Programmed Instruction Handbook

Pl-4-5
SECOND EDITION
PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION HANDBOOK
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
eddy current
mNRAL
DVNAMICll
Com,air Division
Pl-4-5
SECOND EDITION
PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION HANDBOOK
NONDESTRUCTIVE
TESTING
eddy current
Copyright
GENERAL
@ 1980
DYNAMICS
Convair Division
first printing 1983

second printing 02/88
third printing 09/89
fourth printing 02/91
fifth printing 03/94
sixth printing 03/97
seventh printing 02/01
eighth printing 04/06
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface
Acknowledgements
v1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vm
Chapter 1 - Electromagnetic Induction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Faraday's Experiment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Definition of Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coil to Coil Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magnet to Coil Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Sine Wave
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Induction with Alternating Current . . . . . . .
Inductive Reactance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ohm's Law
Resistance
Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vector Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Effect of Frequency on Inductive Reactance
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 2 - Principles of Eddy Current Testing

Induction of Eddy Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Effect of Conductivity on Eddy Currents
Effect of Coil's Magnetic Field on Eddy Currents
Lift-off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Effect of Material Thickness on Eddy Currents
Effect of Magnetic Permeability on Eddy Currents . . . . . .
Magnetic Saturation
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
International Annealed Copper Standard for Conductivity
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1-2
1-5
1-6
1-8
1-19
1-22
1-27
1-32
1-35
1-37
1-38
1-42
1-49
1-54
2-1
. . . . . . . . . 2-3
2-7
2-11
. . . . . . . . 2-14
2-16
. . . . . . . . 2-19
2-23
. . . . . . . . 2-26
2-31
Factors Affecting Conductivity
Effect of Conductive Coatings

Dimensional Factors . . . . . . . .
Discontinuities. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Edge Effect
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-34
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-38
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-48
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-51
2-54
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-58
Chapter 3 - Eddy Current Test Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

Simple Test Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Elements of a Test Circuit
Basic Bridge Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bridge with Reference Coil
Induction Bridge
Through Transmission System. . . . . . . . .
Reflection System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Review
Inspection Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Surface Probes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Encircling Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Internal Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Multiple Coil Arrangements
Two-CoilArrangements
Absolute and Differential Arrangements
Four-Coil Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3-7
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
3-18
3-22
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23
3-24
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-30
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . 3-30
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-31
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-36
3-37
3-37
3-40
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-43
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-48
Chapter 4 - Geometry of Eddy Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

Eddy Current Orientation
Coil Size and Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Depth of Penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Effect of Conductivity on Depth of Penetration
Effect of Permeability on Depth of Penetration
Effect of Frequency on Depth of Penetration
Edge Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ii
4-1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-12
4-14
4-15
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-21
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-27
Chapter 5 - Impedance-Plane
Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
Impedance Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conductivity on the Impedance-Plane Diagram
Lift-Off on the Impedance-Plane Diagram . . . . . . . . . .
Differentiation Between Lift-Off and Conductivity
Effects of Frequency on the Impedance-Plane Diagram
Material Thickness on the Impedance-Plane Diagram
Depth of Penetration on the Impedance-Plane Diagram
Review
Selection of Test Points. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suppression of Lift-Off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suppression of Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Impedance-Plane Diagram on the Cathode Ray Tube .
Elipse Display Method
Linear Time Base Display Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modulation Analysis Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reactance Testing Method
Feedback Controlled Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4
5-7
. . . . . . . . . . . . 5-12
5-16
5-18
5-22
5-26
5-32
. . . . . . . . . . . . 5-37
. . . . . . . . . . . . 5-39
. . . . . . . . . . . . 5-44
. . . . . . . . . . . . 5-46
5-49
. . . . . . . . . . . . 5-57
. . . . . . . . . . . . 5-62
. . . . . . . . . . . . 5-67
5-75
. . . . . . . . . . . . 5-80
. . . . . . . . . . . . 5-82
Chapter 6 - Test Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1

Conductivity Testers . . . . . . . . . . .
Crack Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Advanced Test Equipment
Standards
Conductivity Standards . . . . . . . .
Discontinuity Standards
Natural Discontinuity Standards
Artificial Discontinuity Standards
Lift-Off Standards
Review
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
6-10
6-10
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11
6-13
6-14
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-19
6-21
6-24
Self-Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1
Glossary
B-1
iii
PREFACE
This Second Edition of Pl-4-5 is a total revision of the earlier edition. As was
the case with the earlier issue, several years of use in hundreds of training
situations has produced many recommendations for changes and improvements. All such recommendations were carefully screened and where they fell
within the scope of coverage and where it was felt they would improve the
teachability or understanding of the subject matter, they were incorporated.
The material has been further expanded to cover the recent developments in
eddy current testing.
Other programmed instruction handbooks in the Nondestructive Testing
series include:
Pl-4-1
Pl-4-2
Pl-4-3
Pl-4-4
Pl-4-6
Introduction to Nondestructive Testing

Liquid Penetrant Testing
Magnetic Particle Testing
Ultrasonic Testing
Radiographic Testing
It is recommended that Pl-4-1, "Introduction to Nondestructive Testing," be

completed before starting this book in order to have the benefit of certain
basic metallurgy information that will make this program on eddy current
testing more understandable and easier to master.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This handbook was originally prepared by the Convair Division of General

Dynamics Corporation under a joint arrangement with NASA's George C.
Marshall Space Flight Center. Convair's activities in the preparation of
nondestructive testing training materials were greatly enhanced and accelerated by the MSFC technical and financial participation. Quality and
Reliability Assurance Laboratory personnel at NASA's MSFC were to a large
degree responsible for the successful completion of that program. Their
understanding of the problems involved in teaching difficult subject matter,
their realistic handling of NASA agency reviews, and their efficient transmittal of reviewer comments, made the publisher's task simpler than it might
have been. Convair considers itself fortunate to have been associated with
NASA on that project.
Additional assistance in the form of process data, technical reviews, and
technical advice was provided by a great many companies and individuals.
The following listing is an attempt to acknowledge this assistance and to
express our gratitude for the high degree of interest exhibited by the firms,
their representatives, and other individuals, many of whom gave considerable
time and effort to the project.
Aerojet-General Corp.; Automatiion Industries, Inc., Sperry Products Division; Avco Corporation; The Boeing Company; Dr. Foerster Institute; General
Electric Co.; Grumman Aerospace Corp.; Mr. H.L. Libby; Lockheed Aircraft
Corp.; Magnaflux Corp.; Magnetic Analysis Corporation; Martin Marietta
Aerospace, Denver Division; McDonnell Douglas Corp.; Rockwell International North American Aerospace Group; Rohr Industries, Inc.; Southwest
Research Institute; St. Louis Testing Laboratories, Inc.
Vl
INTRODUCTION
During the past two decades eddy current testing has developed into one of
the important nondestructive testing tools and its use is still growing. Inspection with eddy currents is used to identify or differentiate between a wide
variety of physical, structural, and metallurgical conditions in electrically conductive material.
In this handbook you will learn what eddy currents are, how they are introduced
into an article being inspected, and how they are affected by the physical, structural, and metallurgical conditions in the material. You will also learn how these
effects are sensed and interpreted.
When you have completed this handbook you should be ready for practical
demonstration sessions and on-the-job training that will eventually qualify
you as an eddy current test technician.
Do not rush through the book. Take whatever time you need to get the most
from the material presented. Depending on your background knowledge,
reading speed, etc., the reading time it takes to complete this book may vary
from 4 hours to 12 hours or more.
At the back of the book is a set of self-test questions that will help you in
evaluating your newly-gained knowledge. Also included is a glossary of terms
relating to eddy current testing.
vii
INSTRUCTIONS
The pages in this book should not be read consecutively as in a conventional

book. You will be guided through the book as you read. For example, after
reading page 3-12,you may find an instruction similar to one of the following
at the bottom of the page Turn to the next page
Turn to page 3-15
Return to page 3-10
On many pages you will be faced with a choice. For instance, you may find a
statement or question at the bottom of the page together with two or more
possible answers. Each answer will indicate a page number. You should
choose the answer you think is correct and turn to the indicated page. That
page will contain further instructions.
As you progress through the book, ignore the back of each page. THEY ARE
PRINTED UPSIDE DOWN. You will be instructed when to turn the book
around and read the upside-down pages.
As you will soon see, it's very simple - just follow instructions.
Turn to the next page.
viii
1-1
CHAPTER 1 -
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Eddy current testing is based on the principles of electromagnetic induction.

"Electromagnetic Induction" - two very scientific sounding words that are
used to identify a principle that allows you to use electricity that has been
generated hundreds of miles away; a principle upon which the actual generation of the electric current is based; a principle that causes your electric motor
to operate; and now a principle upon which a broad field of nondestructive
testing is based.
The word "electromagnetic" simply means that electricity and magnetism are
used. "Induction" is a form of the word "induce" which means "to bring
about" or "cause." In fact, the flow of electricity, under certain circumstances, can cause magnetism; and magnetism, under certain circumstances, can cause the flow of electricity.
Now, if you already have a firm knowledge of the principles of electromagnetic
induction, turn to page 2-1.
If your knowledge of electromagnetic induction is not at all that certain, turn
to page 1-2.
1-2
From page 1-1

OK, let's take a look at "electromagnetic
induction."
By the year 1820 scientists had discovered that when current from a battery
was sent through a coil of wire that a magnetic field was set up in the coil. The
magnetic field was present only during the time the current flowed through
the coil. They had discovered how to use electricity to make magnetism and
they thought that somehow magnetism could be used to make electricity.
Some 12 years later, in 1832, a man named Faraday was experimenting with
some coils of wire and a battery. He noticed that when he connected one coil to
the battery he got an electrical current through a second coil, placed near the
first, for just an instant. He also found that when he disconnected the battery
that he got an electrical current through the second coil for just an instant;
but, he noticed, the second current was in the opposite direction of the first
current.
He knew that somehow the two coils were affecting each other. The first coil
was inducing a current in the second coil, but only when he turned the battery
on and off. He reasoned that the magnetic field could be the coupling between
two coils. But since the currents occured only when the battery was turned on
and off, it could only be the change in the magnetic field that caused the current to flow in the second coil.
Electromagnetic induction is the name given to the ..
effect one current carrying coil has on another . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1-3
coupling of two coils by a changing magnetic field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1-4
principle that a changing magnetic field will induce an
electrical current in a coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1-5
From page 1-2
1-3
We think you may have been a little hasty in selecting this answer. The statement "Electromagnetic induction is the name given to the effect one current
carrying coil has on another" (your selection) is true in its fashion but it is far
from being complete.
You will recall that electromagnetic means that electricity and magnetism are
involved. The answer you selected mentioned only electricity (i.e., current).
Return to page 1-2 and see if there isn't a better answer.
From page 1-2
1-4
We think you may have been a little hasty in selecting this answer. The statement "Electromagnetic induction is the name given to the coupling of two
coils by a changing magnetic filed" (your answer) is true in its fashion but it is
far from being complete.
You will recall that electromagnetic means that electricity and magnetism are
involved. The answer you selected mentioned only magnetism (i.e., changing
magnetic field).
Return to page 1-2 and see if there isn't a better answer.
1-5
From page 1-2
Excellent! Of the three choices given, this was the best one to describe electromagnetic induction.
Here's what Faraday's experiment looked like.
BATTERY
PRIMARY
COIL
SECONDARY
COIL
AMMETER
The next logical step was to make different changes in the set up and see what
effect they had. For example:
Change the
Change the
Change the
Change the
Change the
Change the
number of turns in the primary coil.

physical size of the primary coil.
amount of current in the primary coil.
number of turns in the secondary coil.
physical size of the secondary coil.
spacing between the coils.
All of these things can be changed so they are called "variables".

We won't, at this point, go into the effect that each of these variables had on
the amount of current that was induced in the secondary coil. It is enough to
say that each and all of these variables had an effect on the current induced in
the secondary coil. It changed - in one way or another.
In your best judgment, is the following statement true? ... or false?
The current induced in the secondary coil is a variable.
True . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1-6
False
Page 1-7
From page 1-5
1-6
Right! The current in the secondary coil is a variable. Variables are anything
that can be changed or that are changed as a result of other changes.
Now that we have established what a variable is, let's get on with electromagnetic induction. We have described how Faraday was able to produce an electrical current in a secondary coil by changing the magnetic field surrounding a
primary coil. Faraday reasoned that the current was produced by the change
in the magnetic field and not by the simple presence of the field. In other
words, so long as the magnetic field in the primary winding did not vary (was
held constant) no electrical current was induced in the secondary coil. Thus,
utilizing the theory of a magnetic field, current was induced only when the
lines of force of the magnetic field moved past the coil. Here is an illustration
of that theory.
BUILDING
FIELD
COLLAPSING FIELD
,;,=.---,
{,. \\
r.11\
11
11
I) JI
&~)'
\
LINES OF FORCE
Now, if this were true, as it appeared to be, then it should be possible to induce
a current by moving a coil through a magnetic field.
Do you agree?
Yes
No
Page 1-8
Page 1-9
From page 1-5
1-7
You believe that the statement "the current in the secondary coil is a
variable" is false. We're sorry but the statement is true.
Were going to assume that you know that "variable" means "subject to
change."
Since the amount of current in the secondary coil can be changed by varying
any one of several factors (number of turns, distance between coils, etc.), the
current is then, itself, a variable.
In fact there are relatively few constants in this world.
A "constant" is something that never changes. It is the opposite of
"variable."
Now turn to page 1-6 and continue.
From page 1-6
1-8
Good, we both agree. And so it proved out. A coil of wire was placed in the
open end of a horseshoe magnet and given a spin; electricity was induced in
the coil.
COIL
AXIS OF ROTATION
MAGNETIC FIELD
(LINES OF FORCE)
But the current induced did not travel in the same direction through the coil
at all times, nor was it of a constant value. This situation required analysis.
The analysis of the current being produced showed that the current started
out at zero, rose to a maximum value in one direction, returned to zero, rose to
a maximum value in the opposite direction, and returned to zero in one complete revolution of the coil. All of this could be explained by the theory of electromagnetic induction.
Let's go back and examine what might happen when a single wire is moved
through a magnetic field.
CURRENT ~
///.,__
WIRE
MOVEMENT
The wire, shown here being moved downward through the magnetic field, has
a current induced in it as it passes through the lines of force. Suppose that the
lines of force are thought of as having a direction from the north pole to the
south pole, and suppose the current induced in the wire travels away from you
as you look at the diagram above.
Now, what do you suppose might happen when we move the wire back
(upwards) through the magnetic field?
Page 1-10
The direction of the current through the wire will change
The direction of the current through the wire will
remain the same . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1-11
From page 1-6
1-9
You do not agree with the statement "If it is true that a current is induced
when a magnetic field moves past a coil, then it should be possible to induce a
current by moving a coil through a magnetic field. "
You should have agreed!
Look at it this way. The induction of the electric current into a coil is due to
the relative motion between the magnetic field and the coil. It makes no difference whether the magnetic field is expanding and contracting past the coil
or whether the coil is moving through the magnetic field. The relative motion
is the same. Thus, a current is induced in the coil in either case.
If you think about it, we're sure you'll agree.
Turn back to page 1-8.
From page 1-8
1-10
You supposed correctly! The direction of the current will change when the
direction of the movement of the wire is changed. There is a rule for determining the direction of the current induced in the wire but you will not have any
need for it in Eddy Current testing so we will not bother to learn it. It is sufficient that you know that there are three ways to cause the current to change
direction in the wire. First, you could change the direction of the magnetic
field (difficult to do in a permanent magnet); second, you could change the
direction that the wire is moving through the field; or third, you could swap
ends with the wire (which is exactly what happens when a coil is rotated in a
magnetic field).
Let's bend the wire into a "U" shape, insert it into the magnetic field, and
rotate it around the axis as shown so that the segment of wire A-Bis coming
down through the field while segment C-D is coming up through the field.
Then which of the following statements is true?
The current flowing through segment D-C is subtracted
from the current flowing through Segment A-B
The current flowing through Segment D-C is added
to the current flowing through A-B
Page 1-12
Page 1-13
From page 1-8
1-11
Your supposition was incorrect! Changing the direction of movement of the

wire in the magnetic field does cause the current to change direction in the
wire.
Remember the building and collapsing magnetic fields? The current induced
went in one direction when the field was building and in the opposite direction
when the field was collapsing. We could expect the same effect if we passed
the wire in one direction through the field and then in the other direction the current would change its direction through the wire.
Turn to page 1-10 and continue.
From page 1-10
112
You selected the wrong answer, but getting the right answer requires some
detailed thinking. Let's look at the setup once more.
Do you understand how the U-shaped wire is rotating? Segment AB is moving down through the field while segment C-D is moving up through the field.
We have just learned that the current in these segments will have to travel in
opposite directions. So let's assume that the current in the top segment is
going from A to B; then the current in the bottom segment is going in the
opposite direction, or, as shown on the diagram, from C to D.
Now, since the two segments are joined at one end by wire segment B-C, the
current path is A to B to C to D. See it?
So the two currents would be aiding each other and therefore would be added
together.
From page 1-10
1-13
That's absolutely right! The current through the segment C-D is added to the
current through A-B so that we have current flow now from A to D (in that
direction).
Now, let's keep rotating the wire until the segment D-C is coming down
through the field and segment A-Bis moving up. The current in segment D-C
is flowing from D towards C.
In what direction is the current flowing in segment A-B?

From A towards B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1-14
From B towards A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1-15
From page 1-13
1-14
Be careful! Remember - in the setup we've shown, the direction of the current in the segment depends on the direction that the segment is traveling.
We've told you that segment D-C is moving downward through the field and
that the current is flowing from D to C.
If you understood the way the U-shaped wire is rotating around the axis, it
must follow that segment A-Bis moving upwards through the field and the
current is flowing from B to A (in the opposite direction as it was in segment
D-C).
Now turn to page 1-15.
From page 1-13
1-15
True! The current in that segment is flowing from B towards A. And since the
current in the other segment was flowing from D to C, we now have a current
in the wire from D to A.
Now let's compare the two situations.
In the first instance the current flowed through the wire from A to D; and in
the second instance the current flowed through the wire from D to A. Imagine
that the wire is wrapped to form several loops and then spun on its axis in the
magnetic field. Can you now see that the current through the loop will change
directions at every half-turn that the coil makes as it rotates? If not, study the
diagrams again to see if you missed anything.
Now that you understand why the current changes direction, we have to see
when. But first, let's figure out how often it changes direction. (There's a clue
in the preceding paragraph.)

The current changes direction after 180 of rotation of
the coil
Page 1-16
The current changes direction after 360 of rotation of
the coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1-17
From page 6-28
6-29
You have just completed the programmed instruction course on Eddy Current
Testing.
Now you may want to evaluate your knowledge of the material presented in
this handbook. A set of self-test questions are included at the back of the
book. The answers can be found at the end of the test.
We want to emphasize that the test is for your own evaluation of your
knowledge of the subject. If you elect to take the test, be honest with yourself
- don't refer to the answers until you have finished.Then you will have a
meaningful measure of your knowledge.
Since it is a self evaluation, there is no passing score. If you find that you have
trouble in some part of the test, it is up to you to review the material until you
are satisfied that you know it.
Turn or rotate the book 180 and flip to page A-1 at the back.
From page 1-15
1-16
Your choice was excellent. The current does change direction after 180 of coil
rotation. Now let's see exactly when the change occurs.
Here we show a coil in a position where the plane of the coil is across the
magnetic lines of force. Notice that, as the coil moves, the top windings and
the bottom windings are moving in a direction that is parallel to the lines of
force. Since the direction of movement is parallel to the lines of force, no lines
of force are being crossed - therefore, no current is being induced in the coil.
In this view, the coil has rotated 90. It now lies parallel to the lines of force
but the movement of the coil sides is perpendicular to the lines of force. At
this point, as the coil turns, it is passing through (or crossing) the maximum
number of magnetic lines of force.
You would expect then that the current induced in the coil as it passes
through this point would be at a ...
minimum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1-18
maximum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1-19
6-28
4. frequency
5. Once an eddy current instrument is calibrated, the controls are not to be

touched during ensuing tests. (True - False)
9. data
10. Reference standards often define the

item under test.
14. natural,
artificial
Return to page 6-24,

frame 6.
of acceptability of an

frame 11.
15. A fatigue crack that has been induced by cyclicstresses in a laboratory is an

example of a
(developed,accumulated) discontinuity.
19. nonconductive

frame 16.
Turn to page 6-29.
'
1-17
From page 1-15
You think that the current changes direction in the coil after 360 rotation of
the coil. In a way you are right - but not completely. The current does change
direction after 360 of travel but it also changes direction after only 180 of
travel.
Let's analyze the situation.
In view A the current flows from A to D while in view B the current flows from
D to A. The current has reversed direction, right?
turn about the axis in getting

from the position shown in view A to the position shown in view B. Since 112
turn about the axis is equal to 180 of rotation, it follows that the current
changes direction every 180 of rotation of the U-shaped wire.
Now - the U-shaped wire has been rotated
112
A coil may be thought of as several of these U-shaped wires all connected

together - each turn acting in the same manner. So we can say that the current in a coil that is rotating in a magnetic field reverses direction every 180
of rotation of the coil.
Now, turn back to page 1-16 and continue.
6-27
3. depth of penetration
4. Depth of penetration is controlled in an eddy current instrument by controlling its operating

_
8. reference standard
9. In eddy current testing, the most useful test data is obtained by comparing the data from an item under test with the-~
obtained from a
reference standard.
13. test
14. The two types of discontinuitystandards are n
18. artificial
19. Lift-off standards are made from
and ----a
material.
From page 1-16
1-18
You expect the current induced in the coil to be at a minimum when the coil is
parallel to the magnetic lines of force. You have missed a very important concept.
Current is induced in a coil only when the coil is cutting across the magnetic
lines of force. By "cutting across" we mean that the motion of the coil is such
that the wires in the coil pass through the magnetic field in some direction
that is not parallel to the lines of force. The more lines that are being cut in a
given period of time, the more current induced.
Look at the illustration again. Can you see that as the coil rotates through this
position it is cutting across the maximum number of lines of force? Then,
since the maximum number of lines of force are being cut, the current induced
is at a maximum.
Turn to page 1-19.
6-26
2. standards
3. Even though the presence of a crack will effect the reading on a conduc-
tivity tester, the tester cannot be used as a crack detector because the
d
of p
cannot be controlled.
7. lift-off
8. In using any eddy current instrument the instrument must be calibrated
with a
before conducting any tests .
12. IACS
13. An ideal discontinuity standard duplicates the

as possible.
17. acceptability
situation as closely
18. Discontinuities which are machined into an article which has no natural
discontinuities are called
discontinuities.
1-19
From page 1-16
It's maximum - You're right on the button. At the moment the plane of the
coil is parallel to the lines of force the coil is crossing the maximum number of
magnetic lines of force - therefore, the current induced in the coil is at the
maximum.
Now, let's draw a graph so that we can visualize what is happening to the current as the coil rotates.
~XE
:-rr
~I
~Iut
--'
90
270
I
I
I
I
I
-----,-----
_____
I
I
MAX- 0
360
I
I
900
180
270
360
COi L POSITION
The instant the coil is at position A (0 ) the current is zero; the instant the coil
is at position B (90 of rotation) the current is maximum in one direction; at
position C (180 of rotation) the current is zero; at position D (270 of rotation)
the current is maximum in the opposite direction; and at position E (360 of
rotation) the current is back at zero. The curve that results from this plotting
of current values against coil position is called a sine wave.
Now, looking at the sine wave, you can see that the current reaches its maximum value in either direction at coil positions of ...
0 and 180
90 and 270
Page 1-20
Page 1-21
6-25
1. False
2. Calibration of a conductivity tester consists of setting the scale to read the

values stamped on both the high and low conductivity --------
6. frequency
(depth of penetration)
7. By varying the frequency of operation of a crack detector we can suppress

the effect of ------
11. sensitivity
12. Commerciallyprepared conductivity standards have a value stamped on

them. This value represents the conductivity of the block in %
-----
16. accumulated
1 7. A reference standard should have at least one discontinuity that is at the

limit of a
---------~
From page 1-19
1-20
It's obvious that you didn't understand the graph.
~XE
:-rr
w
~I
~10
90
360
_____
-----,-----
I
I
I
MAX-0
270
I
0
900
180
COi L POSITION
270
360
Let's take a closer look at the graph of the sine wave. Notice that the zero position of the current is in the middle of the graph. The upper portion (above the
zero line) gives values of current in one direction while the lower portion
(below the zero line) gives current values in the opposite direction.
Thus, the graph shows that the maximum current in one direction occurs at
90 of coil rotation and the maximum current in the other direction occurs at
270 of coil rotation. Do you see it?
6-24
From page 6-22
1. The meter readings on a conductivity tester are not affected by the

presence of discontinuities. (True - False)
5. True
6. Before any instrument can be used to detect discontinuities it must have

some means of controlling the
---------
10. limits
11. A reference standard may also be used to make sure that the test equipment provides consistant sen
each time the equipment
is used.
15. developed
16. A sample which contains a discontinuity that developed during the

manufacturing process is an example of an
_
reference standard.
1-21
From page 1-19
Your eyesight is excellent. The current is at its maximum value in one direction at 90 and at its maximum value in the other direction at 270.
.r
~I
~ ol
MAX+
I
I
-----,-----
--'
MAX-0
/1
I
I
0
-----1
000
180
270
360
COi L POSITION
Now, here is a concept of utmost importance. On our graph we have labeled

the horizontal axis in degrees (0, 90, 180, 270, 360) which refer to the
position of the coil. These could just as well have been units of time. In fact,
they are units of time - 90 being a measurement of the amount of time it
took the coil to travel from 0 to 90.
You will, as we progress, run into such statements as "the voltage lags behind
the current in time by 15." It is by virtue of the relationship between the
rotating coil and time elapsed that we can measure time in degrees.
We have, essentially, already measured time in degrees when we said that
maximum current is obtained at 90. It is easier to work in degrees of rotation
when explaining electromagnetic induction than it is to work in units of time
(seconds, milliseconds, etc.).
Now turn to page 1-22 for a review.
From page 6-21
6-23
You feel that the lift-off standard has to be constructed from the same
material as was used for the coating of the article. This is incorrect.
You must understand that to an eddy current probe one nonconductive
material looks like any other nonconductive material. So it makes no difference what kind of material we use to construct a lift-off standard so long as
the material is nonconductive.
The firm requirement for a lift-off standard is that the thickness of the nonconductive material be known. It is the thickness that determines the
measurement of the amount of lift-off.
Now turn back to page 6-22 and continue.
1-22
From page 1-21
1. The next few pages are different from the ones that you have been reading.
There are
arrows on this page. (Write in the correct number of
arrows.) Do not read the frames below. FOLLOW THE ARROW and turn
to the TOP of the next page. There you will find the correct word for the
blank line above.
4. changing
5. Current is induced in a coil rotating in a magnetic field by the principle of

el
.:.:in"'-------
8. magnetic field
1--
ffi
!
MAX+~
I
I
~i~
MAX -
90
180
270
360
9. The current induced in a coil that is rotating in a magnetic field travels

first in one direction and then in the other d
as the coil
rotates through 360.
12.0, 180, 360
13. The current induced in a coil rotating in a magnetic field is maximum when
the coil is passing through the maximum number of magnetic lines of
force. Maximum current, then, is induced at coil positions of __ 0 and
0
From page 6-21
6-22
You are so right. The firm requirement for constructing lift-off standards is
that the thickness of those standards be known.
Layers of paper, mylar, or cellophane may be built up to the required
thickness for the standard.
As we have stated, reference standards are used to correlate the reading on
the test set to the conditions that we know exist in the reference standard.
Standards are also used in another way. If, after the equipment has been
calibrated to the standard, the electrical characteristics of the test set have
been inadvertantly changed, the test results will not be accurate. For this
reason it is wise to recheck the equipment against the reference standard
whenever an unexpected result is obtained in order to be assured that the
cause of the unexpected reading is not due to a fault in the equipment.
During long, production runs it is wise to periodically recheck the instrument
against the reference standards
to make sure that the electrical
characteristics of the test set have not "drifted", thus causing erroneous test
results.
Now turn to page 6-24 for a short review.
1-23
This is the answer to the
blank in Frame number 1.
1. six ~
2 is next.
2~es
willprovide a review of the material you have covered to this
point. There will be one or more blanks in each ---f
Follow the arrow.
5. electromagnetic
induction
6. When we say that the spacing between coils is a "variable" we mean that
the spacing between coils is subject to =ch=-----
9. direction
10. The current induced in a coil rotating in a magnetic field is zero when the
plane of the coil is across the m
f
----
13. 90, 270
f-
iE
!
MAX+~
~;~
MAX-
I
I
90
180
270
360
14. Time may be measured in degrees. In the diagram of the sine wave the 90
point represents the time it takes for the coil to rotate __ 0
From page 6-19
6-21
Good choice. The reference standard should have discontinuities that represent the limit of acceptability.
There is a test situation, however, where we need a standard that represents
perfection.
When external comparison techniques are being used, the standard under the
reference coil should represent perfection for that article. It must be free of
discontinuities. However, even then, the limits of acceptability must be
established by placing a reference standard containing the required discontinuity under the test coil to obtain a reading that represents the limit of
acceptability.
LIFT-OFF ST AND ARDS
Since lift-off amounts to having a nonconductive space between the test coil
and the article, lift-off standards are easy to construct. The application of a
known thickness of any nonconductive material to a sample of the material
under test will constitute a lift-off standard. Paper, mylar, and cellophane are
examples of nonconductive materials often used.
If we are measuring the thickness of a nonconductive coating over a conductive article, we need to construct lift-off standards that represent both the
maximum and the minimum acceptable thicknesses.
The firm requirement for the lift-off standards we construct is that ...
the thicknesses be known . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 6-22
the material be the same as the coating
Page 6-23
1-24
2. frame
3. By following the arrows or instructions you will be directed to the frame

that follows in sequence. Each frame presents information and requires
the filling in of
_
6. change
7. Anything that is subject to change is called a "
"
10. magnetic field
11. When the rotating coil reaches a position so that the plane of the coil is
E.
to the magnetic lines of force, the current induced is at the

maximum value.
14. 90
15. 0, 90, 180, 270, and 360 are all measurements of

considering a coil rotating in a magnetic field.
when
From page 6-19
6-20
You felt that the fabricated discontinuity should be greater than the limit of
acceptability. This is incorrect.
You must keep in mind that the reference standard is most often used to
establish limits of acceptability so that we can record its effect on the test set.
Once the reading of the acceptability limit is taken and recorded, any reading
taken on the test items that exceeds this reading is cause for further
investigation.
1-25
3. blanks (spaces, words)
4. Electromagnetic induction is the principle by which a ch

-------magnetic field will induce a current in a coil.

