LearningtoDoHistoricalResearch:APrimer

HowtoFrameaResearchableQuestion
PuttingBoundariesonYourResearch
PoYiHung
AbigailPopp

Introduction
Youareinterestedindoingsomeresearchinenvironmentalhistory,buthowdoyoubegin?Itcanbedifficulttoselecta
researchtopic.Youmayfeelunsureofwheretobegin,oryoumaybefrustratedbytheprocess.Eventhoughyouhavea
specifictopicready,youcouldstillfeellostwhensearchingfordatatosupportyourargument.Thesefeelingsarequitenormal
atthebeginningphaseofdoingresearch.Developinggoodresearchquestionsisanessentialfirststepofeveryresearch
project,becausegoodresearchquestionsfocusyourworkandprovidedirectionforyournextsteps.Thepurposeofthis
pageistohelpyoulearnhowtocreateresearchquestionsfromgeneraltopics,andtogiveyouusefultipsforrefiningyour
questionsduringtheresearchprocess.

TableofContents
TheImportanceofaGoodResearchQuestion
FindingaResearchTopic
MakingYourQuestionSpecific
HowtoExploreYourQuestions
GeneralResearchAdvice
TryThis
DosandDonts
InterestingLinksandWorksConsulted

TheImportanceofaGoodResearchQuestion
Agoodresearchquestiondefinesthefocusofyourresearchproject.Yourresearchquestionhelpsreaderstoknowthe
specificsubjectmatteryouwillbeaddressingwithinthebroadtopicofenvironmentalhistory.Forinstance,supposeyouare
interestedinmarketdevelopmentanditsenvironmentaleffects.Ifyouasked,"Whatistherelationshipbetweenmarket
developmentandenvironmentaldegradation?yourquestionwouldbetoobroad.Thisquestiondoesnotclearlydefinethe
problemsyouareinterestedin,nordoesitputboundariesonyourresearchproject.Instead,youcouldask,Howdidlarge
scaleagriculturecontributetotheDustBowlinthe1930s?Thisisamorespecificquestion.Awellarticulatedresearch
questionprovidesyouandyourreaderswithcriticalinformationaboutyourprojectbydefiningthefocusofyourresearch,its
scope,andyourmotivation.

DustBowlfarmerdrivingtractorwithyoungsonnearCland,NewMexico
LibraryofCongress,DigitalIDfsa8b32410
Aresearchquestioncansetboundariestohelpyoufigureoutwheretogonext.Aresearchquestiondefineswhichdata
youneedtocollectandwhichmethodsyouwillusetoaccessandanalyzeyourdocuments.Again,taketheDustBowl
questioninthepreviousparagraphasanexample.Bynarrowingyourquestiontotherelationshipbetweenlargescale
agricultureandtheDustBowl,youalsonarrowthescopeofdatacollectionandanalysis.Youmaystartarchivalresearch
focusingonagricultureandsettlementhistory,ordecidetoconductoralhistoriesconcerningfarmers'memoriesoftheDust
Bowl.
However,asyoucollectdata,yourquestionislikelytochangeandgrow.Definingquestionswithinyourprojectisnotalinear
process.Rather,questionswilldefineyourdirectionsofinquiryand,inturn,theresultsofyourinquirieswillrefineyour
question.Developingresearchquestionsisaniterativeprocessevolvingwithyourproject.Wehavemadeafigurebelowto
illustratetheprocess.Youwillstartwithsomethingyouareinterestedin.Youwillthencreatequestionsaboutthisthing,and
figureoutwhatyournextstepswillbetoinvestigatethosequestionsfurther.Asaresult,youwill(hopefully)learnsomething
new,whichwillleadtoawholenewitemofinterest.

