Northeastern University

College of Engineering

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

Wind Turbine Blade Radius Optimization

Submitted by:

Richard Duchin
Nigel Slater
Douglas Triolo

Date Submitted: April 20, 2016

Course Instructor: Bridget Smyser
Lab TA:

Masoud Modaresifar

Abstract
The purpose of this experiment is to evaluate the relationship between wind turbine blade
radius and performance based on power output, efficiency and torque. Typical wind turbines
have the goal of generating power at low wind speeds, utilizing wind power efficiently, and
experiencing minimal torque. This experiment compared a 7.5cm, 9.8cm, and 13cm radius of
similarly shaped turbine blades attached to an electric generator on a model turbine tower. The
electrical power generated by the turbine was found at different measured wind tunnel speeds.
This power was compared to the available wind energy to find each blades efficiency. The
rotation rate of the blades was also found to relate the power to torque.
Over a range of wind speeds from 3 to 11m/s, the 7.5cm radius blade was almost as
efficient as the 9.8cm blade, but the 9.8cm blade had a peak efficiency of 28.54% at 8.76m/s,
generated the most power, and experienced less torque. Although the experiment was for a
limited range of wind speeds, turbine performance at lower wind speeds is most relevant to
reality. The results suggest that the optimal turbine has a mid-range blade length for a balance
between power generation, efficiency in utilizing wind energy, and low torque. Drawbacks for
sizes include the higher cut-in speed and higher rate of increasing torque for smaller blades and
decreased efficiency for larger blades.

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1 Table of Contents
1

TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................... III

LIST OF FIGURES & TABLES ........................................................................................ IV

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................... 1

PROBLEM STATEMENT ................................................................................................... 1

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 1

PROCEDURE......................................................................................................................... 2

RESULTS................................................................................................................................ 5
7.1 DMM CALIBRATION .................................................................................................... 5
7.2 CORRECTED EXPERIMENTAL DATA .................................................................... 6
7.3 CALUCLATED QUANTITIES ...................................................................................... 7
7.4 POWER, EFFICIECY, AND TORQUE ........................................................................ 8

DISCUSSION ....................................................................................................................... 11
8.1 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS ............................................................................................ 11
8.2 POSSIBLE SOURCES OF ERROR ............................................................................ 12
8.3 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS ....................................................................................... 13

CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................... 15

10 REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 16
11 APPENDICES ....................................................................................................................... 17

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2 List of Figures & Tables

Figure 1 - This figure shows the DMM calibration setup.

Figure 2 - This figure shows the first assembled turbine blade.

Figure 3 - This figure shows a labeled picture of the setup with a key.

Figure 4 - This graph shows the calibration curve for DMM voltage.

Figure 5 - This graph shows the calibration curve for DMM current.

Figure 6 - This is a graph of wind speed vs. power generated for each blade.

Figure 7 - This is a plot of wind speed versus efficiency for each blade.

Figure 8 - This is a plot of of angular speed versus power for each blade.

10

Figure 9 - This is a plot of theoretical turbine wind speed versus power.

11

Figure 10 - This figure shows the spec sheet for the DMM used for current and voltage
measurements.

15

Table 1 - This table shows all corrected experimental data.

Table 2 - This table shows all calculated quantities.

Table 3 - This table shows the data collected during calibration of the DMM.

17

Table 4 - This table shows the calculated uncertainties for each data point. These values
were used to apply error bars to the graphs.

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3 Acknowledgements
This project was supported by Northeastern University. We would like to acknowledge
Kevin McCue and Bridget Smyser for providing us with this opportunity. We would also like to
thank the Mechanical Engineering department at Northeastern University for providing the wind
tunnel and additional measurement devices.

4 Problem Statement
The goal of this investigation was to construct wind turbines with different blades and
compare their efficiency and performance based on power generation and angular velocity.
Multiple measurements were taken in a controlled environment to compare the wind speed and
rotation rate against power and efficiency. The experiment was designed to see the effect of
changing the radius of the blades, and subsequently the mass and surface area.

