HANDOUT FOR FINAL EXAM

The final exam is Tuesday December 9 at 9 AM. You will have 2.5 hours to
take the test. It will be out of 100 points and is worth 45% of your final
grade.
The last section of the course (Lectures on November 20, 25, December 2
and 4th) will be tested in the usual manner for a total 25 points. There will
be 15 multiple choice questions and 2 five-point essay questions on this
portion.
Chapter Questions and Notes for Ordinary Section of the Final Exam

Chapter 10 Questions:

Compare and contrast REM and non-REM sleep in respect to brain activity,
neurochemicals, and electrochemical
Describe symptoms, treatments, and causes of narcolepsy
Describe symptoms, treatments, and causes of insomnia
Describe the results of super-chisiamatic damage
Describe the three neurotransmitter systems and what occurs during the
sleep-wake cycle in respect to the neurotransmitters

Chapter 11 Questions:

Compare and contrast typical and atypical neuroleptics

Describe cognitive deficits that precede onset of Schizophrenia and what they
predict
Describe the three changes in structures and two neurotransmitter changes
associated with Schizophrenia
Describe gene-clusters and the genetic contribution to Schizophrenia
Provide evidence for and against the Dopamine hypothesis
Describe cognitions relationship to Schizophrenic symptoms
Describe the Thalamic-filter theory and how positive symptoms may occur
Describe oxidative stress and how it may relate to Schizophrenia

The cumulative portion will be worth a total of 75 points. There will be 20

short answer questions selected from a group of 60 questions. These
questions can be answered in one to three sentences and are worth 3
points each. There will be one synthesis question worth 15 points
selected from the group of three questions.
Short Answer Questions for the Cumulative Portion of the Final Exam

Name three parts of the neuron and describe generally how information is
transmitted?
The soma, axon, and dendrite are the basic parts pf the neuron and
information travels from the dendrite to the soma to the axon. Dendrites
gather information from other neurons, soma is the core region of the neuron
which integrates information, and the axon carries information to other cells.
1. What do glia do and describe a disorder of myelination?
Glia cells are cells that assist neurons to maintain homeostasis, form myelin,
and provide nutrients to neurons. Multiple Sclerosis occurs when there is
demyelination within the central nervous system and symptoms include
difficulty controlling movements, numbness, and heat down the back.
2. What is the epigenome and give an example?
The epigenome is the regulation of gene function without changing the
genetic sequence and often depends on environmental factors. An example
of epigenetics is DNA methylation, where methylation is a determinant that
can express a gene and demethylation can cause a gene not to be expressed.
3. Define dorsal, ventral, rostral and caudal with respect the brain.
The dorsal region of the brain includes areas towards the top of the head
while the ventral region of the brain includes areas towards the bottom of the
head. The rostral region of the brain includes areas towards the front (face) of
the head while the caudal region of the brain includes areas towards the back
of the head.
4. How do chemically-gated and voltage-gated channels open?
Chemically-gated channels are transmembrane channels that open in
response to a particular chemical messenger binding to its membrane.
Voltage-gated channels are transmembrane channels that open for a
particular electrical membrane potential.
5. Give examples of a passive, evocative and active interaction of genes and
the environment?
A passive interaction between genes and the environment says that
someones environment is likely to complement their genes because parents,

which have a large similarity genetically, choose a suitable environment.

Evocative interaction between genes and the environment says that
someones inheritable behavior evokes an environmental response. Active
interaction between genes and the environment says that someone is likely
to pursue an experience based on their genes.
6. What are a sulcus and gyrus?
A sulcus is wrinkle in the brain tissue while a gyrus is where two sulci meet.
7. What three structures make up the hindbrain?
The medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum make up the hindbrain. The
medulla controls heart rate and breathing, the pons controls arousal and the
sleep-wake cycle, and the cerebellum controls ballistic movements and quick
cognitive activity.
8. What two structures make up the tectum in the midbrain?
The tectum is a structure in the midbrain consisting of the superior colliculi
and the inferior colliculi. The superior colliculi is involved with orienting,
motor sense, and visual input while the inferior colliculi is involved with
auditory input.
9. What three general structures or systems make up the forebrain?
The cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system make up the forebrain.
10.What are the lobes of the brain and what do they do generally?
The occipital lobe (involves vision), the temporal lobe (involves visual,
auditory, and taste functions), the parietal lobe (involves sense of touch,
vision, attention, and locating), and the frontal lobe (involves motor and
executive functions) are the four major lobes of the brain.
11.What is the difference between dualism and materialist theory of the brain?
Dualism is a theory that the brain and the mind are separate entities.
However, materialist theories stress that the connection between the brain
and mind are a part of the same entity.
12.How does the synthesis of catecholamines and the synthesis of
neuropeptides differ?
Catecholamines are small molecule neurotransmitters in which its enzymes
are slowly transported to the axon terminal. Then, Catecholamines are
synthesized and packaged in the axon terminal. Neuropeptides are large
molecule neurotransmitters in which its enzymes and prepropeptides are
quickly transported to the axon terminal. Then, Neuropeptides are
synthesized from modified propeptides packaged in vesicles in the axon
terminal.
13.What are two different modes of termination of action of neurotransmitters?