Beforeyoucanbeginthisprocess,however,youneedtofindageneralresearchtopic.
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FindingaResearchTopic
Considerresearchyouvealreadydone.Pickingatopicfromprojectsyouhavedonebeforecouldhelpyoufindideasthat
youarealreadyinterestedin.Collectyourprevioustermpapersorreportsandlistthetopicsyouhaveresearchedforthose
projects.Chooseoneortwothatseempromisingandrelevanttoenvironmentalhistory.However,youshouldntjustrecycle
topicsfrompreviouslywrittenpapers.Instead,youshoulddevelopanewtopicfromtheoldresearch.
Yourowninterestsareagreatsourcetofindatopic.Listyourinterests(asmanyasyoucan!),andthenrankthemtocome
upwithoneortwowhicharethemostcompellingtoyou.Oneofthebestwaystogenerateatopicfromageneralinterestisto
lookupencyclopediaarticles.Theyusuallycontainanoverviewoutliningfactsonasubjectwithaconciselistofsuggested
readings.Ifyougotothelibrarytofindencyclopediaarticles,youwillhaveagoodchanceoffindingatopicfromthem.
Currenteventsortimelyissuescanbeagoodplacetofindapromisingresearchquestion.Forexample,HurricaneKatrina
broughtideasaboutpovertyandenvironmentintothemainstreampress,aswellasideasaboutlandusepatternsandnatural
disasters.Anyofthesetopicswouldmakeagoodstartingplaceforanenvironmentalhistoryproject.Youmayread
newspapersandmagazines,useWikipedia,orevenuseGoogletofindcurrentevents.Listentohowpeopledebatethese
events.Whatarepeoplesaying?Whataretheirclaims,andhowdotheymaketheseclaims?Jotdowndifferentideasand
perspectives,askyourselfwhetheryouagreeordisagree,andtrytoformulateinterestingquestionsaboutwhatyouare
reading.

PeoplesitonaroofwaitingtoberescuedafterHurricaneKatrina
PhotocourtesyofFEMA,2005.DigitalID14512
Makeanoteofyoureverydayobservations.Youmayfindagoodresearchtopicjustfromyoureverydaylife.Forexample,
aMcDonaldsdrivethroughfacilityrepresentsAmericasuniquefastfoodrestaurantlandscape.Thinkaboutwhythis
particulartypeoflandscape(highwaysystemsandroadsystems)formed.Doingsowillhelpyoutocomeupwitharesearch
topicinvestigatingtherelationshipsbetweenhighwaydevelopmentandAmericanfastfoodculture.Remembernottotake
thingsforgranted.Trytoobservethroughfresheyestoproducerichresearchinsights.

McDonald'sinTimesSquare,NewYorkCity
ReleasedtothepublicdomainviaWikimediaCommons,2007
Yourpersonalexperiencesaboutanevent,asocialgroup,oraplaceareoftenworthmoreexploration.Forexample,
supposethatyouareabirdwatcherandvolunteeratabirdconservationsociety.Recently,youhavenoticedthatithasbecome
harderandhardertospotaspecificspeciesinthewild.Forthisreason,youhavedecidedtoparticipateinaninitiativeto
protectthebird.Yourownexperiencesmayhelpyoutolookintotherelationshipbetweenlandusechangeandhabitatloss,or
makeyoucuriousaboutthehistoricalrelationbetweenbirdwatchingandtheAmericanconservationmovement.

EasternBluebird
ReleasedtothepublicdomainviaWikimediaCommons,2007
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MakingYourQuestionSpecific
Researchiscomplexandalmostalwaysleadstomorequestions.Infact,researchcouldbealifelongprocessofaskingnew
questionsandsearchingforanswers!However,foryourpaperorprojectyouwillneedtonarrowyourquestiondownto
somethingmanageablewithinyourtimeframe.
Hereisanexampleofhowtogeneratespecificquestionsfromamoregeneralresearchtopic.Letssupposeyouhaveselected
urbangardeningasyourresearchtopic.Howdoyoumovefromurbangardeningtoaspecificquestion?Onewaytobeginis
totalktoprofessors.Aprofessormightmentionwargardenstoyou,gardensthatsprungupduringWorldWarsIandIIin
allsortsofareas,includingurbanareas.
WhilebrowsingtheshelvesformaterialrelatedtogardeningduringWorldWarI,youfindabookonwargardensinWorld
WarIcalledWarGardenVictoriousbyCharlesLathropPack.Insidethebook,youfindthispictureofBostonCommon,taken
in1918:

ONHISTORICGROUND
BostonCommonwascreditedwithhavingoneofthefinestdemonstrationsofwargardensintheUnitedStatesin1918.This
showsthequarteracresectiongivenovertopotatoes,withGirlScoutsassistinginthecultivation.
ThegardenswereplantedbytheWomensCityClub,withexpertsonhandtogiveinstructionandadvicetovisitors.
PhotofromWarGardenVictoriousbyCharlesLathropPack,1919.
YoureintriguedbythenotionofBostonCommonasagarden.YouvebeentoBostonCommonrecently,buttherewereno
vegetablegardensinsight.Whenandwhywasitturnedintoagarden?Howlongdidthegardenlast?Tohelpyoufigureout
theanswerstothesequestions,youlookupsomeoldphotosofBostonCommonintheLibraryofCongress.Youfindthis

photoofTremontStreetnexttotheCommon,takenbetween1910and1920.Younotethatthebuildingsinthisphotoexactly
matchthebuildingsinthetoprightcornerofthepreviousphoto!

