Motors and Generators

The magnitude of the force on a current carrying coil is influenced by:

o The strength of the external magnetic field - FB
o The magnitude of the current in the conductor - FI
o The length of the conductor in the field- Fl
o The angle between the conductor and the external magnetic field the field is at maximum
when the conductor is at 90o and 0 when parallel to field. Fsin
Two current carrying conducts separated by a finite distance will experience a force as a result of the
interaction of their magnetic fields.
o If the two wires carries current flowing in the same direction then the wires
attract each other
o The force on the wires is equal on both wires, regardless of direction or
magnitude of the current in each
Torque is the turning effect of a force acting on an object
o Torque increases when F is applied at greater distance from the pivot and is
greatest at 90o
The motor effect is the action of a force experienced by a current carrying conductor in an external
magnetic field.
A DC electric motor converts electrical energy to mechanical energy by using the motor effect to
produce a torque on a coil of wire. A DC motor has two components a stator and a rotor
o Stator is the non-rotating magnetic part of the motor which provide the external magnetic
field. It can be either permanent magnets or electromagnets.
Electromagnets can be created using a soft iron shape that has coils of wire around it
o Rotor is the rotating part of the motor, it contains
Armature- the frame around which the coil of wire is wound which rotates in the motors
magnetic field
Brushes- are the conductors that make electrical contact with the moving split metal ring
of the commutator
Split ring commutator- a split metal ring which acts as a switch to reverse the direction of
the current in the rotating coil of a DC motor each half cycle.
The speed of a DC motor can be increased by increasing the maximum torque acting on the sides; this
can be achieved by:
o Increasing the width of the coil
o Using more than one coil mounted on the armature
Increases average torque acting on coil + makes the motor run more smoothly.
o Increasing the force acting on the sides by:
Increasing the current in the coil
Increasing the number of loops of wire in the coil
Producing a stronger magnetic field with the stator
Using a soft iron core in the centre of the loom which then acts as an electromagnet
part of the armature
Galvanometer- consists of a fine wire wrapped around an iron core. A delicate coiled spring is
attached to the coil and a pointer is attached. As current flows through the coil in the magnetic field a
force act on the coil and causes it to rotate it experiences torque. As the coil rotates so does the
pointer, the coil rotates until the magnetic turning forces are balanced by the restoring torque of the

spring. This restoring torque is the current in the coil. A radial magnetic field ensures a constant
torque which means that an equally spaced scale can be used.
The loud speaker- transforms electrical energy into sound energy. Consists of a circular magnet that
has one pole on the outside and the other on the inside. A coil of wire (voice coil) sits in the space
between the poles. The voice coil is connected to the output of an amplifier which provides a current
that chances direction at the same ffrequency as the sound that is to be produced. The current also
changes magnitude in proportion to the amplitude of the sound. The voice coil is caused to vibrate in
and out of the magnet by the motor coil and is connected to a paper speaker cone that creates sound
waves in the air as it vibrates. When the magnitude of the sound increases so does the force on the
coil- when the force on the coil increases it moves more and the sound produced is louder.
In 1831, Faraday discovered that moving a magnet near a wire induces an electric current in that
wire. In one experiment he showed that when a permanent magnet moved towards a coil of wire
connected to a sensitive galvanometer, a current was induced in one direction in the coil. When the
magnet was stationary or inside the coil, no current flowed through the coil. When the magnet was
removed from the coil, another current was induced in the coil, this time in the opposite direction to
the original induced current. Faraday reasoned that the presence of an induced current implied the
presence of an induced electromotive force (emf) that caused the current. Electromagnetic induction
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy
Further experiments by faraday showed that:
o The Boston the man that was moved the larger the induced current
o The reversing the magnet or its direction of movement reversed the directional induced current
o The stronger the magnetic field the greater the induced current
Induction- the creation of an emf in a conductor when it is in relative motion to a magnetic field or it
is situated in a changing magnetic field
Magnetic flux- the amount of magnetic field passing through a given area measure id weber Wb
Magnetic field strength is the amount of magnetic flux passing through a init area- also known as
magnetic flux density
Faradays law of induction-The induced emf in a circuit is equal in magnitude to the rate at which
the magnetic flux through the circuit is changing with time