Reuptake is a mode of termination of action a neurotransmitter where the

extra neurotransmitter is taken out of the synapse and back to the
presynaptic neuron. However, another type of mode of termination is enzyme
modifications of extra neurotransmitter in the synapse so that the extra
neurotransmitter is unusable until modified back into the neurotransmitter
(degradation).
14.How does the NMDA receptor work?
The NMDA receptor is a doubly gated channel (chemically and electrically)
blocked by Mg+2. In order to open, the channel must have glutamate in the
presynaptic membrane and nearby depolarization in the postsynaptic
membrane to open.
15. What is the function of second messengers in the neuron?
2nd messengers are molecules inside cells that act to transmit signals from a
receptor to a target. More specifically, 2nd messengers function to indirectly
regulate ion channels of neurons.
16.Define agonist and antagonist.
An agonist effect facilitates the effect of a neurotransmitter while an
antagonist effect blocks the effect of a neurotransmitter.
17.What is the key molecular change underlying sensitization in the Aplysia?
Sensitization in the Aplysia occurs when the gill withdrawal response is
enhanced. Molecularly, more Ca+2 influxes occur because Serotonin reduces
the K efflux through potassium channels and so more neurotransmitter
releases from the presynaptic axon terminal as a result.
18.How is long-term potentiation induced in a neuron?
Long-term potentiation is induced by a strong burst of electrical stimulation
applied to the presynaptic neuron. In response to stimulation at the synapse,
there is an amplitude change of the excitatory postsynaptic potential that
may last for days or weeks and strengthens the synapse.
19.What is the Nernst Equation and what does it mean?

The Nernst Equation is

+
K

+
K

and is an equation used to measure the

I

RT
E K=
ln
F

membrane potential of a cell (EK). The equation takes into account the
concentration inside and outside the cell and assumes the membrane is
completely permeable to one ion. The point of equilibrium for that ion is
described by the Nernst Equation.
20.What do sodium and potassium do during the action potential and why?
As the action potential starts, electrical stimulus opens the voltage sensitive
sodium channels so that Na+ enters the cell due to the electrical gradient and
the potassium channels open so K+ leaves the cell due to the concentration
gradient. Once the cell reaches about 55mV membrane potential, the sodium
channels close and the K+ continues to leave due to the concentration and
electrical gradient until the cell hyperpolarizes. Then the potassium channel
closes as the cell resets back to its resting potential.

21.What are the absolute and relative refractory periods?

The absolute refractory period occurs when a new action potential cannot be
elicited because gate 2 of the Na+ channels is closed. The relative refractory
period occurs when an increased electrical current is required to produce
another action potential.
22.What is a postsynaptic potential and describe its properties?
Postsynaptic potentials are graded potentials and are changes in the cell
membrane potential of postsynaptic terminals of a synapse. Excitatory
postsynaptic potential depolarizes neuronal membrane and is more likely to
produce an action potential while inhibitory postsynaptic potential
hyperpolarizes neuronal membrane and is less likely to produce an action
potential. If excitatory postsynaptic potential stimulation and inhibitory
postsynaptic potential stimulation reach a threshold, then an action potential
will occur and the postsynaptic potentials are passive and almost
instantaneous.