PhotoofTremontStreetnexttoBostonCommon,19101920
LibraryofCongressDigitalIDdet4a24958
Yourealizethatthesepicturesweretakenatapproximatelythesametime,fromonlyseveralhundredyardsapart.Yetthe
photographsgivetwoverydifferentglimpsesofBostonCommon:oneascitygardentendedbycivicmindedGirlsScouts,the
otherasbustlingmetropolitanstreetwithcars,pedestrians,andasubwaystop.
Withalittlemoredigging,youfindapictureofthissamestreet(TremontStreet)in2008,takenbyGoogleMaps:

ImagecourtesyofGoogleStreetview.2008
Whatadifference!Thestreethasbeenwidened,therearefarmorecarsthanpedestrians,anewskyscraperhassprungupin
thebackground,andtheoldsubwaystationappearstobegone.ThesephotosillustrateafewobviouswaysinwhichBoston
Commonchangedovertime.Butwhataboutthechangesthatwecantseeinthesephotographs?Aha!Youaregettingcloser
toaresearchquestion.
Nowtakesometimetothinkaboutwhatquestionsthesephotographsraiseforyou.HowhasthelandscapeofBoston
Commonchangedthroughouttheyears?Whydidthesechangeshappen?Whatcanthesethreephotostellusaboutpeoples
relationshiptotheirenvironment?
Findingaspecificresearchquestioncanbeassimpleasfollowingatrailofdocumentsuntilyougetcloserandcloser.Raising
questionsateverystepwillhelpyoufigureoutwheretogonext.Itcanbehelpfultodocumentyourstepswhileyouare
lookingforaresearchquestionsothatyoucanseeapathtofollow.FortheBostonCommonexampleabove,yourpathmight
looklikethis:

TheIterativeFlowofQuestions,Documents,andResearchProcess
Thelessontotakefromthisisthatresearchisaniterativeprocess.Youwillgothroughmanyofthesamestepsagainand
again.Youwillhavetoreaddocuments,pursueinterestingideas,readsomemore,createmorequestions,finddocuments,and
soon.Continuedoingthisuntilyoureachaquestionthatissmallenoughthatyouthinkyoucouldansweritinthetime
availabletoyou.Forexample,HowhasBostonCommonchanged?isnotspecificenoughtoanswerinonesemester.
However,aquestionlike,HowdidtheusesofthegroundsinBostonCommonchangeduringWorldWarI?mightbemore
manageableforasemester.
Ifyouarehavingdifficultyrevisingandnarrowingyourresearchquestion,westronglyrecommendreadingTheCraftof
ResearchbyWayneBoothetal.Chapters3and4inparticularfocusondefiningaresearchablequestionandwillgiveyou
goodadviceaboutthinkingthroughyourtopic.Whenyouthinkthatyouhaveanappropriateresearchquestion,seeifyoucan
fillintheblanksinthefollowingsentence.Ifyouareunsurehowtofillitin,therearemanyexamplesinBoothsbook,oryou
canconsultaprofessororpeerforhelp.
Iamstudying____________________
becauseIwanttoknow____________________
inordertohelpmyreadersunderstand____________________.
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HowtoExploreYourQuestions
Thissectionwillsuggestsomestepsyoumighttakewhileresearchingyourquestions.Thesemayfallintothenextsteps
categoryfromthediagramabove.Theycanbeusedatmanyplacesintheresearchprocess,andyouwilloftendothesesteps
morethanonce.
Constantlyaskyourself:Whythen?Whythere?Historicalresearchisconstantlyaskingwhycertaineventshappenedwhen
andwheretheydid.Youshouldalwaysbeaskingyourself,Whatisthehistoricalcontextthatledtothiseventorsituation?
Whydidithappenatthistimeandplace?
Searchforprimarydocuments.Historicalresearchconsistsprimarilyofconstructingargumentsbasedonprimary
documents.Youwillwanttospendsignificanttimeexploringwhichdocumentsareavailablethatarerelatedtoyourtopic.
Thesedocumentsmayincludephotographs,newspaperormagazinearticles,recordings,publicrecords,andsoon.Asalways,
consultalibrarianifyouareunsurewheretostart.
Readscholarlyliterature.Readingacademicliteratureiscriticalforyoutoidentifythequestionsthathavenotyetbeen
sufficientlystudied,tolocateyourtopicwithinaparticularcontext,andtoaskfurtherquestions.Ifyouareuncertainhowto
findthebooksandarticlesyoumayneed,youshouldaskalibrarianforhelp.Ifyouwishtoreadabouthowtousealibrary,
werecommendThomasMannsTheOxfordGuidetoLibraryResearch.

