MAGNETS AND EARTHS MAGNETISM

MAGNETS AND EARTHS MAGNETISM

Nails Stuck to Magnet

MAGNETS AND EARTHS

MAGNETISM
1. NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL MAGNETS
A substance that attracts pieces of iron and steel is called a magnet and this
property of the substance is called magnetism. Magnets are found in a natural
state in the form of the mineral called magnetite. However, natural magnets have
no practical value because their magnetism is not strong enough to be utilised
in the modern devices. The commercial magnets are made artificially from iron,
steel and other magnetic alloys.

MAGNETS AND EARTHS MAGNETISM

MAGNETS AND EARTHS

MAGNETISM
1. NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL MAGNETS
A substance that attracts pieces of iron and steel is called a magnet and this property of the substance is
called magnetism. Magnets are found in a natural state in the form of the mineral called magnetite. However,
natural magnets have no practical value because their magnetism is not strong enough to be utilised in the
modern devices. The commercial magnets are made artificially from iron, steel and other magnetic alloys.
Types of artificial magnets: The most usual way of making an artificial magnet is by passing electric current
through a wire wound over an iron or steel bar. Depending upon the ability to retain magnetism, artificial
magnets are classified as permanent magnets and temporary magnets.
(i) Permanent magnets: Hardened steel and certain magnetic alloys (e.g. cobalt steel, tungsten
steel etc.) when magnetised retain their magnetism indefinitely. Magnets made from such materials are called permanent magnets. Permanent magnets have the advantage that no exciting
coils are needed and hence no losses. However, their major drawback is that we cannot control
the amount of magnetism in the magnet. Permanent magnets are extensively used in electrical
instruments, earphones, moving-coil loudspeakers, etc.
(ii) Temporary magnets: Iron or soft steel will retain magnetism so long as the magnetising force is
applied. Once the magnetising force is removed, they will lose nearly all their magnetism. Magnets
made from such materials are called temporary magnets. The main advantage of such magnets is
that we can control the amount of magnetism by changing the strength of magnetising agency.
Temporary magnets are used in generators, motors, electric bells, etc.

2. PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS
The basic properties of magnets are summarised below:
(i) When an ordinary bar magnet is dipped into a heap of iron
filings, they cling to the ends of the magnet. These preferred regions of attraction are called poles of the magnet.

2l
Fig. 13.1

(ii) If a bar magnet is suspended by a thread, it will come to rest in a position close to the
north-south direction. The end of the magnet toward the north is called north pole (N-pole) of
the magnet and the other end the south pole (S-pole).
(iii) The poles of a magnet cannot be separated. If a bar magnet is broken into two parts, each
part will be a complete magnet with poles at its ends. No matter how many times a magnet is
broken, each piece will contain N-pole at one end and S-pole at the other.
(iv) The two poles of a magnet are of equal strengths. The pole strength is represented by m. The SI unit
of pole strength is ampere metre (Am).
(v) The distance between the two poles of a magnet is called magnetic length (2l) as shown in Fig.
13.1. It is slightly less than the geometrical length of the magnet.
6
Geometrical length
7
(vi) Like poles repel each other and unlike poles attract each other.
(vii) An isolated N-pole or S-pole does not exist. It is because electric current is the cause of magnetism
in every case and there is no way to divide up a current and obtain a single magnetic pole.
(viii) When a piece of substance such as iron, steel, nickel etc is placed near a magnet, it acquires
magnetism. The magnetism so acquired is called induced magnetism.

Magnetic length

3. MOLECULAR THEORY OF MAGNETISM

The molecular theory of magnetism was proposed by Weber in 1852 and modified by Ewing in 1890.
According to this theory, every molecule of a magnetic substance (whether magnetised or not) is a complete magnet in itself having a north pole and a south pole of equal strength
(i) In an unmagnetised substance, the molecular magnets are randomly oriented and form closed
chains as shown in Fig. 13.2 (i). The north pole of one molecular magnet cancels the effect of the
south pole of the other so that the substance does not show any net magnetism.

MAGNETS AND EARTHS MAGNETISM

Ma

Unmagnetised

Magnetising Force
( ii)

( i)

Fig. 13.2

(ii) When a magnetising force is applied to the substance (e.g. by rubbing a magnet or by passing
electric current through a wire wound over it), the molecular magnets are turned and tend to
align in the same direction with N-pole of one molecular magnet facing the S-pole of other as
shown in Fig. 13.2 (ii) The result is that magnetic fields of the molecular magnets aid each other
and two definite N and S poles are developed near the ends of the specimen; the strength of the
two poles being equal. Hence the substance gets magnetised.
(iii) The extent of magnetisation of the substance depends upon the extent of alignment of molecular
magnets. When all the molecular magnets are fully aligned, the substance is said to be saturated
with magnetism.
(iv) When a magnetised substance (or a magnet) is heated, the molecular magnets acquire kinetic
energy and some of them go back to the closed chain arrangement. For this reason, a magnet
loses some magnetism on heating.

4. MODERN VIEW ABOUT MAGNETISM

According to modern view, the magnetic properties of a substance

are attributed to the motions of electrons (orbital and spin) in the atoms.
e
e
We know that an atom consists of central nucleus with electrons reOrbital
volving around the nucleus in different orbits. This motion of electrons
Spin
Motion
Motion
is called orbital motion [See Fig. 13.3 (i)]. The electrons also rotate
S
S
around their own axis. This motion of electrons is called spin motion
(ii )
( i)
[See Fig. 13.3 (ii)]. Due to these two motions, each atom is equivalent to
Fig. 13.3
a current loop i.e. each atom behaves as a magnetic dipole.
(i) In the unmagnetised substances, the magnetic dipoles are randomly oriented so that magnetic
fields mutually cancel. When the substance is magnetised, the magnetic dipoles are aligned in
the same direction. Hence the substance shows net magnetism.
(ii) Since the revolving and spinning electrons in each atom cause magnetism, no substance is nonmagnetic
(iii) It is important to note that spinning motion of electrons in particular is responsible for magnetism of
a substance.

5. MAGNETS AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

We found it useful to speak of an electric field surrounding
an electric charge. Similarly, we can imagine a magnetic
S
N
field surrounding a magnet. The force one magnet exerts
on another can be described as the interaction between
one magnet and the magnetic field of the other. As with electric field, a magnetic field is represented by magnetic lines of
force. The direction of magnetic field at a given point is defined as the direction that the north-pole (N-pole) of a *comFig. 13.4
pass needle would point when placed at that point. On the
basis of this definition, magnetic lines of force always point from north toward south pole of the magnet.
They continue through the body of the magnet to form closed loops.
Fig. 13.4 shows the magnetic field lines of a bar magnet. Note that magnetic field of a bar magnet
resembles the magnetic field produced by a current loop or a solenoid. The properties of magnetic lines of force

are analogous to those of electric field lines e.g., the direction of flux density ( B ) at a point is that of the
tangent to the magnetic field line at that point, two magnetic field lines cannot intersect, etc. One striking
difference between the two fields is that whereas electric field lines start and end on electric charges, the
magnetic lines of force form closed loops. It is because we can have separate positive and negative charges but
not separate N-poles and S-poles.

MAGNETS AND EARTHS MAGNETISM

Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force

(i) Each magnetic line of force forms a closed loop i.e. outside the magnet, the direction of a magnetic
line of force is from north pole to south pole and it continues through the body of the magnet to
form a closed loop (See Fig. 13.4).

(ii) The direction of magnetic flux density ( B ) at a point is that of the tangent to the magnetic field line
at that point.
(iii) No two magnetic lines of force can intersect each other. If two magnetic lines of force intersect, there
would be two directions of magnetic field at that point which is not possible.
(iv) Where the magnetic lines of force are close together, the magnetic field is strong and where they are
well spaced out, the field is weak.
(v) The larger the number of magnetic field lines crossing per unit normal area, the larger is the magnetic

flux density ( B ) .
(vi) Magnetic lines of force contract longitudinally and widen laterally.
(vii) Magnetic lines of force are always ready to pass through iron or other magnetic material, in preference to passing through air, even though their closed paths are made longer thereby

6. UNIFORM AND NON-UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD

(i) Uniform magnetic field. The magnetic field in a region is uniform if it has the same magnetic flux

density ( B ) and the same direction at all points in the region.

( i)

(ii )

(iii)

Fig. 13.5

For example, the earth's magnetic field is nearly uniform. This means that magnitude and direction
of magnetic flux density at every point on earths surface is nearly the same. A uniform magnetic
field acting in the plane of the paper is represented by parallel and equidistant magnetic lines of
force as shown in Fig. 13.5 (i). A uniform magnetic field acting perpendicular to the plane of the
paper and directed downwards is represented by equally spaced crosses as shown in Fig. 13.5
(ii). However, a uniform magnetic field acting perpendicular to the plane of the paper and directed
upwards is represented by equally spaced dots as shown in Fig. 13.5 (iii). It is reminded that
crowded magnetic lines of force means stronger magnetic field and vice-versa.
(ii) Non-uniform magnetic field. The magnetic field in a region is non-uniform if the magnitude or/
and direction of magnetic flux density varies from point to point in the region.
For example, the magnetic field due to a bar magnet is non-uniform i.e. magnitude and direction
of magnetic flux density varies from point to point. A
non-uniform magnetic field is represented by converging or diverging magnetic lines of force. Fig 13.6 (i) shows
lines of force due to non-uniform magnetic field where
direction of magnetic field varies from point to point. In
(i)
(ii)
Fig. 13.6 (ii) both magnitude and direction of magnetic field
Fig. 13.6
are not constant.

