2.

006 Equation Sheet (Spring 2014)

Vector Operators
Cartesian Coordinates (x, y, z)

=
i+
j+
k
x
y
z
A A A
A= x + y + z
x y z

2 =

2 2 2
+
+
x2 y2 z2

A Ay Ax Az
i +
A = z

z
x

z
D
=
+ v
Dt
t

Ay Ax
k

j +
y
x

Cylindrical Coordinates (r, , z)

=
r +
+
z
r
r
z
r 1 (rAr ) 1 A Az
A =
+
+
r r
r
z

1 1 2 2
r
+
+
r r r r 2 2 z 2
1 Az A Ar Az
1 (rA ) Ar
r +
A =

+
z z
r
r r

r
2 =

Spherical Coordinates (r, , )

1
1
=
r +
+

r
r
r sin
r 1 ( r 2 Ar )
1 (sin A )
1 A
A = 2
+
+
r
r
r sin

r sin

2 =

1 2
1


1
2
r
+
sin

r 2 r r r 2 sin
r 2 sin 2 2

Mach number: Ma = velocity / ( speed of sound)

Constitutive relationships(for specific variables, i.e. per unit mass)
Model
Incompr.
liquid

Specific energy

u2 u1 = c(T2 T1 )

Specific enthalpy (h=u+Pv)

1
h2 h1 = c(T2 T1 ) + ( P2 P1 )

Ideal
Gas

u2 u1 = cv (T2 T1 )

h2 h1 = c p (T2 T1 )

Solid

u2 u1 = c(T2 T1 )

Ideal Gas law: PV = mRT or

P =RT,

Cycles
1. Efficiency of Heat Engine in general: =

Specific entropy
T
s2 s1 = c ln 2
T1
T
v
s2 s1 = cv ln 2 + R ln 2
T1
v1
T
P
s 2 s1 = c p ln 2 R ln 2
T1
P1
P
v
s2 s1 = cv ln 2 + c p ln 2
P1
v1
T
s2 s1 = c ln 2
T1

Ideal gas specific heats: cp = cv + R

W
Q H

= (if reversible) 1

TL
TH

Q H
TH
2. Coefficient of Performance for Heat Pump: COP =
= (if reversible)

W
TH TL

3. Coefficient of Performance for Refrigerator: COP =

Q L
W

= (if reversible)

TL
TH TL

Efficiency and Related Definitions

Positive work machine
Negative work machine

W actual
W reversible
W
= reversible
W actual

+ =

Diffuser

Nozzle

Heat engine

(v v )
=
(v v )
(v v )
=
(v v )
2
in

2
in

2
out

2
out

W net
Q in

2
out reversible
2
out actual
2
in actual

2
in reversible

(At same pressures)

(At same pressures)

Ideal Carnot engine

COP
NWR

Carnot = 1
Q desired
W net
W net
W gross positive

TC
TH

Dimensionless numbers
Reynolds number:

Re L =

Prandtl number:

Pr =

Rayleigh number:

Ra =

Grashof number:

Gr =

Froude number:

Fr =

Wave drag coefficient:

CD , w =

UL

c p
k
g (T ) L3

g (T ) L3

NuL =

2
V
gL
F
1
U 2 A
2
hL
k

Nusselt number:
Coefficient of friction:

Cf =

1
U 2
2

Conservation Relations for Closed Systems

First law, closed systems:
E = Q W
Q
Second law, closed systems: S =
+ S gen
T

Conservation Relations for Open Systems (using for velocity)

Mass conservation
3

(integral form):
(summation form):
(differential form):

dV
+

r .n dA = 0
dt CV
CS

( )

dM CV
= m in m out
dt
in
out

+ . + (. ) = 0
t

or

D
+ = 0
Dt

Energy conservation (First Law)

! 2
$
! 2
$
d

+ gz &dV = Q Wshaft # h +
+ gz & r .n dA
(integral form): # u +
dt CV "
2
2
%
%
CS "

( )

(summation form):

" 2
%
" 2
%
dECV
= Q Wshaft + m in $ h +
+ gz ' m out $ h +
+ gz '
dt
2
2
#
&in out
#
&out
in

Second Law

" Q %
d
(integral form)
s dV = $# T '& s r .n dA + Sgen
dt CV
CS
i
i

!
$
dSCV
Q

(summation form):
= # & + ms
ms
+ Sgen
in
out
dt
T
"
%
i
in
out
i

( )

( )

( )

Linear momentum conservation

In an inertial frame:

d
(integral form): Fext = Pn dA + dA + g dV = dV + ( r .n) dA
CS
CS
CV
CS
dt CV

dPCV
= min in mout out + Fext
(summation form):
dt

d
In a non-inertial frame:
F

a
dV
=

dV
+

CV rf

CS ( r .n) dA
dt CV

Angular momentum conservation

d


(integral form):
T
=

(
r

)
dV
+

(
r
dt CV
CS )( r .n) dA

dLCV


= min ( r )in mout ( r )out + Text
(summation form):
dt

Bernoulli Equation (using for velocity)