frame 5
7. variable
8. An electric current may be induced in a coil in two ways 1)
2)
when a magnetic field moves past the coil, and

when a coil is moved through a
. Return to page 1-22,

..,. frame 9
MAX+
11. parallel
t
a t
~
MAX -
90
180
270
360
12. The current output from a coil rotating in a magnetic field is in the form of
a sine wave. The sine wave shows that the current is at a maximum at 90
0,
0
and 270; and at a minimum at_0,
an.d
frame 13
15. time
From page 6-16
6-19
You are right. The reading on the instrument that we obtain when the test coil
is placed over the crack that is at the limit of acceptability is the highest
reading that we can get and still accept the article we are testing.
ARTIFICIAL DISCONTINUITY STANDARDS
Artificial discontinuity standards are standards that are prepared in the shop
by machining artificial discontinuities into an article that has no natural
discontinuities. Several samples may have to be run through the inspection
system to find one that does not produce any appreciable indications of
natural discontinuities.
Once such a sample is located, standard reference discontinuities that are pertinent to the required specification are then fabricated into the sample. Types
of standard reference discontinuities used to simulate natural discontinuities
are longitudinal notches, circumferential notches, drilled holes, file cuts, pits,
diameter steps, and indentations.
The discontinuities fabricated into the sample should represent a natural
discontinuity that is ...
greater than the limit of acceptability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 6-20
at the limit of acceptability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 6-21
From page 1-25
1-26
So far we have shown you the current generated as a coil makes one revolution
in a magnetic field. What we have shown you is one cycle of current. An alter-
nating current generator, of course, does not stop after one revolution. As the
coil continues to rotate through additional revolutions, the generator puts out
more cycles of current; each cycle corresponding to one revolution of the coil.
The number of current cycles put out by the generator in one second is called
the frequency of the alternating current. The usual household alternating current, for example, has a frequency of 60 cycles per second.
The term Hertz (abbreviated Hz) is the term that is used instead of cycles per
second. Household current, then, is at 60 Hertz. In eddy current testing we
often use frequencies as high as six meggahertz (MHz) which is six million
cycles per second.
These kinds of frequencies are not generated by rotating a coil through a
magnetic field. Instead, special electronic circuits convert the 60-Hz frequency
to the much higher frequencies used in eddy current testing.
From page 6-16
6-18
Your thinking is a little askew. Let's see if we can set you straight.
We have a crack that is at the limit of acceptability. This means that we will
reject anything that has a crack that is bigger than this one.
Then, if we place the test probe over this crack we will obtain a meter reading
that identifies the limit of acceptability. During subsequent tests any reading
on the instrument that is higher than the reading we established from the
reference standard is cause for further investigation.
From page 1-26
1-27
Now that we know what happens when a coil is rotating in a magnetic field,
let's go back and look at electromagnetic induction between two coils; but
instead of using a battery, we will supply the primary coil with a source of
alternating current.
AC
SOURCE
PRIMARY
COIL
SECONDARY
COIL
The alternating current from the power source is in the form of the sine wave
that was generated by rotating a coil in a magnetic field. The important point
is that the current in the primary coil is constantly varying. It goes from zero
to maximum and back to zero in one direction and then to maximum and back
to zero in the opposite direction.
Since the current in the primary coil is constantly varying, what is happening
to the magnetic field produced by the primary coil?
The magnetic field is constantly changing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1-28
The magnetic field going one way cancels the magnetic
field going the other way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1-29
From page 6-14
6-17
Sorry, producing a fatigue crack in a test sample is an example of a developed

discontinuity and not an example of an accumulated discontinuity.
The difference between the developed discontinuity and the accumulated
discontinuity is the source. The developed discontinuity is one that is produced by our own action taken to achieve our goal of having a discontinuity in
the test sample.
An accumulated discontinuity is one that has occurred at some point in the
manufacturing process and we have merely collected it as a sample.
From page 1-27
1-28
That is correct! The magnetic field in the primary coil is varying in exactly the
same manner as the current. We now have a situation where the magnetic
field is building up in one direction, collapsing, building up in the opposite
direction, collapsing, and so on. Since this field intercepts the secondary coil, a
current is constantly being induced in the secondary coil because the lines of
force are cutting across the wires forming the secondary coil.
BUILDING FIELD
COLLAPSING
FIELD
r;:-..."'"
{,.\ \\
rrl I !
0
r>
::, 1
) 11
~;;;,
AMMETER
P,)I
',\c".,
LINES OF FORCE
In order for the secondary coil to carry the current, it must be made of a material
that will conduct electricity - for example, no current would be induced in a coil
made of cotton string since cotton is not a conductor of electricity.
In general, metals are the best conductors of electricity but there is a difference in conductivity even between metals. Silver has the best conductivity
of all the metals while titanium has the lowest conductivity. This means that
silver has less resistance to the flow of electricity than titanium.
In your opinion, would the conductivity of the material in the secondary coil
have any effect on the amount of current induced in it by the primary coil?
Yes
No
Page 1-30
Page 1-31
6-16
From page 6-14
Right on! Since we have taken action to deliberately introduce a discontinuity

into the test sample, the discontinuity is called a "developed" discontinuity.
It still is defined as a "natural" discontinuity since cyclic stresses could be
naturally applied when the part is in service.
An accumulated discontinuity is one which might occur during the manufacturing processes applied to the part. Articles that contain this type of discon
tinuity may be accumulated over a period of time during routine testing of
articles.
Samples containing natural discontinuities, either developed or accumulated,
may be machined to produce a surface crack or hole of a known depth as
shown below.
LOCATION OF
INDUCED FATIGUE
SMALLSLOTTOINDUCE
FATIGUE AT THIS POINT
CRACK
0
FATIGUE SPECIMEN
MACHINE TO LEAVE
CRACK ON SURFACE
SECTION CONTAINING FATIGUE CRACK

MACHINED FROM FATIGUE SPECIMEN
At least one of the cracks in the reference standard should be at the limit of
acceptability.
Having a crack in the standard that is at the limit of acceptability is useful in
defining ...
the lowest acceptable eddy current test reading
the highest acceptable eddy current test reading
Page 6-18
Page 6-19
From page 1-27
1-29
You felt that the magnetic field caused by the alternating current through the
primary coil would be canceled out because the current reversed direction.
It is true that the field changes direction and therefore could be thought of as
cancelling the original field but, to be sure that you understand, the idea that
we are emphasizing here is that during a span of time the magnetic field caused
by the alternating current is varying just as the current is varying.
When alternating current is applied to the primary coil the magnetic field,
over a period of time, goes from zero to a maximum and back to zero in one
direction, then goes to maximum and back to zero in the opposite direction.
The magnetic field is constantly varying just as the current is varying.
Turn to page 1-28.
From page 6-13
6-15
No! The fact that both the test piece and the reference standard are both
made from copper is no guarantee that they are both the same type of
material.
Both may look alike but one may be an alloy of copper and some other metal.
In order for us to know that they are exactly the same material we should
check the conductivity of each. If they both have the same conductivity then
we know they are made from the same material.
Of course, if we have some other reason for knowing that they are made from
the same material we won't have to check the conductivity.
From page 1-28
1-30
Yes, the amount of current induced in the secondary coil is affected by the
conductivity of the material in the secondary coil. A higher conductivity
allows more current to be induced than a lower conductivity. This is an important point to remember in eddy current testing.
Now let's look at another point of extreme importance in eddy current testing.
Let's see what occurs when an alternating current is applied to a coil.
900
180
270
360
,,,,"'
MAX -
90
180
270
360
If we connect a voltmeter to measure the voltage across the coil and put an
ammeter in the circuit to measure the current and then plot the instantaneous
readings of the instruments on a graph, we find that the voltage rises to a
maximum before any current begins to flow. Then, while the voltage is
decreasing to zero, the current is increasing to a maximum as shown on the
graph above.
The graph shows that the current lags behind the voltage by 90.
True
Page 1-32
False . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1-33
6-14
From page 6-13
Very good! You seem to have realized that, though two pieces of material may
look alike, the test of whether they are alike is to measure their respective conductivities. If their conductivities are the same they are made of the same
type of material.
The material in the standard, then, must be of the same type as the material to
be tested.
The reason that the geometry of the standard should be the same as the
geometry of the test articles is fairly obvious for pieces that have exotic
shapes. Geometry is also very important for thin pieces since thickness in
those ranges has such an effect on the results. As you shall see, obtaining
samples of test articles for use as reference standards is not a great problem.
Discontinuity standards fall under two types - natural and artificial - depending on their source.
NATURAL
DISCONTINUITY
ST AND ARDS
Natural discontinuity standards consist of duplicates of the test piece configuration that contain discontinuities of a known size and shape that have
occurred from natural causes.
Natural discontinuity standards can be developed or accumulated. By submitting a test sample to cyclic stresses, a natural fatigue crack can be produced in
the sample. This would be an example of ...
a developed discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 6-16
an accumulated discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 6-1 7
From page 1-28
1-31
Apparently we haven't clarified the meaning of conductivity.

Conductivity is the ability to carry electrical current.
Here we show two batteries hooked up to light bulbs. The batteries and bulbs
are identical; the difference between the two circuits is the type of material
used in the hookup wiring.
I I I/
IRON
WIRE
,,,'
COPPER
WIRE
I"<~ . . _.
-'- -
11 ,, ,
I I \'
Copper wire has a better conductivity (less resistance to current flow)than the
iron wire, therefore the lamp will burn brighter in the circuit with the copper
wire. The brighter lamp indicates that more current is flowing through that
circuit.
From this we can conclude that the type of material does have an effect on the
amount of current that will flow in a circuit. Conductivity is the cause of this
effect.
Turn to page 1-30.
6-13
From page 6-11
Your selection is correct. Since the "high" block has 101.0 stamped on it you
know that the conductivity of that block is exactly 101 % IACS. If the meter is
adjusted to read 101% when the test coil is placed on that block then the
"high" end of the meter is calibrated.

The next step, you will recall, is to calibrate the meter so that the low end of
the meter will read the value stamped on the "low" block. In this case, 13.5%.
After these two steps have been accomplished the meter has been fully
calibrated and is ready for use in the test situation.
Calibration blocks are also available in the mid-range - 25 to 50% IACS - for
use with aluminum alloys.
DISCONTINUITY
ST ANDA RDS
Ideally a discontinuity standard should duplicate the test situation as closely

as possible. Duplication of the test situation includes material type and
geometry as well as duplication of the type of discontinuity sought.
This means that if copper pipe is to be tested that a sample of copper pipe can
be used as a standard provided that the sample and the material to be tested ...
have the same conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 6-14
are made of copper
Page 6-15
From page 1-30
1-32
Excellent! From the chart you can see that the current through the coil lags
behind the voltage by 90 .
To show why this occurs let's look for a moment at a coil with one turn slightly
separated from the rest of the coil and consider what is happening in the coil
when ac is applied to it.
Here we show one turn of the coil separated from the other turns. The alternating current through that one turn produces a constantly varying magnetic
field that cuts across all of the other turns in the coil thereby inducing a current in each of the other turns of the coil. This self-induced current opposes
the original current in part of the cycle and aids the original current in another
part of the cycle so that the net effect is that the resultant current is shifted
out of phase with the voltage. (It is delayed in time).
In the same manner, every turn in the coil induces the same effect in every
other turn. The overall effect is that the current through the coil lags behind
the voltage by 90. This effect that causes the current to lag behind the
voltage is called inductive reactance.
In a circuit containing pure inductive reactance the maximum voltage occurs
at 90 and 270, and the maximum current occurs at ...
90 and 270
Page 1-34
180 and 360 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1-35
From page 6-11
6-12
Be careful! The value stamped on the "high" block was 101 % not 100%.
If you adjust the conductivity tester to read 100% while the test probe is on a
piece of metal that is known to have a conductivity value of 101 % you will
introduce an error into all subsequent readings of conductivity.

The conductivity tester is always adjusted to read the value stamped on the
block when calibrating the instrument.
1-33
From page 1-30
You have selected the answer that indicates that you do not understand the
graph.
0
180
I
....
,
''
270
360
',
'
/
//
MAX -
"o
90
180
270
360
Here's the graph again. Note the sine wave marked "voltage." The graph
shows that the voltage is zero at 0, maximum at 90, zero again at 180, maximum in the opposite direction at 270, and zero at 360.
Now, look at the sine wave marked "current." See how the current is zero at
90, maximum at 180, zero again at 270, and maximum at 360.
See how the voltage is at its maximum 90 before the current is at its maximum?
Thus we say that the voltage across a coil is 90 ahead of the current, or, conversely, the current lags behind the voltage by 90.
Turn to page 1-32 to find out why this occurs.
From page 6-10
6-11
In eddy current testing, standards are most often manufactured at the test
site to fit a particular test situation. However, commercially prepared conductivity standards are available and are usually supplied with conductivity
measuring instruments.
CONDUCTIVITY
ST AND ARDS
Two metal blocks representing specific values of conductivity in % IACS are

supplied with conductivity measuring instruments. One block represents the
high level of conductivity while the other represents the low level. The percentage value in IACS is stamped on the blocks as shown here.
13.5%
101.0%
HIGH
LOW
With the test probe of the conductivity tester placed on the conductivity
standard representing the high level of conductivity, the tester is adjusted so
that the tester reads exactly ...
100%
101%
Page 6-12
Page 6-13
1-34
From page 1-32
You may have been a little hasty in making this selection. Stop and think for a
moment.
MAX+
Oo
900
180
270
360
MAX-
,,/
"o
90
180
270
360
You must remember that the sine wave showed us the relationships of things
occuring over a span of time. In the plot of current and voltage shown above,
the maximum voltage occurs at 90 and 270 and the maximum current
occurs 90 later (at 180 and 360) because of inductive reactance.
Study the sine waves until you are sure you understand this relationship, then
proceed to page 1-35.
From page 6-8
6-10
That is correct! Once the instrument has been calibrated to the reference
standard any adjustment of the frequency and scale controls will upset the
calibration and invalidate the test results.
Some discontinuity testers are also equipped with light and buzzer systems
which may be preset to alert the operator to any readings which exceed the
values established by the readings taken on the reference standard. Refer to
the manufacturer's handbook for the procedure to set these alarms.
ADVANCED TEST EQUIPMENT
The operation of more advanced test equipment, such as resistance and inductive reactance measuring testers and such testers as use CRT and strip-chart
recorders, are of such complexity that an explanation of how they are
operated is better left to labs where the equipment is available.
STANDARDS
As in other types of nondestructive testing the most useful test data is

obtained by comparing the data from an item under test with data obtained
from a reference standard. Standards furnish an exact value that has been
established by authority, custom, or agreement as the norm by which other
like articles may be judged. Standards also help in the design of procedures
developed to measure those quantities that are represented by the standard.
Standards often define the limits of acceptability of an item and serve to
ascertain that the equipment being used is capable of measuring that quantity to the required degree of accuracy. A standard is also used to make sure
that the equipment provides consistent sensitivity each time the equipment is
used.
1-35
From page 1-34
Very good. Apparently you understand the time relationship involved when
we say that in a purely inductive circuit the current lags behind the voltage by
90 because of inductive reactance.

Now let's take a look at another factor that affects the flow of current through
a circuit.
In any circuit there is a resistance (opposite of conductance) that opposes the
flow of current in the circuit. Here we show a battery (a source of direct current) hooked up to a coil. If we then place an ammeter in the circuit to measure
the amount of current flowing we have a circuit like this.
BATTERY
3 AMPERES
COIL
RESISTANCE
As soon as the direct current through the coil reaches its maximum value
there is no inductive reactance from the coil and the only factor opposing the
flow of current is the resistance of the wire.
We can compute the amount of resistance in the circuit from Ohm's Law
which states that the resistance (R) in a circuit is equal to the voltage (V)
divided by the current (I). Since we know the voltage of the battery, and the
meter tells us how much current is flowing, we can compute the resistance in
the circuit.
In our circuit the voltage of the battery is 16 volts and the ammeter reads 2
amperes, the total resistance of the circuit is ...
32 ohms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1-36
8 ohms
Page 1-37
From page 6-8
6-9
We were afraid that you might have gotten the wrong idea. Once the instrument has been calibrated on the reference standard, the frequency and scale
controls are not to be adjusted during testing. To do so will invalidate all the
results of the tests.
The object of performing the set-up procedure is to adjust the instrument so
that readings taken during tests can be compared with the readings established on the reference standard. Since the reference standard contains examples of the type of discontinuity sought, the meter readings then are meaningful in terms of discontinuities.
From page 1-35
1-36
Hold up! You selected the answer you could only have reached by multiplying
16 X 2. You must remember that the resistance is equal to the voltage divided
by the current ... in this case, 16 volts divided by 2 amperes equals 8 ohms.
The total resistance of the circuit is eight ohms.
To see if you understand, try this problem.
3 AMPERES
12V
BATTERY
COIL
RESISTANCE
What is the voltage of the battery?

How much current is flowing in the circuit?
What is the total resistance of the circuit?
We hope that you can see from the diagram above that the voltage of the battery is 12 volts and that the current measured by the ammeter is 3 amperes.
The total resistance of the circuit is 12 divided by 3 which equals 4 ohms. The
total resistance of the circuit is 4 ohms.
From page 6-6
6-8
With the instrument turned on, a frequency is selected and the probe is placed
on sound, bare metal. If a meter reading cannot be obtained by adjustment of
the scale control, another frequency is selected and the scale control adjusted.
This procedure is repeated until a reading is obtained.
The next step is to fine-tune the instrument to find the frequency that will
suppress the lift-off variable. This is accomplished by placing a sheet of paper
between the probe and the material, noting the reading on the dial, and comparing it with the reading obtained on bare metal. The frequency must be fine
tuned until there is no change, or a minimum change, between the two
readings. The instrument is now set up for detecting discontinuities.
The next step is to calibrate the instrument with the reference standard. This
is accomplished as follows: With the probe over the required discontinuities,
the meter readings are noted. At this time the scale may be contracted or
expanded to adjust the reading from significant discontinuities to particular
scale divisions on the meter. Further adjustments of frequency may be
required to obtain the required sensitivity to the discontinuities. If so, the liftoff suppression procedure must be repeated.
Based on the information you now have, will the frequency and scale controls
have to be adjusted during tests on the specimens?
Yes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 6-9
No
Page 6-10
From page 1-36
1-37
8 ohms, very good. Now that you seem to understand how voltage, current,
and resistance are interrelated, let's hook up the resistance to a source of alter-
nating current, add an ammeter and voltmeter as we did before, and plot the
results.
Mr+
Vl>R
00
90
180
270
360
900
180
270
360
,;,"'''<,~
~o /~..(,.
'/ ~.;
~
GV
MAX00
This time we find that when the voltage is at the maximum, the current is also
at the maximum; and when the voltage is zero, the current is also at zero.
There is no leading voltage or lagging current.
In other words, the applied voltage and the resultant current are exactly in
phase with each other through a resistance.
Resistance in an ac circuit does not cause the current to lag behind the
voltage.
True . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1-38
False . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1-39
From page 6-5
6-7
We realize that you probably had to guess at this answer but you guessed
wrong. The effects of lift-off can be suppressed by selecting the right frequency. Notice that we did not say that the effects of lift-off are eliminated
but they can be greatly reduced.
Why are the effects of lift-off reduced? Remember the impedance-plane
diagram and the effect that changing the frequency had.
In adjusting the frequency we are looking for that point where lift-off has the
least effect yet where the depth of penetration is still adequate to do the job.
1-38
From page 1-3 7
True, very good. Now that you seem to understand how voltage, current, and
resistance are interrelated, let's hook up the coil to a source of alternating
current.
rI
COIL
-1
XL
I
I
I
L-
I
I
_J
First of all you must understand that the resistance (R) we found in the circuit
is still there. It resists the flow of alternating current just as it did the flow of
direct current. The factor that has been added is the inductive reactance of the
coil. The inductive reactance (indicated by the letters XL) causes the current
to lag behind the voltage by 90, i.e., out of phase by 90.
In an ac circuit the combination of resistance and inductive reactance is called
impedance (designated by the letter Z). When we speak of the impedance in an
alternating current circuit we mean the total opposition to current flow through
the circuit and we are including both resistance and inductive reactance.
The total impedance (Z) of the circuit is the sum of the resistance (R) and the
inductive reactance (XL).However, the two cannot be added directly because
their effect on the voltage is out of phase. The maximum current due to
resistance does not occur at the same instant that the maximum current due
to inductive reactance occurs.
Turn to page 1-40.
From page 6-5
6-6
Very good! The variable frequency can be used to suppress the lift-off variable
in addition to obtaining the proper depth of penetration.
Here we show a typical crack detector.
OBATTERY
TESb
FINE
FREQUENCY
CONTROLS
LEVEL
II
SCALE
__..---CONTROL
20
40
60
80 100
PROBE
EDDY CURRENT INSTRUMENT
The frequency of crack detectors is generally controlled by means of two controls - a course control and a fine control. The course control is used to adjust
the instrument to the frequency required to detect the cracks in a reference
standard. The frequency is then fine-tuned to suppress lift-off.
The meter scale control provides the means to expand or contract the scale of
the meter so that readings which are too slight to be read may be stretched
across the scale or, conversely, readings which are too large to appear on scale
may be reduced to values which are on scale.
To set up this type of instrument for operation the test coil is first placed on a
reference standard that represents the type of material to be tested and that
contains the type and size of the discontinuity sought.
1-39
From page 1-3 7

Sorry, the statement was true.
It is very important that you realize that when alternating current is applied
to a purely resistive circuit, the current is always in-phase with the voltage.
The presence of resistance does not cause the current to lag behind the
voltage.
00
90
270
360
270
360
MAX+
MAX180
You must also remember that when alternating current is applied to a purely
reactive circuit the inductive reactance causes the current to lag behind the
voltage by 90. The voltage and current are 90 out of phase as shown here.
MAX+ Oo
900
180
270
360
j
MAX - "o
0
.,,,,,
90
180
270
360
Now let's see what happens when we have both resistance and inductive reactance in a circuit when alternating current is applied. Turn to page 1-38.
From page 6-2
6-5
Right! The next step is to calibrate the low end of the scale to make sure that
the meter reads as it should at the low end as well as at the high end.
Once the instrument is calibrated, the high and low controls are not touched
during the ensuing tests.
Tests are conducted by placing the test coil firmly on the test specimen and
rotating the IACS% dial to a position where the meter is centered. The
reading on the dial at that point is the conductivity of the specimen.
Most conductivity testers have some arrangement to calibrate the instrument
that is similar to the one we've explained here.
CRACK DETECTORS
Crack, or discontinuity, detectors are more complex instruments than conductivity testers. First, there is the requirement for a variable frequency to allow
adjustment for depth of penetration. And second, the scale on the meter must
be expandable to allow for a wide variation of meter deflection.
Since the frequency applied to the coil may be varied, we can suppress lift-off
effects with this instrument.
True . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 6-6
False
Page 6-7
From page 1-38
1-40
Here we show a plot of both the current due to resistance and the current due
to inductive reactance.
CURRENT
DUE TO
CURRENT DUE TO
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
1-
a:
a:
::::>
MAX -
90
180
270
180
360
00
270
360
00
Since the total current due to the impedance (lz) is the algebraic sum of the
current due to resistance (IR) and the current due to inductive reactance
(IXL), we can plot the current due to impedance by adding the resistance current to the reactive current. The results are as shown here.
TOTALCURRENT
DUE TO
CURRENT
DUE TO
CURRENT DUE TO
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
,,/
' ',
180
270
360
00
90
180
210
360
00
To obtain the impedance current curve shown it is necessary to add instantaneous values of IR and I XL For example, at 90 IR is at its maximum while
IxL is at zero. The impedance curve must pass through this maximum IR
value since at that point the IxL value is zero.
Continue on the next page.
From page 6-2
6-4
Sorry, we cannot begin testing yet. In this type of instrument the high end
and the low end of the scale have to be calibrated.
What we are accomplishing is this - Suppose that the "high" standard has
100% stamped on it. By placing the coil on this standard then making the
instrument read 100% we have established that the 100% point on the scale
agrees with the signal received from the 100% standard.
The next step is to establish that the low reading on the scale agrees with the
figure stamped on the "low" standard.
From page 1-40
MAX-0o
1-41
180
270
360
00
90
180
270
360
00
In the same manner, at 180 IR is at zero while IxLis at its maximum.

Therefore, the impedance curve must pass through this maximum Ix 1. value.
Note that at any point along the lz curve its value is equal to the sum of the
values of IR and IxL at that same instant in time.
Note, also, that Iz now lags behind the voltage by some angle (a) other than 0
or 90 (in this case - approximately 52 ). The voltage and current are said to
be out of phase by approximately 52 .
Obviously, determining the value of Iz in this fashion is a long, slow process.
Since we are interested only in the maximum current values and the lag angle,
there is a much easier way to combine these values to obtain the required
results.
Continue on the next page.
From page 6-1
6-3
You weren't thinking. Even though the instrument is designed to measure

conductivity, all the other factors, including lift-off, will affect the reading on
the meter.
The instrument is designated as a conductivity tester not because of what it
can do, i.e., measure conductivity, but because of what it cannot do. For example it cannot be used to detect discontinuities since it lacks any means to
adjust the frequency supplied to the coil to provide for variation in the depth
of penetration. For the same reason it cannot be used to detect thickness
changes or suppress lift-off.
1-42
From page 1-41
The simplest way to combine the resistance and inductive reactance values to
obtain the impedance value is through vector addition.
A vector is a line whose length represents a value and its direction represents
its phase relationship. We therefore can show resistance and inductive reactance by two vectors 90 apart in direction like this.
90
90
0
' R
00
To add these two vectors together we construct a rectangle, then draw a

diagonal from corner to corner like this.
90
Since the diagonal line is the result of combining resistance and inductive
reactance, we would expect that the diagonal line represents the ...
Current value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1-43
Impedance value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1-44
6-2
From page 6-1
You are absolutely correct. The meter reading will be affected by lift-off. In
using a conductivity tester the operator must be continuously aware of all the
factors that can affect conductivity before reaching any conclusions based on
the meter readings.
Here we show one type of conductivity tester.
CALIBRATION HIGH CONTROL
IACS%
~
Ii
-1f
~~
2.
~~--,L.;....-~~o""-'-!~0
-
....
POSITION SWITCH
CALIBRATION SAMPLES
The tester is supplied with two standards of conductivity that are used to
calibrate the instrument prior to its use. Each standard has its conductivity in
% IACS stamped on it.
The first step in the calibration of this instrument consists of setting the
IACS knob to the reading stamped on one of the standards. Then, with the
probe positioned firmly on the standard, the high or low calibration control
(depending on whether the standard is high or low) is rotated to center the
needle on the meter.
Let's assume that the high end of the scale has been calibrated. The next step
is to ...
begin testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 6-4
calibrate the low end of the scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 6-5
From page 1-42
1-43
We've confused you. "Current" is not the answer we were looking for. We will
restate the facts.
Impedance (Z) is the total opposition to current flow in an alternating circuit.
Impedance is made up of two factors - resistance (R) and inductive reactance
(XL).
To obtain the impedance value we must combine the resistance value with the
inductive reactance value.
Since resistance and inductive reactance are 90 out of phase we combine
them through vector addition .
...J
2$
w
o
90
;:
o
-c
w
a:
w
IMPEDANCE
(Z)
>
1-
:::,
RESISTANCE
(A)
Thus, the diagonal represents impedance.

Turn to page 1-44.
6-1
CHAPTER 6 -
TEST EQUIPMENT
In eddy current testing, many instruments are designed for a particular application to a testing problem. Others are designed for general-purpose use.
Among the latter some, such as conductivity testers and discontinuity
testers, are designed to test for a particular variable while others are designed
with the capability of testing for several variables. A detailed explanation of
all the designs of eddy current instruments available on the market is beyond
the scope of this handbook. We will, however, attempt to explain the operation of two of the more common types.
The operation of particular types of equipment produced by different
manufacturers for the same purpose are quite similar even though the controls may bear different names. For specific operating instructions for a particular instrument, the operator must refer to the manufacturer's handbook
for that instrument.
CONDUCTIVITY
TESTERS
Conductivity testers are defined as simple instruments designed only to check

the conductivity of various types of materials and their alloys.
In your estimation would lift-off affect the meter reading of an instrument
designed to measure conductivity?
Yes
No
Page 6-2
, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 6-3
From page 1-42
1-44
"Impedance value" is correct. As with all vectors the length of the vector
gives the value of the impedance. Let's assign some values to resistance and
inductive reactance, and see how this works out.
90
en
::!E
J:
0
00
II
.....I
R = 6 OHMS
If we make R equal 6 ohms ( V4" = 1 ohm) and make XL equal 8 ohms, construct the parallelogram, draw the diagonal, and measure Z, we will find that Z
measures 10 ohms.
The next question is - is there a way to figure the length of the diagonal
mathematically? The answer is "yes." A greek philosopher named
Pythagoras figured it out in the sixth century B.C. He developed what is now
known as the Pythagorean theorum which states that in a right triangle the
square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two
sides. In our situation this means that z2 = R2 + XL2. Let's see if that works
in our example.
z2
z2
= 62 + 82
= 36 + 64 = 100
= Jioo = 10 ohms.
It is nice for you to know this but you will probably never have to use it in
Turn to page 1-45.
5-86
4. low
5. In the modulation analysis method, cracks produce a signal that looks like
a
frequency wave to the filter.
9. False

frame 6.
10. In the modulation analysis method a high-pass filter is selected if we want

to locate ------------
14. resistance

frame 11.
15. The reactance testing method cannot separate the effects of conductivity
variables from the effects of dimension variables since both have an effect
on the
of the test coil.
~
~

frame 16.
19. amplitude
This completes the review, now turn to the next page.
1-45
From page 1-44
The concept that you must fully understand is the concept of what is meant
by "phase angle." In the illustrations on the last few pages the phase angle
between the resistance vector and the inductive reactance vector has been
90. In the illustration below, Greek letter alpha (a) is used to denote the
phase angle of the impedance vector.
900
r---------.71
The area that we want to explore next is the effect that changes in the circuit
parameters have on the phase angle. First let's look at resistance changes.
With all other factors held constant, changes in resistance will affect the
impedance of the circuit as shown below.
900
90
90
90
I
I
I
I
I
IL_-~-~
R
loo
This chart shows that as the value of the resistance (R) increases, the value of
the impedance (Z) increases and the phase angle of the impedance . . .
decreases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1-46
increases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1-4 7
5-85
3. frequency
4. A low-pass filter is a filter capable of passing signals that have a

frequency.
8. modulation analysis
9. A signal-to-noiseratio of 2 to 1 is acceptable in the modulation analysis

method (True, False).
13. inductive reactance
14. In the reactance testing method the

the impedance has no effect on the test results.
18. resistance
19. In the loss sensing test method the

rather than its frequency is measured.
component of
of the oscillation
1-46
From page 1-45
Right, the illustration showed that as the resistance value increased, the
impedance value increased and the phase angle decreased.
Now, here's an illustration that shows what occurs when the inductive reactance changes while all other factors are held constant.
goo
------
90
As the value of inductive reactance (XL) increases, the impedance value (Z)
increases and the phase angle approaches ...
0
90
Page 1-48
Page 1-49
5-84
2. filter
3. The filter selected for use in modulation analysis must be capable of

passing signals of the desired
_
7. 3, 1
8. The eddy current test method that uses an electronic filter to separate
indications of desired variables from indications of undesired variables is
called the
method.
13. A change in the impedance of the test coil also causes a change in the coil's
17. feedback controlled
18. In the feedback controlled method, special feedback circuits are used
which eliminate either the inductive reactance component of the impedance or the
component of the impedance.
From page 1-45
1-47
Hold up! Let's look at the illustration a little more closely.

0
90
0
90
90
90
90
---------
-------71
I
XL
I ~-; i
LI I
XLI
XLI
2/
XLI
l . loo
R
1.1'.'.
I
I
00
XL
. loo
l
R
I
I
. loo
I
I
I
I
I
I
loo
R
Note that the length of the vector XL is held constant while the vector R is
increased in length as we move from left to right. As R is increased, the value
of Z increases as shown by the increase in length of the vector.
But, at the same time, the phase angle (a) gets smaller (it moves towards O 0) as
the resistance increases. Therefore, increasing values of R will cause the phase
angle to get smaller.
5-83
1. strip chart
2. In the modulation analysis method a modulator is added to the test circuit. The modulating device is actually an electronic
_
6. signal, noise
7. The minimum acceptable signal-to-noiseratio is considered to be_
11. oscillator
to_.
'
12. In the reactance testing method, the frequency of the oscillator depends
on the
of the test coil.
16. reactance
'
17. The eddy current test method that utilizes the principle that the amplitude
of the voltage of an oscillatordepends on the ratio of the inductive reactance
to resistance is called the
method.
'
From page 1-46
1-48
Somehow you've been confused by the illustration. Let's look at it again.
90
The illustration shows the effect of changing only the value of the inductive
reactance. The resistance value is held constant.
In the view on the left, the inductive reactance is very low and the phase angle
(a) is very small (close to O 0). In the view on the right the inductive reactance
is large and the phase angle has increased. It is moving towards 90 . If we
increased the inductive reactance still further, the angle a would get closer
and closer to 90 .
5-82
From page 5-80
1.
In the modulation analysis method of eddy current testing, the signals

received from the test coil are recorded on a
recorder .
5. high
6. The addition of a filter in the test circuit increases the

ratio.
----
10. cracks
(discontinuities)
11. In the reactance testing method an o

circuit.
-to-
is added to the test
16. The reactance testing method cannot separate the effects of conductivity
variables from the effect of dimension variables since both have an effect
on the
of the test coil.
From page 1-46
1-49
Right! As the inductive reactance increases, the phase angle of the impedance
increases. So it approaches (moves toward) 90.
In a given alternating current circuit the resistance value stays fairly constant. The value can change if the temperature of the wiring increases or
decreases but the change is slight. Changes in voltage or frequency do not
affect the resistance that is in the circuit.
Inductive reactance, however, is affected by frequency changes. Any given
coil has a particular value of inductance (L) measured in Henries. (The inductance of a coil is one Henry when a current variation of one ampere per second
induces one volt.) The inductance value is determined by the size, shape, and
number of turns in the coil and is, therefore, constant for any given coil.
The inductive reactance (XL) in ohms is determined by the equation

XL= 21rfL. For any given coil the terms 2, 1r, and Lare constant (they do not
change). Thus, the inductive reactance for any given coil depends entirely on
the frequency of the current through the coil. Increasing the frequency causes
the inductive reactance to increase proportionally.
If the inductive reactance of a coil in a circuit powered by 60-Hz alternating
current is 20 ohms, what will be the inductive reactance of the same coil if we
change the frequency to 120 Hz?
lOohms
40ohms
Page 1-50
Page 1-51
From page 5-79
5-81
We thought that you might not know what we meant when we used the word
''amplitude.''
Here's the chart again
~r11
MAX+
MAX-~ I
.I
You felt that the letter B designated the amplitude of the wave. That is incorrect. The amplitude of the wave is the height of the wave and is designated by
the letter A on the chart.
Now that you know what is meant by the word amplitude, go back to page
5-79, reread the information, and select the better answer.
From page 1-49
1-50
Sorry, you guessed wrong. We didn't tell you that doubling the frequency
would cause the inductive reactance to double (which is true), but we did say
that increasing the frequency would increase the inductive reactance. For that
reason you should have chosen the larger number.
Since the original frequency was 60 Hz and we increased the frequency to
120 Hz, your answer should have been the answer that was more than 20
ohms not the answer that was less than 20 ohms.
Return to page 1-49, reread the last paragraph, and select the better answer to
the question.
5-80
From page 5-79
Yes, the amplitude of the wave, the thing that we want to measure, is
designated on the wave by the letter A.
When we say that the amplitude of the current is dependent on the ratio of
inductive reactance to resistance, we are saying that a change in either, or
both, of those factors causes a change in the amplitude of the signal.
The illustration below is a block diagram of a feedback controlled system. A
complete explanation of the electronic circuitry required to explain exactly
how feedback controlled testing is accomplished is beyond the scope of this
book.
-
COIL
OSCILLATOR
FEED-BACK
SPECIMEN
_ FEED-BACK
HEAT LOSS
INDICATOR
UR RATIO
In the feedback controlled testing system special feedback circuits are provided in the test set whereby the voltage corresponding to the amplitude
(XLIR ratio) of the secondary coil is sensed and sent back to control the
amplitude of the current through the sensing circuit. With the use of special
feedback circuits it is possible to eliminate or reduce the effect of either the
inductive reactance or the resistance, whichever is desired.
NOTE: When eddy currents flowin a specimen, the resistance of the specimen
causes a certain loss of energy which is released as heat. Since such energy
losses tend to damp the oscillation (reduce the amplitude), feedback controlled
testing is sometimes called "loss sensing" testing.
1-51
From page 1-49
Good selection! We presume you selected 40 ohms because you knew that
increasing the frequency would increase the inductive reactance, so you
selected the higher number.
But did you also notice that when we doubled the frequency we also doubled
the inductive reactance? Doubling the frequency does cause the inductive
reactance to double. Let's see what this looks like on a graph so we can see
what happens to the impedance of the circuit. Keep in mind that we are showing what happens as the result of changing frequency.
90
??
R
A) f = 50 kHz
R
B)f=100kHz
C) f=200kHz
If we doubled the frequency once again to 200 kHz, the phase angle of the
impedance would ...
Increase
Page 1-52
Decrease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1-53
From page 5-7 6
5-79
Right! Lift-off has very little effect on the test results when we are using the
reactance testing method.
There is one more eddy current testing method that we want to cover. It is
called "Feedback Controlled" testing.
Feedback controlled testing is a method which can distinguish between
variables existing in the material. The theory is based on the fact that, while
the frequency of an oscillating circuit is dependent upon the inductive reactance of the circuit, the amplitude of the current through the circuit is dependent on the ratio of the inductive reactance to the resistance (XLIR).
~r
MAX+
:LI~
.I
In the sine wave shown above, the amplitude of the wave is designated with
the letter ...
A
B
Page 5-80
Page 5-81
From page 1-51
1-52
You feel that if the frequency were doubled that the phase angle of the impedance would increase and you are correct.
We have now covered the theory of electromagnetic induction to a depth sufficient for you to be able to understand its application to eddy current testing.
But before we go on, turn to page 1-54 for a short review.
From page 5-7 6
5-78
You felt that lift-off would have a great deal of effect on the test results. It is
wrong for you to feel that way. Let's look at an impedance-plane diagram for a
moment.
90
AIR
w
o
<{
1-
<{
a:
w
>
~
o
\\.
',
col\!
()vC'7lv17-}-
<,
<,~
01:- ,...._ ....