Lenzs Law- an induced emf always gives rise to a current that creates a magnetic filed that opposes
the original change in flux through the circuit
If Lenzs law did not apply and a changing flux in a coil would produce a magnetic flux in the same
direction as the original change of flux then this would lead to a greater change in flux threading the
coil which in turn would lead to an even greater change in flux. I.e. the induced current would
continue to increase in magnitude, this would mean that energy was being created without doing
work which is against the principle of conservation of energy
o Law of conservation of energy- energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be transformed
from one form to another
Back emf- Its an electromagnetic force that opposes the main current flow in a circuit. When the coil
of a motor rotated a back emf is induced in the coil due to its motion in the external magnetic field
o When the coil of a motor is rotating, it experiences a change in magnetic flux with time and by
Faradays Law an emf is induced in the coil
o By Lenzs Law this induced emf must oppose the supplied emf driving the coil
o As the coil rotates faster, the back emf increases and the difference between the constant
supplied emf and the back emf gets smaller

o The difference between the two emfs is equal to the potential difference across the motor coil
and hence determines the actual current in the coil.
o When the motor is first turned on and the coil begins to rotate, the back-emf is very small,
since the rate of cutting flux is small. This means that the current passing through the coil in
the forward direction is very large and could possibly burn out the motor. To ensure that this
does not happen, adjustable starting resistors in series with the motor are often used, especially
with large motors.
o If the load on the motor is increased at some time, the motor will slow down, reducing the
back-emf and allowing a larger current to flow in the coil. Since torque is proportional to
current, an automatic increase in torque will follow an increase in load on the motor.
When a solid conductor is placed in a region of changing magnetic flux, circular eddy currents are
induced in the conductor.
o Eddy current- A circular or whirling current induced in a conductor this stationary in a
changing magnetic field or that is moving to a magnetic field.
o The magnetic fields set out by the eddy currents oppose the changes in the magnetic field
acting in the regions of the metal objects
Induction cook-tops eddy currents cause an increase in temperature of the metal due to the
collisions between the moving charges and the atoms as well as the movement of atoms by a B field
changing direction at high frequency. An induction cooker sets up a rapidly changing magnetic field
that induces eddy currents in the metal of the saucepan placed on the cook-top. An AC is applied to a
solenoid in the cook top which sets up oscillating magnetic fields which continually cut the metal
saucepan causing eddy currents. Advantages of induction cook tops:
o Most heating goes to saucepan highly energy efficient
o Cheaper to operate as they are more energy efficient
o Safer
Electromagnetic braking- eddy currents are used in some modern trains for braking. During braking
electromagnets are brought near to the moving metal wheels. Eddy currents are induced in the
wheels and flows so that its direction opposes the motion of the wheels that produce them (Lenzs
law).
o The effect is greatest when the wheels are the moving the fastest (Faradays law - induced emf
is proportional to the rate of change of flux through the circuit) so as wheels slow down the
braking decreases results in smooth braking
Generators transform mechanical kinetic energy into electrical energy. A generator consists of a coil
of wire that is forced to rotate about an axis in a magnetic field.
o As the coil rotates the magnitude of the magnetic flux threading the area of the coil changes
o the changing magnetic flux produces a changing emf across the ends of the wire that make up
the coil in accordance with faradays law
If a coil of a generator is forced to rotate at a constant rate then the flux threading the coil and the emf
produced across the ends of the coil will vary with time in a sinusoidal wave shape
The frequency and amplitude of the voltage produced by a generator depend on the rate at which the
rotor turns.
o Double the speed = half the frequency and double the amplitude
The effectiveness of generators in increased by winding the coil into an iron core armature. The iron
core behaves like an electromagnet and hence intensifies the change if flux threading the coil as it is
forced to rotate and increases the magnitude of the emf that is induced. Also effectiveness can be
improved by increasing the number of turns
Motors compared with generators