5 Introduction
The objective of this experiment was to become familiar with how turbines of different
radii perform under the same range of wind conditions, namely in their rotation rate and ability
to generate power. Three turbine blades of varying sizes were attached to a model turbine tower
and generator, and secured in a wind tunnel. Multiple measurements were taken to judge their
performance under a range of flow conditions, including voltage and current generated, angular
velocity, and wind speed. With the collected data, Power could be calculated with Equation 1,
below.
Eq. 1
Here 'P' is calculated power, 'I' is current measured by the DMM, and 'V' is voltage measured by
the DMM. This power was used with the measured angular velocity to find the torque of each
blade from Equation 2, shown below.
Eq. 2

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Here 'P' is power found from equation 1, 'T' is torque to be calculated, and '' is the angular
speed measured by the stroboscope. Additionally, the power generated was compared to the
available power of the wind passing through the swept area of the turbine blades, given by
Equation 3, below.
Eq. 3
Here '' is available power, '' is the air density, 'U' is the measured wind speed, and 'r' is the
radius of the turbine blades.
The efficiency of a turbine blade represents how much power the blade can generate versus
how much wind power there is. With these calculated quantities, the optimal flow conditions for
maximum energy generation and efficiency of each turbine can be found and compared. Also,
minimizing torque from Equation 2 is important for minimizing material stresses. The Betz
limit dictates that the maximum theoretical power that can be extracted by a turbine is 59
percent of the available power1. To judge the performance of the turbine blades, their efficiencies
were compared to this limit.
6

Procedure
This experiment utilized a wind turbine science kit placed in a wind tunnel. The turbine kit

included a PVC stand, a generator motor, and styrofoam material for customization of blade
shape and size. It also included a digital multimeter (DMM) with multiple current and voltage
settings, and a digital display. The DMM had a voltage and current accuracy of +0.8%+2D and
+2%+2D respectively2. The flow rate of the wind tunnel could be adjusted with a dial, and the
wind speed and wind temperature were measured with an anemometer that had a temperature
and air velocity accuracy of +3C and +2% respectively, which was assumed to be calibrated
based on calibration difficulty3. Also, a stroboscope was used to measure the rotation rate based
on flashing strobes and an analog rotations per minute (rpm) reading. The stroboscope was also
assumed to be calibrated based on its calibration difficulty. To measure the radii of the turbine
blades, a caliper with a resolution of .001 inches was used.

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To calibrate the DMM, different known voltages and currents were supplied by an
Angient E3647A DC power supply. By plotting the measured and known voltages and currents
in the range of our measurements, calibration curves were created for correction of the voltage
and current measurements. The calibration setup for the DMM is shown in Figure 1, below.

Figure 1: This figure shows the DMM calibration setup.

The original model turbine blade was constructed by tracing and cutting three large blade
shapes from a sheet of styrofoam, then hot gluing the blades onto the included plastic hub that
attaches onto the generator motor axis. Three blade sizes for testing were created by cutting the
original blade with a razor blade. The first blade shape is shown in figure 2, below.

Figure 2: This figure shows the first assembled turbine blade.

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In preparation for testing, the equipment was organized and tested for functionality. The
stroboscope was placed facing the turbine to measure angular speed. The anemometer sensor was
placed perpendicular to the flow and in front of the blades, which would be used to measure
wind speed and temperature. The turbine was assembled and weighed down in the center of the
wind tunnel, and the generator leads were connected to the DMM, which would read voltage and
current. All of the equipment was secured with duct tape for consistent flow and safety. The
equipment setup is shown in Figure 3, below.

1. Wind turbine apparatus

2. Digital Multi Meter
3. Strobe Tachometer
4. Anemometer

Figure 3: This figure shows a labeled picture of the setup with a key.

To begin the experiment, the radius of the first blade was recorded and a picture was
taken. Then, the wind tunnel was set to 15 on the dial. The flow was determined to be constant
once the angular velocity was constant. The angular velocity of the turbine blades was measured
with the stroboscope by setting the strobe to its maximum setting and then slowing the flash until
the blades appeared stationary. This procedure ensured that the first harmonic was hit and not a
sub harmonic. Next, wind speed and temperature were recorded with the anemometer. Voltage
was also recorded from the DMM, and then the DMM dial was switched to 200mA to record
current. These measurements were all repeated for wind tunnel settings increasing in increments
of 5 from 15 to 35.
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After data was collected for the first blade size, a smaller blade radius of a similar shape
was traced and cut with a razor blade. The measurements were repeated for 3 total blades of
decreasing radius. However, for the smallest blade, no motion was observed at the 15 setting so
the test was started at a wind tunnel setting of 20 and finished at 40.
To protect lab members from projectiles and the loud wind tunnel, safety glasses and
earmuffs were worn at all times during the experiment.