/::"
:::>
........
...... ""-
z
..J
0
o
AL
cu
0
0
COIL RESISTANCE
Note that a change in lift-off is mostly a change in resistance. Since resistance

has no effect whatsoever on the reactance testing results, lift-off will have
very little effect.
1-53
From page 1-51
You feel that if the frequency were doubled that the phase angle of the impedance would decrease. That is wrong!
Here is the illustration again. You must remember that the angle we are talking about is the angle marked a.
90
9[&]0 - -----
XL
R
f=50kHz
I
I
II
I oo
R
f = 100 kHz
When we doubled the frequency from 50 kHz to 100 kHz, angle a increased in
size. It will do so each time the frequency is doubled. If you've changed your
mind, turn to page 1-52 and continue.
From page 5-7 5
5-77
You felt that when the impedance of the test coil changes, the inductive reactance of the test coil would not change. You have forgotten a basic precept of
You must always keep in mind that the impedance of the test coil is made up
of two components - an inductive reactance component and a resistance component. These two components lie at right angles to each other.
Remember the impedance-plane diagram?
90
AIR
GRAPHITE
<{
t3
~
a:
w
>
i=
o
:::>
0
z
...J
INCREASE IN INDUCTIVE
REACTANCE
cu
0
~
COIL RESISTANCE
The conductivity curve was the locus of all the impedances that we obtained
by measuring the conductivity of various kinds of materials. Therefore every
point on the curve represents an impedance. Now, if we look at the point
marked CU (copper) and compare its inductive reactance with the inductive
reactance of the point marked BRONZE (see the horizontal dashed lines) we
find that the inductive reactance has increased.
So we can assume that if the impedance of the test coil changes, its inductive
reactance will change.
Now turn back to page 5-7 6 and continue.
1-54
From page 1-52
1. When a source of alternating current is connected to a coil the magnetic

field produced in the coil is constantlyv
_
4. 90
5. The 90 lag of the current behind the voltage is caused by a factor of the
coil called inductive
_
A
9. Both resistance (R) and inductive reactance (XL)may be shown by means

of vectors. The d
of these vectors must be 90 apart.
12. decrease,
increase
13. The equation for determining the inductive reactance (XL)of a coil in an ac
circuit is XL= 21rfL. In this equation "L" is the inductance of the coil and
"f" is the alternating current
_
From page 5-7 5
5-76
Exactly! If the impedance of the test coil changes, the inductive reactance
component of the impedance must change.
Now, since the inductive reactance of the test coil changes, and the coil is in
the secondary circuit with the oscillator, the frequency of the oscillator
changes. So, by monitoring the frequency of the voltage in the secondary circuit we can detect changes in the condition of the material. Note that the
resistive component of the impedance has no effect on the frequency of oscillation, so it is effectively ignored.
Because the frequency of the oscillator circuit is affected by changes in conductivity, dimension, or permeability, it is impossible to separate desireable
effects such as material conductivity, or the presence of cracks, from less
significant effects as dimensional changes.
If the results of .reactance testing were to be plotted on an impedance-plane
diagram only those changes in the vertical, or inductive reactance, direction
would appear since resistive changes are not indicated.
In your opinion, how much effect would lift-off have on the test results?
A great deal __ .. _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-78
Very little
Page 5-79
1-55
1. varying
EJ
SECONDARY A
2. If an alternating current is applied to the primary side of the circuit shown

here, the current induced in the secondary side will be ------(alternating, direct) current.
5. reactance
6. The resistance (R) present in an alternating current circuit

(also, does not) cause(s) the current to lag behind the voltage.
9. direction
10. Impedance (Z) values may be obtained by _v

resistance (R) and inductive reactance (XL) values.
_ addition of the
13. frequency
14. The equation for inductive reactance tells us that when the frequency (f) is
increased, the inductive reactance XL of the coil will
.
5-75
From page 5-7 3
Very good! If the signal-to-noise ratio is to be a minimum of 3 to 1, the signals
in which we are interested must be at least three times as high as the signals
in which we do not have any interest.
It hardly seems necessary but we'll say it one more time. Reference standards
with known discontinuities are used in the modulation analysis to establish an
acceptable signal-to-noiseratio and to establish limits of acceptability.
The next method that we want to cover is called the "Reactance Testing"
method. The illustration below shows the type of test circuit that is used in
reactance testing.
SPECIMEN
SECONDARYCOIL
OSCILLATOR
C\
DISCONTINUITY
/""\.
~v
CHANGE IN
FUNDAMENTAL
FREQUENCY
... ,, I
0
1 \\ q
2 ,'
I I I
1
I, ', 2
.,
INDICATOR
INDICATES
CHANGE IN
FREQUENCY
Note that the primary coil of a double coil, absolute arrangement is used to
induce the eddy currents and the secondary coil is used to sense the presence
of eddy currents.
An oscillator is added in the secondary circuit and a meter, CRT, or stripchart
recorder monitors the frequency of the voltage in the secondary circuit.
The frequency of the oscillator depends directly upon the inductive reactance
of the secondary circuit; and, as you know, if the test coil is moved over a
specimen, the impedance of the test coil changes in accordance with conditions within the material.
When the impedance of the test coil changes, the inductive reactance of the
coil changes.
True . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-7 6
False
Page 5-77
--
1-56
2. alternating
3. If the coil in the secondary side of the circuit were made of nonconductive
material there would be
(alternating, direct, no)
current induced in the secondary side of the circuit.
6. does not
7. The total opposition to the flow of current in an alternating current circuit

is called "impedance." Impedance (Z) includes the inductive reactance
(XL) and the
of a circuit.
10. vector
11. The Greek letter alpha (a) is used to denote the phase
impedance vector.
of the
14. increase
15. If the frequency of the alternating current through a coil is doubled, the
inductive reactance will
and the phase angle of the impedance will
(increase, decrease).
From page 5-73
5-74
Sorry. You've got it backwards.

In the modulation analysis method the minimum acceptable signal-to-noise
ratio is 3 to 1. This means that the signal in which we are interested must be at
least three times as high as the signals in which we have no interest. (The
heights referred to here are the heights of the mark made by the tracing pen
on the strip-chart recorder that is recording the signals.)
If the signal-to-noise ratio is anything less than 3 to 1 there is a strong
possibility that a weak signal in which we might be interested could be hidden
in a strong signal from some factor in which we have no interest.
Turn to page 5- 7 5 and continue.
1-57
3. no
4. If an alternating current were applied to a circuit having pure inductance

and no resistance, the current would lag behind the applied voltage by
0

frame 5.
7. resistance (R)
8. The phase angle of the impedanceis due to the presence of

_______
and not due to the presence of resistance.
~
.,.

frame 9.
11. angle
12. If the resistance of an ac circuit increases, phase angle (a) will

_
(decrease,increase).If the inductive reactance of an ac circuit increases, a will
______
(decrease,increase).
~
.,.

frame 13.
15. double,
increase
This completes the review. For application to eddy current testing of what
you have learned about electromagnetic induction, turn to page 2-1.
From page 5-71
5-73
Because noise tends to hide indications that are of interest to the operator, the
ratio of the amplitude of responses from variables of interest to the amplitude
of responses that contain no useful information becomes important. This ratio
is called the "signal-to-noise" ratio.
In the modulation analysis method the minimum acceptable signal-to-noise
ratio is considered to be 3 to 1.
This statement means that the signal in which we are interested must be at
least
as high as the signals in which we have no interest.
one third . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-7 4
three times
Page 5-75
2-1
CHAPTER 2 -
PRINCIPLES OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING
In Chapter 1 we discussed the results that Faraday achieved in 1831with electromagnetic induction between two coils. Additional scientific advances were
required before electromagnetic induction could be applied as an inspection
process. In 1879, Hughes detected differences in electrical conductivity,
magnetic permeability, and temperature in metals using an eddy current
method. The eddy current method developed slowly, partly because such a
method was not needed. By 1935, however, eddy current testing was being
done.
Faraday's electromagnetic induction principles are applied in eddy current
testing as follows:
1) An inspection coil powered by alternating current is placed near, or on
the test specimen.
2) If the test specimen is a conductor of electricity, small circulating
electrical currents are induced in the specimen.
3) These eddy currents produce a magnetic field that opposes the
original magnetic field causing the eddy currents.
4) The opposing magnetic field causes a change in the original magnetizing field.
5) Changes in the original magnetizing field cause a change in the impedance of the coil.
6) The change in impedance can be detected.
From the preceeding it is clear that the test specimen must have one requirement that limits the use of eddy current testing to articles that are made of
materials that are ...
standard in size and shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-2
capable of conducting electrical current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-3
magnetizable
Page 2-4
From page 5-70
5-72
No! If you selected a filter that would pass low frequency signals you would
wipe out any indications of cracks.
Let's see if we can make the situation a little clearer for you.
In this situation we are interested in the rate of change of the signal. The rate
of change of the signal for a crack is very high. The signal from the coil
changes rapidly when the crack is encountered by the magnetic field of the
coil.
Conversely, the rate of change of the signal caused by a dimensional change is
likely to be relatively slow since, unless there is a shoulder or the end of the
part, dimensional changes are gradual in nature.
To the filter that will pass high-frequency signals, the sudden change in the
signal from a crack looks like a high-frequency wave since its rate of change is
high. The high-frequency filter would allow such a signal to pass. The lowfrequency filter would not.
From page 2-1
2-2
Well, we thought it would be clear. You selected the answer that says the article under test must be made of materials that are standard in size and shape.
Think for a moment. This would eliminate a great many articles from eddy
current testing. An inspection system would not be very versatile if it could be
used only on articles that are of a standard size and shape. No, the size and
shape of the article is not one of the limitations of eddy current testing.
Eddy currents are electrical currents that are induced into the specimen under
test. This one statement should give you a clue to the correct answer.
Return to page 2-1 and see if you can now select the correct answer.
From page 5-70
5-71
You made an excellent choice. A crack will produce a sudden change in the
test coil's impedance. To the modulator this sudden change looks like a highfrequency signal. Therefore, if we select a modulator (filter) that will pass the
high frequency signals, the presence of the crack will be registered on the strip
chart recorder. The slower changes caused by changes in dimension will not
pass through the filter.
Since the apparent frequency of any of the variables depends upon the speed
of movement of the test specimen past the inspection coil it is necessary that
the motion be at a constant speed so that the filter can do its job effectively.
This requirement limits this type of test to expensive equipment used in large
production runs.
This illustration shows the effect that filters have on the output of a test
system.
NO FILTERS
MORE FILTERS NEEDED
CRACK SIGNAL
GOOD FILTRATION
Assuming in this case that the variable of interest is the presence of cracks,
the rest of the marks or peaks caused by variables of interest hide the indication. These confusing indications are called "grass" or "noise."
2-3
From page 2-1
Right! The article under inspection must be capable of conducting electrical

current.
Let's look at the relationship between the magnetic field of an inspection coil
and the material under test. We know now that the material must be a conductor of electricity. In Chapter 1 we learned that when a magnetic field cuts
through an electrical conductor, current is induced in the conductor. Of
course, the conductor was a wire or a coil. Let's see what happens if the conductor is a thick sheet of electrically conductive material.
AC
9{__
COIL'S
MAGNETIC FIELD
EST COIL
CURRENT FLOWSIN ONE DIRECTION

AND THEN THE OTHER (ALTERNATES)
EDDY CURRENT
MAGNETIC FIELD
As shown above, an electrical current is induced in the material. This current

flows in a circular path (eddy) and, like the current in the coil, produces a
magnetic field. The magnetic field of the eddy current at all times is in the
opposite direction to the magnetic field of the coil.
The action that we can't show clearly in this illustration is the fact that, since
the current in the inspection coil is alternating direction, the magnetic field is
continually changing direction, and the eddy current and its magnetic field
are also continually changing direction.
'With continually changing currents and magnetic fields, the eddy current
magnetic field is . . .
sometimes opposing the coil's magnetic field
Page 2-5
always opposing the coil's magnetic field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-6
5-70
From page 5-67
You are exactly right. We do not know that either of those peaks represent a
crack since we recorded everything that would cause a change in the coil's
impedance.
The way to limit what we record is to add a modulating device between the
test set and the recorder as shown here.
TEST SET
MODULATING
DEVICE
INDCATING
DEVICE
1 I I I I I
VERTICAL MARKS
ON PAPER
The modulating device is actually an electronic filter. We can select a filter

that will pass high frequency signals and stop low frequency signals, or we
can select a filter that will stop high frequency signals and pass the lows. In
this way the test setup can be adjusted to pass only the signals from those
variables in which we are interested.
Now, we know that a crack will give a sudden change in the coil's impedance
while a dimensional change will usually occur over a longer period of time. If
our primary interest was in locating cracks, we would select a filter that will
pass ...
high-frequency signals
low-frequencysignals
Page 5-71
Page 5-72
From page 2-1
2-4
Sorry. We must have confused you with all those words about magnetic fields.
The material does not have to be magnetizable. In fact, in eddy current testing
magnetizable materials cause a particular problem which we will discuss in
later chapters, but there is one requirement for the material that is a must if
we are going to induce eddy currents in any specimens.
Return to page 2-1, re-read item 2 in the list of items, then see if you can select
the correct answer.
From page 5-67
5-69
You may be right, but, on the other hand, you may be wrong. That could be the
signal for a crack or it could be the signal from something else. Since we are
recording everything, there is no way that we can tell what we are looking at.
We have to find some way of taking only those readings that pertain to the
changes that we are looking for. Turn to page 5-70 to find out how this is done.
From page 2-3
2-5
Wrong! The eddy current magnetic field always opposes the coil's magnetic
field. This is because the two fields are exactly 180 out of phase with each
other as shown on this graph.
MAX+
COIL MAGNETICFIELD
MAX-
The graph above shows the phase relationship between the two fields. Note
that when the coil magnetic field is at its maximum in one direction, the eddy
current field is at its maximum in the opposite direction. Thus the fact that
each field is constantly varying does not change the fact that the eddy current
magnetic field always opposes the coil's magnetic field.
From page 5-67
5-68
You may be right, but, on the other hand, you may be wrong. The point is we
don't know whether peak A represents a crack, a change in dimension, or even
something else.
Since every change in the impedance of the test coil is being recorded we
simply cannot tell what the peaks and valleys on the recording represent.
They could be anything.
We have to find some way of taking the readings that will record only the
variations that we are interested in locating. Turn to page 5-70 to find out how
this is done.
From page 2-3
2-6
Good choice! In spite of the fact that the currents and magnetic fields involved
are constantly changing (alternating direction) the phase relationship between
each always remains the same. Thus the eddy current magnetic field always
opposes the coil's magnetic field.
The next factor to consider is the strength of the eddy current magnetic field.
With a given inspection coil, carrying a given amount of current that creates a
magnetic field of a given strength, is it reasonable to assume that the strength
of the eddy current magnetic field will depend on the strength of the eddy currents induced in the material?
Yes
No
Page 2-7
Page 2-8
From page 5-66
5-67
Another method used to separate the conductivity variables from dimension

variables is the "Modulation Analysis" method.
In the modulation analysis method the signals received from the test coil are
transmitted to a strip-chart recorder. In the strip-chart recorder the impedance changes cause a pen to swing across a chart. The movement of the pen is
proportional to the change in impedance of the test coil. The coil must be
moved over the specimen at a constant rate of speed and, at the same time,
the paper in the recorder is moved past the pen at a constant rate of speed.
With the various signals that are generated in the coil by changes in such
properties as permeability, dimension, hardness stresses, and other, it is very
difficult to distinguish discontinuities such as cracks or holes. Under normal
conditions, wtihout modulation analysis, a strip-chart recording might look
something like this.
From the above recording which peak designates a crack?

A
B
Don't know
Page 5-68
Page 5-69
Page 5-70
2-7
From page 2-6
And right you are. All other things being constant, the strength of the eddy
current magnetic field depends directly on the strength of the eddy currents.
Stronger currents cause stronger magnetic fields to oppose the coil's
magnetic field.
Now, remember that we said that one factor that affects the amount of current induced in a secondary coil is the conductivity of the material of which
the coil is made. We said then that more electric current will be induced in a
coil with high conductivity than in a coil with low conductivity. The same
holds true for the induction of eddy currents in articles to be inspected by
eddy currents. With all other factors held constant, stronger eddy currents
will be induced in articles that have higher conductivities than will be induced
in articles having lower conductivities.
Here we show a coil being used to inspect two articles that are just alike
except that one is made of copper and the other is made of iron.
INSPECTION
COIL
INSPECTION
COIL
IRON
COPPER
A
Assuming that all inputs (voltage, current, and frequency) to the coil are constant, which article will produce the strongest eddy currents?
Article A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-9
Article B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-10
5-66
4. Lift-off
5. To suppress lift-off, the operator selects an operating point which lies

on the lift-off
line .
9. reference

frame 6.
10. In the Ellipse Display Method, when the impedances of the test coil
and the reference coil are exactly alike the cathode ray tube (CRT)will
display a straight horizontal
_
14. dimension

frame 11.
15. In the Ellipse Display Method the widening or narrowing of the

ellipse indicates a change in the
variable.
19. Linear Time

Base Display

frame 16.
You have completed the review. Now turn to page 5-67 and continue.
From page 2-6
2-8
By your selection you indicate that it is not reasonable to assume that the
strength of the eddy current magnetic field will depend on the strength of the
eddy currents induced in the material.
Like parents of a wayward teenager, we wonder "Where did we go wrong?"
What did we say that makes you think that the strength of any magnetic field
does not depend on the current producing it? We hope you are really not this
confused.
But if you are, remember: The strength of any magnetic field produced electrically depends on the number of turns in the coil and the amount of current
through the coil.
When eddy currents are induced in an article, the article is acting like a coil.
Therefore the strength of the magnetic field will depend on the amount of current induced. If the current is high, the field will be high. Lower currents will
produce weaker fields. Your answer should have been "yes".
Turn back to page 2-7 and continue.
5-65
900
3. conductivity
-~
"'
_ o
0
4. Selection of pont D on the impedance plane diagram above as an

operating point will set up the equipment to measure the
~
variable.
"'
8. impedance-plane
9. In the Ellipse Display Method, the voltage drop across the inspection
coil is being compared with the voltage drop across the
_
coil.
13. ellipse
14. In the Ellipse Display Method, a change in the tilt of the line or ellipse
indicates a change in the
variable.
18. dimension
19. A method in which the dimension variable is automatically suppressed

is called the
method.
From page 2-7
2-9
You exhibited sound judgement in making this selection. Since copper is a better conductor of electricity than iron, stronger eddy currents will be induced in
article A than in article B. These stronger eddy currents will result in a stronger
eddy current magnetic field to oppose the magnetic field of the coil.
Remember then that the CONDUCTIVITY of the material is one factor that
affects the induction of eddy current in the material.
Now let's look at another factor which affects the eddy current and the eddy
current magnetic field. Consider the magnetic field that surrounds the inspection coil as shown here.
COIL
ALTERNATING
CURRENT
SOURCE
The field extends from each end of the coil. The field is at its strongest next to
the coil and progressively gets weaker away from the coil.
Consider now a comparison between the strength of the coil's magnetic field
versus the strength of the induced eddy current magnetic field. Think about it
for a moment then decide which of the two statements below is true.
A stronger coil magnetic field will result in a stronger
eddy current magnetic field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-11
A weaker coil magnetic field will result in a stronger
eddy current magnetic field
Page 2-12
5-64
2. conductivity
900
D""'
.-~ -0
3. Selection of point D on the impedance-planediagram shown above as

an operating point will set up the equipment to suppress the
variable.
---------7. conductivity
8. An i
-p
face of a Catode Ray Tube.
diagram may be plotted on the
12. tilt
13. In the Ellipse Display Method, a difference in the impedances of the

test coil and the reference coil will cause the CRT to display a tilted
17. impedance
18. Since, in the Linear Time Base Display method, a change in phase
angle is primarily due to a change in conductivity, the
________
variable is effectively suppressed.
From page 2-7
2-10
If you selected this page it's because you've forgotten that copper is a better
conductor than iron.
INSPECTION
COIL
INSPECTION
COIL
IRON
COPPER
A
Due to the fact that a stronger eddy current will be induced in the better conductor (all other things being equal), article A, being made of copper, will have
a stronger eddy current than article B which is made of iron. The stronger
eddy current will produce the stronger eddy current magnetic field.
However, the point we really want to hammer home is that the conductivity of
an article affects the strength of the eddy current magnetic field.
5-63
000
1. variable
~/
I
o'-------o
2. Selection of point D on the impedance plane diagram above as an

operating point will set up the equipment to measure
_
variables.
6. perpendicular
7. A line that is perpendicular to the conductivity line at the point of

interest is the locus of all the operating points that will suppress
11. conductivity
12. In the Ellipse Display Method a change in the dimension variable is

indicated by a change in the
of the line or ellipse.
16. waveform
17. The Linear Time Base Display method measures the phase shift to
indicate a change in the
of the test coil.
2-11
From page 2-9
Yes, the stronger the coil magnetic field, the stronger the eddy current
magnetic field opposing it. Since the coil field is strongest near the coil and
gets progressively weaker away from the coil, we can hold the coil a short
distance away from conductive material and still induce eddy currents in the
material.
CONDUCTIVE
MATERIAL
The eddy current induced in the conductive material will be much weaker than
the eddy current induced if the inspection coil were placed directly on the part,
but so long as the conductive material intercepts any of the coil's magnetic
field there will be a corresponding amount of eddy current induced in the
material.
Now let's see how we can use this fact in eddy current testing. Let's cover the
conductive material with a coating of nonconductive material and place the
test coil directly on the nonconductive coating.
NON CONDUCTIVE
CONDUCTIVE
The coil's magnetic field is unaffected by the presence of the nonconductive

coating on the material. The same field exists but only the weaker portion is
effective in inducing eddy current in the conductive material.
If the conductive coating were thinner, the induced eddy current would be ...
Weaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-13
Stronger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-14
5-62
From page 5-60
1. When operating equipment that has the capability of selecting an

operating point, the selection of the operating point is dependent
upon which
is to be suppressed.
5. suppression
6. The lift-offsuppression line is a line that is

to the lift-off curve at the point of interest.
10. line
11. In the Ellipse Display Method the widening of the ellipse means an
increase in the g_
variable.
15. conductivity
16. The Linear Time Base Display method uses the CRT to display the
of the voltage applied across the test coil.
From page 2-9
2-12
A weaker magnetic field induces a stronger eddy current field!That just isn't so.
The correct statement is: A stronger coil field will always induce a stronger
eddy current which, in turn, will produce a stronger eddy current field. In
short, the stronger the coil field in the material, the stronger the eddy current
field.
This may seem to be a minor point to spend so much time on but it is a very
important point in its application to eddy current testing. Changes in currents, their effects on magnetic fields, and vice versa are the very foundation
of eddy current testing and you must understand their relationships.
We repeat: A stronger coil magnetic field will result in a stronger eddy current
magnetic field.
5-61
From page 5-59
You selected the answer that indicates that you think the waveform will shift
to the left. Let's go back to our old friend - the impedance-plane diagram to
see what is happening.
On the impedance-plane diagram we know that the presence of a discontinuity
will cause the impedance of the coil to lie somewhere between the conductivity
curve and the lift-off curve. Let's pick a point and see what happens to the
phase angle.
The impedance value associated with the discontinuity (X) causes the lag
angle to shift towards the 90 line. In other words, the lag angle increases.
FROM THIS
0 (IN PHASE)
OR THIS
30 PHASE SHIFT
TO THIS
90 PHASE SHIFT
As this illustration shows, as the lag angle increases from 0 to 30 to 90, the
waveform moves to the right.

From page 2-11
2-13
Perhaps we didn't make the situation clear enough. Here's an illustration that
will show what we mean.
NONCONDUCTIVECONDUCTIVE
VIEWA
VIEW B
Note that in view B the test coil is closer to the conductive material than it is
in view A. Since the nonconductive coating has no effect whatsoever on the
magnetic field, the conductive material in view B is in a stronger portion of
the coil's magnetic field and the induced eddy currents will be stronger.
Can you see that, by making the nonconductive coating thinner, we have
moved the inspection coil closer to the conductive material. Since the coil in
view Bis closer to the conductive material the eddy current will be stronger.
From page 5-59
5-60
Yes, with the test coil over a discontinuity the waveform will shift to the right.
How much it shifts depends on the size of the discontinuity, its direction with
respect to the eddy currents, and its depth below the surface. From this you
should be able to see the necessity of standards that establish the maximum
acceptable limits.
Because this method measures the time delay of the waveform it is called the
"Linear Time Base Display" method.
From page 2-11
2-14
Excellent! You recognize that by making the nonconductive coating thinner

we have simply moved the inspection coil closer to the conductive material
where the coil's stronger field will cause increased eddy currents.
Does this give you the idea that eddy current testing might well be used to
indicate thickness of nonconductive coatings on conductive materials? It
should because that is one of the uses of eddy current testing.
It is also one of the problems encountered in eddy current testing in a way
which we are about to explain.
Air is a nonconductor of electricity. What we are saying is that if the inspection coil is lifted, even slightly, from the surface of the article being inspected,
the magnetic fields in the article are affected. The magnetic fields change.
These changes can be mistaken for changes caused by other factors. Being
able to differentiate changes caused by this "lift off" from changes caused by
other factors is an important part of the science of eddy current testing. "Lift
off' is the name given to this factor.
We have now discussed two factors which affect eddy current testing. These
are lift-off and . . .
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-15
Conductivity
Page 2-16
5-59
From page 5-5 7
That's right! Measuring the phase shift will suppress the lift-off variable. So
how can we measure phase shift?
One way is to use a CRT hooked up to display the voltage being applied to the
test coil. When this is done, the CRT displays the waveform of the voltage.
Here are three examples of how that waveform might look.
FROM THIS
0 (IN PHASE)
OR THIS
30 PHASE SHIFT
TO THIS
90 PHASE SHIFT
Phase shifts are measured by the shift of the waveform across the tube as
shown above. In actual practice the waveform obtained from discontinuityfree material is centered on the grid of the tube so that it looks like the illustration on the left. This is accomplished with a knob on the CRT which has the
effect of zeroing the instrument. All testing is conducted from this point.
If we now place the test coil on a piece of the same type of material directly
over a discontinuity the wave form will shift ...
to the right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-60
to the left . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-61
From page 2-14
2-15
Continuity is the wrong word. Conductivity is the correct word. We deliberatly
picked a "sound alike" word to make sure that the word "conductivity" was
firmly fixed in your mind.
The two factors we have discussed so far that affect the magnetic fields are
"conductivity" and "lift-off". Any changes in the conductivity of the material
under test and any lift-off of the coil from the surface of the material will cause
changes in the magnetic fields of the inspection coil and the eddy current.
5-58
From page 5-5 7
You feel that measuring the phase shift would suppress conductivity. That is
wrong.
Let's look at an enlargement of the lower end of the curves.
=-j"
'
PHASE SHIFT
In this example the change in conductivity from point A to point B is equal to