23.What are the steps in the axon terminal that cause a neurotransmitter to be
released into the
synaptic cleft?
Voltage-gated calcium channels are concentrated at the end of axons and
when electrical stimulus from an action potential opens channel, the calcium
is released in the axon terminal. Calcium presence in the axon terminal
activates microtubules which in turn causes neurotransmitter release.
24.What causes an action potential to start?
Neurotransmitters form postsynaptic potentials in neurons. An all-or-none
mechanism triggers an action potential if the summation over time and space
of postsynaptic potentials is positive enough to reach the threshold.
25. What is a tonic-clonic (Grand Mal) seizure?
Tonic-clonic seizures are a type of generalized seizures which include a
comprehensive, larger firing across the cortex during a seizure. A tonic-clonic
seizure or Grand Mal seizure is a seizure with a long, uncontrolled, rigid state
followed by a still, rigid but more relaxed state.
26.How is the neural tube formed?
The neural plate forms a neural groove that closes to form the neural tube
around 3 weeks into development.
27.Describe two key factors involved in neuronal migration?
The radial glia cells form a pathway for the cortical cells to follow during
migration. The extracellular matrix is a substance that attracts neurons to
move in a certain direction during migration.

28.What is apoptosis and when does it occur?

Apoptosis is cell death and it occurs during pruning. Caspases is a gene that
when it is in excess within a cell, gives the cell a higher chance of dying and
usually the brain will use apoptosis to eliminate less used (perhaps
unimportant) cells.
29.What kind of dendritic spines are seen more frequently in mental retardation?
Give examples.
There is a deficit of prevalent dendritic spines in people with mental
retardation. There tends to develop long, thin spines and less of the short,
thick dendritic spines on dendrites of cortical neurons in kids with Downs
syndrome. This leads to findings of decreased gray matter in the cerebral
cortex.
30.How does neuronal migration occur in the cortex?
Neuronal migration occurs when the neuronal plate begins dividing from the
midbrain in the anterior and posterior direction in neuralation. The radial glial

cells guide the wave of migrating newly divided neuronal cells to travel past
their predecessors so that form a layer beyond the older cells. This method
works in an inside to outside method so that the newest neurons form the
outer layers of the cortex.
31.What brain changes are seen in autism?
Brain changes in autism include abnormal amygdala (larger than normal in
kids and smaller than normal in adults), abnormal cerebellum (damage or
deficits), and abnormal orbitofrontal cortex (decreased gray matter).
32.How do benzodiazepines work to alleviate anxiety (describe on a molecular
level)?
Benzodiazepines work to alleviate anxiety by enhancing the binding effects of
the GABAA Receptor. Excitation produces an influx of chloride ions, which
causes hyperpolarization of the neuron, and this in turn is inhibitory.
33.How do stimulants generally affect brain function?
Stimulates cause an increase in motor behavior, elevate mood, and level of
alertness. Most stimulates cause the brain to increase monoamine levels by
blocking reuptake (cocaine), releasing dopamine into the synapse
(amphetamine), or preventing the breakdown of a 2 nd messenger (caffeine).
34.What key structures and pathways mediate the addictive nature of drugs?
Dopamine activity from the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus
accumbens, which is a part of the reward system, occurs when there is an
unexpected reward. Drug use is usually an unexpected reward and this
process of motivation reinforces the action of drug use which leads to
addiction.

35.How does a steroid hormone work?

Steroid hormones are fat-soluble hormones that can work on receptors in the
cell nucleus and interacts with the transcription factors so that it can call for
specific mRNA molecules to make proteins.
36.Given an example of an organizational and activational effect of a specific
hormone.
The organizational effect of a corticosterone is that it causes neuronal cell
death. The activational effect of corticosterone is that it acts as an antiinflammatory.
37.In what behaviors is the nucleus accumbens involved?
The nucleus accumbens is involved with reinforcing and rewarding stimuli. It
is activated when one experiences a pleasurable event and is also linked drug
addiction. It receives information from the VTA in the reward system of the
brain.

38.What kinds of behaviors or thoughts activate the insula?