7. SALIENT DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

Although many properties of magnetic lines of force are analogous to those of electric lines of force,
the following are the striking differences between the two fields :
(i) An electric line of force starts from a positive charge and ends on a negative charge i.e. they are
discontinuous and do not exist inside a charged body. On the other hand, a magnetic line of
force forms a closed loop i.e. a magnetic line of force passes through the body of the magnet to
form the closed loop. This difference betweeen the two fields arises from the fact that we can
have separate positive and negative charges but not separate N-poles and S-poles.
(ii) An isolated charge (positive or negative) can exist but an isolated pole (N-pole or S-pole)
cannot exist. The smallest magnetic structure that can exist is a magnetic dipole. A charge q
placed in an external electric field experiences a force. On the other hand, a magnetic dipole
placed in an external magnetic field experiences a torque tending to align the dipole in the
direction of the field.

MAGNETS AND EARTHS MAGNETISM

8. TYPICAL MAGNETIC FIELDS

(i) Fig. 13.7 (i) shows the magnetic field lines due to a bar magnet. Note that magnetic field is nonuniform i.e. strength and direction of magnetic field vary from place to place.

N
(S)

(N)
(ii )

( i)

Fig. 13.7

(ii) Fig. 13.7 (ii) shows the magnetic field due to a long cylindrical current-carrying coil. Such a coil is
called a solenoid. Note that the magnetic field due to a solenoid is similar to that of a bar
magnet. If an iron core were put into the solenoid, it would become magnetised with the
polarities shown.
(iii) Fig. 13.8 shows the effect of placing a magnetic material (e.g. soft iron) in a magnetic field. The
lines of force are drawn towards the soft iron as shown in Fig. 13.8 (i).
If the magnetic material is an iron ring [See Fig. 13.8 (ii)], no line of force penetrates inside the
soft iron ring
N

soft
iron
(i)

(ii)

Fig. 13.8

ring. Thus a hollow box made of magnetic material may be used to screen instruments from
magnetic effects.

9. COULOMBS LAW OF FORCE FOR MAGNETIC POLES

Charles Coulomb, a French scientist, performed a number of experiments to study the nature and magnitude of
force between two magnetic poles. He summed up his conclusions as under:
The force acting between two magnetic poles is directly proportional to the product of their pole
strengths and inversely proportional to the square of distance between their centres. The force is attractive
if the poles are unlike and repulsive if they are like poles.
Mathematically,

m1 m2

d2
where m1 and m2 are the pole strengths of two poles and d is the distance between their centres.

or

F =k

m1 m2

d2
where k is a constant of proportionality whose value depends upon the surrounding medium and the system
of units employed. In SI units, the value of k for free space (vacuum/air) is 0/4.
0 m1 m2
...(i)
4 d 2
Eq. (i) is known as inverse square law of force in magnetism. The reader may see that it resembles the
inverse square law in electrostatics. In fact, this strong similarity between the two laws became the basis for
electromagnetic theory. Note that m1 and m2 are in ampere metres (Am), d in metres, 0 in NA-2 and F in
newtons (N).

F=

10. MAGNETIC DIPOLE

A magnetic dipole consists of two unlike poles of equal strength separated by a small distance e.g., a

bar magnet, a current loop, solenoid, etc. The behaviour of a magnetic dipole is described by a vector M called
magnetic dipole moment. The magnitude of magnetic dipole moment is equal to the product of the strength of
either magnetic pole and the magnetic length of the magnet i.e.,

MAGNETS AND EARTHS MAGNETISM

M = m (2l)

In vector form, M = m (2l )

2l

The magnetic dipole moment vector is directed from south to north

pole as shown in Fig. 13.9. The SI unit of magnetic dipole moment is
ampere metre2 (Am2).

S
Fig. 13.9

11. MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY ON THE AXIAL LINE OF

MAGNETIC DIPOLE
Magnetic flux density at a point in a magnetic field is also defined as the force experienced by unit n-pole
placed at that point.
Consider a point P located on the axial line of a short bar magnet of magnetic length 2l and pole strength

m. It is desired to find the magnetic flux density ( B ) at point P which is at a distance d from the centre of
the magnet [See Fig. 13.10]. Imagine a unit n-pole placed at P.
S

P
B

2l
d
Fig. 13.10

Magnetic flux density at P due to N-pole is

0
m
4 ( d l ) 2
Magnetic flux density at P due to S-pole is
B1 =

B2 =

0
m
4 ( d + l ) 2

...along NP

...along PS

Net magnetic flux density at P is

B = B1 B2 =

0 m
m

4 (d l ) 2 (d + l ) 2

0 4 m d l 0 ( m 2l )2 d
=
= 4 2
2
2 2
2 2
( d l ) 4 ( d l )

B=

0 2 M d
4 ( d 2 l 2 )2

( M = m 2l )

Since the bar magnet is short, d >> l, l2 can be neglected as compared to d2.
0 2 M d
4 d 4
2M
or
... along NP
B= 0
4 d 3
12. MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY ON THE EQUATORIAL LINE OF MAGNETIC DIPOLE

B=

Let P be a point on the equatorial line of a short bar magnet where flux density ( B ) due to the magnet is to be
found out. Referring to Fig. 13.11, OP = d; SN = 2l; SP = NP =
Magnetic flux density at P due to N-pole is

m
B1 = 0 2
4 ( d + l 2 )
Magnetic flux density at P due to S-pole is

m
B2 = 0 2
4 ( d + l 2 )

d 2 + l2
B1

along NP produced

B2

along PS

It is clear that B1 = B2.

Resultant magnetic flux density at P is

B = 2 B1 cos = 2 0 2
cos
2
4 ( d + l )

M
O
2l
Fig. 13.11

MAGNETS AND EARTHS MAGNETISM

=2
=
B=

or

0
m
l

4 ( d 2 + l 2 ) d 2 + l 2 )

cos =

d + l
l

0 (m 2l )
4 (d 2 + l 2 )3/ 2
0
M
2
4 (d + l 2 )3/ 2

Since the bar magnet is short, d >> l, l2 can be neglected as compared to d2.
0 M
4 d 3

It may be seen that the direction of B is opposite to that of M .

Baxial
=2
Note that
Beq

B=

Note. When point P lies on the axial line of the magnetic dipole, it is called end-on or tangent A
position. However, when point P lies on the equatorial line of the magnetic dipole, it is known as
broad-side-on position or tangent B position.

13. TORQUE ON A BAR MAGNET IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD

The behaviour of a bar magnet (i.e. magnetic dipole) in a uniform magnetic field is similar to that of an
electric dipole in a uniform electric field. Fig. 13.12 shows a bar magnet held at an angle to a uniform

magnetic field B . Let 2l be the magnetic length of the magnet and m be the strength of each pole.

Force on N-pole = mB

... along B

Force on S-pole = mB
... opposite to B
These two forces, being equal and opposite and having different lines of action, constitute a

couple. This couple tends to rotate the magnet so as to *align it along B .

Torque on magnet, = m B NA
But

NA
= sin or
NA = NS sin = 2l sin
NS
= m B 2l sin
= M B sin

or

mB

( M = m 2l )

mB

Fig. 13.12

In vector form, = M B

The direction of is perpendicular to the plane containing M and B and is given by the right hand
rule for cross product.
The SI unit of is Nm and that of B is tesla (T). Therefore, the SI unit of M is J/T or *Am2.
If = 90, B = 1 T and = 1 Nm, then M = 1 Am2.
Hence magnetic dipole moment of a magnet is 1 Am2 if a torque of 1Nm is required to keep the
magnet perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field of 1 T.
14. POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A MAGNETIC DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD

Consider a magnetic dipole of moment M held at an angle to the direction of a uniform magnetic field B .
Then torque acting on the dipole is
= M B sin
If the dipole is rotated through a very small angle d against this torque, then small amount of work
done is
dW = d = M B sin d
Total work done in rotating the dipole from 1 to 2 is
W =

B sin d

Since M and B are constant, they can be taken out of integral.