the change in lift-off from point A to point C.
Now compare the phase shift caused by the change in conductivity with the
phase shift caused by the same amount of change in lift-off. The lift-off phase
shift is much smaller.
This comparison tells us that lift-off is suppressed since conductivity
variables will cause more of a phase shift than the lift-off variable.
Now turn to the next page.
2-16
From page 2-14
Conductivity is the correct word. Conductivity and lift-off are the two factors
that we have discussed thus far.
Lift-off is not a factor that results from something in the material. It results
from the inspection procedure. Lift-off has been put in the category of being a
dimensional factor. There is another dimensional factor that does result
directly from the material. The illustration below shows this other dimensional factor.
CONDUCTIVE
MATERIAL
If we put the inspection coil on progressively thinner and thinner pieces of conductive material we reach a point where the material is intercepting only part of
the coil's magnetic field. Thus the induced eddy current must be reduced. Since
the eddy current is reduced, its magnetic field is reduced and the magnetic field
through the coil is changed.
Here we show two different thicknesses of copper being tested with an inspection coil.
COPPER
Can we expect to get different results when we eddy current test these two
pieces?
Yes
No
Don't know
Page 2-17
Page 2-18
Page 2-19
5-57
From page 5-56
Let's consider for a moment how the phase angle is affected by changes in the
dimensional variable and by changes in the conductivity variable. To see how
the phase angle is affected, we go back to the impedance-plane diagram.
90
Col\.'.
Ovc"l':
'"' ?->-
w
o
z
~
I-
C.)
-c
w
a:
>
.::
o
::::>
0
z
.J
8
O
I ~
-,~,,
I
COIL RESISTANCE ___.
~
\
LIFT-OFF
CHANGE
In this illustration we want to look at the equal changes in lift-off and conductivity as marked. Note how the change in conductivity causes a much larger
change in the phase shift than an equal change in lift-off.
If, in testing an article, we were able to measure the phase shift, which
variable would be suppressed by this method?
conductivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-58
lift-off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-59
From page 2-16
2-17
You felt that we would get different results if we tested the two pieces with
eddy current. Well, you are right if you assumed that these were thin pieces.
Since we did not say they were thin (we only said that they were of different
thicknesses) you actually don't know whether there will be a different result or
not.
We didn't mean to deliberately mislead you. We chose this way so that we
could drive home a point. The point is this: a difference in material thickness
will have no effect on the test results until the material is thin enough to have
an effect on the eddy current. Differences in material thicknesses have no
effect on the eddy current if both thicknesses are too great.
Return to page 2-16, reread the question, and select a better answer.
From page 5-5 2
5-56
Right! That particular display indicated that both the conductivity and the
dimension variable had changed, i.e., were different in the test piece than they
were in the reference standard.
Since the magnitude of the differences is indicated by the angle of tilt of the
ellipse and by the size of the opening of the ellipse, it is possible to mark the
tube to indicate the largest allowable variations (limits) in these two variables.
The procedure is to test a specimen that has the largest acceptable discontinuity, measure the width of the ellipse, and mark the angle of tilt. Any test
article which exceeds either of these limits is rejected.
NOTE: In our discussion of the Ellipse Display Method we have
assumed that the CRT has been set up so that the dimension variable
is on the horizontal axis of the CRT and that the conductivity variable
is on the vertical axis. These could be set up on the CRT in the other
way, i.e., the dimension variable on the vertical axis and the conductivity variable on the horizontal axis of the CRT. If that were the case,
the dimensional variable would show up as a vertical line rather than
a horizontal line and the angle of tilt would be measured from the vertical rather than the horizontal.
Now let's look at another way the CRT may be used. Turn to page 5-57.
From page 2-16
2-18
You felt that we would not get different results if we tested the two pieces
with eddy current. Well, you are right if you assumed that both pieces were
relatively thick. Since we did not say they were thick (we only said that they
were of different thicknesses) you actually don't know whether there will be a
different result or not.
We didn't mean to deliberately mislead you. We chose this way so that we
could drive home a point. The point is this: a difference in material thickness
will have an effect on the eddy current. Differences in material thicknesses
have no effect on the eddy current if both thicknesses are too great.
Return to page 2-16, reread the question, and select a better answer.
From page 5-50
5-55
Let's take another look at that display.
The tilt of the axis of the ellipse, as shown by the dashed line in the illustration, tells us that there is a difference in the conductivity variable between the
test piece and the reference standard.
Also, the fact that we see an ellipse rather than a straight line tells us that
there is a difference in the dimension variable between the test piece and the
reference standard.
So, you see, that particular display indicates that both the conductivity and
the dimension variable in the test piece changed from those variables in the
reference standard.
From page 2-16
2-19
We are proud of you. You cannot know whether or not different results will be
obtained until we tell you the actual thicknesses. If at least one of the two
specimens was thin enough to not contain the entire magnetic field of the coil,
then we would get different results from the two tests.
Remember, if the material is thick, differences in thickness has no effect on
eddy current.
So, now we have two factors, lift-off and material thickness, that are DIMENSIONAL factors to be considered in eddy current testing.
We now know that CONDUCTIVITY factors and DIMENSIONAL factors
affect the results of eddy current tests. The third, and last, major factor is the
magnetic PERMEABILITY of the material. Some conductive materials are
also permeable, which means that they can be magnetized.
When the material under test is magnetizable (has permeability), the coil's
magnetic field is affected in an inconsistant way. For example, if the coil's
magnetic field is relatively weak, the slightest variation in the induced eddy
current causes relatively extreme changes in the coil's magnetic field. On the
other hand, if the coil's magnetic field is relatively strong to begin with, slight
variations in eddy current cause only slight variations in the coil's magnetic
field. As you can probably understand, this type of inconsistancy would be
difficult to live with.
Magnetizable materials can cause problems in eddy current testing because ...
of inconsistant test results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-20
magnetizable materials are nonconductive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-21
From page 5-50
5-54
You are only partially correct. You did recognize that the display was an
ellipse and you knew that the presence of an ellipse rather than a straight line
indicated a difference in the conductivity variable between the test piece and
the reference standard.
However, you didn't notice that the axis of the ellipse was tilted.
From page 2-19
2-20
Right! In any type of nondestructive testing we cannot live with inconsistent

test results. "Why are the test results inconsistent?" you ask. Good question.
To answer the question let's take a piece of unmagnetized soft iron and
magnetize it by placing it in a coil to which we can apply direct current. Let's
start with zero current through the coil, then gradually increase the current. If
we measure the strength of the magnetic field induced in the iron during the
time we increase the current, we will find that the magnetic field strength
increases sharply at first, then, at the higher levels of current, the strength of
the magnetic field ceases to increase regardless of any increase in magnetizing
current. If we plot current values against magnetic field strength we get a
curve that looks like this.
CURRENT INCREASING--.
Note that for lower values of current (the left-hand part of the curve) two units
of current change caused about three and a half units of change in field
strength while at the higher values of current two units of current change
caused less than one unit of change in field strength. It is this inconsistancy
we cannot live with.
Study the graph for a moment. There is an area on the curve where changes in
current do not change the strength of the magnetic field. This area is at ...
the left end of the curve
Page 2-22
the right end of the curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-23
From page 5-50
5-53
You need to understand what an ellipse is to understand what we mean when

we say that the ellipse widens as the conductivity variable increases.
In the illustration below a circle is being rotated about the axis as shown.
AXIS
AXIS
On the left we see a full circle. As we proceed to the right the circle is turning
and we see an ever-narrowing ellipse until, in the center, the circle appears as a
straight line since we are looking at the edge. As the circle continues to turn,
we see an ever widening ellipse until, finally, we see the full circle once again.
You will see the same effect if you spin a coin on the top of a table and view it
from the table top level.
From page 2-19
2-21
By your selection you indicate that you think magnetizable materials are nonconductive. This is incorrect.
Materials which conduct electrical current and are magnetizable at the same
time are numerous. And we must be aware before starting an eddy current
test whether or not the material is a conductor of electricity and whether or
not the material is magnetizable. It makes a difference as you shall see.
The point is that, if the material is magnetizable and we do nothing about it,
the test results will be so inconsistant that we can obtain no useful information from the test. Thus magnetizable materials can cause problems in eddy
current testing.
5-52
From page 5-50

Good, then we can continue.
NO DISCONTINUITIES
(DIFFERENTIAL COIL BALANCE)
SMALL CHANGE
DIMENSIONAL DISCONTINUITIES
(VOLTAGE CHANGE)
SMALL CHANGE
CONDUCTIV ITV D ISCONT I NU ITI ES

(PHASE CHANGE)
SMALL CHANGE
As we have shown in the illustration above, a change in the dimension

variable causes the horizontal line to tilt while a change in the conductivity
variable causes the line to widen into an ellipse.
Suppose the display on the CRT looked like this.
Would you suspect ...

the conductivity variable had changed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-54
the dimension variable had changed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-55
both the conductivity and dimension variables had changed . . . . . . Page 5-56
From page 2-20
2-22
You indicated that the area at the left end of the curve is the area in which
changes in current do not change the strength of the magnetic field. Let's look
at the graph again.
~t
I
I
Zc,
~z
I
I
I- -
(/)~
ow
...J
I
I
a:
WU
-z
U..-
CURRENTINCREASING-+
VIEWA
Ir--6 UNITS-1
CURRENTINCREASING-+
VIEWS
In view A we've marked the graph at the left end of the curve to show exactly
what we mean. The vertical dashed lines indicate that when the current
changes from two units to eight units, the field strength (horizontal dashed
lines) increases from one and three-quarters units to eight and one-quarter
units. The change in current resulted in a change in magnetic field strength.
In view B we show a corresponding six units of current change at the far right
end of the curve. Notice that there is now no change what-so-ever to the
magnetic field.
We have reached the point of magnetic saturation. No matter how much
higher we go with the current we cannot make the magnetic field any
stronger.
From page 5-49
5-51
Woops. Somewhere we've gone wrong. You shouldn't be reading this page.
This entire chapter has been devoted to explaining that if we can separate a
change in impedance into its inductive reactance component and its resistance
component that we can then distinguish a change in dimension from a change
in conductivity. The impedance-plane diagram is still working.
Turn back to page 5-49 and reread the information presented there. Keep in
mind that, though the approach is different, the results are the same.
From Page 2-20
2-23
Yes, at the right end of the curve the soft iron has become magnetically
saturated so that changes in the magnetizing current no longer have any
effect on the strength of the magnetic field.
~i
~<.,
a::Z
I-
MAGNETIC
SATURATION
ui
(/) <(
O UJ
...JO:
UJU
-z
LL0
CURRENTINCREASING-+
This gives us a clue to a method that can be used to overcome the problems
caused by the PERMEABILITY factor. Suppose that we use a separate coil
(not an inspection coil) powered by direct current to magnetize the test
specimen to saturation. When the inspection coil is then applied, the eddy current induced are affected only by the CONDUCTIVITY and DIMENSIONAL factors of the test specimen. The inconsistencies caused by the
permeability factor have been eliminated. Note that we have not eliminated
the permeability, we have eliminated the inconsistencies caused by the fact
that the material is magnetizable.
It is very difficult to visualize the interaction of the three magnetic fields
involved when testing magnetizable materials. But, if you remember that
eddy current is induced only by changing magnetic fields, the situation is
easier to visualize.
Now, read the followingquestion carefully and select the best answer.
The inconsistencies caused by the PERMEABILITY factor are eliminated by
the eddy current induced by the direct current magnetizing coil.
True . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-24
False
Page 2-25
5-50
From page 5-49
That's correct. We can separate a dimension variable from a conductivity

variable.
Under balanced conditions (both impedances equal) the CRT display will be a
horizontal straight line. Dimension differences in the test material will cause
the line to tilt as shown here.
DIMENSIONAL
SMALL CHANGE
LARGE CHANGE
Conductivity differences between the two impedances will cause the line to
widen into an ellipse as shown here.
CONDUCTIVITY
SMALL CHANGE
LARGE CHANGE
Do you know what an ellipse is?

Yes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-52
No
Page 5-53
From page 2-23
2-24
No, the statement was not true. But before you turn back and look at it again
we admit that it was a trick question. But for a purpose!
We wanted to find out how firmly implanted in your mind is the fact that eddy
currents are caused only by varing magnetic fields. The magnetic field caused
by direct current does not vary - therefore there is no eddy current induced
by that magnetic field. The statement was false for that reason.
The true statement is: the inconsistencies caused by the PERMEABILITY
factor are eliminated because the magnetic field induced by the de coil
saturates the specimen with a magnetic field so that a given change in the
inspection coil field will always result in a given change in the eddy current.
The visual picture is actually very simple. It only gets complex when you try
to explain it.
Now turn to the next page and continue.
From page 5-4 7
5-49
The next method that uses a CRT as an indicating device is called the "Ellipse
Display Method.''
In this method the inspection coil is used in conjunction with a reference coil so
that the specimen under test is compared with a discontinuity-free standard.
The CRT is set up to read and compare the voltage drop across each coil. Since
a difference in impedance between the two coils causes the two voltages to be
out of phase, the setup is measuring the difference in phase between the two
voltages. At the same time, the magnitude of the two voltages is being compared. The difference in phase, and the difference in magnitude, are caused,
primarily, by a difference in inductive reactance and a difference in resistance,
respectively.
Since, with this setup, we can sense a change in inductive reactance and we
can sense a change in resistance, can we separate a dimension variable from a
conductivity variable?
Yes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-50
No
Page 5-51
From page 2-23
2-25
That was, indeed, a false statement. We hope that you realize that it was false
because the field caused by direct current does not vary - and a field that
does not vary cannot cause an eddy current. It this is not the reason that you
selected "False" you had better go back and reread the question and select
the other answer. There is some very important information there you should
not miss.
Okay, it's time for a little review of what we have learned so far in this
chapter. But before you start the review, the three properties of materials that
affect eddy current testing are:
CONDUCTIVITY,
DIMENSION,
and PERMEABILITY.
Now turn to page 2-26 for the review.
From page 5-46
5-48
You selected the wrong answer; perhaps because we didn't clearly explain
what we were doing.
You must understand that in testing one kind of material wtih this type of
system, that the dot appears on the face of the CRT in a position that is in
some way proportional to the impedance of the test coil. In effect we are doing
the same thing as we did when we plotted the impedance of the test coil on a
piece of graph paper. The only difference is that the point appears on the CRT
instead of on a piece of paper.
Now, since we are testing several different kinds of material, we are obtaining
points on the CRT that represent the impedances that resulted from testing
those different materials. The one factor that obviously changes between
materials is their conductivities. Therefore, a line connecting all those dots
will be the conductivity curve.
2-26
From page 2-25
1.
In order for an article to be tested with eddy current the article

must be made of material that is electrically
_
5. opposes
6. The strength of the eddy current magnetic field depends upon the
strength of the
induced in the material.
10. stronger
11. A nonconductive coating on the material under test will cause the
induced eddy currents to be
than they would be if
the coatings weren't present.
16. results
17. Inconsistencies in the test results due to the permeability of

magnetizable materials can be avoided by magnetizing the test
specimen with a coil powered by
current.
5-47
From page 5-46
Good thinking! Since we were taking readings on several different types of

materials, the curve has to be the conductivity curve.
We can also plot the lift-off curve on the face of the CRT by taking readings of
varying thicknesses of nonconductive material placed on top of the material
that we are about to test. In this way the entire impedance-plane diagram can
be plotted on the face of the CRT.
During actual testing of specimens, the impedance of the test coil will cause a
dot to appear at some point on the screen. Its position with respect to the
impedance-plane diagram tells the operator what has occured within the
specimen.
By testing reference standards, the range of allowable discontinuities may
also be identified and marked on the CRT. The reading obtained on a crack in
a standard, for example, can be marked on the tube. In this manner all of the
acceptable parameters can be marked on the tube.
An advantage of using a CRT is its extreme flexibility. For example, the
equipment may be set up so that the display is rotated as shown here.
CONDUCTIVITY
CONDUCTIVITY
I \
LIFTOFF ~
With the display rotated to the position shown on the right, a change in lift-off
will move the dot to the left or right whit a change in conductivity will move
the dot up or down. Now turn to page 5-4~ and continue.
2-27
1. conductive
2. When an inspection coil powered with alternating current is placed

on or near electrically conductive material
_
are magnetically induced into the material.
6. eddy current
7. One factor of the material that affects the strength of the induced
eddy current is the con
of the material.
11. weaker
12. Lift-off, while not a factor in the material, is an example of a

D
factor.
17. direct
18. In suppressing inconsistencies with a separate coil powered by

direct current, the test specimen is magnetized to the point of
magnetic ------sat
5-46
From page 5-44
Very good! The dashed line from D to E is indeed the conductivity suppression line. The selection of an operating point that lies somewhere on that line
will cause the conductivity variable to be suppressed without affecting the
indication of a change in lift-off.
Note that the conductivity suppression line is essentially perpendicular to the
conductivity curve at the point of interest. The considerations for the final
selection of the operating point are the same as those we gave for the final
selection of the operating point when suppressing lift-off. In short - select
the point that gives the best results.
When a cathode ray tube (CRT) is provided as part of the test equipment it is
possible to set up the equipment so that the impedance of the test coil will
cause a dot to appear on the face of the CRT. The position of the dot is determined by the test coil impedance.
Now, if we take a sample of several different kinds of conductive material and
test each one with the system we just described, we will find that the dot on
the tube will appear in a different position as we test each type of material. If
we use a grease pencil to mark the position of each dot as it appears on the
face of the tube and if we connect the dots together with a line, we will find we
have drawn a familiar looking curve on the face of the CRT.
This curve will correspond
impedance-plane diagram.
to the
curve of the
conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-4 7

lift-off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-48
2-28
2. eddy currents
2. Eddy currents are electrical currents that flow inc
paths within the material.
-------
7. conductivity
8. CONDUCTIVITY, DIMENSIONS, AND PERMEABILITY are

three f
of the material that affect the eddy current
induced in the material.
12. DIMENSIONAL
13. A dimensional factor that is directly attributable to the material is

the th
of the material.
18. saturation
19. The thickness of the material becomes a factor in eddy current

testing when the material is thin enough that it no longer contains
the inspection coil's
From page 5-44
5-45
Your selection is incorrect. In spite of the similiarity of this diagram to the

diagrams we have been looking at, the line between points D and E is no
longer the lift-off suppression line. How is it different? Let's look at the
diagram again.
90
CONDUCTIVITY
w
o
z
~
o
<{
w
a:
CONDUCTIVITY
SUPPRESSION
>
t-
LINE~
::::>
Q
..J
0
o
---E
-- -- -
--
---
--
-::::;... -:;;...~
_..., __.- __..
......- _,..,,.
METAL
0
COi L RESISTANCE
There are two things on this diagram that we want you to pay particular
attention to:
1) Notice that the distance from D to A is equal to the distance from D to B.
This tells us that a change in conductivity from A to B will not cause the
meter reading to change. The conductivity variable has been suppressed.
2) Notice also that any point along the line from D to E is equidistant from
points A and B. This tells us that the line D - E is now the conductivity
suppression line.
2-29
3. circular
4. Eddy current in a material acts in the same manner as current flow
ing through a coil in that it causes am

be produced.
to
8. factors
9. If a material has low conductivity, the eddy current induced will be

(strong, weak).
13. thickness
14. The three categories of material factors that affect eddy currents are:
CONDUCTIVITY,DIMENSION, and P
19. magnetic field
20. The three material factors that affect eddy current testing are:
'
'
and
5-44
From page 5-43
In measuring the thickness of nonconductive coatings on conductive

materials it is required that the lift-off variable be measured and that the conductivity variable be suppressed. The diagram below shows how the conductivity variable is suppressed by selecting the proper operating point.
000
CONDUCTIVITY
z
~
o
<(
a:
w
>
COATING
i'.=
o
::::,
....I
0
_..E
BARE
METAL
- - -=--=--::.. -=-~~- -
- --- --
--
~
COIL RESISTANCE
Ill>
On this diagram the dashed line connecting point D to point E represents ...
the lift-off suppression line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-45
the conductivity suppression line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-46
2-30
4. magnetic field
5. The
o
magnetic
field produced by the eddy current

the magnetic field of the inspection coil.
JI
.,.
always

frame 6.
9. weak
10. When testing a material with low conductivity, the eddy current
field will be weak, therefore, the field of the inspection coil will be
_______
(stonger, weaker)than if the same test were being
made on a material with high conductivity.
.,. frame 11.
JI
15. PERMEABILITY
16. Permeability in a part affects eddy current tests by introducing

inconsistenciesin the test -----r
JI
.,.

frame 17.
20. CONDUCTIVITY
DIMENSION
PERMEABILITY
This completes the review. Now turn to page 2-31and continue.
From page 5-40
5-43
Yes, point E could have been used since it is on the lift-off suppression line. Of
course, the operating point selected could lie anywhere along the line D - E.
If the operating point selected is too far away from the conductivity curve it is
possible that the meter will be driven off scale, but selecting an operating
point considerably away from the conductivity curve will produce the best
overall results.
If point D is selected as the operating point and the test probe is moved from
Alloy A to Alloy B, the meter reading will decrease. If point Eis selected as
the operating point, the meter reading will increase as the probe is moved
from Alloy A to Alloy B. It is possible that better sensitivity will be obtained
using an operating point located on one side than on the other. In practice, the
best procedure is to evaluate operating points on both sides, then choose
whichever gives the best results.
Now that you have seen how a particular operating point can be selected so
that variations in lift-off are suppressed, you probably realize that, in the
same fashion, an operating point can be selected that will suppress variations
in the conductivity variable.
Let's have a look. Turn to the next page.
From page 2-30
2-31
Now let's take a look at conductivity. Conductivity is a measurement of the

ability of a material to carry electrical current. The conductivity of a given
material is defined as the number of amperes of current that will flow through
a given size (cross sectional area) of the material when a given voltage is
applied to it. This definition is too cumbersome to use when applied to eddy
current testing. Instead, we use the International Annealed Copper Standard
(IACS) of conductivity.
In the IACS the conductivity of unalloyed (pure), annealed copper was arbitrarily selected as the standard and the conductivities of all other materials are
expressed as a percentage of this standard. In other words, annealed copper is
assigned a rating of 100% and a material that conducts electrical current only
half as well is rated at 50% IACS. The IACS rating of several common
materials is given in the following table.
Metal or Alloy
% IACS
Metal or Alloy
% IACS
Silver
Copper, Annealed
Gold
Aluminum
Aluminum Alloys:
6061-T6
7075-T6
2024-T4
Magnesium
105
100
70
61
70-30 Brass
Phosphor Bronzes
Monel
Zirconium
Zircaloy-2
304 Stainless Steel
Iconel 600
Hastelloy X
Waspaloy
28
11
3.6
3.4
2.4
2.5
1.7
1.5
1.4
42
32
30
37
Referring to the table, which of the followingis a better conductor of electricity?

Gold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-32
Silver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-33
5-42
From page 5-40
You selected the answer that indicates that you do not think that we could
have used point E as an operating point and we don't want you to think that.
Here's the diagram again.
900
LIFT-OFF
SUPPRESSION
LINE
}D
CONDUCTIVITY
w
o
1/1
tu
<{
1-
o
<{
I I/
a:
/ It
w
;:::
1o
::::,
1/
&
z
.J
0
u
ALLOY B
ALLOY A
COIL RESISTANCE
~
~
Point D was selected as an operating point because it was equidistant from two
points on the lift-off curve, point C and Alloy A. Point E is also equidistant
from the same two points so it also could have been used as an operating point.
We also want to make sure that you understand that we could use any point
that lies on the line E - D since any point on that line is equidistant from
points C and Alloy A.
2-32
From page 2-31

Gold is not a better conductor than silver. Let's look at the table again.
Metal or Alloy
% IACS
Metal or Alloy
% IACS
Silver
Copper, Annealed
Gold
Aluminum
Aluminum Alloys:
6061-T6
7075-T6
2024-T4
Magnesium
105
100
70
61
70-30 Brass
Phosphor Bronzes
Monel
Zirconium
Zircaloy-2
304 Stainless Steel
Iconel 600
Hastelloy X
Waspaloy
28
11
3.6
3.4
2.4
2.5
1.7
1.5
1.4
42
32
30
37
Gold is listed in the table as having a conductivity of 70% IACS while silver is
listed as having a conductivity of 105% IACS. Thus gold has a conductivity of
only 70% of that of copper while silver at 105% is even a better conductor of
electricity than copper.
You may have been misled because you happen to know that switching contacts in highly reliable electronic equipment are gold plated. This is true, but
the gold is used because it does not corrode. Since it does not corrode it has
better conductivity than corroded (no longer pure) copper. Corrosion on the
copper switch contacts can, in fact, lead to no conductivity at all.
From page 5-39
5-41
Sorry, the meter will not read zero. You must keep in mind that the meter will
always give an indication that is proportional to the distance between the

impedance of the operating point and the impedance of the test coil.
In this case we have allowed the coil to be lifted slightly from the surface of
Alloy A and the impedance of the inspection coil did change. But, the distance
between the impedance of the test coil and the impedance of the operating
point did not change. Thus, the reading on the meter does not change.
Since the meter reading does not change with lift-off we have determined a
way of operation where lift-off will not affect the meter reading.
From page 2-31
2-33
Right! Silver at 105% IACS is a better conductor of electricity than gold at

70% IACS.
The table is only a partial list of materials, but it illustrates that materials do
have different abilities to conduct electrical current. They range from good
conductors like copper and silver through poor conductors like nickel or steel
to nonconductors like wood or glass.
Now, if we establish a given magnetic field in an inspection coil and place the
coil, first, on a piece of copper, and then on a piece of aluminum, the coil's
magnetic field will be affected differently by each metal because of the difference in conductivity. The stronger eddy current induced in the copper will
produce a stronger field in opposition to the field of the coil.
Notice that we used a given magnetic field to test those materials. If we had
used a different magnetic field in each of those two tests we would not have
been comparing the two metals under exactly the same conditions and the
results would have been unreliable.
The point we are making is this: differences in the conductivity of different
materials is detectable by eddy current testing due to the effect that the conductivity of the material has on the magnetic field of the coil.
A change in conductivity, then, can be detected by eddy current testing.
True . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-34
False . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-35
5-40
From page 5-39
Right On! With point D selected as the operating point, lift-off will not affect
the meter reading since the distance from point D to point C is equal to the
distance from point D to Alloy A.
Now we want to point out that point Dis not the only point that we could have
used as an operating point. We could have used any point that is equidistant
from points C and Alloy A.
Students of geometry will recognize that the locus of all the points that are
equidistant from two points on a plane is the perpendicular bisector of the line
drawn between the two points. For those who are not students of geometry,
all this means is that we find a point midway between Alloy A and point C and
draw a perpendicular line at that point. In the illustration below we have
drawn that line (D to E) and have labeled it the "LIFT-OFF SUPPRESSION
LINE".
900
LIFT-OFF
SUPPRESSION
LINE
CONDUCTIVITY
tI,
tu
~
u
4:
IIJ
I II
w
a:
w
>
j::
u
:::)
I //
1\/ I
Cl
2
.J
0
u
~ALLOY
ALLOY B
A
COIL RESISTANCE-------
Could we have just as well used point E as an operating point?

No . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-42
Yes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-43
From page 2-33
2-34
Yes, a change in conductivity can be detected by eddy current testing. Since

various materials do have different conductivities, we can sort conductive
materials by measuring the conductivity of each piece. All pieces with the
same conductivity are of the same material (excepting nonconductive
materials).
But - there are other factors which can change the conductivity of a sample
of given material. While the inherent conductivity of a material is always the
same there are internal factors that can cause what appears to be a change in
the inherent conductivity. These are: 1) A combination of two or more
materials to form an alloy, 2) changes in the hardness of the material due to
heat treatment, 3) changes in the temperature of the material, 4) residual
stresses in the material, and 5) the presence of a thin coating or cladding of
another conductive material. Let's discuss these one at a time.
Alloys. Alloys are combinations of other metals and/or chemical elements with
a base metal to form what is essentially a new and different material whose
properties, including that of conductivity, are different from the base
material. The new material, so long as it has the same proportional amounts of
its elements, will always have the same conductivity. A variation of any of the
alloy elements will cause the conductivity to change. This change in conductivity is detectable with eddy current instruments, provided that the change
in conductivity is large enough to be detected. The purity of the alloy can be
tested in this manner when alloying elements increase or decrease the conductivity of the alloy.
An alloy of two base materials will have the same conductivity as one of the
base materials.
True . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-36
False
Page 2-37
5-39
From page 5-37
O.K.! The meter will read a value that is proportional to the length of the vector
from point D to Alloy A. This reading, of course, corresponds to the difference
in impedance between the inspection coil and the variable impedance.
Suppose, now, that we want to detect a change in conductivity and, at the
same time, suppress any effect of lift-off. We selected point D as the operating
point for this very reason. The diagram below shows why. Study it carefully.
900
CONDUCTIVITY
w
u
z
~
u
<t
w
a:
w
>
i==
u
::J
0
z
ALLOY B
..J
6
u
~ALLOY
o0
O
COIL RESISTANCE
In shifting our inspection coil from Alloy A to Alloy B, the meter reading will
change since the distance from point D to Alloy A is not the same as the
distance from point D to Alloy B. The change in the meter reading indicates
the difference in conductivity between the two alloys.
Notice that the distance from point D to Alloy A is equal to the distance from
point D to point C which is on the lift-off curve. Since these two distances are
equal ...
lift-off will not affect the meter reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-40
the meter will read "zero" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-41
From page 2-33
2-35
Sorry! The statement was true.

Just before the last review we stated that one of the properties of materials
that affects eddy current testing is the CONDUCTIVITY of the material.
Isn't it reasonable to expect that a material that has a conductivity of 20%
IACS would cause less effect on the field of the inspection coil than a material
that has a conductivity of 50% IACS since the eddy currents induced in the
material are of different strengths?
In other words, the difference in conductivity between the different materials
causes a change in the coil' s magnetic field.
Wouldn't it follow, then, that a change in conductivity causes a change in the
coil's magnetic field and is, therefore, detectable?
Turn to page 2-34.
From page 5-3 7
5-38
No, the meter will not read zero. Perhaps we should have described the test set
that we are using a little better.
We are using the bridge circuit shown schematically here.
VARIABLE
RESISTOR
VARIABLE
REACTANCE
Now, if the variable resistance and the variable reactance are set so that the
impedance of that leg of the bridge is at point D on the impedance-plane
diagram, and the impedance of the leg of the bridge containing the inspection
coil is at the point marked "Alloy A", the bridge will be out of balance. Since
the bridge is out of balance, the meter cannot read "zero."
Actually, with the variable impedance set at one point on the impedance-plane
diagram and the inspection coil impedance being at another point, the meter
will read a value that is proportional to the difference in impedance between
the two legs of the bridge. In other words, the meter will show a value that is
proportional to the distance between the two points described.
It is very important that you understand this concept. Now turn to page 5-39
and continue.
From page 2-34
2-36
An alloy does not have the same conductivity as that of one of its base metals.
An alloy of different materials always has different properties (hardness, tensile strength, malleability, etc.) than the parent materials. Conductivity is one
of those properties.
It is this fact that makes eddy current testing most useful in the identification
of different materials and their alloys. In fact, the purity of a metal or an alloy
can be determined through knowledge of what its conductivity should be or
by comparison of its conductivity with the conductivity of a standard for that
material.
Let's put the statement another way. Conductivity is one of the properties
that identifies a material. Tin, for example, is a silvery metallic element with
an atomic weight of 118.69, a melting point of 231.89C, a specific gravity of
7.31, and a conductivity of 15% IACS. All of these are properties of tin. Any
material that has these properties is tin since tin is the only element that has
these properties. Any material that has a conductivity different from 15% is
not pure tin.
5-37
From page 5-36
Now that you have been thoroughly introduced to the impedance-plane

diagram, let's see how the diagram can help us to suppress those variables
that are not of interest or that can help us to obtain the best possible results
with a minimum of interference.
When using the type of equipment where the bridge network may be balanced
(nulled) by adjustment of resistance and inductive reactance, the bridge may
be set to operate from any point on the impedance plane. Let's see how this
capability is used so that the response is more sensitive to one variable and
less sensitive to the other.
Suppose that we want to check the conductivity of an alloy, say Alloy A.
900
CONDUCT
IV ITV
eo
o
z
<l:
t-
u
-c
w
a:
w
~
t-
::::,
a
....,
0
o
ALLOY A
o0
O
COIL RESISTANCE------
Let's "dial in" the right amount of inductive reactance and resistance into the
balancing impedance so that the equipment is set to operate from the point
marked D on the impedance plane diagram shown above. If everything is as it
should be, the impedance of the inspection coil, when it is placed on the
material, will lie on the conductivity line at the point marked Alloy A.
The meter reading on the test set will then be . . .
at zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-38
proportional to the length of the vector from point D
to Alloy A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-39
From page 2-34
2-37
Very good! You seem to recognize that an alloy will have its own distinct
conductivity.
Up to now, eddy current testing looks too good to be true. Right? Here's
where we begin to complicate the picture.
Material hardness. The hardness of some materials (metals) will affect the conductivity. A material that has been heat treated or that has been over-heated
in service will also have a change in it's conductivity. This change is due to an
internal change in the material. If the change in conductivity is great enough
(as it is in age-hardenable aluminum) it is possible to monitor the heat-treat
process to assure that the proper hardness is attained.
If a test technician is to attain reliable results from an eddy current test, he
must be aware of any possible heat treat factors that might exist and affect
the results he is obtaining. Conversly, if he is getting results that seem out of
order, he must be able to confirm that heat treat or overheating is, or is not,
the cause for the erroneous results.
When inspecting an article such as an axle or shaft that has been in service,
the presence of an area that has become hardened or softened due to
overheating is ...
likely . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-38
unlikely . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-39
5-36
5. The resistance component of the impedance is __

the applied voltage.
900
9. lift-off
with
Return to page fi-32,

frame 6.
\'~B
\
0'-------0
' ' ',..1A
10. It is easier to distinguish between lift-off and conductivity at point

__ (A,B)on the conductivity curve.
~
frame 11.
JI
14. increases
15. The depth of penetration decreases as the frequency
19. decrease

frame 16.
This completes the review. Now turn to page 5-37 and continue.
'
From page 2-3 7
2-38
Right! The test technician has to be aware of the possibility that such hardened
areas are likely to exist in articles that have been in service.
Material Temperature. In the same manner, the temperature of the material

will affect the conductivity of the material. An increase in the temperature of
the material normally results in a decrease in the conductivity of the material;
and a decrease in the temperature results in an increase in the conductivity.
Here again the technician must realize this effect exists when he is working
with materials at temperatures above or below normal. Fortunately, articles
under test very seldom have hot spots (the article is generally at the same
temperature all over) so test results are simply shifted in conductivity and are
not garbled as a result of temperature changes.
Internal Stresses. Internal stresses, however,do occur in local areas in an article.
And these stresses do cause changes in the conductivity of the article at those
areas. Here the technician must know the manufacturing processes involved and
be able to know when such internal stresses are likely to be present. Residual
stresses cause unpredictable but detectable changes in conductivity.
Conductive Cladding. Here we show an article which consists of a thin layer of
aluminum laid over a thick sheet of copper. The conductivity of the aluminum
is 61% IACS and the conductivity of the copper is 100% IACS.
i=::::::=:::=:::=:::=:::=:::=:::=:::=:::=:::=:::=:::=:::=:::=:::=:::==t~~~-ALUMINUM
COPPER
The conductivity of this article will be ...