7 Results
7.1

DMM Calibration

The calibration data for the DMM used in this experiment can be found in the Appendix.
The DMM was calibrated with the assumption that Agilent E3647A DC power supply outputs
were true.
The calibration curves for the DMM are shown below in Figures 4 and 5. To correct the
experimental data collected by the DMM, each collected value was plugged into the equation of
the trend line as y. It should be noted that this DMM was fairly accurate for our purposes.

Experimental Voltage (volts)

DMM Calibration Curve for Voltage

2.5
y = 0.9933x - 0.0088
R = 1

2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

Thoeretical Voltage (volts)

Figure 4: This graph shows the calibration curve for DMM voltage.

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Experimental Current (milliamps)

DMM Calibration Curve for Current

250
y = 0.958x + 0.3024
R = 1

200
150
100
50
0
0

50

100

150

200

250

Theoretical Current (milliamps)

Figure 5: This graph shows the calibration curve for DMM current.

The calibration curves have an R2 value of 1, which shows that they are perfectly linear,
and slopes very close to 1 showing that the DMM was very accurate.
7.2

Corrected Experimental Data

Table 1 includes all data collected during the experiment. The data from the DMM was

corrected in this table. The device used for measurement is listed at the top. Air density was
found using the fluid properties calculator4, and air temperature was consistently 23oC.
Table 1: This table shows all corrected experimental data.
Blade
Radius
(m)

Turbine
Swept
Surface Area
(m2)

0.130

0.053

0.098

0.030

0.075

0.018

Wind Tunnel

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Setting
(unitless)
15
20
25
30
35
15
20
25
30
35
20
25
30
35
40

Anemometer
Air Density
Wind Speed
at 23C
(m/s)
(kg/m3)
3.20
1.1925
4.48
1.1925
6.50
1.1925
8.45
1.1925
10.14
1.1925
3.32
1.1925
4.66
1.1925
6.80
1.1925
8.76
1.1925
10.44
1.1925
4.50
1.1925
6.45
1.1925
7.95
1.1925
10.10
1.1925
11.40
1.1925
6

Stroboscope
Angular Angular
Velocity Velocity
(rpm)
(rad/s)
860
90.06
2080
217.82
3180
333.01
4200
439.82
4800
502.65
500
52.36
1060
111.00
1980
207.35
4320
452.39
5160
540.35
490
51.31
1140
119.38
2680
280.65
3400
356.05
3700
387.46

DMM
Voltage

Current

(V)
0.48785
0.676577
1.073897
1.411619
1.709609
0.676577
0.905036
1.332155
1.77914
2.037398
0.905036
1.451351
1.848671
2.325455
2.67311

(mA)
43.8914
79.8164
128.6744
178.4904
220.6424
26.6474
51.1722
139.4998
220.6424
258.9624
21.8574
52.9924
82.5946
119.6692
150.7084

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7.3

Calculated Quantities
From the experimental measurements, the power generated was calculated using

Equation 1 and the available power was found using Equation 3. The efficiency of a turbine is
the effectiveness it has in converting all of the available energy into usable energy. Efficiency
was calculated with Equation 4, below.
Eq. 4
The torque experienced at each data point was found with Equation 2. All of the quantities
calculated with experimental data are shown in Table 2, below. Each row in Table 2 corresponds
with the rows in Table 1.
Table 2: This table shows all calculated quantities.
Turbine

Tunnel

Calculations
Available
Torque
Power
(Nm)
(Watts)

Radius

Setting

(m)

(unitless)
15
20
25
30
35

Wind
Speed
(m/s)
3.20
4.48
6.50
8.45
10.14

15
20
25
30
35

3.32
4.66
6.80
8.76
10.44

0.0184
0.0471
0.1883
0.3972
0.5335

0.000351
0.000424
0.000908
0.000878
0.000987

0.1999
0.3939
0.8387
1.3918
1.9768

9.20
11.95
22.46
28.54
26.99

20
25
30
35

4.50
6.45
7.95
10.10

0.0201
0.0779
0.1545
0.2812

0.000392
0.000653
0.000550
0.000790

0.2118
0.4352
0.6611
1.0670

9.49
17.90
23.36
26.36

40

11.40

0.4069

0.001050

1.3693

29.72

0.130

0.098

0.075

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Generated
Power
(Watts)
0.0219
0.0551
0.1403
0.2552
0.3817

0.000244
0.000253
0.000421
0.000580
0.000759

0.3262
0.6393
1.3458
2.2744
3.2752

6.73
8.61
10.42
11.22
11.65

Efficiency
(%)

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7.4

Power, Efficiency, and Torque

The Power generated was plotted against the measured wind speed for each blade. Error

bars were applied according to the uncertainty analysis completed in the Discussion section and
tabulated in the Appendix. This graph is shown in figure 6, below.