Asyouread,lookfordebatesanduncertainties.Don'tjustpassivelytaketheknowledgedifferentauthorsconveytoyou.
Trytoreallythinkabouttheideasyoureadandhaveaconversationordebatewiththem.Figuringoutwhatisnotyetknown
aboutyourtopicispowerful.Thisgapinknowledgeisagoodareafromwhichtogenerateresearchquestions.Payspecial
attentiontowhethercertainassumptionsunderpinningaconclusionshouldbereexamined,orwhetherscholarshave
significantdisagreementaboutasubject.
Talktoprofessorsandfellowstudents.Ifyouhavenocluehowtogeneratearesearchablequestionfromacademicliterature,
discussyourideaswithyourprofessors.Theycangiveyousuggestedreadingsandpotentialresearchdirections,aswellasfill
youinoncurrentdebateswithinthefield.Also,dontforgetyourfellowstudents!Somestudentshavestartedstudygroupsto
helpformulateideasforresearchquestions.Studentscanrevieweachothersresearchquestionstogivecommentsand
criticisms.
Putyourresearchtopicinthecontextofothertheories.Itislikelythatyourresearchtopichasalreadybeenstudiedusing
certaintheoreticalapproaches.(Theoriesareawayoforganizingknowledgeandexplainingcertainphenomenaoreventsin
theworld.)Therefore,dontbesurprisedifyoucomeacrossabodyofliteraturewithsimilarargumentsandtheoretical
approaches.Youarealwaysfreetosituateyourresearchtopicinrelationtoothertheoriestohelpyouproduceresearch
questions.Seeourwebpagesonconstructingargumentsandpositioningthemrelativetosurroundingscholarlyliteratures.
Lookattheendofreviewpapersforsuggestions.Manyscholarlybooksandjournalarticlesposefurtherresearchquestions
attheendofthebooksorreviewpapers.Payattentiontothesequestionstheyrepresentthethoughtsofanexperienced
researcheraboutwhatstillneedstobestudied.Takethemasguidelinesforexploringyourownresearchquestions.Ofcourse,
youmaywishtojustabsorbthemasyourresearchquestioniftheyfityourresearchinterestswell.
Lookforinterestingcorrelationsbetweenfactors.Fromthepreliminaryreadingthatyoudo,payattentiontothingsthat
mayberelated.Forexample,supposeyouareinterestedinhowdiseaseaffectslandscapes.Asyoudopreliminaryresearch,
youfindthatinyourlandscapetherisingrateofAIDSisconcurrentwiththedecliningareaofcropplanting.Thisinitial
findingwillhelpyoutoframearesearchquestionconcerningtherelationshipbetweenAIDS,cropplanting,labor,and
landscapetransformationintheresearchsite.
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GeneralResearchAdvice
Definethetermsyouuse.Youshouldconsidercarefullythemeaningofeverytermyouwishtouseanddefineitsomewhere
inyourwriting.Forexample,atermlikeglobalizationcouldhaveanumberofdifferentmeanings,dependingonthetopic
andspecializationoftheauthor.Amorespecifictermmightbe(forexample)increasingglobalinterdependenceofthe
financialindustry.Bespecific,andtrytowriteinlanguagethatyourmother,father,siblings,orgrandmothercould
understand.
Checkyourassumptions.Asyoudevelopyourresearchideas,considercarefullywhatassumptionsyoumaybemaking.You
shouldbeabletoverifyyourclaimswithappropriateprimaryorsecondarysources.Ifyoucantverifyaclaim,consider
whetheritmightbeabiasorassumption.Forexample,supposeyourresearchquestionis:
Iamstudyingenvironmentallegislationpassedinthe1970s
becauseIwanttoknowwhyandhowsuchstringentlawswerepassed
inordertohelpmyreaderunderstandhowenvironmentallegislationgetscreatedandpassed.
Thefirstassumptiontonotehereisthatthe1970senvironmentallawswerestringent.Werethey?Canyoujustifythis
stringencyandexplainwhyitisinteresting?Whatwasuniqueaboutthe1970sthatwouldmakethisquestioninteresting?
Thesecondassumptiontonoteisthatyourresearchquestionwillexplainhowenvironmentallegislationgetscreatedand
passed.Whatifyourresearchtopicrepresentsanoddsituationandthereforesaysnothingabouthowenvironmentallegislation
isusuallypassed?Becarefulofoverstatingtheimportanceofyourtopicandmakingassumptionsaboutwhatyournarrative
cantellus.Amoreprecisequestion(onemoreconsciousofitsassumptions)mightlooklikethis:
Iamstudyingenvironmentallegislationpassedinthe1970s
becauseIwanttoknowthehistoricalcontextthatgaverisetothislegislation
inordertohelpmyreadersunderstandthehistoricalsignificanceofenvironmentallegislationinthe1970s.
Talktoprofessorsandotherexperiencedresearchers.Askfortheirhelpinfiguringoutyourassumptions.Talkingwith
yourprofessorscannotbeemphasizedenough.Teachingyouhowtodoresearchispartoftheirjob!Mostprofessorsare
delightedwhenastudentisinterestedintheirsubject,andwillbehappytotalkwithyouaboutyourideas.Theywillalsohelp
youpickoutyourassumptionsandbiases,andhelpyouarticulateyourresearchquestioninsuchawayastoacknowledge
yourbiaseswithoutrelyingonthem.
Continuetothinkaboutyourtimeandbudgetconstraints.Youmayhavethebestresearchideaever,butifyouneedtobe
innorthernAlaskatodoit,youaregoingtoneedtofindaplaneticketandsometime.Goodresearchcanbedoneathomeand

