters

De

Lond,, April, 1859;

liretKchneider

Gage,

in

S. as

Man,

by Rowan,

articles

Doctrine

18()2;

Redemption

la

Zinztndorf's,

in

lichen, Berlin,

1872;

p. 447

8,

Addition

that]

' '

moral

itself,and

curve

In the

131

Third

A.

edition

L.

of

[H. Frommann,
No.

Uebematiir-

Christ.

Vol.

Exam.,

ogy
Theol-

Ileubelt, S., his

in

Hours

Home,

at

1. 12

above,
which
be

may

says

to the

compared

for the

arranged

[S.

(in analytical
of

purpose

with

K.'s

Preface

Kirchmann

von

in

his

of

to his edition

S.'s

Von

Alfr.

Hartmann,

Arth.
in

ihren

1870.

].

Frauenstadt,

Schelling's
Neues

A.

Meyer,

Vortrdge,

ed.

S. als

Uegtl

von

iiber

und

Berl.,

ihn,
ten

mit

c("

vols., Leips., 1871,

Mensch

Virchow

by

Einh.

Differ enzpunk

Lexikon,

ia

Schopenhauer,
als

ihm
und

Schopenh.

J. B.

toiss.

Arth.
Ph.

pos.

von

Uebereinstimmungs-

1872;

Jena,

Vorlesungen,

Frauensttidt,Leips., 1869,

Wurzbach,

von

Sch"rpenh.aiier,

Schopenh.

ed. by J.

Farhen,

die

Denker

u.

und

(in the

Holtzc

von

ndorif.

TV.]
of

bottom

P.

be

the

far

as

is added

following

possible genetic, has

as

C.

(Fresenius' conception of space-forms

1868.

"

by Ueberweg:

The

enunciated

been

delenburg
System of Logic," 135), by Cartesians, by Herbart, by TrenFresenius, Die psycholog.Grundlagen der Jimnnwissenschaft,

(see my
also

259,

p.

proofs

mathematical

that

Wiesbaden,

as

merely psychological facts

is

questionable.)"

very

The

object (Non-Ego)
an

either

the process
those

in

ascribe

knowing

but

subject

it what

to

it may,

which

that

tbey

are

also

which

does

things-in-themselves.

not

the

subject, in

process

kind

was

not

subjective

misled

its

that
which

thing

in

with

is

becomes

such

of

course

of the

ideas,

our

as

similar

without

not

thing,
though

by reflection

it may

be

strated,
demon-

to attributes
a

knowing

objective, is knowledge

by the paralogism which

blinded

on

retain

thing-in-

the

with
"

an

subject

only subjectiveand

are

is not
the

can

aided

ratiocination

they

thing

apprehension

elements

what

; without

of abstraction

scientific

of knowledge,
the

The

thing.

"

directly by comparison

indirectly,by

confound

Kant

be

objectively valid, i. e.,

This

things themselves.

can

conceptions

indeed

not

"

by
its

p. 260

on

perceiving subject

it

; but

of cognition, separate from

elements, of

last note

simply subjective

are

objective,or

were

the

contra-position to

itself (which is impossible), but

but

to

object' (Non-Ego),

without

these elements

only

only
'

be

known

may

is made

following addition

it cannot

the

253

agrees

von

und

gemeinverstdndlicher

Saminlung

1872."

Sehen

Asher,

Dav.
A.

drei

Schop.,

; cf

be

(see

(Leips.),1870.

further,

(Progr.), Prague,

authors

many

derjenigen

"

formula.

das

Odessa

Cf.

1871.

Philos.

first note,

requirement
by

Die

A.

the

A.

La

Bonifas,

zu

vom

the

of S.,

highest good

section, Ueberweg

Ueber

Schop.,

Berlin, 1869.

of the

145), Beri.,
To

Ev.

Bihl.,Vol. 24, Berlin,1870, p. XIV).

6, Vienna,

No.

series

; Reminiscences

instrument

an

terminology

Arth.

et

Philos.

seventh

; J.

algebraic formula,

; the
to

to the

109-123

; F.

S.''s

und

in

Lesson,

Ethics, p.

the

curve

Wu^ider

vom

its

pp.

Theol.

d.

For.

Theol., Paris, 18(i3,

Berne, 1859.

to

power,

of the

Schopenhauer,

Renan

Chevalier,

KanVschen

of

moral

end

Phihs.

the

compared

course

or

211-228

pp.

Charakter,

Schleiermacher's

according

curve

Schopenhauer.

"und

1871.

the

S.''s Lehre
and

JJrit. and

L.

transl,

:"

deBalche,

Zeitgenossen,

may

Schleiermacher's

of

in
Sittenlehre,

"

be

at the

note

criticism

To

law

virtue,

the

constructing

rel.

of

Verhdltnlss

Centennial

in

Paris, April, 18C4

Chretienne,

Rev.,
W.

Letters,

and

in Bulletin

S.,

de

Plitt, Das

Lommatsch,

Rev., 21, 1869,

Qu.

account

the

Rev.

Life

Qu. liev.,reprinted

Life of S., ib., 72, 1862,

the

S. als

Immer,

; C.

Vrenh.

in JVat.

1863, pp. SJXMilT;

Andover,

; Schleiermacher''8

Dogmatlque

Or. L.

Schleiermacher

from

Methodist

A,

determines

geometry)

"

in

to

The

The

; Passages

seq.]

1872

Kritiken,

Osgood,

in

S.,

de

in

"l la

Vlntrod.

S., Paris, 1806;

liib. Sacra,

July, 1865i

transl.

S.,

on

de

in

transl.

Haven,

Monologues

dans

u.

S.

Influence,

and

Vol.

Stud.

171-191

pp.

Baur

; G.

Les

Hol'.ard,

; R.

de

86, 1869,

1859

Tissot, Analyse

D.

etc., Boston, 1840 ; Schlelermacker,

Norton,

Theology.,

New

Enylander,

vols,, Lond.,

Rev., London,
two

New

Andrexo

to
S.'h

on

of
ject,
sub-

of

hauer."
Schopen-

534

ADDENDA.

of them

question,no

one

furnishes

explanation

no

wholly,

at least

or

it

is

right, for

not

portion

it

remaining

whole

the

intensity (a)
r' (or the

and

a-vmb''

be

consist

should

which

sought only

would

of

in

the
to

relation

same

which

it
in

belongs

satisfies

the

or

b)

the

relation

for which

of

"

the

the

to

rhetoric

is

a,

assert

that
and

results

"A

beauty.

substance

(e. g., to the

the

as

form,

when

it is the

same

form
'

[the

['content

substance

beauty,

; the

of that

nature

should

of the

principle of the

truly satisfying only

to the

the

fore
there-

whence

existence

worth

of

case

...

between

beauty itself

of

conception

form

and

would

z)."

"

form,

displeases,according

or

Hence

belongs.

from

frame

to

action

mb,

to

to

thesis,
hypo-

hence

and

as

+ mb

for

unconscious).

(In

mb,

possessing independent

substance

not

assumes.

theory

hazardous

mechanical

arrested

(r), as

sophistic

aesthetic

An

Aristides).
a

force

portion

such,

as

the

accounted

theory, that

(substratum) indispensable

principle of the

adequate expression of

theory

remaining

relations

mere

to the

JSlius

the

to

the

the

Herbart's

being opposed by
to

and

be

the

adopt

one

concerning

fundamental

portion remaining

element

an

as

correspond

rhetoric

very

be

must

explaining psychical phenomena,

facts

follow, upon

would

consciousness,
(which

memory

only faintlyconscious,but

of

the

force,whil%

its whole

of

the

it would

of

are

purpose

to

from

out

principle,unless

we

the

alien

partial opposition [=m],

itself with

another

ideas, which

of

counter-action

phenomena

in memory

arbitrary hypotheses,

forced

wholly

the

of

part, by

of all ideas

that
But

in

be

can

']

form

and

']

or

content

jective,
of sub-

objective ground

aesthetic satisfaction."

"

To
On

134

:"
cf. C. A.

Braniss

[E,.Rothe,
Strumpell,
G.

Die

[G.

u.

pp.

4-18;

Grundxiltze
A

is

und

90-'.)3;

C.

J.

Fischer,

1872.

Vienna,

Reich, 1872,

Nos.

Berlin, 1872,
J. B.

Phil.

Unbewussten,

Hartmann,

4. History

"

6.

sources,

J. H.

of

1871.

article

an

Schiller

die prak-

und

on

A.

Von.Hartmann,

Weltschmerz

und

3 Bde,

Chretienne,

Philoa., VI., 1, St. Louis,

filr

Theologie,

schen

Chrlstentkum).

of

the

Eine

u.

Physiol,

and

Hartmann's

New

Philos.

des

Oder

pp.

gesunden
Jlart-

von

in

Jm

neueti

Unbewussten,
Bftrlin,

(anonymous),
Pessimism),

tem
Sys-

1872.

Eduard

Weiss, Anti-Materialismus,

; L,

Volkerrechts,

zur

T.y

Hegel-Hari-

des

des

und

Geo.
A.

von

43, London,

Descendenztheorie

u.

(on Schopenhauer's
Sept. Oct., 1872

des

Abhandlungen

philos.
der

Zukunft

" 134,

med.

Leiblichkeit,

Lawxenny,

No.

Philosophie

Kanfs

in

Princip

; H.

Ill,,

Stud.
entitled

of

Dr.

Schmerzensschrei

Ein

Unbewussten.

Gesammelte

Vol.

des

BesprecMing

1872

Berlin,

Academy,

Liicke

in der

kritische

eine

Theol.

end

(see above,

Znrechtweisung

Unbeioussten

vom

Tlie

same

unconscious

eine

in

periodical, 1871, 1,

aufd.

Principien,
in

die

in the

Gesch.,

der

Lasson's

Standpunkt

vom

Lehre

des

E. Pleischl,

of Spec.

Philos.

Ueberhebung,

Philos.

Philosophie

Journ.

Meuss,

doctrine

Unconscious,

the

Prof.

by

d. Ii:sche7i

Schopenhauer''
of

in

Lotze' schen

Anwetidung

ihrer

Zur

Hartmann

in Rev.

Intell.

Plath,

Munich,

Widerl.

Hartmann's

following biographical

"

L.

2"'.]

1861;

Wollens, Bremen,

Eberhardt,
der

Hartmann's

of

Bahnspn.

Weltelend

on

The

in

Unbeivusste

Secretan
ds.

Denkens

aus

5 ;

Max.

naturwissenschaftUche

J.

Von

4 and

Das

Meyer,

to

Leips., 1872

Menschenverstandes,
mann,

(in reply

Philosophii

by

Verwendbarkeit

refutation

Evolutionismus

of Philosophy

transl.

angeblichen

Cf. further

mamVschen

1872.

die

gegen

seiner

Berlin, 1872.

Ueber

modernen

Philofiophie

Stiebeling

Real,

520-534

pp.

des

1872."

jEsthetik, Leips., 1871.

experim.

aiid

Stiebeling's

to

reply

Note)

Zur

Fauth,

1872,

menschlichen

Unfreiheit des

und

1872,

Wittenberg,

Nachlass,

(an address), Berlin,

Gedanken

der

Breslan, 1849.

Braniss,

von

handschrlftl.

seitiem

cms

1863.

Ideal

the

on

Kritiken,

Die

Freiheit

Fechner,

Th.

gescMcJits-philos. Anschauung

Aphofismen

Aufeinandei'folge

Ideen, Emdenj

Lotze

Die

Kletke,

Stunden,

zeitUcfie
Ueber

Tepe,

tischen

1872,

Stille

Bonn,
Kritik

1872
aller

1872.-7/.]

references, supplementary

Philos.,

Confuciu.^

in North

und

seiner

Am.

Review,

Schiller

Leben

to Vol.
Vol.
:

I., may

29, 1829,
Leben

des

be
pp.

added

here

"

67-123.

Confucius,

first part,

from

Chines*

I"
7.

F.

B.

Cocker,

the

dependence

of

1870

Buchsenschiitz,

De

and

Science,

B.

2d

tana,

A.

R.

La

Labriola,
di

Acadejnia

dottrina

Napoll,

1870,

Upsala,

Lehre,

The

Westminster,
40.

"
2d

of

B.

R.

W.

368-386;

"

41.

S.

"

43.

The

Spirit

as

the
The

J.

C.

Die

45-50.
Of

the

XIV.,
his

his

of Plato's

Social

in

Bibl.

Sac,
pp.

Logic,

in

1872.

J.

S.

61.

"f

(2

at

Clementine

"

101.

Hereford,

72,

Lond.

Qu.
4th

Fundamental

A.'s

of

Lincoln,

272-286

Wayte,

Badham,
tion
exposiThe

{Hist,

of

Life

in

Thos.

January.

to

iJCbersetzt

Ain.

Education,
Goodwin),
of

Christianity,

fur

and

Gegenwart

die

J.

von

A.'8

Lond.,

Aristotle,

Aristotle,

erldutert

und

Works

Account

Brief

Philos.

Arist.

his

Christian,

D.R.

(by

Grote,

George

Socrates,
der

A.,
the

of

Journal

54-63

pp.

to

and

I., 1844,

Sac,

on

system

Reid,

1854.

Londoii,
reference

the

II., 1860,

Rev.,

Bedeutung

ethical

Ethics

Bibl.

Classical

Bohn's

1866,

45, Sept.,

A.'s

of

228-241

pp.

Aristotle's
the

of

Zeller,

257-279.

pp.

in

included

E.

1868,

1867,

in

Idea

222-227

VII.,

Aristotle,

639-674.

pp.

; Plato's

Revieic,

GiUies,

Vol.

Rev.,

die

175-190
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are

1-38.

pp.

28, 1869,

pp.

1860,

XII.,

Reviezo,

61, 1872,

I.),

Essays,

Crit.

and

Qu.

18, 1861,

John

(reviewed,

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Philadelphia,

Views,

Seele,

by

1871

York,

New

3feth.

1870,

Y.,

Relation

1865,

J.

Englander,

works

(with

der

von

(an

E.

Sacra,

BHt.

Theol.

UeMr

Bilcher

drei

Park,

and

Morals

Eucken,

N.

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117,

Plato

Contemporary

the

Am.

of

Works

the
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Philos.,

Quarterly,

N.

on

Edinburgh

ed.,

R.

the
Vol.

Rev.,

Phases

1872."

his

a?id
in

the

Charles

in

Nero

translated.

A.

E.
in

in

Aristotle's

of

by

and

Plato,

22,

in

"W.

Notes,

Laches,

223-227,

Zeitschr.fur

Bapt.

1-20,

pp.

A.

of

Archbishop

English

of

pp.

Bibliotheca

poorly

very

of

Rev.,

in

of A.,

Ethics,

den
Sokrat.

d.

and

series), DeQuincey

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Times,

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on

seq.,

Writings,

1871.

is

Philos.

in

in

Modern

London,

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Six

Lectures

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(2),

and

Bishop

New

Tertullian

York,

of

Hippo

contains

Clement

Dionysius
;

new

the

Philosophical

edited

by

the

works

A.

and

Apostolic

of

Alexandria,

translation,

edited

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of

Justin

Writings

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by

Institutions,
and
Marcus

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in

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and

Works

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Thcophilus,

Tatian,

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The

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and

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London,

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(2), Irenaeus,

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to

Library,

(4),
the

Recognitions,

Gregory

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Christian

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(2), Cyprian

York,

the

in

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The

Augustimcs,
New

on

802

p.

on

Edinburgh,

W.

publication

vols.),

ed.,

Darst.

e.

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76-86.

Origen
the

T.

1853,

3d

Mag.,

Animals,

Berlin,

Berlin,

""

Univ.

X.,

Blackie,

(an address),

"

vols.,

131-146,

Utilitarianism),

matin,

2d

Church

Education,

least

zugl.

from

zwischen

(Manning),

London

1871,

Life

Leben,

translations

of
at

premiata

Readers,

333-358.

English,

Supreme

Christianity,

volumes

Memoria

English

and

1867,

II.,

pp.

London,

{Essays,

^Ini.

on

Authenticity

1872,

Godman,

of

of

Early

Metaphysics

Collected

R.'s

Metropoli-

Verhllltniss

das

Edward

Analysis

an

series,

new

into

Bayne
Prof.

in

Plato,

Tlieories

Articles

of

History

of

the

Dublin

1864,

Encyclop.

Sokrates,

des

Euthydemus

The

Blackley,

Platon's

Views

and

number

these,

Philos.,

the

for

Ueber

Henry

SymjwsioJi,

Academy,

Conception

and

280-309.

39-84,

pp.
and

of

Aristotele.

ed

Lehre

die

with

revised,

translated

"

Quellenfllr

Personal,

Bonn,
Philott.

Roman

and

Socrates

of

Ribbing,

1870.

ibid.,

Philadelphia,

Men),

S.

und

Bevieio,

The

Plato.

of

Platonism

L.

in

upon

Philos.

translated,

Politics,

Plato

Plato's

Douglass,

Clarke,

""

on

Steinhart,

Influence
C.

Library.

in

write

Ethical

W.

VI.,

{Representative

J.

Dissertation),

Greek

1872.

text

Fortnightly

of

1871.

P/tae"ws,

Norgate;

Thompson,

others,

and

'A

Ch'eek

Quarterly,

H.

Emerson

Martineau,

dell4

critica

philosophia

hist,

Galeni

of
27

Vol.

Memoirs

The

London,

London,

Plato's

the

Dialogues

W.

by

History

Plato7ie

Senofonte,

Levien,

Daimonion,

The
of

and

Bapt.

The

Jowett,

others,

among

pp.

in

Myths,

De

Empiricus

Sext.

; constitutes

Pers'Onlichkeit

die

Sokrates'

in

Schaarsohmidt),

Platonic

liber

Editions

E.

etc.

of Sokrates,

WiUiams

others

secondo

1871.

Introd.,

Protagoras.

1871.

London

D.D.,

Ueber

Daemon

Platonis

ed., Lond.,

and

Socrate

di

lierichten

Plat.

zmd

and

Stor.

Rognisco,

P.

Diels,

1851.

(Dissert.), Berlin,

Whewell,

Naples,

with

Xenophon'8J/emora6j7/a,
Xenophont.

Herm.

Pseudo-Plutarch

on

Orphicis

Blakesley,

York,

1853.

ed., Lond.,

33.

"
dalle

hymnis

Florence,

1870;

New

1871;

Philosophu,

Hegel,

Pseudo-G-alenus

BrointieM,

by

sino

yreca

(showing

Greek

and

Christianity

Filosojia

delta

Cateyorie

535

ADDENDA.

of

Aurelius
and

II., Edinburgh

1871-72.
St.

Thomas

1871-73.

of

Aquin,

his

Life

and

Labors,

by

t/ig

Very

Rev.

Rogtr

Bede

Vaughan,

vols.,

INDEX

[Roman

and

priori

former,
Abbt,

161

J.

?i72

Absolute,

The,

seq.

; with

215,

of

217

seq.

with

The

Old,

II.

of

I.

Bath,

Colonna,
of

of

by

the

Aristotle's,
; the

170,

Kant's

279

; distribution

of

321;

division,"

the

10, 11.

II.

Skeptic,

Elia,

H.

I.

II.

C,

213,

10.

216.

Albertus

Magnus,

Albertus

de

Albinus,

I.

I.

Saxonia,

Karaites, I,

aesth.

doctrines

187

198;
ideas.
of

; 470.

37,

38.

the

457.

I.

I.

Exegcte,

of, adopted

the

by
422

421,

180, 183,

184.

from

Jews

doctrine

of

the

Thomas

I. 95,

younger,

Canterbury,

of

Laon,

372

I.

98.
; life

377-

doctrine,

and

386.

Anselm

teacher

of

William

of

Champeaux,

I. 376.
i

of

Anthropology
"

Lord

; views

415;
of

Kant,
I.

Ascalon,

relates

157,

133, 137,

to

what

in, 150.

Kant

176.

215

teacher

of

218.

Antipater

of

Tarsus,

Antipater

of

Tyre,

E.

37

cosmological,
of

Antiochus

I.

Abubacer,
II.

Bacon,

Antinomies,

Apelt,

465, 466.

Scotist,

the

of

I.
I.

Sophist,
the

Antisthenes,

436-440

I. 35-37.
I.

doctrine,

and

200.

II.

418,

60, 63-67.
doctrine.

448, 449.
the

P.,

ApoUinaris,

185,

II.

189.

190.

I. 79.

Cynic,

Life

of, I. 92

I.

185, 191.

Aurelius,

M.

Antoninus,

I.

255.

of

sect

and

age
age

Rhodes,

I.

Antiphon,

428.

I.

388, 401.

I.

194,

F.,

doctrine

Aquinas,

applied

doctrine,
to,

24

J.

of

216.

177-180;

first

name

contributions

Nettesheim,

ben

Alanus,

ancient,

on

Miletus,

Antonius,

Cicero,

Rudolph,

Agrippa,

; works

of

Andrew,

Anniceris

501-2.

of

Agrippa

doctrine, 215,

and

288.

117;

II.

"golden

Gioberti,
Agricola,

life

240

Schiller's

the

doctrine,

64;

I.

Miletus,

Andronicus

Persians,

13

I.

129;

264-65,

Herbart,

J.

Anselm

Longinus,

528-9:

319;

of,

of

founder

of

Angels,

89.

Baumgarten,

Ahron

452.

doctrines,

Plato's

451.

281, 2a3,

I.

I.

School,

2^38, 2^39.

I.

life,

Anaximander

347, 349.

histories

enriched

"eq.,

Anaxagoras,
184.

181,

451.

212, 213

I.

Athenian

the

David,

ben

Ancillon,

I.
I.

Gnostic,

yEsthetics,

of

431.

251.

242,

I.

388, 401, 402,

I.

Bene,

418.

I.

I.

2:^.

II.

Saccas,

Anan

,387, 397, 430.

I.

Gaza,

I.

358.

T., II. 308.

Ammonius,

457.

Romanus,

/Esohines,

411.

II.

of

Amelius,

137, 138.

I.

414.

405,

H.

F.