Wind Speed vs. Power

0.6

Power (W)

0.5
0.4
Blade 1 (Large)

0.3

Blade 2 (Medium)

0.2

Blade 3 (Small)
0.1
0.0
0

10

12

Wind Speed (m/s)

Figure 6: This is a graph of wind speed vs. power generated for each blade.

This graph appears to show an exponential relationship between wind speed and power
output. The large blade has greater output at low wind speeds. The medium length blade
generated the most power at every other wind speed and the shortest blade generated the least.
This, however, doesn't necessarily mean a better performance, because it does not account for the
increase in power available, which is also exponentially related to the wind speed. A plot of
turbine efficiency and wind speed is shown in Figure 7, below.

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Wind Speed vs. Efficiency

35

Efficiency (%)

30
25
20

Blade 1 (Large)

15

Blade 2 (Medium)

10

Blade 3 (Small)

5
0
0

10

12

Wind Speed (m/s)

Figure 7: This is a plot of wind speed versus efficiency for each blade.

This graph shows that the efficiency of the blades increase with an increase in wind speed
until leveling off at a maximum; this appears to be a logarithmic trend. A maximum was found
for blade 2, but the maximum was not reached by blades 1 or 3, which suggests that their
maximum efficiency is likely at a higher wind speed. The maximimum efficiency of 28.54% for
blade two occurs at a wind speed of approximately 8.76m/s. Blade 3 was almost as efficient as
blade 2, but it still generated less power. Blade 1 proved to be the least efficient.
To visualize the torque relationship to power for the blades, angular velocity was plotted
against power generated in Figure 8, below.

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Angular Speed vs. Power

Measured Power (watts)

0.8
Blade 1 (Large)

0.7

y = 0.0122e0.007x
R = 0.9962

0.6
0.5
0.4

Blade 2 (Medium)

0.3

y = 0.0231e0.0063x
R = 0.8775

0.2
0.1

Blade 3 (Small)

0.0
0

200

400

600

y = 0.019e0.0078x
R = 0.9354

Angular Speed (rad/s)

Figure 8: This is a plot of angular speed versus power for each blade.

By fitting an exponential trend line to this graph, the torque exerted on the blade at any
windspeed can be estimated by the slope of the tangent at any given point. It is evident that blade
3 experienced the most torque, because the rate of increase in torque is the greatest, followed by
blades 2 and then 1. The ideal turbine has minimal torque because this causes less stress on the
materials, and thus more reliablity over extended use. With this in mind, blade 2 is the optimal
choice, and blade 3 is the worst by far.

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8 Discussion
8.1

Analysis of Results

A theoretical wind speed vs. power graph for a wind turbine is depicted in Figure 9, below.

Figure 9: This is a plot of theoretical turbine wind speed versus power 5.

The experimental data in Figure 7 does resemble the initial exponentially increasing
segment of this theoretical trend. However, the range of wind speeds tested was not large enough
for the power to level off. So, nothing can be concluded regarding which blade could produce the
maximum power. It is important to note that blade 2 generated the most power in the
experimental range of wind speeds because higher wind speeds are less common in reality.
The maximum wind tunnel setting was 35 because the blades were too flimsy to continue
testing, as they bent and made contact with the PVC support at high wind speeds. Should further
tests be conducted, the blades would be made of stiffer material so that more data could be
collected. It cannot be concluded which blades power generation would plateau
A relationship was observed between cut-in speed and radius during our third blade test
of smallest radius. At a setting of 15, the wind speed was not sufficient enough to break the
rotors force of friction required to begin rotation. This required the trial speed parameters to be
bumped up in order to obtain data during turbine rotation.

