Volume IT Steady-State Power System Analysis DIgSILENT PowerFactory Version 13.2i)DDIQSILENT PonerFacto Load: Row Calculations Chapter 13 Load-Flow Calculations Alload-flow calculation may be initiated by si * Pressing the *-. icon on the main toolbar + Selecting the Calculation -> Load-Flow option on the main menu ‘An example of the load-flow command dialogue is shown in the figure 13.1. Tiiion Ceol | Ou | Lew tage Anas | Advanced Sndaion Ops PBaicOice — | Aeive Power Corto | -ABlareedOpinns farratapale Networkepresera [: Datong ulna Top dt Tesla TT Automatic Shunt Adjusimert TF Carsider Reactive Power Links 1 Conidey Votoge Dependents Feeder Soaino 1 conser Coiretnes of Low'oteg Leads Scag Fatt ix—————- | Na steaz Heater. u Fig. 13.1: ComLdf command dialogue Please refer to the section Load-Flow Calculations in the Technical References for a detailed description and the theory behind the load-flow calculations, In the following pages the options that may be set for the load-flow calculation will be explained, Following this, some hints on what to do if your load-flow is not solving are presented,DIQSILENT Fowerfactory Load-Fow Caleultions 13.1 Basic Options Network Representation Balanced, positive sequence Performs load-flow calculations for a one-phase, positive sequence network representation, valid for balanced symmetrical networks. A balanced representation of unbalanced objects is used. Unbalanced, 3 Phase (ABC) Performs load-flow calculations for multiphase network representation, It can be used for analyzing unbalances of 3-phase systems, e.g. introduced by unbalanced loads or non-transposed lines, or for analyzing all kinds of unbalanced system technologies, such as single- phase- or two-phase systems (with or without neutral return). Reactive Power Control Automatic Tap Adjust of Transformers Adjusts the taps off all transformers that have the option Automatic Tap Changing enabled on the Load-Flowtab. Automatic Shunt Adjustment adjusts the steps of all switchable shunts that have the option ‘Switchable enabled on the Load-Flowtab. Consider Reactive Power Limits Considered reactive power limits of generators, as defined in the generator models, and reactive limits of static VAR systems, If this option is not enabled, PowerFactory just prints a warning message if limits are violated. Load Options Consider Voltage Depentlency of Loads Voltage dependency of loads that have voltage dependency factors Kou and kgu (as set on the Load-Fiowtab in the load type) set will be enabled. Feeder Load Scaling Scales toads marked Adjusted by Load Scaling in the load-flow tab of their element data to match the total load specified in the Load Scaling option of the feeder abject. Consider Coincidence of Low-Voltage Loads Calculates a ‘low voltage load-flow', where load coincidence factors are considered, so as to produce maximum branch currents and maximum voltage drops. Since coincidence factors are used the result of low voltage analysis will not obey Kirchhoff current law. Scaling Factor for Night Storage Heaters Is the factor by which the night storage heater power (as found in "Low Voltage load" elements) is multiplied for all low voltage loads. 43-2 iDIGSILENT AawerFactory Load Flow Caleuations 13.2 Active Power Control Active Power Control as Dispatched: “The total power balance will be established by one reference generator/external grid ("slack"-generator). according to secondary Control: Power balance is established by all generators considered by a "Secondary Controller". Active power contribution is according to the secondary controller participation factors, according to Primary Control: Power balance is established by all generators having a KF-setting defined, Active power contribution according to the droop of every generator according to Inertias: Power balanced is established by alll generators. Contribution according to inertia (acceleration time constant). Consider Active Power Limits: ‘Active power limits for generators, as defined by the generator element data, will be applied, A message will be issued when the generator reaches these limits, When disabled, the active power outputs limits may be violated, In which case a warning is issued. 13.3 Outputs Show Verification Report Produces a table in the output window with a list of overloaded objects and voltage violations, according to the values specified in "Check devices". ‘Show Convergence Progress Report Will print detailed reports concerning load-flow calculations during the iterations, which may be used to solve convergence problems. Calculate Power at Risk Calculates the SPAR (System Power At Risk) parameter, which is shown in the "Total System Summary Report”. The SPAR equals the minimum amount of power that will be shed In order to make the highest branch joading equal to the "Max. Loading of Edge Element’. The SPAR calculation uses a linear optimization technique to calculate the least power that may be shed in order to alleviate all overloads. This minimum power that will be shed Is called the "Power At Risk". Output Isa pointer to the report definition that will be used, The arrow can be pressed to edit or inspect the report settings.DIGSILENT Rowertoctory Load Fow Cautions 13.4 Low Voltage Analysis ‘The following applies to all LV loads (Elml.odlv) and partial LV loads on lines (Elm- Lodivp): Definition of Fixed Load per Customer The fixed /oadis the non-stochastic part of the load, which Is not subject to coincidence factors. Definition of Variable Load per Customer The Max. Power per Customeris the independent maximum. Multiplied by the coincidence factor, this gives the "Average Power", which is used in the load-flow calculations, as the load-flew algorithm does not implicitly consider the coincidence factors, Note Please mind that these factors are use as global data for the load- flow calculation. If specific LV load types are defined, this data is used for the according loads. For all other LV loads the global data is used instead. Voltage Drop Analysis Choose between Stochastic Evaluation ot Maximum Current Estimation. 13.5 Advanced Options Load-Flow Method ‘Nodal equations for solving power flows can be implemented by two different methods: ‘+ PQ-balance (Energy conservation) * Atia-balance (Kirchoffs law) In both cases, nonlinear equation systems are resulting, which have to be solved by an iterative method. PowerFactory always uses Newton-Raphson algorithms as non-linear equation solver. With regard to the nodal equalizations user has the choice between: + Classical approach (P,Q) * Current approach (Kirchoffs law) In wide transmission systems, especially when heavily loaded, the classical Newton Raph- __ Son Algorithm usually works the best, Distribution systems, especially unbalanced distri= bution systems usually converge better using the "Current Iteration” method. In case of difficulties, additional parameters on the "Iteration Control Page" can be adjusted. 3-4DIQSILENT FowerFoctary Load ow Caleuatons Load-Flow Initialisation No Topology Rebuilt Will speed up large sets of consecutive load-flow calculations. It will not consider a topology rebuild when calculating the next load-flow. If no topology changes will be made for the system then this option may be enabled, No Initialisation (no flat start) Initialises @ load-flow from a previously solved solution (no flat-start). Consideration of transformer winding ratio Sets the manner in which voltage initialisation takes place at nodes, Reducing the relaxation factor results in more iteration but higher numerical robustness. Tap Adjustment Method ‘The direct method will include the tap controller models in the load- fiow calculations (in the internal loop within the Newton-Raphson iterations). The new tap positions will then be calculated directly as a variable and thus result after a single load-flow calculation. ‘The stepped method will calculate a load-flow with fixed tap positions, after which the required tap changes are calculated from the observed ‘voltage deviations and the tap controller time constants. The load-flow calculation is then repeated with the new tap positions, until no further changes are required. The tap adjustment will then take place in the outer loop of the iteration, Min. Controller Relaxation Factor ‘The tap controller time constants are used in the automatic tap changer calculations to determine the relative speed of the various tap controllers during the load-flow iterations, The relaxation factor can be sed to slow down the overall controller speeds (factor less than 1.0, in case of convergence problems) or to spead them up (factor more than 1.0, for a faster load-flow). 13.6 Iteration Control Max. Number of Iterations for ‘The load-flow calculation function uses an iterative Newton-Raphson method, for which the maximal number of iterations may be set, Normal values are a maximum of 25 itera- tions for the inner and 20 for the outer loop calculations, For iteration control set itrlx Maximum Number of Iterations (typical: 25) ‘The inner loop of the load-flow Is represented by the Newton-Raphson iteration. The maximum number of iterations is set by this parameter. ictrix Iteration Limit to Recompute Jacobian Matrix (typical: 20) The outer loop of the load-flow iteration will determine changes in the 13-5DIGSILENT Powertactory : oad Flow Catalatons tap changer (depending on the tap adjustment method), the reactive power limits of the generator, etc. These are adjusted in the outer loop and then a new iteration of the inner loop is started again. The maximum number of outer loop iterations is set by this parameter. steps Number of Stairs (typical: 1) Problematic load-flows with slow or no convergence can be improved by starting a load-flow calculation for a low load level, and then increasing the load level in a number of steps, This is achieved by setting the Number of Stairsto a value larger than one. For example steps =3 starts with load-flow at a load/generation level of 1/3 and the increases the power in 2 further steps to 100%. Max. Acceptable Load-Flow Error Ahilgher precision or a faster calculation can be obtained by changing the maximal al- lowed errors, The values of either the calculated absolute fault for the nodes, or the cal- culated relative faults in the model equations, e.g. voltage error of voltage controlled generators, may be changed. For iteration control set ereit Maximum Iteration Error of Nodal Equations (typical: 1 kVA) erreq Maximum Error of Model Equations (typical: 0.1%) Convergence Options Relaxation Factor ‘A Newton Raphson relaxation factor smaller than 1.0 will slow down the convergence speed of the load-flow calculation, but may in some cases result in better convergence. Automatic Model Adaptation for Convergency The PowerFactory \oad-flow function will always first try to find a solution with the non-linear mathematical power system models, If such a solution cannot be found, and this option is enabled, an adaptive algorithm will change these models slightly to make them more linear, until a solution is found. Model adaptations are reported in the output window. 13.7 Advanced Simulation Options This page, as shown in the figure 13.2 is not only important for load-flow but also for other calculation functions like the transient simulation. Using the following options i.e. a tran- sient simulation can be sped up when the protection devices will be neglected in the cal- culation. 13-6 OYDIgSILENT Powertactory od-Fow Colodatons Seti eee Bae Oplons |. Active PowerCorbal . |. Advanced Opens tein Corte! | Ouput } Low Vohags And Advanced SirutonOptane tastapal ey Ceri PrctestanDevioas tne] TF Agnote Conposie Elements «Noted Modes. Fig. 13.2: Advanced Simulation Options in the ComLdf command dialogue Consider Protection Devices calculates the tripping times for all relays and fuses that have been modelled. This will also show the load currents in the overcurrent plots and/or the measured impedance in the R-X diagrams. Disabling this option will speed up the calculations. Ignore Composite Elements disables all controller models, The panels "Considered Models" and "Ignored Models" are used to disable specific groups of controller models, Models names can be moved between panels by double- clicking or by using the arrow buttons. 13.8 Troubleshooting Load-Flow Calculations In general, ifa solution can be found (in other words, the network has a possible solution) PowerFactory will find a solution. In some cases the user may have made an error which will not allow @ solution to be found, for example, a large load causing volt drop so high that a voltage collapse results, In the real world the same problem would be found. When creating a network for the first time it is best to enter the data for just a small part or ‘path’ of the network and solve the network by calculating a load-flow. PowerFactory hhas a data verification process in which certain checks, such as whether a line is connect- ed between nodes of the same voltage; correct voltage orientation of transformers, etc., are performed. Error messages regarding these Issues are printed to the output window, listing the element and error in question. These messages are interactive and the user may: © Right-click-> Mark in Graphicto show the element on the single line graphic, or B-7DIGSILENT Rowerfoctory Load Row Caleulations * double-click on the description of the element to present the element dialogue (‘South Grid\MV-X6 .ElmLne' in the example below) In the following example the messages in the output window state that the line element called 'MV-K6', which is found in the ‘South Grid' folder is missing type data. DigSI/wrng - Protection Devices are not considered. DigSt/err - ‘South Grid\MV-X6.Eluine!: bigsi/err - missing type 1 Digst/err - iast command leads to error(s), sce output window 1 Digst/err - Error in ioad-flow data! DIgSI/info - Load-flow calculation not executed Once these errors have been corrected and the load-flow still does not solve use the "Show Verification Report” and "Show Convergence Progress Report” options found in the "Outputs" tab of the load-flow dialogue. These will print messages to the output window and provide clues as to where problems may lie. At this point the graphic can also be colored to show low and high voltages and overload- ing. This will also provide a good idea of where there may be problems. Look at the un- dervoltage nodes and overloaded elements and figure out why they are overloaded; lock at load set points, line lengths and line type data (the Impedances may be too high). Note There are 3 different types of messages that are printed to the out- put window; warning, error and information messages. Only error ‘messages must be corrected for a load-ffow to solve. Take note of the warning messages and evaluate them in terms of your system, these do not need to be corrected for the load-flow to solve. "Un- supplied Areas" mean that a node or branch element has no supply Ge. a breaker is open) If there is still no convergence then set most of the elements out of service and bring these back one at a time, from the source element ‘downwards’, performing a load-flow each time. When having large unbalances, such as when there are a number of single or dual phase elements, or when having power electronics elements use the "Newton Raphson Current Iteration” option in the "Advanced" tab of the load-flow dialogue. 13-8DIgSILENT PonerFoctory Shert-Croxt Calculations Chapter 14 Short-Circuit Calculations 14.1. General Remarks Short-circuit calculations may be used for different purposes, Therefore PowerFactory supports different representation and various calculation methods for the analysis of short-circuit currents. Network Planning One application is to check the rating of network equipment at planning stage. In this case the planner is interested in knowing the expected maximum currents (for the rating of the components) and the minimum currents (to make sure the protection concept will work). Short-circuit calculation at planning stage mostly will use calculation methods that require less detailed network modelling (e.g, that do not require load information) and will apply extreme-case estimations. Examples for these methods are the IEC/VDE calculation method and the ANSI method. Operational Problems {A different field of application is the precise evaluation of the fault current in a specific situation, e.g, to find out if the malfunction of a protection device was a relay failure or was the consequence of wrong settings. This Is the typical application of exact methods like the superposition method (complete method), which Is based on a specific load-flow situation. This chapter presents the handling of the short-circuit calculation methods as implemented in PowerFactory. More information about the background on this topic can be found in section 14,7 (Technical Background). “The short-circuit calculation in PowerFactory's able to perform single faults as well as multiple faults of nearly unlimited complexity. The handling of PowerFactory, the differ- ent methods and the available options are presented in the following. 14.2 Executing Short-Circuit Calculations A short-circuit calculation can be Initiated from the single line graphic by selecting one or more busbars and/or lines. Right-click the selection to access the context-sensitive menu. ‘This menu offers the option; Calculate—> Short-Circutt... . ‘When confirming this menu option, the short-circuit command dialogue Is opened, De- pending on whether a single element or a group of elements had been selected before starting the calculation, the setup dialogue fs configured in two possible ways: WaelDIGSILENT Powerhoctory Short-Creult Calculations * When only one single busbar is selected, and Ca/culate—> Short-Circuitis chosen, the “Fault Location" reference is set to the selected busbar. When two or more busbars are selected and Ca/cufate-> Short-Circuitis chosen, the “Fault Location” reference is set to a so-called "Selection Set" (Setselect) object, which contains a list of references to the selected busbars. In ether case, the options for the calculation can be modified, Please refer to section 14.6 (Short-Circuit Calculation Options) for a detailed description of the avallable parameters. Tt should be considered, that changing the option "multiple faults" may change the selec- tion of fault locations and may thus lead to a calculation for locations other than the bus- bars selected in the single line graph. After pressing the button Execute, the calculation is executed and, If successful, the results are shown In the network diagram, Also a result teport is available and may be printed out. Once a selection of fault locations is made and the short-circuit calculation is performed, it is easily possible to execute further calculations based on the same selection of ele- ments. This can be done by the following alternative actions: + by pressing the °*:! icon on the main toolbar * by selecting the Ca/culation/Short-olrcuit option on the main menu The short-circuit setup dialogue then shows the previously selected elements in the sec- tion Fault Location under User Selection. 14.3 Faults on Lines It is not only possible to calculate short-circuits on busbars and terminals, but also on lines. To calculate fault on a line, please proceed as follows: * Please select the line where the fault should be modelled * Right-click on that line. The short-circuit setup dialogue opens and lets one define the distance of the fault (see the figure 14.1}. * Following the button il will enable the user to select if the fault location is defined in ‘% of the line length or in absolute distance. Fig. 14.1; Setup section for line faults ‘When a fault on a line is calculated, a box is shown next to the line presenting the results of the calculation, 14.4 Multiple Faults Calculation To calculate multiple faults, that is the simultaneous occurrence of more than one fault 14-2DIGSILENT FowerFactory ‘Shor-Crutt Calevatlns condition in the network, please do as follows: * Please select two or more busbars and right-click, Please select the option Ca/culate-Multiole Faults, and confirm. The short-circuit setup dialogue pops up, containing a pre-set "Short-Circuit Event List”. In this pre-set, a 3- phase fault is assumed at all selected locations. The Mu/tiple Faults option in the short-circuit command dialogue is activated in combination with the complete short- circuit method. Next the event list has to be adapted to reflect the intended fault conditions. This is described below in detail. Finally, please press Execute to start the calculation. The short-circuit event list Is a special case of the general event list, which contains the event definitions for dynamic simulations, It therefore contains information that is not used by the short-circuit, like e.g. the times for each event. In the application for the short-circuit special faults, these are set to zero, “To edit the list of events, please proceed in the Following way: * Please open the object for the short-circuit events, There will be several alternatives to access the list of events: ~ In the short-circuit dialogue in the section Fauit Locations, press the button J behind the Short-Circufts, To access the events stored within this object, please press Contents (see the figure 14.2). ~ Press the #8: icon on the main toolbar + Open the (IntEvtshe) object in a database manager. Fig. 14.2: Accessing the events list + Awindow is opening up that presents the list of events. When double-clicking on one line, a window with the description of the event is opened. ‘+ One now can modify the settings of the short-circuit event. The list of fault locations consists of a "Short-Circult Event List” (Inte vtshc) object, which holds one or more short-circuit events (EvtShc). Each of these events has a reference to a fault location {a busbar) and carries a description of the fault type. An example is shown in the figure 14.3. 14-3SIGSILENT RomerFactory Shore-Creait aloltions Fig. 14.3: A Short Note Tore-use the event list (ImEvishc) later, this object can be copied toa user-defined folder In the database manager. This will prevent it from being modified during the following calculations. When re- eating the calculation with the same configuration, the reference in Calculate-Multiple Fauits can be set to this object. 14.5 Short-Circuit Calculation with User-Defined Element Sets ‘The easiest way of calculating several short-circuits one by one and of combining the re- ‘sults in one diagram js to enable the option Fault Location - At Ail Busbars and terminals. Tt however may be considered useful to calculate S/C currents for a sub-set of busbars, e.g, all busbars with generation connected. When two or more busbars are selected in the single line graphic and Calculate Short-Circuitis chosen, a "Selection Set (Setselect) object is created automatically and used for the calculation. This Selection Set is a list of references to network elements, In the case of a selection of fault locations, this is a list of busbar objects. No fault type Is specified, only the location, The user may copy this selection into a user-defined folder within your project, so that it becomes a permanent selection for later re-use. 14.6 Short-Circuit Calculation Options 14.6.1 —_ Basic Options (All Methods) ‘An example for the setup dialogue of the short-circuit command dialogue, especially for 14-4DIQSILEHT Ponenfactory ‘Short-CreuitCateatons ‘the IEC calculation, is shown in the figure 14.4, Fig, 14.4: IEC calculation - Basic Options Calculation Method PowerFactory provides the following calculation methods for short-circult calculation: * According to the German VDE 0102/0103 standard. * According to the International IEC 60909 standard. * According to the American ANSI/IEEE C37 standard. * A’complete! method which considers the pre-fault load-flow results. “The specific options for the selected methods follow in the Advanced Options page. Fault Type ‘The following fault types are available: 3-Phase Short-Circuit 2-Phase Short-Circuit Single Phase to Ground 2-Phase to Ground 1-Phase to Neutral 1-Phase Neutral to GroundDIGSENT FowerFoctory Short-Creul Cautions + 2-Phase to Neutral * 2-Phase Neutral to Ground * 3-Phase to Neutral * 3-Phase Neutral to Ground ‘The fault types with neutral conductor only make sense when the lines are modelled using neutral conductors. Output A text report fs automatically written to the output window when the Oroption is enabled. The reference to the report generating command can be used to select which type of re- Port will be printed out. Its name is written in blue color behind the button Fault Location Either the option At al/ Busbars and Terminalsis enabled, or a reference must be given to either . + Asingle busbar object A fault event container (an IntEvtShe object) -* Aselection of busbars (a SetSelect), see 14.5 (Short-Circult Calculation with User- Defined Element Sets). Multiple faults will only be calculated for the complete method, when the option Multiple Fauitsis enabled, In other cases when more than one fault location has been selected, a ‘sequence of short-circuit calculations is performed, once for each fault location. 