Aristotle,

433, 434.

412.

411,

405, 413,

I.

Amalrich

43.

I.

Lessines,

^Enesidemus,

by

133-137.

I.

New,

of

by

440.

II.

P.,

I. 405,

Altmeyer,
and

458.

; cited

13.

90.

Anaximenes

yEgidius

of

P.
I.

I.

Allihn,

II.

pupil
I.

Hales,

185

181, 184,

I.

5, 12,

II.

Great,

John,

Allen,

252, 253.

I.

of

Alkendi,

267.

^gidius

^ons.

86

13.

Aphrodisias,
I.

Alexander

Alfarabi.

457.^

II.

Jasper,

Adrastusof

II.

Locke,

man,

446;

Archibald,
the

Alexander,

British

other

Aphrodisias,

Alexander

Alexinus,

128.

181, 184.

I.

^gae,

416,

Ammonius

William,

^neas

of

213,

440.

II.

Adams,

yEdesius,

to

127.

Middle,
II.

Adams,

.(Egidius

Alexander

Algazel,

Pythagorean,

.^jldesia,

of

122,

II.

Jean,

Alexander

157,

410.

I.

Acliillini, Alexander,

W.,

Schelling.

405, 414, 415.

I.

the

II.

Kant,

and

peculiar

Mata,

Academies,

Eckhart,

God,

; with

Hamilton

of, Condillac,

Baschar

Abubacer,

212

427.

419.

faculty

explanation

from

(unconditioned),

418,

Abstraction,

Adelard

and

458.

II.

J.,

Alexander,

419,

I.

Toledo,

Fichte,

philosophers,

Adam,

; life

195, 197.

473-475;

469,

Acrio

374

Roscellinus,

on

distinguished

173

.355.

I.

Alden,

Averroes,

David

ben

Abu

Alcuin,

the

pages.]

numerals,

d'Alembert,

; cited

II.

H.,

Abraham

I.

of

; Arabic

38G-S97.

doctrine,
Abicht,

basis

119.

II.

Thomas,
I.

volume

knowledge,

and

psychological

seq.

indicate

202.

Fries,

Abelard,

judgments

posteriori

155-157,

II.

numerals

doctrine,

92-94.

203.

I. 295.
^

234.

Alcinous,

the

Alcmseon

of

2.36.

Eclectic

Crotona,

Apollodorus,
Platonist,
I.

43,

48.

I.

234,

I.

189.

Apollodorus

Ephillus,

ApoUodorus

the

I.

189.

Epicurean,

I. 201.

538

INDEX.

I. 190.

Apollonides,
of

Ajiollonius

Arnulph

Apostolic Fathers,

232, 233.

I.

Tyana,

The,

274-2^,

I.

transcendental

Apporception,

177-180

empirical,Kant,

and

II.

192
of

Arabian

234, 236.

I.

Madaura,

I. 405-417

philos.,

410, 419; science

and

; translations

of

133, 156.

of

Miletus,

Archelaus

the

Archytas
the

Arete,

Aretinus,

Aristotle,

64, 67.

I.

I. 95.

Leonardas,

II.

of,

Aristarcluis

of

Aristeas,

I.

227.

of

Athens,

of

Ap'ology of,
Life

Gyrene,

; doctrine

of,

the

of

Alexandria,

Aristo

of

Ceos,

Aristo

of

Chio^,

Aristo

of

Cos,

the
I.

of

Athenian

Aristo telianism
with

the

; after

436-440;

the

with

of

end

the

of

Thales,

34

37 ;

the

on

the
;

65, 68

Sophists, 73

80, 85
theory
151;

of

119

ideas,

logic, 151-157

life,137-1S9

177 ; aesthetics,

of

ideas, 157, 159.

180-184:

works,

works

3()7,390, 391, 419

Middle

ascribed

of

13th

the

Deity,

14th

and

the

17

disciples

I.

of Alexandria

Arius

Didymus,

Arnobius,

Anton,
I.

on

the

on

human

(=
I.

origin,

II.

103, 104 ;

Arius

234, 235.

II.

I. 34 ; nature

53.

320, 322, 323.

; their

Didymus

of the

basis, 157.

), I.

Ecphantus,

; the

hxtter

newed
re-

(monads)

of

Leibnitz,

; defined

by

Herbart,

Atwater,

89, 90

II.

of,

on

the

by

Descartes

attr.

of

; Kant

elements,
body

to

Spinoza,

05;

on

the

145.

and

spirit,

relation

to

66.

substance,
,

law
;

definition.

51, 52;

II. 459.

L.,

Saint,

Life

I. 335

of,

doctrine, 333, 334,

33(v346.
426.

II.

Austin, John,

I. 405.

Avempace.

Life

of,

414.
I. 415

doctrine, 406,

411, 412, II. 5, 12, 13, m^

I.

405, 411-413

d'Azeglio,

P.

Tapparelli,

II.

Cabalist,I.

the

; of.

Gebirol).

(see Ibn

Avicenna,
Azriel,

415-417

seq.

Avicebron

II.

Baboeuf,

437.
512.

417.

190.

Bahrdt,

230.

29 ; life

and

II.

33-38.

PtOger,

I.

457, 459.

Joseph,

ben

Bahnsen,

226, 229.

129.

Francis,

Bacon,

Bahja

II.

F. von,

Baader,

doctrine.

II. 155, 163

205, 206

14;

II.

Democri-

and
and

soul,

by Luther,

Leibnitz,

II.

Bacon,

its

of, Kant,

Arius

Arnauld,

held

Scholastics
seq.

the

and

of A.

by

429

; works

180, 183.

Proclns

judgments

415

the

405-

Arabians,
the

among

of

Heraclides

237.

ascribed

Attributes

fluenceAverroes,
in-

Italy, 480.

in

Arithmetic,

approved

391

Abelard,

the

centuries,

opinion

his

Scholastics,

Averroes,

intellect,

active

; doctrines

Aristoxenus,

of

72;

I.

philosophy,

Diderot, 128

of, 144

medium

139-

the

143-44.

60, 67-71.

by

Newton's

Attraction,

on

against

; of Kant,

18:

27 ; of

I. 190.

politics, Augustine,

philosophers

among

to, 425-26

446 ; depreciatory

16,

of

praise of, by

falsely

the

to

Syrian

and

II.

Bruno,

of, Leucippus

doctrine,

; of

seq.

Attains,

; natural

interpreters

master

402-405;'

Ages,

417 ; extreme

160

known

; the

Greek

upon

170, 177-180

I.

Greek,
doctrines

Atticus, I. 234,

the

of

works,

ethics, 169,172,177;

169, 170,
theory

The

92, 107

Socrates,

on

genesis

metaphj'sics, 157-163

163-169;

philosophy,

75 ;
the

on
.

his

69 ;

Atomists,

Plato,

Aristotle,
205, 207; of

273.

on

52

of

Sandon, I. 190.
I. 189, 190.

by Gassendi,

Anaximenes,

Xenophanes,

on

the

92

18 ;

others,

on

Protagoras,

on

on

Antisthenes,

on

36

51

Eleatics, 50,

Anaxa^oras,

of

doctrines

philos.

Anaximander,

on

of

Tarsus,

135 ; Epicurean

Thomas

47

Melanchthon,
Giordano

Greek

and

of

son

Greek

Scholastic

I.

Descartes, 52

tus, I. ()7,69 ; held

period, II. 5 seq., 463 seq. ; new,

Protestant, 16.
of
Aristotle, his conception
philosophy, I. 3-4 ; as
reporter

37 ; of

in

307, 310.

I.

of

Atomists,

429-432;

I.

24 ; of

others

philos., 24.

13;3, 135;
of

466;

411 ;

Alkendi,
and

Epicureans,

the

character

Atoms,

Scholastics,

Great,

440-451

184.

I. 87.

of

Saxony,

Athenodorus

I.

Peripatetic,

the

among

Albert

Aquinas,

the

Socrates,

on

167;

Athenodorus,
223, 224, 226.

psychology,

255-259.

school,

I.

18,

to mod.

Heraclides,

Bacon,

; of

II.

Pythagoreans,

the

of

Cusanus,

Ib5, 188.

I. 255

Thrasyllus,

of

Nicol.

Lord

183.

I.

English

226, 227.

11.

of transition

of

Athanasius,

Messene,

Aristophanes

of

184.

I.

2:j3,242,

74 ; principles of,

II.

subsequent

by Melanchthon,

period

Peripatetic, I. 180, 183.

Aristo
of Pella, I. 295.
"Aristobulus,doctrine
of,
Aristocles

95.

I.

younger,

Aristo

the

in

Albert

Aristippus

in

F.,

A.

.164, 166,

95-97.

on

G.

Astronomy
120, 127;

291.

95, 96

I.

of,

by Schellinj?,

seq.

the

I.

nature

by Kant,

255, 258.

Astrology, with

189.

I.

; defined

ideas, Spinoza,

132;

believed

Alexandria,

Aristides

Aristippus

Ast,

307, 310.

I.

Arianism,

386

11.

II.

; defined

352, 35 1-356,369.

I.

I.

of

Hume,

440.

II.

Schlegel,212

; the

181, 184.

I.

Association

517-18.

Johannes,

126

122,

theory, 170,

126

II.

I. 308.

Liberales,

Aspasius,

I. 43.

Cyrenaic,

Argytopulus,

of F.

Asclepiodotus,

Pythagorean,

Duke

Argyll,

of, Batteux,

; view

Artes
I.

Aristotelian

origin of, Dubos,

213. 219, 222, 22;^ ; Hegel's conception

of,
243 ; defined
by Schopenhauer, 256, 264.

429-431.

Arcesilas,

129;

theory,

; the

scholasticism, Artemon,

philosophy, and

364, 373.

I.

Laon,

mission

and

icy.

Apul";ius

of

Art, Platonic

I. 418, 426.

J., II. 308.

K.

F.,

II.

Bailey Samuel,
Bain, Alexander,

II.

120.
439.
II.

430, 431.

works

of, 36, 519

539

INDEX.

Ballauf,L., II. 308.

rbarus, Franciscus, II. 8,11.
rbarus, Hermolaus, II. 11.

Berigard, Claude Guillermet.de,II. 25.

Berkeley, Bishop, II. 80,88,383, 384 ; influence in
America, 450, 458.
Bernard
of Chartres, I. 387,397,398.
Bernard
of Clairvaux, I. 387,400.
Bernardus
de Trilia,I. 452.
Bessarion, II. 5, 9.
Besser, K. M., II. 293,

iesanes,I. 281. 289,290.

C. G., II. 195, 204.
krdili,
rlaam, Bernard, II. 8.
labas, I. 274.
Barrett, T. S., II. 441.
Bascom, John, II. 456.
Basil the Great, I. 327.
Basilidcs,the Epicurean, I. 201.
the Syrian Gnostic, I. 281,286,287.
Basilides^,

Biedermann, G., II. 293,

Biel,Gabriel,1.465, 467.
Biese,F., II. 293.
J. G. F., II. 293.
Billrotli,
Bio, the Cyrenaic, I. 95.
Biran, Maine
de, II. 340,341.
Blackie, J. S., II. 442.
Blasche, B. H., II. 226,227.
Bledsoe, A. T., II. 457.
Bobrik, E., II. 308.
Boccacio, Giovanni,II. 8.
Bodies, the only subjectof philosophy,
Hobbes, 11,
39 ; doctrine
of Descartes, 42, 51, 52 ; collections
of monads, Leibnitz, 92,107,108,
Bodin, Jean, II. 21,31.
Boeck'n,A., cited on Plato's philosophy,I. 103,104;

Basso, Sebastian, II. 25.

I. 457.
Bassolis,Johan.
de, the Scotist,
Batteux, C, II. 122, 126.
Bauer, Bruno, II. 292.
Bauer, Edgar, II. 292.
Baumeister, F. C, II. 117.
Baumgarten, A. G., II. 116-118.
Pauline
and
I.
Baur, P. C.,on Jewish
Christianity,
273 ; on Christian Gnosis, 314 ; works, 292 ; appreciated
by Zeller,293.
Baxter,Andrew, II. 372,373.
Baxter, Richard, II. 360.
11.307.'
of philos. doctrines,
I,
Bayle, Pierre, as historian
8 ; II. 15 ; skepticism of, 54.
Boehme, Jacob, II. 20, 29,41,
K. T., II. 293.
BayrhofEer,
Boethius, I. 255,259, 3r)2,.354.
of Sidon,I. 181, 184.
Boethus
Beale, L., II. 442.
Boethus
the Stoic,I. 188.
Beasley, F., II. 452.
Beattie,James, II. 135, 402,403.
Bold, Samuel, II. 368, 369.
Beautiful, The, Platoon, I. 119,120,129; Aristotle,Bolton, M. P. W., II. 440.
is according to
178 ; Plotinus, 250 ; is that which
Bonaventura, I. 433,435, 436.
definition
nature, Diderot, 128; Kant's
of, 188 Bonitz, H., cited on the Euthydemus
finition,114 ; cf. II. 308.
seq., 528 ; Schelling'sdefinition,219 ; Hegel's de242. 243

: defined
343 ;
by Jouffiroy,
Ueberweg, 534.
195, 203,204.

berti on, .501-2 :

Beck, J. S., II.

Becker, J. C, II. 308.
Beda
Venerabilis,I. 353, 355.

Gio-

of

Plato,I,

Bonnet, Charles, II. 123,127,128.

Boole, G., II. 439.

Bouchitt6,II.

231.

Bourdin, the Jesuit. II. 54.

Bouterwek, F., II. 197.
Being, one, and identical with thought" Parmenides, Bovillus,Carolus, II. 20, 26.
I. 54, 55 ; unity of, according to Zeno
of Elea, 58 ; Bowen, Francis, II. 454, 455,
according to Melissus,59 ; according to Euclid of I Boyd, J. R., II. 457.
Megara, 89 ; bestowed
by God (the Idea of the ; Boyle, Sir Robert, II. 370.
Good"), Plato, 122; ontologically inferior to the jBradwardine, Thomas, I. 451.
Good, Plotinus,245 ; various degrees of,Augustine, {Brahman
doctrine,I. 16.
342 ; and
I. 22non-being, ppecies of, Scotus
Erigena, Brandis,C. A., as historian of Greek i)hilos.,
361 ; confusion
28 ; philos.attitude,
of various
23 ; his division of the subject,
senses
of, by Anselm,
384 seq.; the widest concept ; modes
of being. Duns
II. 306.
titude
Scotus, 455; as predicate(?)of God, Eckhart, 473 ; Braniss, J., as historian of philos.,I. 11 ; philos. atKant, II. 147 ; Hegel's doctrine of. 232,
and works, II. 306,307.
necessary,
ed
238,239; must be assumed, Herbart, 273; discussBray, C, II. 441.
by Lotze, 313,320 ; in two forms, Lamennais,
Brodie, Sir B. C, II. 439.
transcendental
343; primal and
idea, Rosmini, Bromley, Thomas, II. 41,
'

'

491.

Brown, John, II. 383.

Brown, Thomas, II. 135, 408, 413.
II. 302 ; Browne, Peter, II. 89, 367. 368.
defined
Mill. 424 ; by A. Bain, 431.
by James
Brownson, O. A., II. 455.
of philosophy,I. 8; o"
J. J., as historian
Brucker,
Bellamy, Joseph, II. 449.
Greek
Beneke, F. E., life and
philos.,27.
philosophy,II. 281-292;his
works, 2S3-286 ; criticised by Ballauf, 308 ; pupils, Bruno, Giordano, II. 20, 26,28, 465, 469-70.
323.
Bryso (Dryso?), sdleged teacher of Pyrrho, I. 213.
Bentham,
Jeremy, revised
by Beneke, II. 285 ; Brzoska, H. G., II. 308.
works
and doctrine,426.
Biichner, L., II. 333 ; criticised by Mamiani, 508.
Berengarius of Tours, I. 370, 371.
Buffon, II. 130.
Berger, J. E. von, II. 226,228,229.
Buhle, J. G., as historian of philos.,I. 8 ; II. 197,

Bekker, Balthasar, II. 53.

its characteristics,
Belief,Scientific,
Ulrici.

540

INDEX.

G. B., II. 117.

Bttlfflnger,
K.

Burdach,
Buridan,

Burnet,

260

Scotist,I. 457.

the

Richard,

Bushnell,

H.,

S. Mill,

principal

10, 20, 24, 41 ; Spinoza,

; II.

seq.

Cebes,
130, 338, 339.

II.

Caesalpinus, Andreas,
with

reference

14, 20, 25, 26, 464.

II.

of

Leibnitz

Newton

Calderwood,

Ccrdo,

234, 237.

I.

Christianity,I. 319.
280, 284.
Gnostic, I. 280, 282, 283.

the

Chalmers,

II.

Thos.,

19.

Chalybaus, H. M.,

Campanella,

Thomas,

II.

20, 28, 29, 465, 470.

Champlin,

II. 386.

Channing,

Cardanus,
Carneades,

I.

133, 136, 189.

Carov6,

W., II. 293.

Carriere, M.,

II. 293.

Carus,

II.

K.

G.,

Cassianus,

Stoic

substitute

doctrines

doctrine

Kant,
have
this

of

327

by Plotinus, and

Erigena,

364;
view

; Lotze

seq.

Maine

Rosmini, 495

foundation,

Gilbertus

of

Occam,

301

the
; of

in

341 ;

Gioberti's

Irengeua

of

one

of,

its

the

elder,

Cato,

the

younger,

divine,

not

distinguished
in

the

sense

to

hauer,

seq.

axioms

Cicero

from

by Spinoza

of

of, 171
law

contradictions

of, 401

; of

tinguished
dis-

ScheUing

relation

of

other

Arnobius,

of

Nyssa,
of

to

Irenfeus,
Monarch-

of

322;

329-331

Auvergne,

469, 474, 481-483

Eckhart,

of
; of

433; of

Hegel, 235.

; of

254.

252,

185, 188, 192

seq.

8.

II.

Manuel,

I. 275.

The,

definition

philosophy,

of

20 ; cited

philosophy,

arguments

A.

on

I. 2 ;

as

Epicurus,
and

rian
histo205

; nature

of

the

applicable

;
and

forms

involved

in

63 ;

; Kant

double

'"

216,

self-causation,

Spinoza,

II.

217

II. 450.

Clarke, Samuel,

II.

"

Studies,
of

Classification

j Clauborg,

of, Schopenin, Herbart.

I.

against,

Clapp, Thomas,
Classical

notion,
a

II.

474 seq. ;

Romagnosi,

485.

71 ;

64 ; | Clement

II.

Mamertus,
I.
the
of

of, II. 5 seq.

by Cousin, II. 342.

Systems

Johann,

Claudianus

i Clcanthes,
! Clearchus

80, 91, 379-381.

Revival

185, 188,

53,
191

Peripatetic,

Alexandria,

54.

I. .352-.354.
seq.
I. 180.

I. 311-315.

doctrine,

II. 293.

von.

Civilization, origin of, Vico,

II. 41 ;

subsistence,

Leibnitz, 93, 109, 110

of, 147

184;

Glanvill,

world, Spinoza, 55,

in the

; law

Skeptic

221

I.
I.

the

317;

Gregory

92

285-289;

431 ; of William

Fathers,
on

ples
princi-

272.

Causation,

II.

Cieszkowski,

experienced,

monads,

man,

258;

; of

274-280

Gentile,

218-221.

not

explanation

Kant, 166

91,

Pauline,

of, Schleiermacher,

philos. position, 217 ; life,writings,

immanent

immanent,

Gnostics,

Origen,

Amalricans,

Chrysoloras,
losophy,
phi-

I. 190.

the

the

of

Chrysippus,

I. 189.

Causality,inferred,

of

Chrysanthius,

II. 512-13.

Cato,

on

299 ; present

founders,

II.

end

Sabellius, 307, 309-10

ScheHing,

early (or "old"), I. 272, 273;

The

and

and

to

264-271

Fathers,

; Jewish

Toland,

434 ; speculative, of

Church

Church,

John

meaning

relations

and

of, Bishop
Butler, 385
religions, Gioberti, 503.

; of

the

their

later

Apostolic

seq.

Lactantius, 324

burg,
; Trendelen-

moral,

the

269

Jewish

seq.

; defence

ians, 308:

on

463

historical

; its first character.

265

by
222

221,

Christology

341,

502-3.
Catholic

; among

Judaism,

251

doctrine

God,

to

314, 315

on,

Biran,

de

271-274

other

II. 157, 166-171

deduction
; Fichte's
of, 209;
objective validity, Schleiermacher, 244, 251 ;
denied
by Schopenhauer, 2.55,260 ; as treated

by Ulrici, .300

successive

Mosaism,

I. 353.

inapplicable

Aristotle,399

of

six

to

I. 403.

Persia,

of
its

relation

on,

361.

II.

William,

King

and

249, 250;

Plotinus.

399;
last

226, 228.

Stoic

and
of

280, 284, 285.

I.

logical, of Aristotle,I. 151, 154, 155;

of Aristotelian
for, 191, 193; criticism

The

Categories,

454.

6, 14, 15.

II.

philosophy, I. 261, 262

352, 354, S55.

I.

II.

B.,

Christianity,

Semi-Pelagian,

the

Cassiodorus,

Chosroes.

Gnostic,

the

298, 299, 305.

F., II. 293.

Chlebik,

457.

II.

Carpocrates,

20, 25.

II.

Ilieronymus,

F.

W.

Pierre,

Chillingworth,

Carleton, H.,

436.

II.

T., II. 458.

J.

Charron,

456.

II.

A.,

P.

II.

George,

I.

I. 190.

Joachim,

Campe, J. H., II. 120.

Capozza, P. II. 512.

I. 43.

I. 221.

Gnostic,

Chajremon,

Taurus,

made

of

Camerarius,

Campbell,

the

Chadboume,

Callipho, I. 18;^.
Calvisius

II.

by

Pythagorean,

Cerinthus,

419, 438.

II.

Henry,

De

Cudworth,

234, 2^37.

I.

