Traffic Eng.

Intersection Design

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Intersection Design
In this lecture;
--------------------1- General
2- Types of At-Grade Intersections
2.1 T - Intersections
2.2 Four-Leg Intersections
2.3 Multileg Intersections
2.4 Traffic Circles
3- Design Principles
4- Channelization

The information included in this lecture is largely taken from Traffic and Highway
Engineering (Garber and Hoel, 2009) and A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways
and Streets (AASHTO, 2011) .

1- General
An intersection is an area, shared by two or more roads, whose main function is to
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provide for the change of route directions. Intersections vary in complexity

from a simple intersection, which has only two roads crossing at a right angle, to a
more complex intersection, at which three or more roads cross within the same
area. Drivers therefore have to make a decision at an intersection concerning which
of the alternative routes they wish to take (Garber and Hoel, 2009).
Generally, intersections can be categorized into three essential groups:
A- Grade-separated without ramps (overpass or underpass)
B- Grade-separated with ramps (interchanges), and
C- At-grade intersections.
Grade-separated intersections consist of structures that provide for traffic to cross
at different vertical levels without interruption; hence, the potential conflicts
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between intersecting streams of traffic are eliminated. Therefore, possibility of

collisions is higher at at-grade intersections.

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2- Types of at-grade intersections

The basic types of at-grade intersections are T or three-leg intersections which
consist of three approaches; four-leg or cross intersections, which consist of four
approaches; multileg intersections, which consist of five or more approaches and
traffic circles.
2-1 T Intersections
Various types of T intersections ranging from the simplest one to a channelized one
with divisional islands and turning roadways. Channelization involves the provision
of facilities such as pavement markings and traffic islands to regulate and direct
conflicting traffic streams into specific travel paths (for more details, see Garber and
Hoel, 2009). Figures below show examples of T-intersections.

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Figure (d) shows a channelized T intersection in which the two-lane through road
has been converted into a divided highway through the intersection. The
channelized T intersection also provides both a left-turn storage lane for left-turning
vehicles from the through road to the minor road and a right-turn lane on the east
approach. This type of intersection is suitable for locations where volumes are high
such as high left-turn volumes from the through road and high right-turn volumes
onto the minor road. An intersection of this type probably will be signalized.
2-2 Four-Leg Intersections
According to Garber and Hoel (2009) and AASHTO (2011), four-leg intersection is
designed with different levels of channelization. The unchannelized intersection
shown in Figure (a) below is adopted mainly at locations where minor or local roads
cross

In these cases, the turning volumes are usually low and the roads

intersect at an angle that is not greater than 30 degrees from the normal.

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Figure (d) shows a suitable design (Right-Turn Channelization, Divisional Islands, and
Left-Turn Lanes) for four-leg intersection carrying high through and turning volumes.
This type of intersection is usually signalized.
2-3 Multileg Intersections
Multileg intersections have five or more approaches; whenever possible this type of
intersection should be avoided. In order to remove some of the conflicting
movements from the major intersection and hence increasing
safety and efficiency, one or more of the legs should be realigned .

In Figure A above, the diagonal leg of the intersection is realigned to intersect the
upper road at a location some distance away from the main intersection. This results
in the formation

of

an additional T intersection but with the multileg

intersection now converted to a four-leg intersection (Garber and Hoel (2009) and
AASHTO (2011)). A similar realignment of a six-leg intersection is shown in Figure B.

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2.4 Traffic Circles

According to AASHTO (2011) and Garber and Hoel (2009), a traffic circle is a circular
intersection that provides a circular traffic pattern with significant reduction in the
crossing conflict points. The Federal Highway Administration FHWA describes three
types of traffic circles: rotaries, neighbourhood traffic circles, and roundabouts.
Rotaries have large diameters that are usually greater than 100m, so allowing
speeds exceeding 50 kph, with a minimum horizontal deflection of the path of the
through traffic ( ).
Roundabouts are circular intersections with specific design and traffic control
features that include:
Yield control for all entering traffic.
Geometric characteristics of the central island

allow

travel speeds of

less than 50 km/h.