14.6.2 Verification ‘The verification option will, when enabled, write a loading report to the output window which shows the various maximum and calculated currents for rated devices. rated devic-~ es are, for instance, * Lines which have a rated Short-Time Current at their line type which is larger than zer0, * Breakers or coupling switches which have a type with a valid rated current. 14.6.3 Basic Options (IEC 60909/VDE 0102 Method) A snapshot of the Basic Options Setup Dialogue is shown in the previous section in the figure 14.4. Published This offers a sub-selection for the method, where the version of the used standard can be selected by the year in which it was issued. The most recent standard is 2001, however 1990 is still available for the verification of documented results. 14-6DIQSILENT foverFectony ‘Shot-Creut Caleuations Calculate The pull-down list offers the choice between the minimal or maximal short-circuit current, Max. Voltage tolerance for LV systems In accordance with the IEC/VDE standard, this voltage tolerance is used to define the re- spective voltage correction factor c. The voltage tolerance is not used when a user-de- fined correction factor is defined. Fault Impedance ‘The fault impedance is defined as the reactance and resistance of the fault itself (Ie, the Impedance of the arc or of the shortening path). Short-Circuit Duration ‘The value for the Breeker Times used to calculate the breaking current of a circult break- The value for the Fault Clearing Time (Ith) is required for the equivalent thermal cur- rent. 14.6.4 Advanced Options (IEC 60909/VDE 0102 Method) Fig. 14.5:DIQSILENT PowerFactory ‘Shert-Creult Catelatons ‘The advanced short-circuit options (see 14.5) are used to tune the short-circuit calcula- tions. It is recommended to make yourself familiar with the IEC/VDE standard read before modifying these options. A brief summary of the standard can be found in the Technical References of the short-circuit. Grid Identification The calculation of the factor kappa is different for meshed or radial feeding of the short- circuit. Normally PowerFactory will automatically find the appropriate setting. The op- tion aiways meshed will force a meshed grid approach. ¢-Voltage Factor The standard defines the cvoltage factor to be used for the different voltage levels. In special cases the user may want to define himself the correction factor. In this case please activate the box "Userdefined’, then a specific c-factor can be entered, Asynchronous Motors The influence on the short-circuit currents of the asynchronous motors may be always considered, automatically neglected when possible, or neglected when possible and con- firmed by the user, Conductor Temperature When activating this option, the initial (pre-fault) conductor temperature can be set man- ually. This will influence the calculated maximum temperature of the conductors, as caused by the short-circuit currents, Decaying Aperiodic Component Allows for the calculation of the DC current component for witich the decaying time has to be given. According to the IEC/IEC standard, the methods 8, C and C’ can be selected. The symbols used mean: Tp Breaker Time (see short-circuit command) fy Nominal frequency 1," Initial short-circuit current Method B: Using the complex calculated equivalent impedance of the network with a security factor of 1.15: -o-1,-8 . , cot ipg * VB-Te x Method C: Using the R/X ratio calculated with the equivalent frequency method, The equivalent frequency is depending on the breaking time (see table 14,1), This method is recommended for maximum accuracy.DIGSHLENT PoverFoctory ‘Short-Creult Calculations fn" Tb <1 <25 <6 <42.5 fel fn 0.27 0.15 0.092 0.085 Table 14.1: Breaking Times R, wo BE ing = fB-Itye 7 ee Rr_ Re fe Xp X from The ratio Re/Xc is the equivalent impedance calculate at frequency: Method C’: Using the R/X ratio like for the peak short-circuit current, thus selecting the ratio f,/f, = 0.4. This options speeds up the calculation, as no additional equivalent impedance must be calculated, Peak-Shc Current (Meshed network) In accordance with the IEC/VDE standard, the following methods for calculating kappa ‘can be selected: method "B" Uses the ratio R/X at the short-circuit location. method "(2)" Uses the ratio R/X calculated at a virtual frequency of 40% of nominal frequency (20 Hz for fn = 50 Hz, or 24 Hz for fn=60 Hz), based on the short-circuit impedance in the positive sequence system. method "C(012)" Like C(1), but uses the correct short-circuit impedance based on positive-, negative- and zero-sequence system. Calculate Ik ‘The steady state short-circuit currents can be calculated with different ways of consider- ing asynchronous machines; Without Motors will disconnect all asynchronous motors before calculating the current Te DIgSILENT Method Will consider all asynchronous motors by their breaker current. The breaker opens after the maximum possible time,DIQSWENT PowerFactany Shot-CreatColelatons Ignore Motor Contributions Will consider asynchronous motor impedances during the calculation, but will reduce the calculated results for the motor contributions, currents. Consider Protection Devices This option will calculate measured currents for all protection devices and will evaluate ‘tripping times. This option can be disabled to increase the calculation speed when protec- tion devices do not need to be analyses. Calculate max. Branch Currents = Busbar Currents This option is used to check the rating of the circuit breakers against the system breaker currents, Normally the breaker currents are calculated as max{Ibus-Ibranch, Ibranch}. If this option is activated, the busbar short-circuit current is used as the breaker current, which in fact is an over-estimation of the currents. Automatic Power Station detection ‘The IEC/VDE standard forces a different Impedance correction factor to be applied for separate generators and transformers than for a unit/block (power station) consisting of a generator including its step-up transformer. PowerFactory tries to detect power sta- tions itself. When this option is disabled, then the block transformers have to be marked as such by setting the unit Transformer option in the transformer dialogue. 14-10DIQSILENT Pomerfoctony ‘Short-Creut Cleuatfons 14.6.5 _ Basic Options (ANSI C37 Method) Siete etinealicn | Fig. 14.6: ANSI calculation - Basic Options Prefault Voltage Value of the pre-fault voltage as required by the ANSI standard, Fault Impedance ‘The fault impedance is defined as the reactance and resistance of the fault itself (i.e. the impedance of the arc or of the shortening path). Consider Transformer Taps ‘The ANSI standard optionally allows the current tap positions of the transformers to be considered. This can be selected here. NACD Mode ‘The NACD factor is the ratio of remote current contribution and the total fault current: NACD = Iremote/Ifault. This NACD factor is used to calculate the breaker currents, includ- ing the DC component of the current, The remote current contribution required to evalu- WoDIGSILENT AowerFoctany ‘Shor -CireuitCalulations ate the NACD factor is the sum ofall remote generator contribution (Induction generators, synchronous machines, external grids). The calculation of the NACD factor may be very time consuming, as the contribution of each generator is calculated one by one, Therefore different approximative methods can be selected, which represent the most common interpretations of the ANSI Standards: predominant The the NACD factor is calculated. If the resulting factor is greater as or equal to 0.5, then the "dc decay only" curve is used, which means that the remote generation is higher than the local generation. Interpolated The NACD factor is calculated and the correction factor for the asymmetrical fault current is interpolated between the “dc decay only" and "AC/DC decay” curves with the following equation: MF = AC/DC factor + (DC factor - AC/DC factor)*NACD If (NACD = 1) then only the DC factor is used, if (NACD = 0) then only the AC/DC factor is used. all remote —_ All contributions are set to remote, the NACD factor is not calculated but assumed equal to 1 and only the "DC decay only" curve is used. all local All contributions are set to local the NACD factor is not calculated but. assumed equal to 0 and only the "AC/DC decay" curve Is used, Current/ Voltages for The calculation mode for the currents and voltages to be evaluated: LV/Momentary Evaluates the subtransient S/C currents. Lv/Interrupting Evaluates the breaker currents 30 Cycle Evaluates the 30-cycle (steady-state) current. 14-12O DIQSILENT Powerfactoy Short Cire Calculations 14.6.6 Advanced Options (ANSI C37 Method) ‘ANSI calculation - Advanced Options Calculate ‘This option is used to select the various currents according to the ANSI standard, which are to be calculated. « Momentary Current: * Interrupting Current * 30 Cycle Current * Low-Voltage Current Bypass Series Capacitance Series capacitances may not be considered for the ANSI short-circuit calculation. They may be always considered, always bypassed/neglected or this option may be set depend- ing on the type of short-circuit calculated. The available options are: * No bypassing «All currents * LV & interrupting & 30 cycle current 14-13DIQSILENT Powersactony ‘Sort-Creult Calultions * 30 cycle currents Consider Protection Devices This option will calculate measured currents for all protection devices and will evaluate tripping times. This option can be disabled to increase the calculation speed when protec- tion devices do not need to be analyses. Calculate max. Branch Currents = Busbar Currents This option is used to check the rating of the circuit breakers against the system breaker currents, Normally the breaker currents are calculated as max{Ibus-Ibranch, Ibranch}. If this option is activated, the busbar short-circuit current is used as the breaker current, which in fact is an over-estimation of the currents. 14.6.7 Basic Options (Complete Method) ‘As opposed to the calculation methods according to IEC/VDE and ANSI, which represent approximative approaches of the correct short-circuit currents, the complete method evaluates the accurate currents. It takes into account the precise conditions right before the fault and treats the short-circult problem as a special case of the load-flow calculation, 14-14DIQSILENT PowerFoctory Short-Cirout Calaatons Load-Flow As the complete method considers the pre-fault condition in the system, it has to evaluate a load-flow. The load-flow command (setup) initially is taken from the currently active study case, To modify the settings, the button | should be pressed. Fault Impedance The fault impedance is defined as the reactance and resistance of the fault itself (i.e. the impedance of the arc or of the shortening path). Short-Circuit Duration ‘The value for the Breaker Timeis used to calculate the breaking current of a circult break- er, The value for the Aauit Clearing Time (Ith) is required for the equivalent thermal cur- rent, 14.6.8 | Advanced Options (Complete Method) Decaying Aperiodic Component Allows for the calculation of the DC current component for which the decaying time has to be given. As proposed by the IEC/VDE standard, the methods B, C and C’ can be se- lected, 14-15DIgSILENT Aywerfactry Short-Crult Caexlations Use Generator Impedances Using this option it can be selected from which time domain the generator impedances should be used. The possible choices are: «= subtransient * transient Calculate I, ‘The steady state short-circuit currents can be calculated with different ways of consider- ing asynchronous motor contributions: Without Motors will disconnect all asynchronous motors before calculating the current Tye DIgSILENT Method will consider all asynchronous motors by their breaker current. The breaker opens after the maximum possible time, Ignore Motor Contributions will consider asynchronous motor impedances during the calculation, but will reduce the calculated results for the motor currents. Thermal I, and Short-Circuit Breaking Current I, Values like the thermal current Iy, and the breaker current Ip will only be roughly estimat- ed in the complete method. The thermal current Jy, is approximated as I",. The breaker current Ip is evaluated according to IEC method. The correct evaluation of these values is only done when using the IEC calculation method. Consider Protection Devices ‘This option will calculate measured currents for all protection devices and will evaluate tripping times. This option can be disabled to increase the calculation speed when protec- tion devices do not need to be analyzed. Calculate max. Branch Currents = Busbar Currents This option is used to check the rating of the circult breakers against the system breaker currents. Normally the breaker currents are calculated as max{Tyus-Iprancny lranch If this option is activated, the busbar short-circuit current is used as the breaker current, which in fact is an over-estimation of the currents. 14.7 Technical Background Apart from the load-flow calculation, short-circuit analysis is the most frequently used cal- culation function when dealing with electrical networks, It is used In system planning as well as system operations (see the figure 14.10). 14-16DIGSILENT PomerFoctory Short-Croutt Colulatons Short-Circuit Calculation Planning Conditions ‘Sparing Condon eprereeve Wath’ Shine Scacuton (Peane Scar eros impiified Network Model Detaited Network Medel Method 1: Method 2.1 Method 2.2: age euro etme tk Sirepotlon | Siro on wish ene rn) sunsent rw ‘SiC curently, fet Oo a Nae b 4 tn Fig. 14.10: Areas of application for short-circuit calculations Applications in system planning are for example: Ensuring that the defined short-circuit capacity of equipment is not exceeded with system expansion and system strengthening, Co-ordination of protective equipment (Fuses, over-current and distance relays). Dimensioning of earth grounding systems Verification of sufficient fault level capacities at load points (e.g. uneven loads like arc furnaces, thyristor-driven variable speed drives or dispersed generation), Verification of admissible thermal limits of cables and transmission lines. Applications in system operations are for example: Ensuring that short-circuit limits are not exceeded when changing the system configuration Determining protective relay settings as well as fuse sizing Calculation of fault location for protective relays, which store fault disturbance recordings. Analysis of system faults, e.g. mal-operation of protection equipment. Analysis of possible mutual interference of parallel lines during system faults. ‘The fundamental difference for the calculation assumptions is that for system planning studies the system operating conditions are not yet known, and therefore estimates are necessary, For this purpose the method of the equivatent voltage source at the fault lo- cation has generally become accepted in Western Europe according to IEC 909 (VDE 0102). A revised version of this was published as IEC 60909 in July 2001. This method works independent of the load-flow of a system. It is based on the nominal and/or calcu- lated dimensions of the operating plant of a system and uses correction factors for volt- ages and impedances, to ‘push’ the results towards the safe side. For the calculation of minimum and maximum short-circuit currents, different correction factors are applied. For short-circuit calculations in a system operation environment the exact network oper- ating conditions are well known, If the accuracy of the calculation according to JEC 60909 4-7DIgSILENT Ponertsctary ‘Short CreuitCatelations ts not sufficient - or to verify the results of this methad - the superposition method can be used. Tt calculates the expected short-circuit currents in the network on the basis of +the existing network operating condition. If the system models are correct, the results ry from this method are always more exact than the results of the method according to IEC ‘ 60909. The system analyst is, however, responsible that he has chosen the most un- favourable conditions with respect to the sizing of plant, In individual cases, this might result in extensive studies required, 14.7.1 The Complete Method Fig, 14.11: Tlustration of the complete method (superposition method) ‘The superposition method Is (in terms of system modeling) an accurate calculation meth- od. The fault currents of the short-circuit are determined by overlaying the healthy load- co flow condition before short-circuit inception with a condition where all voltage supplies ) are set to zero and the negative operating voltage is connected at the fault location. The procedure is shown in the figure 14.11, 14-18DIGSILENT PowerFoctory Short-Cruit Calculations The initial point is the operating condition of the system before short-circuit inception (see the figure 14.11 a). This condition represents the excitation conditions of the generators, the tap positions of regulated transformers and the breaker/switching status reflecting the operational scheme, From these pre-fault conditions the pre-fault busbar voltage of the faulted busbar can be calculated. For the pure fault condition the system condition Is calculated for the situation where, the negative pre-fault busbar voltage for the faulted bus Is connected at the fault location and all other sources / generators are set to zero (see the figure 14.11 b). Since network impedances are assumed to be linear, the system condition after fault in- ception can be determined by overlaying (complex adding) both the pre-fault and pure fault conditions (see the figure 14.11 c).As the complete method is a superposition of two special casas for the load-flow, the data necessary for the model network elements are exactly the same as for the load-flow calculation. 14.7.2 The Method of IEC 60909/VDE 0102 Standard (Equivalent Voltage Source) Deriving the IEC Method from the Complete Method Similar to the explanation of the complete method, the IEC/VDE method is described in the figure 14.12. ‘The method of the equivalent voltage source at the faulted bus is a simplification of the superposition method with the goal of accomplishing a close-to-reality short-circuit calcu- lation without the need for the preceding load-flow calculation and the associated defini- tion of actual operating conditions. The figure 14.12 shows, how the method of the equivalent voltage source can be derived from the superposition method. The steps a to care very similar, however a simplified network model is used. In comparison, the main simplifications in comparison to the superposition method are the following: Nominal conditions are assumed for the whole network, Le. Uj = Up, Load currents are neglected, 1.e. Top = 0. A simplified simulation network Is used, Le. loads are not considered in the positive and negative sequence network. To ensure that the results are estimated on the safe side, a correction factor ¢ is applied to the voltage at the faulted busbar. This factor differs for the calculation of the maximum and the minimum short-circutt current of a network. ‘The short-circuit calculation based on these simplifications proves not to be sufficient for the practical applications. Therefore additional impedance correction factors are applied to the physical impedances of the network elements. The idea behind is discussed in the next section. 14-19DIBSILENT Rowerfactory Shor-Creult Cautions Loo. i FSS Us Fig, 14.12: Illustration of the method according to IEC/VDE The IEC Impedance Correction Factors ‘The IEC method uses only the rated parameters of network elements, The advantage is, that only little information is necessary to perform a S/C calcufation. But as e.g the S/C contribution of a synchronous generator depends significantly on the excitation voltage ry and on the unit transformer tap changer position, the worst-case value of this impedance \? is considered by applying a correction factor (< 1). ‘This idea Is shown in the figure 14.13. The correction Factor K should be determined so that I’k = I’ IEC. The standard defines an equation for the correction factor applying to each element type. tt “ES t=} . Fig. 14.13; Impedance correction (JEC/VDE) in principle 14-20QU DIGSILENT AawerFoctory ‘Short-Crevt Caleulations As the IEC standard includes a worst-case estimation for minimum and maximum S/C cur- rents, some elements require additional data. The mainly affected elements are: Lines In their type the maximum admissible conductor temperature (for min, S/C currents) has to be indicated, Line capacitances are not considered in positive/negative sequence system, but must be used in the zero- sequence system. Transformers They require a flag if they are unit or network transformers. Network transformers may be assigned additional information about operational limits which is used for a more precise calculation of the impedance correction factor. Unit transformers are treated different if having a on- load or a no-load tap changer Synchronous Machines Subtransient impedances are used, besides that information about the voltage range must be given. Asynchronous Machines ‘The ratio of starting current to rated current is used to determine the S/C impedance. Please see the standard IEC 60909 to find detailed information about the specific model and the correction factors of each element. 14-21DIgSILENT Pomerhactory Shor-Crcul Caeulatons 14-22DIgSILENT fowerfacty Protection Chapter 15 Protection ‘The PowerFactory protection modeling features have been implemented with the fol- lowing philosophy in mind, * The protection modeling should be as realistic as possible + The user must be able to create new complex protection devices or alter existing ones * Although the protection models may show high complexity, their use must be kept easy * All protection models will act on switches. ‘These specifications led to the following principles. + Afuse is modeled as a time-overcurrent relay acting on a switch * A distinction is made between defining or altering new relay models, which is described in the Technical References, and the use of those models, which Is described in this chapter 15.1 Creating a Protection Device Protection devices are normally stored in the object which they act upon, but they may be stored elsewhere when needed, Recommended, and by default, is that * protection devices which act upon a single switch are stored in the cubicle which contains that switch (highly recommended) protection devices which act upon two or more switches connected to the same busbar are stored in that busbar protection devices which act upon two or more switches connected to the same busbar system, are stored in the station contalning that busbar system protection devices which act upon switches connected to more than one busbar system are stored in the station containing those busbar systems, or in the power system grid folder if more than one station Is involved As a rule, the relay is best stored in the same folder as the voltage and/or current trans- formers which it uses, Editing or creating protection devices in a cubicle can be done in several ways: * by right-clicking a switch-symbol in the single line graphic. This will bring a pop up menu with the options Eait Protection Devices and New Protection Devices + by editing the object which is connected to the cubicle (line, transformer, load, etc.) and pressing the -~| button at the cubicle field, See the figure 15.1 for example. The 15-1DINSILENT Pomerfactory Protection option Eoit Relays will bring a list of all protection devices in the cubicle, New devices may be then created with the “a) icon. Fig. 15.1: In all casas, selecting the option to create a new protection device will bring a list with the following options: + Relay Model (ElmRelay) * Fuse (RelFuse) * Current Transformer (StaCt) * Voltage Transformer (StaVt) Each of these options will open a dialogue to specify the device that is to be created or to select the one that is to be edited. 