Qelsus, opponent

II. 438.

Cairns, John,

by

by Spinoza, 71, 72 ;
Locke, 87; mechanical,
Leibnitz,93 ; final, Trendelenburg,

Celsns, Cornelius,

and

the, II. 98-100.

of

discovery

to

the

Celsus,

claims

Calculus, Disputed

chain

Aristotle's

327-329.

72, .520.
Cabanis,

157, 159,

infinite

; Pseudo-

vindicated

cause

monads,

among

I. 417

The,

I.

among,

auxiluiry, IWi;

omong,

of

Brown

stined
on, 418 ; de-

428, 429.

flntd.

41 ; distinction

Thos.

Hamilton

distinctions

and

426;

Causis,
definition

Cabala,

notion, 341

of

of, imi)ossible,Alfarabi, 412

Butler, Joseph, II. 91, 384-3

Butler, W. A., II. 440.

of
the
conception,
258Schopenhauer,

of

Wilharn

Aristotelian

162;

449, 455).

II.

J.

by

Sir

origin

doctrine

origin

410. 411

Causes,

Asa, II. 445, 447.

Burton,

VVi

; internal

on.

366.

II.

effect,68;

131,

II. 365.

Thomas,

Burthogge,

Hume,

I, 404-46(5.

John,

Burleigh, Walter,

and

cause

22G, 228.

II.

F.,

642

INDEX.

J.

Rio,

S.,

"

89

Megara,

II. 231, 238 ; Schleiermacher's

indirect,Euclid

357-359

England,

Dialectic, 251, 252.

Duration,

Dom.,
VVette, II. 203.

Diagoras,

I. 80.

Dialectic,

in

liberales, 355,
10th

356

the

203 ;

373 ; Anselm's

387, 388, 400

Kant

pure

of, .381

applied

to

Dicaearch,

I.

dialectic

181, 184

of, 187

Cronus,
of

of

for

"

by Hildebert, 371
nommalistically,"

; view

of the

St.

157, 172

Fichte

Diodotus,

seq.

the

Stoic,

I. 190

I.

of

343 ; in

II.

of

Cicero, 218.

Diogenes,

the
Babylonian, I. 185, 188-89.
of philosophy, I. 21,
Laertius, as historian

I. 37, 38.

18th

the

27.
of

Sinope,

the

Diogenes

of

Tarsus,

I. 201.

Epistle to,

Dionysius

the

Dionysius,

I.

Epicurean,

Dionysodorus,

Sophist,

Division, Logical,

with

Philip,

I.

92, 94.

J.

Platonic

I. 201.

Jonathan
for

Plan

Dominicus

Doubt,
217 ;

and

faith.

of

P.

seq.

Aristotle, I. 430.

Greek

Scotus,

Gkeptics,
454

I.

E.,

4.39.

II.

M.
A., II. 308.
Dressier, J. G., II. .323.

Drbal,

Drobisch,
Drossbach,

M.

W.,

M.,

II.

II.

.309,

334.

214-

universal,

of philos. skepticism, II. 32

; with
41, 46.

principle

; their

to

philosophy,

of

60, 61, 63

I.

Empedocles,

Plato, 123, 126

of

of

Epicurus,

Pseudo-Empedocles,

425 ; of

(atomic)

of

totle,
Aris-

; of

205-207;
Kant,

II.

cartes,
Des-

II.

N.,

defined

of, 200

forms

doctrine
and

and

classified

by

life,I. 61

ascribed

to, 425 ; modem

by

of

Kant,

Thos.

the

Spinoza,

178-180;
II.

76, 77 ;

412, 413.

60-6^1 ; work

falsely

disciple. II. 25.

32

154;

leading
consequences

Italy, 481-5.

Encyclopsediii,

L,

Descartes,

Brown,

doctrine,

defined, II.

defined

tragedy,

primitive,

definitions

Empcdocles,

Empiricism,

416 ; in

445, 447. 449.

purification of, by

principal

in

Averroes,

Emmons,

33:

Gnostic

with
Alfarabi, 412 ; with
Cabala, 417, 418, 422, 423.

288

53

258

of, I. 240, 241,

doctrine, 281, 286-

doctrine

Neo-Platonic

247, 248, 252, 254,

Emotions,

Duns

relation

in

doctrine

Heraclitus, 40

of

63-65 ;

of

Emanation,
; the

the

translator

the

294.

29-31 ; their

I.

145.

154, 159.

justifiedby

I. 17.

II.

164, 167;

T., II. 441.

as

trine
; doc-

II. 23.

Cusauus,

(son), II. 449.

conquest of, Leibnitz, II. 98.

material,

doctrine

382.

Gundisalvi,

Doubleday,

242, 250, 251

theory of, I. 129, 132.

the

philosophy

I. 79.

Henry, II. 372.

Dogmatism,
defined, II. .32 ; its CoryphEei, 33
Cartesian, 41 seq. ; of Leibnitz and others, 92
by Kant,

I.

; of Nic.

.366.

doctrines.

Egyptian

seq.

(father). II. 442-448.

Jonathan

Edwards,

Anaxagoras.

Dodwell,

defined

477

II.

John,

Elements,

Plato, I. 121.

II.

340-

49-60.

347, 349-352.

I.

337,

France,

123.

I.

doctrine,

C,

Edwards,

the

losophers
phi-

II. 118.

Edelmann,

Eleatics, The,

274, 279. 280.

Areopagite,

the

Doddridge,

Cynic,

217-222

isolated

116, 117, 119;

II.

; in

of, Plato,

Eckhart,

Eiselen, J. F. G.,

Diogenes

; with

century,
seq.

184 ; among

I.

schoul,

I. 43.

Education,

Egypt,

of

Italy, 482.

Ecphantus,

180,183.

Peripatetics,

doctrine

as

Ecliptic, inclination

in

of

Dove,

the
;

Schelling, 213, 222

Edwards,

teacher

doctrine, 468, 469, 471-

Platonists, 234-238

the

with

; Abe-

; germ

life,I. 471

among

of

Peripatetic,I. 184.

Diognetus,

ception
con-

I. 43.

Pythagorean,

Stoics, 189

the
among

Diogenes
Diogenes

of,

; Schleiermacher'a

118, 119, 195.

II.

Ecstasy, Neo-Platonic

the

Apollonia,

notion

481.

Hegel, 168.

and

the

"Victors,

390, 432

by Melanchthon,

Peripatetic,

the

how

and

the

on

449.

II.

Master,

Eclecticism

its

I. 90.

Tyre,

what

91 ; Kant

II. .^,07.

Echecrates,
Eckhart,

artes

septem

ISO, 18:^,446.

Diodorus

Diodotus,

; varieties

Timothy,

Diderot, Denis, II. 122, 128.

Diodorus

198-200

I.

II.

Eberty, P.,

364 ; pursued

theology,

Kant,

reason.

of the

of,

Eberstein, II, 195.

allowed
dis-

of,

.369 ; demand

.391 (cf. 396) ; defined

on,

18 ; of

view
;

the

Erigena,

centuries,

"realistically," and

taught

"^ISl^d

of

one

.370 ; distrusted

subordination,

method

with
totle,
Aris-

115-123:

Platonic,

; Scotus

11th

and

School, I. 89-91 ;

Stoic, 191, 192;

by Epicurus,
in

notions

of, 245.

Megarian

the

73.

II.

I. 254.

92, 93;

Antisthenes,
156;

by Spinoza,

Eberhard, J. A.,

the

Pour";ain, I. 451 ; doctrine,

determined, Paley.

Dwight,

Neo-Platonist,

Dexippus,

seq.

St.

458.

II.

Stoic

Duty,

of

defined

Durfee, Job,

II. 129.

Deschamps,
De

William,

460-462.

Hegers

Italy, 479

: in

II. 2;31.

Durand,

Dercyllides,I. 234, 235.

tude
Descartes, Ren6, Life of, II. 44 ; philosophical attiof, 44, 45 ; doctrine, 41, 42, 46-53 ; his philos.
in

the

Scotus, Johannes, I. 452-467.

Duprat,

method,

216

impossible,

Duns

Elea, I. 57,

of

Zeno

Melissus, 59, 60

58 ; direct, with
of

with

Indirect,

290;

Mani,

Nyssa, 327, 330, and

Diihring. E., II. 335.

Socrates, I. 80, 86.

of

The,

Demon,"

of

of

by (Gregory

soul, 175.

and

dlsciplca, II. 25.

; modern

Demonstration,

of, I. 68

Life

Atomist,

the

Abdera.

doctrine, 67-71

Zoroastfir,I. 17;

combated

Augustine, 334, 335, 343; of Descai-tes, II. 42, 5154 ; of Kant, 136, 164
d. of
on
bodi^
seq. ; Kant

I. 201.

Epicurean,

of

Democritus

of

latter

2^31.

II.

the

Demetrius,

Dualism

294.

II.

U.,

Dellinghauscn,
Del

Offroy, II. 123,126,127.

Mettrie, JuHen

la

De

French,

II.

128.

exponents

of,

of, 159;

543

INDEX.

of human

Engel, J. J., II. 120.

English

"

Cyrenaic,

I. 212

philos., 204

of

Euclid

203-

doctrine,

I. 285.

Erasmus,

D.,

Erdmann,

J.

II.

11.

E.,

II.

Drobisch

on

294;

cited

others, 309

and

TJlrici,299305:

on

; cited

Eric

of

2-39,240.
I. 367, 368.

Auxerre,
John

Scotus,

with

reference

to

theol.,350, 357, 360

and

reading

the

his

of

writings

Eudoxus

of

Cnidus,

318;

of

; of

; of

306

325;

of

; of

of

344, 346

; of

von,

of

of

Saint

sius, 351

481

II.

Spinoza"

existence.

things

does

(64), 72

involve

not

The,

Hegel's

; the

imenes'

of

65,

Hanifs,

; works

mathematical

"

85

Socrates,

208-212

428

Maimonides,
4;]6 ; of Alb.
; of

480 ; of

Nicol.
on

various

106 ; of

De

macher,

II,

induction,

38

"

of

of

basis

of,

395, 396

387,

; of

435,
Aquinas,

; of

Eckhart,

245, 253, 254, 532

of

all

37 ;

of

U-

knowledge.

philosophy,

A.

to

ace.

of, by

nishes
fur-

alism
Sensationforms
is

; and

; basis

of

of
the

tic
synthe-

"analogies"

of,

281.

by Bacon,

analysis

"

the

seq.

Beneke.

sugg-ested by

of,

II. 84;

to

161

totle,
(Aris-

439, Occam,

(see

conforms

I.

Locke,

politer iori, 162;

398;

meaning

knowledge

thought

recommended

II.

the

goras,
Anaxa-

Erigena,

; doctrine

Magnus,

of

132

notion

Extension,

for

departure

knowledge,

in

and

Experiment,

its

62 ; of

Scotus

156, 165, 166, 168

Kant,

171 ; exp.

Reid,

61,

God,

Xenophanes,

II.

tactual
Thos.

.3.3,
34, 38.
sensations,

Biown,

412,*

Bain, 431.

I. 417.

Cabalist,

; of Locke,

90, 91

; of

180-187;

; of

477-

of

193, 194

II.

materials

judgments

(46, 47), Ezra,

80,

Descartes

63-78

127 ; of Helvetius,

Kant,

of

Bonaventura,

24 ; its end. Bacon,

Spinoza,

of

starting-point

curus,
Epi-

Empedocles,
from

Anax-

Heraclitus, 38, 40-42

47 ; doctrine

things

"), Hume,
thought,

with

; of

mini,
finite,Ros-

seq.

all the

school

the

Academies,

; of Thomas

Englishmen,

la Mettrie,

134;

of

437, 440

Cusanus,

Ethics

"

Scotus, 456

Duns

87 ; of

Hume,

; doctrines

Magnus,

442, 451

"

Abelard,

of

; in
the

doctr., 197-200

182 ; Stoic

Theophrastus,

rest

: of

Aristotle, 169-177;

of

133-137;

53 ; the

Stilpo, 91

; with

basis

463;

in, 77;

of

152, 156), Albertus

I,

in the

insoluble

theory of, I. 35, 36

of

point

Experience,

thagoreans
Py-

47 ; Atomistic

symbols,

91 ; Plato's, 128-132

PhiBdo,

must

the

; among

of, 68, 70-71, Sophistic stand-point

doctrine

with

ethics,24

Grecian

on

cation
justifi-

and
an

relative,

II. .309.

Exner, F.,
of, I. 12-

below), histories

"Morals,"

also

27 ;

of,

inherent

412

Alfarabi,
II.

explanation

theory

species, Kant,
432

good,

existence

; doctrine

5U7.

doctrine,

; of all

358 ; of

by Spinoza, II. 68.

defined

125

37 ;

56 : doctrine

Spencer,

(see

of

Spinoza, 77

that

and

negative, Pseudo-Diony

Anaximanders

65

409.

Eternity

343

Leibnitz, 112;

theory,

evil,

290,

I.

freedom,

real

absolute, Bruno,

no

human

only

condition

the

Pythagorean

nition
72 ; defi-

existence,

the

Nyssa, 326, 327, 330

of

Voltaire,

Evolution,

his

essence

(See also s. ". " Form.")

I. 228, 421 : a
sect
of, the

of, 73.

of

494, Mamiani,

essence

I, 404.

Nicgea,

I, 79.

moral,

defined,

problem,

God's

I. 254.

of

Augustine.

Eckhart,

I. 67.

43, 48.

I.

consequence

Scotus

and

doctrine, 89-91.

455.

II.

Nyssa,

I. 157 seq.

of

of, II. 2-32,239, 240.

of

I. 79.

Paros,

of

doctrine

Aristotelian

doctrine

trine
; doc-

494-5;

I. 252.

Sophist,

of

A., II. 226, 227.

II. 226, 227.

A. K.

Nees

H.

I. 259.

Eustratius, Metropolitan

Esenbeck,

484-5

Italy,
Rosmini,

Anaxagoras,

on

negative, Gregory

476, 477.

Eckhart,

in
of

of

I. 135.

Neo-Platonist,

; of

Gregory

notions

some

of
426

180, 182.

I.

Neo-Platonist.

Evil, Moral,

312,

Origen,

413;

by Bentham,

I. 90 ;

Pythagorean,

the

120,

II.

Eschenmayer,

Essenes,

291, 294

I.

Martyr,

Augustine,

359, 363

Erigena,
Eschenburg,

Essence,

Justin

Saint

and

; nature

393,

Smith,

A.

Brown,

89, 90.

I.

of,

(or Eulalius),

302, 318, 3:26

Tertullian.

Lactantius,

327, 332

finite

of

The,

Irenaeus, 301

42, 49

II.

; of

95, 98.

I.

Everett, C. C,

492.

of, Rosmini,

Eschatology,

of

Leibnitz,

Faber,

122, 129

Fabianus,

Schleier-

Schopenhauer,

256,

in festhetics
included
(1.4),II. 264by Herbart
266, 279 ; of Beneke, 282, 291, 292 ; the beginning
idea
of metaphysics, Lotze, 313 ; its principle, the

264;

2;M, 2^35,

Evenus
.

of, Descartes,

conditions

of

Rhodes,

I.

Euthydemns,

I..91

Megarians,

Source

Error,

of

of

Eustachius,

prohibited, 371.
Eristic of the

13

Eudenms

Ensebins,
of, I. 359, 360; attitude

Life

philos.

358-365

doctrine,

Ethics

Life

Eudorus,

Eurytus

Erigena,

Milesian,

Euripides, quoted
I.

of

373

I. 97 ; Aristotle, 172.

Eulamii^s

321.
Erennius.

of

; defined

empirical,

Megara,

Euhemerus,

312-

Lotze,

on

414

; of

402;

Mill,429, 430

S.

433

the

of

Eudiemonia.

212.

Epiphanes,

J.

391

Paley,

Reid,

; doctrine

Collins, 372,

Galuppi, 487-8;

Eubulides,

A.

Gioberti, 501,

same,

ion
4; divis-

I.

philosophy,

life, 201-203

the

; of

; of

413,

in,

of

14.

6,

II.

of

definition

his

the

with

compared

of
justification

; scientific

by Gassendi,

212 ; revived

Epicurus,

of

Spencer

doctrine

378

Thomas

doctrine

their

The,

of

Mackintosh,

186, 190, 191.

I.

Epictetus,
Epicureans,

361-363

Mandeville,
894:

seq.

43, 49.

I.

Epicharmus,

11. 152.

244

Aristotle,I. 162, 164.

of

The,

Entelechy,"

240,

I.

Plotinus,

of

The,

by Kant,

defined

''Enlightenment,"
Enneads,

Trendelenburg, 329

nature,

Cumberland,

90-92.

II.

moralists,

Jtames,

II.

Faculties, mental,
Fairchild,
268

J,

Pauline

Faith,
;

11.

Papirius,
H.,

II.

189; Beneke,

286,

II. 456,

doctrine

transformed

knowledge,

I. 221.

Kant,

Clement

of, I, 266, 267;

by
of

the

aid

of

Alexandria,

Johannean,

philosophy

311, 314;

into
rela-

644

INDEX.

tion

of

to

and

reason

and

befor(i knowledge,
with

Alb.

objects

of, Locke,

Jacobi, VM, 199, 200;

Four

Fallacies,

4G4

; doctr.

II.

79, 87;

of the
will, Aristotle, I. 172; Epicurean
doctrine, 206, 207; Plotinus, 250 ; not destroyed by
divine
foreknowledge, 294; affirmed, 299, 302, 312;

meritoof

of

Freedom

of,

ledge.
know-

its

preambles

Fraser, A. C, II. 438.

Frau(!n8tadt, J., IT. 307, 308, a34.

faith,

doctrine

of,

322 ;

of

333 ; by grace,

con,
Ba-

the

194, 196

; denied

by Epicurus,

Eckhart,

207.

straihed

Faustus,

the

Fechner,

G.

Feder,

J.

Feeling,
II.

first treated

119;

Ferguson.

Sam.

I.

H., II. 298. 209, 307.

G.,

Figulus, P. Nigidius,
Finch,

Finite, The,
Finney,

in

II. 168 ;

Kant,

C.

Fr.,

Fischer,

P.,

K.

Fischer, Kuno,

cited

of modem
direction
Galenus,
losophy,
phiEclectic
attitude,294 ; dispute with

the

on

W.,

II.

Fliigel, O.,

Gans,

440.

Forberg,
Force,

II.

206, 210-212.

Locke

on,

what

Forge,

Louis

Form,

Aristotelian

iajval

la,

de

IL86:

435, 438 (Albert

Foss,

II.

Franklin,

the

455

II.

force,

illusions, Lotze, 314

school, I. 211.

sistence
per-

Kant,

and

Scotus)
II.

119, 195,

II.

Thomas,

true

10.

IL

119.

being of, defended

creations

secondary

sense,

Generibus,

only,
381

413

Avicenna,
462

374

by Eric,

of

various

unreal,

of

the

I. 368 ;
in

; substances

doctrine

397,

"c.,

461,

14.

II.

subjective

of

485-8.

II.

6, 14, 53.

II.

work

the
De

Scholastics, 398,
nominalistic

purely ideal,Locke,

trine,
doc-

nitz,
1 1. 79 ; Leib-

445-49

; forms

156, 157, 164

as
(Thom-

of
seq.

ledge
know-

15.
II. 451.

Scholarius, II. 10

Gennadius, Georgius
Gentilis, Albericus,
Proclus

Geometry,
founded
the

by

George
Georgius
Georgius
Gerbert

of

21, 31.

on

its

II.

133 ;

155, 163

I. 34 ;
nature

nature

; their

analytical,
and

of

the

basis,157.

306, 307.

Trebizond,
Anepwnymus,
Pachymeres,

(Pope

origin,
II. 45 ;

of, Hume,

truths

L.,

II.

Descartes,

of, Kant,

II. 515.

294.

28, 471-473.

II.

F.,

324.

II.

20-21;

philosophy, I.

294.

II.

The

399,

of

103.

Great), 441
(Duns

Benjamin,
11.

122 130 ;

IL

129.

II.

Gellert, Chr.

George,

Antonio,

Frantz, C.,

all

of, I. 157, 159, 162 ; med397, 399, 415, 416, 424, 425,

309.

Poucher, Simon,
Franchi,

of

universality

Lotze, 315 (cf. Ulrici, 304) ;

432, 433.

ms,

thought,

Fortlage, C,

century,

435-6.

history

Genera,

II. 54.

doctrines,

or

108;

Leibnitz,

doctrine

Aquinas),

on,

41, 360.

II.

the

Theodore,

Spencer,

H.

of,

doctrine, I. 194,

Stoic

inseparable,

ideal, Schelling, 218

Ulrici,303 : force and matter
force,

S, Mill

294.

Christian, IL

Gataker,

forces

vital

18th

the

Epicurean

Pasquale,

E.,

Garve,

Gaza,

II.

matter

195; (power)

; J.

Platonist, 234, 237.

Gassendi,

124.

F. C,

and

Marianne, II. 510.

Marchioness

309, 335

II.

Fontenelle,

Dr.

II. 41.

on

Galuppi,

I. 24.

Robert.

402

on,

372;

on,

195, 201-203.

II.

Galilei, Galileo,

II. 367.

Flnrenzi-Waddington,
Fludd,

in

II.

the

Galiani, Abbe,

330.

Fleming,

F.,

in

Gale, Thomas,

Flaccus, A. Persius, I. 190.

Malcolm,

bart,
Her-

human

Gabler, G. A., II. 294.

30.5,334.

II.

Fleming,

by

science, Ulrici, "02

Collins

A.

England,

Gale, Theophilus,

510.

II.

Trendelenburg,

282 ;

the

Fulbert, I., 370.

3 ; philos.

II.

; defined

on

on

64,

II. 450.

G.,

Voltaire,

Froebel, F., II. 530.

by Spinoza, XL

defined

Fiorentino,

E.

Fries, Jacob,

232,

I.

in

Friendship,

E., 441.

A.

philosophy,

Friedrich,

dialectic

his

doctrine, 204, 205, 207-212, 529.

man
hu-

sense

; Fichte

Schelling

224

natural

328;

of

18;}-186

Beneke,

;381 ; Reid

on,

its influence

J.

of

of

on,

what

W., II. 4.57.

