An Introduction

to Geology

The Science of Geology

Geology - the science that pursues an

understanding of planet Earth
Physical geology - examines the materials
composing Earth and seeks to understand
the many processes that operate beneath
and upon its surface
Historical geology - seeks an
understanding of the origin of Earth and
its development through time

The Science of Geology

Geology, people, and the environment

Many important relationships exist
between people and the natural
environment
Problems and issues addressed by geology
include
Natural hazards, resources, world population
growth, and environmental issues

Geologic time
Geologists are now able to assign fairly
accurate dates to events in Earth history
(absolute dating)
Relative dating and the geologic time scale

Relative dating means that dates are placed

in their proper sequence or order without
knowing their age in years

The
geologic
time
scale
Figure 1.7

Precambrian

4.6 billion years to 544 million years.

Represents 88% of all of the history of the earth.
Referred to as the Cryptozoic Eon.
hidden life

(no more BIFs)

(prokaryotes)

Precambrian: The First 4 Billion

Years
88% of
geologic time

Geologic time

The magnitude of geologic time

Involves vast times millions or billions of
years
An appreciation for the magnitude of
geologic time is important because many
processes are very gradual
(uniformitarianism)
Earth 4.6 Billion Years Old

The nature of
scientific inquiry
Science assumes the natural world is
consistent and predictable
Goal of science is to discover patterns in
nature and use the knowledge to make
predictions
Scientists collect data through observation
and measurements

The nature of
scientific inquiry

How or why things happen is explained

using a
Hypothesis a tentative (or untested)
explanation
Theory a well-tested and widely accepted
view that the scientific community agrees
best explains certain observable facts
Law-a general observation that holds true
without explaining why it holds true

The nature of
scientific inquiry

Scientific method involves

Gathering facts through observations (data)
Formulation of hypotheses and theories

There is no fixed path that scientists follow

that leads to scientific knowledge

A view of Earth
Earth is a planet that is small and selfcontained
Earths four spheres

Hydrosphere
Atmosphere
Biosphere
Solid Earth

ATMOSPHERE Air
Contains all the air in Earths system.

Earths
Spheres

BIOSPHERE Living Things

Contains
all of Earths living things
Atmosphere

microorganisms, plants, and animals.

LITHOSPHERE Land
Contains all the cold, hard, solid
land of Earths crust (surface), the
semi-solid land underneath the crust,
and the liquid land near the center.

HYDROSPHERE Water
Contains all the solid, liquid, and
gaseous water of Earth.

What is the Biosphere?

All regions of the Earth that are
capable of supporting life.
Evolved about 3.5 billion years ago
20-30 km thickness (deep ocean
trenches into the atmosphere)
Includes portions of the hydrosphere,
lithosphere, atmosphere, and
cryosphere.

THE BIOSPHERE

The biosphere is the total of all of Earth's

ecosystems

The global ecosystem is called the

biosphere
It is the sum
of all the
Earth's
ecosystems
The biosphere
is the most
complex level
in ecology

Figure 34.2A

The Biosphere

We divide the total biosphere into three

parts
the Atmosphere
the Hydrosphere
the Lithosphere

The Biosphere

It is the physical and chemical

parameters of each habitat that selects
for the autochthonous community.

The Biosphere

The Biosphere (a.k.a. Ecosphere) - the

totality of life on earth and the abiotic
surroundings that is inhabited.

Earth minus sterile areas:

strata below the crust

upper atmosphere
habitats of extreme heat or lacking liquid
water

Hydrosphere

The earths water is found as a

LIQUID in rivers, lakes, oceans, rain
GAS in our atmosphere
SOLID in snow and ice

71% of the earths surface is covered

by water

Processes of the
Hydrologic Cycle
Evaporation - the transformation of
water from a solid or liquid to a
gaseous state
Condensation - transformation of
vapor into a liquid
Precipitation - liquid or solid water
that falls from the atmosphere to the
earths surface

The Hydrosphere

Freshwater

Limnetic Habitats (Limnology)

2. Lotic Habitats (running water)
a. Springs
b. Streams
c. Rivers

The Hydrosphere

Freshwater - Lake Zonation

littoral zone

euphotic zone
surface

limnetic zone (P>R)

profundal zone (P>R)

compensation depth

Oceans

0.5% Groundwater
0.02% Rivers and Lakes

Structure of
Atmosphere

From Cunningham & Cunningham,

2004, Fig. 9.1

Atmospheric Composition % by Volume

Major Constituents
Nitrogen
Oxygen

78.1
20.9

Active Minor Constituents

Water vapor (H2O) variable (0.48 aver.)
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
0.035
Methane (CH4)
0.00014
Nitrous oxide (NO2)
0.00005
Ozone (O3)
0.000007
CFCs
0.00000014
H2O (liq & ice)
0.00000002
Inactive Minor Constituents
Argon
0.93
Neon
0.0018
Helium
0.00052
Krypton
0.0001
Xenon
0.000009

Other Components of the

Atmosphere
Water Droplets
Ice Crystals
Sulfuric Acid Aerosols
Volcanic Ash
Windblown Dust
Sea Salt
Human Pollutants