15.1.1 Example: a Time-Overcurrent Relay Protection devices form a group of highly complex and non-uniform power system devic~ es, This places any program for modeling them for a difficult dilemma, On the one hand, the relay models should be as flexible and versatile as possible, to ensure that all types of protection relays can be modeled with all of their features, On the other hand, the relay models should be as simple as possible in order to reduce the amount of work and knowl- edge needed to define power system protection devices, This dilemma is solved by PowerFactory by separating the process of definition a pro- tection type definition from the process of creating a specific protection element. Al- though the definition of a new protection type asks for a good understanding of composite frames, DSL, time overcurrent plot definitions, etc,, the use of a protection element is more or less a 'take of the shel? process. This separation between defining new or using existing relay types led to the global relay object hierarchy as shown in the figure 15.2, 5DIGSILENT PomerFoctory Protection Do we! ioe 5: + Relay Structure ° . fai : s ° at nee eg . 1 @e at Qt oe Tone ean ' Relay Type defines type A: : for slot Be : Ot ‘TYPE me 3! ‘ g: ' py B: ' Gt : a Fig. 15.2: — Global relay object hierarchy The relay frame Is a graphically defined composite frame which defines the functional parts of the relay and their connections, The relay frame can be compared with an empty printed circuit board, “The relay type is based on the relay frame and defines the type of parts which are allowed to be put in the relay slots, The relay type can be compared with a printed circuit board with specific, but still empty, chip or relay sockets. ‘The relay itself models a specific protection element, based on the relay frame and the relay type. The relay model uses specific functional elements where the relay type defines only the allowed type of elements. These specific elements must be based on those ele- ment types. The relay object can be compared with a finished printed circuit board, where specific relays and chips have been inserted in the sockets, ‘The figure 15.2 also shows that most of the work of defining a protection device fs done by the Relay Type Designer. A large set of common relays types is available in the data- base and these types are ready for use. How to use a relay type, thet is: how to create a relay element, how to add Itto the power system, how to adjust the relay settings, how to perform calculations, etc,, is shown by the example of a simple time-overcurrent relay, This relay measures the currents in three phases, but calculates a single maximum current Imax. The relay trips a breaker when Imax violates either the time-overcurrent or the instantaneous overcurrent conditions.DIQSILENT Poneyfactury Protedtion, The Relay Frame The example relay frame is shown in the figure 15.3. This is not a symbolic representation ry of the relay, but the selected composite frame which defines the relay type. The design of these relay frames is described in the Technical References manual. The block dia- gram is only shown here to explain the example relay. a Fig. 15.3: Composite frame of a time-overcurrent relay In the relay frame, the following slots can be distinguished: * Acurrent transformer slot (StaCt), which outputs are the real and imaginary parts of the three phase currents (IrA, IIA, IrB, etc.) and the real and imaginary parts of the zero sequence current (10x3r,10x3i). + Ameasurement unit slot (RelMeasure), which output is Imax, which is the maximum of the three phase currents. + Aslot for a time-overcurrent relay unit (RelToc) and one for an instantaneous overcurrent relay unit (RelLoc), with the tripping signals as outputs. * Allogic unit slot (RelLogic), which combines the tripping signals in a logical way to produce a single tripping signal. The Relay Type ‘The example relay type that Is defined on the basis of the time-overcurrent relay frame is shown in the figure 15.4, Xd 15-4DIgSILENT PoneyFoctoxy Protection Sp nee Bese as |Oscipis] Name ©. (RCSTEEST ely Detniin [| . Reale FaneeTOCINC Tp Cateacsy Oveicunent eh Sbt0etion ae a "Tiper basi. Tip Bet Pi = zy 2 [Meawwenent esse Tope 3 Toe Hoe ioe lise a 3 ress SitUpdte Fig. 15.4: The relay type dialogue ‘The "Relay Definition’ field points to the relay frame. The slot definition list will automat ically show all slots defined by that relay frame. In the example, these are the five slots described in the previous section, The "Category" field Is only used to help selecting a relay type. An object type is normally selected for each slot, except for the slots for the current and voltage transformers, A relay based on the relay type may not use elements other than such which are based on the given object types. The fact that, in the example, no type Is specified for the current transformer, means that all current transformers may be used, Normally, relay types are only selected but not changed or edited. The PowerFactory relay database offers a wide variety of relay types. Creating a Relay Model ‘This is where we leave the domain of the relay designer enter that of the relay user. As soon as a new relay is inserted in the power system, which is normally done by right-click- ing a switch and selecting New Protection Device - Relay Model, an empty relay model (EimRelay) appears. The example relay model is depicted in the figure 15.5. 15-5DIGSILENT AowerFoctory Protection Ladue eA hab Real Batete [Moxa Fak turent} Deepin] Cleeay, Cree fie RT Fike Type’ sr] 4] . ayAGenerel leteNACSEBEIA Asrkeoion. [lainPreaion _z] Devicatunber f= i nf sere SF] santa Fr omotsenice Shot Deere aaa Renzi Sta lah aL Tee. Fig. 15.5: Relay model dialogue The relay model has a reference to a relay type, a location, a device number and a list of slots. The location is normally set automatically when a relay is defined in the single line graphic by right-clicking a cubicle, The cubicle then defines the location. The device num- ber Is only relevant for the device documentation, The slot list Is defined by the relay type. Asis shown in the figure 15.5, the relay model should define objects for all the slots in the relay type. Each of these ‘slot elements’ must use the corresponding ‘slot type’, when such a type is defined in the relay type. Luckily, the tedious work of creating the correct elements, selecting the correct type and assigning the element to the correct slot, is performed by the relay element itself. ‘The whole process of creating a specific relay model thus only asks for selecting a relay type from the database, What follows then can best be compared by an automatic assem- bly process: as soon as a new relay type is selected, the slot definition list is updated all slot elements for which a slot type has been defined will be created automatically. No elements will be created for those slots for which no slot type has been defined. Normally, these are only the voltage and current transformer slots. However, if already existing and valid objects are found in the relay model or the cubicle in which it resides, they will be assigned to the slots automatically, * the created slot elements are inserted in the slot definition list ‘The result is a new and complete relay model with all slots filled (except maybe for the transformer slots). Of course, all relay settings are still set to their default values. 15-6O DIQSILENT Aowerfoctry Protection All slot elements created by the relay model are stored in the relay model itself. The figure 15.6 shows the database tree with the example relay model, Fig. 15.6: Example relay model with slot elements ‘The current transformer In the example is not stored in the relay model but in the cubicle. When, again, a new relay type'is selected, the slot elements created for the previous relay type wil in most cases not be suited for the new type. However, the ‘automatic assembly process! will ry to reuse as much data as possible from the old settings: + Slot elements that are also sulted for the new rely type will be reused as they are © Slot elements which are correct except for their type will be assigned the correct slot type * Slot elements which cannot be reused will be deleted + Missing slot elements will be created automatically Pressing the Cancel button after the Relay Type has been changed will not re- store the old slot elements. Normally, the relay type will not define any current and/or voltage transformer types. The corresponding transformer element will thus not be created automatically. However, if these measurement transformers were created prior to creating the relay element, they will be assigned to the correct slot automatically. This is the recommended practice. If the measurement transformers were not created yet, they may be created by pressing the Create VI or Create CT buttons. That will create a new transformer in the cubicle were the relay element is stored. 15.1.2 Editing the Relay Elements. After a relay element has been defined and all stot elements have been created, the ed- iting of the relay settings may be started by editing the slot elements. In the example settings have to be enter for + The CT "Current Transformer 0” + The Measurement object "Measurement" + The time overcurrent relay "Toc" + The instantaneous overcurrent relay "Ioc"* * The logic object "Logic"DIQSILENT Ponerfoctony Protection For the current transformer, the tap settings and the connection type have to be selected. ‘The possible tap range Is limited by the type. See the figure 15.7. Oy BereDas [agston Dee] Desoto] None 2 meiner Fe xa | tisayatsin type TF Outot Service cation f-4] GidNteminathcud 1 clan ———— Buse “| sinters} Sr] erate Fig. 15.7: A current transformer dialogue ‘The measurement object only needs the Nominal Current and Nominal Voltage. Their range is limited by the measurement type. The nominal values are only needed if the relay uses p.u. values. In the example, the measurement object needs no data at all. See the figure 15.8. Rane Reascemen — Tipe “af al ElesAC5 BOOB Means Type Nomina Oarent Fig, 15.8; A measurement object The time overcurrent relay allows for setting Cy * The time overcurrent characteristic : + The pickup current 15-8DIGSILENT PowerFactory Protection * The time dial es All three settings are limited by the relay type: only those characteristics available for this UO type of relay can be selected and not every possible values for the pickup current or time dial may be entered, See the figure 15.9, ‘ieping Tines | Desesigtion | IEC Symbet bt” ANS! Symbol: 5 Measure Type: hate Curent [b} Mere nl Toe neem Bacco aSDANTEE F Outot Seive. ‘Tiing Dieetion Fig, 15.9: A time overcurrent relay ‘The instantaneous overcurrent relay allows for setting the pickup current. See the figure 15.10. aseDat | Desscion) lECSimbot Sy AISI Symbek 59 Measure Type: ~ Phare Curent (ph) Pickup Curent, fI2S_secA 123pu 12900. iA Fig. 15.10: An instantaneous overcurrent relay The logic unit dialogue shows a list of all switches that will be opened as soon as the logic unit trips, The logic unit combines the tripping signals of the sub relays (the Toc and Toc relays in this example), in an AND/OR expression (Toc OR Joc in this example). All switch- 15-9DIGSILENT PonerFectany Protection es in the list will be opened. If the relay to which the logic unit belongs Is stored in a cu- bicle, the three-phase breaker in that cubicle will be opened by default if no switches are been specified, See the figure 15.11. Cee eee BesicDate | Descioton} . : Nase Be Type “| --\Genatel EectieWACSTSB03A\Legie Tope TP Guat Sevice Ceout Breaker Open Statubic* StaBvich"EinCoue” Fig. 15.11: A logic relay object 15.2 Basic Protection Devices ‘As has been explained in the introduction of this chapter, the whole hierarchy of objects that is used to build protection devices can be divided into * objects which are needed to define new types of protection devices * objects which are needed to define specific relay models. ‘The first group of objects are treated in detail in the Technical References manual. The second group of objects are treated in this section. 15.2.1 The Current Transformer Anew current transformer (CT) can be created by right-clicking a cubicle in the single line diagram and selecting “New Protection Device - Current Transformer" The dialogue as depicted in the figure 15.12 will then pop up. 18-10oO DIQSILENT Rowerfactory Protection Cea ae eee ue Baric Date | Addtional Data} Description | Nome, (Bart Tewiomert Type [+ | tivey\Carent Tencfeme Type T Dutot Servise Location ow fo]. nese Se fe Sean 4 ene af iting Measure at GicutTreaker Qiientaion [= Branch x a comin FSD Rac, OWA, Ceenpete ati 100014, No, Phases . > Phase Phaso2 Fig, 15.12; The Current Transformer dialogue A thus created CT will be stored in the cubicle that was right-clicked. The “Location fields "Busbar" and "Branch" will be set automatically in that case. A current transformer always needs @ current transformer type. ‘The top "Location" field is used either : + toselect a cubicle when the CT Is created from outside the cubicle, + toselect the preceding CT in the case of an auxiliary CT. After selecting the type and the setting of the current transformer, its set ratio is shown. in the dialogue (Ratio). In very special cases CTs may be connected in series, that is the output of one CT is used as the input of the second CT. In this application the second CT will show @ Ratio (the actual ratio of the CT) and a Complete Ratio, (the ratio between the primary branch flow and the secondary CT current, which is the overall ratio of all CTs connected in series). In the example of the figure 15.12, the CT is directly connected to the primary component (which is the standard) and both Ratioand Complete Ratio show the same value of 1000 Ato 1A, ‘The primary connection type is only available in the case of an auxiliary CT. The number of phases can be set to 3, 2 or 1. For a 3- or 2-phase CT, the secondary connection type can be set to D or Y, For a 1-phase CT, the phase can be set to * a, b orc phase current + N= 34Iy eh=lh ‘The primary and secondary tap settings are limited to the values defined in the current 35-11DIgSWENT FowerFactory Protection transformer type. The Current Transformer Type ‘The current transformer type dialogue, as depicted in the figure 15.13, defines the single phases of a CT. The information about the connection of these phases (Y or D) is defined in the CT element that uses the CT type. Fig. 15.13: The Current Transformer Type dialogue ‘The current transformer type defines the primary and secondary taps of the transformer. ‘The "Additional Data page" Is used only when saturation is considered, to set the accuracy parameters: * The accuracy class * The accuracy limit factor + either = The apparent power (acc. to IEC) = The burden impedance (ANSI-C) ~ The voltage at the acc. limit (ANSI-C) 15.2.2. The Voltage Transformer ‘Anew voltage transformer (VT) can be created by right-clicking a cubiclein the single line diagram and selecting "New Protection Device - Voltage Transformer”. The dialogue as depicted in the figure 15.14 will then pop up. 15-12DISSILENT Pomerfactory Protection Rave vee Ae asic Data | Deseiion| Name VW Type Livay\Vellage Teaniformer Type Tr du of Service bes Location y+ Gicvt2%votane Tanfomer 7 be | ustar GT 2WVolege Transtar ton p Pinay ——— 1 | I lat abe Tecoma Secon Tone fia =v sl SOUUW/IOIY +." Coxnpleta Rate SO00KEW/1007 Adlional Secony Winns Fig. 15.14: The Voltage Transformer dialogue A thus created current transformer will be stored in the cubicle that was right-clicked. Avvoltage transformer always needs a voltage transformer type. ‘The "Location" field is used either * to select a cubicle when the VT is created from outside the cubicle * to select the preceding VT in the case of an auxiliary VT After selecting the type and the setting of the current transformer, its set ratio is shown in the dialogue (Ratio). In the example of figure 15.14, the shown VT has a ratio of 5000 Vito 100 V. ‘The primary winding ts defined by selecting a tap and a connection type. The available tap range Is defined in the voltage transformer type. “The secondary winding is defined by the secondary winding type, the tap setting and the connection type. The available tap range is defined in the secondary winding type. A volt- age transformer requires at least one secondary winding. More windings can be defined by pressing the button Additional Secondary Windings. This will bring a list of all previously defined secondary windings. New windings can be created by pressing the ' icon. ‘The connection type "O" for the secondary windings is the "Open Delta” connection, as depicted in the figure 15.15. 15-13DIgSILENT AomerRoctory Protection a! a! 3U, The open delta (0) winding connection Fig. 15.1 ‘The connection type "V" for the primary and secondary windings is depicted in the figure 15.16, Selecting a "V" connection for the primary winding automatically sets the second- ary winding to a"V" too. Fig. 15.16; The "V" winding connection The VT Secondary Winding A secondary winding element is needed when a voltage transformer with two or more sec- ondary windings has to be modeled, The edit dialogue for the voltage transformer pro- vides parameters to define the first secondary winding, eae nee xe] + | LexenVotone Transfame:Seconday Type” T DitotSewice : Prim. Vohage Tianstomer + | GiiAT2Wotage Trensloxnet Ta fiat =] v Connection [0+] Rais Y0UCv/Aooy Fig. 15.17: The VT secondary winding dialogue 15-14DIGSILENT PonerFoctory Protection, “The secondary winding element requires a type and a reference to the voltage transform- er, The tap settings range is defined by the windings type. The VT Secondary Winding Type ‘The secondary winding type, as depicted in the figure 15.8, defines the burden and tap range for one phase of a voltage transformer. The phase connection type (¥, D, etc.) IS defined in the secondary winding element. ‘Basic Data | Deveson | . > Flolape Tranviormer Secenday Tipe | bioeavce I ohm BonerFoctr JE————~ Beco Ta eel no Fig. 15.18: The VT secondary winding type dialogue ‘The secondary tap settings defined in the secondary winding type determine the available tabs for the secondary winding element. The Voltage Transformer Type “The voltage transformer type, as depicted in the figure 15.19 defines the primary winding of the voltage transformer. 15-15DIGSWENT Aowerfoctory Protection eee eee en ene de) Fig. 15.19: The voltage transformer type dialogue ‘The secondary windings are defined in the voltage transformer element. 15.2.3 The Relay Model ‘The relay model (EimRefay) is a general 'frame-object’ which consists of a relay frame with slots and one or more elements which occupy those slots. All protection relays, ex- cept for the fuse models, are modeled as relay models, 15-16DIVSHLENT PomerFectory Protection Haley Mo del Grig\Terminal(3)\Cub. Wainy 0.Eimitl Basic Deta | MexAtnFeut Canes] Descipien} Ovetouren Rag RelayTyee yl] . sy AGeneia teniewncsr 96024, enkeson [sh Psien ro] Beveeunbar fT “E} (bose : {-auser 2 | oiatemint) Lawes ——_“afeiattem ie tl F edsece Babee 13 Meaiwerar Tee. Tee tes Fig. 15.20: The relay mode! dialogue The relay element is defined by selecting a relay type. The relay type defines the relay frame and the slot types which may be used with that frame, After a relay type has been selected, the "Slot Definition” fist will be filled automatically with the correct slot elements. ‘The current and voltage transformers, however, are not created automatically, although available CT's and VT's are selected automatically. Editing the settings of the relay model is done by editing the settings of the listed slot elements. Double-clicking a slot element In the "Slot Definition” list will open the dialogue of that element. 15.2.4 _ Directional Relay ‘The directional relay cannot be used ‘as-is, but is always.a part of a relay model. For more Information about relay models, see 15,2.3 (The Relay Model) ‘The directional relay calculates the angle between a ‘polarization’ voltage or current and an ‘operating’ current. The polarization current or voltage Is rotated to the amount of the expected angle first. The relay trips if the remaining angle is smaller than 90° and if both the polarization and the operating voltage/currents are large enough, This principle is shown In the figure 15.21. 15-17DIQSILENT fowerfactony Protection Fig, 15.21: Directional relay principte diagram. The polarization quantity Apg, is rotated over the angle My, which is the "Max. Torque An- le" set in the relay edit dialogue. The rotated polarization quantity A'po, defines a half plane which forms the first tripping condition. Further conditions are the projection of the operating quantity on A’po}, which must be larger than the operating current setting, and the polarization quantity, which must be larger than the polarization setting. More details about the polarization methods and the tripping conditions can be found in the basic Technical References manual. The choice for the type of operating and polarization quantity is made in the Directional Relay Type object, The relay object itself allows for the setting of the tripping direction, ‘the polarization method when both methods (voltage and current) are available, and the polarization criteria. See the figure 15.22. wices oe Besic Data | Votoge Potaicng | Cunert Pleizing | Deteption | HEC Symbot bér 2) aust symtot 67 Folaizslon Method Vetece, Cost (deg) Measiwe Tope: —3Phase For Faults; - Independert Nene [Bi : Type +]. yoiDtectionalRelas\TenNOCOIRNDE Tops Sra T Cwot Service Tipping Diecion Farad z Angle Operating Sect [30x] deg Fig. 15.22: Directional relay Selecting a 'Reverse Tripping Direction’ will invert the used operating current. The voltage or current polarization allow for setting the "Operating Current’, the "Polarization Voltage/ 15-18 oY 9DIQSILENT PowerFactory Protection Current" and the "Max. Torque Angle". 15.2.5 The Frequency Measurement Unit ‘The frequency measurement unit cannot be used 'as-Is,, but is always a part of @ relay model. For more information about relay models, see 15,2.3 (The Relay Model)).. The frequency measurement unit is used to calculate the electrical frequency for the given "Measured Voltage", Ore eee as Liner ue ee BacleData | Desert | Nome, “> eae Type. a. agerPequency\Fren. 4 Steps\Measuiement Nonine! Voltage 108, xv Frequency Measuing Time Measuing Votage Fig, 15.23: Frequency Measurement. ‘The Nominal Voltage is needed for per unit calculations. The Frequency Measurement ‘Time defines the time used for calculating the frequency gradient, 15.2.6 The Frequency Relay “The frequency relay cannot be used ‘as-is’, but is aways a part of a relay model, For more information about relay models, see 15.2.3 (The Relay Model). ‘The frequency relay either trips on an absolute under-frequency (in Hz), or on a frequency gradient (in Hz/s). Which condition is used depends on the selected relay type. The relay type also defines the reset time, during which the frequency condition must be met again for the relay to reset. ‘The time delay set in the relay element defines the time during which the frequency con- dition must be violated for the relay to trip. See the figure 15.24.DIGSILENT Aowefactory Protection ite eae Base0aa | Descipton} a Type: Instantaneous: co ° a Tipe | Undevinann eae 4 ep Fe F dutotsenice Fig. 15.24: Frequency a 15.2.7 The Fuse Model ‘The fuse model is implemented as a special instantaneous overcurrent relay which does not need a current transformer. A fuse is always located in a cubicle and will trip the phase Which current exceeds the melt curve. Optionally, all three phases will be tripped If one of the phase currents exceeds the melt curve. Dota ced BasieDat | ptnzaton | Desiston] Name FE Type WS “ Type. arf |. e\oni2_DPLARclayetFuse\Fuse Type Locate [oa 2 | GrissTeminas | en. eine a £ 5 T Owal sewice No.of Phases [3s] - Closed . F Open all Phase automaticaly Fuse Type [Fuse =] | Device nuneer [273] Commute Tine Using “ 1 Mirman Met Carve | © Tota Clear Cua Fig. 15.25: The Fuse model dialogue 8 $ X ‘The calculation of the trip time is either based on the minimum melt curve or on the total lear curve, An example of these curves are shown in the figure 15.26. 