J.

French

Fichte,

life,205-207

Clarke

French,

Fichte,

germ

freedom,

condition

in

position

181,

of, 218,

nature

by

uncon-

429.

294.

II.

Feuerlein, Emil,

and

tain
uncer-

5.5,67, 71, 72;

72, 75;

intelligence,210

279 ; moral

91.

298.

II.

of

II.

affirmed

natural,

"

112;

by Kant,

Trendelenburg

F., II. 420.

L.,

freedom

origin,

55,

Leibnitz.

by

conditions

their

513-515.

II.

Feuerbach,

his

205;

freedom

denied,

affirmed

as

freedom,

II.

Adam,

J.

Ferrier,

Mill, 428.
I.

320-322.

I.

Felix, Minucius,
FeiTari, G..

S.

conduct,

the

279.

II.

Herbart,

J.

by

of

faculty by Tetens,

separate

as

of term

use

guide

125 ;

466;

Buridan,

NcmeAlbert

Aquinas,

Thomas

by

necessity, Spinoza,

affirmed

119, 195.

II.

H.,

John

by

428, and

Scotus, 453, 456

Duns

divine

freedom

321-323.

II.

T.,

G.

Feelings,

I. 352-354.

Semi-Pelagian,

of

480 ;

Nyssa,

345 ; defended

defined

absolute.

predet-tination,
322, 330-

of

by Maimoriides,

437, 440

Great,

divine

Augustine,

opinion

I.

doctrine,

with

Gregory

by

; affirmed

442, 451
439.

II.

contradiction

emphasized

eius, 347

by Lord

enumerated

in

not

Eckhart,

Fries, 195, 203.

of

sources

S.,

A.

Stoic

Fate,

37, :38.

II.

Farrar,

443

reason,

; and

of

ground

Aquinas,
to

harmony

postulate, 430
438;

Magnus,

44;3 ; repugnant

473;

378, 380

Ansehn,

Thorn.

tine,
(Gregory, Augusby Hildobert, 371

; defined

Scholastic

reason.

riousness,

thought

328

others),

II.

10.

I. 404.
I.

404, 405.

Sylvester II.),I. 369, 370,430.

use

of

ments
judg-

545

INDEX.

uerhart,

E. V., II.

457.

Ulrici,302

Germar,

F.

aSl.

enburg's system,

II.

H.,

Gculinx,

II.

Arnold,
A..

Geyer,

42, 54.

lative

Gioja, M.,

and

of Alexandria

according

Plato's

the

to

notion

Stoic

existence

the

of

the

122

293

relation

: the

302

Arnobius,

317

; doctrine

debert, 371

Scotus

to

358. 361
for the

378, 383, 386

411, 412;

417, 418
423

Albertus

Btrable

only
Scotus.

mundus

of

473

inferrible

of

the

human

of

Hegel

; the

unity

252

; Herbart

the

the

for

of

the
in

the

; existence

of

the

of, 147,
arguments,

existence

the

of

the

necessary

35

on

177,
;

194, 200;

univc-se, Fichte, 205, 206,

Schclling concerning,
on

148

proofs

of

universe,
the

the

of

220

existence

seq.,

of,

Schleicrmacher,

conception

postulate

218,

of, 266.

natural

II.

A.,

after

and

90, 91

the

62 ;

morally good,
; the

Idea

of,

Stoics, 192;

and

Scriptures,

cluded
in-

293 ;

Green.

Robert,

in

on,

Jewish

reviled

monotheism,
;

72;
by

Christian

Tatian,

Gregory

of

Nazianzen.

of

Nysea,

I.

17 ;

of, 18-259;
the
296

Jewish
;

Her

heretics, 304 ; study

II. 437.

327, 403.

T. 326-333.

I.

of, 26-2i) ;

periods
an"l

370, 371.

3:37,338.

Spain, 12th century, 415

Henry,
II.

ed
; instruct-

(Justin Slartyr), 290, 293

character,

of, prohibited
Joseph

I. 346-352,

doctrines, 31-32; history

299 ; and

Green,

time,

of, I. 7-8

Writings

Augustine

science, Gregory

276,

75;

history of, 18-24

for

Athenian

on,

; the

the

noblest

truth, Spinoza,

Augustine's
writers

304

Oriental

mias

by

mined
; deter-

of, I. 76; doctrine,76, 77.

T.

the

Jewish

philosophy,

and

the

: evil

I. 433-435.

Philosophers,

materials

395

439.

Greek

Greek

selm,
An-

God.

evil, in

; determined

the

joyment
en-

Pseu-

dialectic, 364.

Fathers'

the

the

of

is

and

II. 439.

Greek

by

of

seq.

117.

II.

Protagoras,

Sir

Grant,

C,

(TertuUian),

early

of, 180, 185

faith, Jacobi,

294.

105;

of, non-

131. 134;

existence

judgment

of Newton,

104,

IL

F..

Greathead, Robert,

ment
argu-

412

the

II. 361.

Goschel,

in

highest,

good

moral,

245

by Jouffroy, 343.

226.

W.,

with

pleasure,

nor

action, Abelard,

)phist. Life

J.

the

moralists.

; defined

IL

ence
exist-

Leibnitz, 92, 108,

argument,

English

K.

220

.336 ; doctrine

highest

in the

Goi-res, Joseph,

Grammar,

Lord

the

virtue,

useful, Spinoza, 77

John.

Gottsched,

323

Augustine,

knowledge

the

Graham,

the

Spinoza, 55,

; doctrine

Hume,

the

of

of

the

cosmological

monad,
of, 125

for

of

order

210 ; notions

224, 225
244,

of
II.

for

; doctrine
;

reason,

Kant

postulate

moral

279;

doctrines

Cusanus,

Campanella

Descartes

ontolog.

directly apprehended

"243

of

of

existence

subsequent

; K.'s

the

Lotze, 313

argument

primitive
on

by

arguments

178

views

by Locke, 80, 87

the

on

Kant's

Cabala, 418, 419, 422,

; with

pain, 95-98;

Scotus, 456, Occam, 464

II. 40 ; the
State, Hobbes.

the

the

"

; existence

Nicolaus

the
fied
dei-

Cyreuaics

Duns

the

relative

the

by Cicero,

not

man

of, Alfarabi,

by

the

467 ; mystical

of

Greece

I. 89-91

school,
; with

: defined

for

not

God,

439

; of

seq.

of

the
subjectivism of
totle,
Plato, 103 ; on Aris-

of

Abelard, 395;

and

Gorgias,

supported
90 ; the

of

good

of demon-

Jam-

highest, Plato, 128, Aristotle,

197

God,

condition

will

Goodwin.

of, 41, 42, 47-50, 520

61-63, 67, 71-73, 77, 521

Voltaire

the

; arguments

Leibn.

intention

of,

trine,
doc-

of

; doctrine

Absolute, Plotinus, 240, 241,

382;

Alfa-

ideas

of, 28; scientifically

incognizable.
37

Bacon,

111;

Jewish

; the

do-Dionysius, 351

447

24 ; psychological
existence

the

posteriori

Sabunde,

469,

Eckhart,

of

Magnus,

of

122

Stoics,

religion, Lactantius,

Thomas
; the
arguments,
insufficiency of all arguments,
464 ; arguments
of Ray455, Occam,

441.

Aquinas,
Duns

modifications

doctrine

seq.

; of

the

doctrine
of

86, 87;

217;

gods

on

absence

or

but

gument
ar-

origin,78;

I. 457-58.

the Megarian
virtue, 92-94

all

existence

idea

Epicurean

;
on,

; the

with

highest good

Hil-

; another

of Anselm's,
381, 382 ; heterodox
Gilbertus, 399 ; cosmological argument

rabi,

169,

of

of

279

the

truth, Augustine,

98

Skeptics

connection

Plato, 116.

of, Pseudo-Dionysius,

Erigena,

Anselm,

of

space

the

doctrine,

Proclus, 257, 258

positivepleasure,

demonstrated

as

the

by

defended

the

the

on

Protagoras' igno-

of

origin,

I. 75 ; cited

Cynics

"One,"

other

"

the

the

and

in

I. 34 ;

Socrates'

their

; of

with

The,

the

in

the

on

139.

Good,

the

innate

of

of,

ontological argument

of, according

79;

Diognetics,

cited

Goethe,

Galuppi

; Mamiani

theory

men,
Theophilus, 298.
Goethals, Henry, of Ghent,

trine
doc-

; Gnostic
to

254
to

Law,
of

I. 452.

Prodicus'

Protagoras,

of, Theoterial.
Irena;us, 800; ma-

nature

of

the

on

Jews

idea

unity of,

God

transcendent

of

2^36 ;

the

unity

321 ;

322;

324;

Lactantius,

Cicero

unmateriality

EpiHtle

; attributes

incomprehensible,

Felix, 320,

Minucius

of

blichus,

493

doctrine,

on

49 ;

93

92,

223-231

God

283, 28-1,286

unity of, 296,

Thales'

theory,

An-

Euclid

Plutarch.

of the

380

and

of, 506.

of, 76;

ranee

Critias'

doctrine, 158,

195:

Jews,

TertuUian, 305
attributes
of, Origen,

of

194,

Alexandrian

philus, 298;

things,"

; Aristotle's

unknown,

; with

of, Antisthenes,

doctrine.

God,

66

I.

51-53

unity of,

the

unity

220

of,

of

Christian

351

in

343 ; God

Fontaines,

Gods, The,

ish,
; Jew-

rhilolaus-Fragment,
of

doctrine, 116,

162, 163;

de

necessarily
Cousin, 342 ; specu-

of, 379,

205, 207;

of, 6.3, 65,

91 ;

89,

Megara,

340 ;

311-319

existence

19, 26.

II.

doctrine

axagoras'

by

S03;

TertuUian,

Origan,

and

and

and
Godefroi

; in TrendeU

world

demonstration

Rosmini,

the

Clarke's

attributes

488

of,

and

Lamennais,

; Sam.

Euhemerus

Xenophanes'

man,

by

Irenaens

by

seq.

Goclenius, Rudolf,

views

360.

combated

299-302,

Hippolytus,
418

idea

15, 35, 41,

II.

280-290

I.

Clement

497-504.

II.

; God

thought.

of

351

and

329

human

doctrine

being

483.

II.

Gnosticism,

387, 398, 399.

I.

I'orretanus,

Glanvill, Joseph,

in

Hooker,

Gioberti, Vincenzo,

God,

correlative

309.

II.

Gilbertus

465, 467.

I.

Johannes,

Gerson,

personality of. Lotze, 320

646

INDEX.

Gregory of Rimini, I. 467.

(^riepenkerl,F. E., II. 309.
(iroot, Gerhard,

Grote, G.,

Hegesias,

dialogues,I, 110,

Platon.

111

Hegias,

works, 441.

the

II. 438.

; criticised

II. .53.

Heineccius,

J.

G., II. 117.

II. 5"1,31.

Heinsius, Daniel,

Gruppe, O. F.,

II. 3^4.

Helfferich,A.,

of

Verona,

8, 11.

II.

Habit,

Haccius,

idea of cause,
F., II. 309.

H.

II.

Hume,

131, 134.

II.,335.

E.,

Hackel,

Helmholtz,

of the

source

Haig, J., II. 441.

Sir

Hale,

II. 361.

Matthew,

Hamann,

G.,

J.

Hamerken,

195, 201.

II.

of

Kem-

458.

Hamilton,

D.

H.,

Hamilton,

Sir

William,

Hampden,

R.

Hanne,

J.

Hanusch,

as

of

doct.

Hardenberg,

F.

of

Harmony,

the

170

of

F.,

305.

IT.

related

as

to

works
of, 309.
Hartley. David,

A.

soul

; Kant

B.,

known

to the

Haven,

R.

Hebrews,
Hedonism

Hegel,
as

G.

W.

of

the

body,

cognition,

II.

I. 367.

I.

; in the

F.,

88

in

213,

224

of his

Schelling

life,234-237

237-243, 530-31 ; on

philosophy

; germs

Bardili, 168, 204

I.

Greek

of

94;

; his

on

of

the

logic
his

5 ;

opinion
doctrine

with

Kant

philosophy,

i)hilosophy,231-233,

Schelling^s philosophy,

237 ; his

classification

between

II. 3 : 306.'
of

Platon.

dia-

210.

274, 277, 278.

I.

of,
I.

238.

Alexandrian

the

I. 451.

philosophy, I. 24-26.

Greek

on

323.

II.

197.

II.

P.,
The

II.

455.
and

Mediaeval,

the Platonic

Hindu

R.,

I Hinrichs, H.

Hipparchia,
of

Hippasus

Hippo

II. 457.
I. 16.

philosophy,

of

Hippias
of

I. 327.

I. 371.

Hildebert,

jHildreth,
I

180,183.

Peripatetic, I.

the

Poitiers,

of

?), I. 183.

Clazomense, I. 64, 67.

of

L.

(of Smjrma

133, 135.

I.

Hierocles, I. 239, 2.55,257.

Epicurean

philosophy,

philosophy,
on

I. 373.

parallelism

131, 132.

tained
main-

division

Cynics,

the

on

disciples of, 308-

295, 298, 299.

Hieronymus,

of

the

on

Shepherd

influence

Hilarius
definition

204 ;

264-266, 268-281,

I. 184.

Hierarchy,
95-98:

cited

Tinsmegistus,

Hickock,

I.

cited,

Toumay,

I. 201.

Hetzel, H..

School,

283;

Beneke,

modern

The

Hesiod,

the, I. 268.

and

; his

of

K.

Herminus,

philos. writings

ancient

doctrine,

4, II.

of

Hervseiis Natalis,

on

T.
II.

von,

and

Hermotimus

cited

by

philosophy,

logiies. I. 109.

II. 138 ;

works,

his

of

starting-point,

Cherbury, II. 34, 40, 354-5.

II. 195, 201.
Carthage, I. 185, 188.

Hermann,

nitz,
Leib-

321.

to

philosophical

definition

Conrad,

ancient

I.

doctrine,

latter

his

Abbot

Hermann.

doctrine,

his

G.

IT. 308, 336, 337.

place

; Parme-

Stoics, 185,

the

by

190.'

Stoic, I.

Lord,

Hermodorus,

philos., 10-11

of

adopted

F.,

life, 267, 268;

80, 89, 386-388.

F., his

philos., 28-29;
concerning

the
J.

of

II. .53.

historian

doctrine, I.
44

Pythagoras,

on

56 ; doctrine

on,

Hermias,

Cyrenaic

the

and

family,

age,

39

Homer,

on

1.33,135.

I.

Ei)hesus,

Heydenreich,

to

I. 183.

Pontus,

Hermarchus,

by the Academies, 133-135

School, 201, 208-212.
Heerebord,

of

Herillus

445, 458.

II.

Epistle
in

Heraclitus

J.

457.

G.,

of

Herder,

; individual

and

the

on

of Kant's

Scholastics,

II.

J.,

Hazard,

I. 467.

Heraclides

Hermes

referrecT

Haureau,

294.

II.

von,

Lembus,

Herman,

between

II.

von,

.310.

II.

441.

Hessen,

Hermippus,

E. von,
F.

Hartsen,

of

Hermas,

II.

L..
II.

Heraclides

Herbert,

"

Hartmann,

L.

virtue,

129.

edition

G.,

122, 190.

C. S., II. 453-4.

ethical

II. 403.

Harris, James.
Hartenstein,

the

I. 238.

Harpocration,

IL

312.

Schelling, 218.

; doctrine

S.,

533-4; judged

trine
doc-

doctr., 208-211

spheres, Pythagorean

93, 109, 110

II.

C.

S.

his

(Novalis), IT. 212.

von

pre-established,

Harms.

134 ; Aristotelian

Skeptics, 214;

of

Hendewerk,

264. 208;

Speusiijpus,

Spinoza, II. 55, 78;

Paley, 91
Locke, 80, and

univertal, Volney,

47;

Flato, I. 131

220;

principle
and

to

(see Hedonism),

Xenocrates,

Greek

Cicero,

Adrien,

Nic., II. 30.

Herbart,

172 ; Epicurean

of, 169,

II. 24.

Claude

Heraclitus

294.

ethics

133 ; its source,

van,

194-196.
II. 117.

conditions, according
of

F. M.

Hemming,

38-42 ;

306.

and

Helvetius,

nides

Gottlieb.

its

principle

414-418.

437.

II.

J., TI.

L.

Happiness,

II.

II.

W.,

Michael

Hansch,

I. 389.

Henry

("Thomas

Kempen

pis)," I. 484.

D.,

Heloise,

Henry.

Thomas,

306, 307.

.,11. 323, .332,

J. B.

Henning,

203.

II.

Helmont,

Hennel,

361.

II.

Hales, John,
Hallier, E.,

14,

II.

II.

I. 259.

Heliodorus,

Giinther, A., II. 306.

I. 95.

Cyrenaic,

Grotius, Hugo,
Guarinus

386 ; influence

by Hartmann,

Italy, 509-511.

I, 255, 259.

Heidanus,

Grote, John,

in

of,

484.

I.
the

on

292-298

school,

F.
the

W.,

II. 294.

Cynic,

I.

92, 94.

Metapontum,
Elis,

Samos,

the
I.

I. 43.

Sophist,

32, 35.

I.

77-79.

State, L

547

INDEX.

of

Hippodamiis

Miletiis,I. 43, 48.

I. 299, 801, 302.

Hippolytus

of

Hirnhaym,

Hieronyinus,
and

History, objective

7-13

aids,

II.

36 ; Fichte's

of

the

222

development
founded

in

of,

211

Hobbes, Thomas,

seq.

Lord

218, 219

475

of, Vico,

of,

Ulrici,

Bacon.

idealism

of

242

of

; laws

of,

II.

Baron,

of, II. 38, 39 ;

works

and

trine,
doc-

Holcot,

Sir

W., II. 321.

Holy

The

Ghost,

307, 309
of

329

; with

Abelard

by

Origen, .317

of

Erigena,

.Scotus

identical

as

387, 394;
469, 474.

of,

doctrine, 310, 311

315 ;

Clement,

Nyssa,

of, I. 287, 288 ; object

; subordination

Athanasian

119-12:3 ;

of,

with

of

Aristotle

"

Plato's

with

Realism,
319

315,

479-481, 489-496,

Gregory

of

thoughts

398

in

of

how

434

458

; of

innate,

denied

further

doctrine

; Abelard

of

on,

telian
Aristo-

defended
of

by

Thomas

; doctrine

of

463

Occam,

48, 49

79, 83,

Chartres,

with

442, 449

II.

236

Plotinus'

of

nate,
; in-

doctrine

of

etc., 55, 7:3-75 ;

adequate,

by Locke,

2:^1 ;

; doctrine

Will,

confused,

19-3 ;

Moses,

Pseudo-Diony-

reconciled

innate,

none

ideas

of

Scholastics, 398;
433,

; Stoic

doctr.,

doctrine,

Bernard

others, Descarfes,

and

Spinoza,

to

358, 362

reason,

by

Ghent,

160

"One,"

the

; doctr.

theory,

441

the

Stoic

ascribed

Erigena,

Auvergne,

of

Henry

world-soul,"

of, Eckhart,

of

Aquinas,

248

divine

; Platonic

innate?

from

Scotus

the

theory.

2'34 ; Plutarch's

God,

240, 241,
; of

115-117,

of

Aristotle, 157, 159,

emanation

by

93, 91, and

I.

doctrine,

genesis

Philo, 224, 2:30 ;

William

doctrine

the

theory

of

136 ; of Ulrici,

II.

93 ; Plato's

on

by

doctrine

363 ; interpreted

construction

speculative

ism,
Ideal-

Lotze,

by Stilpo,

combated

for, 191, 193;

Sabellius.
:

203,

Beck,

326-329.

substitute

sius,351

views

297

hand

317 ; Italian,

Trendelenburg,

Ideas, Theory

393;

Gnostic

293,

worship,

in

German,

Schleiermacher,

of

; of

doctrine,
439.

II.

HoUenberg,

of

299-305

Henry,

tion
repudia-

of

Transcendental

hand

of

Lotze,

Ideal-Realism,

exist

123, 130.

I. 467.

Ilobert,

Holland,

of

; Kant's

seq.

of

go

defect

119 ; combated

197.
II.

System

; must

301

164

idealism," 172;

by Antisthenes, 92,

Hodge, Charles, II. 459.

Hodgson, S. A., II. 441.
d'Holbach,

154,

objective,of Schelling (136),

Hegel (136),2:31 seq. ; transcendental,

509-511,

revelation

; methods

34, 39, 40, cf. 53, 356, 357, 360.

Hoffbauer,

Kant,
"material

217-219

523.

Life

of

204 ; Schelling's

tine,
Augus-

philosophy

5 ;

I.

philosophy

divisions.

and

Schelling,

by Vico.

absolute,

of

human,

Hegel's philosophy

of

history

philosophy

Absolute,

treating,

periods

; its basis

345, 346

I. 18-22.

subjective, defined,

treating, 5-6

of
and

sources

(136),204-212

seq.

15, 115.

II.

philosophy,

of

Historians, Ancient,

methods

Fichte
213

Rome,

Voltaire, 125

and

Henry,

Home,

influence

Homer,
raclitus

of

The,

I.

; He-

; innate,

274, 27(5,277.

ger,

117,

Anaxagoras,

I.

Honein,

Ibn

173 seq.

Hooker,

Richard,

Hopkins,

Mark,

Hopkins,

S.,

eoppe,

E,., II. 324.

Hotho,

H.

John,

Hrabanus,

"are

Pierre
F.

Hughes,

Hughes, T.,

A.

Humboldt,

Life

Works

and

130-134,378, 379

Hutten,

Ulrich

von,

Huxley,

T.

II.

H.,

Hypotheses,

II.

80, 91, 392, 393.

II.

10.

Romag-

sense,

Bacon

doctrine

292

; in

Italian

Individuation,

against, II. 89.

121 ; Newton

see

Mamiani,

s.

underlies

Schelling's
'"

v.

lytical
ana-

of,

system

270, 533.

on,

Fallacies").