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The Betz theoretical limit on turbine power efficiency is 59%1. The maximum observed
efficiency was 29.72% by the third blade at a wind speed of 11.40 m/s. This efficiency is higher
than expected, given that our turbine utilizes a cheap motor and Styrofoam blades with minimal
design optimizations. Design 3 was assumed to have the greatest blade area to swept area ratio.
Its performance shows that increasing the blade surface area does not directly relate to
efficiency.
8.2

Possible Sources of Error

Possible sources of error stemmed from various aspects of the experiment, some of which

were accounted for, others just acknowledged. Due to the anemometer and stroboscope being in
front of the turbine inside of the wind tunnel, there was not a uniform velocity profile in the flow.
Also, a portion of the wind tunnels wall was removed to access the DMM and stroboscope,
which also contributed to this error from non-uniform flow. To mitigate this, the stroboscope was
moved as far to the side as possible and the anemometer was moved far enough in front of the
blades to insure re-stabilization of velocity profile before coming in contact with the blades.
Another aspect of the setup that interfered with uniform flow over the blades was the hub and
motor portion of the turbine model that protruded from behind the hub cap of the blades.
It was assumed that the air flow in this experiment was not perfectly uniform, which
caused slight fluctuation in angular velocity, resulting in oscillating measurement outputs. When
collecting the data, rough averages were taken. Additionally, the assumption was made that the
anemometer and stroboscope were both calibrated due to the difficulty in finding a controlled
environment for the anemometer and the involvement of the stroboscope's calibration procedure.
Electrical wire resistance in DMM measurements was also taken into consideration and
accounted for with calibration.
There were a significant amount of human errors that affected the accuracy of the data as
well. When trying to scale down the turbine blades, the cuts that were made were not exact.
Attempts were made to keep the size and shape consistent by using the first cut as a template for
the others. Even with this precautionary step, the turbines were not perfectly scaled down
versions of one another. Because the surface area of each blade was not scaled down exactly for
each trial, the results are less conclusive.
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8.3

Uncertainty Analysis
The following uncertainty analysis had little effect on the final blade comparison, but was

used for graphical error bars. Uncertainty for each measurement was calculated with the
resolution and measurement uncertainty using Equation 5, below.

Eq. 5

Here 'd' is the uncertainty in the devices measurement, 'uo' is the instrument error from
accuracies, 'uc' is the interpolation error, res is the device resolution, and acc is the device
accuracy. Uncertainty for measurements with the calipers was found with the resolution of
0.001in and no device error. This led to an uncertainty in radius measurements of 1.27*10-5m.
Uncertainty for the anemometer was found with the device specs and Equation 6, below.

Eq. 6
Here 'U' is the uncertainty in the wind speed measurement, and 'U' is he measured wind
speed. The resolution error was negated when using equation 6 because it had a minimal effect.
Equation 7 below calculates the uncertainty in voltage measurements based on the DMM
accuracy.

Eq. 7
Here 'v' is the uncertainty in the voltage measurement, and 'V' is he measured voltage. Equation
8 below calculates the uncertainty in current measurements based on the DMM accuracy.

Eq. 8
Here 'I' is the uncertainty in the current measurement, and 'I' is the measured current.

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With each measurements uncertainty, the general equation 9 was used to find the
uncertainty in the calculated quantities, namely power, theoretical power, and efficiency.

Eq. 9
Here 'R' is the calculated quantity, 'R' is the uncertainty in the calculated quantity, 'xn' is one of
the 'n' experimental variables used in calculating 'R', and 'n' is the uncertainty in measured
variable 'n'.
For power calculated with Equation 1, the uncertainty for each measurement can be
found with Equation 10, below.
Eq. 10
Here 'p' is the calculated power uncertainty, 'V' is the voltage measurement uncertainty, 'I' is
the current measurement uncertainty, 'V' is the measured voltage, and 'I' is the measured current.
For available power generation calculated with Equation 3, the uncertainty in calculations
was found with equation 11, below.
Eq. 11
Here '' is air density at the measured temperature, 'r' is the turbine blade radius, 'U' is the air
velocity, 'U' is the uncertainty in the air velocity, and 'r' is the uncertainty in the caliper
measurement. The accuracy alone was used for U because the resolution error is negligible.
With these power uncertainties, Equation 12 can be used for the efficiency uncertainties.
Eq. 12

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Here 'e' is the uncertainty in the efficiency calculated, p' is the uncertainty in the generated
power calculation, P is generated power, ' is the uncertainty in the available power
calculation, and is the available power.
These uncertainties were calculated for each data point and calculated quantity to be applied
to error bars in Figures 6 through 8. The error associated with the devices and resolutions is
minimal compared to other possible sources of error, notably human error in taking
measurements.