W = M B sin d = M B[ cos ]2
1

MAGNETS AND EARTHS MAGNETISM

W = M B (cos 2 cos 1)

or

... (i)

Let us suppose that the magnetic dipole is initially at right angles to the magnetic field B (i.e., 1 = 90)
and is then brought to a position making an angle to the direction of field (i.e., 2 = ).
W = M B cos

Therefore, eq. (i) becomes:

This work done is stored in the dipole in the form of potential energy (U).
Potential energy of dipole,

U = M B cos

U = M .B

In vector form,

Note that is the angle between magnetic dipole moment M and the magnetic field B .
Special Cases
(i) When = 0;
U = M B cos 0 = M B
(ii) When = 90;
U = M B cos 90 = 0
(iii) When = 180;
U = M B cos 180 = + M B
Note that potential energy of dipole is minimum when = 00 and hence it is in stable equilibrium. The
potential energy becomes zero when = 90. However, the dipole has maximum potential energy when = 180
(unstable equilibrium).
15. WORK DONE IN ROTATING A MAGNETIC DIPOLE IN UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD

Suppose a magnetic dipole of dipole moment M ( = 2l ) is rotated in a uniform magnetic field B through
an angle from its stable equilibrium position as shown in Fig. 13.13.
N
mB
The potential energy of the dipole in this position is U = M B cos .
(i) When the dipole is in stable equilibrium position (i.e., = 0),

B
then its potential energy is
S
Ui = M B cos 0 = M B
mB

(ii) When the dipole is rotated through an angle from its stable
equilibrium position, then its potential energy is
Uf = M B cos

Fig. 13.13

The external work done in rotating the dipole through an angle is equal to the increase in potential
energy of the dipole.

Work done = Uf Ui = ( M B cos ) ( M B)

= M B cos + M B = M B (1 cos )

or

Work done = M B (1 cos )

Note that work done in rotating the dipole through 90 from the direction of external magnetic field
is MB and that for 180 rotation, it is 2MB.

16. CURRENT LOOP AS A MAGNETIC DIPOLE

When a magnetic dipole is placed in a uniform magnetic field, the dipole experiences a torque which tends to
*align it with the magnetic field. A current carrying loop placed in a uniform magnetic field behaves in an
identical manner; the torque on the loop tends to align it with the magnetic field. Therefore, a current
carrying loop behaves as a magnetic dipole.
Fig. 13.14 (i) shows the magnetic field of a bar magnet whereas Fig. 13.14 (ii) shows magnetic field
due to a current loop. Note that magnetic fields in the two cases are similar. For this reason, the behaviour
of a current loop is similar to that of a bar magnet in an external magnetic field.

(i)

(ii)
Fig. 13.14

MAGNETS AND EARTHS MAGNETISM

Consider a plane loop of wire carrying current as shown in Fig. 13.15. By right hand palm rule, the upper
face of the loop is N-pole and the lower face S-pole. Therefore, the current loop acts as a magnetic dipole.
The magnitude of dipole moment of current loop (M) is
(i) directly proportional to current (I) through the loop.
(ii) directly proportional to the area of cross-section (A) of the loop.
M IA

or

M = klA

where k is a constant of proportionality whose value is *one.

M = IA
... for a single turn
If the loop has n turns, then,

M = nlA

In vector form,

M =nl A

The direction of A (and, therefore, of M ) is perpendicular to the

plane of coil and can be found by right hand rule; wrap fingers of
your right hand around the loop in the direction of current, then

your thumb points in the direction of M and A . Applying this rule to

Fig. 13.15, it is clear that direction of M is vertically upward.

Upper face
(N)
I

I
Lower face
(S)

Unit of M: M = n l A
If n = 1; I =1 A and A = 1 m2, then M = 1Am2
Fig. 13.15
Thus, the SI unit of M is ampere metre2 (Am2). It is defined as the
magnetic moment of a single turn loop of area 1m2 and carrying a current of 1A.
Note: Note that magnetic moment M (= n I A) is a property of the loop itself and the current it
carries. It is perpendicular to the plane of the loop and its direction depends upon the direction of
current.

17. GAUSSS LAW FOR MAGNETISM

In the electric case, we saw that electric flux E through a closed surface is equal to the total net charge
q enclosed by the surface divided by 0 i.e.

E . dS = 0
A similar relation can be written for magnetic flux. Since isolated magnetic poles do not exist, the
magnetic lines of force have no beginning or end. In other words, magnetic field lines form closed loops.
Hence, Gausss law for magnetism is

B =

B . dS = 0

In terms of magnetic lines of force, this relation tells us that as many lines enter the closed volume as leave
it. Since isolated magnetic poles do not exist, magnetic field lines do not diverge from any point in space or
converge to any point.

18. EARTHS MAGNETISM

The earth posseses a magnetic field. It behaves like a huge magnet with its magnetic south pole toward the
geographical north pole and magnetic north pole toward the geographical south pole. This is evident from the
following facts:
(i)

If a magnetic needle is suspended so that it is free to rotate in a horizontal plane, then it comes
to rest nearly in north-south direction. Since magnetic needle is a magnetic dipole, it aligns with
the magnetic field of earth.

(ii)

If you burry an iron rod in the earth in the direction in which a freely suspended magnetic needle
rests, it will be observed that after some time, the rod becomes a magnet.

(iii)

When we plot the magnetic lines of force of a magnet, we get neutral points where the
magnetic field due to the magnet is exactly neutralised by the earths magnetic field. If earth's
magnetic field has not been there, we would not have observed neutral points.

The above observations lead to the conclusion that earth has a magnetic field. The earths magnetic field
is fairly uniform with a strength of about 5 104 T.

19. CAUSE OF EARTHS MAGNETISM

Although the cause for the earth's magnetism is not exactly known, several reasonable theories have been
proposed. We know that magnetic fields arise from electric currents. Therefore, all theories explain earth's
magnetism on the basis of electric currents.

10

MAGNETS AND EARTHS MAGNETISM

(i)

One theory suggests that the magnetism of earth may be due to molten charged metallic fluid in the
core of earth. As the earth rotates about its axis, the charged fluid also rotates. This gives rise to
electric currents in the fluid. These electric currents are responsible for earths magnetism.

(ii)

Another theory suggests that since earth has charged particles (protons and electrons), the rotation
of earth about its axis generates electric currents. These currents magnetise the earth.

(iii)

There is yet another view regarding earth's magnetism. High-energy rays coming from the sun
collide with the atoms of the gases in the upper layers of the atmosphere and ionise them. The
rotation of earth causes movement of the ions and hence strong electric currents are set up. The
magnetism of earth is due to these currents.

Regardless of the cause of earths magnetism, the earth's magnetic field resembles that of a magnetic
dipole.

20. SOME FACTS ABOUT EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD

Fig. 13.17 shows the schematic diagram illustrating the earth as a huge magnet surrounded by a magnetic field
extending far out into space. The south pole of earth's magnet is toward geographic north and the north pole
of earth's magnet is towards geographic south.

GN

MN

17

GN = geographic north pole

MN = magnetic north pole

GS = geographic south pole

MS = magnetic south pole

GS

MS

Magnetic
Equator
Fig. 13.17

(i)

The earths magnetic poles do not coincide with geographic poles (which are on the earths axis of
rotation). The axis of earth's magnet makes an angle of about 17o with the axis of rotation of earth.
Therefore, a magnetic needle free to rotate in a horizontal plane does not show true geographic
north and south directions at a place.

(ii)

A vertical plane passing through the axis of a freely suspended magnetic needle is called the
magnetic meridian. The direction of earth's magnetic field lies in the magnetic meridian and
may not be horizontal. A vertical plane passing through the geographical axis of earth is
called the geographical meridian.

(iii)

The south pole of earth's magnet lies in the northern hemisphere and the north pole in the southern
hemisphere. The earths magnetic field lines emerge from the earths surface in the southern hemisphere and re-enter it in the northern hemisphere.

(iv)

Consider a magnetic needle that is free to rotate in a vertical plane. If this needle is carried from one
pole of the earth to another, it will be found that at different places on earth, the needle makes
different angles with the horizontal plane (i.e., earths surface). At two places, the needle becomes
vertical to earth's surface and exactly horizontal at a place inbetween. At all other places, it makes
different angles with the horizontal plane.

(v)

The two places at which the magnetic needle (free to rotate in a vertical plane) becomes vertical are
called the magnetic poles of the earth. Clearly, at the earths magnetic poles, the magnetic field of
earth is vertical i.e. *perpendicular to earths surface. The locus of points on earths surface where
the needle (free to rotate in a vertical plane) remains horizontal is called the magnetic equator.

From the above discussion, two points are worth noting. First, a magnetic needle free to rotate in a
horizontal plane does not point towards true north and south directions. It is because magnetic axis of earth
does not coincide with the geographical axis of earth. Secondly, a magnetic needle free to rotate in a vertical
plane does not remain horizontal but makes some angle with the horizontal. It is because, except at earths
magnetic poles and the magnetic equator, earths magnetic field makes some acute angle with the horizontal.

21. ELEMENTS OF EARTHS MAGNETISM

The physical quantities which completely describe earth's magnetic field are called elements of earths magnetism. These are declination, dip or inclination and horizontal component of earths magnetic field.
(i) Declination (
) : Declination at a place is the angle between the geographic meridian and the
magnetic meridian at that place. It is denoted by .