274, 277.

I.

II.

Spinoza,

of

II.

75.

180, 182

; Beneke

philosophy, 487-8.
of. Alb.

Principle

Aquinas,

445

Scotus, 453, 455

Duns

Categorical,

Kant's

Imperative,
on,

144;

II.

162

2:39 ; Herbart

on,

Antioch,

Thomas
I.

James

I. 201.

of

Ignatius

524.

441.

Plato,

Lord

trine, Idomeneus,
; doc-

348.

I. 254,

Hypatia,

(of

Hegel

seq.

Imagination,

Francis,

Hutcheson,

of, II. 131-132

II. 440.

John,

Hunt,

Idols

II. 323.

von,

David,

Hume,

213

440.

II.

logical

E.

by

393 ;

origin of, 486

the

on

:367 ;

defined

Hutcheson,

from

Galuppi

fied
recti-

Browne,

389;

of

nate,
342 ; in-

Cousin,

P.

158,

theory

Herbart, 266,

of

of

Priestley,
innate,

356 ; doctrine

theory

judgments, 155,

4^59.

II.

H.,

366

Lee,

157,

Kant,

of

philosophy

92,

Riidi-

perceptions,

of

doctrines

Identity, Principle of, Kant,

15, 54.

II.

Daniel,

copies
reason,

by Culverwell,

423 ; result

on,

sensation,

in

506.

lluber, J., II. 298, 306.

Htiet,

the

390 ;

nosi, 484

367, 368.

I.

263

255,

extended,"

Mill

361.

II.

Maurus,

H.

Darwin,

294.

II.

127;
the

Berkeley,

Leibnitz,

adequate,

originate

of

; of

Schelling'a theory of, 221, 222

by

and

; all

ideas

opposed

456.

447, 449.

II.

G.,

350-352.

II.
II.

79, 84-87

Locke,

Condillac,

Schopenhauer,
279, 533-4 ; in

410,

I.

Ishak,

112

132;

Hume,

63, 65.

of

clear, distinct,

104

I. 310.

Homousia,

88;

163.

by Aristotle,

pseudo-Clementine,

Homoeomeria;,

Howe,

philosophy, I. 24, 25

Greek

on

39 ; cited

on,

HomilieH^

91.

II.

Leibnitz,

438 ;

I.

Magnus,

(realistic doctrine,

446) ;

103 ; Schopenhauer,

II.

262.

lahja
Ibn

ben

Adi,

I. 410.

Gebirol, Solomon,

Ickstadt, J.
Ida3us

Idea,

of
The

Idealism,

A.

of

phenomenal,
Kant's

with

method

of

with

Hegel,
of

Induction,

II.

232, 233, 240-243.

Berkeley,

philosophy,

II.

136 ;

80,

88

59;

ment
; ele-

subjective, of

and

of

the
on,

other

Socrates, I. 80, 85
arriving

at

completely

II, 49 ; views

British

of

J. S.

Meliasus,

disi)arate, 448

Sir

W.

philosophers, 418, 419.

46:3 ;

MUl, 429.

I. .36 ; with

Anaximander,

Finite

Aristotle, 152, 156

principles, Occam,

II. 33-35, 38 ; with

Bacon,

Infinite, The,

37, 38.

I.

absolute,

of, in

418, 424-426.

II. 117.

von,

Himera,

I.

Hamilton

cartes
; Desand

548

INDEX.

potential, I, 185

Intellect, Tho

416

4l)G,415,

Averroes,

(luired, Alfarabi, 412 ; doctr.

Averroes, 415, 416 ; the latter
the

Great, 489, 440, and

of

of, Occam,

doctrine

discussed

in

philos.,II.
posterior

Intentions, First
Intuitions

5 seq.

to the

senses,

and

Averroistic

thought,

za,
Spino-

v.

".

ciples,"
"Prin-

Philosophers,

Ionic

Isa

299-301.

I.

Father,

Pure

Isaac

Israeli, I. 423.

Isidorus

Isidorus

I.

1.

255, 259.

353, 355.

of

485

; his

Jacob,

H.,

A.

C.

I. 238

his

Jesus,

and

teaching

Life of J.,

character,

I. 265-9

Hegel's

Lectures

II. 2:35 ; Schleiermacher's

on

the

and

in

philos.

elements

the

270;
Middle

ism,
264 ; monothe-

Christianity,

271-274;

philos.

417-428;

influences

Ages,

in

the
in

appearing

II. 62.

Spinoza's doctrine,

of

Aristotle,

I.

430.

John

I. 269 ;

John

of

Mercuria,

I. 467.

John

of

Salisbury,

I.

Johnson,

Samuel,

Ibn

438 ; its

point

of ancient

knowledge

the

on

Christianity,

and

Mohammed

235

Judgment,

Schleiermachcr

Faculty
of, 400.

doctrine

Judgments,

92. 93 ; doctrine

II.
and
of

nature
the

79,
a

II.

250, 251.

same,

187

of

215

of

80

alone

valid.

seq.

; Ileid's

Antisthenea,
182

problematical.

its

and

repugnant

analytical

posteriori, Kant,

logical, 166, 167

and

; limits

as

H.")

Apostate, I. 252, 254.

synthetic,

on

of

the

origin

on

the

79,

(see

in,

161

Koppen.

"

internal

of,

Kostlin, K.,

N.

in,

lenburg,
Trende-

Culverwell,
367 ;

356;
vity
relati-

of
below,
Thought,"
causality in, Vico, 474 ; Galuppi

"Relativity
;

II.

Rosmini, 491-2 ; Mamiani,

117, 139

IT.

200.

II.

295, 323.

trine
docseq.

world, Beneke,

of. Place,

source

origin of, 486

Martin,

"

and
seq.

Schelling.

Hegel. 238

distinction

ultimate

sources

priu'-^ole

Schelling, 217

absolute.

of,

168,

of, 204
of,

cartes,
Des-

of,

; forms

(see "'Fries,"

principle
of

varieties

highest

doctrine

and

origin

156-158,

of.

; Fichte's
as

seq.

131, 133

of

and

; mental

F.,

seq.

; the

506.
Knutzen,

75

principle

229

; the

82

limits

in,

certainty

of, Hume,
seq.

; Nico-

experience.

with

Spinoza,

doctrine

further

Baader,

extra-sensational

431

of

of

intuition

281, 284, 285

and)

reason,

scendental
tran-

sensations, Hobbes,

from

out

basis

530 31 ; of external

judgments
to

1.54-156, 162-164;

Galuppi

Df, 487.

I.

453,

Scotus,

immediate,

by

begin

; must

Locke.

of,

faith

of

4^19 ; and

Duns

469, 472, 473

Jacobi, P.

213,

experience.

basis, perception,

156. 157, 164

cance,
signifi-

moral

Magnus,

23

II.

326;

ratif^nal,transcendent,
Locke,

its
the

on

; influence

seq.

after

Alb.

451.

463

of, Occam.

300;
Pierre

338

in,

tic
Gnos-

intuition, Eckhart,

intellectual

on

of, Kant,

identical,

priori,

I. 264

409 ; Hegel

on.

of, skeptical

limited.

departure

171 ; starting-pomt

"

II. 441.

ha-Levi, I. 418, 419. 426, 427.

Judaism,

how

Aquinas,

nature

Kant.

Scholastics,I. 367, 430,

the

among

of

Thomas

in, 170;

Jowett, B.,

380;

Leibnitz, 104
to

defin.

333-339;

element

necessary

Cusanus,

and

al.

Julian

466 ;

in, Augustine,

41, 47 ; doctrine

I. 427.

referred

lihilos.writings

forms

certitude

39 ; self -consciousness

388, 400, 401.

Plato

; Stoic

impossibility

or

28
faith,Campanclla,
Bacon,
33, 38 ; grows

II. 343.

C.

Jourdain,

and

of

II. 450.

Zaddek,

Jouffroy, T.,

Jnda

basis

laus

347, 352, 403.

I.

161

of, Aristotle,

relativity

457 ; theory

Epistles, 268.

Damascus,

et

of, 192

opinion,

and

perception,

duality
of, Plotinus, 246;
view, 214-217;
of, Trenajua,
view, 282, 286; limitation

Italus, I. 402-404.
Gospel of,

of

Josef

translator,I. 410.

Ibn-al-Batrik, Arabian

Johannes

John,

sensible

120 ; objects

I.

will,

Johannes

225-227.

faith, Anselm,
translator

Avendeath,

on,

335,

II.

von,

II.

M.,

d'Ailly,

417, 422.

I.

Jezirah, The,
Johannes

of

philosophy, I. 17:
Philo, 229; religious

Messiah,

of

expectation

notions,

G.

368.

II.

J. H.

Knowledge,
Greek

monotheism

II. 310.

II. 197,

Kirchmnnn,
Klein,

418, 423.

von,

King, William,

Life of J., 248.

Jewish

Hegel's, 530-

with

compared

F., II. 294, 295.

and

I.

H.

Kiesewetter,
doctrine, 252-254.

Fichte,

215, 216;,

II. 310.

H.

Kern,

II. 1%.

H.,

L.

Jamblichus,

by

Schelling,

by

by
fence,
de-

284, and
by Trendelenburg,
Ens^land, 434 seq. ; in Italy,

in

doctrine

E.,

Kayserlingk,

194, 198-200.

II.

; Beck's

31.

I. 403.

Edessa,
F.

finitions
de-

Locke,

; criticised
201

developed

as

Beneke,

Karaites, The,

Jacobi,

and

; hl"

187-194,528-9;

194-204
Herder,

doctrine

; influence

seq.

; his

180-187, 627-8;

Judgment,

interpreted

by

32;

Reason,

of

opponents,

329, 330

Kapp,
Jacob

etc., II.

Practical

and

as

criticised

nsis,

Hispal

seq.;

philosophy, I. 4
Scotus, 456

Hume's
skepticism, 131, 151,
writings, 137-154 ; his critique
135, i;i6, 150, 151, 154-180, 526 ;

Faculty

203 ; his

I. 287.

Isidorus, Gnostic,

the

of the

disciples

204

Alexandria,

of

290, 294.

I.

by
and

Reason,
of

of

Duns

Jacobi, 194, 195, 199, and

Blind, I. 417.

the

of

empiricism,

life

hiacrit.

Zaraa, I. 410.

ben

Isaac

that

87, 88; incited

his

29, 30, 32-42.

I.

Church

the

Irenffius.

of

hiscrit.

below).

his definition

and

160 ; his

79.

see

115.

(Justin MartjT),

Kant, Immanuel,

of

philosophy;

II. 114.

Flavins

of

period

Locke,

Justinus,

I. 3

Matemus,

Joachim,

criticism

I. 413.

Second,

(in English

of

mode

; of

450 ;

Atiuinaa,

transitional

the

Permiciiis

Albert

by

464 ;

Julius

JnngiuB,

ac-

or

414

Avempace,

Thomas

existence

12 ;

universal,
actual

and

combated

separate

mod.

and

one

potential

550

INDEX.

ATnUaffy, J. p., II. 439.

Asa, II. 456.

Diderot, 128

Malmn,

25.

II.

Maiffnan,
Maimon,

197.

II.

S.,

Maiinonides, Moses, I. 419, 427, 428; II. 61,

Maistre, Joseph de, II. 340.
Malobranche, Nic, II. 42, 54; Italian followers

mind,"

Schelling, 218
Lotze

Priestly

Malpighi, JohannoR,
Mamiani,
Man,

II. 8,

characteristic

distinguishing
II. 355

Cherbury,

Herbert

of,

of

brutes. Hartley, 3S7,

; dist. from

388.

Maurice,

F,

Maximus

the

Maximus

of

of

Manegold

Mansel.

of

William

of

I. 376.

281, 290.

I.

Mani,

Mayer,

teacher

Lutenbach,

Champeaux,
L.

H.

418, 419,

II.

Gr. O.,

Marbach,

philos.,1, 11 ; works,

Marcianus

II. 24.

Capella,
the

Marcker,

F.

Mark,

Gospel of,

Marsh,

James,

Melito

Masson,

II.

Materialism

"

The

its recent

128

GassencH,

; of

The

19 ; views

14;

II.

logical,
psycho-

292, 332
;

its

seq.

133;

revival

Mathematics,

period

of

services

148

Kant,
Mafter,

mostly

influence

in

philos., II. 19, 23

mod,
45

on,

with

compared

thetic,
syn-

the

tional
transicartes'
; Des-

seq.

philosophy,

123, 126

of, 1,

doctrine,157, 158,

162

Platonic

241, 249,

; Stoic

Aristotelian

doctr., 194, 195

258

; Neo-

of

affirmed

of. Duns

by Maimonides,
Scotus, 455-56 ;

458 ; of

Hobbes,

primary

and

docs

not

II.

39

427,
doctr,

; of

secondary

tenberg, 120 ; atomic

of

; various

Henry

Descartes,

111

88 ; monadic

and

an

endowed

kinds

of

of

Metrocles,

the

79,

with

seq.

438;

begins

its

148, 149,

on,

metaph.

;
in

ethics,

326 ; the

Trendelenburg,

for, 344.

Michael

Scotus,

J.

Milroy. W.,
Miltiades,

Mind,

II.

its

I.

II.

46 ;

89 ; of

I.

92, 94.

I. 71.
I.
I.

201, 203.

67,

I. 404.

433, 435.

422-426.

II.

440.

Christian, I. 295.

Anaxagoras'
nature

Newton,

426-430.

II.

the

Averroes,

146.

rules,

L., II. 295.

C.

S.,

II.

winds,

Descartes's

331,

B., H.

Ephesius,

Mill,

of

theory

Epicurean,

Michael

sensation,

by

Lampffacus,

of

52

Lich-

Chios,

the

Metrodorus

85

theory of,

abstraction,

Kant

synthetic methods,

Cynic,

of

Mill, James,

Ghent,

42, 51,

qualities of, Locke,

exist, Berkeley,

Leibnitz, 92, 107-109,

428

116;

Aristotle's,145"

Beneke, 286.
Tyre, I. 327.

psychology,

J,

on

and

Metrodorus,

creation

II.

philosophy,

Methodius

Michelet,

; its literal

defined

Kant

Meteorology,

and

425

Magnus,

Albertits

264-6.5, 270
substitute

Positivist's

Meyer,

Gebirol,

Wolflf,

term, I. 145
of

Metcalf, D., II. 458.

of
300, Origen, 317 ; doctrine
Gregory of Nyssa,
331, of Saint Augustine, ,342 ; exists by emanation,
413 ; corporeal
Alfarabi, 412 ; eternal, Avicenna,

spiritual, Ibn

of

view

the

313 ;

Metrodorus

created, Irenaeus,

118, 523. 528

principles synthetic, 156, 164

analytical

397,

doctrines

doctrine.

of,

in

its

Method

and

to,

; Reid

Platonic

judgments,

nature,

155, 163,

Kant,

148;

Kant,

their

truths,

ley,
Hart-

Mill, 424.

I. 283.
II.

origin

Herbart,

Lotze,

objects, Plato, 117, 122, 123; truths,

Condillac, 127 ;

Cynic, I. 94.

the

157-163;
159 ;

trine,
doc-

I. 91.

Menippus,

of

tury,
cen-

; Stoic

intellect,Melanchthon,

86

Locke,

Moses,

I, 295.

Strato, 183

of the

Samaria,

sufficiency,
insubdivisions,

332-3.35;
18th

England,

analytical, Leibnitz, 11.113;

'Hume,

of

Metaphysics,

La

of, 261

German,

recent

334, 335

of

.371 seq.
Mathematical

of

of,I, 50, 59, 60,

doctrine

apologist,

I, 168

on,

function

reans"), Menedemus,
Epicu-

130 ; defect

Holbach,

Ulrici, .303;
on,

"

Priestley, 80, 89

and

representatives,

writers

recent

Aristotle

Menander

Atomists,"

by

Hartley

Mettrie, 127,

Sardis, Christian

Mendelssohn,

renewed
of

16-19, 30.

II.

life and

Eleatio,

.387 ; Reid, 399 ; James

440.

(see

II. 119.

Philip,

193

II. 4.38.

James,

D.,

117.

II.

the

Memory,

II.

II,

life, Dep

animal

A., II. 212.

E.

F.,

of

J. A., II. 12.

Martineau,

G.

Melanchthon,

453,

of

explanation

52.

de\ II. 9.
School, I. 89-91.

442,

II,

the

4.56.

Cosmo

Melissus,

Ficinus,

Marsilius

Marta,

in

Scotist,I. 457.

de, the

438,

II.

Meiners, Christoph,

5, 9 ; cited,12.
(or Marcelius) of Inghen, I. 465,466.

Marsilius

252, 264,

II. 368.

Franciscus

II.

I. 268.

II.

W.,

347, 352.

I.

I,

323.

II.

James,

G.

Meier,

2,55,258.

I.

Markley,

Zachary,

Mehmel,

II. 510.

fined
de-

II. 310.

R.,

Megarian

II. 295.

Ph.,

directly,Reid, 399 ;

439-40,

Ephesus,

Mayne,

Medici,

A., II. 295.

Mariano, R.,
Marinus,

254, 352, 354,

Gnostic, I. 280, 284.

Marheineke,

II,

Confessor,

C,

cartes,

I.

122, 124,

J.

Mechanics

Marcion,

II.

Mayer,

McCosh,

29.5.

Marci, Marcus,

Herbart,

843, 844

on,

I, 268.

D.,

Mayer,

Mayronis,
of

historian

as

Lamcnnais

"extinct

by

of Tyre, I, 234, 236.

A., II, 3-35.

Maximus

de, II. .378.

Bernard

Mandeville,

understood

as

441.

IL

H,,

similarity to floul,

of, 179;

Mill, 427.

S.

Maupertius,

478, 504-509.

II.

Terenzio,

314

Gospel of,

Maudsley,

389 ; known

J,

Matthew,

its

definitions

on,

on,

by

of,

480.

II.

174, 175;

275 ;

of

hypothesis

Kant,

doctrine

416 ; and
and

of, I. 65

soul, Occam,

; one
464

origin, Spinoza,

universal,

; the
II.

human,

73-76, 78;

551

INDEX.

Leibnitz
S.

the

on

location

the, 108

of

defined

by

E.

of

Modes

66

5.5,65,

Mulford,

Mundt,

52 ;

II.

Descartes,

Spinoza,

79, 86.

II. 333.

doctrine

Monads,

of

Glord.

W.

Monclc,

27 ; of

II.

145;

Kant,

507.

441.

of

Gerson,

hylozoistic,

of

Michel

Sense,"

de Secondat,

391

by Paley,

Baron

de,

II.

122,

expression

.377;

originated

existence

its

392

by Hutcheson,

; held

II. 356

Morals,

in

Nash,

of,

divine

founded

of

on

91

doctrines

self-interest

on

333 ; doctrine
of

122,

Helvetius,
basis

of

J.

principle

148

of, Czolbe,

; of

Hutche-

H.,

Morel,

C,

; of

of

II.

Morgan,

Augustus

Morgan,

Thomas,

Ph.,

Morta(i)gne,
Morus

(More),

Moses,
Motion,
60

son

of

eternity

against,

90;

166 ; the

basis

quantity

of,

Descartes,
Kant

on

the

of,

II.

Neale,

E.

20, 30.

Elea,

V.,

440.
the

of.

the
this

I. 428.

58, 59

I.

processes,

disputed
of

69 ;

doctrine,

universe,

in Kant's

88

of

harmony

and

earlier

view,

Schelling's

philos.

of,
463

I.
:

of

independent
metaphysical.

Christianity,

of

194, 196:

rational,
II.

273.

Church,

469, Spinoza,

Eckhart,

in

edge,
knowldivine

the

.55, 71, 72

: in

Leibnitz

and.

experience,
;

criterion

Ulrici,

300 seq.

of,

necessity, Collins, 372, 373;

moral

28

cession
suc-

mechanical

Kant's

Catholic

doctrine

experience,

and

ceptions,
con-

of,

law

112:

i)eculiarity

early

the

on

Scotus

Hegel's philos. of, 2;", 241, 531.

on

Stoic

Necessity,

seq.

Bruno's

201, 214.

II.

II.

Johann,

Bishop,

171

; doctrine

J.

S.

Mill;.

by

Melissus,

arguments

158,

162,

Hobbes,

164,

II. 39 ;

in

German

Scholastic

Newman,

107;

Newman,

Leibnitz,

142,

179 ; in

on

its

Tren-

Newton,
those

seq.

mysticism,

468 ;

11. 5 seq.,

Dan..

The,
II.
II.

; in
after

inflnences
the

of,

Cabala,

the

end

of

im

421

the-

20.

I. 232-234.

117.

437.

F.

W.,

J.

H., II. 442.

Isaac, II. 89, 90

of

238-254;

222,

period,

Nettelbladt,

347, 349.

I.

theology, 347

Neo-Pythagoreans,

unchangeable,

motion,

Physics,

Christian

200.

I.

Neo-Platonism,

Democritus,

measurement

relativity, 146 ;

222

I.

cited

265

62

view, 188, 192-194;

of, 213, 217,

; with

revelation,

Berkeley,

Leibnitz,

grace,

163

261

divine

Spinoza,

ideas,

our

Nausiphanes,

Neander,

I.

of,

first

God,

with

later

Nemesius,

Narbonne,

of all real

52;

27 ; the

teleological explanation

Neeb,

387, 398.

I.

Aristotle's

in

division

II.

205-208;

39, 40

Hobbes,

of, Aristotle,

the

the

among

Buffon, 130.

126 ; with

on

and

nature

; with

14

II.

429.

120.

of

people,

Epicurus,

of

Zeno

Johann

the

seq.

with

de, II. 438.

II. 378.

of

for

134

I.

seq.;

88, 112, 155, 156, 161

Joshua,

; with

Sophists (see Sophists,pass.\

and

Thomas,

unreal,

the

logical

of,

nings
begin-

441.

Kant,

II.

54

the

280, 285.

I.

128.

Walter

; in

; necessary

Academies,

knowledge,

442.

II.

II.

458.

among

identical

A.