9 Conclusions
It can be concluded that blade 2 was the best size. Figure 6 shows that it produced the most
power at a given wind speed, and Figure 7 shows that it was also the most efficient. Blade 1 was
easily the least efficient, but it still produced more power than blade 3. The only downside to
blade 2 was that it experienced slightly more torque than blade 1, however significantly less than
blade 3. Since styrofoam blades were used, this actually had a big effect at higher speeds, as it
would curve the blades into the PVC pipe. Since this demonstration was used to model turbine
behavior, and the materials are unrealistic, it is safe to assume this would not have an effect full
scale.
In summation, the middle blade length was optimal for the given environment and
materials. Blade 1 was too long, and blade 1 was too short, negatively affecting their
performance. It is important when designing turbine blades to consider these geometrical
differences such that the optimal efficiency can be reached. A maximum experimental efficiency
of 28.54% was found for blade 2, and for blade 3 29.72%, which is surprisingly good when
compared to Betzs limit of 59%.

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10 References
1. "14. Wind Turbine Power Output Variation with Steady Wind Speed." Wind Turbine Power
Curves. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Feb. 2016. <http://www.wind-power-program.com/turbine_
characteristics.htm>.
2. "Digital Multimeter DT830L." Digital Multimeter DT830L. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Apr. 2016.
<http://www.metergauge.com/mult-metro-digital-dt830l>.
3. "Data Logging Hot-Wire Anemometer with CFM/CMM and 8:1 IR Thermometer." Data
Logging Hot Wire Anemometer with CFM CMM and 8 1 IR Thermometer from Davis
Instruments. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Apr. 2016. <http://www.davis.com/Product/Data_
Logging_Hot_Wire_Anemometer_with_CFM_CMM_and_8_1_IR_Thermometer/WO30009-51#Specs>.
4. "Fluid Properties Calculator." Fluid Properties Calculator. Microelectronics Heat Transfer
Laboratory, 1997. Web. 19 Apr. 2016. <http://www.mhtl.uwaterloo.ca/old/onlinetools/
airprop/airprop.html>.
5. "14. Wind Turbine Power Ouput Variation with Steady Wind Speed." Wind Turbine Power
Curves. WindPower Program, n.d. Web. 19 Apr. 2016. <http://www.wind-powerprogram.com/turbine_characteristics.htm>.

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11 Appendices
The specifications for the DMM used for voltage and current measurements is shown below.

Figure 10: This figure shows the spec sheet for the DMM used for voltage and current
measurements.
Table 3: This table shows the data collected during calibration of the DMM.
Known Voltage (V)
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.1
1.3
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.1

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Multimeter Voltage (V)

0.29
0.39
0.49
0.69
0.88
1.08
1.28
1.48
1.68
1.88
2.08

Known Current (mA)

45
92
137
183
205

17

Multimeter Current (mA)

43.7
88
131.6
175.6
196.8

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Table 4: This table shows the calculated uncertainties for each data point. These values
were used to apply error bars to the graphs.
Blade Radius

Wind Speed

(m)
0.1304036
0.1304036
0.1304036
0.1304036
0.1304036
0.0983996
0.0983996
0.0983996
0.0983996
0.0983996
0.0747268
0.0747268
0.0747268
0.0747268
0.075

(m/s)
3.2
4.48
6.5
8.45
10.14
3.32
4.66
6.8
8.76
10.44
4.5
6.45
7.95
10.1
11.4

Northeastern University
MEIE Department

Uncertainty
Voltage (V)
0.051896896
0.05232159
0.053344464
0.054345099
0.055322638
0.05232159
0.052888822
0.054099183
0.055562974
0.056494664
0.052888822
0.054470423
0.05580782
0.057603543
0.059033979

Current (I)
0.001943254
0.002644035
0.003608298
0.00459708
0.005435892
0.00161243
0.002084305
0.003822835
0.005435892
0.006199444
0.001521642
0.002119664
0.002698617
0.003430023
0.004045188

18

Calculated
Power (W)
0.002467232
0.00454314
0.007882295
0.011670598
0.015341565
0.001770317
0.003298969
0.009104353
0.015615021
0.019328015
0.001798021
0.00421854
0.006792309
0.010542339
0.014002897

Available
Power (W)
0.00407775
0.00570951
0.00828606
0.0107756
0.01293553
0.00240914
0.00338226
0.00493801
0.00636534
0.00759117
0.00188417
0.00270273
0.00333386
0.00424137
0.00482702

Efficiency
0.007610641
0.007147809
0.005891953
0.005158711
0.004706773
0.008924532
0.008438757
0.010936133
0.011295045
0.009832118
0.008530557
0.009757741
0.010341629
0.00993553
0.010279549

ME 4505
Term Project