Splitter islands

on each leg of the roundabout have multiple roles:

separate entering and exiting traffic, deflect and slow entering traffic, and provide a
pedestrian refuge ( ).

Figure: Typical modern roundabout.

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Roundabouts designed in this manner are often referred to as modern roundabouts

to be distinguished from older rotaries or signalized traffic circles. Figure in the
previous page depicts typical modern roundabout.

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Neighbourhood traffic circles

are

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typically built at the

intersections of local streets for traffic calming and/or aesthetics . The

intersection approaches may be yield-controlled, uncontrolled, or stop-controlled,
and the intersection diameter is typically between 15 and 30 m. They do not
typically include raised channelization on the entering roadway to guide driver onto
the circulatory roadway.

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Intersection Design

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3- Design principles for at-grade intersections

Garber and Hoel (2009) reported that the AASHTO manual consider the
fundamental objective in the design of at-grade intersections is to minimize the
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severity

of

potential conflicts among different streams of traffic and between

pedestrians and turning vehicles. The design should consider the following:
3-1 Alignment of At-Grade Intersections
The best alignment for an at-grade intersection is when the intersecting roads meet
at right or nearly right angles. Because this alignment provide much less road area
for turning, lower exposure time

to

other vehicles, and less visibility

limitations problems compared with those at acute-angle intersections. Figure

below shows alternative methods for realigning roads intersecting at acute angles to
obtain a nearly right-angle intersection.

3-2 Profile of At-Grade Intersections

In designing the profile (vertical alignment) at the intersection, a combination of
grade lines that lead to avoiding the difficulty of controlling vehicles at
intersections. Grades should not be greater than 3 percent. The stopping and
accelerating distances for passenger cars on grades of 3% or less are not much
different from those of cars on flat grades.
3-3 Curves at At-Grade Intersections
The angle of turn , turning speed, and design vehicle are the main factors
governing the design of curves at at-grade intersections. When the turning speed is
15 mph or less, the curves for the pavement edges are designed to conform to at
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least the minimum turning path of the design vehicle . When the turning
speed is expected to be greater than 15 mi/h, the design speed should be also
considered.
Figure below shows the minimum designs necessary for a passenger car making a
90-degree right turn using a simple curve.

3-4 Channelization of At-Grade Intersections

AASHTO defines channelization

as

the separation of conflicting

traffic movements into definite paths of travel by traffic islands or pavement

markings to facilitate the safe and orderly movements of both vehicles and
pedestrians. A properly channelized intersection will result in increased capacity,
enhanced safety, and increased driver confidence. Traffic islands are classified into
three categories based on their functions: channelized, divisional, and refuge.

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3-5 Minimum Pavement Widths of Turning Roadways at At-Grade Intersections

In cases where vehicle speeds are expected to be greater than 15 mi/h, such as at
channelized intersections and where ramps intersect with local
roads, it is necessary to increase the pavement widths of the turning roadways.

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Intersection Design

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3-6 Sight Distance at Intersections

The high crash potential at an intersection can be reduced by
providing sight distances that allow drivers to have an unobstructed view of the
entire intersection at a distance great enough to permit control of the vehicle. At
signalized intersections, the unobstructed view may be limited to the area where
the signals are located, but for unsignalized intersections, it is necessary to provide
an adequate view of the crossroads or intersecting highways to reduce the potential
of collision with crossing vehicles.
This requires an unobstructed triangular area (sight triangle) that allows a clear view
for drivers on the minor and major roads to see an approaching vehicle on the
crossing road in time to avoid a potential conflict as shown in Figure below.

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There are two types of sight triangles, approach sight triangles

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and

departure sight triangles.