20, 41, 54, 357-359.

II.

20, 23,

II.

121

II.

Philosophy

nature,

Morelly, Abb6,

Moritz, K.

Nature,

264,

Mill, 425;

James

Mill, 429, 430

S.

trine
; doc-

Bain, 431.
More,

I.

Gassendi,

143;

Fichte, 210;

of.

Butler, 385

402;

426 ; of

467-484

Schelling, 213, 222.

G.,

the

of
;

; founded

129

principle

391

Thomasius,

of, Kant,

principle
291

282,

Reid

Bentham,

Paley, 91,

Leibnitz, 106

O.

Ad.

sympathy.

on

happiness,

of, Bishop

392;

pon,

90 ; founded

180-185;

of, Beneke,

on

perfection, "Wolff, 116

by

of, Kant,
basis

C.

Erigena

90 ; doctrine

134 ; ajsthetic

of. Home,

II.

induction.

on

good-wT.ll by Cumberland,

definitions,

and

; with

Rousseau, 122,

authority,

principle of,

philos.,

Simon,

with

civil

universal

on

Erigena, I. 358 ; with

Bonaventura, 433, 435-36

German,

Peripatetics, 180

God,

Melanchthon,

founded

Hobbes

by

Shaftesbury,

Smith,
115;

Culverwell,

nature,

464,

be

must

38 ; founded

Bacon,

J.

the

Scotus, 456, Occam,

science

of

J.

Naturalism,

; Edwards

and
maxim
: nature
of, Rosmini, 494.
the will of
Principles of, dependent
on

Duns

18;

theory

Scotus

; of

Ophites, The,
H., II. 310.

or

among
founded

467 ;

Plato,

Naasenes

Napier,

with

controverted

446.

Morality,

40

the

II.

of, in

115

Nahlowsky,

Shaftesbury,

49 ;

47,

I,

Synesius, 348.

125.
Moral

Cabala,

6, 14.

II.

de,

Charles

Montesquieu,

of

Mjths,

17, 270.

I.

Jewish,

295.
8.

Victors, 400

Scheffler,

II.
II.

G.,

of mod.

130 ;

Deschamps,

3.36.

Hartmann,

doctrine,

Germs

II.

Montaigne,

on,

J.

H.

the

; on

183.

Marcus,

St.

Monotheism,

"

Mussmann,

Mysticism,

II. 231.

Miinnich,

441.

II.

Pythagorean

Musurus,

387, 394.

Abelard,

458.

the

54

dialogues, 109-110

J.,

403.

S.,

295.

S., II.

J.

Aristoxenus,

nitz,
Leib-

(cf. 175):

Mamiani,

; of

O.

II.

of von

doctrine

II.

Lord,

II.

Monism,

of

I. 307-;^10 ; with

Monarchianism,
Monboddo,

Bruno,

Lotze, 312, .316

of

295.

Platonic

on

Music,

92, 93, 107-112

doctrine

II.

Th.,

Munk,

Munsell,
Murphy,

I. 408.

J.,

Moleschott,

James

421.

I. 409.

Mohammedanism,

matter,

by

Miiller, J., II. 323.

Locke,

Mohammed,

of

explained

459.

II.

E.,

Miiller, P.,

I. 332-234.

Gades,

verted
contro-

203.

substance),

(of

against, II. 378 ;

386.

Campbell,

II.

S.,

Moderatns

motions

kinds, E.

Mill, 425.

argument

Geo.

by
Mirbt,

810.

II.

Hume's

Miracles,

system, 326-329
Darwin, 389

three

F. W.,

Miquel,

J.

delenbu

Mill, 427.

Leibnitz, with

; his

clain"

reference

compared
to

the

withi

discovery

;52

INDEX.

Calculus, 98-100

of the

137

earlier philosophy,

Nice, Council

Autricuria,

of

Nicomachus

Nihilism,

of

I.

Gerasa,

Noetus

of

371 ;" and

11;

II.

103 ; with

ot

with

Forms

Norris, John,

II.

the

of

The,

286-288

in

the

11th

Occam,

38-40;

lius.
Nizo-

M.

with

E.

Leibnitz, Park,

"), Kant,
216;

on,

on,

246

241,

the

103.

II,

Gnostics,
"

(See

doctrine

of,

122,

; doctr.

of

46-47,

I,

123;

49

Neo-Pythagorcan

Nicolaus

Cusanus,

.cf. 25.
of

234, 237, 243,

I.

Apamea,

Oc.-cam, William
the

Ocellus

C,

of

II.

Lorenz,

Oken.

Paul,

226, 227.

Oldendorp,

of

John,

elder,

Oiympiodorus,

the

younger,

Ontological

Argument,

Leibnitz

104, 105

on,

Ontologism,"

Ophites

H.
of

Optionism,
146

Kant,
;

for

II.

The,

B., IL

existence, An42, 49, 51 ;

God's

of

II,

in limited

sense,

I.

167, 168

Aristotle,

I.

144, 151-157.

Lotze,

II.

314.

Oriental

The,

of

philosophy,

I.

14-17;

influence

philosophy, 31-32,22^ 223, 233 ;

on

on

51

and

Greek

84

E.

by

of

Greek

Pen-onet,
i Persaeus

II.
I.

and

390

I.

; of

human

of

368.

287

involves

416,

i)hilos,

of

history, Augustine,

philos., II. 1.

185, 188.

forms

of, 171;

Hamilton,

26-29;

all

in

time,

; sensuous,

of

; doctrine

in,

internal

Ueberweg,

and

I. 180-185.

Stoic,

means

clearness

"Anticipations"

; in modem

Vincent,
the

space

Beneke

Philos.,

Era, 261, 262

Christian

nas,
Aquiby

"perceptions"

111;

Darwin,

judgment, Reid, 396

doctrine,

and

sensuous

seq.;

109,

of

to

191,

Thomas

Aureol,, 461

on

of

knowledge,

E])icurean

472 ; degrees

organ,

relation

all

thought,

of

Locke

external,

Peripatetics, The,

Tatian, 294.

79,

345, 346

''Organon,"

191-193;
basis

Eckhart,
II.

; defined

Periods

Aristotle,

direct, Petr.

168

its

120.

on,

of

source

1.57, 164-166;

of, Kant,

507.

Plato

doctrine,
183 ;

Leibnitz,

internal

Hartmann,

63;

theory,

Empedocles'

doctrine,

Stoic

images,

seq.

I.

I. 280. 285.

Strato,

monads,

by

53;

I. 271-274.

Aristotelian

perception,

approved

II.

20, 25, 465.

II.

doctrine, 70:

148, 177,

93, 112;

Descartes,

77.

sensuous,

Descartes,

280, 285.

will.

of

P., II.. 295.

E.

II,

497-509,
I.

by Mamiani,

existence.

on,

of

of

absent

seq.

306.

II.

442, 449

295.

Leibnitz,

; doctrine

affirmed

Organized

; Kant

Italian,

Naasenes,

or

Oppenheim,

336

I. 255.

The,

Judaism,

I. 810.

203, 204. 206, 207

I.. 378, 38:3-386 ; Descartes,

selm,
"

192:

254, 255.

I.

I. 281 ;

; inanifestations

.342 ; theory

Christianity,

124 ;

.30.

II.

the

198-200

sage,

Samosata,

thought,

Olympiodorus,

doctrine,

Ai"ostle, I. 266-268.

t!ie

Atomistic

E.. II. 310.

Olawsky,

of, 54, 55

Heraclitean

Gnosticism,

55, 76,

Spinoza,

Perception,

226, 228.

II.

the

on

purified by tragedy, 1. 178

Perates, The,

I. 43.

Pythagorean,

K.

Oersted,

on, 110.

on

414.
in

Augustine,

Peipers,

42. 54 ; Liebnitz

I. 40 ; life

Heraclitus,

II.

Stoic

the

Pauline

of, I. 460-464.
II.

""

the

Blaise, II., .54.

Peip, A.,

Occasionalism,

by

by Plotinus, 247.

Paasions, The,

Paul

"Niumenius

philos.

German

seq.

; defined

I. 461.

Patritius, Franc:cscus,

II, 24 ;

128

417, 418.

tellect,";in
In-

tonic
Pla-

55, 60

Spuioza,

Diderot,

41, .357.

II.

and

influences

Parsee

Pascal,

; of

Leibnitz,

117,

doctrine,

of,

Samuel,

Samuel,

PaiT,

penhauer,
vdll, Scho-

Ferrier, 421.

I,

of

Hegel

is the

noumenon

11.156,

mystics,

459.

II.

Parmenides,

Dinant,

German

Hegel.)

and

doctrine, 49, 54-57;

Schelling

Pythagorean

doctrine, 234

Law

A.,

in

(Cf.

Erigena,
of

20, 24.

II.

Parcimony,

27 ; of

Dicaearch,

David

the

91 ; of

; of
Scotus

and

among

II.

Bruno,

Toland,

460-464; Paracelsus,

and

of

seq.

Amalrich

Fichte, Schelling,

Saint
INumber.

G.

56 ; cited

Plotinus,

; doctrine

36;3 : of

133, 134

I.

Stoics, 194

Gioberti, 503.

tury,
cen-

with

Erlgena, I. 361.

themselves

true

Speusippus,

the

John

of

Parker,

255. 261, 262:

Nous,

of

185, 189.

I.

Rhodes,
of

484 ; of

; first appearance

89, 366.

157, 172, 175, 176;

;

of

368, 362,

266

466,

'the,Scotus

('"thmgs-in-

2-39, 530-31

91, 391.

I. 369.

Labeo,

Noumena

458.

II.

of,

; contrasted

of

Inghen,

Hobbes,
of

190.

I.

Paley, WiUiam,

295.

II.

Roscellinus,I. 372.

II.

183;

Lotze, 319.

Non-existent,

Notker

372

doctrine

Marsilius

by

Chegny, I. 369.
Freising, cited on

Paine, Martyn,

Aristotle, I. 160;

Realism,

to

Trinity,

the

(366), 374;

Realism

taught

of

; varieties

opposition

in

of

388, 401, 402, 431

doctrine

the

not

of, 365-371

beginnings

of

Otto

I. 308.

Smyrna,

Nominalism,

187, works,

I.

Stoics,

Otto

103, 104.

on,

135, 402.

II.

James,
I. 370.

Pantheism,

11 ; Liebnitz
the

on

L. F., II. 310.

Panaetius

13, 467.

II.

II.

Nizolius, Marius,
cited

I. 76, 77.

Gorgias,

of

I. 201.

Epicurean,

Peetus, Thrasca,

205, 206.

I.

Niphiis, Augustinus,

L.,

181, 184.
232, 234,

53.

II.

The,

Noack,

I. 467.

I.

n.hilo,

ex

Oswald,
Othlo,

Damascus,

Nicole, Pierre,

tlie

Ostennann,

II. 20, 23, 24.

Cusanns,

Origen, the Christian,I. 239, 240 ; life,315 ; doctrine,

311, 312, 315-319.
Origen, the Neo-Platoniet, I. 239, 240.
Orion,

118.

II.

Nicolaus,

Nicolaus

370.

on,

I. 2"3.

The,

of

Kant's

on

I. 404

N.colaitans,

Nicolans

in

populnrizcd

nonce

Porter

; Dr.

Blemmydes,

Nicolai, Friodrich,

ind

; his

2(i3,325,

I.

of,

NicephoniH

Nihil

; his doctrine

by Voltaire, 124

Franco

653

INDEX.

^Persian
religion,1.

256, 264 ; of Hart-

II.

Pestalozzi,
of

Peter

460, 461.

Petrus

Aureolus,

I.

Hispanus,

I. 457-469

Petrus

Lombardus,

I.

Phacdo

of Elis

and

his

91.

I.

school,

teacher

I. 201;

of

Cicero,

" 122

on,

pass.

Philoponus,

Johannes,

antiquity, 14
26-29

Eleatic, 49-60;
71 ; of

the

minor

Socratic

of

"

of

180-185;
of, 191;

224

Philo,

2;34 ; of the

Eclectic

Platonic

Era,

; Patristic

303;

Tertullian,

of

knowledge

II.

and

17
26

Taurellus,
Empiricism,
its

39

and

102;

and

Philos., 135-535

philos., 136, 137;

by
of

243
"

definition

relation

Theology

"');

its

436

; in

positive religion,

the

scholastic

on

37

Modern

by

fundamental

problem,

Germany,
Holland,
Modem

292-337
337

Herbart,
; of the

seq.

I.

Greece,

268

264,

Ulrici, .300, .301 ;

Unconscious,

(in France, 337-347

Denmark,

(see

Schopenhauer,

II.

Norway,
Spain,

3-36
; in

its

Recent
:

out

T.

on,
scholars, 367 ;
4:35.

13th

Mysticism, 468

on,

Jewish

in

centuries, 429,

; after

5 seq.

II.

philos.,

Church

Abelard

421

14th

and

the

of

285:

338
.3:37,

Cabala.

the

in the

(see

view

462

the
; in

end

of

English

; Stoic

doctr.,208-212; doctr.

Pletho, Georgius
242, 244-251
Plutarch
Plutarch

.346 ; in

Sweden,

sia,
Rus-

I. 20 :

347 ; in

England

and

works,

of
on

II.

history

5, 8, 9.
244

doctrine, 'HA!^

II. 72.

by Spinoza,
118.

I. 238,

Chajronea,
the

Descartes, II. 53.

II.

reproduced

Athens,

of, I. 95-98 : Aristotelian

doctrine, 198 ; Eioicurean

life, 243.

Gottfried,
of

of

Gemistus,

238-251

I.

Ploucquet,
of

2.34-2:38;

I.

Eclectic.

Academies),

of, 169, 172

Plotinus,

Belgium,

fluence
in-

Augustine

313:

on,

Pleasure, Cyrenaic doctrines

Hegel's def.,2.31,2.3.3,

4,

Moses

2.38 seq.

Neo-,

154;

Schleiermacher

in

German

Platonists

of modern

Kant,

by

philos., 36, 41.

pi-ogress

of

compared

as

by Bonaventura,

Augustine

influence

philos., 428;

starting-point,

261 ; defined

German,

220

394 ;

his

119.

II.

S67.

Gnosticism,

Fathers, 313

ings,
; writ-

"Attic-

an

instructed

to mediaeval

known

II.

in

doctrine

Fathers.

expounded

Ernst,

Platonism,

transcendental,
of,

and

36,

development

theology,

to

works

defended

Platner,

principle of, Fichte, 208, 209, Schelling, 214, 215

Schelling's

337, :3.38:

of, 98-104

life

76,

Socrates,

Martyr), 290, 293:

(Justin

Church

32-1.36 ;

Division
of

prophets

the

of

115-117, 119-123

246 ;

Plotinus,

Place, Conyers.

revelation,

Bacon,

Leibnitz

4-31 ;

Philos.

of

on

to the

Mod.

237 ; his

Moses,"

ists,
Soph-

Gorgias,

ethics, 128-1.32;

speaking
that

the

on

historian

as

on

to that

dialectic.

his

his

and

latter,

92

Antisthenes,

on

the

Transition,

to

Last

principle

the

74

philosophy

his

52 ;

Eleatics.

Protagoras,

on

I. 3 :

philosophy,

the

physics, 123-128;
with

of

on

of

104-115

affirming

of

Lord

relation
61

end

Skepticism,

and

60,

others,

Third

88, 89

9, 468.

II.

I. 289.

philos., 18
73, 77 ;

by

9, 464, 468.

II.

Mirandola,

of

conception

77 ; relation

the-

; necessary

Divis.

Neo-

theology, 444

supplemented

by Hobbes,

Spinoza
in,

15-19

subdivisions,

and

decree

to

of

Epoch

Dogmatism,

objects

defined

Second

412

philos.

Protestantism,

Keformation,

of

; Arabian

its

II. ; divisions

Division

First

358, 360

417-428;

Alfarabi,

Vol.

232-

identical

philos,

true

Scotus,

of

Philos.,

Modern

his

theology,

to

Jewish,

God,

Sophia,

Plato,

311, 314,
nullity of, Lactantius, 324 ;

subordination

philos.

Christian

one

Pistis

New

442.

II.

A.,

Old

Christ.

; denounced

John

philos., 405-417;

the

with

454

religion,

true

the

262

of

the

Philos., 263-855

Philos., 355-467

Scholastic

Philos.

ancillary

328, 347, 355-357,

"with

Platonists, 234-238,of

of, 261,

Periods

Neo-Pythagorean,

2:38-259;

School,
261

: the

; the
of

exposition

J.

Picton,

The

14.

II.

Mirandola,

Francis,

20

nitz,
Leib-

155, 163,

'"

the

II.

128, 129.

II.

The,

Francis,
of

John

Pico,

in

mechanics,

; and

the

370, .371.

England,

Physiocrats,"

Pico, John,

sion
divi-

Skeptics, 212-217

; of the

222-232;

Testament,

Stoic

205-208;

158, 178-180

Kant,

60-

of

philosophy,

modern

45, 46

of

in

Piccolomini,

tetics,
Peripa-

163-1()9

synthetic juilgments in, Kant,

"

Physics
"

of

53 ;

Atomists, 67-70

the

Epicurus,

of

Descartes,

164 ; doctrines

tonic
Pla-

of

lonio

in,

Empedocles,

Aristotle,

of

period

106;

201-212; Epicurean

Epicureans,

philos., 204

of

the

; of the

; of

seq.

the

Aristotle, 151-180;

Stoics, 185-200;

the

of the

of

12:3-128

Plato,

Stoics, 194-197;

Aristotle, 3, 144, 145, 153;

of

Jewish-Alexandrian,

ology.

and

64-66

Anaxagoras,

23

I.

of,

doctrines

57 ; of

cosmogony,

transitional

Plato, 115-132;

of, 151, 153, 154

division

of Greek

Socrates
of

of

133-137;

Philosophy

Aristotle's

of

of

philosophers, 60-

schools, 80-98;

Academies,
First

divis.

71-80

philos.

Ionic, 32-42

of, by Plato, 115, 119; philos.

division

'

natural

later

Sophists,

; Periods

29-71

63 ; of

I. 1-5 ;

of,

Oriental, 14-17

Pre-Sophistic,

24, 26.

I.

cosmology,

conceptions

historical

Philosophy,

philos.,

hia

Syros,

theories

Xenophanes'

I. 403.

Constantinople,

ancient

on

136, 215, 218.

I. 133.

Academic,

of

32-43

Parmenides'

of

Pherecydes

"

works

255, 259, 347, 349, 402.

I.

the

Larissa,

theories,

Lotze, 314.

of

of

Photius, Patriarch

II. 240 ;

Hegel,

43, 46, 48, 49.

I.

I. 181.

Physics,
Kant

I. 90.

I. 201, 205.

Philoponus,
Philo

218.

Phenomena,

486, by

135.
1-3.3,

I.

Megarian,

the

Philolaus,
10.

; II.

387, 399, 400.

Epicurean,

the

II.);

Galuppi,

of, I. 228, 229 ; doctrine, 224, 225,

life

Jew,

Philodemus,

Petrus

Phasdrus

Philo

I. 457.

Aquila,

of

Petrus

485 ; by

229-2,31.

7, 8, 462.

II.

Francesco,

Petrarca,

Opuntian,

the
the

Philo

465, 466.

I.

Ailly,

523.

II.

H.,

J.

I.; in Italy, Appendix

by Romagnosi,

Rd^mini, 490.
Philip

n, oSG.

man

Appendix

America,
defined

Schopenhauer,

of

simism

17.

298, 306.

II.

M.,

as

of

265, 266.
historian
the

MS.

of
of

philosophy,
Aristotle's

149 ; his philos. position, 2:34 ; doctrine, 236.

654

INDEX.

its basifi and

Poetry,

Bacon, II. 36.

divisions,Lord

Psellus, Michael.

402, 404, II. 10.

I.

Poiret, Pierre, II. 20, 54.

Pseudo-Dionysius

183, 135.
Politianus,Angelus,

Psychology, (cf. "Soul"

I.

Polerno,

11.

II.

theories, 2Ji-24

Roman

93, 94

thenes,

169, 170, 177;

Hol)bes, 34, 40

of

of

theories

7!" ; doctrine

Sophists,

of, I. 12
; histories

of, I. 12-13

Politics, histories

of

128-130

IL

Aristotle,

II.

on

of Spinoza, 61
Hegel, 241, 242.

Pollio, I. 190.
Polus,

the

"

Petrus,

6, 13, 463-4, 466.

II.

II.

Porter, N.,

11.

Posidonius

of

185, 189

I.

Rhodes,

; teacher

II. .337, 344, 345;

Potamo,

the

Alexandrian,

Potamo,

the

Lesbian,

of

in

Quadratus,

I. 243.

occult,
the

of

notion

categories of Aristotle,I. 155

philos. writings

ancient

the

Scholastics, S67, 430

of, II.

Preiss,

; referred

known

J.

denied

; his

life

falsely ascribed

109:

II.

196; Leibnitz,

I.

29-32, 42-49
II.

Cusanus,

to,

fluence
; its in-

24.

I. 291.

of,

secondary, Locke,

and

Leibnitz

by

399 ; doctrine

primary

James

of

Mill

397

of, Reid,

; James

MiU

425 ;

on,

428.

on,

IL

128.

Radenhausen,

C,

Quesnay,

85 :

79,

II.

103

others,

and

425.

kinds

S. Mill

denied

Stoic doctr.,

by

145,

Kant,

I. .373.

Raimbert,

The.

Rakusii,
Ramsay,

(cf. 173).

II. 335.

53.

II.

Raey,

indicernabilitim.

identitatis

PHncipiuni

; work

308.

I.

Priestley,Joseph, II. 80, 89, .388. 389.

I.

Apology

Quantity,

the

to

310.

II.

I. 91 ; life

Megarians,

philosophy, I. 2

of

seq.

secondary, Reid,

and

writings, II. 295.

; his

Monarchian,

the

Praxea.s,

v,

I. 201.

Epicureans,

the

and

notion

Qualities, primary

explanation

the

on

".

115.

II.

von,

Nicolaus

concerning.

on

seq.

below,

see

Italy,513-516.