15-20DIQSILENT PomerFactony Protection 1000.0 Tine tt 100.00 so.000 1.9000 4100 org “00.00 10000. Fig. 15.26: Fuse melt characteristics 15.2.8 The Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay ‘The instantaneous overcurrent relay cannot be used ‘as-is, but is always a part of a relay model, For more information about relay models, see the reference documents). “The instantaneous overcurrent relay allows for the setting of the pickup current and the time dial. Both entries are limited by the relay type. See the figure 15.27. PUR ed Hae ul meReL LSE cite Batis Data | Desetnton]" EC Symbat -WJE>> ANS! Symbst . SON Meanie Typ“ Est Corer (31) Hane es Type 5 Sa |. Relaye\Giomens\7S6001-6840-0000Mec le Biomass IT Out of Service Tipping Direction | None: “Pica Curent = a2sec.. a tA wessing FE Total Time 1835 Fig, 15.27: Instantaneous Overcurrent ‘The instantaneous overcurrent relay is a combination of a direct overcurrent relay and an optional time delay. The pickup time Ts Is the minimum time needed for the relay to react. Additionally, a tme dial Tset may be specified, The relay will not trip unless the current exceeds the pickup current Tsetr for at least Ts+Tset. See the figure 15.28. 15-21DIGSILENT Fonertoctory Protection Ipsetr Fig. 15.28: Instantaneous overcurrent tripping area The relay will not reset until the current drops under the reset level, which Is specified by the relay type in percent of the pickup current: Ireset=Ipsetkr/100%. See the figure 15.29 for a typical timing diagram. Cy s Current’ Ipsetes spsotr | TOO Fig. 15.29: Instantaneous overcurrent timing diagram 15.2.9 The Logic Unit ‘The logic unit is the front end part of a relay configuration. It combines all internal trigger O signals by successive AND and OR operations and produces one single output. The logic unit type specifies the logical operation, the logic unit itself specifies the switches which will be opened when the relay trips. See the figure 15.30. cy)O DIGSILENT PonerFoctony eee er Base Das | Descison| “9 | one eae acstBcOaLai Type F:ouetSenies’ Pu » Cicuitreaker ‘Open Baek Senice' SlaCubic’ SteS wich’ ElnCoup* a Fig. 15.30: Relay logic If the relay is located in a cubicle and no switch has been specified, the cubicle will be opened by default, 15.2.10 The Measurement Unit ‘The measurement unit uses the ‘raw’ signals produces by the current or voltage trans- formers to calculate 'measured signals’. Which signals are being calculated depends on the measurement unit type. “The measurement unit allows for setting the nominal current and voltage. Both are limited by the measurement unit type, If a relay does not need a nominal voltage (lee. in the case of an overcurrent relay), the nominal voltage field will normally be disabled. boat AL EA ed RR tut aaa ie Basie Dats | Deseition| ame easement Type a] . ol Rekeys\TesttOC-OLA Measurement Type HorinalCient fi. aad . Nominei Votene Iv Fig, 15,31: Measurement 15-23DIGSILERT PowerRoctory 15.2.11 The Time Overcurrent Relay The time-overcurrent relay cannot be used 'as-s', but is always a part of a relay model, For more information about relay models, see 15.2.3 (The Relay Model). ‘The time-overcurrent relay allows for the selection of one of the I+t curves (‘characteris tic) which are available for the selected relay type. The I+t curve is further specified by the pickup current and the time dial. Both values must be in the range specified by the I- t curve definition. See the figure 15.32 for an example. Basic Daa | Tripping Times | Description | Dt ANSI Symbol Phase Cctent (ah) Aor ‘|. ectional felays\aPheve\Retice-TeoDIATOL FECSymbo: Meanite Type: Name Type T OutetSenice ‘Tipping Ditecion Chatesteitio Curent Setting Tine Dia Fig. 15. The time dial settings will scale the It curve in the Time vs. I/Ip plot, according to the ‘The time overcurrent relay dialogue Fowad = TEC 65S verse ——sI fi sec a” pa curve definition. See the figure 15.33 for example, 15-24 oOO DIQSILENT FonerFactony Protection 0000. “—. “eee Ve Fig. 15.33: [+t curves for different time dials ‘The pickup current defines the nominal value Ip which is used to calculate the tripping time. The I+t curve definition states a minimum and a maximum per unit current. Lower currents will not trip the relay (Infinite tripping time), higher currents will not decrease the tripping time any further. These limits are shown in the figure 15.34. | Ld inn imax tp Fig, 15.34: +t curve limits ‘The pickup current may be defined by the relay type to be a per unit value, or a relay current. The nominal current defined by the measurement unit (see 15.2.10 (The Mea- surement Unit)) is used to calculate Ip in the case of a per unit value, The relay current value already equals Ip. Altering the pickup current will thus not change the I-t curve, but will scale the measured current to different per unit values. The following example may illustrate this: + Suppose the minimum current defined by the Lt curve is imin=1.1 I/Ip. ‘+ Suppose the measurement unit defines Inom=5.0 rel.A, 15-25DIGSILENT fenverFactony Protection ‘Suppose pickup current Ipset=1.5 p.u. —> relay will not trip for I<1.1*1.5*5.0 rel.A = 8.25 relA Suppose pickup current Ipset=10.0 rel.A => relay will not trip for I<1.1*10.0 rel.A = 11.0 rel.A 15.2.12 Under-/Overvoltage Relay ‘The under- or overvoltage relay cannot be used ‘as-is’, butis always a part of a relay mod- el, For more information about relay models, see 15.2.3 (The Relay Model). ‘The under- fovervoltage relay type may define the relay to trip on either + Either one of the three phase line to line voltages * One particular tine to line voltage + The ground voltage Up. + The positive sequence voltage U; «The negative sequence voltage Uz The relay element allows only for setting the pickup voltage and the time delay. See the figure 15.35, Basi Data | Destin} leCSmbst Uc ANS! Sat + 27 Furatie ——_Undewehoge Measure Type: Vetage (phy ie 2 “2 |-Undevtocteaseting Step T OwofSewice Pickup Volage par A pu 80. sec¥ 18000, piv Time Delay lor s TotalTie 128 Fig. 15,35; Under-/Overvoltage 15.3 Path Definitions A path in a single line diagram Is defined by selecting a chain of two or more busbars or terminals and inter-connecting objects. The pop-up menu which opens when the selection is right-clicked will show a Path... option. This menu option has the following sub-options: New this option will create a new path definition Edit this option is enabled when an existing path is right-clicked. It opens a dialogue to alter the color and direction of the path Add To this option will add the selected objects to a path definition, The end or start of the selected path must include the end or start of an existing path. 15-26DIGSILENT PomerFoctory Protection Remove Partly This will remove the selected objects from a path definition, as long as the remaining path is not broken in pieces Remove This will remiove the firstly found path definition of which at feast one of the selected objects is a member Editing, adding objects to or removing objects from path definition is only possible when ‘the option coloring "Path Definitions" was chosen in the Color Representation of Graphic dialogue (SetColgr). This dialogue is opened by pressing the icon |@ on the graphics toolbar, Apath may be used as a selection for a calculation by selecting one or more objects from the path definition. This will select the whole path. 15.4 Protection Analysis Results 15.4.1 Reports “The icon "Output Calculation Analysis" ( ® ) in the main menu, will open the "Output" dialogue (ComSh). The results of the load-flow or short-circult analysis, for a range of relays, can be generated in the output by selecting the options » Results * Relays To generate a report for one or more relays, or for one or more previously defined paths, the data manager may be used to select one or more relays or paths and right-clicking the selection. The menu will show the option Output-Resultsif at least one relay was found amongst the selected objects or in one of the selected paths, If a busbar was se- lected, then all relays in connection with that busbar are selected too, 15.4.2 Results in Single Line Graph ‘The names of the relays or the tripping times may be made visible in the single line graph- ic by selecting the following options in the main menu. 1 Output - Results for Edge Elements - Relays 2 © Output - Results for Edge Elements - Relay Tripping Times The first option ( "Relays", which is always available, will show the names of the relays in all cubicles. The second option will show the tripping times of the relays after a load- flow or short-circuit calculation has been made. If a relays does not trip, then a tripping time of 9999.99 sis shown. 15.4.3 Plots ‘The time-overcurrent plots offer many features for displaying the settings of relays and the results of short-circuit or load-flow calculations. ‘The time-overcurrent plots may also be used for changing the sett by simply moving the tripping characteristics. Especially the possi s of relays and fuses, lity of changing the 15-27DLGSHLENT Power Foctory Protection Curves in combination with a short-circuit or load-flow result, and with the help of trans- former or line damage curves, ensures a clear and comprehensible setting of the relay parameters. ‘The following section explains the special features of the time-overcurrent plots. 15.5 Short-Circuit Sweep ‘The "Short-Circult Sweep" command as depicted in the figure 15.36 is used to calculate a short-circuit sweep alonga defined path, Short-circuits are calculated along a given path and the results at each short-circuit location are written to a Results object. The position in km relative to the beginning of the path is always written to the results. The sweep command Is used e.g. by the Time-Distance Diagram (see 15.7) to record the trigger times of distance relays. * fs] parse Addiional Relys .'” " w|-+] Study Case\SHCSween Set Rents ‘Predefined for Time Dilande Diagn © User defined Resuts ||. TineDitance DiagamiResute pbecatone | © Buses end Bronches | | i eed Conimend |. tei Sweep'Shot Grout Caton Caldaen ” Sige Phases ta Ground certo Fig. 15.36: The short-cirault sweep dialogue 15.5.1 Options Path Short-Circuits are calculated along this path. Path is set automatically and grayed out if the command is called by the "Time Distance Plot". Additional Relays If the option "Iterate Tripping Times” on the advanced page is set, the positions where a relay trips is interpolated and written to the results. The relays whose tripping times are 15-28Oo DIQSILENT Aowerfoctory Protection checked are the relays found in the path and, in addition, the relays given by the selection referenced in "Additional Relays". Additional relays is grayed out and set if the command is called by the "Time Distance Diagram’. Results Frame The variables written to the results object can either be defined by the user or by the "Time Distance Diagram’. If the results are defined by the "Time Distance Diagram" all “Monitor Variable Sets” In the results object are ignored. Otherwise the variables found in the "Monitor Variable Sets" stored in the results object are written, The result frame is grayed out if the command is accessed through the time-distance diagram. Results Reference to result object, see also Result Frame, grayed out if the sweep dialogue is ac- cessed through the time-distance diagram. Locations A short-circuit is calculated on each busbar/terminal found in the path. If "Buses and Branches" is selected short-circuits on the branches between the busbars are calculated. Short-Circuit Frame "Command" Is 4 reference to the short-circuit command, Except the short-circuit location the short-circuit settings are not changed by the sweep. The type of failure, the method of calculation and other settings can be modified there. "Calculation" Is just displaying the “Fault Type" set in the short-circuit command, 15.5.2. Advanced Options Step Size ‘The relay tripping positions in the path can either be iterated or calculated with a contin- uous step size. In the constant mode a short-circuit is calculated at the beginning of the branch, The distance between the following short-circuits on the branch is “Continuous ‘Step Size". There is always a short-circuit calculated at the end of the branch. In the "It- erate Tripping Times" method the relay tripping positions are iterated. If the tripping time of a relay changes continuously (like overcurrent relays) the sweep changes to continuous mode automatically. Iteration mode is used again when the tripping time remains un- changed at the next short-circuit position. The step size frame is grayed out if the com- mand is accessed by the time-distance diagram. Precision and Step Size ‘The "Precision (Steps)" defines the maximum iteration error at the relay tripping position. The "Continuous Step Size" defines the step size for the sweep with constant steps. "Pre- cision and Step Size" is unused (hidden) if tocation is set to buses.DISSILENT Ronerfactony Protection, 15.6 Time-Overcurrent Plot The plot VisOeplot is showing different relay and fuse characteristics in one time-over- current plot. Additionally the damage curve and characteristic currents of electrical equip- ment in the network can easily be shown. This will help to set the relay tripping times and current settings and the selecting of fuses for a good and thorough protection of the equipment. There are several ways to create a time-overcurrent plot (VisOcplot): ‘The easiest way to create and show a VisOcplot is to select one switch, where overcurrent relays or fuses are installed. Right-click the switch to open the context sensitive menu, This will show the options Create Time-Overcurrent Plotand Add to Time-Overcurrent Plot, PowerFactory wil then create a new diagram showing the time-overcurrent plot for all relays selected. Another way is to right-click an path element and select Path....> Time-Overcurrent Piotfrom the context sensitive menu. Also a relay element éimRelay can be chosen from the list of calculation-relevant objects or in the data manager. Right-click the relay on the right side of the data manager or in the list of relays. Then select Show—> Time-Overcurrent Plotto create a new plot or Show—> Add to Time-Overcurrent Plotto add the characteristic to an existing plot. ‘Additionally other elements like one or more transformers, cables or motors can be selected and right- clicked, The context sensitive menu will show the options Show—> Time-Overcurrent Plotto create a new plot and Show—> Add to Time-Overcurrent Pictto add the characteristic to an existing plot. Note To show the relay locations and thus to visualize the switches with relays definitions these can be highlighted by setting the color rep- resentation of the single-line dlagram to "Relay Locations”, By right-clicking these elements the option Show => Time-Overcur- rent Plot is available and can be chosen. In all these cases, itis also possible to select the option Add to Time-Overcurrent Plot This will pop up a list of previously defined over current plots from which one has to be selected. The overcurrent plot shows + the time-overcurrent characteristics of relays * the damage curves of transformers or lines ‘+ motor starting curves + the currents calculated by a short-circuit or load-flow analysis and the resulting ‘ripping times of the relays See the figure 15.37 for an example. 15-30 QOoO DIGSHLENT AoverFctory Protection occ, 1 00.00 4.0000 oar i t aaowv00.00 0090 eA too000. zooow 10.000 ‘rena ‘o000 Fig. 15.37: A time-overcurrent plot with short-circuit results The time-overcurrent plot shows the results of the short-circuit or load-flow analysis as a vertical 'x-value' line across the graph, Because the currents differ for each particular re- lay, a current line is drawn for each relay. The intersection of the calculated current with the time-overcurrent characteristic is labelled with the tripping time. A ‘grading margin’ line, which shows the difference between the tripping times, may be added by right-click- ing the plot and selecting "Show Grading Margins", It is also possible to create an user defined 'x-value' by right-clicking the graph and se- lecting the Set Constant—> x-value option. The vertical line will show the values at the intersections of all displayed characteristics. To move the line left, drag it with the mouse. 15.6.1 Changing Tripping Characteristics ‘The time overcurrent plots may also be used to change the relay characteristics graphi- cally. Because a relay characteristic is normally the minimum of two or more sub-charac- teristics, it has to be split first in order to change the sub-characteristics. A characteristic is split by * right-clicking the characteristic * enable the saiitoption ‘The relay characteristics can also be split by opening the edit dialogue of the plot and enabling the option Sp/it Relayin the table Re/ay, where all relays are listed, ‘The sub-characteristics are now visible. Each of them can be left clicked and dragged along the time-overcurrent plot area, However, they cannot be dragged outside the al- lowed range which has been defined for the relay type. After the relay sub-characteristics have been changed, they can be combined again into one single characteristic by dis- abling the spiit option again. ‘The plot option dialogue, which is opened by right-clicking the plot area and selecting Op- tons, has an option for showing the grading margins when the time overcurrent charac teristics are dragged, The grading margin may be set to a fixed time, The grading margins 15-31DIGSILENT Roweroctory Protection are shown as two lines, plus and minus the grading margin above and below the dragged tripping characteristic, See the figure 15.38 for an example: the original characteristic is labelled "1", the new position as "2", and the grading margins are labelled "a". Conductor/Cable Damage Curve ‘The conductor and cable damage curves are used to evaluate a protection coordination scheme and as guides for positioning the time-overcurrent characteristics. 15-32 oYO DIGSILENT PomerFactny Protection ei ae A eee eae el Shor Chet | Ovefosd] Euston: t= FacSk’AAY'2 Nano. [Perductor Cable Damage Guys Roted Valse Votes fi w eA © ble Parameter | Usecdefned x Frocaoa ‘Skingttect Rata. fl Fig, 15.39; Conductor/Cable damage curve To add a damage curve to a time-overcurrent plot, right-click the plot area and select Add,» Conductor/Cable Damage Curve. ‘The Rated Short-Circuit Currentand time of the cable can be inserted. Also typical Cable Parameters for the conductor, insulation factor, K, are given in figures 15.40 and 15.41. ‘These tables show the temperature range for the cables: ‘+ TL = maximum operating temperature in °C + T2.= maximum short-circuit temperature in © C and the K factor for a cross section in mm2, CM, MCM and inch2. 15-33DISSENT Ponenfactary Protection capper canucrar Tt ho fates 200 "eh eC edt te: ct) SiMe’ 1S 109 acme 2 ma 1 rouge Fated eo ME gama sag moe Sou? Uo ama 3 Ge wong? © 31 ten roger Say as Home ws nam m5 Sa Ba fo 2 ie unos Ga arm ere tis 20 aos 5a aa sit isa 3s tm nome 3 wat eee a =o 10 tom BE Bim Rectie iso ap aos? 62 hak eid ited ate Gagiyev Bie ue sons m3 sate ony ws 1 Gos a) oe Tce phe iid ne ol al eer Genesee a 360 UF uoK 23 mH ia Dm by dome we ey Sis be tomy 83 aay psy @ wo m son Snob Okie im Rn ous st Rewwcecie SS ine Ho aes at Noa Fig, 15.40: Typical damage parameters for copper conductor cables ‘Lomi CONDUCTOR HTS mt CL MEA ott vere 20 "M coms 426 Glos, tea mo 2 Gos Ms ae We timed 7018076 gas aes oe Sime’ Jo te) as owe MS don. Papas Biches Tepwsegav a1 7 oem 39s san cnn usm Gems 495 Hen ‘ieee ited jad ot elt Uaoswyay a0 1g 73 WUNS 305 a oy jo m0 i Gpms fag Sea Baa & is i fom 390 mow samy oo Mo 73 ous 32a Sito) oxatie Sim oom ea con Presid Gese 3 3a 72 aoa Me com Fig. 15.41: Typical darnage parameters for aluminium conductor cables Transformer Damage Curve ‘The transformer damage curves are used to evaluate a protection coordination scheme and as guides for positioning the time-overcurrent characteristics, 15-34DIQSILENT RowerFactory Protection ee ee ee ee ee ae aS Danege | Invsh peak cutent| Caldloed} Rated curert} Theme ard Mechanical Camage Curve folowing the ANSWEEE Slendard C52.109-1965._~ Nana | tentoimerDamage Gave Fated Power (3 phase) IQ MWA Categoyy I Fated Vologe mw Shot CiciiVotage uk EF, ie ive | UisidsinedOuve |. more | Frequent Fat > HO )/eine, Clego I) | | FF ans! cureswit I | | eserGiap: [SSS] Fig, 15.42; Transformer damage curve To add an ANSI/IEEE C57.109 damage curve to a time-overcurrent plot, right-click the plot area and select Add...-> Transformer Damage Curve. An example of a time-overcur- rent plot with two relay characteristics and a transformer damage curve is shown in the figure 15.43. 19900, 9 00.000 4.9000 9.010, 040 xV 100.00 1000.0 10000. fpri.A] 100000, a 20.00 10.000 400.000 1000.00 Fig, 15.43: Transformer damage curve To add the damage curves of specific transformers in the power system, right-click the transformer object in the single line graphic or the database manager and select the op- tion Show—> Add to Time-Overcurrent Plot. This will pop up the list of defined overcurrent plots from which one has to be selected. A damage curve will then be calculated from the electrical transformer data, according to the ANSI/IEEE C57.109 standard, and added to. the selected time over-current plot. 15-35DIgSILENT Powerfactry Protection Itis also possible to add a two-winding or three-winding transformer object to the graph manually. This is done by editing the graph and adding the transformer object to the list of displayed relays. Motor Start Curve ‘The motor start curves are used to evaluate a protection coordination scheme and as guides for positioning the time-overcurrent characteristics. Cee ect Nene [EERIE Red ly wot [Wecioiod Pave] once Roted Poet an Rated Mechanicol Powe: {5 kw Eifcieney | FE Power Fecer “ae Rated Votoge gw Lacked Rotor Cusers iin) FE pak Staring Time Rs [new Curent Raiotpiin | fT pe. Max Tine Stal Tie: Few | Poca feo : ™ Detailed Representation Fig. 15.44: Motor start curve edit dialogue ‘The characteristic currents and durations given in the edit dialogue result in a step wise motor start current plot, as depicted in the figure 15.45. 15-36DIgSILENT PonerFactony Protection Cold Stan Hot Start Fig. 15.45: The motor start curve Overcurrent Plot Settings The time-overcurrent plot settings can be accessed by selecting the Optionsfrom the con text-sensitive menu. The dialogue shows the following options: Current Unit The current unit may be set to elther primary or secondary (relay) ampere. Show Relays This option is used to display only certain types of relay characteristics. Recloser Operation The different recloser stages can be shown simultaneously or switched off in the diagram. Display automatically This option Is used to select how the calculated load-flow or short- circuit currents will be displayed. Either the current lines, the grading margins, both or none may be selected. Voltage Reference Axis More than one current axis may be shown, based on a different voltage level. A//voltage levels found in the path when a time overcurrent plot is constructed are shown by default. An user defined voltage level may be added. Optionally, only the user defined voltage level Is shown. Cut Curves at normally the curves of different relay zones cut at the same tripping current. Show Grading Margins while Drag&Drop When dragging the curves up and down resp, right and left, the grading margins of the curve will be shown according to the margin entered. 