61% IACS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-40
100% IACS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-41
Something less than 100% IACS
Page 2-42
5-35
3. lags behind
4. Impedance is made up of two components. These are resistance and
90
8. impedances
\\100%
00
9. On this impedance-planediagram the dashed line is known as the

_____
curve.
13. depth, penetration
14. The depth of penetration decreaseswhen the conductivity
18. increase
19. Increasing the frequency also causes the depth of penetration to
From page 2-3 7
2-39
You feel that an article such as an axle or shaft that has been in service is
unlikely to have a heat affected area. You may be right, but unless you know
that you are right, you are wrong. If you are absolutely certain that the article
has not been affected by heat, then, and only then, may you assume that there
will be no changes in conductivity due to hardened or softened areas.
Until you are certain, you have to assume that any changes in conductivity
might be due to service inflicted heat.
5-34
2. phase
3. The phase angle is a measure of how much the current through a test
coil
the voltage applied to the coil.
7. conductivity
8. The conductivity curve on the impedance-plane diagram is the locus

of all the im
that result from changes in conductivity .
12. lower
13. The point at which the thickness curve meets the conductivity curve
of
identifies the
of the eddy
currents.
17. decrease (lower)
18. Increasing the frequency also causes the conductivity to

From page 2-38
2-40
Apparently you feel that the conductivity of the aluminum, since it was on
top, would be the conductivity of the article. Let's put an inspection coil on
the article and see what happens to the field of the coil.
ALUMINUM
COPPER
Note that the field of the coil enters both the aluminum and the copper, so
both materials will affect the field.
If the aluminum had been thick enough so that the field of the coil did not
reach the copper your answer would have been correct. The conductivity of
the article would have been the conductivity of the aluminum.
But here we are talking about a very thin coating of aluminum (say 1 or 2 mils).
Now do you agree that the conductivity of the article would not be 61% ?
Return to page 2-38 and select another answer.
5-33
1. length
OL_
00
2. On an impedance-planediagram the angle between the O O line and the

impedance vector is called the
angle.
90
6. 90
00
7. On this impedance-plane diagram the curved line is called the

c_on
curve.
11. thickness
12. Increasing the operating frequency causes the material under test to
move towards the
(lower,higher) end of the conductivity
curve.
16. thin
17. To make eddy currents more sensitive to dimensional changes we can

_____
the frequency.
2-41
From page 2-38
You feel that the conductivity of the article would be 100% IACS (the conductivity of the copper). You probably decided that since there was so much more
copper than aluminum that the conductivity of the copper would be the correct answer. You were wrong. Here we show the situation as it would exist if
we had shown the inspection coil and its field.
ALUMINUM (61% IACS)
COPPER (100% IACS)
Note that the magnetic field extends through the aluminum and into the copper. Most of the field lies in the copper, that's true, but a tiny portion of the
stongest part of the field is in the aluminum. This small increment is enough
to lessen the conductivity of the copper portion. So, the copper looses a tiny
portion of its conductivity that is almost :replacedby the conductivity of the
aluminum.
Return to page 2-38 and select a better answer.
5-32
From page 5-31
1. On an impedance-plane diagram the impedance of the test coil is

represented by a line whose
represents the impedance
value.
5. in phase
6. The inductive reactance componentof the impedancelags behind the

applied voltage by __ degrees.
90
10. A
~
0
00
11. On this impedance-planediagram we have added thet=h=-------curve.
15. decreases
16. Eddy currents are more sensitive to dimensional changes when the
material under test is
(thin, thick).
From page 2-38
2-42
Exactly! The conductivity of that article will be something less than the conductivity of the copper since the aluminum intercepts a small portion of the
magnetic field that would otherwise be available for the induction of eddy current in the copper. The aluminum also has its eddy currents but they will not
be as strong as they would have been for an equal thickness of copper; so the
conductivity would be something less than 100% IACS.
Now, suppose that the aluminum cladding was not of equal thickness over the
entire surface of the article. Let's assume that the cladding was to be 2-mils
thick but, due to a problem in the manufacturing process, the cladding over
part of the article was only 1-mil thick. These under-cladded areas can be
located by eddy current testing because the conductivity of the article
changes as the inspection coil moves from the thicker cladding to the thinner
cladding.
Now, think carefully about this question before selecting your answer.
When the inspection coil is placed over an area where the cladding is 2-mils
thick, the conductivity is 98.5% IACS. When the coil is placed over an area
where the cladding is 1-mil thick the conductivity will be ...
greater than 98.5% IACS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-43
less than 98.5% IACS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-44
From page 5-29
5-31
First, question a). As the frequency increases, the depth of penetration
decreases. Note that the diagrams showed higher thicknesses on the

thickness curve at the lower frequencies.
Next, question b). As the frequency increases, the conductivity increases.
Note that brass is further away from the nonconductive material (air).
Next, question c). As the frequency increases, the sensitivity to dimensional
changes at a thickness of 9 mils decreases. Compare the spacing between 8
and 9 mils on both diagrams. The closer spacing indicates less sensitivity. In
this same manner we could pick any point and show that the sensitivity to
dimensional changes has decreased as the frequency increases.
From page 2-42
2-43
Good thinking! The conductivity will increase since there is now more copper
and less aluminum in the magnetic field.
Now let's reverse the materials. Let's clad a bar of aluminum with 2-mils of
copper.
i::==================t---
COPPER(100% IACS)
t----ALUMINUM
(61% IACS)
Now, what will be the conductivity of this article?

Something greater than 61% IACS
Page 2-45
Something less than 61% IACS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-46
From page 5-28
5-30
No! Eddy currents are not more sensitive to dimensional changes when the
material is thicker.
AIR
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<,
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120 KHz
THICKNESS IN Ml LS
COi L RESISTANCE
LEAD
'4
<,
<,
AL
Notice the change in impedance (the space) between the thickness of 1 mil and
2 mils on the thickness curve. Compare this change in impedance with the
change in impedance between the thicknesses of 7 mils and 8 mils. The change
is much greater between 1 and 2 mils.
Thus the curve shows that eddy current tests are more sensitive to dimensional changes when the material is thin.
2-44
From page 2-42
You felt that the conductivity would decrease as the coil was moved from the
area with 2-mil cladding to the area with 1-mil cladding. That is incorrect for
this situation (copper cladded aluminum). Let's look at a sketch of the situation.
2-MIL
ALUMINUM
1-MIL
ALUMINUM
COPPER
---1
, Qi 1/ Ii I
\\>sl>ml..::'.'
'',
I; l
--
What we are attempting to show here is that more of the magnetic field is in
the copper when the aluminum cladding is only 1-mil thick than when the
aluminum cladding is 2-mils thick.
Since more of the field is in the copper, the conductivity has to increase. Thus
the decrease in the thickness of the aluminum cladding causes the conductivity
of the article to increase.
From page 5-28
5-29
Yes, eddy currents are more sensitive to dimensional changes when the
material is thinner. This is plainly shown on the impedance-plane diagram.
There is one more effect that we want to point out. What happens to the
thickness curves at different frequencies?
AIR
AIR
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3
4
-.
BRASS
60 KHz
THICKNESS IN MILS
120 KHz
THICKNESS IN MILS
COIL RESISTANCE__,.
COIL RESISTANCE__.
On the left we show an impedance-plane diagram plotted with the frequency

at 60 kHz. On the right - at 120 kHz. See if you can answer the following
questions by referring to these diagrams.
As the frequency increases ...
a) The depth of penetration
(increases, decreases).
b) The conductivity
c) The sensitivity to dimensional changes at a thickness of 9 mils
_________
Now turn to page 5-31 and check your answers.
2-45
From page 2-43
Good thinking! Since the copper cladding at 100% IACS has better conductivity than the aluminum at 61 % IACS, the cladding can only increase the
conductivity of the article. It will become greater than 61% IACS.
Now, reviewing for a moment the last few pages, you must realize that in some
cases the addition of a conductive coating to an article will cause the conductivity of the article to increase while in other cases addition of a conductive
coating will cause the conductivity of the article to decrease.
An increase occurs when the coating is more conductive than the base
material. A decrease occurs when the coating is less conductive than the base
material.
The point is that the eddy current test technician has to keep his head out of
the sand. He has to think about what he is doing, what he is working with, and
the results that he expects to see so that he can recognize unexpected results.
Now let's see if your head is in the sand or not.
We have an article made of brass (conductivity - 28% IACS) which has been
plated with gold (conductivity - 70% IACS). We are to check the thickness of
the plating.
As the plating becomes thinner, the conductivity of the article will ...
increase
decrease
Page 2-47
Page 2-48
5-28
From page 5-26
Fine! As you have seen, the impedance-plane diagram agrees with what we
learned previously.
There is one more thing to note about the thickness curve.
AIR
<{
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a:
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>
fo
:::,
\
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....
't:
~
<O,
\'\,-,
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(/,(',)'
o~ '-
~
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-,<,
<,
<,
120 KHz
THICKNESS IN Ml LS
COi L RESISTANCE
~ LEAD
'4
<,
<,
AL
1J11
Notice the spread between 7 and 8 mils on the thickness curve. Compare this
spread with the spread between 1 and 2 mils.
This difference in spread tells us that eddy currents are more sensitive to
dimensional changes when the material is ...
thinner
thicker
Page 5-29
Page 5-30
From page 2-43
2-46
Nope, the conductivity will be something greater than 61 % IACS; and here's
why.
If the article were made of bare aluminum the conductivity would be 61%
IACS, right? Now, the copper cladding by itself will have a conductivity of
100% IACS, right?
Then, when we add the copper cladding to the aluminum article, we are adding
a better conductor to a poorer conductor; so the conductivity of the article has
to increase. It's as simple as that.
Also, the thicker the cladding the more the conductivity will increase. This
could be continued until the thickness of the copper exceeded the depth to
which the magnetic field penetrates. In that case the conductivity would be
100% IACS (the conductivity of pure copper).
From page 5-26
5-27
increases, the depth of

penetration decreases. Look at the illustration more closely.
Oops! You've got it backwards. As conductivity
30
-- --- --- -- --- ---THICKNESS
- - ----- ------- __
...._...._
........
14 ":---...
. ............
120 KHz
THICKNESS IN MILS
Note that the conductivity is increasing as we move down the conductivity

curve. Note also the thickness of the AR-2, the lead, and the brass at the
points where the individual thickness curves meet the conductivity curve.
These thicknesses correspond to the depth of penetration of the eddy currents
into the individual materials.
Note that these key thicknesses are decreasing as the conductivity increases.
Thus, the depth of penetration decreases as the conductivity increases. The
impedance-plane diagram bears out those facts that we explained in a
previous chapter.
From page 2-45
2-47
You have selected the wrong answer. In order to get the correct answer to a
question like that you have to have the picture of conductivity firmly in your
mind.
In this case we have the material with the lower conductivity (brass at 28%
IACS) as a base on which we have added a layer of the material with the
higher conductivity (gold at 70% IACS). When the layer of gold was added,
the conductivity of the article increased because we added material of a higher
conductivity. Right?
Now if that layer gets thinner there will be less of it so the conductivity will
decrease.
Now turn to page 2-48
5-26
From page 5-23
Good! The impedance-plane diagram shows that the depth of penetration is

greater in lead than in brass.
Now here's the diagram again.
THICKNESS
--- -- --- -- ----
------------------
......................
14
. .....__
120 KHz
THICKNESS IN MILS
Remember that as we move upwards along the conductivity curve the conductivity of the materials is decreasing. In a previous chapter we said that the
depth of penetration is affected by the conductivity of the material. The
impedance-planediagram bears this out.
In fact, from the impedance-planediagram, we can see that as the conductivity
increases, the depth of penetration ...
increases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-27
decreases
Page 5-28
2-48
From page 2-45
Right! Since the plating was of a material with a higher conductivity than the
base material, the plating increased the conductivity; so thin areas in the
plating will cause a decrease in the conductivity.
We have now covered those factors that affect measurement of the CONDUCTIVITY of materials. We have also explained how to get rid of adverse effects
caused by PERMEABILITY.
Now let's take a longer look at the DIMENSIONAL factors involved.
We have already covered the dimensional factor of the spacing (lift-off)between
the inspection coil and the material. Let's look at the ways in which the dimension and shape of a test specimen affect eddy current testing.
ARTICLE A
ARTICLE
In article A the material is so thick that the coil's magnetic field is completely
contained in the material. In article B the same material is thin enough so that
the magnetic field extends completely through the material. The point being
that part of the field not in the material does not cause eddy currents.
Since the two articles are of the same material, we know that the inherent conductivity of the two materials is the same, yet, because of the difference in
thickness, we can expect that a measurement of the two articles will show that
there is less conductivity in ...
Article A
Page 2-49
Article B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-50
5-25
From page 5-23
Perhaps you didn't understand the significance of the numbers along the
thickness curves. Here's the illustration again.
THICKNESS
--.. ........ --- --- --
- --- -
120 KHz
THICKNESS IN MILS
The numbers along the thickness curves represent the thickness of the
material in mils (thousanths of an inch). Now notice that the depth of penetration of the brass is about 40 mils and of the lead about 70 mils.
Thus, from the impedance-plane diagram, we can see that the depth of
penetration in lead is greater than the depth of penetration in brass.
From page 2-48
2-49
You feel that the thicker article will register less conductivity than the thinner
article. That feeling is incorrect.
Since the entire magnetic field of the inspection coil is contained within the
article shown in view A, more magnetic lines of force are intercepting (or cutting through) the conductor. We learned back in Chapter 1 that stronger currents are induced in a conductor when more lines of force are cutting through
the conductor.
In view B, not all of the lines of force are inducing current at all times, since
for at least part of the time the magnetic field is outside the material. Thus
less current is induced in the article.
The coil senses this difference in the induced currents as a change in conductivity, with the thin material having less conductivity than the thick material.
The test technician must be able to recognize that the change in conductivity
is due to the dimensional factor of the thinness of the material, and not to
some other factor.
From page 5-22
5-24
Slow down a little. You have selected the answer that says that the point at
which the thickness curve meets the conductivity curve represents the point
at which the thickness of the brass cannot be increased. Don't be fast-talked
into selecting a statement that is as wrong as this one.

The fact is that, starting with a 1-milthick piece of brass, we have gradually
increased the thickness until the thickness has reached the depth of penetration. At that point, any further increase in the thickness of the brass will not
affect the impedance of the coil.
The meeting of the thickness curve with the conductivity curve does not mean
that the thickness cannot be increased. It does mean that further increases in
thickness will not affect the impedance of the test coil.
From page 2-48
2-50
Good choice! A measurement of the conductivity of the two articles will show
that the thinner article has less conductivity than the thicker article even
though all other factors are identical.
The next question is, "Will an even thinner article have even less conductivity?"
The answer is so obvious that we'll answer, "Yes, an even thinner article will
have even less conductivity."
Does this suggest that we could possibly gage the thickness of thin materials
using eddy current testing?

Yes, of course, but to do so means that ...
all other conditions of the test must be identical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-51
the material being gaged must be identical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-52
From page 5-22
5-23
Correct. The thickness curve meets the conductivity curve at the point where
the thickness equals the depth of penetration of the eddy currents. Increasing
the thickness of the brass beyond that point has no effect whatsoever on the
impedance of the test circuit.
You will recall that the depth of penetration depends upon the conductivity of
the material and the frequency applied to the test coil. Here is an expanded
view of the impedance-plane diagram showing how the thickness variations
differ for three different kinds of material (the frequency is held constant).
THICKNESS
--... ---
-- ----
-------------
....................
-----
120 KHz
THICKNESS IN MILS
Compare the thickness curves of brass and lead on the illustration above.
Which will allow the greatest depth of penetration?
Brass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-25
Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-26
From page 2-50
2-51
Right! That is a point that we want to emphasize. A comparison of the

thickness of thin materials by measuring the conductivity cannot be obtained
unless all other factors in the test are identical. Changing coils, for example,
would mean that the results obtained would vary for reasons other than the
thickness of the material. Therefore the tests would not be valid.
Up to this point we have not emphasized the eddy current path in the
material, but the paths that the eddy currents take do play a part in eddy current tests. The eddy currents flow in circular paths that are parallel to the
winding of the inspection coil. They must form complete paths and, in thick
materials, are concentrated near the surface next to the coil as shown here.
If the material contains a discontinuity, the eddy currents are forced out of
their normal circular paths. The paths become longer. Because the paths
become longer, the currents are weakened, and the eddy current magnetic
field is weakened.
We are inspecting an article by passing an inspection coil over the surface. If
we pass the coil over an area which has a crack we can expect the coil's
magnetic field to . . .
decrease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-53
increase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-54
5-22
From page 5-21
So far in this chapter we have shown the effects of changes in conductivity,

lift-off, and frequency on the impedance-plane diagram. Another factor that
affects the change of impedance is the dimensional factor of materials that are
thinner than the depth of penetration.
To show the effect of changes in dimension on the impedance-plane diagram,
we measure the impedance of the test coil as it is placed on varying
thicknesses of the material under test and plot these points on the impedanceplane diagram. Here we show the results of such a test on varying thicknesses
of brass at a frequency of 120 kHz.
AIR
l
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.3
<,
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120 KHz
THICKNESS IN Ml LS
COi L RESISTANCE
<,
O LEAD
<,
-,
Al
From the illustration above, what is the significance of the fact that, as the
thickness of the brass increases, the thickness curve meets the conductivity
curve?
The thickness at that point equals the depth of penetration . . . . . . Page 5-23
The thickness at that point represents the point
beyond which the thickness cannot be increased. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-24
From page 2-50
2-52
It is true that, when eddy currents are used to gage thicknesses of material,
the material must be alike in every way except for it's thickness. But that's
not the entire story.
You do realize that we are gaging the thickness of the material by detecting
differences in conductivity between various thicknesses. Well then, anything
that changes the apparent conductivity of the material will affect the accuracy of the test. Changing test coils, using a different power source, or using a
different meter will affect the accuracy of the tests.
We want to emphasize that the actual conductivity of the material doesn't
change with a change in equipment. You must remember that we are not
detecting the actual conductivity of the material, we are detecting the eddy
currents set up in the material. A different coil would produce a stronger or
weaker field as would a different power supply; the eddy current would change
for a reason not at all connected to a change in thickness of the material.
To sum up the discussion, we are saying that in eddy current testing of the
thickness of thin materials the equipment must be calibrated against known
thicknesses (standards) of the material. Then, once calibrated for that particular test, the equipment, or settings on the equipment, cannot be changed
without recalibrating.
In short, all conditions of the test must be identical except for the thickness of
the material.
Now turn back to page 2-51.
5-21
From page 5-18
Here we show the impedance-plane diagrams plotted for a low frequency