Seeing other peoples pain and perceiving it in ones self or assessing how
painful something is would activate the insula. It is also activated when
someone has a sense of disgust or norm violation. Also, interoceptive
awareness (things such as timing ones own heartbeat and blood pressure)
activates the insula.
39.What is a hypercolumn?
A hypercolumn is a set of columns containing both ocular dominances and all
orientation preferences for a particular visual field within the striate cortex.
40.What is meant by topographical organization in the cortex and give an
example?
Topographical organization refers to how adjacent parts of the cortex
represent a particular part of the world. For example, the somatosensory
cortex is a region with varying amounts dedicated to particular areas of the
body. A larger area is dedicated to hands compared to elbows since the hands
need more sensitive sense of touch than the elbow.
41.What is a center-surround receptive field and what specific neurons show this
type of receptive
field?
Ganglion cells have small receptive fields which are center-surround receptive
fields. This includes on-center cells which respond best in the center circle of
cell and not in peripheral area and off-center cells which respond best in
peripheral area of cell and not in the center circle.
42.Where is Brocas area and what is it involved in?
Brocas area is in the left frontal cortex, and it is responsible for speech
production. Brocas aphasia is a nonfluent aphasia where its difficult to find
the right words or grammar.

43.Where is Wernickes area and what is it involved in?

Wernickes area is in the left posterior temporal cortex, and it is responsible
for understanding written and spoken language. Wernickes aphasia is a
fluent aphasia where ones speech does not make sense but they have the
rhythm of normal speech.
44.What is the muscle spindle organ and how does it work?
The muscle spindle organ detects the stretch of muscles. When it detects
stretch, the muscle spindle organ sends a signal to the spinal cord, where it
connects to a motor neuron through a single synapse. The motor neuron will
create a reflex that stimulates the muscle to reduce stretch.

45.Describe four pyramidal signs.

Four pyramidal signs include lack of motor response to somatosensory
system, loss of control in outer extremities, intact postural control, and flaccid
paralysis followed by recovery/spastic paralysis.
46.What is the degeneration observed in Huntingtons Disease?
Huntingtons Disease occurs with gross atrophy of the basal ganglia and is
caused by a dominant gene on 4th chromosome.
47.What is the degeneration observed in Parkinsons Disease?
Parkinsons Disease occurs with the degeneration of dopamine fibers from the
substania nigra to the basal ganglia.
48.What is the drug treatment for Parkinsons Disease?
Treatments for Parkinsons Disease include L-DOPA, Cholinergic antagonists
(reinstates balance between dopamine and brain), and Deprenyl (blocks
monoamine oxidase).
49.What are the cell layers in the retina?
The retina is made up of the following layers: rods or cones, horizontal cells,
bipolar cells, amacrine cells, and ganglion cells.
50.What is single cell recording?
This is a technique used by scientists or researchers trying to observe
changes in voltage or current in neurons to see how or when an action
potential is reached in a specific neuron. This was done to record and
stimulate electrodes in the giant squid axon. The results of the voltage clamp
method showed that when the clamp potential was near zero, there was an
initial inward flow of current followed by an outward flow of current (action
potential).

51.How does the hypothalamus control the anterior and posterior pituitary
gland?
The hypothalamus synthesizes releasing hormones which are secreted into
the capillaries which reach the anterior pituitary gland and indicates it to
secrete a hormone. The hypothalamus synthesizes hormones and sends them
to axon terminals in the posterior pituitary where they are put into capillaries
which carry the hormones into the bloodstream.
52.What are the Mullerian and Wolffian Systems and how do they develop?
The Mullerian system is the female system while the Wolffian system is the
male system. Everyone starts out with both systems but the development
into one system or the other depends on hormones and genetics.
Testosterone presence and Mullerian-inhibiting substance present changes in

early development into the Wolffian system but a lack of testosterone leaves
the Mullerian system to develop.
53.What is the role of the medial prefrontal cortex and insula in processing of
other humans?
The medial prefrontal cortex is involved with emotions, moral cognition, and
seeing someone as human while the insula is involved with norm violations,
emotional processing, and empathy. Harris and Fiskes stereotype study found
people observing an extreme out group to deactivate their medial prefrontal
cortex and activate their insula.
54.How might tricylic antidepressants work in depression?
Tricyclic antidepressants are used as a treatment for moderate/severe
depression and take 3-5 weeks to work. They block noradrenaline reuptake
and have serotonin agonists effects.
55.What type of neurons do you see in a column in the visual cortex?
The primary visual cortex contains simple cells, complex cells, and
hypercomplex cells. All the cells within a column of the primary visual cortex
have a particular orientation preference and respond to a particular area of
the visual field.
56.What structures are parts of the basal ganglia?
The basal ganglion is made up of a caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus
pallidus.
57.What is the most interesting fact that you have learned in this course and
why is it interesting?
The most interesting fact I learned in the class was about Schizophrenia, and
how its onset is not even until ones 20 or later and that there are such
specific risks factors such as early life illness and certain birth months.