15-37DIOSILENT PowerRectony Fig. 15.46: ‘Shot Relays Charecterisio Feecloser operation Display automatically 1 Consider Breaket Opering Tine Notege Refecence Avie Show Ee Cutouves tf IF Show Grading Magi whi Drag & D100 Grading Margin +/+ [005 s Overcurrent Plot Settings ‘The advanced options are: Drag & Drop Step Sizes ‘These are used to set the step change in the relay settings when a time-overcurrent plot is dragged with a continuous time dial or pickup current, Time Range for Step Sizes Enter the tripping time range for the y-axis, ‘Color for Out of Service’ Units The characteristics for units that are out of service are drawn invisible by default. However, a visible color may be selected. Brush Style for Fuses This defines the fill style for fuse curves Nr. of points per curve ‘The number of points can be changed to either refine the plotted curves for more detail, or to speed up the drawing of the diagram. 15.7. The Time-Distance Diagram Protection The time-distance plot VisPlottz shows the tripping times of the relays depending on the short-circuit location. It is normally calculated by the short-circuit sweep command. See short-circult sweep command (section 15.5) for more information, Itis directly connected to a path definition described in section 15.3 {Path Definitions), so it can only be created if a path is already defined,OO Ww — [ad +-+----4 o00-~=S«C«S02DSC NST «ORG 18.2NTreLOMMUIBSt4 xeAods:Resctenceleerence: RV ——RY _ ——RVEeth anes Bindar2-—.= Feeder Feeder Eath eS 3 e sols: Reactance Reference: Daun —— Down —— Down Earth 2oeseLOrmH ses 4750 eteTa tte 90 ano rq soe p+ Il 9082 -}—+ rol axxo H+ Wo Ita 485 A ta 02m Fig. 15.47: A time-distance plot To create a time-distance diagram: ‘The easiest way to create and show a VisPlottz is to right-clicked an element, which is already added to a path definition. From the context sensitive menu the option Show~> Time-Distance Diagram can be selected. PowerFactory will then create 2 rh object VisPlottz showing the time-distance plot for all distance relays in the Another way Is to right-clicked an path element and select Path...» Time-Distance Diagram from the context sensitive menu. Like above this will create a new object VisPlottz. Also path object SetPath can be chosen in the data manager under Database Projectname\ Paths. Select the "Paths" folder and right-click the path object on the right side of the data manager. Then select Show—> Time-Distance Diagram from the context sensitive menu. Note Toshow the path definition and thus to visualize the elements con- tained in the path can be highlighted by setting the color represen- 15-39DIYSILENT foiverFoctony Protection tation of the single-line diagram to "Path Definitions". By right- clicking these elements the option Show» Time-Distance Dis- gram is available and can be chosen, ty ‘The time-distance plot in the figure 15.47 is separated in two different diagrams. The for- ward diagram shows all relays at the beginning of the line in path direction, The reverse diagram shows the relays at the beginning of the line in reverse path direction. The upper diagram is in forward direction, the lower one in backward direction, There are three dif ferent styles for the time-distance plot. These are: Forward/Reverse Both diagrams are shown. Forward Only forward direction diagram Reverse Only reverse direction diagram 15.7.1 The Path Axis oO s & eS $ Fig. 15.48: A path axis ‘The path axis in the figure 15.48 shows the complete path with busbar and relay loca- tions. Busbars/Terminals are marked with a tick and the name. The boxes above and be- low the line show the relay locations in forward and in backward direction. The reference. relays in both directions are marked with an arrow. 15.7.2. Methods for calculation of tripping times ‘There are several methods to calculate the tripping times shown in the plot. To change the method, select the Met/od option in the context sensitive menu or double-click the plot to access the time-distance plot dialogue and edit Methods option on the Relayspage, The methods differ in exactness and speed. The set of possible units for the x-Axis de- ct> pends on the method used. The methods are: Short-Circuit Sweep Method ‘The short-circuit sweep method is the most accurate method for calculating the short-circuit locations. A short-circuit sweep is calculated over the branches between the first and the last busbar in the path. At each short-circuit location the relay tripping times are established. The disadvantage of this method is it's low speed. Whenever the rebulld button of the graphics window is pressed the sweep is recalculated. The possible units for the short-circuft location are position in km or reactance in primary or relay ohm. Kilometrical Method ‘This method is the fastest but most inaccurate one. Ttipping time and location are determined with the intersection of the impedances and i) the relay characteristic, The impedances used for calculation are the impedances of the device. If there is more than one intersection at the 15-40DIgSILENT AowerRoctoy Protection same Impedance the smallest tripping time Is used, The possible units for the short-circuit location are position in km or reactance, resistance and impedance, each in primary or relay ohm. Ct eee awed) BouhtD Pah tine ten DisyenbReshs TIE Febery Conde Bndket Open Tne PAueen ~ FF Cow I Ueesbio F Lnewich Fig. 15.49: ‘The Time-Distance plot edit dialogue ‘The kllometrical method is applicable only for the following paths + There are no parallel branches in the path. + The path is fed from only one side or there is no junction on the path. 15.7.3 Short-Circuit Calculation Settings If the method for the calculation of the time-cistance plot is set to "Short-Circuit Sweep", the short-circuit sweep command object ComShesweep is used. There Is either the op- tion Shc-Caic... In the context menu of the plot or the Sho-Cale..... button in the "Time Distance Plot" edit dialogue to access the sweep command. ‘Some of the settings in the command are predefined by the time-distance plot. These set tings are grayed out when the sweep command is accessed through the ptot. The short- circuit command for the calculation is set in the sweep command. To change the short- circuit method, e.. "IEC" or "Complete", open the sweep command and edit the short- circuit dialogue, Note The easiest way to calculate the short-circuit sweep for the time- distance plot is by simply pressing the button » Mind that this is only needed when using the Short-Circuit Sweep 15-41DIQSILENT PowerFoctony Protection method. The Kilometrical method does not need the short-circuit sweep command. - See section 15.5 (Short-Circuit Sweep) for more information. 15.7.4 The x-Unit There is a set of possible xunits depending on the method used, See the methods de- scription for details. The short-circuit sweep method needs a relay to measure the imped- ance, named the reference relay. If there Is no reference relay selected the first relay in the diagram’s direction is used as reference relay. ‘The options available for the x-unit are: Length xaxis is shown depending on the line/cable length from the reference relay in"km", Impedance (pri.chm) axis is shown depending on the impedance from the reference relay. Reactance (pri,ohm) eaxis is shown depending on the reactance from the reference relay. Impedance (sec.Ohm) Here the impedance from the reference relay is measured on the secondary side. Reactance (sec.0hm) Here the reactance from the reference relay is measured on the secondary side, 15.7.5 The Reference Relay ‘The x-Axis positions or impedances are calculated relative to the beginning of the path. Ifa reference relay was set the positions/impedances are relative to the reference relay. “The sweep method needs always a reference relay. If no reference relay was set the first relay in the diagram's direction Is taken for reference relay. ‘The busbar connected to the reference relay is marked with an arrow pointing in the di- agrams direction. The reference relay is set either using the graphic or by editing the "Time Distance Dia- gram" dialogue, Changing the reference relay graphically is done by clicking with the right mouse button on the relay symbol and selecting "Set reference relay" in the context menu. If there is more than one relay connected to the selected busbar Power prompts for the relay to use. In the dialogue of the "Time Distance Relay" the "Reference Relay" frame Is located on the bottom. Change the "Relay” reference to set or reset the reference relay. 15.7.6 Double-Click Positions ‘The following positions can be double-clicked for a default action: Axis Edit scale 15-42DIQSILENT AowerFactoy Protection Curve Edit step of relay Relay box Edit relay(s) Path axis Edit Line Any other Open the "Time Distance" edit dialague 15.7.7. The Context Sensitive Menu If the diagram is right-clicked at any position, the context sensitive menu will pop up sim- ilar to the menu described in section 27.1.2 (Plots) for the virtual instruments. ‘There are some additional functions available in addition to the basic VI-methods for the time-distance plot, Grid Shows the dialogue to modify the grid-tines. Edit Path Opens the dialogue of the displayed path definition (SetPath). Method Set the used method for calculating the tripping times. x-Unit Set the unit for the x-Axis, km Impedances,... Diagrams _ Select diagrams shown forward, reverse or both, Consider Breaker Opening Time Report This option prints out a report for the position of the relays, their tripping time as well as all calculated impedances in the output window. She-Calc.. Show "Short-Circuit Sweep" command dialogue. 15.7.8 Set Relays Buttons ‘The Set Relays button in the dialogue of the time-distance plot fills the table with the relays in forward or reverse direction of the path automatically. 15.8 Relay Plot ‘The relay or RX plot VisDraw is showing the impedance characteristics of different dis- tance protection relays in one or several R-X plots. Additionally the impedance of connect- ed lines and transformers in the network nearby the protection equipment can easily be shown. Thus the impedances of the different zones of the relay and the tripping time can easily be adjusted and checked for a good and thorough protection of the equipment. “There are several ways to create a relay plot (VisDraw): “The easiest way to create and show a VisDraw is to select one cubicle, where a distance relay is installed. Right-click the switch to open the context-sensitive menu. ‘This will show the options Create R-X Plotand Add to R-X Plot, PowerFactory wil then create a new diagram showing the R-X plot for all relays In the selected cubicle, Another way is to right-clicked an element which is belonging to a defined protection path and select Path,..-> R-X Plot from the context-sensitive menu, Also a distance relay element EimRelay can be chosen from the list of calculation- relevant objects or in the data manager. Right-click the relay on the right side of the data manager or in the list of relays. Then select Show > R:X Piotto create a new 15-43DIgSILENT Rowerfectony Protection plot or Show—> Add to R-X Plot to get a selection of already created plots to add the characteristic to an existing plot. Note To show the relay locations and thus to visualize the switches with relays definitions these can be highlighted by setting the color rep- resentation of the single-line diagram to "Relay Locations". By right-clicking these elements the option Show—> R-X Plot is avall- able and can be chosen, ‘The R-X plots show * the impedance characteristics of selected distance relays including the different zones. + impedance curve of the lines and transformers near the relay location. ‘the location of other distance relay nearby, + the short-circuit impedance depending on the location and the fault impedances. + the tipping time of the relay. hos Fig, 15.50: A R-X plot with short-circuit results and two relays In the figure 15.50 an example is shown for the R-X plot, where two relay characteristics and the transmission line impedances are displayed. Furthermore shows the location of the short-circuit or foad-flow calculation as a equiva- lent impedance point in the plot. For every relay displayed in the graph also a legend is shown containing the relevant information regarding the short-circuit calculation of each relay: 15-44O DIGSHLENT AonerFoctany Protection name of the relay, measured impedances seen from the relay location, the fault type, the actual tripping time of the relay, which zone is tripped. “The information shown may be changed in the relay plot settings. For details please refer to section 27.1.2 (Plots). 15.8.1 Modifying the Relay Settings From the R-X plot the characteristics of the relays shown can easily be changed according to the impedances of the electrical equipment, which Is to be protected. By double-clicking the characteristic of a relay zone the settings dialogue of the zone will be opened and can be modified. Here the relay specific information of the impedance characteristic can be entered. Also the information of the line branch connected to the relay in "forward" direction is shown in the dialogue. If the OK button Is selected the char- acteristic of the relay will be updated. Itis also possible to edit the lines or transformer elements shown in the plot, Holding still the mouse arrow over the element for a second a balloon help box will appear and show the name of the element. If one of thé lines Is double-clicked, the edit dialogue of the element pos up kein the singletne graphs. In this way te ne impedances can easily be accessed, Relay Plot Settings “The Rex plot settings can be accessed by selecting the Optionsfrom the context-sensitive menu or by pressing the Options button in the edit dialogue of the plot. Basic Options: ‘The dialogue shows the following options: Unit ‘The current unit may be set to either primary or secondary (relay) ampere, Relays Units This option is used to display only certain types of relay characteristics. Zones Here the zone can be selected which is to be shown. Also Allzones of the relays can be displayed in one graph (default). Display This option is used to select how the calculated load-flow or short~ circuit current/equivalent impedance will be displayed, Either as an short-circuit arrow, a cross or none may be selected. Show Impedance Color out of service units Zones being out of service can be shown as well in a different color.DIgSILENT fowerfactony Protection Sierra are Caters | Binchinpederces| Legend] 1 stoting FF OveneachZones FF Power Swing F Corapete shape Sho Ct mpeg ia o fReeer i Fig, 15.51; R-X-Plot Settings Additionally, the show/hide option for the starting, overreach zones, power swing units and the complete shape of the diagrams can be selected In the dialogue. Branch Impedances: There are special options to modify the appearance of the branch impedances: Number of Relay Locations ‘Only the branches are shown up to the x-th next relay location. If zero, no branches are shown at all. Branches, max. Depth Maximum number of branches shown from each relay location, If zero, no branches are shown at all. Ignore Transformers ‘Transformer impedances are ignored when activated, Method Method for determining the line impedances. Show Branch Options Here the line style and width can be selected, Legend: In the legend belonging to each relay different information and calculation results is dis- played, Here the user can choose, which results are to be shown. 15-46DIGSILENT PowerFactory Harmonies Analysis Chapter 16 Harmonics Analysis One of several power quality aspects related is the harmonic contents of voltages and cur- rents. Harmonics can either be analyzed In the frequency domain or using time domain simulation together with post-processing using Fourier Analysis, The PowerFactory "Harmonics" functions allow analyzing harmonics in the frequency domain. ‘Two different functions are supported by PowerFactory. * Harmonic Load-Flow * Frequency Sweep ‘The so-called "Harmonic Load-Flow” calculates actual harmonic indices related to voltage of current distortion and harmonic losses caused by “harmonic sources", usually non-lin- ear loads (e.g. current converters). "Harmonic sources" can be defined by a harmonic cur- rent or a harmonic voltage spectrum. When starting the "Harmonic loadflow", PowerFactory carries out a steady state network analysis at each frequency at which harmonic sources are defined. Aspecial application of the "Harmonic Load-Flow" is the analysis of ripple-control signals, For this application, a "Harmonic Load-Flow” can be calculated at one specific frequency only. In contrast to the "Harmonic Load-Flow", the "Frequency Sweep" allows a continu- ‘us frequency domain analysis. The typical application of the "Frequency sweep" function is the calculation of network impedances that allow identifying series and parallel reso- ances in the network, ‘These resonance points can tell, at which frequencies harmonic currents cause low or high harmonic voltages. Especially for filter design purposes, network impedances are of high importance, There is a special tool bar available for accessing the different commands for the harmonic analysis. This toolbar can be displayed (when not already active) by selecting the [& tcon on the main too! bar and then choosing the bar for Harmonics [ij] from the pull-down menu. . ‘The button bar on the main menu now offers two icons to open a pre-configured com- mand dialogue: + |P® calculate harmonic load-flow + 2, calculate impedance frequency characteristics (Frequency Sweep) The command dialogues can be also accessed through the main menu by * selecting the Calculation -> Harmonics—> Voltage/Current Distribution... option.DIQSILENT PowerFactary Harmonies Anayss «selecting the Calculation > Harmonics—> Impedance Frequency Characteristic. option. Furthermore if a harmonic load-flow is calculated a third icon on this tool bar as activated. CY ‘The icon | opens the command dialogue for the "Filter Analysis" (Comsh). All func- tions and their usage are described in this chapter. 16.1 Harmonic Load-Flow To calculate the harmonic load-flow, use the to open the dialogue of the command ComHidf. The figure 16.1 shows the dialogue of the harmonic load-fliow command, Sees Bote Oatns favored Opens] " : cy) Fates lieteneser esr | Monin iequetay (SO He Fe paaend “Qaitaes Bos ete / [© Sige Fuego oe estveihes [+f Horm Lclesices Rene estrone | Daarmtsrlosshoy Caen Fig. 16.1: Harmonic load-flow command OY For a detailed description of the harmonic calculations, see the section Harmonics Analysis in the Technical References, where the analysis and the harmonic indices are described in detail. The following sections describe the different options available in the harmonic load-flow. 16.1.1 Basic Options Network-Representation, Harmonic Load-Flow Balanced —_In case of a symmetrical network and balanced harmonic sources, nt characteristic harmonics either appear in the negative sequence J component (Sth, 11th, 19th, etc.) or in the positive sequenceDIGSILENT AowerFoctory Harmonies Analysts component only. Hence, at all frequencies a single-phase equivalent (positive or negative sequence) can be used for the analysis. Unbalanced, 3 Phase (ABC) For analyzing non-characteristic harmonics (3rd-order, even-order, inter-harmonics) or harmonics in non-symmetrical networks, the "Unbalanced" option modelling the network in the phase-domain has to be selected. Calculate Option Single Frequency will perform a single harmonic load-flow calculation at the given “output” frequency ‘Show or harmonic order respectively, A common application for this mode Is the analysis of ripple control systems. The results of the analysis are shown in the single line diagram, in the same way as for a normal load-flow at the fundamental frequency. All Frequencieswill perform harmonic load-flow calculations for all frequencies for which harmonic sources are defined. These frequencies are gathered automatically prior to the calculation. The results are stored in a result file, which can be used to create harmonic bar graphs (see also section 27.1.2 (Plots). Nominal and Output Frequency, Harmonic Load-Flow Nominal Frequency PowerFactory can only calculate harmonics of AC-systems with the same fundamental frequency. The relevant nominal frequency has to be entered here (usually 50 or 60 Hz). Output Frequency is the frequency for which the result is shown. In the case of a Single Frequency calculation, this is the frequency for which an harmonic load-fiow is calculated. In case A// Frequenciess selected, the calculation itself is not influenced but only the shown results in the single line diagrams, which are the results for the selected frequency. Harmonic Order is used to check or to alter the output frequency. It is the same as the Output Frequency but input as harmonic order (f/fn). The harmonic order times the nominal frequency always equals the output frequency. Here not only integer numbers are valid. Result Variables and Load-Flow Result Variables is used to select the result object which will store the results of the harmonic frequency sweep. See 16.5 (Definition of Result Variables) for more information about specifying result variables, Load-Flow Js used to inspect and/or to adjust the load-flow command that Is used for the harmonic load-flow calculations. 16-3DIBSULENT Rowerfactory osmonics Analysis Advanced Options Rated Fundamental Frequency Values (IEEE) All values are rated on the basis of the fundamental frequency values according to the IEEE standards. Rated Total RMS-Values (DIN) All values are rated on the basis of "true RMS"-values, according to the DIN standards, 16.2 Frequency Sweep ‘To calculate impedances depending on the frequency, the Impedance characteristic can be computed for a given frequency range using the ComFsweep by selecting the § icon, ‘An example of a harmonic frequency sweep command is shown in the figure 16.2. SS eee Date Opn f Advances Opes] © Banrad porive sence © Urbane Iphace 80) : Ce | Slapreosny Te i BI: | | funeral Step Sze Adoption. | Reanvaiser 1+ |iomsi alee ep Lothar [Oversee Caan Fig. 16.2: Harmonic frequency sweep command ‘The harmonic analysis by frequency sweep is normally used for analyzing self and mutual network impedances. But not only self- and mutual-impedances can be analyzed and shown, The available volt- age source models allow the definition of any spectral density function. Hence, impulse or step responses of any variable can be calculated in the frequency domain. Especially the analysis of series resonance problems is a very common application. ‘The following sections describe the different options available in the harmonic frequency sweep. 