243.

I.

401.

to

S64Asso-

406, 409, 421

seq.,

Philosoi)hy, The,

Cicero, Pythagorean

4;39.

11.

Reid's

Power,

Prantl

his

with

Powell, Baden,

: the

seq.

425.

218.

"Positivism,"

386

Alexandria,

of

doctrine, 42

and

458.

Descartes,

defenders,

philosophers,

Skeptic,

Pythagoras,

14, 467.

II.

of

doctrine, 212-214.

and

365.

of, 252,

Porta, Simon,

and

century. 371

Italian

Samuel

the

Pyrrho,

181, 242, 251, 252 ; the

I.

critics

18th

England,

of

Ptolemies, The,

20, 41.

Neo-Platonist,

37;

Bacon,

Soul.")

Puffendorf,

John,

Porphyry,

in

(Doctrines

I. 369.

Imgoge

Locke's

ciational,

Pomponatius,

Pordage,

; of

I, 201.

274. 278, 279.

Lord

of

369 ; in England,

I.

437, 439Magnus,
441-42, 449-50 ; of Dung

Spinoza, 73 seq. ; of Locke, 79,

80, 82-85 ; of Leibnitz, 92, 110, 111 ; rational,Kant,
157, 173 seq. ; of Herbart,
265-66, 273-278 ; of
Beneke,
281, 282, 2S6-2(K) ; of Lotze, 316-318 ; in
sand
Hobl)es's
England
previous to Descartes'
time,
351-356

Polystratus, I. 201.
Poppo,

42, 51-53;

Int";llect.")histories

Eckhart, 472, 473; Melanchthon,

18, 19; subject of.

Sophist, I, 79.

Polyaenus,
Polycarp,

of

"

Albertus

Aquinas,

45(5;

Areop.).

the

and
of

Psychol,

Thomas

Scotus,

Antis-

29, 30; of
con,
induction, BaMontesquieu, 125,

based

38 ; views

126 ; of

of

40 ; of

by

8(5 ; of

Macchiavelli,
be

and

Greek

propounded

Socrates,

Plato,

; must

of

(see Dion,

Christians, I. 409.

of Ebionitic

sect

439.

II.

George,

Principles, Aristotle,
to the

four

adds

; Galenus

237 ; first,how
Locke.

innate.

none

and

reasoning

152, 157

Aristotle.

of

463

Occam,

I.

II.

Leibnitz,

knowledge.

one

obtained,

79.

; of

"3, 84

II. 113

Kant,

Rationalism,

144, 145; regulative, Kant, 158 ; first,Reid, 400.

II. 409 : Hamilton, 417, 418.
Brown,
Priscianns, I. 259.
Priscus, I. 252, 254.

of

The

F.

implies truth.
ProbiTs,

Proclus,

Syrian

Thales

on

238 ; his

of

commentator

I, 34-35

and

Cameades,

Aristotle,

origin
of

; member

work, 255

to

ace.

I. 136 ;

; life and

of
the

I. 403.

mathematical
Athenian

ences,
sci-

school,

doctrine, 257, 258.

Cf.

Raymundus

of

Prodicus

365, 371

; varieties

367, 368

374

the

of

Protagoras

what

Abdera,

Life

of, I. 74

doctrine, 73-

76.

Protestants,
with

Providence,

and
The
the

; efforts

of

Catholics,

Stoic

Lactantius, 323.

Leibnitz

to

effect

union
re-

doctrine,I. 194, 196

Realistic

Reason,

101.
;

Oicero, 220 ;

to

realism

of

of

element
active

work

with

val),
(mediae-

Anselm.

at

II.

as

; and

the

381-385:

204 ; medifeval,

held
with

by Herbart,

re-

264

idealism, Ulrici,

486-7.

passive

philosophy, II. 136, 151.

totle,
(cf. "Intellect"), Aris-

doctrine

Aphrod.,

Por

(366),

of Occam,
Paris, 467 ; the

by Will,

taught

of,

Auxerre,

Super

: combated

Bardili,

Nominalism

be

in Kant's

164, 167-8

Alexander

of

Trinity, 377

the

385;

"realism,"

and

Eric

the

with

hand-in-hand

go

Galuppi's

I.
of

affirms, 386

; must

301;

philos.,II. 15-19.

; in

; contrasted

required

I. 305

; with

of, 366

doctr.

457, 459.

Tertnllian,

by Schelling,221

.newed
seq.

Protestantism

it
;

I.

358, 363. S64; beginnings

ontological argument,

rational

Ceos, I. 78.
of

and

with

Remigius, 368
369

181, 185-187.

465, 467.

I.

Erigena,

phyrium,

fluence
in,

Wolf, 113

and

Kant,

(or LuUius),

Sabunde,

(material)

462

425.

with

61

II.

Spinoza,

Leibnitz

of

457.

II

Lullus

Realism

Augustine, 338.

Saint

A.,

Scotus

of,

degrees

School

the

Raymundus

Prisons, Helvidius, I. 190.

Probable,

with

Theological,

Lessing, 120-122;

with

Rauch,

Thos.

12, 19, 25.

II.

Petrus,

Ramus,

of

Theophrastua,

184, 185 ;

in

the

182 ;

system of

655

INDEX.

(the Nous), 241, 247 ; forms

Plotinus

of, Crerbert, 370

certain

of

knowledge

the

; unable

dogmatic

Protestant

opinion,

II. 15, 16 ;

reason

that

the

apprehends

of

173

144, 145
184;

reason,
on

absolute

to

nature

defined

367

Browne,

Law

of,

Schleiermacher,

244.

Pseudo-Clementine,

Redepenning,

of,

his

universal,

Origen's

of

summary

internal

knowledge.

Locke,

172, 173

Kant,
Regius,

II.

53.

Reiche,

A.,

II.

perception,

doctrine, I.

of

source

A.

cited

von,

Riier,

ism
parallel-

the

on

331.

works,

of

Reimarus,

H.

Reinbeck,

J.

S.,

118.

Reinhard,

I. 369.

E.,

Reinhold,

K.

Relativity

of

philos.,I, 10
L., II. 194, 196, 197, 212.
thought. II. 418, 419, 514-15.
I. 415

Spinoza

181, 185 187;

by

J.

S.

tude,
multi-

the

to

; Kant

the

on

for

distinctive

as

evidences

English

writer

Natural

R., 378, 379

of

of

feeling

H.

of

Spencer

of, 360

; Hume

religion

and

Butler's

433 ; natural,

I. 368.

by

C,

cited

age

II.

Rowland,

J.,

II. 441.

the,

in

442, 450.

203, 204

of thought,

73 ;

Kant,
among

W.,

II.

69 ; condition

Saadja

ben

Phenomena

(see

"

with

all

Berkeley

modes
"

and

that

of

material

elemeiits,
Kant,

Fajjumi,

309, 310

; his

418, 423, 424.

I.

Christendom,

evangelical

II, 145.

with

compared

doctrine

311,

and

of

cellinus,
Ros-

37().
200.

II.

Sallustius, Neo-Platonist,
Francis,

Sanchez,

Gnostic, I. 280, 2a3, 284.

I. 183.

Scaevola, Q.

Schaller, J.,

II.

on

II.

beginnings

of

219 ; founded

the

in

14.
Platon.

dialogues, I. 111.

212.
296.

Johann
(Angelus Silesius),II. 115.
Jacob, II, 19, 26.

Scheffler,
Schegk,

em,
of mod-

reality, Bacon,

483-4.

Casp.,
II.

image

; the

art, Schellmg,

with

B.,

I. 463 ;

Occam,

Schaarschmidt,
J.

I. 189.

Mucins,

what

Scioppius,

Schad,

252, 254.

512.

II.

Sanseverino,

I.

6, 15.

II.

Schasler, M., II. 296-297.

156, 165, lf58,170.

II. 310.

469, 484.

al

Joseph

Sabellius, I.

compared

Stoics,

true
of

185, 190.

II. 458.

II. 19 seq.

seq.

; the

when

I.

I.

Johann,

Science,

Italy, II. 461

; agrees,

II. 116, 117.

296.

II.

James,

Rush,

doctrine, I. 392.

Aristotle,I. 168

337, 340.

II.

C. Musonius,

Rusbroek.

122, 126, 132.

II.

440.

D.,

A.,

231.

296,

II.

Jacques,

Gioja,

object, Spinoza,

L.

of

mental,

193 ; Epicurus,

Repulsion,

Abelard's

138 ; works

490-496.

II.

Rowland,

53.

Representation,

"Hume"),

ideas), Plato, L 127 ;

Aquinas,

on

The

Renaissance,
II.

Thomas

II.

306, 307.
T.,

Jean

Satyrus,

(recollection of

combated

H.

Salat, J.,

on

tianity,
Chris-

of, m"

Analogy

concerning,

Kant,

II. 296.
II.

R.,

Saturninus,

Auxerre,

Reminiscence

R6musat,

II.

Wilhelm,
Antonio,

Rosmini,

355 ; first

man,

488.

Galuppi,
RemigiuK

natural

Clarke, 380

Dr.
notions

on

of

of

on,

Schleiermacher, 245 ; S.'s

of, 249-252 ; naturalistic, Liiwenthal,

334 ; capacity

364, 372-376, 380.

Hegel's

dependence,

philosophy

I.

F., Ed.

J. Karl

Rosenkranz,

Ruge,

II. 40 ;

relation

204;

Beck,

founded

206, 307.

II.

philos., 296.

Rufus,

for

40

Deists,

478, 484.

D., II.

G.

J. P..

Riidiger, Andreas,

others, 60, 61

and

defined

of, 233, 243

conception

335.

Royer-CoUard,

of Hobbes,

; doctrine

Enijlish

reason,

philosophy,

discipline

of

means

Abubacer,
on

of

historian

as

ReUgion, Positive,

absolute

II.

II.

Rousseau,

G.. II. 117.

Reinhold,

founded

E.,

Rotscher,

II.

123, 129.

II.

310.

H.

F.,

Romagnosi,

Rothe,

F., II. 296.

J.

226-7.

1. 10 ; II.

364, 373.

2-31.

II.
H.

the
of Neoblending
tude
doctrines, 349 ; philos. atti-

philosophy,

Baptiste,

Jean

philosophy, I. 10; of

on

306-7.

II.

of

I.

Paris,

Rossler, C,
131, 135, 394, seq.

II.

Reid, Thomas,

of,

works

Roscellinus, Nominalist,

philosophy, II. 3, 4

modern

"dialectic,"

Christianity,I.

Pauline

of

cited

historian

as

Robert

and
K.

ancient

sion
inclu-

; Stoic

in

I. 457-458.

Christian

and

of, Romang,

310.

and

Eesl, G.

as

conceptions

of, 180

included

historian

as

Rosenkranz,

of

its

Platonic

Ruder,

173.

transcendental,

Reichlin-Meldegg,

Reneri,

79, 84-87

II.

(Protagoras), 77

and

philos., 28;

Rohmer,

Reflection, or

73, 75

view

Jewish

on

and

274, 276.

I.

I.

logic, 191;

Middletown,

Ritter, H.,

Rixner,

316.

Reiff,

of

Robinet,

Recognitions,

by Maimonides,

Richter, F., II. 296.

S72.

171 ;

II.

Kant,

Richard

Greek

428, 429.

J. S. Mill, II.

of

accepted

273.

highest operation

AUhena-

; Aristotelian

Ritschl, A.,

reason

by Herbart,

only guide, Toland,

; the

doctrine

Reciprocity,

200; Schelling

; defined

by

364.

suff.

cal
practi-

of absolute

allegory," Synesius, 348;

Sophists,

in

of,

157, 158,

the

of, defended

of the

Rhetoric,

(Gorgias)

231 ; sufficient, principle

258-260

Cousin, 342

278 ; impersonal.

of

primacy

by Jacobi,

spirit, Hegel,

and

Reasoning,

of

doctrine
"sacred

428.

: agreement

principle

by Algazel, 414

defended

early
za,
Spino-

113

I. 297;

goras,

faith,

necessary,

the, Kant,

220 ; relation

reason,

of, Scliopenhauer,
P.

of

; Ideas

defined, 159, 173

seq.

113

faith,

with

reason

Kant,

Resurrection, The
to

Thom.
;

with

75 ; principle of, sufficient,Leibnitz,

reas.,

attain

truths,

conflicts

reason

tation
manifes-

to

472, 473

443 ; its sphere, Eckhart,

Aquinas,

of

alone

37;
tistics,
sta-

556

INDEX.

Sohelling, F. W.
5 ; borrower
200 ; gems

of
212

Fickte,
Schem

Boehmc,

his

life,214

; his

Tob

bon

ibn

Joseph

Transcendental,

Schcrbius,

Philip,

II.

of

244, 251, 249-254, 532 ;

II.

Schmid,

L.

and

P. X., II.

A. and

R.,

of,

the

present

time,

461

Italy,

256, 258-204, 532

284 ;

indebtedness

its

in

to

Thomas

earliest

opposition

34

in

to,

Schulz,

G.

; followed

criticised

or

how

Schwab,

H.

by

Schwartz,

and

Heinr.

Schwegler,
Jewish

A.,
and

of

philosophy,

373
"Christianity,

; his

Caspar,

E.,

II.

II.

Clement

Origen, 318

and

; the

St.

Strato

427, 428;

of

Sturm,

definition

414;

of

philosophy,

I.

4;

Sederholm,
Seelye,

I.

K.,

J. H.,

II.

180, 183, 446.

306.

Selection, Natural, according

Epicurus,

206.

284

inner

355 ; F. Hutche-

421.

the Cabala,

Cooper,

of, II. 80,

Earl

to

Empedocles, I. 62

II. 366.
I. 457-58.
I. 43.

principle, 32
Bayle,

54

H,,

B.

Adam,

Smith,

Alex.,

Smith.

H.

B.,

Smith, John,

; in

: of

Hume,

194 ; the

439.

II.

91. 393, 394.

II. 439.

459.

Cambridge,

II. 359.

by

Algazel,
by

taigne
Mon-

Cusanus,

Glanville, 35,

Hirnhaym,

130-134

270,

II.

II.

of

Nic.

by
by

Germany,

Herbart,

of

combated

revived

with

; maintained

; maintained
128

D'Alembert,

6, 14;

II.

23 ; its

Smith,

452;

Scotus,

others,

137,

I.

Academics,

212-217;

333, 835, 338, 339:

Duns

Smart,

the

among

Skeptic School,

Augustine,
with

of, II. 448.

doctrine

12.

II.

Greek,

philosophy,

232, 234.

II., 456.

Sella,C. G., II. 195.

Ashley

Edwards's

Kant, 154, 159

I.

understood

as

Beneke,

306.

41 ; of
of

II. 53.
of Athens,

of knowledge,

181, 255, 259.

in the

and

thoir

and

external

setise

; and

the

I. 26.

Pythagorean,
I.

Skepticism,
Saint

Lampsiicus,

Secundus

the

Simplicius,

138;

school, 185, 200.

their

from

knowledge,

Sextians, I. 221.

the

and
II.

Brabant,

II. 20.

Stoics, The,

of

material

Cherbury,

223, 226

Blea,

tion
(see "Percep-

the

of
the

on,
of

234, 236.

Sirmond, Anton,

II. 135.

Dugald,

Martin,

; with

I. 259.

Sin, Original,

180, 183.

I.

Stewart,

seq.,

the

I.

William,

of

Siger

Simmias,

tics,
Gnos-

Origen. 311, 318, 319;

of Maimonides,
and
interpretation of, II. 61.

418
on

130

Zeno

agents

as

by

of

Men, The,

I.

Sherlock,
:

authority of, Gregory of Nyssa, etc., 328 ; Scotus

Erigena, 360 ; Abelard, 395 ; allegor. interpr. of the
Spinoza

Condillac,

90, 377.

allegorical interpretation of, Philo, 229

Cabalists,

428.

Parmenides

on

internal

Shaftesbury, Anthony

194-196.

Scripture, inspired, Aristobulus, I. 223

Staseas,

Wise

Seydel, R.,

20, 29.

Scipio, I. 189.

282, 284;

denied

392.

Sextius, Q.,

G.

; the

278

son,

Severus,

works,

Schultz, J., II. 194, 196.

Schulz"?,

James

by

distinguished
forms

seq.

external, Herbert

Severianus,

I. 11 ; on

207.

Schwenckfeld,

42

Plato

sense

and

Seven

II. 297.

Hermann,

Pauline

by Thos.

of

reports,

165 ; furnish

The,

Hut-

duration,

39

tensity
in-

tion,
percep-

Sergeant, John, II. ;te7,365.

Sergius of Resaina, I. 403.

historian

as

79. 84

Septuagint,

IL, 307.

C,

Schwarz,

70;

on,

Herbart,

of

397-399

II.

their

external, Augustine, 340

II.

from

concerning,

I.

on,
of

internal

internal, Kant,

287

of

Laromiguidre,

; with

Heraclitus

the

origin of,

Cabanis, 338, 339.

; with

Democritus
-'

132

classified

and

S. Mill

Hobbes,

128

unveracity

by

195.

II.

J. C,

with

in all

; measurement

by Reid,

of J.

120 ;

Mettrie,

results, Beneke,

idea

by

50;

source

; immanent

distinguished

; defined

244, 251

Hart-

226, 228.

II.

von,

56, 57

by Beneke,

followed

A., II. 139.

F.

412

Bonnet,

Locke,

doctrine, 255,

336.

mann,

312

seq.

("impressions")

its

and

of,

; seat

Descartes,

la

l)e
127

sensation

; discussed

Czolbe, 333

58;

Italian, 511-13.
; his

; of

; at

91 ;

certainty,

84

79,

ideas, by Hume,

by Lotze,

; dicta

Senses, The,

Aquinas,
II.

by Bacon,

337 ;

the

Aristotelianism,

; and

of,

127

262, 328, 347 ; defined,

I.

overthrown

disciples, 307, 308

Schubert,

II.

I. 356.

term,

life,II. 257, 258

his

128;

from

Sensationalism,

the

; modem

seq.

Schopenhauer,

volition,

; sensation

411,

Brown,

39;

on,

Locke,

of, 321, 322;

457.
of

bloom

highest

method

and

; defined

seq.

Hobbes

Diderot,
168

immediate

ideas, Condillac,

distinguished

Mill, 423

Jews, 419, 427

the

doctrine,

philoR.,I. 4;

67, 70

I.

of,

possesses

knowledge,

thought

Kant,

305, 337.

history of, '355-467;

; his

from

11;

II.

of all

pupils, 306.

his

Scholasticism, foreshadowed,

429-432

received

297.

II.

II.

S.,

Scholastic," origin

and

all

doctrine

340 ; accompanied

E.,

S.

logues,
dia-

of

wisdom,
doctrine, 190.

and

; alone

of

cheson, 393

K.

440

Platonic

196.

Schmid,

Schmucker,

of

231.

II.

Schliephake,

source

matter,

life,246-248

226 ; his

II.

Schelling,

as

source

of the

of

ideas

II. 305.

Aristotle, 168

203.

defin.

II., 26.

Nizolius,

classification

on

Megaric

Sensation, Atomistic

26.

108, 109 ; philos. impulses

I.

Arabs

171.

II.

Kant,

424, 428.

Falaquera,

and

; character

Sengler, J.,

212.

II.

Matthias,

Schleiermacher's

355;

gel
; He-

19.1,197, 198.

II.

Schlegel, Friedrich,

"

2ia-225

310.

II.

Schilling, G.,

19,

II.

Schiller, Friedrich,

Schmidt,

Stfjic,185

Bardili, 20;^,and

doctrine,

Stcjic

the

on

cited

L. Annaeus,

Seneca,

198,

on,

Sennert,

Schemata,

Schleiden,

with

philosophy

philosophy, I.

of

20 ; Jacobi

II.

philos., 237.

his

on

definition

J., his

from

115

; defined

by

beginning

of

558

INDEX.

Striiter,T., II. 297.

trine, 188

"., II. 297.

D.

Strauss,

II. 336.

P. W.,

Strnhnock,

313, 320

Scutzmann,

J.

Victor, Hugo

St.

St.

of,

SuabecUssen,

Subjectivism
74, 75 ; of
Sublime,
on,

Kant

The,

77-79

Sophists,

II. 65

; of

II. 188, 191 seq.

on,

doctrine

applied

136.

includes

all

Scotus

things,

368

Remigius,
; doctrine

375 ;

Roscellinus,

of

and

"

399 ;

52 ;

doctrine, 55, 62, 63, 65-67, 69-71 ;

Spinoza's
of

Locke
the
on
conception
theory of, Leibnitz, 92, 107

monadic
doctrine

of
166

Kant,
nais

definition,

Descartes's

134, 524

Hume,

of

; law

seq.

343 ; two

on,

of, 79, 86,

of

; nature

51,
87

negative

the

notion,

Sulzer,

J.

Summa

of, 193

of, 237

first

in

152, 155, 156

I.

182 ;

Peripatetics,
of, 216

disesteem

by Kant,

146

of the

Middle

translators

and

Ages, I. 402-405

and

the

"

P.,

aesthetic

Taste,
Tatian,

I.

Taurellus,
G.

N.

Teleology,

of

166, 168;

tantius, 325
by English
one

of

452.
I. 86 ; of

Socrates,

denied
; of

by

Epicurus,

Gregory

writers, II.

Kant's

earlier

41

of

Nyssa,

; with

works,

Aristotle, 163, 164,

205, 206;
328

of

143 ; K.'s

final

and

seq.

447

460,

Nicolaus

of

436,

Magnus,

; of Albertus

; of

ish,
Jew-

on

Occ;am,

41, 42, 47-50

; of

seq.

; of

464

; of

Cusa-

Spinoza,

the

relation

the

"

234, 235.

in the

present

period

of

transitional
with

20, 24, 29;

II.

"

Neo-Platonism,"
Greek

The

The,

Thilo, C. A.,

II. 311.

Thomas,

Carl,

Thomas,

C,

Thomas

Leonicus,

Nicolaus

period

II.

II.

II. 12.

311.

440.