(20 kHz), a medium frequency (100 kHz) and a high frequency (1 MHz).
t
w
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90
AIR
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90
GRAPHITE
~6/4
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A. LOW FREQUENCY
(20 kHz)
304
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cu
B. MEDIUM FREQUENCY
o0
O
COIL RESISTANCE
=.
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COIL RESISTANCE
90
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C. HIGH FREQUENCY
AL
(1MHz)
~
COIL RESISTANCE
Note that the locus of any point representing a given material shifts towards
the lower end of the curve as the frequency increases. Thus, it is possible to
improve the ability to separate the two variables of conductivity and lift-off
by increasing the test frequency.
2-53
From page 2-51
No, a crack will not cause the coil's magnetic field to decrease. The crack
weakens the eddy current, the eddy current magnetic field weakens, and the
strength of the coil's magnetic field increases.
Here is a diagram that will help you figure out how the presence of a crack
causes the coil's field to increase.
TEST COIL
MAGNETIC FIELD
~~~~f~I~
TEST COIL
MAGNETIC FIELD
RENT
FIELD~
EDDY CURRENT
---
~CRACK
This diagram attempts to show the change in the magnetic fields due to the
presence of the crack. The crack weakens the eddy currents by forcing them to
take longer paths around the crack. Since the currents are weakened, the
magnetic field caused by the presence of eddy currents weakens. Since the
eddy current magnetic field always opposes the magnetic field of the coil,
weakening the eddy current magnetic field strengthens the magnetic field of
the coil.
Study the diagram until you have this relationship firmly in mind, then proceed to page 2-54.
5-20
From page 5-1 7
Somehow you haven't made the proper connection between the impedance
and the resistance and inductive reactance components of the impedance.
Here's an illustration of the change in the two components of impedance caused
by a change in conductivity from point A to point B.
CONDUCTIVITY
UJ
z
~
CHANGE IN RESISTANCE COMPONENT
<(
UJ
a:
UJ
>
i'.=
u
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Cl
.....
cJ..!::11=,_o
..._ F,=
~
..._ ..._
,o
\
I
CHANGE IN INDUCTIVE
REACTANCECOMPONENT
..J
100% IACS
"'
COIL RESISTANCE
Note that the change in impedance is mostly in the vertical direction - the
inductive reactance direction. The change in the horizontal direction - the
resistance direction - is small.
Therefore, at the 100% IACS point, a change in conductivity causes a change
in impedance that is primarily in the inductive reactance direction.
From page 2-51
2-54
Yes, the coil' s magnetic field will increase due to the presence of the crack. It
is the increase in the coil' s magnetic field that allows us to detect the presence
of the crack in otherwise sound material.
Now, there is one more dimensional factor that you should be aware of. It is
called "Edge Effect".
When the inspection coil is brought too near the edge of an article the circular
paths of the eddy current become distorted since there is no material in which
the current can flow. As the coil moves closer and closer to the edge, less and
less of the current can flow.
Since the edge of the article interferes strongly with the flow of eddy current,
the magnitude of its effect on an eddy current test is very large. The limits as
to how close to the edge a coil can be placed is determined by the size of the
coil. Locating the limit at which edge effect becomes a factor to be considered
can be accomplished by approaching the edge with the inspection coil at
several different places (to assure that the reading is not affected by some
discontinuity) and observing the initial change in the instrument. This initial
change marks the limit of coil measurement towards the edge.
Edge effect makes the detection of cracks located at or near the edge of an
article ...
easier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-55
more difficult . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2-56
5-19
From page 5-16
It was your opinion that it would be easier to differentiate a change in conductivity from a change in lift-off at the position marked angle B. This is incorrect.
Here is a diagram of the angle in question.
CHANGE IN RESISTANCE
COMPONENTDUE TO
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CHANGE IN INDUCTIVE
REACTANCECOMPONENT
DUE TO
CHANGE IN
LI FT-OFF
I"'
r--CHANGE
IN INDUCTIVE
REACTANCECOMPONENT
DUE TO CHANGE IN
CONDUCTIVITY
____l_
J
I
COMPONENTDUE TO
CHANGE IN LIFT-OFF
..J
COIL RESISTANCE
In the illustration above we are showing an enlarged view of angle B. At angle

B a change in conductivity consists of a large change in the resistive component and a small change in the inductive reactance component. In the same
way a change in lift-off is largely a change in the resistive component with
only a slight change in the inductive reactance component.
Since, at angle B, change in conductivity and lift-off are both primarily
changes in the resistance component it is very difficult to determine which
caused the change.
In short it is easier to determine the cause of the change if the angle between
lift-off and conductivity is large.
From page 2-54
2-55
You selected the answer that says, ''Edge effect makes the detection of cracks
located at or near the edge of an article easier." The opposite is true. Edge
effect makes the detection of edge cracks more difficult.

The reason that edge crack detection is made more difficult by edge effect is
easy to explain. To the inspection coil the edge of an article looks like an enormous crack. So the addition of a little bitty crack wouldn't make all that much
difference.
Yes, edge effect does make the detection of edge cracks more difficult, but not
impossible.
Turn to page 2-56.
From page 5-16
5-18
Yes, you're right. It would be easier to differentiate between conductivity

changes and lift-off changes at the lower end of the curve where the difference
in direction of the two variables is greatest.
It would seem then that in testing materials that have less conductivity it
would be more difficult to differentiate between the variables of conductivity
and lift-off. And so it is, but there is a way to improve that situation.
Do you recall that we said that the faster the magnetic field changes in a conductive material the higher the eddy current induced? Since this is so, then
increasing the frequency of the alternating current through the coil will cause
more current to flow in the material. Increasing the frequency also increases
the inductive reactance component of the impedance.
All of these factors that are affected by a change in the operating frequency
have an effect on the impedance-plane diagram. First, the change in inductive
reactance changes the impedance values so we will have to plot a new curve
for each new frequency.
When we plot the new curves we discover that in spite of the values being dif ferent the curves are similar in many ways. One of the differences is that the
materials are moved along the curve towards the lower end of the curve.
The operator must continually keep in mind that when he changes the frequency he also changes the depth of penetration - higher frequencies have
less depth of penetration.
Now turn to page 5-21 for an illustration of the effect of change in frequency.
From page 2-54
2-56
As you surmised, the magnitude of the edge effect will mask any edge cracks
that may exist, but it is possible to detect edge cracks because their effect on
eddy currents is in addition to the edge effect.
If the coil-to-edgedistance can be held constant while the coil is moved along
the edge, the effect due to the edge will remain at a constant value. A crack
will cause a change above this edge-effect balance point. This can be accomplished by using a special holder or fixture so that the coil-to-edgedistance is
maintained at a constant value.
Now let's summarize the factors that affect the conductivity of materials. It is
obvious that there are quite a few. The innate conductivity of the material can
be used to identify the material provided that the factors of material hardness, temperature, and residual stresses are either not present or can be
eliminated; and provided that the dimensional factors of material thickness,
lift-off, discontinuities, and edge effect are either not present or can be
eliminated.
The thickness of a given material can be gaged provided that the material is
not too thick and that the other factors which affect conductivity are not present or can be eliminated.
Cracks and other discontinuities can be detected provided that the other factors which affect conductivity are not present or can be eliminated.
Thicknesses of conductive or nonconductive coatings can be gaged (measured)
provided the other factors which affect conductivity are not present or can be
eliminated.
From page 5-15
5-17
You apparently don't understand the illustration. Let's look at it again.
CONDUCTIVITY
C)
<I'.
I-
C)
<I'.
w
a:
w
>
i=
C)
:::,
0
z
..J
0
C)
cl...
LIFT-OFF
/---
CHANGE IN INDUCTIVE
REACTANCE COMPONENT
-1- \.l
_J I . -1
A
00%
IACS
COMPONENT
COIL RESISTANCE
Now suppose that there was a change in lift-off so that the test coil impedance
went from the point marked A to the point marked B. If we divide that change
into its horizontal (resistance) and vertical (inductive reactance) components,
we will find that the horizontal component is much larger than the vertical
component. Therefore the change in impedance at this point is primarily a
change in the resistance component rather than a change in the inductive
reactance component.
Let's see if you understand what we've been talking about well enough to
apply the correct thinking to a change in conductivity near 100% IACS.
A change in impedance due to a change in conductivity is largely a change in
the ...
inductive reactance component
Page 5-16
resistance component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-20
From page 2-56
2-57
The eddy current test technician must be continuously aware of those factors
which, if present, could affect the results of the particular test he is conducting.
An important part of his job is to know which factors could be present and how
to eliminate them, or their effect, from the test results. He even has to be able to
recognize when the factors are such that eddy currents shouldn't be used for
the test.
How all this is accomplished will be covered in the chapters that follow. But
first, turn to the next page for the start of a short review.
5-16
From page 5-15

Right! At 100% IACS on our impedance-plane
primarily a change in the resistance component
that same point on the chart that a change
change in the inductive reactance component
diagram a change in lift-off is

of the impedance. Note that at
in conductivity is primarily a
of the impedance.
We have been speaking of only one point on the diagram - the 100% IACS
point. If we plotted the lift-off curve for each material we would get a family of
lift-off curves that looks something like this.
900
0% IACS
---:- -._ ..._-----\~"

' -~=-,,:-,."-..::,,...~..._
..._
-
'
w
<{
1--
o
<{
w
a:
w
>
i==
o
:J
0
z
..J
--..._
---......
ANGLE B
"-o"c
''',,'-=.._:::-., -------
\ \\ ,,-c--, ,"--.:::-<,
<, '-,
\
',
\.
',
',
-,
------<, <,
-, -, <, <,
..._
,...........
. ----
-, -. <, <, <,-----------
~ ",
<,
<, <,
</~~o~<,<, ',
~
"<,
0
o
-----
<,
<,
<, <,
<...
'-.....__
I
------
o,._~~
100% IACS
~~---'-~~~--~~..,_~~-'-~~---'-~~~.__~____,o
COIL RESISTANCE
IJll'
Now let's compare the angle at which the lift-off curve approaches the conductivity curve. Compare the angle marked A with the angle marked B.
In your opinion, at which position would it be easier to differentiate between
conductivity changes and lift-off changes?
At angle A
AtangleB
Page 5-18
Page 5-19
2-58
From page 2-57
1. The letters "IACS" stand for International

______
Standard.
5. True
6. A crack in a material will be indicated by a change in conductivity.

(True, False)
10. 100%
~ALUMINUM
l61%1ACS)
COPPER (100% IACS)
11. The aluminum cladding on this specimen is not of equal thickness

over the entire article. When the inspection coil is moved from an
area where the cladding is thickest to an area where the cladding is
thinest the conductivity will
15. decrease
16. In eddy current testing, edge effect shows up as a reduction in the

conductivity of the material because there is nowhere for the
current to ---f
5-15
From page 5-12
Excellent! The 0% IACS point on the conductivity curve indicates that the
magnetic field of the test coil is no longer inducing eddy currents in the
material.
Keep in mind that the lift-off curve we have just described is for one material
only - the 100% IACS material.
What is the significance of the lift-off curve on the impedance-plane diagram?
Let's look at just part of the diagram.
CONDUCTIVITY
w
z
~
u
ct
w
a:
w
ct.
,;:::,-_
>
i=
u
:::>
Cl
..J
-:
LIFT-OFF
--
CHANGE IN INDUCTIVE
REACTANCE COMPONENT
'l- . ._
_J W
..,,j
00% IACS
COMPONENT
COIL RESISTANCE
Notice that the effect of changes in lift-off are in a different direction than
changes in conductivity on the impedance plane diagram. This fact suggests
that there might be a way to separate and identify changes due to either
variable - lift-off or conductivity. And there is, but we'll go into that a little
later in the program.
From the illustration above, it is apparent that at 100% IACS a lift-off change
is primarily a change in the resistance component of the impedance rather
than a change in the inductive reactance component of the impedance.
True . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-16
False . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-17
2-59
1. Annealed Copper
2. In the International Annealed Copper Standard, annealed copper is

arbitrarily assigned a conductivity of
%.
6. True
7. A change in the conductivity of a material indicates a crack (True,

False).
11. increase
COPPER 1100% IACSI
ALUMINUM
161% IACSI
12. In testing the thickness of copper cladding on aluminum, the thinner cladding will cause the conductivity to
16. flow
17. Edge effect makes the detection of cracks located at or near the
edges of a specimen
(easier, harder) to detect with
eddy currents.
From page 5-12
5-14
No! No! No! The impedance is measured by the length of the vector from
point zero to the 0% IACS point. The test coil always has some impedance
value, even when it is held in air.
You must remember that air is a nonconductor. It has no conductivity. The
fact that the impedance has reached the 0% IACS point tells us that there is
no conductivity in the material under the test coil within the effective distance
of the coil' s magnetic field.
The test coil's magnetic field no longer reaches the material. Therefore, eddy
currents are not being induced into the material.
2-60
2. 100%
3. Aluminum with an IACS rating of 61 % has

ductivity than annealed copper.
(more, less) con-
7. False
8. Changes in the hardness of a material will normally be accompanied

by changes in the
of the material.
12. decrease
13. The conductivity of this specimen will be

than 100%.
(greater, less)
17. harder
18. Edge cracks can be detected with eddy current test methods if the
coil is moved along the edge so that the
-to_
distance is held constant.
5-13
From page 5-10
You felt that a decrease in the conductivity of the bronze would cause the
impedance of the test coil to move down and to the right. That is incorrect.
Let's look at the curve again. Notice that the 0% IACS (no conductivity) point
is at the upper left and the 100% IACS point is at the lower right.
...___
900
0% IACS (AIR)
D~Cf:1
~.<1s,t\tc
Col\(
CONDUCTIVITY
LOCUS
'()v.
cl',v
l)'J.-
o
z
~
1-
BRONZE
~
w
a:
w
>
1-
::>
0
z
...J
u
100% IACS
--~ ~--'-~~..._~_._~__._~~..__~_._~__.oo
COIL RESISTANCE
----~
This tells us that a decrease in the conductivity causes the test coil impedance
to move towards the 0% IACS point (up and to the left). Thus, as the conductivity of the bronze decreases, the test coil impedance moves where?
Up and to the left along the conductivity curve. Do you see it?
Now, turn back to page 5-12 and continue.
2-61
3. less
4. In eddy current testing an increase in the conductivity of the arti-
cles under test will cause the magnetic field of the test coil to
_______
8. conductivity
9. Material temperature and internal stresses are also _f
that affect the conductivity of the material .
13. less
14. Will the change in material thickness shown here be detectable?
(Yes, No)
18. coil, edge
Turn to page 3-1.
5-12
From page 5-10
Right! A decrease in the conductivity of the bronze will cause the impedance
to move up and to the left on the curve.
Again we remind you that this conductivity curve is the result of a particular
test setup. Any change in the test setup will result in different values of
impedance being obtained. The different values of impedance will, in turn,
result in a slightly different curve. However, the curve we have shown is
representative of all conductivity curves.
Now let's see how lift-off looks on the impedance-plane diagram. When the
test coil is held in contact with the 100% IACS material the impedance value
will fall on the conductivity curve. As the coil is gradually lifted off the
material by means of paper shims placed between the coil and the material,
the impedance moves in the direction of the dashed line as shown below.
90
0%1ACS
(AIR)
.-,----\
\
CJ
'tvc1y
~"l.s,l'vG'
-, -,
<(
Oo'v.
~vo>/1,,/>'\.
CONDUCTIVITY
>-
LOCUS
t-
<(
a:
w
~~'
>
t-
::)
o,,,."
/
~-1.s/"
1,G'
LIFT-OFF
LOCU\
(;~.,.._,
o~~'-........-...__
.J
CJ
---- -
100% IACS
if
O
COIL RESISTANCE
Ill
Note that as the coil is lifted more and more that the lift-off curve finally
meets the conductivity curve at the 0% IACS point.
This indicates that ...
the impedance of the coil is zero ohms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-14
the coil's magnetic field is no longer inducing eddy
currents in the material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-15
2-62
4. decrease
5. An alloy formed by the combination of two base materials will have

a conductivity that is different from the conductivity of either base
material. (True, False)
~
..,.
9. factors

frame 6.
ALUMINUM 61%IACS (2 MILS)

--coPPER
100%IACS (1 IN.)
10. The conductivity of this test specimen will be a little less than
___
%.
frame 11.
14. No
15. Discontinuities in the material will cause the conductivity of the

material to
frame 16.
Turn to page 3-1.
From page 5-8
5-11
You felt that the curve represents all the materials that cause the same impedance value in the test coil. Stop and think for a moment.
Do you remember how we plotted this curve? We measured the impedance
values of the test coil as it was placed on a lot of different materials.
Now, if all the impedance values we measured had been equal, all the vectors
would have been the same length. Obviously they were not the same length, so
the curve does not represent materials that cause the same impedance value in
the test coil.
Return to page 5-8, study the diagram, and select another answer.
3-1
CHAPTER 3 -
EDDY CURRENT TEST CIRCUITS
In Chapter 1 we discussed the principles of electromagnetic induction; in

Chapter 2 we discussed the factors in the material of conductivity, dimensions, and permeability and their effect on the magnetic field of the test coil; in
this Chapter we are going to show you how the presence of these effects are
actually detected.
You will recall that, when an alternating current is applied to a coil, the
amount of current that flows through the coil is determined by the impedance
of the coil. You will also recall that impedance is the result of the resistance
and the inductive reactance of the coil.
In the simple test circuit shown schematically below, we are showing the
inspection coil which consists of a resistance (R) and an inductive reactance
(XL) connected to a source of alternating current. We have also placed an
ammeter in the circuit to measure the amount of current flowing through the
coil.
r1
ALTERNATING
CURRENT
SOURCE
I
I
---,I
R
Ii---lNSPECTION
I
I
I
I
L_
XL
COIL
_ _JI
If we increase the value of the resistance, the current flowing through the
ammeter will decrease. Since there is more resistance to current flow, less current will flow, and the ammeter reading will decrease.
Now, give us your best guess on this one. If the value of the inductive reactance increases, the ammeter reading will . . .
increase
decrease
Page 3-2
Page 3-3
5-10
From page 5-8
Right! The conductivity of any material will cause the impedance of the test
coil to fall somewhere on this curve. The curve is the locus of all the impedances that will result from changes in conductivity for this particular test
setup. If all other factors are held constant, a change in conductivity will
result in an impedance value that will fall somewhere on this curve.
goo
0%1ACS
(AIR)
CONDUCTIVITY
LOCUS
z
~
....
u
~
w
a:
w
>
i=
u
:::>
0
z
...J
_______._______~====-~
100% IACS
(COPPER)
COIL RESISTANCE
oo
Iii.
On the curve shown above we have identified the location of bronze. A

decrease in the conductivity of the bronze will cause the impedance of the test
coil to move . . .
up and to the left along the curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-12
down and to the right along the curve
Page 5-13
From page 3-1
3-2
Perhaps it was unfair to have asked you to guess at this answer but we hoped
that you would guess that an increase in the inductive reactance would have the
same effect that an increase in resistance would have, that is - an increase in
either the resistance or the inductive reactance will cause a decrease in the current. The reading on the ammeter will decrease in either case.
Let's review a little. The impedance of an ac circuit is the factor that resists
the flow of current. Thus more impedance means less current.
The impedance is made up of two factors - resistance (R) and inductive reactance (XL). Increasing either of these two factors increases the impedance of
the circuit.
From page 5-8
5-9
No! The curve does not represent all the materials that have the same conductivity value. If you think for a moment you will realize that each kind of
material has a different inherent conductivity. A difference in conductivity is
one of the properties that distinguish one material from another.
Return to page 5-8, reread the information on how we drew this curve, and see
if you can select a better answer.
From page 3-1
3-3
Good! You must have realized that increasing inductive reactance or

resistance will increase the impedance of the circuit - thus causing the current to decrease.
Now let's look at the circuit again from a different viewpoint.
--,
R
XL
IL_L....-:J
___
AIR
I
I
I
_J
--,I
R
I
I
XL
I
I
L ___ _JI
COPPER
Suppose that we have read the ammeter with the coil held in air and obtained
a reading of 10 amperes. We then place the coil on top of a piece of copper and
the meter reads 9.5 amperes. We have changed nothing else.
The change in the meter reading is due to a change in the coil' s ...
impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 3-4
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 3-5
inductive reactance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 3-6
5-8
From page 5-7
We have plotted the impedance of all kinds of material having conductivities

ranging from air at 0% IACS to copper at 100% IACS. Now let's draw a curve
that passes through all the impedance values that we have obtained. The
result will look like this.
900
0% IACS
(AIR)
r
w
o
z
4:
1-
o
4:
w
er:
w
>
.:::
o
:::,
0
z
..J
o
100% IACS
00
0
COIL RESISTANCE
------
What is the significance of the curve we've just added to the impedance-plane
diagram? One of the following statements indicates the significance of the
curve. See if you can select the correct one.
The curve represents all the materials that have the
same conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-9
The conductivity of any material will cause the
impedance of the test coil to fall somewhereon this curve . . . . . . . . Page 5-10
The curve represents all the materials that cause the

same impedance value in the test coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-11
From page 3-3
3-4
Excellent choice. Since nothing else in the circuit changed, the only thing that
could cause a change in the meter reading would be that the impedance of the
coil changed somehow.
This is the link we needed. In Chapter 2 we discussed the ways in which the
coil's magnetic field was affected by a change in conductivity. Now we have
shown that a change in conductivity of the material under the inspection coil
(from air at 0% IACS to copper at 100% IACS) has caused a change in a meter
reading.
From this we can deduce that a change in the coil's magnetic field causes a
change in the impedance of the coil. And now we know that this change will
cause a change in the reading on the meter. Something that we can see and
record.
Here is a block diagram showing the basics of what is occuring in the test we
just described. Everything that is happening in the material is shown below
the dashed line. Everything that is happening in the test circuit is shown
above the dashed line.
CHANGE IN COi L'S
IMPEDANCE
TEST Cl RCU IT
----------CHANGE IN
CON DUCT IV ITV
CAUSES
--+--
CHANGE IN COIL'S
MAGNETIC FIELD
CAUSES
CHANGE IN
METER READING
------------MATERIAL
The box in the center of this illustration shows the deduction that we just
made as a result of the test we just described.
The box in the center of the illustration above tells us that a change in the
coil's magnetic field causes a change in the ...
impedance of the coil
Page 3-7
reading on the meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 3-8
From page 5-6
5-7
What has all this got to do with eddy current testing? Just this - As we have
said countless of times, the conditions that exist in the material under test
affects the impedance of the test coil. So diagramming the impedance gives us
a tool for understanding the relationship between the impedance of the test
coil and changes in conductivity of the material caused by those factors that
affect the conductivity. This diagnostic tool is called the "Impedance-Plane"
diagram.
Let's take several kinds of material, making sure that they are thick enough
so that the thickness (thinness) does not affect the readings, and measure the
impedance and phase angle produced in the test coil as it is passed over each
piece. The result will look something like this.
900
0% IACS
(AIR)
i
w
<(
1-
<(
a::
w
>
j::
u
::,
0
z
.J
o
100%IACS
00
0
COIL RESISTANCE------
If we have been careful in selecting our material and in taking the

measurements, the only thing that has varied from measurement to measurement is the conductivity of the different materials. (Turn to the next page.)
From page 3-3
3-5
You felt that the change in the meter reading was due to a change in the
resistance in the coil. This answer is partially true. It is partially true because
the resistance of the coil does change but so does the inductive reactance.
The change in the meter reading is caused by two factors: the change in the
resistance and the inductive reactance. Return to page 3-3 and see if there
isn't an answer that includes both resistance and inductive reactance.
5-6
From page 5-5
Now that you understand the meaning of the impedance vector, you must
clearly understand that the impedance vector we showed on the preceeding
pages is made up of two components: the resistance (R) component and the
inductive reactance (XL) component as shown here.
90
I
I
I
I
I
I
Vl
J:
0
M
II
...J
I
I
0 ...._____
1
R;
1111-' -
-- -
en
4 OHMS
Note that the resistance component is in-phase with the voltage (it lies along
the zero-degree line) and the inductive reactance component is 90 out of
phase with the voltage (it lies along the 90 line).
To determine the value of these two components we draw a vertical dashed
line from the impedance value to the zero-degree line and a horizontal dashed
line to the 90-degree line as shown. In this manner we have determined that
the resistance value is 4 ohms and the inductive reactance value is 3 ohms.
Thus by plotting the impedance on a graph we can determine how much of the
impedance is due to resistance and how much is due to inductive reactance.
Now proceed to the next page.
From page 3-3
3-6
You felt that the change in the meter reading was due to a change in the inductive reactance in the coil. This answer is partially true. It is partially true
because the inductive reactance of the coil does change but so does the
resistance.
The change in the meter reading is caused by both factors: a change in the
inductive reactance and a change in the resistance of the coil. Return to page
3-3 and see if there isn't an answer that includes both resistance and inductive
reactance.
From page 5-4
5-5
The correct statements are:

The current through the inspection coil lags behind the voltage applied to the
coil by 37 degrees.
The impedance of the test circuit is 5 ohms.
If you complete the statements correctly, proceed to the next page.
If you did not complete the statements correctly, read on.
a ;
o,
37
- - --
--oo
Here is the vector diagram again. The length of the line O - Z represents the
value of the impedance. Since the line is shown to be 5 ohms in length, the
impedance of the test circuit is 5 ohms.
The angle a represents the phase angle between the voltage and the current
that results from the presence of the impedance in the circuit. Since this angle
is shown to be 37, then the current lags behind the voltage by 37.
It is very important that you understand a vector diagram and that you know
what the vectors mean.
Turn to the next page and proceed.
3-7
From page 3-4
Right! The change in the coil's magnetic field causes a change in the coil's
impedance. This is the link between the material and the test circuit.
Notice that we call the coil, the meter, and the ac power supply a "test
circuit". We do this because the test circuits used in eddy current testing
become very complex as we go along and include more than the ac power supply, the meter, and the inspection coil we have shown here. While the circuit
shown works as advertized, it is not very sensitive to the minute material
changes we will be looking for. For example, we obtained only a half-amp
change in meter reading for a 100% change in conductivity. This circuit would
not be very sensitive to a change in conductivity caused by a small crack.
r-
--,
I
ALTERNATING
CURRENT
POWER SUPPLY
I
I
L_
XL
I
Ir---lNSPECTION
COIL
I
I
_ _j
Here is the basic test circuit again. It contains three elements that are common to every eddy current test circuit. Every eddy current test circuit must
have at least three elements. Can you name them?
1.
2.
3.
Turn to page 3-9 and see if you are correct.
From page 5-1
5-4
Excellent choice! We can tell that the gradual change in conductivity is due to
a change in hardness and not a change due to the presence of a discontinuity
for two reasons: First, the change is gradual (unlike the change due to the
presence of a discontinuity), and second, the material under test has a history
of applied heat.
In this same manner, simple reasoning can differentiate changes that might
occur because of temperature differences or because of the presence of internally stressed areas. The real problem is to differentiate between changes in
impedance that are due to conductivity factors and changes that are due to
lift-off or fill-factor. The paragraphs that followpresent detailed methods and
techniques that are available through the use of more sophisticated test
instruments.
As you know, the impedance of a coil may be represented by a vector whose
length represents the impedance value and whose direction represents the
phase angle (the angle by thich the current lags behind the voltage).
z
a=
o,
37
----oo
To review a little, look at the diagram above and complete these statements.
The current through the inspection coil lags behind the voltage applied to the
coil by __
. The impedance of the test circuit is
_
Now turn to the next page and see if you completed these statements correctly.
From page 3-4
3-8
Sorry, you're not looking at the box in the center of the illustration. It's true
that a change in the magnetic field ultimately causes a change in the reading
on the meter but the point that we want to make is contained in the box in the
center of the illustration.
Here's the illustration again.
CHANGE IN COi L'S

IMPEDANCE
TEST CIRCUIT
--------CHANGE IN
CONDUCTIVITY
CAUSES ~
--+-CHANGE IN COIL'S
MAGNETIC FIELD
CAUSES _
CHANGE IN
METER READING
~-----MATERIAL
The box in the center indicates that a change in the magnetic field of the coil
causes a change in the impedance of the coil. This fact is the key to all eddy
current testing. It is very important that you understand that it is this one
fact that ties the material to the test circuit. It enables you to understand how
a factor in the material can affect the meter.
From page 5-1
5-3
"A history of applied heat" is certainly one of the requisites for determining
whether a change in conductivity is due to hardening within the material and
not due to some other factor that could cause a gradual change.
But, how do we know the change is not due to a discontinuity? We know
because a discontinuity generally gives a sudden sharp rise and fall in the
reading.
3-9
From page 3-7
Every eddy current test circuit contains three elements. These are: 1) an ac
power supply, 2) a meter, and 3) a coil.
A more sensitive test circuit can be obtained with the basic bridge circuit
shown here.
INSPECTION
COIL
IMPEDANCE
The basic bridge circuit consists of two balanced resistors (R1 and R2), the
inspection coil, a balancing impedance, and an ammeter. These units are connected in a bridge format; i.e., a resistor and the inspection coil in one leg of
the bridge, a resistor and a balancing impedance in the other leg of the bridge,
and an ammeter across the two legs. The ac source is connected across the
bridge.
When the bridge is in balance (resistors and impedances equal) the meter will
read zero amps. When the inspection coil is placed on or near a test sample,
there is a change in impedance in that leg of the bridge, the bridge becomes
unbalanced, and the ammeter will indicate a current that is proportional to the
imbalance. The bridge circuit is far more sensitive to impedance changes than
the basic test circuit.
The inspection coil of the basic bridge circuit is held in air and the ammeter
shows a reading. This means that ...
the air is conductive. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 3-10
the bridge is unbalanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 3-11
From page 5-1
5-2
"Discontinuities cause a sudden change" is certainly a true statement. And,

from the way we set up the question, if the change isn't due to a discontinuity
then it must be due to a change in hardness since those are the only two factors we mentioned.
But, what do we know? Suppose that there was something else in that
material that could cause a gradual change in the coil impedance. How do we
know that the change is due to a change in the hardness and not to this other
unknown factor?
From page 3-9
3-10
Wrong on two counts. First, remember that air is always nonconductive.

Second, a reading on the meter only means that the bridge is unbalanced. It
means nothing else, ever. It is up to the test technician to know why it is unbalanced and what the unbalance means with respect to the test he is conducting.
When the ammeter reads zero amps, the technician knows that the bridge is in
perfect balance. Resistor R 1 is exactly equal to resistor R2 and the balancing
impedance is exactly equal to the coil's impedance.
Now, no matter where the coil is placed, if there is a reading on the meter of
anything other than zero amps, the bridge is unbalanced.
Now proceed to page 3-11.
5-1
CHAPTER 5 -
IMPEDANCE-PLANE
CONCEPTS
In the preceeding chapters we have explained all factors that affect the eddy
currents induced by the inspection coil and their effects on the test results. In
this chapter we will explain how to determine which variable is causing the
change in the meter reading.
Eddy current testing is fairly simple to perform. The most difficult task for
the operator is to be able to judge with any degree of certainty whether a
change in test coil impedance is due to a change in lift-off or is due to a change
in one of the factors that affect conductivity.
For example, we have learned that a change in the hardness of a material will
affect its conductivity. We also know that the presence of a discontinuity will
also affect the conductivity of the material.
When conducting a test with a surface coil we note a gradual change in conductivity. We can tell that this change in conductivity is due to a change in
the hardness, and not a change due to a discontinuity, because ...
discontinuities cause sudden changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-2
there is a history of applied heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-3
of both of the above reasons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-4
From page 3-9
3-11
Excellent choice. The bridge is indeed unbalanced. So that brings up the question, "Where is the coil when the bridge is in balance?" The answer is, "It
depends."
Suppose that we could change the value of the balancing impedance whenever
we wanted. Then we could balance the bridge with the coil placed wherever we
wanted. We could hold the coil in air then balance the bridge. We could place
the coil on a piece of copper then balance the bridge. We could place the coil on
a very thin piece of tin, then balance the bridge.
Suppose that we balanced the bridge with the coil in air. Then, without changing anything else, we placed the coil on a thick piece of pure annealed copper
and observed that the ammeter read something other than zero.
In this case the reading on the ammeter will most likely be caused by ...
the difference between the conductivity of air and copper . . . . . . . . Page 3-12
a discontinuity in the copper
Page 3-13
4-31
4. False
5. When using a surface coil the best resolution is obtained with a

______
(smaller, larger) diameter coil.
9. False

frame 6.
10. Eddy currents are more dense at the surface of an article than
below the surface. (True - False)
14. less

frame 11.
15. The depth of penetration is affected by the

the alternating current applied to the test coil.
20. edge
of

frame 16.
This completes the review. Now turn to page 5-1 and continue.
From page 3-11
3-12
Excellent! With the bridge balanced with the coil in air (0% conductivity) the
test circuit is set up to detect any differences that exist between the material
under test and air.
Actually, we have set up the test circuit so that we could measure the conductivity of any material. We have established an ammeter reading for 0% IACS
and we have established an ammeter reading for 100% IACS. If we marked
these ammeter readings and devised a proper scale of 100 divisions between
these two readings we could read the conductivity of any material directly.
Now let's try something else. Let's balance the bridge with the coil on copper.
Now we move the coil along the piece of copper and suddenly we get a momentary deflection of the needle on the meter.
The meter deflection probably indicates ...
lift-off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 3-14
a discontinuity
Page 3-15
4-30
I
3. True
(
CIRCUMFERENTIAL
{
CRACK
BAR
()
4. An encircling coil will give a strong indication of this circumferential

crack in this bar. (True - False)
8. longer
9. Eddy currents are evenly distributed throughout an article being

inspected. (True - False)
13. less
14. The higher the permeability of the material the

the penetration of eddy currents into the material.
(more, less)
19. Edge Effect
20. Edge effect can be overcome by the use of a fixture designed to

keep the inspection coil at a fixed distance in relation to the
of the material.
----
From page 3-11
3-13
No, the reading on the ammeter, in this case, is most likely caused by the difference between the conductivity of the air and the copper.
You are right, of course, in thinking that a discontinuity will cause a change in
conductivity and will therefore cause a change in the meter reading but this
change will be very slight when compared with the change in conductivity
that occurs between air and copper.
This probably raises a question in your mind, "How, then, can we detect
discontinuities if the change in the meter reading is slight." The answer is
that we add an amplifier in the test circuit to amplify slight changes. This
essentially expands the scale of the meter. We will discuss this more completely
later on. For now, turn to page 3-12 and continue.
4-29
2. parallel
SEAM
BAR
I
()
3. A surface coil can be used to detect the presence of the seam in this
bar. (True - False)
7. larger
8. The magnetic field of an encircling coil or an internal coil is slightly

(shorter, longer) than the coil.
12. conductivity,
permeability
13. The higher the conductivity of the material the

the penetration of eddy currents into the material.
(more, less)
17. crack
18. Any indication of cracks that may exist at the edge of the material
will be hidden by a large indication that results from E
E
From page 3-12
3-14
Yes, it could be lift-off - if we were careless, or if we ran into some kind of

coating or cladding. But with knowledge about the test specimen and care in
conducting the test procedure we can be certain that the meter deflection is
not caused by lift-off.
If the test technician is not knowledgeable, or is careless, there is no way of
knowing what caused the deflection of the meter. It could be anything.
4-28
1. perpendicular
2. Eddy currents induced in conductive material are p
to
the windings of the coil.
6. shorter
7. The magnetic field of a surface coil is slightly
(smaller,
larger) than the coil.
11. Standard Depth of
Penetration
12. The depth of penetration of eddy currents into a material is
affected by the con

the material.
and :eerm
of
16. less
17. To an eddy current inspection coil the edge of the material under
test looks like a very large
From page 3-12
3-15
You are correct - the deflection on the meter was probably caused by a
discontinuity. But to be sure that it was caused by a discontinuity we must be
able to eliminate the other factors that might cause a similar change.
Lift-off would have given the same type of deflection on the meter. If it is liftoff, a second pass over the same area, if made with care, will eliminate the
deflection.
Discontinuities have the characteristic of causing a sudden deflection with an
immediate return to zero except when the coil is passing along a discontinuity
such as a seam. In which case, moving the coil crossways to the line of the
seam will provide a meter deflection as described and thereby identify the
deflection as being caused by a seam.
Now, we are about to test a thin sheet of aluminum to see if the thickness is
within tolerance over the entire area. Where shall we place the coil when we
balance the bridge?
In air
On the aluminum sheet
On an accurate standard
. Page 3-16
. Page 3-17
Page 3-18
4-27
From page 4-25
1. To obtain the maximum response from a discontinuity the flow of

eddy currents must be as nearly
to the
discontinuity as possible.
5. smaller
6. When using either an external coil or an internal coil the best

resolution is obtained with a
(shorter, longer) coil.
10. True
11. The depth at which the current density is 37% of the current density
at the surface is defined as the S
D
of
p
15. frequency
16. The higher the frequency of the alternating current applied to the
test coil the
(more, less) the penetration of eddy currents .
From page 3-15
3-16
You felt that we should balance the bridge with the coil in air before testing
this thin sheet of aluminum. It can be done that way, but, if it is, then zero on
the meter indicates zero thickness of the aluminum. If zero on the meter indicates zero thickness of the aluminum then every area on the aluminum will
produce a reading and it is up to the technician to establish what the upper
and lower acceptable limits might be. He would accomplish this by obtaining
standards made of that exact type of aluminum. One milled exactly to the
lower limit of thickness, the other milled exactly to the upper limit.
As long as he has to obtain these standards, there is a little better way to
balance the bridge. Return to page 3-11 and select another answer.
From page 4-24
4-26
You felt that the meter would read a value below the edge effect balance point.
And perhaps you are right depending on the test circuit.

If the edge of the material caused the meter reading to drop, then the presence
of an edge crack would cause the meter reading to drop even further.
The point is that whichever way the meter is reading, the crack will cause the
meter to read beyond the reading obtained from just the edge of the material
alone. This additional movement of the indication beyond the edge effect
balance point indicates the presence of an edge crack.
From page 3-15
3-17
You felt that we should balance the bridge with the coil on the aluminum
sheet. It can be done that way. If we do, variations in the meter reading as we
pass the coil over various areas of the sheet will indicate variations in the
thickness of the sheet alright but whether or not these variations are within
tolerance will still be unknown.
Since we are testing this sheet to determine whether the thickness is within
upper and lower limits, we must establish meter readings for these upper and
lower limits.
Turn back to page 3-15 and see if these isn't a better answer.
From page 4-24
4-25
Exactly, the meter will read a value that is above the edge effect balance
point.
In this chapter we have discussed the following geometrical relationships of
eddy currents:
1. The eddy currents always flow in circular paths that are parallel to
the winding of the coil.
2. The best response is obtained from discontinuities that offer maximum interruption to the flow of eddy currents.
3. A discontinuity whose major axis cuts across the flow of eddy cur-
rents will cause the greatest disruption.

4. The smaller diameter surface coils and the shorter encircling coils are
more sensitive to discontinuities.
5. The magnetic field of a surface coil is slightly larger than the coil itself
while the magnetic field of encirclingand internal coils extends slightly
beyond the ends of the coil.
6. Eddy currents are most dense at the surface of a material and become
progressively less dense with increasing distance below the surface.
7. The standard depth of penetration is defined as the depth at which
the current is approximatley 37% of the current density that exists at
the surface.
8. The depth of penetration is affected by the conductivity and the
permeability of the material; the higher the conductivity, the less the
penetration, and the higher the permeability, the less the penetration.
9. Depth of penetration is affected by the frequency of the alternating
current applied to the test coil; the higher the frequency the less the
depth of penetration.
10. Edge effect is a false indication caused by a too-closeapproach of the
inspection coil to an end, or edge, of the material under test.
From page 3-15
3-18
Excellent choice! We hope you made this choice because you realized that if
we were to know that the thickness was within a particular tolerance we would
have to establish meter readings for the upper and lower limits.
The technician then would have to obtain standards made from that type of
aluminum and milled to the exact upper and lower limits of the allowable
thickness tolerances.
You have probably guessed that in this case it is not absolutely necessary to
balance the bridge so that we get a zero reading for one of the limits.
So this brings up the question, "Is it absolutely necessary to balance the
bridge so that one of the factors of interest will give a zero reading on the
meter?" The answer is, "No, it is not necessary." In fact, the point at which
the meter is balanced (called the test point) is used to differentiate the causes
of readings. This subject will be covered in a subsequent chapter.
For now let's get back to discussing test circuits. In this illustration we show
two identical test coils used as impedances in the bridge.
INSPECTION
COIL
If the coils are identical in every way, will the bridge be in balance?
Yes
No
Page 3-19
Page 3-20
4-24
From page 4-21
Right. The meter deflection indicates the presence of the crack and the
presence of the edge of the material.

Here we show the probe mounted in a fixture designed to maintain the coil at
a fixed distance from, or in relation to, the edge of the material.
FIXTURE
As the probe and fixture are moved along the edge, the meter will read a certain value that is due to edge effect. This value is known as the edge effect
balance point.
If the coil then passes over a crack, the meter will read a value that is
the edge affect balance point.
above
below
Page 4-25
Page 4-26
From page 3-18
3-19
Yes, the bridge will be in balance if the coils are identical in every way since
being identical would include having identical impedances.
There is an advantage and a disadvantage in this arrangement. The disadvantage is that two coils have to be manipulated at the same time. The advantage
is that the bridge is normally in balance. The two coils are simultaneously used
as inspection coils and an imbalance in the bridge indicates a difference in the
materials under the two coils.
For example: if the reference coil were placed on a reference standard for a particular test and the inspection coil were placed on one of the items being
inspected, the meter would indicate any differences between the reference
standard and the item under test.
~
L3
INSPECTION
COIL
:J
TEST SAMPLE
~REFERENCE
LJ
COIL
REFERENCE
STANDARD
Another variation in the use of an inspection coil and the reference coil is
shown below.
FIXTURE
FIXTURE
COIL
A
COIL
B
VIEWA
COIL
COIL
B
VIEWB
The two coils are mounted in a fixture as shown, then passed over the material. The impedance of each of the two coils depends on the condition of the
material under that coil.
With the coils in the position shown in view A of the illustration, the bridge is
unbalanced in one direction by the presence of the discontinuity. With the
coils in the position shown in view B, the bridge is unbalanced in the opposite
direction by the presence of the discontinuity. In this case, the two coils are
comparing flawed material with ...
a reference standard
sound material
Page 3-21
Page 3-22
From page 4-21
4-23
You felt that the meter deflection was an indication of the presence of the edge
of the material - and so it was. But the presence of the crack also has an
affect on the meter reading.
Since the crack does offer an interruption of eddy currents, more eddy currents are disrupted than would be disrupted had the crack not been there.
Hence the meter reading will be a little higher than it would have been without
the presence of the crack.
The point is that the crack and the edge of the material affect the reading.
From page 3-18
3-20
By your selection you are indicating that the identical coils in the two legs of
the bridge would not assure that the bridge would be in balance.
Look at it this way. If the two coils were not perfectly matched in impedance,
the bridge would be unbalanced, right? So we do have to be sure that the coils
are perfectly matched - especially in impedance.
So when we said the coils are identical in every way, we are including their
being identical in impedance. The bridge will be in balance.
From page 4-21
4-22
Perhaps you felt that the end of the crack would be the first to intercept the
eddy current and would, therefore, be the cause of the meter deflection of
which we spoke. In that regard you were correct. But keep in mind that a
crack is a very small thing and its presence does not have much effect until
the coil is over it. By that time the edge of the material is having its effect and
this effect is much greater than that of the small crack.
From page 3-19
3-21
Sorry, nowhere in the illustration did we show a reference standard. Here is

the illustration again.
FIXTURE
FIXTURE
MOVEMENT.
COIL
COIL
DISCONTINUITY
VIEWA
COIL
COIL
VIEW B
The two coils are held a specific distance apart by the fixture. As the fixture
(and the coils) is moved over the surface of the material as indicated in view A
above, coil A will pass over the discontinuity while coil B is still over sound
material. An imbalance results which is reflected in a meter reading. A little
later coil B is over the discontinuity while coil A is over sound material. The
meter again shows an imbalance but in the opposite direction.
In this case the two coils are comparing flawed material with sound material.
Turn to the next page and continue.
4-21
From page 4-19
The final dimensional factor of eddy currents that we are going to discuss is
"edge effect."
As the coil is moved to an edge, or end, of the material, two things happen.
First, part of the eddy currents have no place to flow so they can no longer
exist. Second, part of the magnetic field is no longer cutting through the
material. Thus the eddy currents are weakened.
//-:::.::>
(((@\
7-/=,__
MAGNETIC
jFIELD
-~;--=-----=-~~-=-------=---,
,,,,...,,.,,.,.-~-) ))
.....
=r-
SURFACE
COIL
EDDY CURRENTS
\\ I
~1)
ENCIRCLING
COIL
This change in the eddy currents results in a false indication that is known as
"edge effect." The effect is strong enough to mask any changes due to other
factors. In effect, the edge of the material looks like a very large crack to the
eddy current instrument.
Here we show a piece of aluminum being inspected with a surface coil. There is
a small crack at the edge of the piece. As the coil moves towards the crack, the
meter shows a deflection. This deflection indicates ...
the presence of the crack
Page 4-22
the edge of the material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 4-23
the edge of the material and the presence of the crack . . . . . . . . . . . Page 4-24
From page 3-19
3-22
Excellent choice! The two coils are comparing flawed material with sound
material.
A balanced two-coilsystem can be used to compare CONDUCTIVITY factors
or DIMENSIONAL factors in the material.
There are other more complex coil systems used in test circuits. They all work
on the same principles that we have discussed but give varying degrees of sensitivity. A few examples of these more complex coil arrangements are given
here without an explanation as to how they are tied in to test circuits. Manufacturers' handbooks and brochures are a better source for this type of data.
One such type of coil arrangement is called the "induction bridge." The induction bridge arrangement utilizes three coils mounted in one probe as shown here.
TRANSMITTER
COIL
TRANSMITTER
COIL
MATERIAL
MATERIAL
The three coils consist of two detector coils located atop each other and inside a
transmitter coil. The detector coils are exactly alike except that they are wound
in opposition. When the transmitter coil is energized, the field is intercepted by
From page 4-18
4-20
You reasoned that high-alloy steel has a higher permeability than the iron.
That reasoning is incorrect. Let's look at the chart again.
10
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You must understand that the difference in the depth of penetration between
the iron and steel is due to their difference in permeability since the conductivities of these two materials are almost identical.
Then, since (from the chart) iron has less depth of penetration than steel, the
iron must have the more permeability. The higher the permeability, the less
the penetration.
From page 3-22
3-23
the detector coils and a voltage is induced. Since the coils are exactly alike, the
induced voltages are identical, but since the detector coils are wound in opposite directions, the two voltages cancel each other and there is no signal output. If one end of the probe is placed near a conductive material, the magnetic
field at that end of the probe is changed. The detector coil nearest the material
detects this change but the other detector coil, being further removed from
the surface of the material, does not. Thus an imbalance occurs and a signal is
produced. Variations in the material will also cause a change in the impedance
of the near-surface coil and not affect the other coil.
Another type of multiple coil arrangement using two coils is called the
"through transmission" method. In a through transmission method, eddy
currents are induced into the material by a transmitting coil placed on one
side of the material and the presence of the eddy currents are sensed by a
pickup coil placed on the opposite side of the material. This arrangement
requires that the two coils be placed exactly opposite each other.
Another arrangement utilizing two separate coils is the "reflection" method.
In the reflection method the transmitting coil and the receiving coil are placed
on the same side of the material. The receiving coil is affected by the eddy currents induced in the material by the transmittting coil.
Now turn to page 3-24 for a short review of what we have covered so far in this
chapter.
From page 4-18
4-19
Good choice! Assuming that the conductivity of the two materials is the
same, then the difference in depth of penetration must be due to the difference
in permeability. Therefore, the iron is the more permeable since the depth of
penetration in iron is less than the depth of penetration in high-alloy steel at
any given frequency. Since the depth of penetration in iron is less, it must be
the more permeable.
Note also the large effect that permeability has.
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-I-
u.
0
J:
....
fli
0.001 f---+-+-
0.0001 ~~~~-'-L..---''--...,_"-'--.,___,.__---1-L..LL__JL___l_.L..l..l.__L__.l_L.LL_L__l_l_l_J::::,,..._::b,__J_[___L
10-1
103
101
102
104
105
1~2
FREQUENCY (KHz)
Graphite, titanium, stainless steel, aluminum and copper are all nonferromagnetic materials so they have no permeability.
The iron and high-alloy steel are certainly not better conductors than copper,
yet they appear below copper on the graph. Thus their permeability has caused
loss of penetration depth beyond even one of the best conductors.
Proceed to page 4-21.
3-24
From page 3-23
1.
This chapter covers e
test circuits.
6.
impedance
7.
In eddy current testing, a change in the coil's impedance is caused by a

change in the coil's m
_f
_
12.
sensitive
13.
In a bridge circuit a reading on the meter indicates that the bridge is
18.
reference standard
19.
Reference standards for thickness gaging are made from the same type
of material as the material being tested. (True - False)
From page 4-15
4-18
Good thinking! The lower the frequency, the greater the depth of penetration.
We have discussed three factors that affect the depth of penetration. Two are
related to the material itself and the third is related to the test equipment.
The graph below shows the standard depth of penetration that results for
several materials at different operating frequencies.
10 r -- -....
...._
r-.._ :.::::::
I
... I'-
, ~
,......__
N
0. 1
r-,
... I'
-~B=-j.1
___LJ--:n=.
, ~r---, I
. . . _"" ~
- --- - -- - --- ---+t 4-it=

--
<,
~,
,,'
r--/......_
-c
- .
._
r'l:':"
's,
.I
. l1 i
~-=- _ 1-:1t
~tmu
TITANIUM
ns: l :,-;w::r=
... - '"-"
--r-~-
GRAPHITE
./
r----1--........" ["--.~
t--,.._
s:
1--........
_rt-~~ m +
f:- __ J
-~-
'
q::
-5TA1N~~SSTellilLLl-1..-t+
1+~
~
-~
- -
"'N,.
'f::::h
I I I 111 I I 111 I I 111 I I I I I I I 111 I I J:R:::::l I 111
0.0001
10'2
101
101
102
FREQUENCY (KHz)
103
104
105
The graph also indicates the effect of conductivity and permeability on the
depth of penetration. For example, note that the depth of penetration in copper is less than the depth of penetration in aluminum at any given frequency.
This is because copper is a better conductor of electricity than aluminum.
Let's assume that the conductivity of high-alloy steel and iron is almost the
same. If so; then, from the chart, which has the highest permeability?
Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 4-19
High-alloy steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 4-20
3-25
1.
eddy current
2.
The amount of current that flows through this simple eddy current test
circuit depends on the im
of the test coil.
7.
magnetic field
8.
In eddy current testing a change in a coil's magnetic field is caused by a

change in the g
of the material.
13.
unbalanced
(out of balance)
14.
In a bridge circuit that has been balanced with the coil held in air, any
reading on the meter indicates that the material under test has a conductivity greater than
% IACS.
19.
True
INSPECTION
COIL
--:1=====-~,
20.
REFERENCE
COIL
--;:, ====::::::.~,
When two identical coils are used as the impedances in a bridge circuit, one
serves as the inspection coil and the other serves as a -------coil.
From page 4-15
4-17
You felt that the explanation indicated that higher frequencies result in more
depth of penetration. Apparently our explanation was not very good because
the opposite is true. The higher the frequency the less the depth of penetration.
The key to the whole thing lies in the fact that a higher frequency through the
test coil results in a more rapidly changing magnetic field. Because the field of
the coil is varying at a faster rate, the induced eddy currents are stronger.
These stronger eddy currents produce a stronger magnetic field that is always
in opposition to the coil's field. Since the eddy current's magnetic field
becomes stronger as the frequency is increased it offers more opposition to the
coil's magnetic field preventing a deeper penetration.
3-26
2.
r-i--,
impedance
rv
I
I
I
I
R I
I
I
XLI
I
I
L __
3.
I
I
_J
The impedance of the test coil is the result of the _r
and i
of the coil.
8.
conductivity
9.
An ac power supply, a meter, and a test coil are the basic elements of
any eddy current test ~c
_
14.
0 (zero)
15.
In eddy current testing, a sudden momentary deflection of the needle on

the meter as the inspection coil is moved over the surface of the material
probably indicates the presence of a
----------~
20.
reference
21.
With the reference coil placed on a reference standard and the inspection
coil placed on a test specimen, a meter deflection would indicate that
there is a difference in
between the reference
standard and the test specimen.
From page 4-14
4-16
Woops - wrong on two counts.

First, impedance and lift-off are coil factors, not material factors. They have
nothing to do with the material itself. We are looking for those things within
the material itself that affect the depth of penetration.
The depth of penetration is affected by the conductivity and permeability of
the material. A material with a high conductivity will allow less depth of
penetration, and a material with high permeability will also allow less depth of
penetration.
3-27
3.
resistance,
inductive reactance
4.
The impedance of a test coil never changes. (True - False)
9.
circuit
10.
The three basic elements of an eddy current test circuit are: --, a
, and a
~~~~~~~~~~
15.
discontinuity
16.
A sudden momentary deflection of the needle might also be caused by