MAGNETS AND EARTHS MAGNETISM

11

GN

Geographic
Meridian
A
V

MN

H P

Horizontal

O
90

Dip ()

Earth's
Magnetic
Field (R)

Magnetic
Meridian

C
Fig. 13.18

Fig. 13.19

Magnetic declination arises because earths magnetic axis does not coincide with earths geographical
axis. In Fig. 13.18, the plane ABCD is the magnetic meridian while plane ABCD is the geographic meridian
at a place. Then BAB = CDC = is the declination at that place. The angle of declination varies from
place to place on the earths surface. The declination is helpful in steering ships in the right direction with the
help of mariners compass.
(ii) Dip or Inclination: Dip or inclination at a place is the angle between the direction of intensity of
earth's total magnetic field (R) and the horizontal direction in the magnetic meridian at that place. It is
denoted by .
When a magnetic needle is so mounted that it is free to rotate in a vertical plane, it is called a dip
needle (See Fig. 13.19). When the plane of rotation of the dip needle is in the magnetic meridian, the
needle will orient itself in the direction of R, total intensity of earths magnetic field. The angle between
the needle and the horizontal (i.e., angle between AO and AP in Fig. 13.18) is the angle of dip at that
place. In the northern hemisphere, the north pole of the dip needle is depressed below the horizontal
while in the southern hemisphere, south pole of the needle is pointing below the horizontal. The value
of dip () is different at different places on the surface of the earth.
At the earths magnetic poles, the magnetic field of earth is perpendicular to earths surface. Therefore,
the value of dip is 90 at earths magnetic poles; the dip needle becomes vertical at these locations. At the
magnetic equator, = 0 so that dip needle becomes horizontal.
(iii) Horizontal component of Earth's magnetic field: It is the component of earths total magnetic field
along horizontal direction in the magnetic meridian. It is denoted by H.
Thus referring to Fig. 13.18, R is the intensity of the earths total magnetic field and is the angle of
dip. Resolving R into two rectangular components, we have,
Horizontal component,
H = R cos
... along AP
Vertical component,
V = R sin
... along AQ

R2 cos2 + R2 sin2 = H2 + V2

or

R2 = H2 + V2

R=

Also

H2 + V2

R sin V
=
R cos H

V
H
The value of horizontal component H (= R cos ) is different at different places on earths surface. At the
magnetic poles, = 90 so that H = 0. However, at the magnetic equator, = 0 so that H = R.
Note. Once we know the values of declination (), dip () and horizontal component (H) of earths
magnetic field at a place, we can specify the strength and direction of earths magnetic field at that place.
Useful Information About Dip
H = R cos and
V = R sin
(i) At a place on the poles, = 90.

V=R
and
H=0
Therefore, earth always has a horizontal component except at poles. The dip needle becomes
vertical at poles.

or

tan =

12

MAGNETS AND EARTHS MAGNETISM

(ii) At a place on the equator, = 0.

V=0

and

H=R

Therefore, earth always has a vertical component except at the equator. The dip needle becomes horizontal at the equator.
(iii) If a magnet is suspended with the magnetic meridian and horizontal and vertical components of
earths field are H and V respectively, then,
V
V
Actual dip, tan =
Apparent dip, tan =
H'
H cos

22. NEUTRAL POINTS

A point near a magnet where the magnetic field due to the magnet is completely neutralised by the
horizontal component of earths magnetic field is called a neutral point.
When we place a compass needle near a magnet, it is under the influence of two magnetic fields viz. (i)
field (B) due to the magnet and (ii) the horizontal component (H) of earth's magnetic field. The horizontal
component of earths magnetic field is fairly uniform but the magnitude of magnetic field due to the magnet
decreases as we go away from the magnet. At a certain point near the magnet, the field due to the magnet
is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the horizontal component (H) of the earths magnetic
field. Therefore, resultant magnetic field at this point will be zero. Such a point is called a neutral point.
A small compass needle placed at the neutral point will experience no net torque and will have the
tendency to point in any direction. We shall locate the position of neutral points in the following two
cases:
(i) Magnet placed with its N-pole towards north of the earth: The given bar magnet is placed along the
magnetic meridian with its N-pole pointing towards north of the earth. The plot of magnetic field (See
Fig. 13.26) will be the resultant of the magnetic field due to the magnet and that of H. It will be seen that
two neutral points (N1 and N2) are located on the equatorial line of the magnet. Note that at points N1
and N2, the magnetic field due to the magnet and horizontal component of earths magnetic field are
equal and opposite and hence cancel each other.

Earth's Field (H )
N
N1

N
O

N2

Fig. 13.26

Let d = distance of each neutral point from the centre of the magnet
M = magnitude of magnetic dipole moment of the magnet (= m 2l)
2l = magnetic length
Magnetic field at the neutral point due to the magnet is

M
B= 0
4 (d 2 + l 2 )3/ 2
Since at the neutral point, B = H,
0
M
4 (d 2 + l 2 )3/ 2
If the bar magnet is short, we can neglect l2 as compared to d2. In that case,
M
H = 0 3
4 d
Since the values of d and H are known, the magnetic dipole moment M of the bar magnet can be
determined.

H =

MAGNETS AND EARTHS MAGNETISM

13

(ii) Magnet placed with its S-pole towards north of the earth: The given bar magnet is placed along the
magnetic meridian with its S-pole pointing towards north of the earth. The plot of magnetic field (See Fig. 13.27)
will be the resultant of magnetic field due to the magnet and that of H. It will be seen that two neutral points N1
and N2 are located on the axial line of the magnet.

Earth's Field (H )

N1
d

S
O
N

N2

Let d = distance of each neutral point from the centre of the magnet
M = magnitude of magnetic dipole moment of the magnet (= m 2l)
Magnetic field at the neutral point due to the magnet is
B=

0
2Md
4 ( d 2 l 2 ) 2

Since at the neutral point, B = H,

H =

0
2 Md
2
4 ( d l 2 ) 2

If the bar magnet is short, we can neglect l2 as compared to d2. In that case,
M
H = 0 3
4 d
Knowing H and d, we can determine the magnetic dipole moment M of the bar magnet.
Note. From the above discussion, we find that when the magnet is placed with its N-pole towards
north of earth, neutral points are located on the equatorial line of the magnet. However, when the magnet
is turned through 180 so that its S-pole is towards north of the earth, the neutral points are located on
the axial line of the magnet i.e. neutral points turn through 90. Hence when the magnet is turned
through 180, the neutral points turn through 90.

23. TANGENT LAW IN MAGNETISM

According to tangent law, if two uniform perpendicular magnetic fields F and H act simultaneously on a magnet, the magnet
comes to rest making an angle with the direction of H such that:
F = H tan

H
mH
N

mF

Generally, H is the horizontal component of earths magnetic field

F
and F is the magnetic field due to current loop or magnetic dipole.
S
Fig. 13.30 shows a bar magnet NS suspended under the action of
A
two perpendicular and uniform magnetic fields F and H. The couple on mF
the magnet due to the field F acts in a direction opposite to that of the
mH
field H. The magnet will come to rest in a position where the two
couples balance each other.
Fig. 13.30
Suppose in the equilibrium position, the dipole moment of the magnet makes an angle with the
direction of H. Let the pole strength of each pole of the magnet be m.
Moment of couple due to field H
= m H SA
... anticlockwise
Moment of couple due to field F
= m F NA
... clockwise

14

MAGNETS AND EARTHS MAGNETISM

In the equilibrium position, the moments of the two couples are equal.

m F NA = m H SA
SA
= H tan
NA
F = H tan

mF = H

or

This proves tangent law in magnetism.

Note. This law is valid only when the two magnetic fields F and H are uniform over the entire length
of the magnet.

24. TANGENT GALVANOMETER

A tangent galvanometer is used to measure low currents. Its operation is based on tangent law.