Synthesis Questions for the Final Exam

I encourage you to discuss your answers among yourselves and with me; however, please note that
I will not read answers prior to the test. The questions are designed to require synthesis of material
from across the course. There is no specific right answer to any of the questions; two answers
could be equally good yet take very different points of view. Your grade on this question will be
based on your mastery of the material in the course, the clarity and strength of your logic, and your
creativity.
1. What does the amygdala do (be more specific than simply affect)? Give evidence to
bolster your argument. (A good answer to this questions will not just consist of a listing of
functions but also include some synthesis across functions.)
The amygdala is a structure of the limbic system. The amygdala is a complex
structure that directs the processes of reacting to emotional stimuli and also emotional
learning. The lateral nucleus receives input of emotional stimuli from the thalamus and
encodes how relevant the stimuli are for the central and basolaternal nucleus of the
amygdala. The basolateral nucleus projects to the hippocampus, basal ganglia, and cortex
to process and store the socially and emotionally relevant stimuli. The central nucleus of
the amygdala receives input from the lateral nucleus, and is involved in fear-conditioning
and emotional expression.
Harris and Fiskes stereotype studies showed that the amygdala was activated
when looking at pictures of extreme out groups in a stereotype. Also, lesions of orbitofrontal cortex of the amygdala in primates results in flat affect and inappropriate social
behavior. Also, studies of depression show that there is more cortisol in the amygdala and
more blood flow in the amygdala in depressed individuals. These findings support the
amygdalas role in fear-conditioning and emotional expression.
Autism studies show abnormal areas within the medial temporal area, more
specifically the amygdala. The amygdala is larger in kids and smaller in adults, suggesting
that the deficit in social learning in autism spectrum disorders may be related to the
amygdala. Social and emotional learning are inhibited in the primates with amygdala
lesions, also supporting that the amygdala is involved with learning. Also, since the
amygdala projects to the hippocampus, a region known for consolidating and remembering
things, it suggests that the amygdala is connected to memory in some way.
Overall, the amygdala provides a sort of filter to our emotional stimuli so that we as
humans know when to run in fear or to imitate our parents. It lets us remember why an
emotional event may have occurred to prevent or repeat future emotional events.

2. In a neuron at rest, what would happen if you added a large amount of a positive ion that is
not involved in the resting potential (say, magnesium, Mg++) to the external environment?
Specifically, what would happen to the net forces on sodium (Na+), potassium (K+) and
chloride (Cl-). Explain why. What would happen to the resting potential over the long
term? Explain why.
If someone added a large amount of a positive ion not involved in the resting
potential to the external environment, the charge of the external environment would
increase electrical potential because of the positive ion. The concentrations of Na +, K+, and
Cl- are not affected by the positive ion because the ion is not involved in the resting
potential. The net forces on Na+ would make the electrical gradient to be even larger
towards pulling sodium inside the neuron since sodium is positive and the more positive
external environment will want to push sodium in the cell even more now. However, it
would not change the concentration gradient, which acts to pull sodium inside the neuron.
The net forces on K+ would cause the electrical gradient to be even larger towards pulling
potassium inside the neuron since potassium is positively charged and the more positive
external environment will want to hold potassium in the neuron more now. However, it
would not change the concentration gradient, which acts to push potassium outside the
neuron. The net forces on Cl- would cause the electrical gradient to be even larger towards
pushing chlorine out of the neuron since it is negatively charged and the positive
environment will attract chlorine even more so now. However, it would not change the
concentration gradient, which acts to pull chlorine inside the neuron.
The positive environment would create an overall resting potential that is even
more different to the external environment than it would have been originally (since the
neurons average resting potential is -70 mV). Since none of the ions are particularly
permeable to the membrane when the neuron is at rest, there would not be any particular
ion movement except due to leaky channels and the sodium-potassium pump. Therefore,
the overall potential inside of the neuron will decrease in relation to a more positive
external environment.