1
21.
conductivity
22.
A balanced two-coil system can be used to compare

factors and DIMENSIONAL factors.
From page 4-14
4-15
Exactly. We want to emphasize that the conductivity of the material and the
permeability of the material are the two factors related to the material that
affect the depth of penetration.
THE HIGHER THE CONDUCTIVITY, THE LESS THE PENETRATION.
THE HIGHER THE PERMEABILITY, THE LESS THE PENETRATION.
There are two other factors that affect the depth of penetration that are controllable to a degree by the operator. These are the geometry of the exciting
coil and the frequency of the power supply.
The effect of the geometry of the exciting coil may be visualized by imagining
the comparison of a closely wound coil versus a loosly wound coil. There is
bound to be a difference in their penetration qualities due to the difference in
their magnetic fields. It is difficult to draw any hard and fast rules that
govern the effect of coil size, etc., since there are so many variables. It is
enough to say that there is no attempt made to control depth of penetration
through selection of particular coils.
The factor that is directly controllable by the operator (on some eddy current
test equipment) is the frequency of the alternating current applied to the test
circuit. When a higher frequency is applied to the inspection coil, the magnetic
field is changing more rapidly. As we pointed out in Chapter 1, a higher rate of
change of the magnetic field will cause higher values of current to be induced
in the material. Stronger eddy currents cause stronger eddy current magnetic
fields that oppose the penetration of the coil's magnetic field.
From the above explanation, which of the following statements is true?
Higher frequencies result in more depth of penetration . . . . . . . . . . Page 4-1 7
Lower frequencies result in more depth of penetration . . . . . . . . . . . Page 4-18
3-28
4.
False
5.
In an eddy current test circuit, a change in the impedance of the coil

causes a change in the
reading.
10.
an ac power supply,
a meter, a test coil
11.
The test circuit shown here is called a b
16.
lift-off
1 7.
If the test is repeated with care so that lift-off is avoided and the sudden
momentary deflection occurs again, the cause is a ~~~~~~~~~
22.
CONDUCTIVITY
23.
A balanced two-coil system can be used to measure the thickness of a

nonconductive coating. (True - False)
circuit.
From page 4-12
4-14
Right! A material with high conductivity will allow less penetration of the
eddy currents.
Remember - the higher the conductivity the less the penetration.
The other factor of the material that affects the depth of penetration is the
permeability of the material. The effect of permeability is, of course, absent in
nonferromagnetic materials such as copper or aluminum, but in ferromagnetic
(easily magnetized) material, such as iron or ferromagnetic steels, the higher
the permeability the less the penetration.
Note that the permeability factor will have no effect on the depth of penetration if the test article is magnetized to saturation by a separate de coil.
The two factors inherent to the material that affect the depth of penetration of
eddy currents are the ...
conductivity and permeability
Page 4-15
impedance and lift-off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 4-16
3-29
5.
meter (ammeter)
6.
In an eddy current test circuit, a change in the meter reading is caused

by a change in the coil's
_
frame 7.
11.
bridge
12. The bridge circuit is an improvement over the basic test circuit because
it is more s
to small changes.
frame 13.
17. discontinuity
18. In gaging the thickness of thin materials it is necessary to establish
meter readings for the upper and lower limits of acceptability by using a
frame 19.
23. True
From page 4-12
4-13
Your answer indicates that you feel that a material with a high conductivity
will allow a greater depth of penetration. That is incorrect.
The higher conductivity allows stronger eddy currents to be induced near the
surface. The magnetic field produced by the stronger eddy currents offer more
opposition to the coil's magnetic field reducing its strength and preventing it
from penetrating as deep into the material.
Thus, materials with high conductivity allow less depth of penetration and
materials with low conductivity allow a greater depth of penetration.
Turn to page 4-14.
3-30
From page 3-29
As you might guess, in eddy current testing inspection coils are designed for
particular applications. So far we have only discussed inspection coils that are
placed on or near the surface of the material. Coils that we have shown schematically like this,
\
~
actually look like this. ---
The coil itself is mounted in the end of the probe which has a coating of epoxy
applied to serve as a wear surface as shown in view A of the illustration below.
COIL LEADS
COAX TO
INSTRUMENT
___f\
JJ..
SPRING
COIL
COi L RECESSED AND

EPOXY Fl LLED
VIEWA
VIEW B
View B shows an arrangement where the coil is mounted in a spring loaded

housing. The spring loading helps to assure that a constant pressure is
applied at all times to prevent separation of the coil from the surface under
test.
From page 4-11
4-12
The standard depth of penetration is defined as the depth at which the current
is approximately 37% of the current density that exists at the surface.
If the standard depth of penetration exceeds the thickness of the material
under test, the restriction of the eddy current paths appears as a change in the
conductivity of the material. The coil response then reflects the thickness of
the material. It should be remembered, however, that eddy currents do not
cease to exist beyond the standard depth. Normally, the material must have a
thickness of two or three times the standard depth of penetration before
thickness ceases to have any effect on the test coil.
Of course, it is reasonable to expect that the standard depth of penetration
would vary between different materials which it does. The depth of penetration is affected by the conductivity and the permeability of the material.
Let's see why conductivity affects the depth of penetration. You recall that
the magnetic field produced by the eddy currents opposes the magnetic field
of the coil. You also recall that induced eddy currents are stronger in the more
conductive materials. Then it is reasonable that the stronger eddy current
magnetic field offers stronger opposition to the coil's magnetic field. Thus the
coil's. magnetic field is considerably weakened near the surface. This effect
continues as the coil's magnetic field enters deeper into the material. At every
level it is met with strong opposition.
As a result, a material with a high conductivity will allow
penetration.
more
less
depth of
Page 4-13
Page 4-14
From page 3-30
3-31
Here is another variation of the surface probe.

COIL
COIL LEADS
PROBE
DEPTH ADJUST COLLAR
DEPTH ADJUST COLLAR
This is an example of a surface probe designed for a specific application - the

inspection of the inner circumferences of bolt holes. The coil is mounted in a
holder shaped and sized to serve that special function. Holders may be designed
to serve any particular requirement - to fit a particular surface such as the
round surface of a tube or bar, or to position the coil at a particular place such
as the edge of a test specimen. There is an infinite variety of possibilities.
All of the preceding belong to a class known as "surface" coils.
Another class of coils which we have not discussed is the "encircling" coil.
The encircling coil will be shown schematically as shown on the left of this
illustration. An example of an actual coil is shown on the right.
Please continue on the next page.
From page 4-9
4-11
Right! The shorter coil shown in view B is more sensitive to the presence of
the crack.
The magnetic field of a surface coil is slightly larger than the coil itself while
the magnetic field of encircling or internal coils extends slightly beyond the
ends of the coil.
Another dimensional factor that we have not discussed very deeply as yet is
the depth of penetration of eddy currents. We did say, in an earlier chapter,
that the magnetic field of a surface coil does not penetrate entirely through
thick material but we gave no indication as to what the thickness limit might
be, nor did we mention any of the factors that affect the depth of penetration.
We shall do so now.
First, you must realize that eddy currents are not uniformly distributed
throughout an article being inspected. They are most dense at the surface
immediately beneath the coil and become progressively less dense with
increasing distance below the surface.
1.00
I-
0,80
a:
a:
::>
0.60
(.)
was:
:::: .: 0.40
I- I-
STANDARD DEPTHOF PENETRATION
-WHERE DENSITY OF EDDY CURRENT=

37% OF DENSITY AT SURFACE
<( -
Cl)
a:
i ~
0.20
0
The graph above shows the relative distribution of eddy current in any
material. The numbers up the left side of the graph give the relative density of
the eddy current as a percentage of the density of the current that exists at
the surface. The numbers across the bottom give the material depth as
multiples of the "Standard Depth of Penetration".
Continue on to the next page.
From page 3-31
3-32
When the circling coil is used, the test specimen is passed through the center
of the coil. The eddy currents induced in the specimen circle around the circumference of the specimen as shown here.
The encircling coil is especially adaptable to the inspection of rods and pipes;
first, because the circular shape of the coil is compatible with the circular
shape of the rod or pipe; and second, because of the forming processes of rods
and pipes, discontinuities are usually lengthwise of the rod or pipe. A lengthwise discontinuity disrupts the symmetrical flow of the eddy currents causing
significant changes in the associated magnetic field. For discontinuities that
are not lengthwise, the sensitivity is reduced but detection is still possible
since few cracks are totally radial. This illustration shows the effect of a
discontinuity on the pattern of eddy current flow in a pipe.
INSPECTIONJOI L
EDD~
CURRENT
CRACK
QLOW ~~
PIPE
INSPECTIONCOIL
'------v--"
SECTIONA-A
If the inspection coil shown above is one leg of a bridge circuit, the presence of
the discontinuity ...
will cause a deflection of the meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 3-33
will not cause a deflection of the meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 3-34
4-10
From page 4-9

View A is not the right answer.
As we have indicated, the best sensitivity is obtained when the crack interrupts the biggest proportion of the available eddy currents.
In view A the eddy currents are present in the material from one end of the
coil to the other as shown here.
EDDY CURRENT ZONE
CRACK ZONE
The eddy currents that are interrupted by the crack are only a small part of
the eddy currents induced by the coil. Therefore the change in the meter
reading caused by the presence of the crack will be slight.
In view B the crack interrupts almost all of the eddy currents produced by the
coil.
EDDY
CURRENT
ZONE
CRACK ZONE
Therefore, the change in the meter reading caused by the presence of the crack
will be large.
Thus the shorter coil is more sensitive to the presence of the crack than the
longer coil.
Turn to page 4-11.
3-33
From page 3-32
Yes, the presence of the discontinuity disrupts the eddy currents induced in
the pipe as the discontinuity passes through the coil. Disrupting the eddy current causes the magnetic field of the coil to change. This changes the impedance of the coil. The change in the impedance causes a deflection of the meter.
What we are really saying is that the eddy current principles that are applicable to the use of surface coils are equally applicable to the use of encircling
coils. The factors of conductivity, dimension, and permeability of the test
specimen affect the impedance of the encircling coil in the same manner.
There are a few differences however. The separation between the coil and the
specimen, which we call lift-off when surface coils are used, is called "fill factor"
when encircling coils are used. Obviously, if a rod is to pass through a coil,
there has to be some gap between the two. Any variation in this gap has the
same effect that a change in lift-off has. Because of the necessity to maintain
fill factor at a constant value, it is necessary to have the means to guide the
specimen through the center of the coil as shown here.
--n::GUIOE
6
~
COIL
ROD OR
GUIDE
TUBE
~LD
~
~
In inspecting a length of tubing using an encircling coil, a variation in the

diameter of the tube will ...
not affect eddy currents in the tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 3-35
affect the conductivity of the material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 3-36
From page 4-6
4-9
Excellent choice. You realized that a circumferential crack will not disrupt the
flow of eddy currents produced by an encircling coil. Therefore, a surface coil
must be used if circumferential cracks are suspected in a round bar.
Internal coils, like encircling coils, produce eddy currents that flow circumferentially around the pipe so they, too, are more effective in detecting
discontinuities that lie along the length of the pipe or tubing than in detecting
circumferential discontinuities.
Inspection coils are made in a variety of sizes and shapes and the dimensions
of the coil are an important factor in the detection of discontinuities. The best
resolution is obtained with the smaller diameter surface coils and the shorter
encircling and internal coils but these are also more sensitive to lift-off and fill
factor variations.
l
VIEWA
Lm=;
VIEW B
In the illustration above we are showing a longitudinal crack being inspected,

first with a long coil (view A) and then with a short coil (view B). The best sensitivity will be obtained when the crack interrupts the biggest proportion of
the available eddy currents. This occurs in ...
View A
ViewB
Page 4-10
Page 4-11
From page 3-32
3-34
You felt that the presence of the discontinuity in the pipe would not cause a
deflection of the meter if the coil were one leg of a bridge circuit. Let's take a
look at the entire picture.
PIPE
Do you see what we mean when we say that the coil is one leg of a bridge circuit? The impedance of the coil is balanced by the impedance in the other leg
of the bridge. The presence of the discontinuity causes the eddy currents to
take a longer path. Since the path is longer, the conductivity is lessened. The
change in conductivity causes a change in the impedance of the coil. The
change in impedance of the coil causes an unbalance in the bridge that, in
turn, causes a deflection of the needle on the meter.
Thus the presence of the discontinuity does cause a deflection of the meter.
4-8
From page 4-6
Sorry. A circumferential crack would be parallel to the flow of eddy current if

an encircling coil were used. Therefore, the crack would cause very little
disruption of the eddy current flow. No - we would not use an encircling coil if
we were looking for circumferential cracks in a rod.
You might argue that a circumferential crack would, at certain places, also lie
parallel to the eddy currents produced by a surface coil. And so it will. As the
surface coil is moved towards the crack, the crack does parallel the eddy currents at first as shown in view A below. But as the coil is moved over the
crack, the eddy currents, due to their circular direction are then largely
perpendicular to the crack as shown in view B.
CRACK
VIEWA
VIEW B
This suggests an important phase of eddy current testing - the movement of

the inspection coil. The coil is not positioned in one place and a reading taken,
then positioned in another place and another reading taken. The coil is constantly moved over the surface being tested. Variations in the reading as the
coil is being moved indicate to the operator that something has happened
within the material. In this way, the operator can define the location of the
discontinuity.
From page 3-33
3-35
You selected the answer that says, "A variation in the diameter of the tube
will not affect eddy currents in the tube when inspecting the tube with an
encircling coil." That answer is not correct.
The illustration above shows exactly what is meant by the change in fill factor
caused by a change in the diameter of the tube.
A variation in the diameter of the tube will cause the gap between the tube
and the coil to change. Right? Then, if the gap changes, either more (if the
diameter is increasing) or less (if the diameter is decreasing) of the coil's
magnetic field intercepts the tube. This change in the effective magnetic field
of the coil causes a change in the induced eddy currents.
From page 4-4
4-7
You felt that an encircling coil could not be used to detect the presence of the
seam. You were wrong.
The encircling coil is peculiarly adapted to the detection of seams. Here's why.
The eddy currents produced in the bar by the encircling coil also flow around
the circumference of the bar as shown above. Thus, the seam is perpendicular to
the flow of the current thereby causing the greatest disruption of the current.
The encircling coil can detect seams or any other discontinuity whose major
axis lies along the length of the rod.
Now turn back to page 4-6.
From page 3-33
3-36
Good! A variation in the diameter of the tube will cause either more or less of
the coil's magnetic field to intercept the tube. This causes more (or less) eddy
currents to be induced. The change in the eddy currents causes an apparent
change in the conductivity.
A third type of coil used in eddy current testing is the "internal" or "bobbin
type" coil shown here.
SPECIMEN
COIL
The internal coil can be inserted into tubing to inspect for discontinuities on
the inner circumference of the tube. The internal coil also induces currents
that encircle the entire circumference of the tube so that the entire section surrounding the coil is inspected. The same eddy current principles that apply to
the encircling coil apply to the internal coil.
The three classes of inspection coils that we have discussed herein are illustrated schematically as follows:
ENCIRCLING
SURFACE COi L
e=p;ti=J :
COi L
INTERNAL COIL
Each of these classes may have multiple windings or may be interconnected

with other coils.
4-6
From page 4-4
Excellent! The presence of the seam disrupts the flow of eddy currents which
are following a path around the circumference of the bar as shown here.
BAR
SEAM
END VIEW
Now let's look at another possibility. For one reason or another we suspect
that the circular bar might have circumferential cracks as shown here.
To find out if this circumferential crack does exist, we would use ...
an encircling coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 4-8
a surface coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 4-9
3-37
From page 3-36
So far we have only discussed test circuits utilizing a single coil arrangement.
Let's consider other ways in which coils can be used in eddy current test circuits.
In the two-coil arrangements, shown schematically here, one coil supplies the
magnetic field and a second coil senses the presence of the magnetic field and
reacts to changes that result from changes caused by changes in the eddy
currents.
EXCITING
COIL
RECEIVING
COIL
EXCITING
COIL
RECEIVING
COIL
TO TEST
CIRCUIT
TO TEST
CIRCUIT
MATERIAL
MATERIAL
(ROD)
These arrangements of coils are called the "reflection" method since the two
coils are located on the same side of the material.
If the two coils are located on opposite sides of the material as shown below,
the arrangement is called the "transmission" method.
EXCITING
COIL
RECEIVING
COIL
EXCITING COIL
RECEIVING
COIL
TO TEST
CIRCUIT
TO TEST
CIRCUIT
MATERIAL
(PIPE)
In the transmission method, the receiving coil is affected only by magnetic

fields that have passed through the material.
The two-coil method that does not require the magnetic field to pass completely
through the material is called the ...
transmission method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 3-38
reflection method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 3-39
4-5
From page 4-2
Hold up a minute. You feel that a surface coil could not be used to detect the
presence and location of the seam in the circular bar. This is incorrect.
Perhaps you are thinking that since the surface of the bar is curved, the curvature would affect the results obtained with the surface coil. And so it would.
But this effect can be overcome by using a fixture curved to fit the curvature
of the bar something like this.
~----SURFACE
COIL
Y--FIXTURE
0-CIRCULAR
BAR
The use of a fixture establishes a fixed relationship between the position of the
surface coil and the bar. Since the position relationship doesn't vary as the coil
is moved over the bar there is no variation in the signal produced until a
discontinuity is encountered.
Or perhaps you felt that there would be no variation in the signal as the coil
was moved along the seam. Again you are right, which brings up this point. If
you are looking for seams, it is necessary to move the surface probe crossways
to the seam, i.e., around the circumference of the bar.
From page 3-37

You selected the transmission
3-38
method as being the method that does not
require the magnetic field to pass completely through the material. That is
incorrect. The transmission method does require that the magnetic field
penetrate completely through the material. Here is an illustration showing the
two methods using surface coils.
EXCITING RECEIVING
COIL
COIL
EXCITING COi L
TO TEST
CIRCUIT
RECEIVING
COIL
TO TEST
CIRCUIT
REFLECTION METHOD
TRANSMISSIONMETHOD
Note that in the reflection method both coils are on the same side of the
material. The magnetic field does not have to pass completely through the
material to be sensed by the receiving coil.
4-4
From page 4-2
Very good! You seem to understand fully how a surface coil can be used to
detect cracks. We want to remind you that, in this instance, a fixture, curved
to the same radius as the bar, is needed to ensure that the surface coil is
always held in the same geometrical position with respect to the bar.
In production runs of large quantities of rods or pipes being inspected with
surface coils, the inspection coil is held in position by a mechanism and the bar
or tube is passed under it and rotated. Thus the position of the coil is fixed
with respect to the bar.
Remembering that the eddy currents produced by a coil always flow in directions parallel to the winding of the coil, could an encircling coil be used to
detect the presence of the seam?
/
ENCIRCLING
COi L
Yes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 4-6

No
Page4-7
3-39
From page 3-37
That is correct. The two-coil method that does not require the magnetic field
to pass completely through the material is called the reflection method.
The illustration below shows several different coil arrangements that are possible in the reflection and transmission methods used in inspecting tubing.
B
(a)
(cl
TUBE
TUBE
TUBE
TUBE
(f)
(h)
(gl
TUBE
TUBE
TUBE
TRANSMITTING
COi L
8 RECEIVING COIL
C
O
TRANSMITTING
RECEIVING
PROBE
PROBE
Note that it is possible to combine the use of a surface coil with an internal coil
as shown in views g and h in the illustration.
Look carefully at each view in the illustration and note the location of each
exciting coil and each receiving coil with respect to the material.
View f of the illustration is an example of the ...
reflection method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 3-40
transmission method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 3-41
From page 4-1
4-3
You think the laminar separation will give the biggest response to the eddy
currents from the surface probe. That is incorrect, and here's why.
The eddy currents induced by a surface coil follow circular paths that are
parallel to the winding of the coil. Here we show the set-up with the inspection
coil eddy currents added.
....--~~_~ ..
~-'--SUBSURFACE
LAMINAR SEPARATION
INSPECTION COi L
EDDY CURRENTS
The surface coil winding is parallel to the top surface of the material.
Therefore the eddy currents also flow parallel to the surface. The transverse
crack will force the current to take a longer path to avoid the crack as shown
in view A of the cross section below. The laminar separation, on the other
hand, will not cause much disruption of the current path since the separation
lies parallel to the current flow as shown in view B.
LAMINAR
Y-SEPARATION
COIL-_
PI00>07ZZZZ:
~=:~~~~-EDDY
::::::
CURRENTS
VIEWA
~
VIEW B
Since the laminar separation lies parallel to the eddy currents, their flow is not
disrupted as much as they were disrupted by the transverse crack.
In eddy current testing the greater the disruption of the eddy currents the
greater the effect on the test circuit.
3-40
From page 3-39
Right! Since both coils are on the same side of the material they are being
used in the reflection method.
So far in this section we have discussed two methods of arranging coils which
are used when the test circuit is separate from the exciting circuit.
Now we want to discuss two methods of arranging coils which are used when
the test circuit is not separated from the exciting circuit. These arrangements
are identified as the absolute arrangement and the differential arrangement.
In the differential arrangement the test coils are comparing one area of an
article with another area of the same article or they are comparing one area of
the article with a reference standard.
Here are two eddy current systems at work.
INDICATION
INDICATION
VIEWA
VIEW B
Which of these two views illustrates the differential arrangement?

View A
ViewB
Page 3-42
Page 3-43
From page 4-1
4-2
Right! The biggest response will be obtained from the transverse crack since
it causes the greater disruption of the current flow.
Now let's look at a circular bar with a seam in it.
Could a surface coil be used to detect the presence and location of this seam?
Yes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 4-4
No
Page4-5
From page 3-39
3-41
Sorry, view f shows two surface coils used on the inside of a pipe in the reflection method - not the transmission method. Here's the illustration again.
B
(a)
(cl
TUBE
TUBE
TUBE
TUBE
(f)
TUBE
TUBE
TUBE
TRANSMITTING
RECEIVING
C
O
TRANSMITTING
RECEIVING
COi L
COIL
PROBE
PROBE
In view f both coils are on the same side of the material, i.e., the inside of the
pipe. Since both coils are on the same side of the pipe, the method is the reflection method.
Admittedly "reflection" is a bit of a misnomer since the magnetic field of the
exciting. coil is not reflected off anything. The field is simply sensed by
another coil. But, since the situation of having the exciting source and the
receiving source on the same side is so like the same situation in ultrasonic
testing where the required signal is a reflection of a sound wave, it is convenient to use the same term and not have to learn a new one.
Now turn back to page 3-40 and proceed.
4-1
CHAPTER 4 -
GEOMETRY OF EDDY CURRENTS
Now that you have a general idea of how eddy current testing works, let's get
down to the nitty gritty.
In this chapter we are going to discuss those dimensional factors that pertain
to the induction of eddy currents. These factors include the orientation of the
eddy currents with respect to the coil producing them, the effect of coil-tospecimen spacing, and the depth of penetration.
We have discussed briefly the orientation of the eddy currents with respect to
the coil. We said that eddy currents flow in circular paths that are parallel to
the winding of the inspection coil.
The purpose of the inspection determines to a considerable extent the type of
coil to be used. When inspecting for discontinuities it is essential that the flow
of eddy currents be as nearly perpendicular to the discontinuity as possible to
obtain the maximum response from the discontinuity. If the eddy current flow
is parallel to the discontinuity there will be little or no distortion of the currents and very little reaction on the inspection coil.
Here is a thick piece of material in which there is a transverse crack and a
laminar separation.
:.------,_~-~:
SUBSURFACE
LAMINAR SEPARATION
~
INSPECTION COi L
If we use a surface coil on the top surface of this material and move the coil
over each discontinuity, the biggest response will be obtained from the ...
transverse crack
Page 4-2
laminar separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 4-3
3-42
From page 3-40
Sorry! View A does not illustrate the differential arrangement since that
arrangement does not compare one area of the test article with another.
Perhaps we confused you by showing this arrangement with encircling coils
rather than surface coils.
Here is the same differential arrangement using surface coils.
FIXTURE
COIL
COIL
VIEWA
You will recall that the two coils were the legs of a bridge circuit so that the
output of coil A was always being compared with the output of coil B. A
reading is obtained only when there is a difference in the material under the
two coils.
Now here is the differential arrangement using encircling coils.
COIL B
COILA
LCf_
X-11-1
SELF
COMPARISON
INDICATION
VIEW8
Since the two coils are wound in opposite directions their outputs cancel each
other so long as the material under each is identical. Thus, they too are comparing different areas and outputting a signal only when there is a difference
in the material under the two coils.
3-52
4. encircling
5. The eddy currents induced in a rod by an encircling coil travel lengthwise

to the rod. (True - False).
9. change

frame 6.
10. When inspecting a pipe with an encircling coil, a change in the diameter of
the pipe will change the f
f
-----
14. same

frame 11.
15. In the transmission method the exciting coil and the receiving coil are on
________
sides of the material.
19. reference standard

frame 16.
This completes the review. Now turn to page 4-1.
3-43
From page 3-40
Good! View B does show the differential arrangement since it is comparing