Coil

90

S
90

50

500

Fig. 13.31

F
Pointer

Fig. 13.32

Construction: Fig. 13.31 shows the various parts of a tangent galvanometer. Three separate circular coils
of 2, 50 and 500 turns of insulated copper wire are wound on a non-magnetic circular vertical frame. The
ends of these coils are connected to the terminals fixed at the base of the instrument. The vertical frame
can be rotated about a vertical axis. The base of the instrument is provided with three levelling screws. A
circular compass box made of non-magnetic material is fitted at the centre of vertical frame. This box has a
small magnetic needle NS pivoted at its centre. The needle can freely rotate in a horizontal plane over a
horizontal circular scale graduated in degrees. The circular scale is divided into four quadrants of 0 90
each. A long and light aluminium pointer is attached at right angles to the magnetic needle and indicates
the deflection of the magnetic needle. A tangent galvanometer is also called moving magnet type galvanometer because here the coil is stationary and the magnetic needle moves.
Working and Theory
(i) The instrument is levelled and the plane of the coil is gently rotated so that it is parallel to the
magnetic meridian. In this way, plane of the coil is along the magnetic meridian. Now, the compass
box is rotated so that aluminium pointer reads 0 0.
(ii) When no current flows through the coil, only H (i.e. horizontal component of earths magnetic field)
is acting on the magnetic needle NS. Therefore, the magnetic needle will be along the magnetic
meridian.
(iii) When a current I is passed through the coil, a magnetic field F is set up along the axis of coil
perpendicular to H. Now magnetic needle NS is under the combined action of two uniform magnetic fields H and F at 90 to each other. The needle gets deflected and comes to rest at an angle
with the direction of H as shown in Fig. 13.32. According to tangent law,
F = H tan
The magnetic field F at the centre of a circular coil of radius r and having n turns is
0 n l
2r
nl
F = 0
= H tan
2r

F =

or

Now

2r H
I =
tan
0 n
0 n
= G = galvanometer constant
2r

MAGNETS AND EARTHS MAGNETISM

15

H
tan
G
The term H/G is another constant called reduction factor (K) of the tangent galvanometer.

I =

2r H
0 n
Since the values of K and are known, current I can be determined. Note that current is directly proportional to the tangent of angle of deflection and hence the name tangent galvanometer.

where K =

I = K tan

Reduction factor (K)

When = 45, I = K tan 45
Hence reduction factor of a tangent galvanometer is equal to the current through the galvanometer which produces a deflection of 45 (the plane of the coil being in the magnetic meridian). It is
measured in amperes.
The value of reduction factor K (= 2rH/0 n) depends upon (i) radius r of the coil (ii) the horizontal
component H of the earths magnetic field at the place and (iii) number of turns n of the coil.

25. VIBRATION MAGNETOMETER

A vibration magnetometer is a simple instrument which is used to compare the magnetic moments of two
magnets or to compare the strength of horizontal component of earths magnetic field at two places.
Principle: When a magnet is suspended so as to rotate freely in a horizontal
plane, it comes to rest in a direction parallel to the horizontal component (H) of earths
magnetic field. This direction is called the direction of the magnetic meridian. If the magnet is slightly disturbed from its equilibrium position and left [See Fig. 13.35], the magnet
starts vibrating about the direction of field (H) as the mean position. The time period T of
the vibration of the magnet is given by;

H
mH

S
I
MH
mH
where
I = moment of inertia of the magnet about its axis of rotation
M = magnetic moment of the magnet
Fig. 13.35
H = strength of horizontal component of earths magnetic field
Theory: The suspended magnet vibrates in the magnetic field H. Suppose at any instant, the angular
displacement of the magnet from the field H is . Then magnitude of torque experienced by the magnet is
= * M H sin
If is the angular acceleration of the magnet and I is the moment of inertia of the magnet, then,

T = 2

M H
I =
sin
I
If the angular displacement is small, then sin
.
I = M H sin

or

M H
I =
I
I=k

or

a=k

or

... numerically

where k ( = MH/I) is constant for a magnet. Since , the magnet executes S.H.M. Therefore, time period T
of the magnet is given by;

or

T = 2

Displacement
= 2
Acceleration

T = 2

I
MH

For a rectangular bar magnet, I = mass

1
I
= =

k MH

l 2 + b2
12

1 1 MH
=
T 2
I
Construction: Fig. 13.36 shows the essential parts of a vibration magnetometer. It consists of a rectangular wooden box fitted with glass windows on the sides. There are two rectangular slits S1 and S2 at the top
of the box to see the vibrations of the magnet placed in the stirrup. The stirrup acts as a pan for the magnet.
The stirrup is suspended by means of an unspun silk thread connected to the torsion head T. A plane mirror
is fitted at the bottom of the box and a line AB is drawn on this mirror parallel to the length of the box.

Frequency,

f =

16

MAGNETS AND EARTHS MAGNETISM

Setting
(i) A magnetic compass needle is placed on the reference line AB and the box is rotated so that the
needle is parallel to the line. Thus, the magnetometer is set along the magnetic meridian.
(ii) In order to remove torsion in the silk thread, a
brass bar (non-magnetic) is placed in the stirrup. If the stirrup begins to turn, it indicates
some torsion in the silk thread. The torsion head
is rotated so that brass bar comes to rest in the
direction of magnetic meridian. The brass bar is
now replaced by the experimental magnet.
Working: Bring another magnet near one of the poles
of the suspended magnet and remove it at once. The suspended magnet begins to execute S.H.M. about the direction of the field (H) as the mean position. Its vibrations are
counted through slits S1 and S2. By noting time for 20
vibrations, we can calculate the time for one vibration, i.e.
time period (T) of vibration of the magnet.

Torsion Head (T)

Screw
Glass Tube
S1

S2
Stirrup
S

Plane
mirror

Magnetic
meridian

Fig. 13.36

26. MEASUREMENTS WITH VIBRATION MAGNETOMETER

1. Determination of magnetic moment of a magnet: The time period (T) of vibration of the given
magnet is measured with the help of a vibration magnetometer.

I
MH
The moment of inertia (I) of the magnet can be found from its geometry. Knowing the value of H at that
place, the magnetic moment M of the magnet can be determined.
2. Comparison of H at two places: A vibration magnetometer can be used to compare the horizontal
component of earths magnetic field at two different places. Suppose T1 and T2 are the time periods of the
given magnet at the two places where horizontal components of earths magnetic field are H1 and H2
respectively.
T = 2

T1 2 I / M H1
H2
H 2 T 21
=
=
=

T2 2 I / M H2
H1
H1 T 22
3. Comparison of magnetic moments of two magnets of the same mass and size: In this case, the
moment of inertia of the two magnets will be the same. The time periods of the two magnets are determined
separately at the same place with the help of a vibration magnetometer.
If these are T1 and T2, then,
Then;

2 I / M1 H
T1
=
=
T2 2 I / M 2 H

M2
M1

M 2 T 21
=
M1 T 22
Note: If the two magnets have the same magnetic length, then M1 = m1 2l and M2 = m2 2l.

M 2 m2 T 21
=
=
M1
m1 T 22
4. Comparison of magnetic moments of two magnets of different sizes: In this case, the moments of
inertia of the two magnets will be different. To compare their magnetic moments, we use sum and difference
method. Suppose, two magnets of magnetic moments M1 and M2 have moments of inertia I1 and I2 respectively.
(i) Sum position: In this method, one magnet is placed on the other such that their N-poles point in the
same direction as shown in Fig. 13.37.
M.I. of the combination = I1 + I2 ; Magnetic moment of the combination = M1 + M2
The time period (T1) of this combination is determined with the help of vibration magnetometer.

S
S

M2

M1

Fig. 13.37

M1 _ M2

M1 + M2
N

I1 + I2

N
S

M2
M1

Fig. 13.38

S
N

I1 + I2

MAGNETS AND EARTHS MAGNETISM

T1 = 2

I1 + I 2
(M1 + M 2 ) H

17
...(i)

(ii) Difference position: Now the polarity of the smaller magnet is reversed so that its N-pole
points toward S-pole of larger magnet as shown in Fig. 13.38.
The magnetic moment of the combination is (M 1 M 2). However, the moment of inertia of the
combination remains the same i.e. (I1 + I2). If T2 is the time period of vibration of this combination, then,
T2 = 2

I1 + I 2
(M1 M 2 ) H

... (ii)

Dividing eq. (i) by eq. (ii), we get,

T1
=
T2
or

T 21
T

2
2

M1 M 2
M1 + M 2
M1 M 2
M2 + M2

M 2 T 22 T 21
=
M 1 T 22 + T 21
Since the values of T1 and T2 are known, we can find M2/M1. Note that T2 > T1 i.e. time period of vibration
in difference position is more than in sum position.

or

CLASSIFICATIONN OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATARIALS

Magnet Attracting Iron Filings

CLASSIFICATION OF
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
1. ATOM AS A MAGNETIC DIPOLE
In an atom, electrons orbit around the nucleus and thus constitute current loops.
Since a current loop behaves as a magnetic dipole, it is not surprising that an
atom is like a magnetic dipole. The magnetic moment associated with orbital
motion is called orbital magnetic moment.
We now derive an expression for the magnetic dipole moment due to orbital
motion of electrons. An electron revolving in an orbit of radius r with an angular velocity . The circulating electron is equivalent to a single-turn current loop.
The magnetic dipole moment of this current loop is given by ;

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATARIALS

CLASSIFICATION OF
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
v

1. ATOM AS A MAGNETIC DIPOLE

In an atom, electrons orbit around the nucleus and thus constitute current loops.
Since a current loop behaves as a magnetic dipole, it is not surprising that an
atom is like a magnetic dipole. The magnetic moment associated with orbital
motion is called orbital magnetic moment.

e
r

We now derive an expression for the magnetic dipole moment due to orbital
motion of electrons. Fig. 14.1 shows an electron revolving in an orbit of radius
r with an angular velocity . The circulating electron is equivalent to a singleturn current loop. The magnetic dipole moment of this current loop is given by ;

M=iA
Now
and

i=

e
e
e
=
=
T 2 / 2
A = r2

( T =

2
)

Fig. 14.1

e
r2
2
1
M = e r2
or
2
1
M = evr
or
...(i)
( v = r )
2
According to Bohrs theory, the angular momentum of an electron (m v r) in a stationary orbit can have
only those values which are integral multiples of h/2, i.e.