Kempis

"

(see

*'

of

Schelling,

I. 440-452.

Aquinas,

Cabala"),

philosophy,

223.

I.

Therapeutes,

"

of theology

I. 294, 297, 298.

Peripatetic, I. 180, 182.

222

on

245.

in 3d

Thomas

in

doc-

;:i61 ;

Antioch,

(see

Thomaeus,

Lac-

: defended

Leibnitz, 100

340tive,
nega-

distinguished

seq.

436.

II.

W.,

Gregory

or

; Maimonides

441, 443,

predominant

philos.,

II. 459.
II.

Taylor, Isaac,

19, 20, 26.

311.

II.

F.,

of

Theosophy
II.

of

Anselin, 378-386 ;
Alfarabi, 411, 412 ; of

455

I.

Smyrna,

Theophrastus,

469, 484.

Nicolaus,

Taylor, George,
Taylor,

II. 187.

294, 296.
I.

of

Theophilus

faculty, Kant,

Tauler, Johann,
Taute,

446, 453.

II.

; of

of

revealed

; of Descartes,

philosphy,

to
Theon

H.

Tappan,

; of

") ; Schleiermacher

God

255, 256.

I.

302

306-310

67, 71-73; rational, Kant, 157, 158, 177,

55, 61-6:3,
178 ; of
Fichte, 205, 210, 211 ; of Schelling (see

Arabs, 410 ;

I. 252-254.

School,

Syrianus,

24

II.

nus,

296,

Pseudo-Dionysius,

; of

394

tolic
Apos-

280-290

"abstracting"

469, 473

Eckhart,

Master

I. 347-349.

Aquinas,
452,

Scotus,

the

Augustine,

Saint

; of

418-419, 422-2^3

Thomas

; of

Duns

; of

324

of

261-263;

Hippolytus,

of

358-365

and

222

2J37,2:^8

Monarchianism,

and

387, 393,

Cabala,

the

by

Athenagoras,

Lactantius,

326, 328-331

Erigena,

Panae-

of,

Gnostics,

; of

of

separated, 429, 443, 444

439

philosophers

Christians

; of

427 ; natural

264-271
the

293, 294

"affirmative"

II.

Bacon,

53.

Gyrene,

of

322

Abelard,

the

ure
fig-

kinds
; attacked

philosophy.

of

Xenophanes,
80, 86,

Numenius,

and

Irenaeus, 300, 301

Scotus

of

Stoic,

II. 440.

T. C,

274-280

of

Socrates,

; three

Apostles,

his

Martyr.

Nyssa,

of

trine
; doc-

; fourth

Lord

by

figure, alone, admitted

II.

254;

252,

Arnobius,

of

Jewish-Alexandrians,

350, 351, 359, 361

on,

by

163

286 ; of

Plutarch,

and

: of

342;

240.

on,

Synesius

of

I. 113.

; valuelessness

; held

Sylvain, Pierre,
Symon,

Hales), 433, 434, (Thorn.

38, 40, 41 ;

the

of

Tertullian,305, 306

387, 399,

469, 484.

I.

of, developed
treatment

Hegel

Lombard),

the

Phcmlrus,

Aristotle

217 ;

Justin

of

Heinrich,

38 ; the

of

416.

by Averroes,

Stoics, 194, 195

; of the

Jesus

297

(Peter

Plato's

on

SyUogism, The,

Syrian

I, 467.

441.

Aquinas)
Suso.

Aristotle,162,

Fathers,

400 ; Theologice (Alex, of

Susemihl,

87 ; of

; of

cited

63-66;

Anaxagoras,

Jamblichus,

S.

a3, doctrine, 34-35.

I. 308.

I.

Heraclitus,

Skeptics,

119, 120.

II.

G.,

Sententiarum

of
of

of

(or Suisset), Richard,

274,

I.

I. 405.

Byzantium,

51, 52;

I. 200.

permissible,

Suinshead

of

tius, 189

Mill, 428.
Suicide

The,

Cyrenaic, I., 95, 97.

the

Theodotus

seq.

J.

by

on

254.

252,

I.

Asine,

Metochita,

; Lamen-

of, distinguished

; cited

297.

Theodorus

Theology

seq,

persistence of, 171

forms

II.

Patriarchs,

181, 252, 254

I.

Theodorus,

cident,
ac-

meanings

two

Twelve

II.

of

Theodorus

370,

tranBubstantiation,

303-306

I.

I. 201.

Themiatius,

of, Gilbertus,
views

G.,

Thaulow,

divine

363 ;

Erigena,

; in

the

philos., I. 9-10;

308.

Miletus, I. 32, age,

of

Thales

; Gioberti

; Aristotle's

Trinity, 347;

the

to

doctrine,

and

the

of

Themistia,

155, 157, 160, 161

I.

Aristotle,

of

Tetens, J. N., II. 119.

not

114,

Kant,

historian

as

277.

501-2.

Substance,

371

life

Tefitaments

Spinoza,

to

G.,

Monarchianism,

individual

other

attributable

228.

II.

Sophists, I. 70-73 ; of Protagoras,

of the

of,

G., II. 311.

Tepe,

I. 452.

Suarez, Francis,

Lotze,

limits

hilos., 28; II. 197.

Tertullian,

A.,

1). T.

W.

of Greek

I. 283.

Simon. Magus,

; of

327-329

II. 6, 20, 25, 465, 469.

460, 4'(1.

I.

Etiennc,

Tennemann,

1^87,400.

I.

of, I. 400.

Walter

Victor,

Tempier,

387, 400.

I.

of,

St. Victor, Ilichard

26fi,279

Herbart,

Trendelenburg,

Telesius, Bernardinus,

227.

II.

J.,

of

378.

Hume,

Striimpell, L., II. 310, 311.

; with

seq.
;

Hamerken").

I.

modern

213, 223

559

INDEX.

Thoma5?iuR,

Christian, II. 115.

Thompson,

R.

being

and

Thought

thought

material

of
451

condition

kind

one

of

identical

of,

73 ; its
its

with

basis

the

150, 157.

1(54

order

55,
of

Thiimming,

L.

Tiedemann.

D..

of his

philosophizing,

II.

the

Timajus,

19(i ;

doctr.,

had

of

phenomena,

201 ; vi'ew

of

271

in, Herbart,
of

469

motion,

93

of,

source

; of

of

the

327, 525

of, 330, 525

doctrine

volved
inform

as

from

of, flows

of
;

ception
con-

; TrPv

the

and

Megarians,

I.

01

his

"

doctrine, 213. 214.

Toland,

Tradition,

Authority

Scotus

of,

by

Esthetic,

173;

Plato,

124

; the

the

157, 161,

Soul,

Cabala,

H..

164-166

or

II. 59

Jis
,

: transc.

tion,
reflec-

I.

Th*:

296, 297

E.

reference

life,works,

dep""*i

of, 105;

includes

130
and

four

kinds

354, 355;

of.

necessary,

492 ; relative,

MiU,

J. S.

; necessary,

115,

II.

von,

390, 391.

II.

439.

II.

B.,

442.

II.

441.

42, 45 ;
to

the

of

Aristotle,
in

and

I. 154 ;

Spinoza's

philosophy,

c^ *ho, asserted

161

De

434

; of

Aquinas,

324-

of

modified

by

of

Hippolytus,

the

Monarch-

Albertus

461-463

ists

in

the

de
of

Duns

; of Master

only
in

Leibnitz

in

the

knowledge,
and

Kant,

mind,

of

of
in

413 ;

Hales,

of Thomas

Scotus,

Eckhart,

et

Avicenna,

453-455;

472 ; known
II.

13;

ex

Reid, 400.

non-derivable

II.

397

nmltis

436, 438-39;

of

; doctrine

Alexander

particular, Pomponatius,

realiter

Universality

; of

Magnus,

441, 444-446;

Occam,

372, 377, 378

unuin

; doctrine

of

Rosccllinus,

SpecieMci,

et

401 ;

Aristotle,426

Pseudo-

of

; the

Eric

of

387, 392-394

Geiieribus

Salisbury,

Champeaux,

381 ; of Abelard,

work
of

of

364

: doctrine

368

Remigius,

William

; of

Anselm,
the

358, 363,

things, Erigena,

367 ; of

Auxerre,

John

to

about, stated, 365-367

question

of

exist

not

before

of, II. 299-305, 334.

Aristotle, I. 157, 160,
objectively.Stoic doctr., 193 ;

doctrine

and

according

The,

; does

tem,
sys-

by Athenagoras,

'/, explanation
"'

works

multis, Alfarabi, 411

conception

; perscro

ments,
judg-

in

128.

J., II.

exists

only

302 ; doctrine

J.,
II.

Universal,

of
with

"''iecategories

doctri^o

Walther

Abraham,

371-76
I.

Pythagoras,

330,525
Trinity,

Tschirnhausen,

of

fundftmeatal

the

scendental
; Tran-

II. 440-

Trendelenburg
on

or

423.

Transubstantiation, d^snute
nature
of, I. 370, 3''1.
Travis,

objects,

PTit^i

Schelling, 217.

philosophy,
of

with

; Leibnitz

Deschamps,

First, Aristotle, 1. 157

Ulrici, H.,

defined

terms

Logic, 157, 160, ^.6(5seq.

Transmigration

87

existence, Rosmini,

idea

429.

360 ; contradictionsTyndall,

156, 157, ""72, 175, 176;

"things-in-themselves,"
Transcendental

the

transcend

of, I. 1 "'^-''.'^0.

Transcendent,

160

II.

Kant,

the

falsehood,

Chefrbury,

of

criteria

; four

259 ; nature

lation,
reve-

range

Ferrari, 514.

Tylor,

Erigena,

doctrine

and

the

894, 395.

in, Abelard,

Transcendental

of

guished,
distin-

only by

Tyler, S., II. 457.

130, 339.

II.

de,

Aristotelian

Tragedy,

Herbert

Turgot,

91, 376.

II.

John,
Destutt

Tracy,

Lord

Augustine,

theol.

of

criterion

of, Schopenhauer,

401

471

and

elements,

kinds

Aristotle,

Epicurean

God,

ideas, Locke,

the

on

contradictory

Tulloch,

1'.I5.

II.

A.,

G.

69;
in

than

Ueberweg

and

Tucker,

English rationalist, II. 92, 377, S}''-*,

the

Tindal.

Tittel,

rather

II.

Skeptic,

?
;

and

19 ; agreement

II.

object, Spinoza,

its

Truths,

I. 201.

the

Timon,

; Lamennais's

what

with

Eckhart,

reason,

Reid, 400,

; Eei'^.'''

doctrine, 399.
Timocrates,

human

Mclanchthon,

der,
Her-

251

244,

speculative
by Schelling,

religious, within

doctrine, 78;

192

191,

philos.

I. 467

Gerson,

opinion,

final

ulative
spec-

Logical,

of,

381

of

explained

; identical

on,

24 ; basis

227.
;

criterion

474

460 ; II. 6, 12, 13 ; obtainable

order

II.

conception.

Trendelenburg,

Kant's

on

; the

contradictions

259;

conception

his

Schleiermacher,

255, 258,

278

empirical

an

Stoic

55

I.

464

469,

Lessing's

443,

analogy,

Occam,

Hegel, 243
of, 343, 344.

226,

II.

of

Spinoza's

229, and

V.,

Stoic

II.

; unknow

Eckhart,

ly

113

construction

P.

kind

Realism,

of

121

of, 120,

I.

Magnus,

Leibnitz,

of, 149, 150

view

Schopenhauer,

delenburg

Albertus

by

alone, 429,

except

of, in

Baader,

387, 394;

Aquinas,

Gusanus,

Parmenides,

152 ;

of, I. 164, 166;

beginning,

150, 157, 165, 526

thought,

and

Abelard,

Thomas

of

382

380,

reason,

Leibnitz,

by

fended
377 ; de-

Realism,
grounds,

438

truth

of Nicolaus

340 ; Anselm

unreality of, Eckhart,

earlier

the

341,

Roscel-

Magnus,

construction

criteria, 203, 204

succession

Kant's

119, 120, 195.

and

of

Alb.

construction

Truth,

43.

I.

doctrine

439 ; intrinsic
of the

ter
philos., I. 9 ; charac-

197.

Pythagorean,

Aristotelian

Time,

45"^ ; involves

Troxler,
of

as

452,

Augustine,

of

of revelation

ground

natural

Scotus,

221,

117.

II.

historian

II.

Tieftrunk,

the

speculative

P.,

the

on

by

doctr.

of,

nounced
pro-

by Gregory

substances,

rational

on

unknowable.

construction

Sophist, I. 79.

the

maintained

436 ; why

Duns

; doctr.

interpretation

defended

I. 2.

Thucydides,

doctrine

Anselra

Monarchian

brain, 339 ;

judgment, Rosmini, 491.

Thrasyllus, I. 104, 108, 234, 235.
=

Thrasymachus.

; the

speculative

171

empirical,

persons

and

; defended

three

three

by

able

of, Kant,

of the

secretion

forms

of

postulates

seq.

of, Ulrici, 300

nature

132 ;

Hume.

power,

the

of

128 ; limits

sensation, Diderot,

in

creative

species

things, Spinoza,

of

order

442,

attribute

42, 52;

Descartes,

substance,

13 ;

II.

; constitutive

375

Untis,

pendent
inde-

Aquinas,

Thomas

of, Pomponatius,
40

54, 65;

Strato, 183;

of.

organ,

reckoniTig, Hobbes,

of

I.

Parmenides,
seat

330

326, 329,

Nyssa,

342 ; the

one,
182

motion,

as

of

H., II. 459.

J.

Thornwell,

Athanasius

by

310, 311

orthodox,

II, 437.

William,

Thomson,

ians, 307-310, affirmed

A., II. 439.

from

ence,
experi-

88, 112, 155, 156, 161.

560

INDEX.

Upham,

D., II. Sllr

C. A.

Unterhokner,
T.

Whatcly, Richard,

II. 453.

C,

Valentinus, I. 280, 287-289.

Van

Calker, F"
Lucilio,

Vanini,
Varro,

Whewell,

William,

Wiener.

II.

D.,

457.
437.

II.

203.

Wilkins,

II.

20, 29, 464, 470

Wilkinson,

I. 189.

369, 360,

II.

II. 3135.

C,

II.

Torentius,

M.

D.

Whichcote, Benjamin,

11. 10.

Valla, Laurentiup,,

IT. 436-7.

Whedon,

John,

G., II., 437.

its

Will, The,

370.

II.

J.

freedom

"

(see

Freedom

"), Aristotle,

Vassali,
Vatke,

W.,

Venn,

32^3.

I.

II. 297.

304;

II.

440.

II.

J.,

511.

G.,

II.

Vera, A.,

II.

5U9-10.

doctrine

Virchow,

465, 469.

be

can

cratic

school, 97

Cyrenaic

the

131 ; Aristotelian

197-200
on,

220, 221

basis

395

doctr.

of

478, 479

Thomas

; its

Ferguson,

91 ; of

891 ; of

Edwards,

Vischer,

J.
F.

T.,

Joh.

Vives,

Voetius,

Vo-^'t,T.

Voltaire,

Vorliinder,

of

Adam

Paley,

of

Conches,

William

of

Wagner,

C.

Winslow,

Hubbard,
J.

Wirth,

Wake,

C.

Watts,

Isaac,

W.

F.,

311.

Book

Wizenmann,

427,

God's

Weisse,

C.

Wert,
Wessel,

K.,

II.

Johann,

II.

297.

297.
II.

445, 449.

I. 484.

F., II. 458.

time,

and

Kant,
;

external,

Wundt,

W.,

157, 176

Wyneken,

E.

413

Thomas

Aquinas,
476

469, 475,

; the

; J.

28

Soul

S.

Bain, 431

359.

II. 323.

F., II. 311.

limited
un-

II.

Cusanus,

26

origin of, Taurellus,

493-4 ;

II.

347,
347

literal

of the.

Mill
;

on

of the

Idea

as

Schelling,

whole, Schle'.ermacher,

33;3-334

John,

Origen,

Augustine,

others,

etc., Nic.

space,

507.

Worthington,

Algazel, 414, Maimonides,

atomic

428 ; A.

194207

Nemesius,
and

Avicenna,

437, 439,

articulate

of, to God, Rosmini,

of,

created,

end,

living image, Campanella,

213. 217

123, 127

Epicurus,

Gaza

God, Eckhart,
and

temporal

reason,

an

eternal,

time

an

on

initio.Porphyry,

limited,

without

Magnus,
and

ab

258;

of

1.

notions

worlds,

and

^neas

of, defendedby

world-building,

200.

G.,

Stephen,

Wharton,

200.

H., II., 298, 305, 307.

Weissenborn.

Werder,

II.

A., II. 195.

doctrine.
Stoic

; eternal

the, Proclus,
with

but

in

Weigel,

II.

of

Albertus

197.
24

Chr.,

of

number

of, Philo, 231

441, 448

; life

II. 382.'

of

Soul

soul

creation

W., II.,311.
Valentin, II. 20, 29.

Weiss,

of philosophy, I. 4
93, 114, 116 ; influence

II.

philosophy, 135.

infinite

443.

von,

II. 200.

definition

349 ; non-eternal,

Wehrenpfennig,

Weishaupt,

II. 311.

the, Plato's
eternal, I'lato, 123, 125 ;
The

382.

Weiller, Cajetan

II. 457.

Thomas,

earlier

II.

II.

458.

I. 224.

of,

philosophy,

II.

Wegschneidcr,

30.

441.
II.

J.,

dependent,

T. E., II. 438.

Webb,

457.

305.

II.

317 ; created

S., II. 441.

Wayland,

387, 397, 398.

334, 342, 343, 344;

T., n.

and

by

Mill's,

372, 376, 377.

I.

II.

II.

F.,

U.,

Wisdom,

196 ;

II. 332.

R.,
J. H.

; James

I. 372.

II.

D.,

Winslow,

252;

Waitz,

von

441.

Benedict,

Winkler,

not

J., II. 226, 227.

J.

of

appetite

4^i3,434, 460.

I.

I.

Occam,
II.

W.

Wilson,

creation

Wagner,

from

F., II. 440.

Wilson

World,

306, 307.

II.

of

William

Wolliiston, William,

122, 124, 125.

II.

Champeaux,

Kant's

F., II. 311.

W.

; doctrine

91

of

and

II. 129.

Volney,

tion
rela-

William

Wolff, Christian,

311.

II..

Volkmann,

11, 464.

m2, 333.

II..

Eckhart,

Auvergne,

Willis, R.,

Herbart,

by

444-5.

of

Wittstein, T.,
II.

II. 54.

Gisbertus.

of,
440 ;

426 ; J. Edwards-s,

de
etc,

doctrine

the

of,401

doctrine

453,

Buridan

noumenon,

; defined
; in

distingtiished

John

II. 72 ; how

true

seq.
328

on,

Eck

Scotus,

of

the

the

on

442, 451

Uuns

Spinoza,

William

Withcrspoon,

446.

297.

II.

of

Butler, 385 ; of W.

Bishop

Ludovicus,

Carl,

Clarke,

Samuel

; Cicero

religious

II. 53 ; its

55, 78

Spinoza,

; of

an

condition

of

; doctr.

thought,

351 ; Reid's

Hooker,

trine,
doc-

Magnus,

442, 451

condition, Descartes,

happiness,

to

Albertus

by

Aquinas,

Shaftesbury, 90

Vogt,

320, 324, 325

defined

Stoic

Plotinus, 250

of

of, Lactantins,

Abelard,

has

doctr., 208-210

Epicurean

; doctrine

182

with

of, 92-94

336

passions,
Geblrol, 426

Ibn

180, 182;

Trendelenburg

Hartmann,

Plato, 128,

of

169, 173-177

Theophrastus,

So-

"

identical

and

; doctrine

doctrine,

worth.

independent

knowledge

91 ; C^'nic doctrine

insight, Menodemus,
in

on

doctr.
464

255, 261

Schopenhauer,
279

taught, depends
doctrine, I. 80, 85 ; one,

Virtue,

of

of

philos.

Aqiiinas,

Occam,

Kant,

the

and

Great, 440 ; dependent

the

contrary

mode

the

; in

TertuUian,

corrupt,

312, 318;

Thomas

and

termined,

332.

II.

R.,

433, 435.

I.

II.

da,

Leonardo

Vinci,

469;

456, 457,
466 ;

Beauvais,

of

342

of Albert

hart,

116, 471-9,523.

II.

Battista,

Villari. P., II. 516.

Vinceutius

free, Origen,

understanding,

Niooletto, II. 13.

Giovanni

Vico,

206, 208;

Epicurus,

Augustine,

Ventura,

Vernias

172;

the

ontological

244

belief

;
in

relation

Gioberti, 503 ; Mamiani,

561

INDEX.

Xenophanes

48.

I.

85

84,

I.

on

life

44;

and

Zeno

'

with

relation

to

the

of

the

of

Scholasticus,

on

II.

A.,
as

Ziller,

14.

II.

Jacobus,

Zftcharias

E.,

347,

I.

349.

Zimara,

of

44

36

Stoic,
186

doctrine

pupil

cited

298.
of

Stilpo,

I.

91

life

seq.

of,

I.

50,

Epicurean,

the

222

philosophy,
297,

57-59.
201

I.

teacher

of

218.
the

Tarsus,
I.

II.

on

the

I.

philosophy,

Greek

Stoic

philos.,

94

23,29;
on

the

255,

Stoic,

I.

188.

185,

259.

311.

II.

T.,

Zimmermann,

321.

historian

Pythagoras,

the

Sidon,

Zenodotus,

Zabarella,

Zeller,

Greek

works,

doctrine,

Eleatic,

Cicero,
of

293;

Gitium,
188

Zeno

Zeno

Zeishig,

II.

439.

II.

John,

Young.

of

development
Baur,

Zeno

89.

doctrine,

Socratic

138.

187,

Socrates,

on

later

137,
I.

Pythagorean,

the

Xeiiophilus
Xeiiophon,

80.

134,

51-54.

49,

of,

79,

133,

Pythagoreans,

the

on

doctrine

I.

Chalcedon,

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