16-4DIGSILENT PomerFactory Harmonies Analysis, 16.2.1 Basic Options Network-Representation, Frequency Sweep Balanced, positive sequence This option will use a one-phase, positive sequence, network representation, valid for balanced symmetrical networks. A balanced representation of unbalanced objects is used. Unbalanced, 3 Phase (ABC) This option will use a full multi-phase, unbalanced, network representation. Impedance Calculation ‘The frequency sweep will be performed for the frequency range from "Start Frequency" ‘to the "Stop Frequency", with the given "Step Size”. ‘An option is available for allowing an adaptive step size. Enabling this option will normally speed up the calculation, and enhancing the results by using a smaller step size where more detail is needed, The settings for the step size adaptation can be changed on the “Advanced Options" page. Nominal and Output Frequency, Frequency Sweep Nominal Frequency is the fundamental frequency of the system and the base frequency for the harmonic orders (usually 50 or 60 Hz) Output Frequency is the frequency for which the result is shown in the single line diagram. This value has no effect on the calculations itself. Harmonic Order is used to check or to alter the output frequency, It is the harmonic order equivalent of the output frequency. The harmonic order times the nominal frequency always equals the output frequency, Here not only integer numbers are valid. Result Variables and Load-Flow Result Variables: Is used to select the result object which will store the results of the harmonic frequency sweep. See 16.5 (Definition of Result Variables) for more information about specifying result variables. Load-Flow is used to inspect and/or to adjust the load-flow command that is used for the harmonic load-flow calculations. ‘The results of a frequency sweep analysis of PowerFactary are the characteristics of impedances over the frequency.DIQSRENT RewerFoctory Harmonics Analysts 16.2.2. Advanced Options ‘Agood way to speed up the simulation considerably is using the option “Automatic Step Size Adaption" on the basic page of the ComFsweep command. This option will enable the step size adaptation algorithm for the frequency sweep. With this algorithm the frequency step between two calculations of all variables is not held constant but will be adapted according to the shape of the sweep. When no resonances in the impedance occur, the time step can be increased without loosing accuracy. If the impedance will start to change considerably with the next step, the step sizes will be re- duced again, The frequency step Is set that the prediction error will be according to the given values. ‘The parameters to adapt this algorithm are: errmax Maximum Prediction Error (typical 0.01) ertinc Minimum Prediction Error (typical 0.005) nine Delay for Step Size Increase (typical 10 frequency steps) 16.3 Filter Analysis ‘The "Filter Analysis” command is a special form of the "Output Calculation Analysis" com- mand (ComSh). It is used to analyze the results from the previous harmonic load-flow to the PowerFactory output window. It outputs a summary of the harmonics for the ter- minais/busbars and for branch elements at a specified frequency, which is given as the ‘output frequency in the ComHIdf command, Also it reports the parameters and different variables for the installed filters. ‘The filter analysis report generator can be activated with the icon & by using the out- put icon &} in the main menu (see also 27.2.7 (Output of Results)). This will open the same dialogue for the report of the harmonic results, shown in the figure 16.3. In the dialogue the output frequency, specified in the harmonic load-flow command, Is shown. There are four different reports to be chosen: Busbars and Branches This option displays the results of the harmonic load-flow for all node and branch element in the network, The distortion for various electrical variables is printed and summarized. Busbars/Terminals For the electrical nodes the rated voltage, the voltage at the calculation frequency as well as RMS values and distortion at the nodes is displayed. Filter Layout The filter layout of all active filters in the network are calculated for the given frequency. The rated values and impedances of the filter as well as type and vector group are printed to the output window. Furthermore the currents through the different components and the losses are shown, Filter Results The filter results show the main layout of all filters in the network for the caleulation frequency. For a set of frequencies the voltages and the currents through the filter are shown in a table format. 16-6DIgSILENT Pomerfoctory Hamonles Anais | © Burda ond Benchae | © Buia ominals | FReiLepat THe fs deanna Fig. 16.3: Filter analysis report dommand dialogue ‘The default format used for the report in the output window is defined in Used Format and can be set or changed by selecting the "edit" button ith 16.4 Modelling Harmonic Sources Every switched device produces harmonics and must therefore be modelled as a harmonic source. In DIgSILENT PowerFactory harmonic sources can be both current or voltage sources, The following models can generate harmonics: * General loads, as far as they are modelled as a current source (which is defined in the load type) + Thyristor rectifiers * PWM-converters which are generally modelled as harmonic voltage source. + Voltage sources, which may be used also for ripple control applications. * Current sources, with a user-defined spectre of harmonic injections. ‘The spectrum of harmonic infeeds have to be defined using the "Harmonic Source" type object (TypHmcCur). The spectrum may be entered as a balanced or unbalanced spec- trum, See the figure 16.4 and the figure 16.5. This object is a ‘type! object, which signals that it may be used by many elements. More than one currant source load may, for ex- ample, use the same TypHmeCur object. No EimHmeCur object exists. 16-7DIQSLENT Aomerfoctory ormonies Analysis Fig. 16.4: Fig. 16.5: Unbalanced harmonic source type ‘The spectrum object is independent of the kind of harmonic source, which may be either @ voltage or a current source. The decision whether harmonic sources are fed into the system as harmonic voltages or as harmonic currents Is exclusively taken by the element oT) to which the spectrum type Is associated, 16-8DIGSILENT PoverFoctory Harmonles analysis 16.4.1 Harmonic Distortion Results ‘The harmonic distortion of a current or a voltage can be quantified in terms of the Har- manic Distortion (HD), as described by equation (16.1). To describe the overall distortion, the Total Harmonic distortion index THD (see (16.2)) has been introduced. An alternative index, though less common, is the Total Arithmetic Distortion TAD (see (16.3)). All dis- tortion indices are described in their definition for the current, but may be similarly used for the voltage distortion. 1 Eqn 16.1: HD,(f) = ey Eqn 16.2; THD, (£,) (Total Harmonic Distortion) RMS. Eqn 16.3: where xf) component of the current at frequency fj rep Reference value for the current 7 Eqn 16.4: Eqn 16.5: Ts, = >) |ICf)] (arithmetic Sum value) =l ‘The reference value Iyer depends on the standard used. The two possible options are the calculation according to DIN (16.6) and according to IEEE (16.7). Eqn 16.6: Tyee pry = Ips (DIN Standard) Eqn 16.7: Ter, IEEE = JEDI (IEEE Standard). Another value that may be of importance is the Total Power (see (16.8)), that describes the power absorbed over all frequency components. 1 Eqn 16.8: Pig, = > PCE) (Total Power) ist 16.4.2. Magnitudes and Phase values “The quantities of the spectrum type are rated to current/voltage at fundamental frequen- cy inthe balanced case. Hence, in case of a harmonic current source, the actual harmonic current at frequency fy is calculated by: 16-9DIGSHENT Aomerfoctory Harmonies Analysis where ly) _iftbalanced — | Fan/Tay if unbalanced phase a 1] Agp/Ip1 if unbalanced phase b Iep/Te1 if unbalanced phase © 4-9 if balanced ang] if unbalanced phase a pn-%p1 i€ unbalanced phase b %ch—Yc1 if unbalanced phase AQ, = ‘The values at the fundamental frequency, I; and qy, are taken from a preceding load-flow calculation, A normal load-flow calculation is therefore required prior to a harmonic load flow calculation. In case of balanced systems in which only characteristic harmonics of orders 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, etc., occur, the option “Balanced/Unbalanced Sources" should be set to "Balanced". In this context, "Balanced" stands for characteristic harmonics, In the balanced case, the harmonic frequencies are determined by the program, while in the unbalanced case, the rated frequencies can be defined freely. The user also can enter magnitude and phase angle of each harmonic component. In case of harmonic sources which produce non-characteristic, unbalanced or inter-harmonics, the option "Balanced/Unbalanced Sources" has to be set to "Unbalanced’. For the "Un- balanced” case, harmonic frequency, magnitude and phase angle of each phase can be chosen individually for each harmonic frequency. This mode thus cavers every possible Kind of harmonic source, A typical problem is how to represent a given harmonic content in a different but the na~ tive modal system (positive, negative or zero sequence system). The following example should illustrate how to represent the 3rd harmonics in positive or negative sequence sys~ tem (and not in the native zero sequence system). ‘The phase shift between the three phases is in the symmetrical case: AL 0° B: -120° : +120° (-240°) For Harmonics of n-th order: A:0e 16-10DIGSILENT PowerFoctory Harmonies Analysis B; -n*120° C +n*120° 3rd Harmonic, for example: AL Of B: -360°(= 0°) C: +360° (=0°) Consequently, 3rd harmonics in the ideally balanced case only in the zero sequence com- ponent, as their native modal system, For representing 3rd harmonics (and multiples) in the positive sequence, the following phase correction needs to be entered: A: 0° B: +(n-1)*120° Gs (net) #1208 Eg. the third harmonic: 16.4.3 Frequency Dependent Parameters Due to skin effect and variations of the internal inductance, resistances and Inductances ly frequency dependent. This can be modeled by assodating a “frequency char- to these parameters on the "Harmonics" page of the corresponding dialogue. “Two types of characteristic may be used: either a polynomial characteristic (ChaPol), or an user defined frequency table (TriFreq and ChaVec). Fig. 16.6: The frequency polynomial characteristic For the polynomial characteristic object, as depicted in the figure 16.6, the following for- mula is used: f,)° y(f,) = (-a) ba F, ‘The parameters a and b are specified in the ChaPol dialogue. The unit of y is usually % of the corresponding parameter specified in the input mask. For example, the resulting line resistance Is obtained by: 16-11DIGSILENT Aowerfactory Harmonies Anaiys's RG) = Rx yf) the figure 16.7 shows an example of the use of the polynomial characteristic for a line type. Baie Oas | LoadFlon | VDEAECSorciet | FushatCieat | ANS! ShotCheat | AUSSinaion “EmrSindten Horeres | Piazeion | Opinion Size Esinet | Aeabity | Oesaeron = | Carat {ResiterceR 01 Dtevkm Savy) Sef | eborcne. [Indicancet? ——OSSIREa7 aim od op mle |caso\che. a a eee Fig. 16.7: Frequency dependencies in a line type It also Is possible to define frequency dependent characteristics using vectorial character istics (ChaVec). An example for a grid impedance defined with a ChaVec is shown in the figure 16.8. Sees Pamir TSCA sere x fe |teru'soaeieaan scab aes . Peso} a Pmoeaagen QuanVehie Fig. 16.8: Frequency dependent grid impedance as vectorial characteristic The following objects have frequency dependent parameters which may be defined by a frequency characteristic: TypLne Line Type TypAsm Asynchronous Machine Type Typsym Synchronous Machine Type ElmShnt ‘Shunt/Filter 16-12 yD 5DIGSILENT AomerFoctory Harmonies Analysis ElmVac AC Voltage Source ElmNec NEC/NER Lines which are represented by a tower Type TypTow automatically are assigned a har- monic characteristic. The same applies to cables using the detailed cable representation type TypCab. 16.4.4 Waveform Plot ‘The waveform plot is used to display the waveform of a voltage or current after a har- monics load-flow calculation, These harmonics are typically emitted by an harmonic volt- age or current source described in this chapter. Using this plot a waveform is generated from the magnitude and the phase angle of the harmonic frequencies. With this diagram a variable like the voltage or current, which is defined in 2 harmonic source e.g. a power electronic device or a load, can easily be shown, as a time dependent variable. So the real shape of the voltage can be seen and analyzed. For a more detailed description see section 27.1.6 (The Waveform Plot). 16.5 Definition of Result Variables Before a frequency scan Is performed, all variable of interest must be defined for record- ing. This can be done by right-clicking an object, either in the single line diagram or in the data manager, and selecting the option Define-> Varlable Set (Harmonics Load-Flow) or Define-> Varlable Set (Frequency Sweep) This will add a new, but still empty, variable setfor the selected object to the result object which is selected in the harmonic command ialogue. All results of the harmonic analyses, except for the single frequency harmonic load-flow, are stored in a normal result object (EImRes), Such a result object stores graphs of result variables vs. frequency. For more information about the result object see section 27.2.1 (Result Objects). New result variables may also be added by pressing the icon "Edit Result Variable" This wil bring the list of all variable sets which have been defined already. Each vari set contains variables for a single object. See the figure 16,9 for an example. A new vari- able set is defined by pressing the "New" icon (2). 16-13DIGSILENT PowerFactory Harmonics Anais ‘ Gere Load) General Ld f Le) Liat i [Sym Temal Sym oaal } erinat5) Fremeats) TeminatS Maximum Weighted Sum of Active Power Flows - Minimum Weighted Sum of Reactive Power Flows - Maximum Weighted Sum of Reactive Power Flows The setup of the individual control parameters and inequality constraints will be explained in the following. We start the discussion by demonstrating the usage of the objective func- tions. 18.2. Objective Functions ‘The OPF command object (ComOpf) dialogue allows to choose among four distinct ob- jective functions, namely “Minimization of Losses”, “Maximization of Profit", Minimization of Generation Fuel Costs”, and “Minimization of Load Shedding”, 18.2.1 Minimization of Losses The aim here is to find a power dispatch which minimizes the overall active power loss. 18-2 aDIQSILENT PonerFactory Optimel Power Flow 18.2.2 Maximization of Profit ‘The alm here Is to supply the system under optimal operating cost. More precisely, the goal is to minimize the cost for the power dispatch based on non-linear fuel cost functions for each generator and on tariff systems for each external grid, For this purpose, the user needs to introduce, for each generator, a cost function for its power dispatch and for each external grid, a tariff system, Romine Basie Ontos | Advanod Parameters | he [occas se Too Todas Objective Function -”[Maxinizaton of Prof x Cancel Comoe: Minas of Losses F cone het he Oe Generatcr Reaol Mininzation of Load Shecdina : Fig. 18.1: Choosing the objective function in the ComOpf dialogue Cost functions for generators Imposing a fuel cost function on a generator can be done in the following way. On the optimization page of the edit dialogue (see figure 18.2) for each synchronous machine (Eimsym), it's possible to specify the operation costs of the unit with the aid of an oper- ation cost table (that relates active power produced (in MW) with the corresponding cost {in $/h)). The representation of the data Is visualized (see figure 18.2) for checking pur- poses. The number of points is unlimited. To add or delete rows to the table, choose the corresponding task from the context menu by right-clicking on the table (Copy, Paste, Se- lect; Append Cells, Delete Cells, etc.). 18.2.3 Tariff systems for external grids An external grid contributes to the overall cost function by a predefined tariff system. On the optimization page of the dialogue (see figure 18.3) for each external grid (EimXned, the tariffs can be edited with the help of a table, This table relates the cost (in $/MWh) which are due within a certain range of active power exchange. The representation of the data is shown graphically. In addition, the user is asked to enter a monthly no load cost (in $/per month), which can be interpreted as a vertical shift of the cost function. 18-3Fig. 18.2: Editing the operation cost of a synchronous machine In contrast to a synchronous machine, where the cost curve is directly expressed in $/h, the cost curve of an external grid is defined by means of a tariff which holds within certain intervals. Mathematically speaking, the cost curve of a synchronous machine is calculated as the interpolation of predefined cost points, whereas the cost curve of an external grid is a piece wise linear function with predefined slopes in each interval. Note that this pizzerias linear function is not differentiable at the interval limits. Since non- differentiable functions might cause problems in the optimization step, PowerFactory slightly smoothens the cost function in a small range around the non-differentiable points. ‘The width of this range can be manipulated by the user through the "Smoothing Cost Function” factor. A value of 0% corresponds to no smoothing of the curve at all, whereas a value of 100% corresponds to full interpolation. The default value is 5%. Its recom- mended not to change this value. 18.2.4 Minimization of Generation Fuel Cost ‘The aim of this method is to supply the system with minimal fuel cost. In contrast to the “profit Maximization”, here, the cost caused by the tariff systems for external nets are not taken into consideration. In other word, the objective function only takes into account the fuel cost functions of the generators. 18-4 OFig. 18.3; Editing the tariff system of an external grid 18.2.5 Minimization of Load Shedding ‘The goal in this option is to minimize the cost for an overall load shedding, such that all constraints can be fulfilled. A typical application for this cost function comes from “Infea- sibility Handling’, It might happen — for the above mentioned objective functions — that the constraints imposed on the network are such that no feasible solution exists at all. ‘The user will note this, if the iterative non-linear optimization does not converge. In this case, it Is very likely that not all loads can be supplied due to constraint restrictions, It is Tecommended in this situation to (first of all) perform a "Minimization of Load Shedding”. In this (and only in this) optimization scenario, all loads will act as controls for which the corresponding flag “Allow load shedding” has been enabled on the optimization page. All other loads (je, the ones with disabled control flag) will behave as in the conventional {oad flow calculation. In order to optimize the overall load shedding, for each individual load, the user has to specify the cost for shedding (in $ per shedded MW). For each load that participates as a control in the optimization, the scaling-factor will be optimized. The optimization is such that the overall cost for load shedding is minimized. The user can, in addition, specify the range within which the load may be scaled (Min. and Max. load shedding), see figure 18.4,DIGSILENT Anworfoctory Optimal Power-Fow Fig. 18.4: Editing the loads for minimization of load shedding 18.3 Controls ‘The user may specify which parameters might serve as potential degrees of freedom for the OPF-algorithm, i.e., which parameters will contribute as controls. Tt is — Independent of the objective function ~ completely left to the user to decide which parameters will be considered as optimization controls in the OPF. The set of potential controls can be grouped into four categorie 1 Generator Active Power Dispatch. 2. Generator Reactive Power Dispatch. 3 Transformer Tap Positions (for 2- and 3-winding transformers). 4 Switchable Shunts, Note that the scaling-factors of loads will only be taken Into account for "Minimization of Load Shedding’ In this case, all loads that allow load shedding are automatically used as controls. 18.3.1 Individual model-based settings Each control can be checked individually to take part in the optimization. More precisely, for each generator (ElmSym), each transformer (ElmTr2, ElmTr3), and each shunt (Elm- Shnt), the user may check the corresponding Control-Flags on the optimization page of the element's edit object. Synchronous Machines Asynchronous machine may contribute with two possible setpoints, namely active and reactive power contro! (see figure 18.5). 18-6DIQSILENT FowerFactary Optimal PowerFlow Pies Fig. 18.5; 2- and 3-winding Transformers For transformers, an option is provided, whether the transformer tap position(s) that shall serve as a contro! parameter is supposed to be considered as a continuous parameter, or as a discrete parameter, Note that a 3-winding transformer has up to three tap changers which may individually be used as continuous or discrete control parameters for the OPF. Figure 18.6 shows the dialogue for a 2-winding transformer, figure 18.7 shows the dia~ logue for the 3-winding transformer, Conte Fig. 18.6: Tap position control for | [I Tap Psion HU Sido Conualiteds AV-Side TT Tap Postion MVSida Tap Postion LV Side Contrl Mode LW-Side feontnaowe el - | Fig. 18.7: Tap position control for a 3-winding transformer 18-7DIgSILENT PonerRactory Optimal Power-Flow Shunts Similarly, for a shunt, its number of steps may serve elther as a continuous or a discrete optimization parameter (see figure 18.8). Si ; sad Dae| Laxifon] VOEAEC Set cal] Fasten Ciet| AUS Sinton, O2eiata | Fig. 18.8: Control parameter of a shunt 18.3.2 Global control settings After setting the individual parameters for each element, the user will find some global setting parameters on the edit dialogue of the ComOpf object (see figure 18,9). ‘The general rule is as follows. A parameter will be considered as control, if the corre- sponding flag is set on the optimization page of the element's edit dialogue and if, in ad dition, the corresponding global parameter is set on the Basic Options page of the command object ComOpf. For example, the HV-tap position of a 3-winding transformer becomes an active control if and only ifthe fiag / tapopt_/is set in the 3-winding transformer and the corresponding flag /opt_trfis enabled on the ComOpf-dialogue. If enabled, the above mentioned control parameters serve as variable setpoints during the OPF optimization. However, if a parameter does not play the role of a variable set- point, the OPF will treat this parameter according to the load flow settings! eee tr | Genoetr Asie Poner Dispatch FF Genataor Reacive Power Dispatch [| F% Tranefomer Tap Postion [TE Switchable Stunte ” Fig. 18.9: Global control settings in the ComOpf dialogue For example, if, the MV-tap position of a 3-winding transformer is checked to be an OPF- contro! the optimization algorithm will adjust it in such a way that it contributes best to the objective function. On the other hand, if the user decides that this tap position shall not be a control parameter, the OPF will calculate the correct tap position as specified in the load flow settings. This could be, e.g,, a fixed position, or adjusted by “automated tap changing” in order to control the voltage of a certain node, or even be a slave that is ex- ternally controlled by some other transformer tap. 18-8 Oo ODIQSRENT PonerFactory Optimal Power Flow 18.4 Constraints ‘The user may “formulate” various inequality constraints on certain system parameters, ‘such that the OPF solution is required to stay strictly within these constraints, It is impor- tant to note that — since all inequality constraints are considered to be “hard” ~ it may happen that by imposing constraints which cannot be fulfilled the setting will disallow a valid solution at all. ‘The handling of the constraints is very flexible and much like the way controls have to be specified, Varlous categories of constraints do exist. A constraint is considered in the OPF if and only if the individual constraint flag is checked in the element and the correspond- ing global flag is enabled in the ComOpf dialogue. The distinct constraint categories are: 1 Branch flow limits (je., limits on the loading). 2. Voltage limits on busbars and terminals, 3. Active power limits of generators and active power sum limits of secondary controllers, 4 Reactive power limits of generators and reactive power sum limits of station controliers. 