M =

nh
2
From eqs. (i) and (ii), we have,
1 nh
M = e
2 2 m
mv r =

... (ii)

where n = 1, 2, 3, ...

eh
M = n

4 m
The least value of the magnetic dipole moment of an electron due to orbital motion occurs when n = 1.

or

This is called Bohr magneton and is represented by B .

eh
4 m
Definition of B : The magnetic moments of atoms are expressed in terms of B .

M = n B

B =

where B =

eh
(1.6 1019 ) (6.6 1034 )
=
4 m
4 (9 1031 )

= 9.27 1024 Am2 or JT1

A Bohr magneton is equal to the orbital magnetic moment of an electron circulating in an orbit with
the smallest allowed value of orbital angular momentum.
The magnetic dipole moment of atoms is of the order of a few Bohr magnetons.

2. MAGNETIC MATERIALS
We can classify materials into three categories viz. diamagnetic, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic. The behaviour
of these three classes of substances is different in an external magnetic field.
(i) When a diamagnetic substance (e.g. copper, zinc, bismuth etc.) is placed in a magnetic field, the
substance is feebly magnetised in a direction opposite to that of the applied field. Therefore, a
diamagnetic substance is feebly repelled by a strong magnet.
(ii) When a paramagnetic substance (e.g. aluminium, antimony etc.) is placed in a magnetic field, the
substance is feebly magnetised in the direction of the applied field. Therefore, a paramagnetic
substance is feebly attracted by a strong magnet.
(iii) When a ferromagnetic substance (e.g. iron, nickel, cobalt etc.) is placed in a magnetic field, the
substance is strongly magnetised in the direction of the applied field. Therefore, a ferromagnetic substance is strongly attracted by a magnet.

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATARIALS

Note that diamagnetism and paramagnetism are weak forms of magnetism. However, ferromagnetic
substances exhibit very strong magnetic effects.

3. MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY IN MAGNETIC MATERIALS

The magnetic flux density inside a toroid is directly proportional to the current. If we put a piece of ferromagnetic substance (e.g. iron), the magnetic flux density is *greatly increased, often thousands of times. This is due
to the magnetisation of the ferromagnetic substance by the external magnetic field. The total magnetic flux density

B in the ferromagnetic substance is the sum of that due to the current in the
wire and that due to magnetisation of ferromagnetic substance i.e.

B = B0 + BM

where B0 = magnetic flux density due only to the current in the

wire and is equal to magnetic flux density that would
present in the absence of ferromagnetic material.

be

BM = magnetic flux density due to the magnetisation of the ferromagnetic substance.

For ferromagnetic substances, BM is very large as compared to B0 .

Relative permeability: Consider an air-cored toroid carrying a curFig. 14.2
rent I. If the toroid has n turns per unit length, then magnetic flux density inside the toroid is given by ;
B0 = 0 n I
If air is replaced by iron or other ferromagnetic material, the total magnetic flux density (B) inside the
material is greatly increased. The ratio B/B0 is called the relative permeability (r) of the material i.e.
B
B0
Hence relative permeability of a material is the ratio of magnetic flux density produced in that
material to the flux density when the material is replaced by air; the magnetising force being the same in
the two cases. It is clear that r is a pure number.
The relative permeability of a material is a measure of its conductivity for magnetic flux. The greater
the relative permeability of a material, the greater is its conductivity for magnetic flux and vice-versa. The
absolute permeability of a material is = 0 r
Total magnetic flux density in the material is
B = r B0 = r (0 n I) = 0 r n I = n I

= n I
where (= 0 r) is the absolute permeability of the material. Note that r is a number (i.e. it has no units)
whereas the SI units of ( or 0) are H/m or WbA1m1 or TmA1.
Note: The relative permeability (r) is very high for ferromagnetic materials. For example, r of soft
iron is 8000. The r for diamagnetic materials is slightly less than 1 (typically 0.9999) that for paramagnetic materials, it is slightly more than 1 (typically 1.001).
r =

Relative permeability,

4. IMPORTANT TERMS
Consider an iron-cored toroid carrying a current I and having n turns per unit length. If the absolute permeability of iron is ( = 0 r ), then total magnetic flux density (B) in this material is
B=nI
...(i)

1. Magnetising force or magnetic intensity ( H ): The quantity n I in eq. (i) above is called the magnetising
force or magnetic intensity i.e. H = nI.

B=H
Hence, magnetising force may be defined as the number of ampere-turns flowing per metre length of the toroid.
Clearly the unit of H is ampere-turns per metre (AT/m). Thus, if a toroid has 10 turns per metre length and
current flowing is 2A, then magnetising force is H = nl = 10 2 = 20 AT/m.
(i) The ratio B/H in a material is *always constant and is equal to the absolute permeability ( = 0 r
) of the material.
(ii) If the same magnetising force H is applied to two identical air-cored and iron-cored toroids, then
magnetic flux density produced inside the toroids is
B0 = 0 H
B = 0 r H

... air/vacuum
... in iron

2. Intensity of magnetisation ( I ) : When a magnetic meterial is subjected to a magnetising force, the

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATARIALS

material is magnetised. Intensity of magnetisation is a measure of the extent to which the material is magnetised
and depends upon the nature of the material. It is defined as under:
The intensity of magnetisation of a magnetic material is defined as the magnetic moment developed
per unit volume of the material.

Intensity of magnetisation, I =

M
V

where M = magnetic moment developed in the material

V = volume of the material
If m is the pole strength developed, a is the area of X-section of the material and 2l is the magnetic length, then,

m 2l m
I =
=
a 2l
a
Hence intensity of magnetisation of a material may be defined as the pole strength developed per unit
area of cross-section of the material.

magnetic moment Amp. (metre)2

I =
=
= A m1
volume
(metre)3

SI units of I are Am1.

3. Magnetic susceptibility (m): The magnetic susceptibility of a material indicates how easily the
material can be magnetised. It is defined as under:
The magnetic susceptibility of a material is defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetisation (I)
developed in the material to the applied magnetising force (H). It is represented by m (Greek alphabet Chi).
I
Magnetic susceptibility, m =
H
The unit of I is the same as that of H so that m cm is a number. Since I is magnetic moment per unit
volume, m is also called volume susceptibility of the material.

5. RELATION BETWEEN r AND m

Consider a current carrying toroid having core material of relative permeability r. The total magnetic flux
density in the material is given by ;

B = B0 + BM

where B0 = magnetic flux density due to current in the coils

BM = magnetic flux density due to the magnetisation of the material.

Now

or

But

or

B = 0 H + 0 I = 0 (H + I )

B = 0 ( H + I )

Now

B0 = 0 H and BM = 0 I **

m =

so that I = m H

B = 0 ( H + m H ) = 0 H (1 + m )

B = H = 0 r H

0 r H = 0 H (1 + m )

r = 1 + m

6. CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

All substances are affected by magnetic fields. Depending upon their behaviour towards external magnetic
field, substances are classified into the following three categories :
(i) Diamagnetic substances (ii) Paramagnetic substances and (iii) Ferromagnetic substances.
Diamagnetic substances (e.g., copper, zinc, bismuth, etc.) are feebly repelled by a strong magnet whereas
paramagnetic substances (e.g. aluminium, sodium, antimony, etc) are feebly attracted by a strong magnet.
However, ferromagnetic substances (e.g. iron, nickel, cobalt, etc.) are strongly attracted by a magnet.
Thus diamagnetism and paramagnetism are weak forms of magnetism. But ferromagnetic substances are
strongly magnetic. Regardless of the form of magnetism, its origin is due to electric current associated
with orbital motion and spinning of electrons within the atoms of the substance.

7. DIAMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES
Those substances which when placed in a magnetic field are weakly magnetised in a direction opposite to
that of the applied field are called diamagnetic substances e.g. bismuth, copper, zinc, gold, water etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATARIALS

Since the weak induced magnetic field is in a direction opposite to that of the applied field, the
resultant magnetic field in the diamagnetic substance is slightly less than the external field. Hence, the
magnetic susceptibility (m) of a diamagnetic substance is negative having a very small value e.g. 0.000015
for bismuth. It is clear that relative permeability r ( = 1 + m) of such substances will be slightly less than
1. This shows that diamagnetism is a weak form of magnetism. From the above discussion, it follows that
a substance whose relative permeability is less than 1 is a diamagnetic substance. It may be noted that
a diamagnetic substance loses its magnetism as soon as the external magnetic field is removed.
Cause of diamagnetism: The magnetic properties of an atom are due to the electric currents associated
with orbital motions and spinning of electrons within the atom. In a diamagnetic substance, the individual
atom/molecule/ion does not possess any net permanent magnetic moment. In other words, the electron
spins and orbital motions exactly balance out so that any particular atom/molecule/ion has no average
magnetic moment.
(i) In the absence of external magnetic field, the atoms/molecules/ions of the diamagnetic substance
have no net magnetic moment. Hence, the substance does not exhibit diamagnetism.
(ii) When a diamagnetic substance is placed in an external magnetic field, currents are induced in the
current loops of atom/molecule/ion according to Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction.
According to Lenzs law, these currents give rise to a magnetic field which opposes the applied
magnetic field. Hence, the induced magnetic moments of atoms/molecules/ions are directed opposite to the applied magnetic field. This results in a weak repulsive force on the substance.
Note that diamagnetism is a natural reaction to an applied magnetic field. Therefore, diamagnetism
is a property of all substances. However, in case of substances (i.e., paramagnetic and ferromagnetic)
whose atoms/molecules/ions have permanent magnetic moments, the diamagnetic effect is masked
by the stronger paramagnetic or ferromagnetic behaviour.
Diamagnetism at microscopic level. Let us discuss diamagnetism at the microscopic level. We know
that each electron in an atom is revolving in an orbit around the nucleus. This revolving electron is equivalent

to a tiny current loop. Therefore, each revolving electron has orbital magnetic dipole moment, M I =
Current Area of the orbit. Further, an electron also spins about its own axis. This spinning motion produces

an effective current loop and hence a spin magnetic moment M S . The vector sum of M I and M S provides

the net magnetic dipole moment M to the atom.

(i) In a diamagnetic substance, M I and M S cancel each other for every atom so that the net magnetic moment of the atom is zero. Therefore, motion of all electrons in the atom of a diamagnetic

substance can be viewed as the motion of two electrons revolving with the same speed v0 in
circular orbits of the same radius r but in the opposite directions [See Fig. 14.3]. Because their
magnetic moments are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, the two magnetic moments
cancel each other.
M

v0

r
e

e
v0

M
(i )

(ii )

Fig. 14.3

v0

Fe

Fe

e
v0

(i)

(ii)

Fig. 14.4

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATARIALS

In the absence of external magnetic field, each electron moves in a circular orbit under the influence of a

centripetal forces Fe due to the electrostatic force between the electron and nucleus [See Fig. 14.4].

m v02
... m = mass of electron
r

(ii) Now consider what happens when an external uniform magnetic field B is applied perpendicular
to the plane of the orbit [See Fig. 14.5] and increasing into the paper. Each electron experiences
Fe =

a magnetic force of magnitude Fm = e v B which also contributes to the centripetal force.

The direction of Fm can be determined by the right-hand rule for cross product. For the

electron moving in anticlockwise direction [see Fig. 14.5 (i)], the direction of Fm is radially
(M + D M )

v1 = (v0 D v )

Fe

Fe
Fm

Fm

(M D M )
(i)

v2 = (v0 + D v )
(ii)

Fig. 14.5

outward and for the electron moving in clockwise direction [See Fig. 14.5 (ii)], the direction of

Fm is radially inward. Therefore, the speed of electron moving in anticlockwise direction

decreases to v1 ( = v0 v ) and as a result, the magnetic moment of electron decreases to

( M M ). On the other hand, the speed of the electron moving in clockwise direction increases

to v2 ( = v0 + v ) and, therefore, the magnetic moment of electron increases to

( M + M ). The vector addition of these two magnetic moments gives rise to a net dipole

magnetic moment 2 M directed opposite to external magnetic field B. Thus when a diamag

netic material is placed in an external magnetic field, an induced magnetic moment ( = 2 M )

is developed in the material which opposes the applied field.
Properties of diamagnetic substances:
(i) A diamagnetic substance is feebly repelled by a strong magnet.
(ii) When a rod of diamagnetic substance is suspended freely in a uniform magnetic field, the rod
comes to rest with its axis perpendicular to the direction of the applied field [See Fig. 14.6].

N
Fig. 14.6

Fig. 14.7

(iii) In a diamagnetic substance, the external magnetic field induces a magnetic field that is directed
opposite to the applied field. For this reason, a diamagnetic substance on being placed in a
non-uniform magnetic field begins to move from stronger to weaker regions of the magnetic
field.
(iv) When a diamagnetic substance is placed in a magnetic field, it is feebly magnetised in a direction
opposite to that of the applied field [See Fig. 14.7].
(v) When a diamagnetic substance is placed in a magnetic field, the magnetic field lines prefer to pass
through the surrounding air rather than through the substance [See Fig. 14.7].
(vi) The magnetic susceptibility (m) of a diamagnetic substance has a small negative value.
(vii) The relative permeability (r) of a diamagnetic substance is slightly less than 1.

8. PARAMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES
Those substances which when placed in a magnetic field are weakly magnetised in the direction of the
applied field are called paramagnetic substances e.g. aluminium, antimony, copper sulphate, crown
glass etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATARIALS

Since the weak induced magnetic field is in the direction of the applied field, the resultant magnetic field
in the paramagnetic substance is slightly more than the external field. Hence, the magnetic susceptibility of
a paramagnetic substance is positive having a small value, e.g., + 0.0001 for a typical paramagnetic
substance. It is clear that relative permeability r ( = 1 + m ) for such substances will be slightly more than
1. This shows that paramagnetism is a weak form of magnetism. From the above discussion, it follows that
a substance whose relative permeability is slightly greater than 1 is a paramagnetic substance. It may be
noted that a paramagnetic substance loses its magnetism as soon as the external magnetic field is removed.
Cause of paramagnetism: In a paramagnetic substance, the individual atom/molecule/ion has small net
magnetic moment. In other words, the electron spins and orbital motions have a net circulating current
that is not zero. Therefore, the atom/molecule/ion as a whole has a net magnetic moment i.e., each acts as
a magnetic dipole.
(i) In the absence of external magnetic field, the dipoles of the paramagnetic substance are randomly oriented [See Fig. 14.8 (i)] and, therefore, the net magnetic moment of the substance is
zero. Hence, the substance does not exhibit paramagnetism.
S

H=0
(i)

N
H
(ii)

Fig. 14.8

(ii) When a paramagnetic substance is placed in an external magnetic field [See Fig. 14.8 (ii)], the
dipoles are partially aligned in the direction of the applied field. Therefore, the substance is
feebly magnetised in the direction of the applied magnetic field. This results in a weak attractive
force on the substance.
Paramagnetism is generally very weak as only a very small fraction of the dipoles are aligned in the
direction of the applied magnetic field. It is because the aligning process is counteracted by the tendency of the dipoles to be randomly oriented due to thermal motion. The fraction of the dipoles that line
up with the field depends upon the strength of the field and the temperature. In fact, paramagnetism is quite
sensitive to temperature. The lower the temperature, the stronger is the paramagnetism and vice-versa.
Properties of paramagnetic substances:
(i) A paramagnetic substance is feebly attracted by a strong magnet.
(ii) When a rod of paramagnetic substance is suspended freely in a uniform magnetic field, the rod
comes to rest with its axis parallel to the applied field [See Fig. 14.9].
(iii) In a paramagnetic substance, the external magnetic field induces a magnetic field that is directed
in the same direction as the applied field. For this reason, a paramagnetic substance on being
placed in a non-uniform magnetic field begins to move from weaker to stronger regions of the
magnetic field.

N
Fig. 14.9

Fig. 14.10

(iv) When a paramagnetic substance is placed in a magnetic field, it is feebly magnetised in the
direction of the applied field [See Fig. 14.10].
(v) When a paramagnetic substance is placed in a magnetic field, the magnetic field lines prefer to pass
through the paramagnetic substance rather than air.
(vi) The magnetic susceptibility (m ) of a paramagnetic substance has a small positive value.
(vii) The relative permeability (r ) of a paramagnetic substance is slightly more than 1.

9. FERROMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES
Those substances which when placed in a magnetic field are strongly magnetised in the direction of the
applied field are called ferromagnetic substances e.g. iron, nickel, cobalt, etc.
Since the strong induced magnetic field is in the direction of the applied field, the resultant magnetic field
inside the ferromagnetic material is very large; often thousand times greater than the magnetising field.

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATARIALS

Hence, the magnetic susceptibility of a ferromagnetic material is positive having a very high value, e.g.,
about 8000 for soft iron. It is clear that relative permeability r (= 1 + m ) for such substances will be very
high of the order of several thousands. From the above discussion, it is clear that a substance whose
relative permeability is very high is a ferromagnetic substance. It may be noted that in some ferromagnetic substances, the magnetism persists even when the external magnetic field is removed.
Cause of ferromagnetism: In a ferromagnetic substance, the atoms, instead of acting independently, appear to be grouped magnetically into what are called domains. This occurs because the magnetic
dipole moments of such a substance exert strong forces on their neighbours so that over a small region of
space, the magnetic moments of all the atoms point in the same direction even with no external magnetic
field. The region of space over which the magnetic dipole moments are aligned is called a domain. A
typical domain contains 1017 to 1021 atoms and occupies a volume of 1012 to 108 m3.