two areas of the same article.
In the illustration below we are using four coils to illustrate the use of a differential arrangement of coils in the reflection method.
--------IJ,
DISCONTINUITY
EXCITING AND
~f!J
y~
I
RECEIVING COILS
CD
TO TEST
CIRCUIT
~~~~~~~
~~:JI
.
3
EXCITING AND
RECEIVING COILS
As with any differential system, as long as there is no difference in the

material under the coils there is no output.
Could we use a four-coil differential system in the reflection method to compare a reference standard with a test specimen?
Yes
No
Page 3-44
Page 3-45
3-51
---
3. bolt holes
~
4. This is a schematic of an
,I\
,,,,.
I'"' '"' '"'
coil.
8. fill factor
9. When inspecting a rod with an encircling coil, a change in fill factor will
cause a
in the meter reading of the test circuit .
13. surface, encircling,

internal
14. In the reflection method the exciting coil and the receiving coil are on the
_____
side of the material.
18. differential
19. Diferential coils are most often used to compare one area of the material
with another area of the material - or one material with a ref
-------
From page 3-43
3-44
Yes, we can. You are right. The arrangement would look something like this.
REFERENCESTANDAR~~~
c:
One set of exciting and receiving coils is on the reference standard while the
other set is on the test specimen. Any diferences between the test specimen
and the reference standard cause unbalanced signals to the test circuit.
Here we show illustrations of the absolute arrangements.
SINGLE COi L ABSOLUTE
ARRANGEMENTS
DOUBLE COIL ABSOLUTE

ARRANGEMENTS
I
INDICATOR
I
MATERIAL
MATERIAL
INDICATOR
Note that the signals obtained from the coils are not the result of comparing
one area with another. The coils merely react to the material under them. They
measure absolute values.
3-50
2. wear
Q!=
3. This is an example of a surface coil mounted in an adapter to serve a

special function, the inspection of bh
_
7. bridge
8. When a surface coil is used, one of the dimension factors is called lift-off.
When an encircling coil is used, the comparable dimension factor is called
12. internal
13. The three classes of coils that are used in eddy current inspection are: the
______
coil, the
coil, and the
_
coil.
1 7. reflection
18. Coils which are identical to each other except that they are wound in opposition to each other are called diff
coils.
3-45
From page 3-43
You feel that we cannot use a four-coil differential system in the reflection
method to compare a reference standard with a test specimen. Let's examine
the facts.
Let's take another look at the four-coil differential arrangement as it is used to
compare different areas of the same specimen.
TEST
. TO
CIRCUIT
r--------.
DISCONTINUITY
EXCITINGANO
2EyJ.
+-- I
I
RECEIVING COILS
G)
1
~~:J
I
I
6
EXCITING AND
RECEIVING COILS
Note that this is also an example of the reflection method since one set of coils
are inducing the eddy currents while the other set of coils are sensing the
effect of the material.
Now let's take that right-hand coil off of the specimen and place it around a
reference standard like this.
TEST:TICLE
DIRECTION
OF MOTION
1(11:- .
rI
6~
TO TEST
CIRCUIT
REFERENCESTANOARtttt
We now have a four-coildifferential system that uses the reflection method to

compare the test specimen with a reference standard.
3-49
1. surface
2. When a surface coil has been mounted in a probe, a coating of epoxy is

applied to serve as a
surface.
6. lengthwise
7. Encircling coils, as well as surface coils, may be used as one leg of a

circuit.
------
11. False
r"1
L.J
~
12. This is a schematic of an
coil.
RECEIVING COIL
16. transmission
~ROD
~ ~EXCITING
1 7. This is an example of the
COIL
method.
From page 3-44
3-46
Until now we have indicated that the test signal resulting from impedance
changes in the coil arrangement is read on a meter. In place of, or even in addition to, the meter other readout devices are used. Oscilloscopes, strip chart
recorders, magnetic tape recorders, and even computers are examples of such
readout devices. These devices may be an integral part of the test set, they
may be modules that are plugged into the test set, or they may be separate
units connectd to the test set with cables. Detailed instructions on the use and
operation of these devices is beyond the scope of this handbook and are left to
the manufacturer of the equipment.
This completes the chapter on eddy current test circuits. We have not gone
into great detail about the circuitry other than the test coils and how they are
applied in bridge circuits. The circuitry inside a test set can be very complex
and is beyond the coverage intended for this handbook.
3-48
From page 3-47
1. This is a schematic of a s
=:]
coil.
5. False
6. Since the eddy currents induced by an encircling coil circle around the circumference of a rod, the easiest discontinuity to detect is one that runs
_________
of the bar.
10. fill factor
11. When inspecting a pipe with an internal coil, fill factor is not a factor to be
considered. (True - False)
15. opposite
16. The method in which the receiving coil is affected only by magnetic fields
that have passed through the material is called the--------method.
From page 3-46
3-47
Now you are ready to start back through the book and read those upside-down
pages.
TURN OR ROTATE THE BOOK 180 - LIKE THIS.
3-47
817-t
Page 3-48 starts a short review. Continue as before.
A-1
SELF-TEST
1. Electromagnetic induction is the principle by which an alternating current

is induced in a coil by:
a. Eddy currents.
c. A changing magnetic field.
b. The sine wave.
d. Changes in permeability.
2. Eddy currents generate a magnetic field.

b. False
a. True
3. Conductivity can be defined as:
a. The ability of a material to conduct an electrical current.

b. The inability of a material to conduct an electrical current.
4. An eddy current can be defined as a circulating alternating current
induced into an isolated conductor by an alternating magnetic field.
a. True
b. False
5. Current is induced in a coil rotating in a magnetic field by the principle of:

a. Electromagnetic induction.
c. Ohm's law.
b. Phase shifting.
d. Magnetic saturation.
6. Eddy currents generate a magnetic field that:

a. Opposes the coil's magnetic field.
b. Aids the coil's magnetic field.

7. The flow of electrical current through a test coil:
a. Is affected by the magnetic field around the coil.
b. Is not affected by the magnetic field around the coil.
A-2
8. The current induced in a coil that is rotating in a fixed magnetic field is:
a. Direct current.
b. Alternating current.
9. When a test coil induces eddy currents into a test specimen, the presence
of eddy currents in the specimen:
a. Will not affect the impedance of the test coil.
b. Will effect the impedance of the test coil.
10. When an alternating curent source is connected to a test coil, the coil's
magnetic field is:
a. Constantly varying.
c. Constant.
b. Parallel to the face

of the coil.
d. Inducing eddy current.
11. Eddy currents can exist:

a. Only in conductive materials.
c. In both conductive and

nonconductive materials.
b. Only in nonconductive materials.

12. A test coil's magnetic field will not pass through a nonconductive
material.
a. True
b. False
13. Changes in a material's chemical composition will affect the flow of eddy
currents.
a. True
b. False
14. In a circuit having only resistance, the current lags behind the voltage by:
a. 00
c. 180
b. 90
d. 270
A-3
15. Eddy currents cannot be induced in:
a. Specimens made of copper.
c. Conductive material.
b. Feromagnetic material.
d. Nonconductive material.
16. In a circuit having only pure inductance the current lags behind the
voltage by:
a. 00
c. 180
b. 90
d. 270
17. An inclusion in a material will not affect the flow of eddy currents.
a. True
b. False
18. A test coil's magnetic field intensity outside a test coil:

a. Increases with distance from the coil.
b. Decreases with distance from the coil.
19. The lag of the current behind the voltage through a coil is caused by a factor of the coil called:
a. Permeability.
c. Inductive reactance.
b. Conductivity.
d. Impedance.
20. A crack within a material will affect the flow of eddy current.
a. True
b. False
21. The total opposition to the flow of alternating current through a coil is
called:
a. Permeability.
c. Inductive reactance.
b. Conductivity.
d. Impedance.
A-4
22. This figure shows two points lying in the magnetic field extending from
the end of the coil. Which point has the greater magnetic intensity?
+ +a. Point A
POINTA
POINTB
b. Point B
23. The correct eddy current path for an encircling test coil is shown by:
a. View A.
II, DENOTESPATH DIRECTION
b. View B.
24. The Greek letter alpha (a) usually denotes:

a. Impedance.
c. Phase angle.
b. Inductive reactance.
d. Resistance.
25. When the frequency of the voltage applied to a coil is increased, the inductive reactance of the coil will:
a. Increase.
b. Decrease.
26. When a rod is placed in a test coil, the density of the induced currents will
vary within the rod. The greatest current density will exist:
a. Near the surface of the rod.
b. Near the center of the rod.
A-5
27. In the following illustration the alternating current flowing through a
primary coil establishes a magnetic field and causes eddy currents to be
induced into a rod. A secondary coil encircling the rod:
PRIMARY
COIL
SECONDARY
COIL
~AC
a. Will not be affected by the eddy current flow.

b. Will be affected by the eddy current flow.
28. An electric current may be induced in a coil by:
a. Self-induction.
c. Magnetic saturation.
b. Moving the coil through

a magnetic field.
d. Gradualchangesin
conductivity.
29. When a rod is placed in a test coil, the density of the induced eddy currents
will vary within the rod. No eddy currents will exist:
a. At the center of the rod.
b. Near the surface of the rod.
30. When a surface test coil is placed on a specimen, the depth of eddy current
penetration into the specimen varies with:
a. The test frequency applied to the coil.
b. The conductivity of that specific specimen.
c. Both the test frequency and the conductivity of the specimen.
31. The depth of eddy current penetration decreases as the test frequency:
a. Increases.
b. Decreases.
A-6
32. The depth of eddy current penetration decreases as the conductivity:

a. Increases.
b. Decreases.
33. The term "lift-off" applies to:

a. A surface coil.
b. An encircling coil.
34. The term "fill factor" applies to:

a. A surface coil.
35. In the followingillustration a surface coil is positioned above the surface

of a specimen. If the distance between the coil and the specimen's surface
varies, the output indication will:
SPECIMEN
a. Remain unchanged.
b. Vary.
36. In order for an article to be tested with eddy currents the article must be
made of material that is:
a. Nonferromagnetic.
c. Electrically nonconductive.
b. Electrically conductive.
d. An insulator.
37. The followingillustration shows a rod passing through a test coil. If the
diameter of the rod varies, the indication will:
INDICATOR
'-----
a. Remain unchanged.
AC----'
b. Vary.
A-7
38. The three properties of the material that affect the strength of the eddy
current induced in the material are:
a. Resistance, inductive reactance, and impedance.
b. Fill-factor, lift-off, and edge effect.
c. Depth of penetration, magnetic saturation, and frequency.
d. Conductivity, dimensions, and permeability.
39. IACS is a recognized abbreviation for:
a. Induced Alternating Current Standard.
b. Inductively Activated Comparison Standard.
c. Internal Applied Conductivity Standard.
d. International Annealed Copper Standard.
40. Edge effect causes a reduction in the apparent conductivity of the material
because:
a. The eddy currents increase.
b. The coil's magnetic field intercepts more of the material.
c. The coil is moved parallel to the edge of the material.
d. There is nowhere for eddy currents to flow.
41. The basic elements of a basic eddy current test circuit are:
a. A bridge, a resistor, and a voltmeter.
b. An ac power supply, a meter, and a test coil.
c. A reference coil, a battery, and a meter.
d. A standard, an ac power supply, and a meter.
A-8
42. The easiest discontinuity to detect with an encircling coil is one that runs:
a. Circumferentially to the bar.
b. Lengthwise to the bar.
43. The arrangement of a test coil, or coils, so that the reading on the test set
does not result from the comparisonbetweendifferent areas of the same test
article or between the test article and a referencestandard is known as a:
a. Differential arrangement.
c. Absolute arrangement.
b. Reflective arrangement.
d. Transmission arrangement.
44. Eddy currents are more dense at the surface of a specimen than below the
surface:
a. True
b. False
45. The term describing how much the current lags behind the voltage is:
a. Phase angle.
c. Separation.
b. Depth of penetration.
d. Dimension factor.
46.
0
90
I
~/
I
0
00
Selection of point D on the impedance-plane diagram above as an

operating point will set up the equipment to measure the:
a. Conductivity variable.
c. Impedance variable.
b. Lift-off variable.
d. Frequency variable.
A-9
4 7. Since the linear time base display method effectively suppresses the
dimension, or lift-off, variable, the method measures the:
a. Frequency variable.
c. Conductivity variable.
b. Impedance variable.
d. Lift-off variable.
48. In the reactance testing method, conductivity variables and dimension

variables:
a. Can be separated.
b. Cannot be separated.
49. Before conducting any tests, eddy current equipment is always calibrated
with:
a. Other eddy current instruments.
c. Standard probes.
b. A voltmeter and an ammeter.
d. A reference standard.
50. If a material has low conductivity the eddy currents induced will be:
a. Strong.
b. Weak.
51. In IACS, annealed copper is arbitrarily assigned a conductivity of:

a. 100 Ohms.
c. 100 Volts.
b. 100 Amperes.
d. 100 percent.
52. Edge effect makes the detection of cracks located at or near the edges of a
specimen:
a. Easier to detect.
b. Harder to detect.
53. In a bridge circuit a reading on the meter indicates that the bridge is:
a. Working.
c. Balanced.
b. Sensitive.
d. Unbalanced.
A-10
54. One of the dimensional factors of a surface coil is called lift-off. The comparable dimensional factor of an encircling coil is called:
a. Feedback.
c.
Feed through.
b. Hysteresis.
d. Fill factor.
55. The maximum response from a discontinuity is obtained when the eddy
currents:
a. Are parallel to the discontinuity.
b. Are perpendicular to the discontinuity.
c. Encircle the discontinuity.
56. The Standard Depth of Penetration is defined as the point at which the
current density is
of the current density at the surface.
a. 18%
c. 50%
b. 37%
d. 78%
57. Lagging of current behind the voltage through a coil is caused by the
coil's:
a. Resistance.
c. Impedance.
d. Size.
58.
90
D"' --
~~
o ....._
Selection of point D on the impedance-plane diagram above as an

operating point will set up the equipment to measure the:
A-11
59. In the modulation analysis method the signals received from the test coil
are recorded on:
a. An oscilloscope.
c. Photographic film.
b. A meter.
d. A strip-chart.
60. In the feedback controlled method special feedback circuits are used that
eliminate one component of the coil's impedance. The eliminated component might be either:
a. Frequency or phase angle.
c. Inductive reactance or
resistance.
b. Conductivity or dimension.
d. Lift-off or fill factor.
61. The limits of acceptability for cracks are often established by use of:
a. Standard probes.
c. Commercialstandards.
b. Reference standards.
d. Frequency.
62. If a material is coated with a nonconductive material the eddy currents

induced by a test coil will become:
a. Stronger.
b. Weaker.
63. In eddy current testing an increase in the conductivity of the article under
test will cause the magnetic field of the test coil to:
a. Increase.
b. Decrease.
64. Cracks at the edges of a specimen can be detected if:

a. A differential coil arrangement is used.
b. The material is magnetized with a de coil.
c. The coil-to-edgedistance is held constant.
d. An encircling coil is used.
A-12
65. A sudden, momentary deflection of the needle on a meter as the inspection

coil is moved over the surface of the material under test probably indicates
the presence of:
a. A discontinuity.
c. A change in direction.
b. A change in dimension.
d. All of the above.
66. When inspecting a pipe with an encircling coil, a change in the diameter of
the pipe will change the:
a. Feedback.
c. Feedthrough.
b. Hysteresis.
d. Fill factor.
67. The eddy currents induced in conductive material travel in circular paths
that:
a. Are in the same direction as the coil's magnetic field.
b. Oppose the coil's magnetic field.
c. Are concentrated at the center of the material.
d. Are parallel to the windings of the coil.
68. Factors of the material that affect the depth of penetration are:
a. Frequency and voltage.
c. Impedance and lift-off.
b. Thickness and hardness.
d. Conductivity and
permeability.
69. On this impedance-planediagram the curved line is called the:

900
a. Thickness curve.
c. Conductivity curve.
b. Lift-off curve.
d. Alloy curve.
A-13
70. In the ellipse display method, when the impedances of the test coil and the
reference coil are exactly alike, the cathode ray tube (CRT) will display:
a. An ellipse.
c. A straight line.
b. A sine wave.
d. A circle.
71. The modulation device used in the modulation analysis method is actually:
a. An electronic filter.
c.
A piece of wire.
b. A tuning circuit.
d. A diode.
72. Conductivity testers are calibrated on:

a. Discontinuity standards.
c.
b. Lift-off standards.
d. Thickness standards.
High end and the low end

conductivity standards.
73. A reference standard is also used to make sure that each time the test
equipment is used it provides consistant:
a. Signal-to-noise ratio.
c. Sensitivity.
b. Amplification.
d. Frequency.
74. Lift-off is an example of:

a. A conductivity factor.
c. A dimensional factor
b. A permeability factor.
75. An alloy formed by the combination of two base materials will have a conductivity that is different from the conductivity of either base material.
a. True
b. False
A-14
76. The amount of current that flows through an eddy current test circuit
depends on:
a. The permeability of the circuit.
b. The resistance in the circuit.
c. The inductive reactance in the circuit.
d. The impedance in the circuit.
77. Reference standards for thickness gaging are made from the same type of
material as the material being tested.
a. True
b. False
78. In the reflection method of eddy current testing the exciting coil and the
receiving coil are on:
a. The same side of the material.
b. Opposite sides of the material.
79. When using a surface coil the best resolution is obtained with:
a. Larger diameter coils.
b. Smaller diameter coils.
80. As the conductivity of the material increases, the depth of penetration:

a. Increases.
b. Decreases.
81.
900
On this impedance-planediagram the dashed line is known as the:

a. Thickness curve.
b. Lift-off curve.
d. Alloy curve.
A-15
82. In the ellipse display method, tilting of the ellipse indicates a change in the:
a. Frequency variable.
c. Conductivity variable.
b. Impedance variable.
d. Dimension variable.
83. A conductivity tester can be used as a crack detector.

a. True
b. False
84. The filter selected for use in the modulation analysis method must be
capable of passing signals that have the desired:
a. Impedance.
c. Frequency.
b. Balance.
d. Reflection.
85. In a crack detector the depth of penetration is controlled by controlling

the:
a. Frequency of operation.
c. Lift-off.
b. Specimen thickness.
d. Circuit impedance.
86. An ideal discontinuity standard duplicates the test situation as closely as

possible.
a. True
b. False
87. Permeability in an article affects eddy current tests by introducing inconsistancies in:
a. Conductivity.
c. The test results.
b. The depth of penetration.
d. Dimension.
88. In eddy current testing, a crack in the test material will be indicated by a
change in conductivity.
a. True.
b. False
A-16
89. The impedance of a test coil never changes.

a. True
b. False
90. When two identical coils are used as impedances in a bridge circuit, one
serves as the inspection coil, and the other serves as:
a. An impedance coil.
c. A reference coil.
d. A surface coil.
91. In the transmission method of eddy current testing, the exciting coil and
the receiving coil are on:
a. The same side of the material.
b. Opposite sides of the material.
92. An arrangement of test coils so that the reading on the test instrument
results from the comparison between different areas of the same test article or between the test article and a reference standard is known as a(n):
a. Transmission arrangement.
c. Reflective arrangement.
b. Absolute arrangement.
d. Differential arrangement.
93. The greater the permeability of the test material, the

of penetration.
b. Less
a. More
94.
900
~
0
00
On this impedance-planediagram the arrow points to the:

a. Thickness curve.
b. Lift-off curve.
d. Alloy curve.
the depth
A-17
95. In the modulation analysis method, the minimum acceptable signal-tonoise ratio is considered to be:
a. 1 to 3.
c. 3 to 1.
b. 3 to 5.
d. 6 to 1.
96. Once an eddy current instrument is calibrated, the controls are not to be
touched during ensuing tests.
a. True
b. False
97. The two types of discontinuity standards are:

a. Natural and artificial.
c. Commercialand Noncommercial.
b. Conductivity and lift-off.
d. Cracks and inclusions.
98. The adverse effect of permeability of magnetizable materials can be

avoided by:
a. Magnetizing the specimen with a de coil.
b. Coating the material with a nonconductive coating.
c. Plating the material with a conductive material.
d. Increasing the frequency.
99. A change in the conductivity indicates the presence of a discontinuity.
a. True
b. False
100. In an eddy current test circuit, the change in the meter reading is caused
by a change in the test coil's:
a. Impedance.
c. Resistance.
d. Permeability.
A-18
101. The eddy currents induced in a rod by an encircling coil travel lengthwise
to the rod.
a. True.
b. False
102. Differential coils are exactly alike except:

a. One is a surface coil and the other is an encircling coil.
b. For their impedances.
c.
They are wound in opposite directions.
d. One is energized with de while the other is energized with ac.

103. Differential coils may be used:
a. To compare one area of the material with another area.
b. In the reflection method.
c. In the transmission method.
d. As reference standards.
104. When using external coils or internal coils, the best resolution is obtained
with:
a. Shorter coils.
b. Longer coils.
105. Any indications of discontinuities that may exist at the edge of the
material will be hidden by a large indication that results from:
a. Lift-off or fill factor.
c. Lack of depth of penetration.
b. Conductivity.
d. Edge effect.
106. Eddy current testing is more sensitive to dimensional changes when the
material is:
a. Thick.
b. Thin.
A-19
107. In the linear time base display method a shift in phase indicates a change
in test coil:
a. Impedance.
c. Dimension.
b. Frequency.
d. Position.
108.
900
Selection of point D on the impedance-plane diagram above will set up the

equipment to measure the:
109. In the modulation analysis method the detection of discontinuities

requires the use of:
a. A high pass filter.
b. A low pass filter.
110. When using a crack detector an operating frequency should be found

which best suppresses:
a. Conductivity.
c. Thickness changes.
b. Lift-off.
d. Edge effect.
111. Lift-off standards are made of:

a. Copper.
c. Any nonconductive material.
b. Any magnetizable material.
d. Any conductive material.
A-20
112. The thickness of the material under test becomes a factor to be considered
when:
a. The lift-off is completely suppressed.
b. The material is magnetized to saturation.
c. The thickness is less than the depth of penetration.
d. The conductivity is completely suppressed.
113. The conductivity of a 10-mil thick piece of copper as measured by eddy
current methods at 1 kHz will be:
a. 100% IACS.
c.
Less than 100% IACS.
b. More than 100% IACS.

114. In eddy current testing a change in the impedance of the test coil is caused
by a change in the coil' s:
a. Location on the specimen.
c. Magnetic field.
b. Conductivity.
d. Balance point.
115. Eddy currents are evenly distributed throughout an article being inspected.
a. True
b. False
116. In a vector diagram the length of the vector indicates a:

a. Phase angle.
c. Value.
b. Discontinuity.
d. Variable.
117. Eddy current testing is more sensitive to dimensional changes when the
frequency is:
a. Higher.
b. Lower.
A-21
118. In the reactance testing method an oscillator is added to the circuit. The
frequency of operation of the oscillator depends on the test coil's:
a. Impedance.
c.
Resistance.
d. Signal-to-noise ratio.
A-22
Answers for Self-Test
Page No.
Question
Ref.
Page No.
Question
Ref.
1. c
1-6
26.
4-11
2.
2-3
27.
3-37
3.
1-31
28.
1-8
4.
2-3
29.
4-11
5.
1-16
30.
4-15
6.
2-3
31.
4-11
7.
1-32
32.
4-15
8.
1-19
33.
3-33
9.
3-4
34.
3-33
10.
1-27
35.
2-14
11.
2-1
36.
2-3
12.
2-11
37.
3-33
13.
2-34
38.
2-19
14.
1-37
39.
2-31
15.
2-3
40.
2-54
16.
1-32
41.
3-7
17.
2-51
42.
3-32
18.
2-9
43.
3-44
19.
1-32
44.
4-11
20.
2-51
45.
5-5
21.
1-43
46.
5-39
22.
2-9
47.
5-57
23.
3-32
48.
5-76
24.
1-45
49.
6-10
25.
1-49
50.
2-7
A-23
Page No.
Question
Ref.
Page No.
Question
Ref.
51.
2-31
76.
3-1
52.
2-54
77.
3-18
53.
3-9
78.
3-37
54.
3-33
79.
4-9
55.
4-1
80.
4-12
56.
4-11
81.
5-12
57.
5-6
82.
5-50
58.
5-44
83.
6-3
59.
5-67
84.
5-70
60.
5-80
85.
6-5
61.
6-14
86.
6-13
62.
2-11
87.
2-19
63.
2-33
88.
2-53
64.
2-56
89.
3-3
65.
3-12
90.
3-19
66.
3-33
91.
3-37
67.
4-4
92.
3-40
68.
4-12
93.
4-15
69.
5-12
94.
5-22
70.
5-50
95.
5-73
71.
5-70
96.
6-8
72.
6-2
97.
6-14
73.
6-10
98.
2-23
74.
2-16
99.
2-37
75.
2-34
100. a
3-4
A-24
Page No.
Question
Page No.
Ref.
Question
Ref.
3-32
110.
102. c
3-42
111. c
6-21
103.
3-40
112.
2-19
104.
4-9
113.
2-16 w/4-18
105.
4-21
114.
3-4
106.
5-28
115.
4-11
107.
5-57
116.
5-4
108.
5-44
117.
5-29
109.
5-71
118.
5-75
101.
6-8
B-1
GLOSSARY
Measurements made with a direct reference in contrast to differential measurements.

Absolute -
Absolute Signal - The value of the amplitude of a signal without consideration

of its relative phase, frequency, or wave form.
One or more turns of conductor wound to produce a magnetic field

when current passes through the conductor.
Coil -
Coil, Absolute - A coil (or coils) that respond(s) to all electromagnetic properties of the test part.
A coil or coil assembly used for electromagnetic testing by

insertion into the test piece as in the case of an inside probe for tubing. Coils of
this type are also referred to as inside coils or inserted coils.
Coll, Bobbin -
The perpendicular distance between adjacent surfaces of the

coil and test part.
Coll Clearance -
Two or more coils electrically connected in series opposition such that any electromagnetic condition which is not common to the
areas of the specimen being tested or the test specimen and the standard will
produce an unbalance in the system and, thereby, be detected.
Coils, Differential -
Coil(s) or coil assembly which surround(s) the part to be

tested. Coils of this type are also referred to as annular, circumferential, or
feed-through coils.
Coll, Encircling -
Coil, Probe -
A small coil or coil assembly which does not encircle the test
specimen.
A probe coil which is used to measure load magnetic field intensities by virtue of the change of flux through the coil when it is moved from
one position to another, or when the flux through it is changed by any other
means.
Coil, Search -
Coil Size -
diameter.
The geometry or dimension of a coil, for example, length, or
B-2
Coil Spacing -
The axial distance between two encircling coils of a differential
system.
Coupling -
An interaction between systems, or between properties of a
system.
Depth of Penetration - The depth at which the magnetic field strength or
intensity of induced eddy currents has decreased to 37 percent of its surface
value. The depth of penetration is an exponential function of the frequency of
the signal, and the conductivity and permeability of the material.
Synonymous terms are standard depth of penetration and skin depth.
The minimum depth beyond which a test

system can no longer detect a further increase in specimen thicknes.
Depth of Penetration. Effective -
An output signal which is proportional to the rate of change

of the input signal.
Differentiated -
Discontinuity. Artificial - Reference discontinuities, such as holes, grooves, or

notches, which are introduced into a reference standard to provide accurately
reproducible sensitivity levels for electromagnetic test equipment.
Distortion. Harmonic - Nonlinear distortion characterized by the appearance
in the output of harmonics other than the fundamental component when the
input wave is sinusoidal. Harmonic distortion is sometimes called amplitude
distortion.
Currents caused to flow in an electrical conductor by the time

or space variation, or both, of an applied magnetic field.
Eddy Currents -
A nondestructive testing method in which eddycurrent flowis induced in the test object. Changes in the flowcaused by variations in the specimen are reflected into a nearby coil or coils for subsequent
analysis by suitable instrumentation and techniques.
Eddy-current Testing -
The effect on the magnetic field caused by the geometric boundaries of the test specimen that makes it impractical to apply electromagnetic
test methods to the associated regions of the test specimen.
End Effect -
B-3
That nondestructive test method for engineering

materials, including magnetic materials, which use electromagnetic energy
having frequencies less than those of visible light to yield information regarding the quality of the tested material.
Electromagnetic Testing -
The ratio of the square of the diameter of a cylindrical test

specimen to the square of the average diameter of the encircling coil.
Fill Factor -
That frequency which provides the highest signal-tonoise ratio obtainable for the detection of an individual property such as conductivity, crack, or inclusion of the test specimen. Each type of defect in a
given material may have its own optimum frequency.
Frequency, Optimum -
Frequency, Test - The number of complete input cycles per unit time of a
periodic quantity such as alternating current. The test frequency is always
considered to be the fundamental whenever harmonics are generated in the
process of testing certain materials such as ferromagnetic materials.
The International Annealed Copper Standard, an international standard of electrical conductivity.

IACS -
An analytical method which consists of correlating

changes in the amplitude, phase, or quadrature components, or all of these, of
a complex test signal voltage to the electromagnetic conditions within the
specimen.
Impedance
Analysis -
A graphical representation of the locus of points

indicating the variations in the impedance of a test coil as a function of basic
test parameters.
Impedance-plane Diagram -
The setting of the signal level above or belowwhich all parts

are rejectable or in an automatic system at which objectional parts will actuate the reject mechanism of the system.
Level, Rejection -
Level, Test Quality -
The sensitivity at which a test is performed.
Lift-off Effect - The effect observed in the test system output due to a change
in magnetic coupling between a test specimen and a probe coil whenever the
distance of separation between them is varied.
B-4
Material, Diamagnetic -
A material having a permeability less than that of a
vacuum.
A material which, in general, exhibits hysteresis
phenomena, and whose permeability is dependent on the magnetizing force.
Material, Ferromagnetic -
A material that is not magnetizable and hence,

essentially not affected by magnetic fields. This would include paramagnetic
materials having a magnetic permeability slightly greater than that of a
vacuum and approximately independent of the magnetizing force and
diamagnetic materials having a permeability less than that of a vacuum.
Material, Nonferromagnetic -
A material having a permeability which is slightly

greater than that of a vacuum, and which is approximately independent of the
magnetizing force.
Material, Paramagnetic -
-An instrumentation method used in electromagnetic

testing which separates responses due to various factors influencing the total
magnetic field by separating and interpreting individually, frequencies or frequency bands in the modulation envelope of the (carrier frequency) signal.
Modulation Analysis
Any undesired signal that tends to interfere with the normal reception or processing of a desired signal. In flaw detection, undesired response to
dimensional and physical variables (other than flaws) in the test part is called
"part noise."
Noise -
A hypothetical quantity which is used to describe the

magnetic field distribution within a cyhlindrical conductor in an encircling
coil. The field strength of the applied magnetic field is assumed to be uniform
over the entire cross section of the test specimen with the effective permeability, which is characterized by the conductivity and diameter of the test
specimen and test frequency, assuming values between zero and one, such
that its associated amplitude is always less than one within the specimen.
Permeability, Effective -
The ratio of the cyclic change in magnetic induction to the corresponding cyclic change in magnetizing force when the mean
induction differs from zero.
Permeability, Incremental -
Permeability,
Initial -
magnetizing force.
The slope of the normal induction curve at zero
B-5
Permeability, Normal -
The ratio of the normal induction to the corresponding
magnetizing force.
Permeability,
Variations of a Material
Magnetic inhomogenities of a
material.
An instrumentation technique which discriminates between
variables in the test part by the different phase angle changes which these
conditions produce in the test signal.
Phase Analysis -
The angular equivalent of the time displacement between corresponding points on two sine waves of the same frequency.
Phase Angle -
The derivation of a signal whose amplitude is a function of

the deviation in phase of a single-frequency alternating quality, such as
voltage or current, from a similar quantity of a fixed phase.
Phase Detection -
A change in the phase relationship between two alternating

quantities of the same frequency.
Phase Shift -
Readout, Absolute -
The signal output of an absolute coil.
Readout, Differential Reluctance, Circuit -
A signal output from a differential coil system.
The algebraic sum of the reluctances of each portion of
the circuit.
Resolution, Defect - A property of a test system which enables the separation
of signals due to defects in the test specimen that are located in close proximity to each other.
Response, Amplitude - That property of the test system whereby the
amplitude of the detected signal is measured without regard to phase.
The degree of magnetization produced in a ferromagnetic

material for which the incremental permeability has decreased substantially
to unity.
Saturation -
B-6
The characteristic of a test system which is a measure of the

extent to which an instrument is capable of differentiating between the
desired signal and disturbances of other frequencies or phases.
Selectivity -
A probe unit containing a coil, magnet, or magnetic circuit

from which a test signal is derived.
Sensing Head -
The ratio of values of signal (response containing information) to that of noise (response containing no information).
Signal-to-noise Ratio -
The phenomena wherein the depth of penetration of electric currents into a conductor decreases as the frequency of the current is increased.
At very high frequencies, the current flow is restricted to an extremely thin
outer layer of the conductor.
Skin Effect -
A reference used as a basis for comparison or calibration. (2) A

concept that has been established by authority, custom, or agreement to serve
as a model or rule in the measurement of quantity or the establishment of a
practice or a procedure.
Standard - (1)
Standard, Reference-
A referenceused as a basis for comparisonor calibration.
A system whose output signal is dependent on the

phase relationship between an input and a reference voltage.
System, Phase Sensitive -
The time required for a test system to return to its original

state after it has received a signal.
Time, Recovery -
An effect which produces variations in an output signal of a test

system and arises from variations in coil spacing due to lateral motion of the
test specimen in passing through an encircling coil.
Wobulatlon -
l
!:

Programmed Instruction Handbook - Eddy Current

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Programmed Instruction Handbook - Eddy Current

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Pl-4-5

PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION HANDBOOK

first printing 1983

Chapter 2 - Principles of Eddy Current Testing

Factors Affecting Conductivity

Effect of Conductive Coatings

Chapter 3 - Eddy Current Test Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

Chapter 4 - Geometry of Eddy Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

Chapter 6 - Test Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1

Introduction to Nondestructive Testing

It is recommended that Pl-4-1, "Introduction to Nondestructive Testing," be

This handbook was originally prepared by the Convair Division of General

The pages in this book should not be read consecutively as in a conventional

Eddy current testing is based on the principles of electromagnetic induction.

From page 1-1

From page 1-2

From page 1-2

From page 1-2

number of turns in the primary coil.

All of these things can be changed so they are called "variables".

From page 1-5

From page 1-5

From page 1-6

From page 1-6

From page 1-8

From page 1-8

Your supposition was incorrect! Changing the direction of movement of the

From page 1-10

From page 1-10

In what direction is the current flowing in segment A-B?

From page 1-13

From page 1-13

in the preceding paragraph.)

From page 6-28

From page 1-15

rotation. Now let's see exactly when the change occurs.

5. Once an eddy current instrument is calibrated, the controls are not to be

10. Reference standards often define the

Return to page 6-24,

Return to page 6-24,

15. A fatigue crack that has been induced by cyclicstresses in a laboratory is an

Return to page 6-24,

Turn to page 6-29.

From page 1-15

turn about the axis in getting

Now - the U-shaped wire has been rotated

A coil may be thought of as several of these U-shaped wires all connected

4. Depth of penetration is controlled in an eddy current instrument by controlling its operating

14. The two types of discontinuitystandards are n

19. Lift-off standards are made from

From page 1-16

8. In using any eddy current instrument the instrument must be calibrated

before conducting any tests .

13. An ideal discontinuity standard duplicates the

From page 1-16

2. Calibration of a conductivity tester consists of setting the scale to read the

7. By varying the frequency of operation of a crack detector we can suppress

12. Commerciallyprepared conductivity standards have a value stamped on

1 7. A reference standard should have at least one discontinuity that is at the

From page 1-19

It's obvious that you didn't understand the graph.

1. The meter readings on a conductivity tester are not affected by the

6. Before any instrument can be used to detect discontinuities it must have