5 Constraint Objects: weighted sums of active and reactive power (ElmConstr).. ‘The optimization uses further constraints that are automatically imposed as soon as the corresponding parameter is used as a control. Such controls are tap position limits and the number of steps for switchable shunts, Branch flow limits Branch flow limits formulate an upper bound on the loading of the branch element. The user has to specify a maximum value for the loading (see figure 18.10). Such a constraint is only taken into consideration if the corresponding flag is set. Limits on the loading are supported for Lines, Line routes, 2- and 3-winding transformers, oa ent (similar for line routes, 2- and loading of a line elem 3-winding transformers) Fig. 18.10: 18.4.1 Voltage limits of busbars and terminals ‘The maximum and minimum voltage values of each terminal or busbar element can be specified (see figure 18.11). In this sense, each terminal or busbar may contribute at most twe inequality constraints for the OPF, Upper and lower limits may be imposed individu- ally, ie, its possible to only formulate an upper limit without specifying a lower limit.DIgSILENT Pawertactory ‘Optimal PowerFlow, (suas acai unas PFC FF Mex. Votege, FF Min Votage =. Fig. 18.11: Constraint on maximum and minimum voltage of a terminal/busbar 18.4.2 Active and reactive power limits for generators For each synchronous machine, the user may impose up to four inequality constraints, namely a minimum and maximum value for the active power generation and minimum. and maximum limits for the reactive power generation (see figure 18.12). Reactive power limits may be edited either in absolute, or in per unit values (referring to the type's nom- inal apparent power). Besides it is possible to directly use the reactive power limits spec- ified in'the machine’s type. Again, the user is free to Impose any combination of the four possible constraints individually. SITEEEai TE Fig. 18.12: Active and reactive power constraints of a synchronous machine 18.4.3. Active power constraints of Secondary Controllers A secondary controller may impose an upper and lower active power constraint on the ‘sum of the participating synchronous machines (see figure 18.13). For practical purpos- es, this may serve asa reserve constraint for the total active power generation of various synchronous machines in order to cover an outage of one of the machines. Suppose, e.g,, that a secondary controller is defined for three machines with maximum active power limits of 15 MW, 20 MW, and 25 MW, respectively, Then a maximum total active power constraint of 35 MW on these three generators would even cover an outage of the biggest, and, thus, any one of the generators. 18-10Optimal Power Flow Fig. 18.13: Total active power sum limit constraint of a secondary controller 18.4.4 —_ Reactive power constraints of Station Controllers In complete analogy to the secondary controller (with roles of active and reactive power interchanged), a station controller may hold an upper and a lower limit on the total sum of the reactive powers of the participating generators (see figure 18.14). SUS ULI ee Mu ced ad eae unereee boatfbw | YDEAECSH FIMS-Simuiation Optimization: 1: Basic Data. +, FullShotGieut Ce IF Max. Total Reacive Pons Lint") Muse TE, Min Total Reactive Power tint = [EN Fig. 18.14: Total reactive power sum limit constraint of a station controller 18.4.5 Constraint Objects: linear combinations of active and reactive power sums PowerFactory offers an additional extremely flexible way of imposing constraints on the power flow in the network, which is realized by adding so-called constraint objects (Elm- Constr), It has the following icon $22. with this object itis, e.9,, possible to restrict the power flow over various branches which connect, e.g,, two areas. Mathematically speak- ing, the constraint object is able to put maximum and minimum mum constraints of the fortn Prin $01 °Py tq *Py tnt Cq*PySPwnay Quin $y * Qu F 69° Qq * oF Cy Qu S Qinax where, Py,....P, and Qy,....Qh, respectively, are the active and reactive power flows at predefined cubicles and cy,...Cy are some real coefficients, More precisely, an ElmConstr itself holds a set of n StaPqmeas whose measured active and reactive power flows PpeaPh and Qiyn/Qn are considered in the above inequality constraints, Refer to the example in figure 18.15, where the optimization page dialogue of an ElmCon- 1-11DIQSILENT PowerFoctany Optimal PowerFlow str hosts three distinct StaPqmeas. The corresponding constraint equations that were formulated in this constraint object would be: P, +P) +P; <300 MW P, +P, +P, 2150 MW Q, +Q+Q, $200 Mvar where P1,P2,P3 and Q4,Q7,Q3 are the active and reactive power flows measured by the three StaPqmeas "PQ Export Line 1”, “PQ Export Line 2” and “PQ Export Line 3”. Figure 18.15 shows how this setting is entered in the E/mConstr dialogue, eel Fig. 18.15: OPF constraint object (ElmConstr) In the example in figure 18.15 the active power sum over three lines (where the StaPqmeas were located) Is restricted from above by 300MW and from below by 150MW, In addition, the reactive power sum over these lines Is constrained by 200 Mvar. ‘An OPF constraint object can hold any number of StaPqmeas, and thus cope with any linear combination of active and reactive power sums in the network. Observe that, in the special case, where n=1, with the help of constraint objects itis pos- sible to limit the active and reactive power flow at any location in the network. Moreover, the OPF constraints that can be set in the Secondary Controller, and in the Sta- tion Controller, can also be seen as special cases of this flexible OPF constraint object. In order to define an OPF constraint object (EimConstr), the user needs to first of all de- fine some StaPqmea objects (into the desired cubicles). The user should be aware that the orientation of the StaPqmea needs to be set properly. In a second step, a set of StaPqmeas should be selected in the browser, Select “Define.../OPF Constraint...” in the 18-12DIQSWLENT Ponerfoctory Optimal Power Flow context menu of the selection. Then the ElmConstr dialogue will pop (see figure 18.16), 0 that upper and lower limits and weighting factors can be edited. By clicking OK, the OPF constraint object will be stored into the grid folder and, hence, will be considered in the OPF optimization step. te mn pwsnsve seco cvstecnmsiancenabe Fig. 18.16: Defining an OPF constraint object ElmConst for a predefined set off StaPqmeas 18.4.6 Global constraint settings After setting the individual parameters for each element, the user will find some global setting parameters on the edit dialague of the ComOpf object (see figure 18.17). As in the case of controls, the general rule is as follows, A constraint will be considered in the optimization step, if the corresponding flag is set on the optimization page of the el- ement's ecit dialogue and ff, in addition, the corresponding category of constraints is en- abled on the dialogue of the command object ComOpf.DIQSILENT Apwerfuctony Optimal Power-Fiow a) fee eee ase elas [zdarma Carl. TT PIRATE > Vota nis ed Burien! Fone Pes ins of Genel oa Sesinay Crake [Poco .P.RescrePoucinct Gomis entSuionatcan. i Fig. 18.17: Global control and constraint parameters on the optimal power flow dialogue 18.5 Running OPF ‘The execution of the OPF Is started by pressing the Execute button on the command. 18.5.1 | Mathematical Background “The non-linear optimization is implemented using an iterative interior-point algorithm based on the Newton-Lagrange method. Recall that the goal of the optimization Is to min- imize an objective function f under the constraint that all load flow equations and all im- posed Inequality constraints are fulfilled. Mathematically speaking, the aim Is to find cy min = £3) under the constraint that gs) = 0 a(t) < 0 where g is the set of load flow equations and h is the set of inequality constraints that need to be fulfilled. Introducing a slack variable for each inequality constraint, this can be reformulated as g(8} = 0 nQX)+8 = 0 a 3<0 18-14DIgSILENT PoserFoctony Optional Power-Fiow We then incorporate logarithmic penalties and minimize the function: sain = £()—p- Slog (s;) i where 1 Is the so-called penalty weighting factor. In order to change the contribution of the penalty function: fyen = low (5) to the overall minimization, the penalty weighting factor p will be decreased from some user-defined initial value Upyax to some user-specified value Umin. ‘The smaller the minimum penalty weighting factor, the less the penalty for being clase to the constraint limits will be. This means, that a small minimum penalty weighting factor will result in a sofution that is close to the limiting constraint bounds (if necessary). On the other hand, a smaller minimum penalty weighting factor will result in a higher number of iterations necessary. ‘The parameters for adapting the penalty weighting factor can be adjusted on the Ad- vanced Options page of the ComOpf dialogue (see figure 18.18). In addition, the user ccan specify a factor, by which the current penalty factor shall be divided from one iteration to another. ee LE Siena Fig. 18.18: Settings for the adaptation of the penalty weighting factor in the ComOpf dialogue 18.5.2. Output during the iteration Prior to the non-linear optimization, the OPF informs the user (in the output window) about the actual total number of constraints and controls that will be considered in the Subsequent calculation. This information is detailed in the sense that the participating constraints and the imposed controls are counted for each of the above mentioned cate~ gory separately. Show Convergence Progress Report If this flag is checked on the Advanced Parameter page of the OPF edit dialogue, the user will get a detailed report on the convergence of the norrlinear optimization. In each step 18-15DIQSELENT PonerFoctoy Optimal Power Fw of the iteration, the following figures are displayed In the output window: The current error of the constraint nodal equations (in VA) (Erc.Nodes). The current error of the constraint model equations (Err. Mode/Equ). ‘The current error of the inequality constraints (elnequ). ‘The current value of the gradient of the Lagrangian function (graaLagFunc). “The current value of the Lagrangian function (LagFunc} “The current value of the objective function f to be minimized (ObjFunc). “The current value of the penalty function fen (PenFunc). The current values of the relaxation Factors (RIx1,RIx2) for the primal and dual variables. ‘The current value of the penalty factor p (AenFad). Show max. nodal and model equation error elements If this flag is checked, the algorithm outputs per iteration, the components that happen to have the largest error in the equality constrains. ‘An outer loop is wrapped around this central non-linear optimization algorithm. This outer loop is required to round and optimize continuously evaluated tap and shunt positions to discrete values if desired, The user will be Informed at any stage of the algorithm, whether a further outer loop is required or not. 18.5.3 Results ‘The presentation of the OPF results is integrated into the user interface. The solution of the non-linear optimization in the OPF is available via the complete set of variables of the conventional Load Flow calculations. It can be seen in the single line diagram of the grid or through the browser. The inclusion of the following variables in the Flexible Data Teb in the browser is suggested for synchronous machines and grids to observe the results. Synchronous machines: © Active Power (P:bus1) «Reactive Power (Q:bus) * Apparent Power (S:bust) «Voltage Magnitude (usbus1) Grids: * Total Production Cost, including costs through external grids (c_disp) + Generation Fuel Costs (est_gen) + Losses (LossP) * Active Power Generation (GenP) + Reactive Power Generation (GenQ) Besides theses specialized results the complete set of variables of conventional Load-Flow calculations is available for particular user needs. The production costs are expressed in 18-16© DIGSILENT Powertactary Optimal Rower-ow_ ‘the same units utilized in the production cost tables of the generator elements. Aso a text report is available. It can be activated using the icon | and offers various templates for detailed result documentation. 18.6 Advanced Setup Options for Iteration Control 18.6.1 I ‘The non-linear optimization requires an initialization step to generate an initial starting configuration. jalization Initialization of non-linear optimization ‘The user may specify whether the initlalization shall be performed by a load flow calcula~ tion or by a flat start. If it is known in advance that the final solution of the optimization part Is close to a valid load flow solution, initializing by a load flow calculation pays off in a faster convergence. IF the initialization is set to “Use Load Flow result”, the OPF checks whether an “OPF-ini- tializing” load flow result has been calculated prior to the OPF. Here, "OPF-initializing” means that the flag sopt_initory was enabled on the load flow object ComLdf before ‘execution. This flag can be found under the name “Use this load flow for initializing OPF” ‘on the second page of the Advanced Options in the ComLdf dialogue, The result of this load flow is then used as stating point of the iterative OPF interior point algorithm. If no valid OPF- initializing load flow result can be found, the OPF will recalculate a new load flow. Load Flow ‘Specifies the settings of the load flow command which is taken for initialization in case no flat start is used, 18.6.2 | Stopping criteria for the non-linear optimization By the Lagrange-Newton method, the OPF will internally minimize the resulting Lagrange function T L382) = fA) Slog (8) +H) + Lat) +h@) +s] i with the Lagrange multipliers (2) . ‘The following parameters can be used to adapt the stopping criteria for this iterative pro- cess, The algorithm stops successfully if the following three issues are fulfilled: 1 The maximum number of iterations has not yet been reached. 18-17DIGSMENT AowerFoctory Optimal PowerFlow 2. Allload flow constraint equations g(x)=0 are fulfilled to a predefined degree of exactness, which means: ~ all nodal equations are fulfilled, ~ all model equations are fulfilled. 3. The Lagrange function L itself converges, This can be achieved if ~ either the objective function itself converges to a stationary point, or the gradient of the objective function converges to zero. ‘The following parameters serve to adjust these stopping criteria. The user unfamiliar with the underlying optimization algorithm is urged to use the default settings here. Iteration Control of non-linear optimization ‘The user is asked to enter the maximum number of iterations. Convergence of Load Flow Constraint Equations ‘The user should enter a maximal error for nodal equations (where the deviation is mea- sured in KVA), and, in addition, a maximally tolerable error for the model equations (In %). Convergence of Objective Function ‘The user is asked choose among the following two convergence criteria for the Lagrangian function: Either the function itself Is required to converge to a stationary point, or the gradient of the Lagrangian is expected to converge. In the first case, the user is asked to enter an absolute maximum change in value of the objective function. If the change in value between two consecutive iterations falls below this value, the Lagrangian is assumed to be converged. In the latter case, the user is asked to enter an absolute maximum value for the gradient of the Lagrangian. If the gradient falls below this value, the Lagrangian is assumed to be converged. Itis strongly recommended ~ due to mathematical preciseness — to use the criterion on the gradient. The other option might only be of advantage if the underlying Jacobian ma- trix behaves numerically instable which then typically results in a "toggling" of the con- vergence process in the last iterations, 18-18DIgSILENT PoerFactony ‘Stata Estimation Chapter 19 State Estimation ‘The State Estimator (SE) function of PowerFactory provides consistent load flow re- sults for an entire power system, based on real time measurements, manually entered data and the network model, Before any further analysis, such as contingency analy- sis, security checks etc. can be carried out, the present state of a power system must be estimated from available measurements, The measurement types that are pro- cessed by the PowerFactory State Estimator are: * Active Power Branch Flow + Reactive Power Branch Flow + Branch Current (Magnitude) * Bus Bar Voltage (Magnitude) * Breaker Status + Transformer Tap Position Unfortunately, these measurements are usually nolsy and some data might even be totally wrong. On the other hand, there are usually more data available than abso- lutely necessary and it is possible to profit by redundant measurements for improving the accuracy of the estimated network state. ‘The states that can be estimated by the State Estimator on the base of the given mea- surements vary for different elements in the network: * Loads - Active Power, and/or - Reactive Power, or > Scaling Factor, as an alternative * Synchronous Machines - Active Power, and/or ~ Reactive Power * Asynchronous Machines = Active Power = Static var System Reactive Power * 2- and 3-winding transformers = Tap Positions (for all but one taps). 19-2DIGSILENT Aowertectory Sate Estimation 19.1 Objective Function “The objective of a state estimator is to assess the generator and load injections, and the tap positions in a way that the resulting load flow result matches as close as pos- sible with the measured branch flows and bus bar voltages. Mathematically, this can be expressed with a weighted square sum of all deviations between calculated (ca/Va/) and measured (meaVal) branch flows and bus bar voltages: a £3) = Yo vj [ealVal,()—meaVal ? The state vector % contains all voltage magnitudes, voltage angles and also all vari- ables to be estimated, such as active and reactive power injections at all bus bars. Because more accurate measurements should have a higher influence to the final re- sults than less accurate measurements, every measurement error is weighted with a weighting factor w, to the standard deviation of the corresponding measurement device (+transmission channels, etc.). In this setting, the goal of a state estimator is to minimize the above given function f un- der the side constraints that all load flow equations are fulfilled, 19.2 Components of the PowerFactory State Estimator The State Estimator function in PowerFactory consists of several independent compo- nents, namely: 1 Preprocessing 2 Plausibility Check 3 Observability Analysis 4 State Estimation (Non-Linear Optimization) Figure 19.1 illustrates the algorithmic interaction of the different components. The first Preprocessing phase adjusts all breaker and tap positions according to their measured sig- nals, 19-2Eile Erornes Measures Eliminate Bad Wessuremene OK Fig. 19.1: Scheme of the PowerFactory state estimator algorithm ‘The Pleusibilty Checkis sought to detect and separate out, in a second phase, all mea- surements with some apparent error, PowerFactory provides various test criteria for that phase of the algorithm. Ina third phase, the network is checked for its Observability: Roughly speaking, a region of the network is called observable, if the measurements in the system provide enough (non-redundant) information to estimate the state of that part of the network, Finally, the State Estimation itself evaluates the state of the entire power system by solv- ing the above mentioned non-linear optimization problem, PowerFactory provides var- ious ways for copying with non-observable areas of the network, In order to improve the quality of the result, observability analysis and state estimation can be run in a loop. In this mode, at the end of each state estimation, the measurement devices undergo a so-called "Bad Data Detection”: the error of every measurement device can be estimatad by evaluating the difference between calculated and measured quantity. Extremely distorted measurements (i.e, the estimated error is much larger than the stan- dard deviation of the measurement device) are not considered in the subsequent itera- tions. The process is repeated until no bad measurements are detected any more. In the following, the distinct components of the PowerFactory state estimator are ex- plained in detail 19-3DIGSILENT AowerFictory ‘State Estimation 19.2.1 Plausibility Check In order to avoid any heavy distortion of the estimated network-state due to completely wrong measurements, the following Plausibility Checks can be made before the actual State Estimation is started. Every measurement that fails in any of the listed Plausibility ‘Checks will not be considered. Cheek for consistent active power flow directions at each side of the branch elements, Check for extremely large branch losses, which exceed thelr nominal values. Check for negative losses on passive branch elements. Check for large branch flows on open ended branch elements. Check whether the measured branch loadings exceed the nominal loading value of the branch elements. Node sum checks for both, active and reactive power. Each test is based on a stochastic analysis which takes into account the measurement’s individual accuracy. The strictness of the above mentioned checking criteria can be con- tinuously adjusted in the advanced settings. The result of the Plausibility Check is reported, for each measurement, on a detailed error status page (see saction 19.5). 19.2.2. Observability Analysis Anecessary requirement for an observable system is that the number of available mea- surements is equal or larger than the number of estimated variables. This verification can easily be made at the beginning of every state estimation. But it can also happen that only parts of the network are observable and some other parts of the system are not observable even if the total number of measurements is sufficient. Hence, it is not only important that there are enough measurements, but also that they are well distributed in the network. “Therefore, additional verifications are made checking for every load or generator injection whether itis observable or not, The entire network is said to be observable ff all load or generator injections can be estimated based on the given measurements. PowerFactory does not only solve the decision problem whether the given system is observable or not ‘fa network is not observable, Its stil useful to determine the istands in the network that are observable. : ‘The Observabllity Analysis in PowerFactory is not purely based on topological argu- ments; Ie heavily takes into account the electrical quantities of the network. Mathemati- cally speaking, the Observabllity Chack is based on an intricate sensitivity analysis, involving fast matrix-rank-calculations, of the whole system, ‘The result of the Observability Analysis can be viewed using the data manager. Besides, PowerFactory offers a very flexible color representation both for observable and unob- servable areas, and for redundant and non-redundant measurements (see Section 19.5.4). Observability of individual states ‘The Observabilty Analysis identifies not only, for each state (i.e,, load or generator injec- 19-4DIQSILENT Aowerfoctory State Estimation tions) whether it is observable or not. It also subdivides all unobservable states into so- called “equivalence-classes”. Each equivalence-class has the property that itis observable as a group, even though its members (Le,, the single states) cannot be observed. Each group then can be handled individually for the subsequent state estimation. Redundancy of measurements ‘Typically, an observable network is overdetermined in the sense that redundant measure~ ments exist, which—for the observability of the system—do not provide any further infor- mation. During the Observability Analysis, PowerFactory determines redundant and non-redundant measurements. Moreover, it subdivides all redundant measurements ac- cording to their information content for the system’s observability status. In this sense, PowerFactorys even able to calculate a redundancy level which then indicates how much reserve the network measurements provide, This helps the system analyst to pre- cisely identify weakly measured areas in the network. It should be remarked that the non-linear optimization part of the State Estimator may highly profit from these “redundant” measurements; thus, redundant measurements will not be neglected in the state estimation, 19.2.3. State Estimation (Non-Linear Optimization) ‘The non-linear optimization is the core part of the State Estimator. As already mentioned in the introduction, the objective is to minimize the weighted square sum of all deviations between calculated and measured branch flows and bus bar voltages whilst fulfilling all load flow equations. PowerFactory uses an extremely fast converging iterative approach to solve the prob- lem based on Lagrange-Newton methods. If the Observability Analysis in the previous step indicates that the entire power system is observable, convergence (in general) is guaranteed. In order to come up with a solution for 2 non-observable system, various strategies can be followed: One option is to reset all non-observable states, such that some manually entered values or historic data is used for these states. An alternative option is to use so- called pseudo-measurements for non-observable states. A pseudo-measurement basically is @ measurement with a very poor accuracy. These pseudo-measurements force the al- gorithm to converge. At the same time, the resulting estimated states will be of correct, proportions within each equivalence-cass, In the remaining sections of this guide of use, the instructions related to Data Entry, Op- tions and Constraints, and Visualization of Results are presented. 