The approach sight triangle allows for the drivers on both the major roads and
minor roads to see approaching intersecting vehicles in sufficient time to avoid a
potential collision by reducing the vehicles speed or by stopping. The decision point
on a minor road of an uncontrolled or yield control intersection is the location
where the minor road driver should start his/her braking or deceleration maneuver
to avoid a potential conflict with an approaching major road vehicle.
The departure-sight triangle allows for the driver of a stopped vehicle on the minor
road to enter or cross the major road without conflicting with an approaching
vehicle from either direction of the major road.
In addition to the speeds of the approaching vehicles, the lengths of the legs of the
sight triangle also depend on the type of control at the intersection. At-grade
intersections either have no control (Case A) or are controlled by one of the
following methods: stop control on the minor road (Case B), yield control on the
minor road (Case C), traffic signal control (Case D), or all-way stop control (Case E).
Consideration should also be given to the maneuver of left turns from the major
road (Case F).

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4- Channelization
An intersection that is not properly channelized may lower the safety and efficiency
of intersection. In contrast, overchannelization could cause confusion for the
motorist and decrease the operating level of an intersection.
4-1 General Characteristics of Traffic Islands
These islands can be formed by using raised curbs, pavement markings, or the
pavement edges (Garber and Hoel, 2009).
A- Curbed Traffic Islands
A curbed island is usually formed by the construction of a concrete curb that
delineates

the

area of the island, as shown in Figure below. It should be noted,

however, that because of glare

curbed islands may be difficult to

see at night which makes it necessary that intersections with curbed islands have
fixed-source lighting. Curbed islands are used mainly in urban highways where
approach speed is not excessively high and pedestrian volume is relatively high.

B- Traffic Islands Formed by Pavement Markings

Also called flushed island because it is flushed with the pavement, as shown in
Figure in the next page. Flushed islands are formed by pavement markings that
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delineate the area of the island. Markers include paint, thermoplastic striping, and
raised retroreflective markers. Flushed islands are preferred over curbed islands at
intersections where approach speeds are relatively high, pedestrian traffic is low,
and signals or sign mountings are not located on the island.

C- Islands Formed by Pavement Edges

These islands are usually unpaved and are mainly used at rural intersections where
there is space for large intersection curves.
4-2 Functions of Traffic Islands
Traffic islands also can be classified into three categories based on their functions:
channelized, divisional, and refuge. Channelized islands are mainly used to control
and direct traffic. Divisional islands are mainly used to divide opposing or samedirectional traffic streams. Refuge islands are used primarily to provide refuge for
pedestrians. In most cases, however, traffic islands perform two or more of these
functions.
A- Channelized Islands
The objective of channelized islands is to eliminate confusion to motorists at
intersections with different traffic movements by guiding them into the correct lane
for their intended movement. This is achieved by converting excess space at the
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intersection into islands to help guiding motorist. A channelized island may take one
of many shapes (f, e, d of Figure b), depending on its specific purpose. For example,
a triangularly-shaped channelized island is often used to separate right-turning
traffic from through traffic (see Figure a) whereas a curved, central island is
frequently used to guide turning vehicles (see Figure b). In any case, the outlines of a
channelized island should be nearly parallel to the lines of traffic it is channeling.
Where the island is used to separate turning traffic from through traffic, the radii of
the curved sections must be equal to or greater than the minimum radius required
for the expected turning speed.

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B- Divisional Islands
Often used at intersections of undivided highways to alert drivers that they are
approaching an intersection and to control traffic at the intersection. They also can
be used effectively to control left turns at skewed intersections. Examples of
divisional islands are shown in Figure below.

C- Refuge Islands
Refuge islands, sometimes referred to as pedestrian islands, are used mainly at
urban intersections to serve as refuge areas for wheelchairs and pedestrians
crossing wide intersections. They also may be used for loading and unloading transit
(public transport) passengers . The Figure on the next page shows examples
of islands that provide refuge as well as function as channelized islands.

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Intersection Design

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