RADIATION SAFETY

Arunkumar Ram
Department of Biomedical Engineering
Vidyalankar Institute of Technology

Internal dosimetry is the science and art of

internal ionizing radiation dose assessment due
to radionuclides incorporated inside the human
body.

Radionuclides deposited within a body will

irradiate tissues and organs and give rise to
committed dose until they are excreted from the
body or the radionuclide is completely decayed.

INTERNAL RADIATION
DOSIMETRY

Monitoring Techniques

In-vivo monitoring: Using Whole Body Counters

In-Vitro Monitoring: Using Bio-Assay (Samples from

Urine, Sweat, feces, etc.)

INTERNAL DOSES CAN BE

ESTIMATED

Absorbed dose is a physical dose quantity D representing the

mean energy imparted to matter per unit mass by ionizing
radiation.

In the SI system of units, the unit of measure is joules per

kilogram, and its special name is gray (Gy).

The non-SI CGS unit rad is sometimes also used

ABSORBED DOSE

Nuclear Medicine Society (NMS) has a committee known

as the Medical Internal Radiation Dose (MIRD) Committee.

They have developed a method of estimating the dose

delivered to a target organ.

In Nuclear Medicine: The target is the source

MIRD METHOD TO MEASURE

RADIATION DOSE

Definitions

Target Organ (T)

The target organ is the organ in which the dose is to be

determined.

Source Organ (S)

The source organ is the point of origin of the ionizing radiation.

The source organ may also be the target organ.

MIRD METHOD

Definitions

Mean Energy Per Transition

The mean energy per transition () released in the source organ

is equal to the mean particle energy (E) multiplied by the
average number of particles per transition (n), together with a
conversion factor K. This gives the first equation:

=KEn

MIRD METHOD

MIRD allows the dose to a target organ to be determined for

the nearby source organs. It splits the calculation of dose into
two factors:

The pharmacokinetics of the radiopharmaceutical

The physical properties of the radiation and the organ

structure

USES OF MIRD METHOD

There are two potential primary exposure types

connected with work involving radioisotopes

External and Internal exposure to radiation

Each must be carefully evaluated prior to

working with radioactive materials, and
precautions must be taken to prevent these
exposures.

RADIATION EXPOSURE

External Radiation Exposure

External hazards arise when radiation from a

source external to the body penetrates the body
and causes a dose of ionizing radiation.

These exposures can be from gamma or x-rays,

neutrons, alpha particles or beta particles

Highly Penetrating.

Diminished blood count is one such immediate

effect.

RADIATION EXPOSURE

External Radiation Exposure

Beta particles cannot penetrate the skin, but when

intense, they can create severe damage to skin
and eye.

Alpha particles are not an external radiation

hazard.

X-Rays and Gamma rays are penetrating

RADIATION EXPOSURE

Internal Radiation Exposure

Internal exposures arise when radiation is emitted

from radioactive materials present within the body.

RADIATION EXPOSURE

Radiation protection is the science of protecting

the human population and the environment from
the harmful effects of ionizing radiation including

Particle radiation

High energy electromagnetic radiation

RADIATION PROTECTION

Ionizing radiation is classified into two types

Directly Ionizing Radiation

Charged particles(alpha, beta) are considered

directly ionizing because they carry a charge and
can interact with atomic electrons.

IONIZING RADIATION

Ionizing radiation is classified into two types

Indirectly Ionizing Radiation

Photons (gamma rays and x-rays) and neutrons

are examples of indirectly ionizing radiation
because they do not carry electric charge and do
not interact with atomic electrons.

IONIZING RADIATION

Directly ionizing radiations impart their energy

through

Excitation

Ionization

HOW DO RADIATIONS INTERACT

WHEN THEY PASS THROUGH
ATOMS?

Alpha Particles

High specific ionization

Massive and carry double positive charge

Travel only few centimeters in air

Few millimeters in tissues

Example: alpha particles cannot penetrate dead

cell layer of human cell

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT
IONIZING RADIATION

Beta Particles

Lower specific ionization than alpha particles

P-32 have range of 6m in air and 8m in tissue.

Positrons used in PET imaging

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT
IONIZING RADIATION

Gamma and X-rays

Indirectly ionizing radiation since, have no charge.

Do not directly impulse to orbital electrons.

Indirectly ionizing radiations ionize deep inside a

medium.

Gamma rays has a definite probability of passing

through any medium of any depth.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT
IONIZING RADIATION

Absorbed Dose (D)

It is defined as the amount of energy absorbed

per unit mass of the medium at the point of
interest.

Units

Rad; 1 Rad=100 ergs/g

Gray(Gy); 1 Gy= 1J/kg

RADIATION QUANTITIES

Absorbed Dose (D)

It is defined as the amount of energy absorbed

per unit mass of the medium at the point of
interest.

Units

Rad; 1 Rad=100 ergs/g

Gray(Gy); 1 Gy= 1J/kg

RADIATION QUANTITIES

Absorption of radiation by cells may result in cell

killing or modifications.

Cell killing may result in deterministic effects.

Cell modifications may result in stochastic effects

BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF
RADIATIONS

Deterministic Effects

These effects will occur if the dose received

exceeds certain threshold.