infarawayplaces.Ifyouareluckyenoughtohavegrantmoneyorothermoneytohelpyoutravel,byallmeans,useit!Butif
youarenotabletotravel,considerwhatdocumentsareavailableatyourhomeinstitution,town,orstate.AlthoughtheInternet
hasmadeinterlibraryloanmucheasier,ifyouhavetoborroweverythingfromoutsidelibrariesitwillslowdownyour
research.
Beflexible!Youneverknowwhatsortofsurprisesandinterestingideasyouwillencounteralongtheway.Keeparecordof
allinterestingsources,documents,ideas,andquestions.Ifsomethingseemslikelytobeevenmarginallyhelpfulorinteresting,
writeitdown.Itisnotlikelythatyouwillencounteritagain.
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TryThis
Nameoneofyourhobbies.Nowtrytoconnectthishobbytotheenvironment.Forexample,ifyouareamusician,you
maythinkaboutwheretherawresourcesforyourinstrumentcomefrom.Ifyouareanathlete,considerwhetherand
howyoursporthasbeenplayedoutdoors.Ifyouliketoknit,thinkaboutwherethewoolcomesfrom.
Usethesethoughtstobegintogeneratesomepotentialresearchquestions.Alwaysconsiderthequestion:Whatwasthe
historicalcontextthatledtothissituation?Ifyourinstrumentismadeofwood,wherehasthewoodcomefrom?
Whichwoodisused,andwhy?Howmightthedemandforinstrumentsaffectalandscape?
Ifyouareanathlete,hasyourgamealwaysbeenplayedoutside?Hasitbeenforcedtorespondtoclimaticconditions?
Wheredothematerialsforyoursportcomefrom?
Ifyouknit,wheredidthewoolcomefrom?Howwerethesheepraised,andhowmightthisaffectthelandscape?How
havepeoplesrelationshipswithagricultureaffectedwoolproduction?

DosandDonts
Doaskquestionsofyourprofessors,colleagues,andfriends.Askquestionsaboutthingsyoudontunderstand,things
youwishtodebate,ornewideasandtheories.
Doplanahead:makesureyouarereading,thinking,andwritinglongbeforeyourassignment(whetherpaperor
prospectus)isdue.
Dorememberthatgeneratingaresearchquestionisaniterativeprocess.
Dotalktoalibrarian.Theyareveryskilledathelpingpeoplewithresearch,andtheymaybeabletopointyoutonew
sources.
Doscheduletimejusttothink.Carveouttimefromyourscheduleduringwhichyoucansitandthinkaboutyour
researchanddonothingelse.
Dontplagiarize.Notonlyisitbadscholarship,itcouldresultinyoufailingtheclassorbeingexpelled.Theeffortyou
saveishardlyworththerisk.
DontrelysolelyontheInternet.TheInternetisausefultool,butatsomepointyouwillneedtogotoanactuallibrary.
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InterestingLinksandWorksConsulted
Booth,WayneC.,GregoryG.Colomb,andJosephM.Williams.TheCraftofResearch.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,
2008.
Mann,Thomas.TheOxfordGuidetoLibraryResearch:HowtoFindReliableInformationOnlineandOffline.NewYork:
OxfordUniversityPressUS,2005.
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