o Like motors generators have a rotor and a stator

o Dc generators have a split ring commutator to reverse the direction of the current each half
revolution the same as a DC motor
o Motors convert electrical energy of moving electrons to kinetic energy of the motor
generators convert the kinetic energy of the motor to electrical energy of moving electrons
o For generators something must spin the rotor where as in motors the rotor spins due to the
motor effect
Alternators- AC generator contains the armature onto which the coil wound, permanent or
electromagnets, brushes and slip rings each end of the armature coil is connected to a metal ring.
These rings are mounted on the armature shaft but are insulated from it and from each other.
o The armature is mechanically driven the armature turns. One side of the coil moves up
through the magnetic field and the other side moves downwards
o the coil experiences a change in magnetic flux with time and results in an emf being induced
in agreement with Faradays law
o The ends of the coil are connected to slip rings against which rest graphite brushes. When
these brushes are connected across an external circuit, the induced emf produces an electric
current.
o Each time the coil passes through the position where its plane is perpendicular to the magnetic
field lines, the direction of the emf in the coil is reversed. Hence an alternating current is
produced at a frequency equal to the number of revolutions per second of the armature.
DC generators the same components as a DC motor. A DC generator is similar to an AC generator
only difference being the use of a split ring commutator which changes the direction of the current
every half rotation and allows for the production of a DC current.
Electric power generating stations provide electrical power to domestic and industrial consumers.
Power stations transforms mechanical or heat energy into electrical energy by means of a turbine
connected to a generator. The generators used in power stations have a different structured to
dynamos, as the output voltage is far greater. This requires the use of massive coils which would
place a huge force on bearings if the had to rotate.
o A power station generator has a stationary coil mounted on an iron core as the stator. These
coils are linked in pairs on opposite sides of the rotor.
o The rotor is a DC supplied electromagnet that sips with a frequency of 50Hz
o Power station generators have three sets of coils mounted at angles of 120 o to each other
allowing for the production of three sets of voltage signal 120 o out of phase with each other
known as three phase power generation
Efficiency
of transmission the main problem is

energy loss line loss

o There is a voltage drop along any section
of the wire due to the resistance of the
wire
o Heating of the wire further increases resistance energy loss
effects of AC generatorso electricity generation has allowed the development of the highly mechanized and electronic
lifestyles which has made our lives easier
o Reduced the need for labour in many industries therefore increased in unemployment
o Most power generation stations around the world still use fossil fuels as their energy source.
Fossil fuel power stations produce thermal pollution, acid rain and air pollution due to the
release of particulate matter and oxides of nitrogen and sulfur

o Fossil fuel power stations release huge amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, which
adds to the Greenhouse Effect

AC generators Vs DC generators
Factors
AC
No of wires
3-phase has advantages for heavy machinery at 415
volts
Heat losses
At high voltage and low currents very efficient
Back EMF
EMR transmission
Voltage Changes
Cable insulation
Transport of power

Constant and must be allowed for in circuit design

Transmits EMR constantly as electrons accelerating
circuits need shielding
Simple using transformers
Must be heavier duty than AC
High towers needed at 415kV

DC
Not available
At low voltage and high current
very inefficient
None
Only at switch on and off
Complex
Lighter
Less dangerous

AC or DC
o Edison developed a light bulb which could be used in the homes and a distribution system
(DC) mass consumption of electricity
o Edison Electrical Light Company began installing lighting systems in 1882
o The widespread use of light bulbs led to a rapid development of power generation and
distribution systems
o Westinghouse supported and began commercial installation to distribute AC in 1886
o Edison argued that AC was unsafe due to the high voltages used in transmission and as it was
used for electrocution
o However DC current could not travel over as long a system as AC also the commutator
complicated the design of the generator especially if the ring had to be rotated at high speeds
o Also for DC there was no easy way of changing voltage to direct current
o By 1889 the invention of a device which combined an AC induction motor with a DC dynamo
offered the best performance of all and AC became dominant
Transmission lines must be insulated from tall towers pylons that support them. If the towers
were to become live it could kill people who came in contact with it. Also insulation prevents short
circuit where the electricity would take the path of least resistance i.e. into the ground
o Porcelain is commonly used as an insulator as it is unaffected by weather and insulates well at
high voltages
o To prevent spark jumping from transmission line suspension insulators are used. Each
individual section of the insulators is disk shaped because as dust and grime collect and the
insulator and can become a conductor when wet. The disk shape of the insulator increases the
distance that a current has to pass over the surface of the insulator and decreases the risk.
Also there is less chance that dirt and grime will collect on the underside of the sections and
these are also less likely to get wet
A protective wire is strung above the conduction cables to protect the substations from a sudden surge
of voltage arising from a lightning strike. This is sometimes called a shield wire or overhead ground
wire. It is designed to intercept a lighting strike and divert it to the ground.