2

P2 P1 22 12
ds
+
+
+ g ( z2 z1 ) = 0 .
1 t

In terms of potential:

P
+ +
+ gz = const
t
2

Potential / Irrotational Flows: Three-dimensional velocities in terms of potential: v =

x =
y =
y
x
Two-dimensional velocities in terms of stream function:
1

r =
=
r
r
Viscous Flow (incompressible, constant-viscosity fluid) (using for velocity)
Cartesian co-ordinates:
Mass conservation (continuity equation):

x y z
+
+
=0
x
y
z

Navier-Stokes equations:
2 2 2

P
x + x x + y x + z x = + g x + 2x + 2x + 2x
x
y
z
x
y
z
t
x

2y 2y 2y
y
y
y
y
P

+ x
+ y
+ z
+ g y + 2 + 2 + 2
=
x
x
y
z
y
y
z
t

2z 2z 2z
z
z
z
z
P

+ x
+ y
+ z
= + g z + 2 + 2 + 2
x
y
z
z
y
z
t
x
Newtonian viscous shear stresses:


xy = yx = x + y xz = zx = x + z
x
x
z
y

Cylindrical co-ordinates
Mass conservation:

yz = zy = y + z
y
z

1
1

( rr ) +
( ) + (z ) = 0
r r
r
z

Navier-Stokes equations:
r
1
r 2

P
1 2
2 2
+ r r +

+ z r =
+ g r +
( rr ) + 2 2r 2 + 2r
r
r
r
z
r
r
z
r
t
r r r

2
2
1
r

1 P

1 2 r

+ r
+
+
+ z
+ g +
+ 2
( r ) + 2 2 + 2
=
r
r
r
z
r
r
z
t
r
r r r

1 z 1 2z 2z
z

P
z
+ r z +
+ z z =
+ g z +
+ 2
r
+ 2
2
r
r
z
z
z
t
r r r r

Newtonian viscous shear stresses:

1 r

r = r = r +

r r r

1 z
z = z = +

z r

rz = zr = r + z
r
z

Viscous flow in Pipes(using for velocity)

P
P

2
2
L 2
2
Total Head Loss:
+
+ z
+
+ z = f
+K
2g
2g
D 2g
2g
g
in g
out
where = 2 for laminar flow, 1.06 for turbulent flow, or 1 for uniform flow
Friction factor for fully developed laminar flow in circular pipes:
Friction factor for fully developed turbulent flow:
Reynolds Number for pipe flow:
Darcys Law for a single pipe flow:
Velocity profile for laminar flow:

Re =

ave D
or

f = 64 / Red

6.9 / d 1.11
f = 1.8log10
+
Red 3.7

D
Re = ave
v

L ave 2
D 2
2
= 1 (r / R )
P = f

v / vmax
Velocity profile for turbulent flow: v / v max = (1 r / R)1 / n

6< n <10

Pipe Entrance Lengths:

Le
L
Laminar:
0.05 Re D (or e 0.06 Re D )
Di
Di
Le
L
Turbulent (smooth walls):
4.4 Re D1/6 (or e 1.36 Re D1/4 )
Di
Di

Boundary Layers
Boundary layers on a smooth flat plate:
Laminar (103<Rex<106)
Laminar,
von Karman
(quadratic profile)
BL thickness

1.83
=
x
Re x

x
Displacement
thickness

Laminar, exact
(Blasius
similarity
solution)

5.5
Re x

Turbulent (106<Rex)

5
Re x

1.72
=
x
Re x

0.664

Re x

Turbulent
1/7th power law

0.16
Re1/7
x

0.020
Re1/7
x

0.016
Re1/7
x

Momentum
thickness

Local skin
friction
coefficient

C f ,x =

0.73
Re x

C f ,x =

0.664
Re x

C f ,x

Drag
coefficient

CD , x =

1.46
Re x

CD , x =

1.328
Re x

CD , x

15

CD ,L = 2 C f ,L

CD ,L = 2 C f ,L

CD , L

0.027
Re1/7
x

0.031
Re1/7
x
7
= C f ,L
6

For general flat plate boundary layer flow (laminar or turbulent):

d
Wall shear stress: w = U 02
dx

u u
u
*
Momentum thickness: = (1 )
Displacement thickness: = (1 ) dy
dy
U0 U0
U0
0
0
Friction coefficient: C f =

Law of the Wall:

w
U 02 / 2

u 1 y u*
= ln
+B
u*

where u * = w , = 0.41 and B = 5

Heat Transfer

Conduction: Fouriers law: q = k T

Conduction resistance of a slab:

Rcond = L / (kA)

Resistance (to radial heat transfer) of a cylindrical pipe:

Resistance (to radial heat transfer) of a spherical shell:
1 1 1
Rsphere =

4 k rin rout
Convection: Newtons law of cooling:
Q = hAs (Ts T )
Convection resistance:
Radiation:

