ASSIGNMENT 2 (INDIVIDUAL)
intercostal muscle relax and the rib cage move downward and inward. The diaphragm
relax and became curved upwards while the volume in thoraic cavity decreases and the
pressure will increases. Air in the atmosphere moves out into the atmosphere.
2.2 Circulatory system
For animal (human), we have closed circulatory system or cardiovascular system,
includes a strong heart and blood vessels. It can divided by two part first is pulmonary
circuit and second is systemic circuit. The heart pumps the blood to the body and receives
the blood returned to the heart. There are three types of blood vessels which is arteries,
veins and capillaries. Our heart is a double pump. The right side pumps oxygen-depleted
blood to the lungs. The left side pumps oxygen-rich blood to body.
For pulmonary circulation, the right atria receives the blood returned to the heart via
the vena cava. The blood passes to the ventrical through the tricuspid valve and right
ventricle pumps blood to the lungs through the pulmonary semilunar valve, the
pulmonary trunk, and pulmonary arteries.
For systemic circuit, after gas exchange in the lungs, the pulmonary veins bring
oxygen-rich blood back to the left atria of the heart. Blood passes through the bicuspid
valve to the left ventricle. The left ventricle pumps the blood through the aortic semilunar
valve to the aorta and distributes the blood to the body.
2.3 Digestive system
The digestive system processes water and nutrients for the body to use. Whatever food an
animal eats has to be broken down into small molecules in order to pass into the
bloodstream to be taken to the cells and used for energy.
The digestive tract begins with the mouth food enters the mouth and is chewed by the
teeth, turned over and mixed with saliva by the tongue. The sensations of smell and taste
from the food sets up reflexes which stimulate the salivary glands.
Situated at the back of the nose and oral cavity receives the softened food mass or
bolus by the tongue pushing it against the palate which initiates the swallowing action.At
the same time a small flap called the epiglottis moves over the trachea to prevent any
food particles getting into the windpipe.From the pharynx onwards the alimentary canal
is a simple tube starting with the salivary glands.
The stomach lies below the diaphragm and to the left of the liver. It is the widest part
of the alimentary canal and acts as a reservoir for the food where it may remain for
between 2 and 6 hours. Here the food is churned over and mixed with various hormones,
enzymes including pepsinogen which begins the digestion of protein, hydrochloric acid,
and other chemicals; all of which are also secreted further down the digestive tract. The
wall of the stomach is impermeable to most substances, although does absorb some
water, electrolytes, certain drugs, and alcohol. At regular intervals a circular muscle at the
lower end of the stomach, the pylorus opens allowing small amounts of food, now known
as chyme to enter the small intestine.
The small intestine consists of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. Both the bile and
pancreatic ducts open into the duodenum together. The small intestine, because of its
structure, provides a vast lining through which further absorption takes place. There is a
large lymph and blood supply to this area, ready to transport nutrients to the rest of the
body. Digestion in the small intestine relies on its own secretions plus those from the
pancreas, liver, and gall bladder.
The liver, which acts as a large reservoir and filter for blood, occupies the upper right
portion of abdomen and has several important functions which to secretion of bile to the
gall bladder. Carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism, the storage of glycogen ready for
conversion into glucose when energy is required, storage of vitamins and phagocytosis ingestion of worn out red and white blood cells, and some bacteria
The Pancreas is connected to the duodenum via two ducts and has two main
functions it is to produce enzymes to aid the process of digestion and yo release insulin
directly into the blood stream for the purpose of controlling blood sugar levelsEnzymes
suspended in the very alkaline pancreatic juices include amylase for breaking down
starch into sugar, and lipase which, when activated by bile salts, helps to break down fat.
The hormone insulin is produced by specialised cells, the islets of Langerhans, and plays
an important role in controlling the level of sugar in the blood and how much is allowed
to pass to the cells.
Lastly, the large intestine comprises the caecum, appendix, colon, and rectum. After
food is passed into the caecum a reflex action in response to the pressure causes the
contraction of the ileo-colic valve preventing any food returning to the ileum. Here most
of the water is absorbed, much of which was not ingested, but secreted by digestive
glands further up the digestive tract. The colon is divided into the ascending, transverse
and descending colons, before reaching the anal canal where the indigestible foods are
expelled from the body.
and
other connective
tissue that supports and binds tissues and organs together. The musculoskeletal system's
primary functions include supporting the body, allowing motion, and protecting vital
organs. The skeletal portion of the system serves as the main storage system
for calcium and phosphorus and contains critical components of the hematopoietic
system.
This system describes how bones are connected to other bones and muscle fibers
via connective tissue such as tendons andligaments. The bones provide stability to the
body. Muscles keep bones in place and also play a role in the movement of bones. To
allow motion, different bones are connected by joints. Cartilage prevents the bone ends
from rubbing directly onto each other. Muscles contract to move the bone attached at the
joint.
also an increased risk of heart failure due to the added stress placed
on the lungs, heart, and arteries at high altitudes.