Structure of the
Atmosphere
Defined by Temperature Profiles
Troposphere

Where Weather Happens

Stratosphere

Ozone Layer

Mesosphere
Thermosphere

Ionosphere

Troposphere

This is the layer

that is closest to
the surface of the
earth
Its elevation
ranges from 0 to
10 km

Stratosphere

This layer sits on top

of the troposphere
Its elevation ranges
from 10 km to
around 25 km
This layer contains
the ozone layer,
which protects us
from harmful
sunlight

Mesosphere

This layer is above

the stratosphere
Its elevation
ranges from 25 to
100 km

Thermosphere

This is the highest layer

of the atmosphere
Its height ranges from
100 to 400 km
This is where most
small meteorites burn
up and is also the
location in the
atmosphere that the
northern lights occur
(aurora borealis)

Why is the Mesosphere so

Cold?
Stratosphere warmed because of
ozone layer
Thermosphere warmed by atoms
being accelerated by sunlight
Mesosphere is sandwiched between
two warmer layers

Composition and Altitude

Up to about 80 km, atmospheric
composition is uniform (troposphere,
stratosphere, mesosphere)
This zone is called the homosphere
Above 80 km light atoms rise
This zone is sometimes called the
heterosphere

Atmosphere

The surrounding air of the Earth

Earth as a system
Earth is a dynamic planet with many
interacting parts or spheres
Earth System Science

Aims to study Earth as a system composed

of numerous interacting parts or subsystems
Employs an interdisciplinary approach to
solve global environmental problems

Earth as a system

The Earth system is powered by the Sun

that drives external processes in the
Atmosphere
Hydrosphere
At Earths surface

The Earth system is also powered by

Earths interior

Earth as a system

What is a system
Any size group of interacting parts that
form a complex whole
Open vs. closed systems

Feedback mechanisms
Negative feedback maintains the status
quo
Positive feedback enhances or drives
changes

Early evolution of Earth

Origin of planet Earth

Most researchers believe that Earth and the
other planets formed at essentially the same
time
Nebular hypothesis
Rotating cloud called the solar nebula
Composed of hydrogen and helium
Nebula began to contract about 5 billion years
ago

Early evolution of Earth

Origin of planet Earth

Nebular hypothesis
Assumes a flat, disk shape with the protosun
(pre-Sun) at the center
Inner planets begin to form from metallic and
rocky substances
Larger outer planets began forming from
fragments of ices (H2O, CO2, and others)

The Nebular Hypothesis

Early evolution of Earth

Formation of Earths layered structure

Metals sank to the center
Molten rock rose to produce a primitive
crust
Chemical segregation established the three
basic divisions of Earths interior
Primitive atmosphere evolved from gases in
Earths interior

Early evolution of Earth

How did Earth become density stratified?
Young Earth was probably homogeneous
Heat and gravitational pressure caused Earth to partially
melt
Gravity then pulled the iron present into the center of Earth
This heated Earth further
Lighter minerals migrated to Earths surface and formed
the crust
lasted ~100 million years

Earths internal structure

Layers defined by composition

Crust
Mantle
Core

Layers defined by physical properties

Lithosphere
Asthenosphere
Mesosphere
Inner and Outer Core

Earths
layered
structure
Figure 1.14

Earth Stats

Mass (kg) 5.976e+24

Mass (Earth = 1)

Equatorial radius (km) 6,378.14

Equatorial radius (Earth = 1)

1.0

Mean density (gm/cm^3)

5.515

Mean distance from the Sun (km)

149,600,000

Mean distance from the Sun (Earth = 1)

Rotational period (days)

0.99727

Rotational period (hours)

23.9345

Orbital period (days)

1.0000

365.256

Mean orbital velocity (km/sec)

Orbital eccentricity

0.0167

Tilt of axis (degrees)

23.45

Orbital inclination (degrees)

29.79

0.000

Equatorial escape velocity (km/sec) 11.18

Equatorial surface gravity (m/sec^2)
Visual geometric albedo

0.37

Mean surface temperature

15C

Atmospheric pressure (bars)

1.013

Atmospheric composition
Nitrogen 77
Oxygen 21

9.78

The face of Earth

Earths surface
Continents
Oceans

Continents
Mountain belts
Most prominent feature of continents

The stable interior

Also called a craton composed of shields and
stable platforms

The face of Earth

Ocean basins
Continental margins
Includes the continental shelf, continental slope,
and the continental rise

Deep-ocean basins
Abyssal plains
Oceanic trenches
Seamounts

The face of Earth

Ocean basins
Oceanic ridge system
Most prominent topographic feature on Earth
Composed of igneous rock that has been
fractured and uplifted

End of Chapter 1

Rocks and the rock cycle

Basic rock types

Igneous rocks
Cooling and solidification of magma (molten rock)
Examples include granite and basalt

Sedimentary rocks
Accumulate in layers at Earths surface
Sediments are derived from weathering of
preexisting rocks

Rocks and the rock cycle

Basic rock types

Sedimentary rocks
Examples include sandstone and limestone

Metamorphic rocks
Formed by changing preexisting igneous,
sedimentary or other metamorphic rocks
Driving forces are increased heat and pressure
Examples include gneiss and marble

Rocks and the rock cycle

The Rock Cycle: One of Earths

subsystems

The loop that involves the processes by which

one rock changes to another
Illustrates the various processes and paths as
earth materials change both on the surface and
inside the Earth

The
rock
cycle
Figure 1.21