3. Mary woke up from a restful sleep and leaped out of bed. She reached for her alarm clock
and turned it off. She then drank some coffee while reading the news. The news was
depressing to Mary. What is happening in Marys brain during this scenario? You will
need to speculate but be as specific as possible.
Mary must have heard the sound of her alarm clock entering her ears due to the hair cells
vibrating and moving the tempanic membrane, which in turn moves fluid in the cochlea.
The signal was sent to the inferior colliculus and then to the medial geniculate nucleus in
the thalamus and then to the Heschls Gyrus. This sound is identified as noxious and
interrupts her REM sleep, since she was nearing the end of her sleep cycle. Therefore, she
was unable to completely catch up on her REM sleep. Therefore, she must get up using
her somatic nervous system to get out of the bed and turn off the alarm and walk to the
kitchen to fix some coffee. She turns to coffee to help stimulate her brain, since she is
sleep deprived, but little does she know that her caffeine addiction has impaired her ability
to sleep and enter REM sleep. Coffee is a stimulant that breaks down her 2 nd messengers,
cyclic AMP, in her cells which in turn increase their metabolic activity. Her sleep deprivation
negatively affects Marys mood because she is so stressed and emotional about the news
she just read in the newspaper. Sleep deprivation studies show sleep deprived individuals
are more likely to break down emotionally due to stressful circumstances. Mary is also not
in a good mood because she is not a morning person genetically due to the lack of
circadian neurons called M-cells in the suprachiasmatic nucleus. These factors helped
Mary be more susceptible to feeling depressed about the news. Mary also must use her
vision to read this news. The light hits the back of Marys retinas, which lead to the rods
and cones being activated by opsins which turn the light into neural information. This
neural signal is transmitted to the bipolar cells which project the signal to the ganglion
cells. The ganglion cells project the information out through the optic nerve into the brain.
Marys Wernickes area is in her left posterior temporal cortex, and it is responsible for
understanding the written language in the newspaper that made her depressed. Finally,
Mary decides she needs to catch up on her REM sleep this coming week and slowly get off
her coffee addiction so she feels better for her job next week, which starts early in the
morning using her frontal cortex, which is involved in planning.

4. Examination of an MRI shows that a patient had a stroke with bleeding on the left lateral
surface of the brain that centered at the tip of the lateral fissure extending caudally to the
border of the occipital cortex, rostrally to the motor cortex, ventrally to the middle temporal
gyrus, and dorsally about midway to the dorsal surface of the brain. The bleeding appears
to go somewhat deep into the tissue. What symptoms would you expect the patient to
show? Be specific about the symptoms and your rationale.
A stroke patients damage to such a wide array of brain areas on the left lateral
side would cause a wide range of symptoms and deficits if the bleeding is somewhat deep.
The damage extending caudally to the border of the occipital lobe may damage
areas of the temporal lobe that are near the occipital lobe like Wernickes area. This could
create symptoms similar to Wernickes aphasia where ones speech does not make sense
but they have the rhythm of normal speech.
The damage extending rostral to the motor cortex may damage areas including
part of the somatosensory region and the motor cortex. The damage would be hard to
predict what sense of touch or taste is impaired in the somatosensory cortex and the left
motor cortex damage would impair certain movements on the right side of the body.
The damage extending ventrally to the middle temporal gyrus may damage areas
including the limbic system, parts of the hippocampus (depending on how deep and how
far forward the damage is), primary auditory cortex, and the auditory association area in
the temporal lobe. Damage to the primary auditory cortex would lead to a loss of some
awareness of sound and damage of the auditory association cortex would lead to similar
difficulties as discussed above for Wernickes aphasia. Damage of the hippocampus would
lead to some retrograde memory loss and trouble making new memories (depending on
the amount of damage) since the hippocampus is involved in memory and consolidating
memories. The damage to the limbic system may cause some flattened affect and trouble
processing ones emotions.
The damage extending dorsally about midway to the dorsal surface of the brain
from the left lateral fissure may damage areas including the limbic system and the very tip
of the thalamus (depending on how deep the damage is). The damage to the tip of the
thalamus would be very minor unless the damage is deep but it could cause symptoms
such as trouble sleeping, staying alert, and difficulties in sensing or moving to ones surroundings.