Rcyl =

ln(rout / rin )
2 kL

Rconv = 1/ (hc A)

heat flux from a small grey object (1) to a large isothermal environment (2):
Q12 / A = 1 (T14 T24 ) where =5.67 x 10-8 W/(m2K4) and 1 the emissivity of (1)
Radiation resistance: Rrad = 1/ hr A where hr = 41 Tm 3 when T1 T2

q
T
= 2T + gen
t
c
where = k / c and qgen is the heat generation rate by dissipation per unit mass

Heat diffusion equation:

Biot number: Bi =

Tsol Rsol
sometimes can be estimated as (hLc ) / k with Lc = V / As
=
T fl
R fl

Lumped Parameter Model (for Bi<<1)

Solution:
T = T + (Ti T ) exp(t / ) where = C Rext ,

Rext is resistance for all external heat fluxes. For convection only: = ( Vc) / (hAs )
1D Slab (general case, valid for Bi1, but also for Bi >>1):
Temperature at any point x from the center of a slab of thickness 2L, at uniform initial temperature
Ti, at a time t after surface of the slab is exposed to a fluid with temperature Ts and heat transfer
coefficient h:
t

n2 2
T T
x
=
= cn e L cos(n )
Ti T n =1
L
4sin n
Where n tan n = Bi = hL / k and cn =
2n + sin 2n
t
Fourier number: Fo = 2
L
Semi-Infinite Solids:
Temperature at a point at a distance x from the surface of a semi-infinite solid (at uniform initial
temperature Ti) at a time t, after surface temperature is raised to Ts at t = 0:
8

T Ti
x
= erfc

Ts Ti
4 t
z
2
2
Error Function erf ( z ) =
e t dt and Complementary Error Function erfc(z) = 1 erf (z)

Heat flux at the surface of the semi-infinite solid:

q =

k(Ts Ti )

Fin equations

d 2
General equation: 2 m2 ( x) = 0 General solution: ( x) = Ae mx + Bemx
dx
Tip condition(x=L)
Convection heat
transfer:
d
h ( L) = k
dx x = L
Adiabatic:
d
=0
dx x = L
Prescribed
temperature:

Fin heat transfer rate

Temperature distribution / b

Q&f

h
sinh ( m ( L x ) )
mk
h
cosh mL +
sinh mL
mk

cosh ( m ( L x ) ) +

h
cosh mL
mk
M
h
cosh mL +
sinh mL
mk

cosh ( m ( L x ) )
cosh mL

sinh mL +

M tanh mL

L
sinh mx + sinh ( m ( L x ) )
b
sinh mL

L
cosh mL
b
M
sinh mL

Infinite fin
( L ) : ( L) = 0

e mx

T T ;

m 2 = hP / kAc ;

( L) = L

b = (0) = Tb T ;

M = b hPkAc

Hyperbolic operators
Function : f(x)

Definition

Derivative:

sinh( x)

e x e x
2

cosh( x)

cosh( x)

e x + e x
2

sinh( x)

tanh( x)

e x e x
e x + e x

1 tanh 2 ( x)

d
[ f ( x) ]
dx

Thermal Entrance Lengths in Pipe Flows

L
Laminar, Twall constant: e,th = 0.0334 Re Pr
Di
L
Laminar, q constant: e,th = 0.043 Re Pr
Di
Le,th

= 1.359 Re1 / 4
Turbulent
Di
Bulk Temperature in Internal Pipe Flows:
Constant heat flux:

Tb,out = Tb,in +

Constant surface temperature:

T Tb,out
T Tb,in

Aq
m c p

UA
= exp
m c
p

Heat Exchangers
Log Mean Temperature Difference:

Q b = UATLM

TLM =

T2 T1
T
ln 2
T1

Parallel Flow:
T1 = Th,in Tc ,in

T2 = Th,out Tc ,out

Effectiveness-NTU Method:
C = m c P
C H (Th ,in Th ,out ) C C (Tc ,out Tc ,in )
Q
=
=
=
C min
*
C =
Q max C min (Th ,in Tc ,in ) C min (Th ,in Tc ,in )
C max

Counter Flow
T1 = Th,in Tc ,out

T2 = Th,out Tc ,in

NTU =

UA
C min

(complete -NTU correlations are in property data tables)

10

Thermodynamics
Pure Substance

In a saturated state, quality: x =

mg
m f + mg

h hf

, h = h f + xh fg
h fg
These relationships can be applied to specific volume, specific internal energy, specific
enthalpy and specific entropy

x=

Boiling Heat Transfer

Nucleate Boiling
"

Characteristic Length: Lc = $
$# g f g

"g
f
g

Heat Flux: q = f h fg $
$#

1/2

%
'
'&

1/2

) %'

(c T
T
* p, f surface sat
'& *) Csf h fg Pr fn

) +,

Critical Heat Flux (see table 13.4 for K)

1/4

qcrit = Kh fg "# g g2 f g $%

L* =

L
Lc

R* =

R
Lc

11

Boiling Parameter Tables

12

13

14