19.3 State Estimator Data Input ‘The main procedures to introduce and manipulate the State Estimator data are indicated in this section, For applying the PowerFactory State Estimator, the following data are required additional to standard load flow data: * Measurements + Active Power Branch Flow - Reactive Power Branch FlowDIGSILENT Powertsctony State Estimation = Branch Current (Magnitude) - Bus Bar Voltage (Magnitude) ~ Breaker Status ~ Transformer Tap Position Estimated States = Loads: Active Power (P) and/or Reactive Power (Q), or the Scaling Factor, as an alternative, ‘Synchronous Machines: Active Power (P) and/or Reactive Power (Q) Asynchronous Machines: Active Power (P) Static var Systems: Reactive Power (Q) ‘Transformers: Tap Positions For the measurements listed above, PowarFactory uses the abbreviated names P-mea- surement, Q-measurement, measurement, measurement, Breaker-measurement, and Tap position-measurement. Similarly, as a convention, the four different types of es- timated states are shortly called P-state, Q-state, Scaling factor-state, and Tap position~ state, 19.3.1 Measurements All measurements are defined by placing a so-called "External Measurement Device” in- side a cubicle. For this purpose, select the device In the single-line graphic and choose from the context menu (right mouse button) "New Devices” and then "External Measure- ments...” (see figure 19.2). Then, the new object dialogue pops up with a predefined list of external measurements. Please select the desired measurement device among this list (see figure 19.3). 19-62 O DIigSILENT PowerFactory State Estimation EmIaknE eT oe Hore naeee Railway. oe Fig. 19.2: External Measurements that are located in a cubicle era At Hanne Sea) [EdoralFenuncy essen Snes Moraes Sted Baker Str. ans Uvaeateman Scares) Esa tg Patramcna t Fig. 19.3: Defining new external measurements 19-7DIGSILENT Powerfoctony State Estimation ‘The following measurement devices are currently supported + (External) P-Measurement (stakxtpmea) + (External) QMeasurement (stazxtqmea) « (External) I-Measurement, current magnitude (stazxtimea) + (External) V-Measurement, voltage magnitude (stazxtvmea) + (External) Breaker Signalization Breaker Status (StaBxtbrkmea) + (External) Tap-Position Measurement Tap Position (staxxttapmea) ‘Any number of mutually distinct measurement devices can be defined in the cubicle. Branch Flow Measurements Any branch flow measurement (StaExpmea, StaExtqmea) is defined by the following val- ues (see figures 19.4 and 19.5): Measured value (e:Pmea or e:Qmea, respectively) Multiplicator (e:Multip) Orientation (e:i_gen) ‘Accuracy class and rating (e:Snomand e:accuracy) Input status (to be found on the second page of the edit object, see figure 19.5): Eg, tele-measured, manually entered, read/write protected, . . . (e:3Status). Itis important to note that the state estimator takes into account only measurements, for which the “read’-Status is explicitly set and for which the "Neglected by SE”-Status is unset. Eee ceding} Eve Stake] Dexesten| ee (Gee Daa | sau | tt eau] Nae EGRET Tid Patient FF owetSacn Resse beara ct |. Theat thot feidittdt Fig, 19.4: Dialogue for an external P-measurement The accuracy class and the rating are used for weighting the measurement element. In 19-8 QODUNSILENT Fomerroctory State Estimation case of redundant measurements, a more accurate measurement will be higher weighted than a less accurate measurement. Using the flag “orientation”, itis possible to define the meaning of the active or reactive power sign. Load orientation means that a positively measured P or Q flows into the ele~ ment, generator orientation defines a positive flow as flowing out of an element. With the “multiplicator’, a measured quantity can be re-rated, Eg,, if a measurement instrument indicates 150KW (instead of 0.15MW), the “multiplicator” can be set to 0.001 and the measured value is set to 150 resulting in a correct value. tis important to note, that External P- and Q-measurements have the additional feature to possibly serve as a so-called (externally created) pseudo-measurement. This feature is activated by checking the corresponding box (¢ :pseudo). Pseudo-measurements are special measurements which are ignored during the regular calculation. They are activat- ed ina selective manner only if the observability check found unobservable states in the network (see section 19.4.1 (Basic Setup Options) for details). Current Measurements ‘The External -measurement (staext imea) plays a special role and slightly differs from the External P- and Q-measurements (see figure 19.6): Besides specifying the measured current magnitude (e : Timea), the user is asked to enter an assumed (or measured) value for the power factor cosp (e:cosphi and e:pf_recapr). Fig. 19.5: Second page “Status” of the dialogue for an external P-measurement Internally, the measured current magnitude is then additionally transformed into two fur- ther measurements, namely an active and a reactive current, This is due to the fact that current magnitude does not provide information on the direction of the flow, which — on the other hand — is essential to avoid ambiguous solutions in the optimization. In this sense, an external I-measurement may play the role of up to three measurements: 19-9i / | | DIGSILENT PomerFoctory ‘State Estimation 1 asa current magnitude measurement. 2. asa measurement for active current. 3. asa measurement for reactive current, ‘The decision which of these measurements shall participate in the state estimator Is left to the user by checking the boxes (e: iUseMagn,e:iUseact, and/or e:iUseReact). In any case, the corresponding ratings for the used measurement types need to be spec- ified, This is done (accordingly to the flow measurements) by entering the pairs of fields ((e:SnomMagn,e:accuracyMagn), (e:SnomAct,e:accuracyAct), and (e :SnomRe- act,e:accuracyReact), respectively). Voltage Measurements Voltage measurements (Staxvmea) need to be placed in cubicles as well. The measure- ment point then is the adjacent terminal. Hea‘ ams Cie tn. aa Reve Cum Ber ded) 908: Ci Magn Deb NOMI Read Gin ie} OB (i Mag Bow foes) 0 t ii): Freok Cun. ers ot) 100, 2 O8 tee megs a! CH Asiet TL Fig. 19.6: Dialogue for an external I-measurement. ‘A voltage measurement basically has the same properties as a flow measurement, except, for the rating, only a single value for the accuracy needs to be specified. The correspond- Ing internal reference is the nominal voltage of the terminal which serves as measurement point, 19-10DIgSWLENT Ponerfectany Sate Estimation Breaker and Tap Position Measurements Both breaker and tap position measurements are assumed to measure the corresponding discrete breaker status and tap position signal accurately. Hence, no ratings needs to be specified, ‘Tap position measurements have a conversion table as extra feature. The conversion ta- ble allows any discrete translation mapping between external tap positions (Ext. Tap) and tap positions used by PowerFactory (PF Tap). 19.3.2 Activating the State Estimator Display Option To access and enter data for State Estimator calculations in the appropriate elements of the grid, the pertinent "Display Options” must be selected as follows: |, or select from the main menu "Options User Settings”, Change to the tab page “Functions”. The window shown in figure 19,7 will appear, b) Enable the Display Function “State Estimator” as shown below. ©) Exit the window clicking the ox button. 2) Fig. 19.7: User Settings for State Estimation With this display function enabled, a new tab called “State Estimator” appears in the State Estimator related elements of the grids in the activated project. The State Estimator data 19-11DIGSILENT AowerFactany Stata Estimation manipulation of the different elements is indicated below. 19.3.3 Editing the element data In addition to the measurement values, the user has to specify which quantities shall be considered as “states to be estimated” by the SE, Possible states to be optimized whilst minimizing the sum of the error squares over all measurements are all active and/or re- active power Injections at generators and foads and all tap positions. Loads For each load {ElmLod), the user can specify whether its active and/or reactive power shall be estimated by the state estimator, Alternatively, the state estimator is able to es- timate the scaling factor (for a given P and Q injection), The specification which parame- ter shall be estimated, is done by checking corresponding boxes on the "State Estimator” age of the load (see figure 19.8). When these options are disabled, the load is treated as in the conventional load flow calculation during the execution of the SE, ieee Ex ao| Lesson Seana | ‘Stele Esieateregiies sho LaadRledoraion, Fave, akira exit dala corgondie pape TP cami sierra ees Fig. 19.8: Editing element data for loads Synchronous Machines Similarly, for synchronous machines (ElmSym), the active and reactive power can be se- lected as a control variable for being estimated by the state estimator. Again, the user will find corresponding check boxes on the "State Estimator” page of the element. If the corresponding check box(es) are disabled, the synchronous machine behaves as in the conventional load flow calculation. Asynchronous Machines For asynchronous machines (ElmAsm), the active power may serve as a state to be esti- mated. Once again, the corresponding box has to be checked on the “State Estimator” page. If the corresponding check box is disabled, the asynchronous machine behaves as in the conventional load flow calculation. 19-12DIgSWWENT AenerRoctory ‘State Estimation Static var Systems For static var systems (ElmSvs), the reactive power may serve as a state to be estimated, ‘Again, the corresponding box has to be checked on the “State Estimator” page. If the corresponding check box is disabled, the static var system behaves as in the con- ventional load flow calculation. Transformers. In the 2-winding transformer elements (EimTr2), the tap position can be specified as a state to be estimated by the State Estimator (see figure 19.9). Tap positions will be esti- mated in a continuous way (without paying attention to the given tap limits). For 3-winding transformers, any two of the three possible tap positions (HV-, MV-, and Ly-side) can be selected for estimation (see figure 19.10). ‘The corresponding check boxes are found on the “State Estimator” page of the transform- ers. If the check box is disabled the State Estimator will treat the tap position of the trans- formers as in the conventional load flow calculation, asc Datol LoadFion, Sten | Sale Esinsrremi ho Load Flow nee. Pear, addon cong cat enconerendeg pa Creed Ppa na em bE Tres Eatin i | © brine Teprowoie Bes Fig. 19.10; Editing element data for 3-winding transformers 19-13DIGSWLENT PowerFoctany State Etimaton 19.4 Running SE ‘The following steps should be performed to execute the State Estimator: oy «Start from a case where the conventional power flow converges successfully, ® Make sure that in the toolbar selection, the icon is chosen. Execute the SE by clicking the icon Select the desired options for the State Estimator run (see below). ‘Select EXECUTE, 19.4.1 Basic Setup Options Recall that the State Estimator in PowerFactory consists of three different parts (Plau- sibility Check, Observability Analysis, State Estimation (non-linear optimization) and an additional precedent Preprocessing step (see figure 19.1), This scheme is reflected in the Basic Options dialogue (See figure 19.11). 1 Nagai ese opie archon | tape teteh tour erparerdedroniat 1 ‘Bevel odor sceed nonin vakor cy | Ne ncbeck. x Tate sina pone terres fone 0 such that the new threshold is fac * ¢ instead of . Eg, in the case of the node sum check for P, the user may define the corresponding factor fac_ndsum ‘The higher the exceeding factor, the less strict the plausibility test will be. Similar exceed- Ing factors can be specified for any of the given tests, 19.4.3 Advanced Setup Options for the Observability Check Rastering of sensitivity matrix Internally, the Observability Check is based on a thorough sensitivity analysis of the net- work, For that purpose, the algorithm computes a sensitivity matrix that takes into ac- count all measurements, on the one hand, and all estimated states on the other hand. This sensitivity matrix is discretized by rastering the continuous values. ‘The user can specify the precision of this process by defining the number of intervals into which the values of the sensitivity matrix shall be rastered (SensMatNooftnt), the threshold below which a continuous value is considered to be a 0 (SensMatThresh) In the discrete case, and the mode of rastering (Lopt_raster). It Is highly recommended to use the predefined values here. Settings for internally created pseudo-measurements If, on the basic option page, the mode for the treatment of unobservable regions is set to "use only Internally created pseudo-measurements” or to "use predefined and internal- ty created pseudo-measurements’, the user may specify a default power rating (Snom>- seudo) and a default accuracy class (accuracyPseudo). These default values are used for all automatically created internal pseuclo-measurements. 19.4.4 Advanced Setup Options for Bad Data Detection Recall that the state estimator loops Observability Analysis and State Estimation as long as no further bad measurement is found (see figure 19.1). The Following settings allow the user to control the number of iterations performed by the loop. 19-18GO DIGSILENT Aonertoctory Sto Estimation Maximum number of measurements to eliminate The variable iBadMeasLimit specifies an upper limit on the number of bad measure- ments that will be eliminated in the course of the State Estimation. Tolerance factors for bad measurement elimination A measurement is declared to be bad, if the deviation of measured against calculated val- ue exceeds the measurement’s accuracy, i.e,, if can 19 ealeVal ~ meaVall , accuracy rating 100 where caval and meaval are the calculated value and the measured value, respective- ly, The user may modify this definition by adjusting tolerance factors for bad measure- ments. More precisely, a measurement is declared to be bad, If the left-hand side in equation (19.1) exceeds facErr - accuracy/ 100. Here fackrx > Qisa factor which can be specified by the user for each group of measurements individually, Use the factors facErrP, facErrQ, facErry, facBrrIMagn, facErriAct, and facErrIReact for P-, Q-, V-measurements, and the three types of the I-measurements (magnitude mea- sure, active current measure, reactive current measure). 19.4.5 Advanced Setup Options for Iteration Control ‘The non-linear optimization requires an initialization step to generate an initial starting configuration. Initialization of non-linear optimization ‘The user may specify whether the initialization shall be performed by a load flow calcula- tion or by some fiat start. If itis known in advance that the final solution of the optimiza- tion partis close to a valid load flow solution, initializing by a load flow calculation pays off in a faster convergence. Load Flow Specifies the settings of the load flow command which is taken for initialization in case no flat start is used. Stopping criteria for the non-linear optimization. ‘The non-linear optimization is implemented using an iterative Newton-Lagrange method. Recall that the goal of the optimization is to minimize the objective function f (i.e,, the square sum of the weighted measurements’ deviations) under the constraint that all load flow equations are fulfilled. Mathematically speaking, the aim Is to find min (£(2)} 19-19DIGSILENT Powerfsctory State Estimation under the constraint that a) = 0 where 2 is the set of load flow equations that need to be fulfilled. By the Lagrange-New- ton method, we thus try to minimize the resulting Lagrange function Ld = 10)+2" 2@ with the Lagrange multipliers 2. ‘The following parameters can be used to adapt the stopping criteria for this iterative pro- cess, The algorithm stops successfully if the following three issues are fulfilled: 1, The maximum number of iterations has not yet been reached. 2. All load flow constraint equations 8(2) = 0 are fulfilled to a predefined degree of exactness, which means: (a) all nodal equations are fulfilled, (b) all model equations are fulfilled. 3. The Lagrange function L(3, 2) itself converges, This can be achieved if (a) either the objective function itself converges to a stationary point, or (b) the gradient of the objective function converges to zero, “The following parameters serve to adjust these stopping criterla. The user unfamiliar with the underlying optimization algorithm is urged to use the default settings here. Iteration Control of non-linear optimization ‘The user is asked to enter the maximum number of iterations, Convergence of Load Flow Constraint Equations ‘The user should enter a maximal error for nodal equations (where the deviation is mea- sured in kVA), and, in addition, a maximally tolerable error for the model equations (in %). Convergence of Objective Function ‘The user is asked choose among the following two convergence criteria for the Lagrangian function: Either the function itself is required to converge to a stationary point, or the gradient of the Lagrangian is expected to converge. In the first case, the user is asked to enter an absolute maximum change In value of the objective function. If the change in value between two consecutive iterations falls below this value, the Lagrangian Is assumed to be converged. In the latter case, the user is asked to enter an absolute maximum value for the gradient of the Lagrangian. If the gradient falls below this value, the Lagrangian is assumed to be converged. Itis strongly recommended—due to mathematical preciseness—to use the criterion on the gradient, The other option might only be of advantage If the underlying Jacobian ma- trix behaves numerically instable which then typically results in a "toggling” of the con- 19-20 aylan DIgSILENT PomerFactory Stite Esimation vergence process in the last iterations, Output ‘wo different levels of output during the iterative process can be selected, 19.5 Results ‘The presentation of the State Estimator results is integrated into the user interface. The ‘solution of the non-linear optimization in the State Estimator is available via the complete set of variables of the conventional Load Flow calculations. It can be seen in the single line diagram of the grid or through the browser. 19.5.1 Output Window Report ‘The PowerFactory State Estimator reports the main steps of the algorithm in the output window (see figure 19.12). For the Plausibility Checks, this implies the information on how many models failed the corresponding checks. For the Observability Analysis, the report contains the information on how many states were determined to be observable, and—in addition—how many measurements were considered to be relevant for observing these states. ares isa erat 2 Epes © cisaeetn Fig, 19.12; Report in the output window Non-linear optimization reports, in each iteration step, the following figures: * The current error of the constraint nodal equations (in VA) (Error Nodes). « The current error of the constraint model equations (Error ModelEqu). «The current value of the gradient of the Lagrangian function (gradient LagrFunc). + The current value of the Lagrangian function (uagrFunc). * The current value of the objective function f to be minimized (obj Func). 19-21DIgSILENT PonerFactoor ‘State Estimation 19.5.2 External Measurements Deviations Each branch flow measurement (StaExtpmea, StaExtqmea) and each voltage mea- surement (StaExtvmea) offers parameters to view its individual deviation between mea- sured value and computed value by the State Estimation, The corresponding variables are: * e:Xmea! measured value as entered in staExt*mea e:cMeaval: measured value (including multiplier) +Xeal: calculated value xi: deviation in % (based on given rating as reference value) e:Xdif_mea: deviation in % (based on the measured value as reference value) :Xdif_abs: absolute deviation in the measurement’s unit Here X is a placeholder for P, Q, or U in the case of a P-, Q-, or V-measurement. Recall that a StaExtimea plays a special role, since a current measurement may serve as up to three measurements (for magnitude, for active current, and/or for reactive cur- rent). Hence, a current measurement has the above listed variables (with X being re- placed by 1) for each of the three measurement types. In order to distinguish between the three types, for a StaExtimea, the variables carry the suffixes Magn (for magnitude measurement), Act: (for active current measurement), and React (for reactive current measurement). “o eins own h ebly tale Etnaion Eris Fig. 19.13: For description page for external measurements (StaExtvmea, StaExtqmea, StaExtvmea). 19-22DIQSWLENT RomerFoctory State Estimation Error Status All measurements (Stasxt*meas) which possibly participate in the Plausibility Checks, the Observability Analysis, or the State Estimation provide a detailed error description page (see figures 19.13 and 19.14) with the following information: * General Errors: ~ Is unneeded pseudo-measurement (e :errUnneededPseudo) - Its input status disallows calculation, i.e,, input status does not allow “Read” or Is already marked as "Wrong Measurement” (e:errStatus) = Measurement is out of service (e: erroutofservice) Plausibility Check Errors; ~ Fails test: Consistent active power flow direction at each side of branch (e:erxConsDir) Fails test: Large branch losses (e: errExcNomLoss) Fails test: Negative losses on passive branches (e:erxNegLoss) Fails test: Large branch flows on open ended branches (e:exr¥lw£0pn) Falls test: Branch loadings exceed nominal values (e : errExcNomLoading) Falls test: Node sum check for P (e:exrNdsump) Fails test: Node sum check for Q (e:exrrNdsumg) Observability Analysis Errors: - Measurement is considered to be redundant for observabilty of the network, i.e, observability is already guaranteed even without this measurement. Nevertheless redundant measurements are used in the non-linear optimization since, in general, they help to improve the result (e:exrRedundant). For redundant measurements, also the redundancy level is indicated on this page (e:RedundanceLevel). The higher the redundancy level, the more Measurements with a similar information content for the observability analysis exist, State Estimation Errors: ~ Measurement is detected to be bad, has been removed and was not considered in last non-linear optimization loop (e :errBadData) This detailed error description is encoded in the single parameter e:error that can be found on the top of the error status page. Again, we have the convention that, for a StaExtimea, the variables e:exxRedundant, e:RedundanceLevel and e:errBad- Data carry the suffixes Magn (for magnitude measurement), act: (for active current mea- surement), and React (for reactive current measurement). 19.5.3 Estimated States Which states participated as control variables? Recall that depending on the selected “treatment of unobservable regions"— not all states that were selected for estimation (see Section 19.3.3 (Editing the element data)) will necessarily be estimated by the algorithm: In case of non-observability, It may happen 19-23