Examples: Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and

reddening of the skin.

BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF
RADIATIONS

Stochastic Effects

Probability of occurrence is proportional to the

dose received and whose severity is
independent of the dose.

Stochastic effects are caused even at low level

of dose.

Radiation induces cancer is the sever effect.

Radiation carcinogenesis and hereditary effects

are two important effects of stochastic effects

BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF
RADIATIONS

Direct Effect: Damage to DNA

Interacts with atoms of the DNA

Molecule

Effects ability of cells to

reproduce

RADIATION CAUSES CELLULAR

DAMAGE

Radiolytic decomposition of water in a

cell

Decomposition to hydrogen(H) and

hydroxyl(OH)

Ability to recombine to toxic substance

RADIATION CAUSES RADIOLYTIC

DECOMPOSITION OF WATER IN A
CELL

Lymphocyte
and Blood
forming cells

All living cells are not equally sensitive to

radiation

Cells that reproduce faster are more sensitive.

Reproductive
and GI Cells

CELLULAR SENSITIVITY TO
RADIATION

Nerve and
Muscle Cells

HOW DO CELLS BEHAVE?

TDS

TIME

DISTANCE

SHIELDING

WAYS TO MINIMIZE RADIATIONS

Time

The total dose received by a person is directly

proportional to the time spent near the
radioactive source.

Minimize the time spent during handling or int the

vicinity of radiation sources

WAYS TO MINIMIZE RADIATIONS

Distance

The exposure rate at any location follows inverse

square law.

As distance increases exposure rate decreases

by a factor of a square.

1/R2 , R is the distance from the source

WAYS TO MINIMIZE RADIATIONS

Shielding

Radiation is attenuated by different materials.

Apha particles are easilt stopped by any matter,

a few cm of air, less than an mm of water or
paper.

Beta particles are stopped by few mm of plastic,

water or glass.

Gamma rays are not easily stopped since they

are highly penetrating and follow exponential
attenuation law.

WAYS TO MINIMIZE RADIATIONS

Shielding

WAYS TO MINIMIZE RADIATIONS

HALF VALUE THICKNESS

HVT represents the thickness of a material which
is required to reduce the given intensity of
gamma ray (or X-Ray) to half of its initial value.
Higher Atomic Number: HVT?
Higher density: HVT?
Lower the energy: HVT?

WAYS TO MINIMIZE RADIATIONS

Wear laboratory coats or other protective clothing at

all times when working with radioactive material.

Wear disposable gloves at all times while handling

radioactive material.

Wear personal monitoring devices (TLD or film badges)

at all times when working with radioactive material.

Wear TLD during preparation, assay and administration

of radiopharmaceuticals.

Transport radioactive material in shielded containers.

Never pipette by mouth

RADIATION SAFETY PRACTICES

AND PROCEDURES

RADIATION SAFETY PRACTICES

AND PROCEDURES

RADIATION MAN

RADIOACTIVE WASTE

RADIOACTIVE WASTE

Composed of radionuclides

Low, Medium, and High-level waste

High-level waste produced in nuclear reactors

Consists of

Fission products (short-half lives)

Actinides (long-half lives)

Of note: 99Tc, 129I, 239Pu, 240Pu, 235U, 238U

NUCLEAR WASTE

Somatic Effects

Genetic Effects

Cancer
Hereditary Genetic Damage

Teratogenic Effects

Birth defects

Prenatal death

HEALTH RISK

Purpose

Vitrification

Prevent reaction or degradation of waste for

extended period of time
Combine waste with molten glass, harden to form
new solid

Ion Exchange

Combine with chemical to concentrate waste

and encase in cement

VITRIFICATION/ION EXCHANGE

Kilometers deep rather than hundreds of meters

Provide Further isolation from ground water

More potential borehole locations around the

globe

Can be created in many cases close to power

plants

Not subject to volcanic, and seismic interference

DEEP BOREHOLES

Removes the waste from the biosphere entirely

High risk of space vehicle failure

High energy cost of space launch

Relatively limited volume per launch

High cost

SPACE DISPOSAL OF WASTES

Radioactive waste must be stored as close to

work area.

Waste containers must be kept closed at all

times.

Waste container should be labelled Caution

Radioactive Material

D NOT place any radioactive waste in regular

trash receptacles.

RADIOACTIVE WASTE STORAGE

IN LABORATORY

DO NOT place different radioisotopes in the

same waste container

Radioactive waste should not be stored in the

laboratory for extended period of time. The
waste should be delivered to the designated
pickup location in a timely manner.

RADIOACTIVE WASTE STORAGE

IN LABORATORY

External packaging(e.g. cardboard boxes) shall

be monitored for contamination before disposal
into the regular trash.

NO package with detectable radioactive

contamination may be disposed of in the regular
trash.

All radioactive material stickers, labels and

symbols MUST be defaced prior to disposal in the
regular trash.

DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE
MATERIAL PACKING/EMPTY BOXES

The radioactivity injected animal carcasses and

tissues must be frozen.

They are held for appropriate decay period so

that the activity reduces to background level.

It can then be disposed off as ordinary waste.

DISPOSAL OF EXPERIMENTAL
ANIMALS INJECTED WITH
RADIOACTIVITY