External field

External field

(i) In the absence of external magnetic field, the domains of a ferromagnetic material are randomly oriented [See Fig. 14.11]. In other words, within the domain, all the magnetic moments are aligned, but the
direction of alignment varies from domain to domain. The result is that there is no net magnetic
moment. Therefore, a ferromagnetic material does not exhibit magnetism in the normal state.

(i)

Fig. 14.12

(ii)

(ii) When a ferromagnetic substance is placed in an external magnetic field, a net magnetic moment
develops. This can occur in two ways. First, the domains that already happen to be aligned with
applied field may grow in size at the expense of neighbouring domains as shown in Fig. 14.12(i).
Secondly, the domains may rotate so that their magnetic moments are more or less aligned in the
direction of the applied magnetic field [See Fig. 14.12 (ii)]. The result is that there is net magnetic
moment in the direction of the applied field. Since the degree of alignment is very large even for a
small external field, the magnetic field produced in the ferromagnetic material is often much greater
than the external field.
Random thermal motions tend to destroy the alignment of domains. Therefore, ferromagnetic effects
weaken with increasing temperature. Above a certain temperature known as the Curie temperature (1043 K
for iron), ferromagnetism ceases altogether and the substance behaves as a paramagnetic. Curie temperature
for cobalt is 1375 K and for nickel, it is 625 K.
Properties of ferromagnetic substances:
(i) A ferromagnetic substance is strongly attracted by a magnet.
(ii) When a rod of ferromagnetic substance is suspended freely in a uniform magnetic field, it quickly
aligns itself in the direction of the applied field [See Fig. 14.13].

Fig. 14.13

(iii) When a ferromagnetic substance is placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, it moves from weaker to
stronger regions of magnetic field.
(iv) When a ferromagnetic substance is placed in a magnetic field, it is strongly magnetised in the
direction of the applied field [See Fig. 14.14].
(v) When a ferromagnetic substance is placed in a magnetic field, the magnetic field lines tend to crowd
into the substance [See Fig. 14.14].
(vi) The magnetic susceptibility of a ferromagnetic substance is positive having a very high value.
(vii) The relative permeability (r) of a ferromagnetic substance is very high.

10. CURIE LAW

According to Curie law, the intensity of magnetisation (I) of a paramagnetic material is
(i) directly proportional to the external magnetic field (B) in which the specimen is placed.

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATARIALS

(ii) inversely proportional to the absolute temperature.

B
B
or
...(i)
I =C
T
T
where C is a constant called Curie constant. Eq. (i) is known as Curie law. The law is physically reasonable. As
B increases, the alignment of magnetic moments increases and, therefore, I increases. If the temperature is
increased, the thermal motions will make alignment difficult, thereby decreasing I. The Curie law is found to hold
good so long as B/T does not become too large.
I

11. HYSTERESIS
When a ferromagnetic substance (e.g. iron) is subjected to a cycle of magnetisation (i.e. it is magnetised first
in one direction and then in the other), it is found that flux density B in the material lags behind the applied
magnetising force H. This phenomenon is known as hysteresis.
The phenomenon of lagging of flux density (B) behind the magnetising force (H) in a ferromagnetic material subjected to cycles of magnetisation is known as hysteresis.
The term hysteresis is derived from the Greek word hysterein meaning to lag behind. If a piece of
ferromagnetic material is subjected to one cycle of magnetisation, the resultant B H curve is a closed loop
a b c d e f a called hysteresis loop [See Fig. 14.15 (ii)]. Note that B always lags behind H. Thus, at point
b, H is zero but flux density B has a finite positive value ob. Similarly, at point e, H is zero but flux density
B has a finite negative value oe.
+B
+Br
I

a
b

Hc
c

Bmax

+Hc

Br

B
(i)

Fig. 14.15

(ii)

Hysteresis loop: Consider an iron-cored toroid carrying current I. If N is the total number of turns and l
the length of toroid, then magnetising force is H = N I / l. The value of H can be changed by varying current in
the coil. We shall see that when the iron-cored toroid is subjected to a cycle of magnetisation, the resultant
B H curve traces a loop a b c d e f a called hysteresis loop.
(i) To start with, the toroid is unmagnetised and its situation is represented by point O in Fig. 14.15
(ii). As H is increased (by increasing current I), B increases along oa and reaches its saturation
value Bmax at a. At this stage, all the domains are aligned.
(ii) If now H is gradually reduced by decreasing current in the toroid, it is found that curve follows the
path ab instead of ao. At point b, H = 0 but flux density in the material has a finite value +Br (
= ob) called residual flux density. It is also called remanence or retentivity. Note that B lags
behind H. This effect is called hysteresis.
(iii) In order to reduce flux density in the material to zero, it is necessary to apply H in the reverse
direction. This can be done by reversing the current in the toroid. When H is gradually
increased in the reverse direction, the curve follows the path bc. At point c, B = 0 and H =
Hc. The value of H needed to wipe out residual magnetism is called coercive force (Hc).
(iv) Now H is further increased in the reverse direction until point d is reached where the sample is
saturated in the reverse direction (Bmax). If H is now reduced to zero, point e is reached and the
sample again retains magnetic flux density (Br). The remaining part of the loop is obtained by
increasing current to produce H in the original direction. The curve a b c d e f a is called hysteresis loop.
The hysteresis loop results because the domains do not become completely unaligned when H is made zero.
The area enclosed by the hysteresis loop represents loss in energy. This energy appears in the material as heat.

12. HYSTERESIS LOSS

When a ferromagnetic material is subjected to cycles of magnetisation, the domains of the material resist being
turned first in one direction and then in the other direction. Energy is thus expended in the material to overcome

10

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATARIALS

this opposition. This loss is in the form of heat and is called hysteresis loss. Hysteresis loss is present in all
those electrical machines whose iron parts are subjected to cycles of magnetisation. The obvious effect of
hysteresis loss is the rise of temperature of the machine.

13. IMPORTANCE OF HYSTERESIS LOOP

The shape and size of hysteresis loop *largely depends upon the nature of the material. The choice of
a ferromagnetic material for a particular application often depends upon the shape and size of the
hysteresis loop.
(i) The smaller the hysteresis loop area of a ferromagnetic material, the smaller is the hysteresis loss. The
hysteresis loop for silicon steel has a very small area [See Fig. 14.16 (i)]. For this reason, silicon
steel is widely used for making transformer cores and rotating machines which are subjected to
rapid reversals of magnetisation.
B

Silicon steel

Hard steel

(i)

(ii)
Fig. 14.16

(ii) The hysteresis loop for hard steel [See Fig. 14.16 (ii)] indicates that this material has high retentivity
and coercivity. Therefore, hard steel is quite suitable for making permanent magnets. But due to the
large area of the loop, there is a greater hysteresis loss. For this reason, hard steel is not suitable for
the construction of electrical machines.
(iii) The hysteresis loop for wrought iron [See Fig. 14.16 (iii)] shows that this material has fairly good
residual magnetism and coercivity. Hence, it is suitable for making cores of electromagnets.

14. APPLICATIONS OF FEROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

Ferromagnetic materials (e.g. iron, steel, nickel, cobalt etc) are widely used in a number of applications.
The choice of a ferromagnetic material for a particular application depends upon its magnetic properties such
as retentivity, coercivity and area of the hysteresis loop. Ferromagnetic materials are classified as being either
soft (soft iron) and hard (steel). Fig. 14.17 shows the hysteresis loop for soft and hard ferromagnetic
materials. The table below gives the magnetic properties of hard and soft ferromagnetic materials.
B
Soft

Hard

0
2

Fig. 14.17

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATARIALS

Magnetic property

Soft

11
Hard

Hysteresis loop

narrow

high area

Retentivity

high

high

Coercivity

low

high

Saturation flux
density

high

good

(i) The permanent magnets are made from hard ferromagnetic materials (steel, cobalt steel, carbon
steel etc). Since these materials have high retentivity, the magnet is quite strong. Due to their
high coercivity, they are unlikely to be demagnetised by stray magnetic fields.
(ii) The electromagnets or temporary magnets are made from soft ferromagnetic materials (e.g.
soft iron). Since these materials have low coercivity, they can be easily demagnetised. Due to
high saturation flux density, they make strong magnets.
(iii) The transformer cores are made from soft ferromagnetic materials. When a transformer is
in use, its core is taken through many cycles of magnetisation. Energy is dissipated in the core
in the form of heat during each cycle. The energy dissipated is known as hysteresis loss and is
proportional to the area of hysteresis loop. Since the soft ferromagnetic materials have narrow
hysteresis loop (i.e. smaller hysteresis loop area), they are used for making transformer cores.