Transformers are devices that increase or decrease AC voltages they are used in many household
appliances
o They consist of two coils of insulated wire called the primary and the secondary coil, which
can be wound together onto the same soft iron core
o Transformers are designed so that almost all the magnetic flux produced in the primary threads
the secondary
o When an alternating current flows through the primary coil a constantly changing magnetic
flux threads the secondary coil and thus induces an AC voltage in the secondary coil with the
same frequency as the primary
o The magnitude of the induced emf can be varied by varying the number of turns in the primary
and secondary coils
Step up transformer provides an output voltage that is greater than the input voltage
Step down transformer provides an output voltage that is les than the input voltage
The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can not be created or destroyed only
transformed therefore if the voltage is stepped up in the secondary coil this means that current must
be decreased as Pprimary Psecondary
Power stations are usually situated large distances from cities these results in problems associated
with energy loss during transmission. Transformers are used to step up the voltage before
transmission if voltage is increased then current is decreased. Power loss is represented by P=I2R
reducing current by half reduces power loss by a factor of four. Substations then step down the
voltage in stages to 240V used from home consumers industry usually takes its power at a higher
voltage
o Step up transformers are needed in grids for power transmission to maximise voltage and
minimise energy losses
o Different sectors requires different voltages and a variety of transformers are needed to change
the voltage to a required level
Houses are provided with 240V AC while most electronic circuits are designed to operate at low DC
voltages therefore they have either a power cube transformer that plugs directly into the power
socket or a transformer built into them.
Effects of transformers on society
o Transformers have made the transmission of electrical energy over long distances with low
levels of power loss possible this has reduced the number of power stations and consequently
the associated detrimental environmental impacts
o Transformers enable power from the one power station to be used in many different
applications therefore without transformers, different industries requiring different voltages
would have to build generators to produce those specific voltages.
o transformers has enabled the construction of many of the electronic labour-saving and
entertainment devices
in a transformer eddy currents are induced in the iron core by the changing magnetic flux this can
decrease the efficiency of the transformer by causing the core to heat up. To minimise the effect of
eddy currents transformers cores are laminated a laminated core consists of thin sheets of iron
separated by layers of insulating material. The insulated material reduce the size of eddy currents and
hence its heating effect.
o Another method for reducing eddy current losses is to use ferrites (complex oxides of iron and
other metals), which are good transmitter of magnetic flux but are poor conductors of
electricity so the magnitude of the eddy currents are significantly reduced
AC motor (like DC) have two main parts the stator and the rotor

o The stator provides the external magnetic field

o Most AC motors have a cylindrical rotor that rotates about the axis of the motors shaft
usually rotates at high speed with the rotor completing about one revolution for each cycle of
the AC electrical supply
o Both rotor and stator have a core of ferromagnetic material usually steel this strengthens the
magnetic field.
o Found in electric clocks, electric drills, fans etc
AC induction motor a machine in which torque is produced by the interaction of a rotating
magnetic field produced by the stator and currents induced in the rotor.
The simplest form of AC induction motor is known as the squirrel-cage motor the best runs with a
three phase power supply. The current in the rotor is induced in the conductors that make up the cage
of the rotor by a changing magnetic field.
o The stator on an induction motor sets up a rotating magnetic field that has a constant
magnitude in a cylindrical space.
In three phase induction motor each of the three pairs of field coils is connected to a
different phase of the mains electrical supply with the coils that make a pair being
located opposite each other and are connected electrically.
The magnetic field inside the stator rotates at the same frequency as the mains supply i.e.
50Hz B field in the motor rotates at exactly the same rate as the electromagnet in the
generator
o Squirrel cage rotor consists of a number of conduction bars made of either aluminium or
copper attached to two rings known as end rings. This is encased in a laminated iron armature.
As the B fields rotates with in the stator there is a relative movement of the bars through the B files
and this induces a current in the bars. The bars carrying current in a magnetic field experiences a
force. The interaction of the B fields of the stator and rotor cause the rotor to turn. The rotor chases
the B field of the stator as it moves around the rotor.
Advantages of Induction motors
o Reliable as they have no burses or commutators there is little friction that wears parts away
o Simple and cheap to construct
o Can be built to suit almost any industrial requirements
o Economical and efficient to run
o Self starting
o Produce little noise
Disadvantages of induction motors
o Have a low power factor at light loads meaning the at mechanical power produced is low
compared with the electrical power consumed
o They are basically fixed speed machines in Aus they rotate at about 3000 revolution per
minute
o The starting torque is relatively low. Torque is the turning effect of a force I,I, they do not
get heavy loads moving very quickly
o The speed of the motor drops win an increase in the load